African Origins of Sino-Tibetan Languages: Evidence From Comparative Lexical and Archaeological Data With Statistical Analyses and Historical-Cultural Notes

AFRICAN ORIGINS OF SINO-TIBETAN LANGUAGES
Evidence from Comparative Lexical and Archaeological Data

with Statistical Analyses and Historical-Cultural Notes
Thomas McGinn
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© Thomas McGinn, 2018

All rights reserved
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Preface
General prospectus of the research.
The following study deals with the prehistory of Sino-Tibetan (ST) languages and the human
environment in which they developed. The concrete objective is to determine whether ST languages have
an origin outside of the current geographical area where they are spoken, and whether there is any
evidence that they have their origin in African languages including the southwest Asian Semitic
languages (which are known to be descended from African languages). Though the primary method uses
language as the research instrument, it is not a work of the genetic linguistics which systematically traces
sound changes. Hence it does not attempt formal reconstruction of a proto-language, although well-
supported etymologies are proposed when no relevant proto-root has previously been elaborated by an
expert. (See further discussion of this in Chapter 1 section 1.6.1 below on proto-forms).
Similar enterprises have traditionally been called philology in the sense that language can be a means of
understanding a particular culture. However philology was mainly based on the study of written
documents. (Anttila 323). These of course are not available for research on pre-history. More recent
terms are “linguistic paleontology” or “historical anthropological linguistics.” “Anthropological
linguistics continues the priorities of the old philology by asking that linguistics be relevant and explain
something beyond mere language” (Anttila 325).
Research on human prehistory using language can be correlated with archaeology (including
paleogeography, paleoclimatology and paleobotany and to a lesser degree genetics.) Thus words for
material objects such as pots, pounding slabs and grains which are common to African and Sino-Tibetan
languages can support a hypothesis of African origins of both language and culture in Asia. (See
especially Chapters 6 and 7).
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v
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Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction: Summary of research, Languages, Methodology………………………..1-29
1.0 Introduction, Summary of Phases of the research……………………………………...………....1-2
1.1 Overview of languages compared……………………..………....…….…….………………........3-6
1.4 Languages- Notation and Transcription systems………………………………………………….6-9
1.5 Methodology - Guidelines for research on prehistory through language………...........................10-29

.
Chapter 2 The comprehensive ST ↔ African/Afroasiatic comparison…............... ....................30-771
Chapter 2A Words representing Animals: names, body parts, actions and products.
Semantic Domain A word families...........................................………….…………………….……32-127
Chapter 2B Words representing objects in the natural world such as rocks, water, plants etc.
Semantic Domain B word families. ……………………………………………………………….128-237
Chapter 2C Words representing the human body and body parts.

Semantic domain C word families.…………………………………………………………...……238-362
.
Chapter 2D Words representing kinship, social classes, gender, age and other human groups,
Semantic domain D word families……..………………...……..………………..………..…….....363-443
.
Chapter 2E Human communication: cognitive, volitional, evaluative language. Semantic Domain E word
families………………………………..……………………….……………………………..……..…444-538
Chapter 2F Words for Human artefacts.

Semantic Domain F word families…….......................................................................….....………539-609
Chapter 2G Qualities, Time. Numerals and other quantifiers, Particles, Pronouns.

Semantically heterogeneous word families……………………………………………….…..……610-662
Chapter 2H Verbs. Word families based on common syntactic type .………...………….............663-771
Chapters 3-5 Statistics from Comparative analysis of Afro-Asiatic ↔ Sino-Tibetan languages
Chapter 3 Statistical Comparison of Afro-Asiatic ↔ Sino-Tibetan language lexical

correspondences……………………………………………….. ……………………….…………..772-780
Chapter 4 Statistical Comparison of individual AA and ST language subfamilies………..………781-788
Chapter 5 Statistical Comparison of one AA language (Hausa) with one TB language (Tibetan)
and with Sinitic languages as a group................................................................................................789-792
Chapters 6-7 Summary of common cultural language
Chapter 6 Cultural and geographic language common to African languages and ST………….…..793-804
Chapter 7 The language of agriculture in Africa and East Asia………………………….………..805-825

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Chapters 8-9 Indicators of migration routes from NE Africa to East Asia
8. Correspondences of Sanskrit and other non-ST Asian languages with the African /Afro-Asiatic and
Sino-Tibetan language roots………………………………………….……………….………..…...826-834
9. Linguistic data relevant to African/AA- based migrations into the ST linguistic area..….........835-851
Chapter 10. Aspects of comparative morphology and grammar …………………………….…..852-865
Works consulted…………………………...………….………….………..……………..…..…..….…..866-879
Supplementary Table 1 Results of a preliminary comparison of Greenberg’s word lists from all four
African language superfamilies with Sino-Tibetan ……………...………………..…………..……880-882
Supplementary Table 2 The African/AA substratum in Sanskrit and other IE languages….….…883-979
Supplementary Table 3 Khoisan ↔ ST comparative data…………….……...….…….……......980-1039
Author’s Curriculum Vitae…………….……...….……………………………………....………1040-1041

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Symbols and Abbreviations

Symbols
() parentheses indicate the phoneme may or may not be present in the word
* cited or proposed proto-form
< the preceding lexeme is the source of following lexeme (historically)
> the preceding lexeme is derived from following lexeme (historically)
↔ expresses mutual phonetic and semantic similarity (close
correspondence) or inquiry about it
? semantics are a conjecture
[ ] interpolated explanatory text, translation or variant name of a language
- placed before or after the root morpheme to represent affix(es)
V represents a vowel which can vary in otherwise matching word forms
+ morphological boundary (used for segmentation of the morpheme)
Abbreviations:
AA Afro-Asiatic
adj. adjective
adv. adverb
AA/African Afro-Asiatic and other African language superfamilies
AV Avestan (Indo-Aryan language found in E. Iran)
bf. bound form
BCE before the Common Era
BP before the present time
c. circa (approximate date)
CE [of the] Common Era
CC close phonetic/semantic correspondence (= lexical isogloss)
CC set close correspondence set (often referred to simply as set)
C. Chadic Central Chadic
coll. colloquial, colloquially
corresp. correspondence, correspondences
Cush. Cushitic
Dict. Dictionary
dial. dialect, dialectal
(Djenne) Djenne Chiini (Dialect of Nilo-Saharan-Songhay)
E. East
e.g. exempli gratia [for example]
esp. especially
excl. exclamation
Extended designates words in the Extended Word Family section of a table.
f. noun or verbal noun feminine gender
(Fr.) French
fut. future tense
(Ger.) German
HG haplogroup (a group of chromosomes containing the same defining
mutation from an earlier form)
ideo. ideophone (an adverb specific to certain kinds of actions)
IE Indo-European
i.e id est [that is]
imperf. imperfect tense
IPA International Phonetic Alphabet
(It.) Italian
x
(Koroboro) Koroboro Senni (Dialect of Nilo-Saharan-Songhay)

