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Main trends in the development of slide-gate

systems
V. A. Kononov1, N. V. Kononov1 & V. P. Vasilenko1

This article examines the three stages in the development of slide-gate systems. The modern slide gate is
characterized by the presence of elastic elements and reliable fastening of the plates. Different methods are
discussed for securing the refractory plates in the carriage of the slide gate. Reliable operation of the gate is
provided by the drive and auxiliary elements designed with allowance for the specific features of the
casting of metal with the use of slide gates. Hydraulic drives have proven to be the most effective drives in
Russia and abroad. The article also discusses the shapes of refractory slide-gate plates that help reduce
crack propagation and make the plates more reliable in service. The latest generation of slide-gate plates is
now in wide use, these plates being made with carbon-based, oxygen-free, or cermet binders.

A slide-gate system is a complex of production equipment, auxiliary equipment and refractory elements
that allows metal to be cast through a slide gate. The system includes slide gates for steel-pouring ladles
and tundishes, a drive mechanism and feed devices, and auxiliary equipment and materials (molds, mortars,
fillers, etc.). The introduction of slide-gate systems has been characterized by three stages of development.

First Generation of Slide-Gate Systems (1965 – 1980)

The refractory systems of this generation allowed the casting of just a single heat [1]. The slide gate — a
massive structure weighing 500 – 1000 kg — was made in auxiliary shops. The gate designs were of the
“rigid” type and the plates comprising the gate were pressed against one another by bolts. The plates were
installed in the gate with the use of a mortar. They were serviced in special shops, and it was necessary to
maintain a large stock of reserve gates. The service life of a gate was 70 – 100 heats. It took more than 2 h
to replace the refractories in the casting unit. Each metallurgical plant developed its own design of drive
(hydraulic, pneumatic, or electrical) without regard for the details of the casting operation itself.

The characteristic features of the plates used for the first generation of slide gates were as follows:

 the use of plate materials with a single-component composition based on fused or sintered periclase,
mullite, corundum, zircon, or other material;
 the use of unconcentrated raw materials;
 the use of a ceramic binder;
 partial alloying of the plate material with refractory oxides to improve certain properties (Cr2O3 was
used to reduce the wettability of the surface of the metal, ZrO2 was used to improve heat resistance,
etc.);
 impregnation of the plates with carbon-bearing liquids (coal-tar pitch, liquid bakelite, etc.);
 the use of a coarse porous structure in which 70 – 75% of the pores were 20 – 30 μm in size and 20
– 25% were smaller than 1 μm; the presence of individual pores with a size in the range 40 – 70 μm
contributed to significant wear of the plates;
 the absence of metal casings and the use of a system of mortars to join the refractories together.

Most of the plates in the first-generation slide gates had the form of an ellipse or a rectangle with beveled
corners. Such plates are still being produced by the combine “Magnezit,” which makes composite
periclase-based plates of type PSP-95.

Second-Generation Slide-Gate Systems

The refractories used in slide gates of the second generation could last 2 – 3 heats. The slide gates were of
the “book” design, which made it possible to replace the refractories directly on the ladle. Spring-opposed
elements which were made of a heat-resistant metal and lasted 50 – 70 heats were used to press the plates
together. The refractory plates and the nozzles were installed inside a metal casing, which not only
improved the accuracy with which the casting unit is assembled but also shortened the time needed to
install new refractories by 10 – 15 min. Use of the above-mentioned structural elements made it possible to
regulate the compressive force employed during the casting operation. The service life of slide gates
increased to 500 heats. The slide-gate system was equipped with a hydraulic drive adapted for the specific
conditions encountered during casting with a slide gate.

The characteristic features of the second-generation slide gates are as follows:

 the use of raw materials characterized by a high degree of chemical purity and a low content of
harmful impurities;
 the presence of carbon in the composition of the charge and carbon formed from the synthetic
binder during its coking;
 the use of a secondarily formed ceramic binder (mullite, spinel, silicon carbide, etc.), the binder
being synthesized during the plates’ firing or practical use;
 the use of anti-oxidizing additives to prevent combustion of the graphite;
 the fine-pore structure of the plates (90% of the pores are smaller than 1 μm); average pore size is
0.05 – 0.20 μm;
 the extensive use of metal casings or shrouds.

The shape of the second-generation plates was chosen with allowance for the fact that different levels of
thermal stresses may be formed, depending on the design of the specific slide gate.