(Koyra) Koyra Chiini (Dialect of Nilo-Saharan-Songhay)
KYA (preceded by number of thousands) means thousand years ago
lit. literally
LGM Last Glacial Maximum (Last Great Ice Age)
m. noun or verbal noun masculine gender
meas. measure word or classifier
ME Middle Eastern
MSC Modern Standard Chinese = Putonghua, mainly based on N. Chinese
Beijing dialect
n. noun
NC Niger-Congo
NS Nilo-Saharan
N. North
OC Old Chinese
PAA Proto-Afro-Asiatic
passim means that there are multiple references to the subject in the cited work
past past tense
perf. perfect tense, signifies completed action in Tibetan
pl. plural form of word
PLB Proto-Lolo-Burmese
prep. preposition
pres. present tense
pron. pronoun
pronunc. pronunciation
proto- indicates proposed original form of the root
Proto-AA Proto-Afro-Asiatic
Proto-TB Proto-Tibeto-Burman
prov. province, provinces
R1 first radical (of a root)
R2 second radical (of a root)
RV Rig Veda (oldest Hindu sacred writings)
ref. referential- noun prefix in Sino-Tibetan which qualifies words used
when speaking about a person. Similar to vocative. See note D.4a.1.
Sem. Semitic
set close correspondence set
ST Sino-Tibetan
S. South
sing. singular
sv. stative verb
TB Tibeto-Burman
W. Chadic West Chadic
lit. literally
v. verb, volume
vg.1, vg.2, etc. Chadic Hausa verb grade 1, verb grade 2, etc.
vi. intransitive verb
vn. verbal noun
vs. versus (contrasting with following lexeme or phrase)
voc. vocative. Prefix to ST nouns which are used to formally
address a person. See note D.4a.1.
vt. transitive verb
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W. West
(WG) Wade-Giles transcription of a Chinese word
w.f. word family / word families
(Y) Yale transcription of a Chinese word
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1
Introduction
Summary of Phases of the research
Preliminary research identified the Afro-Asiatic superfamily languages as containing the largest number
of lexemes showing close correspondence with those of Sino-Tibetan. (See Supplementary Table 1
below)
Chapter 1. The first stage of the Afro-Asiatic/African ↔ Sino-Tibetan comparison reviewed the
languges compared, fixed the objectives of the study and defined the criteria for selecting and sorting
the correspondences.
Chapter 2. Domains A-H The comprehensive comparison of the two superfamiles identified a
massive number of lexical correspondences between Afro-Asiatic/African and Sino-Tibetan languages.
These are grouped in broad semantic fields called Semantic Domains.
Chapter 2A Domain-A Animals
Chapter 2B Domain-B Objects in the Natural world –Landforms, Plants, Fire etc.
Chapter 2C Domain-C The human body and its states.
Chapter 2D Domain-D Human groups, e.g. kinship and social groups.
Chapter 2E Domain-E Cognitive and Volitional language, Speech acts.
Chapter 2F Domain-F Artifacts, Tools, Circular residences
Chapter 2G Domain-G Qualities, Numbers, Pronouns
Chapter 2H Domain-H Verbs, mainly transitive
Chapter 3. Chapter 3 summarizes the Chapter 2A-H data statistically. There are 508 word families
common to the two superfamilies Afro-Asiatic (AA) and Sino-Tibetan (ST).
Chapter 4. Using the chapter 3 information, statistical data is reported for the four Afro-Asiatic (AA)
subfamilies, AA-Chadic, AA-Cushitic, AA-Semitic and AA-Egyptian. Each is compared separately with
the ST-Tibeto-Burman (TB) and ST-Sinitic (Han Chinese + Min) language groups:
Results are in:Chapter 4 Tables 4.3
TB < Chadic correspondences (74.2%) / Sinitic < Chadic close correspondences: (69.7%)
TB < Cushitic correspondences (51%) / Sinitic < Cushitic close correspondences: (52.2%)
TB < Semitic correspondences (45.5%) / Sinitic < Semitic close correspondences: (40.4%)
-TB < Egyptian correspondences (18.5%) / Sinitic < Egyptian close correspondences: (15.6(%)
…The combined TB/ Sinitic ↔ AA subfamily correspondences constitute the Afro-Asiatic ↔ Sino-
Tibetan subfamily correspondences. By percentage these are:
Chadic ↔ ST 71.9%, Cushitic ↔ ST 51.4, Semitic ↔ ST 42.9%, Egyptian ↔ ST 17.05%
Hence the highest percentage (71.9%,) of correspondences for the combined ST subfamilies is found in
the Chadic group.
Chapter 5. Based on the Chapter 4 results, the comparison was further narrowed to the single Chadic
language, Hausa/Gwandara, which was compared with the single TB language Tibetan and the Sinitic
languages taken together as one language group. The results were:
Total word families which contain at least one Tibetan ↔ (Hausa and/or Gwandara) close
correspondence:
224 = (44.1% of the 508 Chapter 2A-H word families
Total word families which contain at least one (Sinitic ↔ Hausa and/or Gwandara) close
correspondence:
260 = (51.2% of the 508 P Chapter 2A-H word families)
The single family comparison furnished the basis for the Chapter 10 report on morphology and
grammar common to Chadic-Hausa/Gwandara and Sino-Tibetan languages..
Chapter 6.
This chapter summarized the study’s linguistic evidence of cultural influences of the East/Northeast
African and West Asian civilizations on those of East Asia.
Chapter 7. This chapter summarized the Chapter 2A-H linguistic and archaeological evidence which
showed that the names of African grains are mainly the same as those of the East Asian Tibeto-Burman
2
and Sinitic languages. The data suggests a mid-Holocene incursion of agriculturists who spoke a
language closely related to Afro-Asiatic (principally Chadic, into Central and East Asia.
See Chapter 7 sections 7.3 and 7.5.
Chapter 8.
This Chapter summarized information on IE-Sanskrit, IE-Pashto and other Asian language
correspondences with the African/Afroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan lexicon. These are reported overall in
Supplementary Table 2. The data support a firm hypothesis that Sanskrit and its descendants, Hindi and
Bengali, contain a substratum composed of Afro-Asiatic roots..
Chapter 9.
This Chapter presented linguistic data which support a hypothesis of different migrations of populations
speaking Afro-Asiatic-based languages into the current Sino-Tibetan linguistic area.
Chapter 10.
This Chapter reviewed a number of closely similar morphological and grammatical features which exist
especially between AA-Chadic-Hausa and Sino-Tibetan languages.
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Chapter 1
Overview of languages compared and methodology
Chapter 1.1 African language superfamilies. Greenberg’s classification of African languages into four
major groups has been widely accepted.. (See Greenberg1966 language map “Summary of Classification”
177). For this reason the African languages’ vocabulary which he used was adopted for a preliminary
comparison of African languages with Sino-Tibetan. This comparison of Sino-Tibetan (ST) with all four
of the African language superfamilies identified Afro-Asiatic as possessing the largest stock of closely
matching lexemes (lexical isoglosses). See Supplementary Table 1- Preliminary Sino-Tibetan ↔ African
language comparative table based on Greenberg’s word list.
The four African superfamilies are:
1.1.1 Afro-Asiatic (AA).
This family contains the subfamilies Cushitic, Chadic, Semitic, ancient Egyptian and Berber. It
contains about 350 distinct languages spoken by over 300 million people. The AA languages are found in
North, Central and East Africa in the area bounded on the south by the 5th parallel of north latitude, on the
north by the Mediterranean, on the west by present day northern Nigeria, and on the east by the Red Sea.
Through the Semitic languages they extend eastward across the Arabian peninsula and north to upper
Mesopotamia. Many scholars consider the Omotic languages of Ethiopia to be a separate subfamily.
Given their location near Cushitic languages, they are for purposes of migration history counted with
these since evidence from physical anthropology and genetics indicates that the region of north Sudan and
Ethiopia was the original location of the Afro-Asiatic superfamily. Berber could not be compared
systematically.1 (See also Chapter 4 note 4.0.1.1, sections 4.0.1-2, Notes 4.3.1 and A.12a.1).
Throughout the study evidence is presented that speakers of Chadic and Semitic languages migrated
across the Central Asian land mass into the E. Asian Sino-Tibetan linguistic area. For Cushitic and
Egyptian it is not clear that speakers of these languages migrated across Asia at least in the Holocene
period. They show a considerable number of cognates with Sino-Tibetan languages but these may have
been transmitted through roots shared with Chadic and Semitic rather than through migrations of
populations. Theses issues are discussed in Chapters 4- 9
1.1.2 Nilo-Saharan (NS) This superfamily consists of about 150 to 200 languages found principally
along rivers from western Ethiopia across Sudan and the African Sahel to northern Nigeria, Niger, and
Mali. From northern Sudan they extend south along the Nile to Northern Uganda and from there eastward
into Northwest Kenya. There are about 70 million speakers.(Cyffer 2008 v.3 234-235, Jaggar 2008 v.3
221).
The unity of Nilo-Saharan as a superfamily has been the subject of much discussion. The internal
classification of languages considered to belong to the group has been difficult to establish.2
1.1.3 Khoisan.
This language group is comprised of a relatively small number of languages from Southwest and East
Africa. Many Africanists consider that Khoisan probably extended over a much greater region of sub-
Saharan Africa before being submerged, first by speakers of Afro-Asiatic in East Africa, and later over
1
Note 1.1.1 Ehret omitted Berber from his research on Proto-Afroasiatic because it had lost key Afro-Asiatic
phonological distinctions probably as a result of merging of many of the original consonant distinctions. He also
considered that no adequate reconstruction of the proto-Berber lexicon had been done. (See Ehret 1995 12). A
comparison of Cortade’s Berber-Tuareg Lexicon with ST roots was carried out during the present study but very
few correspondences could be identified. Because of this no extensive comparison of Berber was possible, although
individual words found in some of the works consulted are cited when they correspond to other African and ST
lexemes.
2
Note 1.1.2 “It has become evident that historical reconstruction may not be the only approach to understanding
the Nilo-Saharan complex. Many of the languages were exposed to speakers of languages with different linguistic
affiliations (Afro-Asiatic, Niger-Kordofanian). Mutual linguistic influence may have taken place over a long period
of time. This has led to a large amount of diversity on the one hand, and on the other to a considerable amount of
structural and conceptual retention of linguistic features over the long period of common membership”. (Cyffer
2008 236).
4
the whole of southern Africa by the Bantu expansions during the last millenium BCE.3 Only about 20 to
30 languages with about 350,000 speakers remain.(Jaggar 221-222).4
1.1.4 Niger-Congo (NC)
This superfamily is made up of a large number of languages found throughout sub-Saharan West
Africa, the Central Sudan and the whole southern region of the continent. It includes most languages
south of the Equator and comprises about 1,500 languages. This phylum is larger than any other in the
world, and has around 400 million speakers. (Williamson 2008 223). Greenberg proposed a
linguistically genetic relationship between Kordofanian which is located in the Nuba mountains of the
southwestern Middle Nile Basin and the Niger-Congo peoples of West Africa.5 Ehret ( 2002 58) supports
this classification and considers Niger-Kordofanian to have existed as far back as 15,000 years ago. The
present study uses NC as notation to identify the Niger Congo group but this does not imply a position on
Kordofanian’s status in relation to Niger-Congo languages. In the study Kordofanian is identified by its
full name when one of its lexemes matches an ST form.
1.2 Sino-Tibetan
1.2.1 Tibeto-Burman family – Sources.
For a wide range of TB languages the work of Benedict, Matisoff, Van Driem and S. Starostin (plus his
successors) provides extensive vocabularies.6
Benedict, Matisoff and Starostins’ works have the double advantage of presenting a set of TB proto-
roots and the contemporary forms posited to be their reflexes, as well as some affixes. The Starostin
group has provided etymologies for most African and Asian language families. Both Benedict and
Matisoff compare their results with the Old Chinese roots elaborated by Karlgren. They thus provide
substantial data for a comparative TB ↔ Chinese study. Van Driem’s lists are important especially for
information on TB languages.
3
Note 1.1.3(1) Although Khoisan is currently spoken in East Africa by only one or two small groups, there is
evidence that Khoisan languages were once widespread in the area. (See Semino 2002 265 and Wood et al. 874-
875) for genetic evidence of a historic relationship between Khoisan and the emergence of AA languages. For a
provisional list of Khoisan correspondences with AA and ST languages see Supplementary tables 3 Khoisan ↔ ST
comparative data . See also Chapter 9 section 9.4.
4
Note 1.1.3(2) Greenberg considered that the Khoisan languages had varying degrees of relationship. Some
Khoisanist linguists now consider “Khoisan” to be a cover term which represents three to six unrelated families.
(Traill 2008 v.3 229). Ehret recognizes the present limits to any theory that they belong to a single family, but
points out that they share similar features of structure and phonology, and more basic language vocabulary cognates
than has generally been recognized. (Ehret 2002 58) G. Starostin has done important introductory reconstructions
for most Khoisan languages and these give evidence that there is a single superfamily, although Hatsa and
Sandawe probably separated early from the rest of the group and are more remotely related. (Starostin, G. 2008
[337]
5
Note 1.1.4 Greenberg notes the importance of the regular correspondence between the Kordofanian final -ŋ and the
Niger-Congo final -m for originally establishing that the two language groups belong to the same family. He cites the
C.2c.1 Niger Congo lim- / lem- and Kordofanian C.2c.2 liŋ roots as instances of a regular variance between the
two. (See Greenberg 1966 150-151.)
Blench reviewed correspondences between Kordofanian and other African languages and concluded that there are
as many similarities between Kordofanian and Nilo-Saharan as there are between Kordofanian and Niger-Congo;
hence that Kordofanian cannot be firmly established as belonging to the same phylum as Niger-Congo. (See the
discussion in Blench Kordofanian and Niger-Congo at http://www.rogerblenchinfo./Kordofanian and Niger-
Congo.pdf/. Also Williamson “Studies of lexical borrowings between Niger-Kordofanian languages and their
neigbors, including Songhay and Chadic, have often been inconclusive because cultural words in particular tend to
have a cross linguistic distribution within a geographical area , so that it is frequently impossible to determine which is
the donor and which is the recipient language”. Williamson 2008 232.
6
Note 1.2.1 Benedict (1972) used data from over 100 TB languages. However, he focused on the five most
“phonologically conservative” of them, i.e.Tibetan, Burmese, Lushai (Mizo), Jingpho (Kachin) and Garo. (Matisoff
2003 2). These five figure prominently in the present comparison of TB and African languages.
5
1.2.2 Sinitic family (Chinese) A traditional view of Chinese languages divides them into a northern
and southern group.7
1.2.2.1 Northern Chinese-
The Northern Chinese dialects, often called Mandarin, are quite similar to each other. Their Pûtōnghuà
version, meaning “the common language” is the official language of China, called in English Modern
Standard Chinese. (cited as MSC). MSC is based on the dialect of Beijing, the national capital, but Beijing
has some lexical elements which are proper to it. (See Note C.21a.2, Norman 1988 249 Table 1 and examples
in D.3c.2 Chinese–Beijing Extended) e.g. jīzĭr “egg” and D.9a.7 niángrmen “woman”). MSC has the
largest documentation of all Chinese languages.
1.2.2.2 Southern and Central Chinese languages.
Yuè, the language of the city of Guangzhou (Canton), is now the standard one for this South Chinese
group. (Norman 1988a 214). The Guangzhou dialect is commonly called Cantonese by English speakers.
It is considered to be phonologically conservative as compared to the northern Sinitic group. Its sound
system preserves with great fidelity the final consonants and tonal categories of the Tang dynasty literary
standard. (circa 756 CE). (Yue, Anne 164.)
Kejia, also known as Hakka, is classified with the South Chinese language group. It has some Northern
features but more closely resembles Cantonese than Beijing/ MSC or other northern languages. (Ramsey
111)
Min (called Amoy-Hokkien by Bodman) also belongs to the South Chinese group. It is spoken in Fujien
province of southeast China. Min is also phonologically conservative and shares many phonological
features with Kejia. (Norman 1988a 239-241). It has lexical elements not found in other Chinese
languages. It is thought to have split away from the main body of Chinese language development
sometime before the compilation of the Qieyun Dictionary [601 CE], and thus has inherited elements
directly from Old Chinese. (Norman 1988b 288). The historically first Chinese language spoken in
Taiwan is a dialect of Min.8
Wu is a language of the Central Chinese group. It is made up of a group of dialects spoken mainly in
southern Jiangsu and in Zheijiang provinces. It is the second largest after Putonghua (MSC) in terms of
the number of speakers. (Rose 159). Shanghai is the commercial center of this region. The Wu-
Shanghaiese dialect is more conservative than Mandarin since it has a series of voiced consonants b, d
and g which Mandarin does not possess. It contains phonetic features which relate it to both the
northern and southern group. Along with other central dialects it was possibly originally part of the
present-day southern group but was overlaid with northern features as the northern empires expanded
south- and eastward in the middle historical period. 9
These languages constitute a substantive sampling of the language/dialect groups existing in the Sinitic
family. Their relationships within the family have not all been settled, but no position need be taken on
7
Note 1.2.2 “In the second millennium BC, the language which is ancestral to the modern Chinese dialects was
spoken on the North China Plain along the banks of the Yellow River. How far it had spread at that time beyond
this nuclear area, we have no way of knowing, nor do we know anything about dialectal diversity in that ancient
period. It is clear, however, that in the succeeding millennium Chinese began to spread into new areas both to the
north and south, a process that has continued throughout Chinese history right down to the present.” (Norman 1988
183) Comment- It is not clear that in Chinese prehistory the whole lexicon originated in the north, though the
expansion from north to south did occur after the emergence of the first empire. See following Note 1.2.2.2(1) Min.
8
Note 1.2.2.2(1) Min Norman mentions that the Min dialects are a separate group which are possibly the oldest
but show much similarity with southern Chinese languages. The Min dialects are considered to be outside of the
main Chinese group since Karlgren was not able to use a portion of its lexicon in his derivation of Old Chinese.
Norman recognizes that Min phonetics cannot be explained in terms of the Middle Chinese phonological system;
however he shows convincingly that it is related phonetically and lexically to the Kejia (Hakka) southern Chinese
language. (Norman 1988 239-241).
9
Note 1.2.2.2(2) Wu Adequate vocabularies of this language and Kejia seem to be readily available only on the
Internet. They have been cited from http://www.chinalanguage.com/dictionaries, though this site now gives only
Chinese character equivalencies of English words.
6
this question in order to carry out an initial comparison with African languages. The Sinitic language /
dialect groups have been considered to be separate groups with a common ancestor, a language family
rather than a single language with a number of regional forms. The relationship is comparable to that of
the Romance languages with Latin. (Kratochvil 327, Norman 1988a 187).
1.2.2.3 Sinitic languages which have not been systematically included in the comparison are:
Qiangic, spoken mainly in Sichuan and Yunnan (Central West and Southwest China). It is divided into
Old (Southern variety) and New (Northern variety) Xiang. The Southern variety is more closely related
to Wu dialects, and the Northern ones to Mandarin. There is no writing system other than Chinese
characters. (You Rujie 164).
Gan (W. Central China) and Jin (spoken in Shangxi province (NW China). Jin is very important for its
preservation of prefixes present in Old Chinese and some African families, but lost in most modern
dialects. Jin has been cited from the work of Sagart, and Qiangic from that of Benedict and Matisoff, but
due to limited documentation a full comparison with African/AA languages has not been possible for
either group. Sagart’s work on Jin figures importantly in research on “the disappearing k- initial”
(reported in Chapter 10 section 10.3.2).
1.3 Non-ST Asian families in relation to Sino-Tibetan.
1.3.1 Indo-European
1.3.1.1 Sanskrit, Avestan
A hypothesis resulting from the present study proposes that African/Afro-Asiatic languages constitute
a substratum in Asia between Africa and East Asia. This has been most extensively studied for Sanskrit.10
and Avestan. Those words which appear in the Indo-Aryan Sanskrit Rigveda (NW, N. India) and in
Avestan (Eastern Iran) have been identified using the abbreviations RV and AV respectively. A
substantial set of African/AA cognates in other non-ST languages of the central and Eastern Asian region
has also been included. See evidence of these lexical relationships throughout Chapter 8 and
Supplementary Table 2). The AA substratum in IE Indo-Aryan languages suggests that c.1800 BCE in
central / northern Pakistan and north India a native population became a subordinate class which adopted
most of the language of the elite invading dominant Aryans, but retained a lexicon inherited directly from
Africa during an earlier migration. Supplementary Table 2 contains a large Central / East Asian non-ST
lexicon, especially Indo-European and Altaic, which closely matches African / AA roots.
1.3.2 Altaic, Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic.