Third-Generation (Post-2001) Slide-Gate Systems

With third-generation slide-gate systems, it is possible to cast more than five heats without having to
change the refractories. It is also possible to regulate the compressive force on the plates of the gate. The
gate employs reliable dish-shaped elastic elements (with a service life greater than 2000 casts) or gas-filled
elements (bellows lasting more than 5000 heats). The gate design allows for automatic adjustments to be
made during installation, casting, and refractories replacement. The latest advances are employed in
making the refractories:

 high-purity synthetic materials (sialons, nanomaterials, etc.) are in the charge;

 metallic fibers reinforce the structure of the refractory;
 efficient plate designs (bushing, insert, etc.) are used;
 modern equipment (isostatic pressing, hot extrusion, etc.) is employed; – oxygen-free ceramic
binders (nitrides, sialons, etc.) are used;
 the firing operation is performed in a protective or reducing atmosphere (nitrogen, etc.)

Main trends in the design of slide gates

There are now more than 20 companies in the world that specialize in the production of slide gates. The
development of new slide-gate systems takes place in close collaboration with refractories manufacturers.
The creative partnerships RHI — Interstop, Krasaki-IFGL, Shinagava — NKK, and others have been in
successful operation for several decades. These partnerships have produced several generations of slide
gates and lead to the design of hydraulic equipment with allowance for the specifics of the casting
operation.

The manufacturers of modern slide-gate systems have certain tendencies in regard to the design and
production of slide gates: the use of openings of the “book” type; the use of dish-shaped elastic elements or
gas-filled bellows to compress the plates; hydraulic drives; the fabrication of plates and collecting nozzles
inside metal casings; durable gate components; the production of a wide range of different types of slide
gates to allow the casting of metal from ladles of different sizes; provision of a complex of services and
technological aids for casting metal; provision of spare parts for the original equipment [2].
The design of the slide gate itself differs little among most of the manufacturers. The main elements of the
gate are made of special grades of steel by precision casting. Designers’ efforts are focused on the
following objectives: upgrading existing refractories to better account for the formation of thermal stresses;
improving the methods used to secure plates in the body and carriage of the gate in order to alleviate crack
formation during casting; improving the plate compression mechanism to ensure uniform compression in
all stages of the casting operation; creating the conditions necessary to optimize servicing of the systems by
fully automating the casting operation; reducing the number of parts in the slide gate.

The company “Shiber” undertakes its research and development projects with consideration for the main
trends in the development of slide-gate systems and is one of the leading slide-gate manufacturers in the
Russian market.

Effect of the shape and size of the plates

There are several variants for the shape of a slide-gate plate: the traditional elliptical form (Fig. 1); a
symmetrical oval, with the plate being rotated 180° after several heats to allow its continued use (Fig. 2); a
“drop” shape, which evenly distributes the thermal stresses from the center of the opening when the plates
are overlapping (Fig. 3); a “mushroom” shape (Fig. 4).

Fig. 1

Plate in the form of an ellipse.

Fig. 2

Symmetrical plate.

Fig. 3
Plate in the form of a “drop.”

Fig. 4

”Mushroom-shaped” plate.

The plates shown in Figs. 3 and 4 were developed using modern methods of analysis. For example, finite-
element analysis (FEA) and mathematical modeling were used to obtain an optimum model. Additional
study was made of the mechanism of crack formation on plates of the traditional form in order to
modernize plate shape. There are three main types of cracks formed when plates are used in multiple heats:
cracks that grow away from the opening; longitudinal cracks; transverse cracks.

The formation of perpendicular cracks that grow from the edge of the discharge channel to the lateral
surface is related to free expansion of the plate material. The formation of longitudinal cracks that grow
from the center of the opening to the corners of the plate as it moves are related to the “angle of
compression” and depend on the plate’s length/width ratio and the size of the discharge opening. The
formation of transverse cracks, which takes place between the longitudinal cracks, depends on the load on
the plate (Fig. 5). The growth of these cracks is influenced by the following factors: the critical strength of
the refractory material of the plates; the uniformity of the compression of the front and rear surfaces of the
plates; the relationship between the “compression angle” and the strength of the material; the method used
to compress the plates; the compressive load on the plates.

Fig. 5

Types of cracks on a slide-gate plate.