There seems to be no general agreement among researchers about the relationship between the
languages called Altaic, Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic. S. Starostin and his successors have labelled
Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic in their etymologies as sub-stocks of Altaic, so the present study follows
this practice without being able to validate it analytically. See Starostin, Sergei A. (2003) at
http:starling.rinet.ru./c
Languages considered directly Altaic are found in N. Central Asia to the east of Finland. Turkic
languages are found between Western Asia in Turkey through Central and E. Central Asia as far as the
NW area of China in Xinjiang province. Mongolian languages are found principally in NE Asia including
northern China, and Tungusic (also called Manchu-Tungus) is found mostly in present-day Manchuria.
Their present geographic locations are mainly the result of migrations within Asia during the last two
millennia. None of these languages are mutually intelligible; nevertheless the present study has found that
all of them in varying degrees contain words which are cognate with Afro-Asiatic languages. This is
probably the result of migrations on a northern route from West Asia at different periods, some
prehistoric; but also from the Mongol invasions of the Middle East in the period from 900 to 1300 CE.
See also Chapter 9 for discussion.
10
Note 1.3.1.1 As an example of prehistoric Afro-Asiatic influence in north India see Bryant 78-9 and Chapter 2E
Notes- E.9b.1 and E.11a.1 on a “quotative” grammatical feature found in Sanskrit but not in other Indo-European
languages. It matches comparable African language “quotative” lexemes.
7
1.4 Languages-Notation and Transcription systems