It is impossible to avoid the formation of cracks during the casting operation, but accounting for the factors
mentioned above can alleviate their effects — particularly when refractories are used multiple times. The
most important considerations in choosing the shape of the plate during its design are to have the cracks
end up being located and oriented in vertical zones of the plate and to optimize the compression angle and
compressive force.

For the most part, the dimensions and configuration of the plates are unique to each manufacturer. Figure 6
shows the dimensions of the plates made by the leading producers. Russian manufacturers continue to use
several methods that they have traditionally employed to improve the durability of plates:

 reinforcing the working zone of the plate by using a sealed insert or bushing;
 compaction of the material in the working zone;
 the manufacture of plates and nozzles with a projecting or recessed flange;
 delivery of plates and nozzles in a metal casing or shroud.

Fig. 6

Configuration of plates made by the world’s leading manufacturers.

Making the shape of the plates more complex significantly increases production costs (due to the use of a
mold, complications in charging the plates for the firing operation, the need for grinding, etc.) However, the
ability to use the formation of transverse cracks, which takes place between plates repeatedly can increase
their service life by 15 – 20%.

Methods of securing the plates in the slide gate

The direction of crack growth in a plate also depends on the method used to secure the plates in the slide
gate. A plate can be secured either by point-to-point contact or by plane compression. Thermal expansion
of the plate from the center of the product in the zone occupied by molten metal causes the entire product to
expand by several millimeters. The plate will crack if it is rigidly fixed in position and will move inside the
body of the gate if it is not strongly secured. The method used to fasten the plate should be chosen with
allowance for the coefficient of linear expansion of the refractory comprising the plate. Plates are often
secured with the use of special bolts, eccentrics, or “cramps” that are of the same shape as the plate. For
example, the company “Vesuvius” (Fig. 7) regulates the fastening of plates by means of “cramps” and an
eccentric, the company “Shiber” uses an eccentric (Fig. 8), and the company “Krosaki — Harima” employs
two lateral plates and a bolt (Fig. 9). Each fastening technique has its own advantages and is an important
element of the design of the slide gate.

Fig. 7

”Cramp-type” fastening.

Fig. 8

Fastening by means of an eccentric.

Fig. 9

Fastening a plate with a bolt.

Main trends in the development of drives for modern slide-gate

systems
Mainly hydraulic drives are currently used in metallurgy. These drives consist of a hydraulic system,
hydraulic cylinders, and high-pressure hoses provided with thermal insulation and quick-release couplings.
The wide use of hydraulic systems is due to the advent of new designs that make it possible to conduct
operations at high and low temperatures. These systems provide for heating of the hydraulic fluid under
low-temperature conditions and for its cooling during the summer.

Hydraulic systems can be configured in several ways: stationary, portable, crane-mounted, etc. In contrast
to having electrical drives installed on each casting ladle, the use of hydraulic drives makes it possible to
reduce the total number of hydraulic systems that are needed. The company “Shiber” is the only Russian
producer of hydraulic systems (Fig. 10) designed with allowance for the specific features of casting steel
with slide gates (see Table 1). The system can be built in northern, southern, or universal variants. In the
northern variant, the system provides for heating of the hydraulic fluid and keeps it at its working
temperature. The southern variant provides for air cooling in addition to temperature maintenance, while
the universal variant includes automatic heating and cooling.

Fig. 10

Hydraulic system made by the company “Shiber.”

Table 1 Specifications of Hydraulic Systems Supplied by the Company “Shiber”

The company has organized shipments of hydraulic systems for the casting of metal on continuous casters,
in ingot molds, and in foundry molds. These systems can continue operating even with a loss of electric
power, thanks to the use of hydro-pneumatic accumulators. The systems use incom-bustible Russian-made
hydraulic fluids whose safety is guaranteed under any climatic conditions. The hydraulic systems made by
Shiber satisfy the same requirements adhered to by the world’s leading manufacturers of this type of
equipment.

Each type of hydraulic system and slide gate is equipped with hydraulic cylinders that can be used for
operations at high temperatures. Each cylinder is compatible with a certain type of slide gate (Fig. 11).

Fig. 11
Hydraulic cylinders for slide-gate system RUS-40: 1) model GTs0102, designed for servicing, length
335 mm, outside diameter 130 mm, inside diameter 115 mm, piston diameter 45 mm, weight 14.2 kg; 2)
model GTsR80, working cylinder, length 300 mm, outside diameter 130 mm, inside diameter 115 mm,
piston diameter 45 mm, weight 12.7 kg.