For the non-linguist one of the best sources on Latin alphabet representations of sounds is found in
Antilla 7-8. The vowel chart shows the articulatory features, tongue height, tongue advancement and lip
position for each basic vowel; the consonant chart presents each type of consonant articulation, e.g. stop,
affricate, its position (point of articulation) in the vocal tract and whether it is voiced or unvoiced.
Antilla’s charts are especially useful for this study since they include common Latin or Greek alphabet
symbols used by linguists before the introduction of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Many of
these appear in the works cited by this study.
Glottalization- Glottal / pharyngeal stops are widespread in Afro-Asiatic, Khoisan and Tibeto-Burman
languages, so they figure importantly in the comparison of these languages in the study. These sounds
involve a stricture of the glottis which shuts off the outflow of air from the vocal tract after a stop
consonant; then it is opened to produce the next sound. For example, in American English the word
“battle” is widely pronounced as “baddle”. There is no stop between the second / d / and the final
/ l / However in areas of the U. S. northeast this is pronounced “batt’le”, i.e there is closure and a slight
pause after the second / t / then opening to pronounce the / l /.
Glottalization also occurs in words which begin with a vowel, since the glottis is opened to produce the
voiced sound. It does not commonly occur in English after initial consonants, e.g. /tree/, not /t’ree/
(unless one stutters). It however is widely present in initial sounds of both Afro-Asiatic and Tibeto-
Burman lexemes. See Section 1.4.1.1 following on Hausa, Notes C.5a.4, D.4c.1, Chapter 10 Section
10.3.2 and Supplementary Table 3 1.1.1.
The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbol for the glottal sound is ʔ; it is cited as such when
used in the source document.
1.4.1 African/Afro-Asiatic languages