The hydraulic systems are also equipped with high-pressure hoses that have one or two layers of insulation
to protect them from thermal radiation.

Main trends in the production of plates for slide gates

The production of plates for slide gates represents the state of the art in refractories technology and differs
in important ways from the mass production of refractory materials:

 the use of synthetic or highly concentrated raw materials exclusively;

 the use of sintered or fused materials or combinations of different types of materials;
 the simultaneous use of different modifications of the same material in the charge (crystalline or
scaly graphite, anthracite, carbon black, or organic binders);
 the use of different alloying, anti-oxidizing, or other types of additives;
 the use of the latest advances in refractories in the manufacturing technology (diamond grinding and
drilling, the production of carbon and organic binders, electrosmelting, etc.).

The main factor that determines the durability of slide-gate plates is the type of binder which is used. The
binder forms the structure of the material and determines its properties. Plates employed in slide gates are
differentiated from one another based on the type of binder that is used.

Plates on a ceramic binder

Plates with a ceramic binder belong to the first generation of slide-gate systems. These plates are made on
the basis of one of the following types of refractory raw materials: MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, mullite
3Al2O3·2SiO2, or spinel MgO·Al2O3. The refractory products are obtained by conventional baking
technology with the use of high-purity raw materials in fused or sintered form. These products are used in
the production of the single-use plates made by the combine “Magnezit.”

Plates of this type fail by a mechanism that can be described as follows: at 350°C, volatile components of
the organic binder undergo sublimation and a coke residue containing chemically active pyrolytic carbon is
formed in the pores. The pyrolytic carbon begins to undergo oxidation at 350 – 400°C, and in the range 400
– 1000°C it undergoes oxidation and combustion — especially on the surface of the product.

Carbon in the surface layer of the plate undergoes oxidation and combustion in accordance with the
following reactions:
  the carbon and the finely ground part of the periclase in the product react with the pyrolytic carbon
formed as a result of coking of the organic binder

MgO(sol)+C(pyr)=Mg2+(gas)+CO,MgO(sol)+C(pyr)=Mg2+(gas)+CO,

This reaction results in the formation of gaseous Mg2+, which moves from the pores to the surface layer of
the refractory;

 oxidation of metallic magnesium

2Mg2++O2=2MgO(secondary).2Mg2++O2=2MgO(secondary).

Many studies have shown that the formation of a dense secondary layer of MgO on the hot surface of the
refractory has a protective effect. The formation of this layer is connected with the fact that the carbon
which is present reduces MgO to vaporous Mg, which is then transported to the hot surface. The dense
fine-grained layer that is formed in this case keeps slag and molten metal from penetrating the interior of
the plate. Formation of a dense layer of Mg does not always take place and requires the existence of certain
conditions internally and externally. For example, the existence of a high value for the ratio CaO:SiO2 in
the slag maintains the delicate balance between dissolution and formation of the high-density layer.

Secondary MgO enters the pores in the surface of the refractory and forms a compact layer of very pure
secondary periclase. Since only a small amount of the organic binder (3 – 4%) is introduced during
impregnation, an insufficient amount of pyrolytic carbon is formed during service. The removal of carbon
begins and formation of the dense layer of secondary MgO ends after the coking of the binder is completed.
Then the surface of the plate begins to wear rapidly and the plate becomes incapable of withstanding
lengthy repeated castings. These circumstances should be taken into account when casting steel with a high
content of Si–Mn.

Plates on a carbon-based binder

Several modifications of carbon are used in the charge that is employed to make plates having a carbon-
based binder. The main source of carbon in this case is natural scaly graphite. This material is used to make
Al2O3–C refractories because it has the following properties: high melting point; good thermal
conductivity; low coefficient of linear expansion; durability at high temperatures; low friction coefficient
and consequent good compressibility; low wettability by molten slag and, thus, superior resistance to
corrosion or erosion; high resistance to oxidation compared to other forms of carbon, with oxidation in an
oxidizing atmosphere beginning at 500°C.

The composition of the charge used for the plates includes an organic binder. The binder undergoes coking
at high temperatures, resulting in the formation of additional carbon. The main role of the organic binder is
to ensure that the ceramic material has adequate strength. The phenolic resins used as binders for Al2O3
refractories undergo pyrolysis during coking. In order to obtain the required properties, the material should
have a resinous coke residue of 55 – 65%. Phenolic resins form the strongest bond with other carbon-based
materials and exhibit the highest degree of compatibility with them, but they are less resistant to oxidation
than other binders. Carbon-based binders decrease the ability of the working surface of the plate to be
wetted by metal and slag.