All Afro-Asiatic languages except Ethiopian Semitic, Hebrew and Arabic use Latin alphabet notations
in official publications. Arabic uses a non-Latin alphabet, but Latin alphabet equivalencies are available
in several sources and these have been used when supplied in the cited text. The notation of Arabic
sounds which do not approximate English pronunciation varies somewhat from one author to another.
One important transcription is listed under section 1.4.1.3.1 Semitic-Arabic below.
1.4.1.1 Chadic-Hausa
The hooked letters in Chadic- Hausa (ƙ, ɗ and ƃ) stand for glotallized stop consonants. They are
represented in the study by apostrophes, i.e. ƙ as k’, ɗ as d’ and ƃ as b’. The apostrophe can occur
before or after these stops, depending on whether they are ingressive (implosive) or egressive (plosive),
e.g ‘d or d’. See sets B.21.1 (Hausa, Tibetan) ‘dàmbā and E.5c.2 (Chadic-Hausa) k’yanwa.
See also Notes A.33.1 (Chadic-Hausa.), D.4c.1-2 (Khoisan) and set H.30d.3.
Also “All [Hausa] vowel-initial words are pronounced with a glottal stop although this is not written”.
Newman, P. 2000 228.) See Note H.38a.4 (Hausa).
1.4.1.2 E. Cushitic-Afar.
This AA language uses the following notations .
x voiceless velar fricative
ɬ voiceless lateral fricative
ɫ voiced lateral fricative
tl voiceless lateral affricate
dl voiced lateral affricate
q regularly for Arabic (and sometimes Cushitic glottal) voiceless velar
c usually represents the sound of English chin “church”. However in E. Cushitic-Afar it is a
voiceless pharyngeal spirant like the Arabic ‫ح‬. See section(1.4.1.3.2) following.
1.4.1.3 Semitic languages
1.4.1.3.1 Semitic-Amharic..Leslau uses a subscript point to show glottalized consonants, e.g. ṭ / ș. In
order to regularize the glottals/laryngeals, the present study uses an apostrophe as stop symbol, e.g. p’,
t’, s’, ĉ’, q’. See also notes C.4.2 (Semitic-Amharic), C.5a.4 (Semitic-Amharic) and H.12.2 (Hausa,
Amharic).
8
In Leslau’s notation Amharic ä “is pronounced like the sound one makes when hesitating during
speech; it is represented in writing by ’uh’”. Leslau 1976, xiv. Hence it appears to be a low central vowel
with glottal stop before the following consonant.
1.4.1.3.2 Semitic-Arabic. Some Arabic-English dictionaries use Latin alphabets for most sounds but
Arabic alphabet letters for those not contained in English.11 These latter which occur in this study are:
‫ =ع‬voiced pharyngeal spirant, no English equivalent
‫ =ح‬voiceless pharyngeal spirant, no English equivalent, generally transcribed in IPA as ʔ.
θ = voiceless interdental spirant, similar to English th as in “thank”.
ɗ̟ = voiceless interdental spirant, velarized, no equivalent in English
x = voiceless velar spirant, no English equivalent but similar to German ch as in Bach.
See also H.34c.1. (Arabic).
1.4.2 Non-AA African languages:

1.4.2.1 Nilo-Saharan and Niger-Congo. These languages are consistently notated in the Latin alphabet
including extended Latin letters such as the nasalized velar ŋ, and the IPA extensions, e.g. the middle
vowels ə and ɔ.
1.4.2.2 Khoisan The sources give Latin Alphabet transcriptions with the exception of the Khoisan click
notation which has been standardized by using the IPA symbols, i.e.
ʘ ʘ ʘ ʘ Bilabial
| | | | Dental
! ! ! ! (Post)alveolar
ǂ ǂ ǂ ǂ Palato-alveolar
‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ Alveolar lateral These are used by G.Starostin, Greenberg and Ruhlen.
On the Khoisan click phoneme as represented by these symbols see Supplementary Table 3 sections
1.1a-e for a brief explanation with examples. The examples indicate that initial glottal/ pharyngeal
sounds in AA and Tibeto-Burman words are often the result of reductions of Khoisan clicks.
1.4.3 Sino-Tibetan Languages
1.4.3.1 Tibeto-Burman languages
Tibetan- Written Tibetan has its own alphabet but both Jaschke and Das give English language
transcriptions. Since Jaschke’s dictionary was compiled before the development of standardized
notations, Das‘ or Goldstein’s transcriptions have been used for citing his work where its notation departs
from a contemporary standard Latin alphabet usage.
For initial glottals Das used an inital pharyngeal spirant h̟- symbol, and Jaschke used the symbol
[ o ] [subscript circle] as equivalents of the later and more common / ‘ / and ʔ IPA notations.
Das’ notaton or a glottalized t (t’-) has been used in the study. See note C.5a.4 for samples of
occurences in the study.
Goldstein uses English Latin alphabet extended symbols for the most part and these are similar to the
sound in English with the following exceptions.
ñ similar to ny in “canyon”
ŋ similar to nga in “sing along”
lh made something like an l with a heavy puff of aspiration said simultaneously
ə similar to a in “alone”
ɛ similar to the e in “prey”
e similar to the e in “bet” but with the teeth almost closed
‫ כ‬similar to a in all
ü similar to the ü in German “füllen”
ö similar to u in “fur”
11
Note- Semitic-Arabic A Dictionary of Iraqi Arabic : English-Arabic, Arabic-English. Washington :
Georgetown University Press, c2003 part 2 Arabic-English vi-vii
9
1.4.3.2 Sinitic language romanizations:

1.4.3.2.1 Chinese- Putonghua (Pinyin). The study uses the Pinyin romanization when it is available in a
cited source, e.g. Wu Jingrong and Manser use Pinyin; Mathews uses Wade-Giles and Chen the Yale
transcription. When the Pinyin romanization differs from a conventional Latin alphabet representation of
the sound, the Yale and/or the Wade-Giles transcription is also provided when available, for example:
B.15c.1 Chinese-MSC/Beijing W. Chadic- Ron (Daffo) Nilo-Saharan-

shwêi [Yale] “water” swéy “Loch [lake], Ik
shuî [Pinyin] “water” “river” Brunnen [spring, well]” čuε “water”
“a general term for rivers, lakes, W. Chadic-Ron (Bokkos)
seas etc.” swey “Loch” [lake]
Note also:
Pinyin què = Yale chywè = Wade-Giles ch’ūèh. See Chen xii and A.2a.2
Pinyin quān = Yale chywān = Wade-Giles chuan. See Chen xii and F.7a.6
Pinyin qiâng = Yale chyâng See Chen, xi and F.1.3
Pinyin xìng = Yale sying = Wade-Giles hsìng / sìng. See Chen xxi and D.16.1
Pinyin duī = Yale dwēi. See Chen xii and B.5c.1
Pinyin jiào = Yale jyàu See Chen xvi and E.13e.5, C.21b.1.
Citations from Mathews (1966) use his Wade-Giles transcriptions. For Chen or Wang’s tables of Yale,
Wade-Giles and Pinyin equivalencies see Chen x-xxiv, and Wang, F. 627-638.
1.4.3.2.2 Chinese-Hakka.
MacIver’s transcription uses an approximation of the sound as it is most commonly represented in
Latin alphabets. His transcription is cited when it is available. The Lau Chunfat entries employ the Pinyin
transcription and this is also cited when available.
1.4.3.2.3.
Chinese-Wu. IPA transcriptions are used for Wu in the Online Hakka Dictionary and these are followed
in the citations of this study.
1.4.3.2.4. Cantonese (Yuè). The Yale transcription is used for Cantonese since it is employed by all
three of the main sources, Chik / Ng Lam, Kwan and Chen. Chen also supplies a table of Yale, Meyer-
Wempe, and IPA transcriptions of Cantonese. (Chen xxvi-xxvii).
10
1.5 Methodology-Guidelines for research on prehistory through language