Crystals of corundum are bound quite strongly to particles of graphite in plates having a carbon binder. The
structure of the plates is distinguished by its high density of fine pores that are an order of magnitude
smaller than the pores in plates having a ceramic binder. Thus, the total surface area of the pores is smaller,
and that in turn makes the plates more resistant to corrosion [3].

However, corundum-graphite plates can undergo more rapid wear when used to cast special grades of steel.
The plate material is corroded by the action of traces of different components and inclusions in the liquid
steel: CaO, MnO, and FeO readily react with Al2O3 to form low-melting compounds that accelerate the
corrosion of Al2O3 refractories [4]. When special steels (bearing steels, high-manganese steels, steels
treated with calcium-silicon, etc.) are being cast, these compounds elevate the rate of corrosion of Al2O3–C
plates.

The company Shiber makes use of corundum-zirconium-graphite plates to improve the durability of slide-
gate plates that have a carbon-based binder. The company makes such plates by using a specially
synthesized zirconium-bearing raw material. The addition of 2 – 6% of this material to the charge improves
the corrosion resistance of the plate and the heat resistance of the refractory product. Refractories based on
this material can be used 2 – 4 times in modern slide gates.

Plates on a combination cermet binder

These plates reflect the stage of refractory development in which the durability of carbon-bearing
refractories was improved by using a combination binder consisting of a carbon-bearing component and
additions of anti-oxidants. The anti-oxidants ensure that a reaction involving metallothermic combustion
takes place during service. A secondary refractory binder (SiC, MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, etc.) is formed during
service, the exact binder that is formed depending on the type of refractory and anti-oxidant which are used.
The secondary binder fills the surface pores and increases the plates’ service life to3–4 castings.

The metallic additions are oxidized during the casting operation. The formation of metal oxides is
accompanied by an increase in the volume of the refractory and leads to a decrease in its porosity and gas
permeability [5]. The following reactions take place when additions of metallic aluminum are used in
periclase-spinel plates:

 combustion of the metallic aluminum

2Al+1.5O2=Al2O3,2Al+1.5O2=Al2O3,

with the formation of active alumina Al2O3 being accompanied by a 38.5% increase in volume;

 the formation of spinel

MgO+Al2O3=MgO⋅Al2O3,MgO+Al2O3=MgO⋅Al2O3,

with the formation of the spinel MgO·Al2O3 being accompanied by an 8% increase in the volume of the
material;

 the overall reaction resulting in the formation of the spinel

MgO+1.5O2 + Al2O3=MgO⋅Al2O3,MgO+1.5O2 + Al2O3=MgO⋅Al2O3,

Because of this reaction, the total increase in the volume of the material during the formation of the spinel
is 38.5 + 8 = 46.5%.

The amount of metallothermic spinel that is formed in this case (46.5%) is several times greater than when
it is formed by the introduction of pure Al2O3 powder (8%). For example, the introduction of 5% metallic
aluminum leads to the formation of 13.2% MgO·Al2O3, while the introduction of 5% Al2O3 powder leads
to the formation of just 6.9% spinel. The formation of spinel from metallic aluminum begins at 700°C, and
the amount of powder that is introduced (3.0 – 5.0%) can be changed to control the density of the structure
of the periclase-graphite refractory within the range 700 – 1600°C. The addition of metallic aluminum
increases the strength and heat resistance of MgO-C refractories by a factor of 2 – 3 and makes them 3 – 5
times more resistant to slag.

The high cost of metallic aluminum in powder form had led to the development of anti-oxidants based on
mixtures of metal powders. The following additional reactions take place when metallic aluminum and
silicon are added to the refractory together:

 the formation of SiC, which begins at 800°C,

  the oxidation of SiC

2Si+3O2=2SiO2+2CO,2Si+3O2=2SiO2+2CO,

The oxidation of SiC results in the formation of finely dispersed SiO2, which reacts with finely ground
alumina in corundum-graphite refractories to form a dense layer of secondary mullite. This secondary
binder prevents the oxidation of graphite from the matrix of the plate and makes it considerably more
durable.