1.5.1 Data record structure Comparative tables. The comparative tables are composed of word
families (groups of words related phonetically and semantically) 12 Each word family (w.f.) is identified
by a table number or a table number plus an alphabetic character, (i.e. a whole table when there are no
subtables, and by subtables when there is a group of related word families; for example the Chapter 2A
record number A.4 identifies a table which has no subtables (an independent word family), while A.5a.1,
A.5a.2. etc. identify groups of related tables/word families. These are referred to as “generic word
families. Hence the Chapter 2 A-H tables can be called the “analytic tables”
The data is composed of words which are members of families either “being compared to” or “being
compared”. The “being compared to” or target family is Sino-Tibetan. Its lexemes appear first in each set of the
table (Column 1) and determine which Afro-Asiatic and other matching African morphemes will be included in
it. See Table 1.5.1 below (A.5a-b ).
The first “compared” data is composed of the lexemes of the Afro-Asiatic subfamilies. (Columns 2-4).
The next “compared” African data are Nilo-Saharan (Column 5) and (Niger Congo/Niger-Kordofanian
and/or Khoisan) (Column 6). The great majority of non-AA lexemes of columns 5 and 6 correspond to at
least one lexeme of the column 1 ST group and at least one of the AA group lexemes in columns 2-4.
So the ST ↔ Afro-Asiatic correspondences are effectively a “filter” through which ST passes to identify
additional relationships with other African superfamily roots. However to locate possible migration paths
between NE Africa and East Asia, a substantial set of Khoisan lexemes was compared directly with ST at
the end of the Chapter 2A-H data comparison. The results are reported in Supplementary Table 3. This
revealed the following sets which contain single close correspondences between ST and Khoisan only:
A.10a.5-6; A.26.5,7; A.33.2; B.30.2; B.31.2; C.6c.5; C.33.3; C.34.4; E.13a.2; G.11b.1; G.30.2 and
H.23a.2. These all represent basic language terms. See Supplementary Table 3 Table 1.1.1
The set labeled “Base correspondence(s) for positing etyma:” was also added toward the end of the
Chapter 2A-H comparison to aid in proposing approximate proto-forms.
The sets labeled “Extended Sino-Tibetan word family” and “Extended African/Afroasiatic language
word family” contain correspondences which do not completely satisfy the phonetic matching criteria
for the closest correspondences. (Defined in Section 1.5.6.2 below). In large word families some close
correspondences are placed as the first entries in the Extended section due to space limitations in the main
area.
Asian Non-ST African-AA correspondences in the Extended Section are furnished mainly to compile
the lexicon of the Sanskrit / IE substrata in Central Asia which establish linguistic tracking of African
/AA on a path or paths between Africa and East Asia. See examples of these in the Extended Asian non-
ST languages sections B.27.4-7, H.39a.1, Chapter 7 section 7.10 and Chapter 9 sections 9.4-9.6.
Table 1.5.1 Sample data record of African/AA ↔ Sino-Tibetan comparison

ST-Languages African / language Close correspondences
A.5a-b AA – AA- AA- Nilo- Niger-
Chadic Cushitic Semitic etc. Saharan Congo
Swadesh “to fly” West Proto- Berber- Schilha Songhay NC-
A.5a.1 Proto-TB Chadic- Cushitic firri “fly” firri “fly, Fulfulde
*pur ~ *pir v. Hausa *pîr- Mukarovsky soar” fīra
“fly” Benedict #398 fira “fly” “to fly” 1987 177 Heath “fly, flee”
83, 181, 205 Skinner 69 Greenberg 1966 57 v.2 66 Taylor 55
TB-Tibetan Egyptian pi “to fly”
phir Budge v.1 234
“fly” Goldstein 172
12
Note 1.5.1 “Word families are of particular importance because, more than isolated words, word families,
especially well-diversified ones, may be suspected of being ancient in the language” Sagart 1999 14.
11
A.5a.2 NS-Kanuri NC-Igbo

C. Chinese-Wu fəfənngin fé
1
fE v. “flap one’s “fly”
“fly, flutter” wings Ruhlen
Hakka Dictionary (of birds)” 1994 317
N. Chinese-MSC Cyffer 1990
fēi “fly, flit” 46
Wu, J. 193
S. Chinese-
Cantonese
fèi “fly (as birds)”
Kwan 193
Base correspondence(s) for positing etyma:
A.5a.1
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *pir v. “fly” / TB-C. Tibetan ‘phir-ba “to fly ”
< Proto-Afro-Asiatic *-pîr- “to fly” / Proto-Cushitic *pîr- “to fly, jump” / Proto-Omotic
*pir- “to fly” / Berber- Schilha / NS-Songhay firri “fly, soar” /
NC-Fulfulde (Fulani) fīra “fly, flee”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *pir- “to fly”
Extended Sino-Tibetan word family:
A.5a.1
TB- Dimasa, Bodo bir “to fly” Benedict 83 Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB- Miri ber ”to fly” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
Chinese-Wu fi1 “fly, flit” “hang in the air” Hakka Dictionary
A.5a.2 Chinese-Min pê ”to fly” Bodman 1987 v.1 345, v 2 164
Extended African language word family:
A.5a.1
N. Omotic-Ometo *pir “to fly” Ehret 1995 #51 96
N. Cushitic-Beja [Bedauyei] fiir “fly” Mukarovsky 1987 177
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *-pîr- “to fly” Ehret 1995 #51 96
C. Chadic–Mafa (Matakan) párr / pérr “jump” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology.
NS-Kənzi firr / firri “fliegen” [fly] Skinner 70
C. Chadic- Masa pìr “s’elever au dessus du sol” “bondir, sauter ” “voler” Caitucoli 130
E. Cushitic-Rendille firda “flee, run away, escape (from some danger)”
fírid “flight, fleeing, escape” Pillinger 115
Semitic- Ethiopic-Harari bir baya “fly” Leslau 1963 44
Asian non-ST languages with correspondences to the African/AA ↔ ST roots:
A.5a.1
Proto-Altaic*p’īle / *p’ili “to fly, soar, flap” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Kartvelian-Svan per- “to fly” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology
Notes function both to provide historical-cultural context and describe regular phonetic relationships
between languages when this information is available from scholarly research on a particular language or
language family. General notes cite the section of the study which they qualify. Notes specific to a word
family of Chapter 2 Sections A-H cite the alphanumeric identifier(s) of a set or sets of the word family.
1.5.2 Guidelines for comparative method. Criteria for inclusion of ST ↔ Afro-Asiatic