Plates on an oxygen-free binder and the use of nanotechnologies

These are the latest generation of plates and are made with the use of modern technologies based on
cermets, metallic fibers, and oxygen-free materials (sialon, etc.). A sialon binder can be obtained by
introducing sialon (Si–Al–O–N) or by synthesizing it during stages of the production process (firing in a
protective medium, etc.). The resulting refractory products are employed in plates that are designed for
repeated use.

To obtain products with universal application, existing materials were improved by seeking a balance
between resistance to heat and resistance to corrosion. The use of composite products that contain certain
regions in which one of several properties (heat resistance, etc.) is predominant makes it possible to achieve
a balance between corrosion-resistance and heat-resistance characteristics over the entire volume of the
plate. The Japanese company “Toshiba Ceramic” has developed a composite plate with an insert made of
hot-pressed corundum-graphite and zirconium refractories. Heat resistance was improved by using a
composite that contains finely dispersed chromium oxide and additions of metallic aluminum and
molybdenum. The mixture was pressed and sintered with the use of a press designed for hot-pressing. The
following reaction took place during the pressing operation

2Al+Cr2O3(+Mo)→Al2O3+2Cr(+Mo).2Al+Cr2O3(+Mo)→Al2O3+2Cr(+Mo).

Aluminum oxide, which is the oxide phase of the composite, is relatively stable around 1600°C in an
atmosphere of CO2 and O2. These conditions correspond to the conditions that slide-gate plates encounter
in service. The chromium in the metallic phase of the composite has a melting point of 1800°C and when
oxidized forms a dense oxide film that provides a high degree of resistance to further oxidation.
Molybdenum has a melting point of 2600°C and is highly heat-resistant. The resulting composites possess a
good combination of heat resistance and corrosion resistance [6].

The method of hot pressing is widely used to make plates designed for casting aggressive grades of steel.
The use of inserts and bushings to make large plates by hot pressing makes it possible to lower the cost of
the refractories needed to cast certain grades of steel. To increase the service life of the plates, a
nanostructured matrix is formed within their structure by using aggregate-type carbon particles in the form
of hybrid graphite soot and a high-quality hybrid binder. This not only makes the plates more resistant to
heat, but it also improves the bond between the particles [7].

Although the company Shiber is no longer involved in research in the refractories industry, it does perform
reviews of ongoing research projects within the sector and can supply customers with new classes of
refractories that come into demand for use in slide-gate plates.

Progress in casting with the use of slide gates

For the most part, “big metallurgy” in Russia employs rigid-type slide gates with plates that are used once.
Even today, it is still expedient to use the technology that was developed in the 1980s for making
composite periclase plates because the production costs are low. Large customers for these plates need a
guarantee that they will be able to perform cast-ing at a low cost. Thus, the upgrading of equipment at most
large metallurgical plates in Russia is proceeding slowly even though all of the conditions required for such
modernization already exist. The company Shiber can provide the necessary Russian-made equipment and
refractories on a “turnkey” basis and ensure the rapid introduction of modern slide-gate systems.
Smaller metallurgical plants and foundries are making plans to introduce modern slide gates, and the use of
modern slide-gate systems at these facilities could improve the quality of their products and make them
more competitive. Shiber supplies slide gates to ladle manufacturers in order to allow plants in “small
metallurgy” to upgrade their electric steelmaking facilities (Fig. 12). This not only helps the plants organize
additional work stations, but it also makes it easier for them to introduce new slide-gate systems.

Fig. 12

Slide gate RUS-40 on a 5-ton-capacity steel-pouring ladle.

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Author information
Affiliations

1. ”Shiber” Company, Moscow, Russia

V. A. Kononov, N. V. Kononov & V. P. Vasilenko

Corresponding author

Correspondence to V. A. Kononov.

Additional information
Translated from Novye Ogneupory, No. 4, April 2011.

From materials of the International Conference of Refractory Specialists and Metallurgists (March 31 –
April 1, 2011, Moscow).

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Cite this article

Kononov, V.A., Kononov, N.V. & Vasilenko, V.P. Main trends in the development of slide-gate systems.
Refract Ind Ceram 52, 118 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11148-011-9378-x

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 Received: 03 March 2011

 Published: 17 August 2011
 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11148-011-9378-x

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Keywords

 slide-gate system
 hydraulic system
 slide gate
 corundum-carbon plate
 cermet binder