correspondences in the inventory.
Standard comparative rules have been outlined by Anttila as follows:
12
1.5.2.1 Correspondences must be recurring, i.e. a single ST ↔ AA match does not count as an
established correspondence
1.5.2.2 Basic core language vocabulary must be compared in order to reduce the chance of borrowing
between the languages.
1.5.2.3 Parameters must be established to determine “what matches what”. The questions of minimal
contrast and segmentation are central to this task .
1.5.2.4 Semantic matching must be fairly rigorous. (Anttila 229-230)
1.5.3 Objective 1 – Determining the number and size of word families

1.5.3.1 Correspondences must be recurring, i.e. a single ST ↔ AA match does not count as an
established correspondence. This rule governs the minimal size of word families. It excludes single
correspondences between ST and African/Afroasiatic roots. Such a correspondence is not considered to
constitute a word family and is not placed in any data record.
For example at the date of publication of this study the following root correspondence and many others
remain in a work file pending more research.
Table 1.5.3.1a Example of non-recurring ST ↔ African/Afroasiatic correspondence.

XXXXX Chinese- Cantonese E. Cushitic- Oromo
gik “to beat, to strike, to attack” gikkisu vt. “urtare” [to strike, to collide with]
gik dou “to knock down” gikkisa “urto” [collision]
A word family can be established, however, when only one of the ST correspondences satisfies the
rules for being a close correspondence set, as long as there are two or more ST ↔ African/Afroasiatic
root correspondences listed in the Extended Section of the data record, e.g.:
Table 1.5.3.1b
Example of non-recurring ST ↔ African/Afroasiatic close correspondence plus Extended forms.
ST Languages African/Afroasiatic languages-Close correspondences
B.39 AA-Chadic AA – AA- NS NC
Cush. Sem.
B.39.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – Hausa
jim / jimbə “clay, mud” jimb’u “clay”
jim-pa yimb’ū / yumb’ū m.
“mud, clay, loam” “red clay (used for making pots”
“mud, clay, muddy water”
B. 39.1 TB-Tibetan jimbə “clay, mud”
< W. Chadic–Hausa jimb’u “clay”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *jimb’u “clay”
B. 39.1
Chinese- MSC / Beijing chîn “yellow loam, clay”
TB-Tibetan jimmi “clay statue of a person”
Extended African/Afroasiatic language word family:
B. 39.1 W. Chadic – Gwandara (Koro ) yembu (Gitata ) yumbu “clay”
B. 39.1 IE- Sanskrit jamba “mud, clay” jambala “mud, clay” jambalini “muddy”
The definition of minimal size, however, is not a sufficient basis for adequate comparison. The
identification of large numbers of recurring phonetically similar correspondences having the same
meaning is essential for any classification of languages. It is the major factor in determining what
13
morphemes together constitute an individual language and what languages taken together constitute a
language family or subfamily.The present comparison of ST and AA language families would not be
possible if such massive comparison had not already been done for African and ST languages, resulting in
their classifications as superfamilies.
1.5.3.2 Identifying large word families. Use of massive comparison methodology to identify large word
families.
If the comparison must identify large sets of common lexical roots, this can best be achieved by first
comparing the language superfamilies Afro-Asiatic and Sino-Tibetan and their subfamilies rather than
individual languages within either of these. This is necessary because initially we do not know which
individual families to compare, and these are numerous in both the AA and TB families. If large word
families common to the two language superfamilies are found to exist, this is initial evidence that the
relationship is old, so we can at least tentatively posit a historical relationship between them as a working
hypothesis. But how large is large enough?
1.5.3.2.1 Pragmatic criteria for counting word families as “large”:
Large single independent word families.
A large single independent word family is defined as containing four or more primary (close)
correspondence sets. The Chapter 2A-H massive comparison contains 39 of these single large word
families. See chapter 3 Table 3.1.3a’
Generic (groups of related) word families.
Each of the component word families in these larger groups has been constructed on the basis of one or
more close correspondence sets. The rules for grouping generically related word families are less
precise, since they are not the primary units of the comparative study, but rather second order constructs,
so etymologies are not proposed for these conglomerates, but only for each of their component word
fmilies.
Both of these types of word families are identified and counted at the beginning of each semantic
domain, e.g. for semantic domain A of the Chapter 2A comparison 14 of its 37 numbered tables are
generic word families and their component word families.
Examples of very large generic word families are:
-Those containing 7 word families-
H.24a-g - “clean” “clear” “new” “to rub, wipe” “to shave, scrape” “to sweep, to comb” “to wash”
“to strain”
-Those containing 6 word families-
A.10.a-f - “canines” “dog, fox, hyena”,
B.11.a-f - “burn, fire, kindle” “bake, roast” “hot, warm”,
B.15.a-f - “rain, water” “passage for water” “valley, hollow place”,
E.13a-f - “speak, cry out, call, greet”
-Those containing 5 word families –
E.7a-e - “good, beautiful, better”
E.8a-e - “say, announce, publish, judgment” “law” “predict, divination”
The number and size of generic word families common to AA and ST are also reported in the statistical
data of each of the word family groups in Chapter 2 Sections A-H. These are combined and listed in
Chapter 3 Table 3.1.3c. They total 112 generic word famlies in the Chapter 2 A-H analytic comparison
and these make up 307 = 60.4% of its 508 word families. This high proportion of large word families
argues against chance correspondence between the AA and ST lexicons.
If the objection is still made that chance matching cannot be sufficiently excluded because the resulting
correspondences are spread across many African/Afroasiatic language superfamilies, then statistics for
AA ↔ ST subfamily correspondences can be compiled to show numbers of AA ↔ ST correspondences
within a subfamily. (This done in chapter 4 Tables 4.3). And if these subfamily comparisons can identify
a single African/Afroasiatic language as most similar to a single ST language, then a comparison of only
these two languages can be undertaken. This was ultimately done as a comparison between Tibeto-
14
Burman-Tibetan and AfroAsiatic-Chadic-Hausa. (See chapter 5 Table 5.2.1 for statistics). However the
comparison between superfamilies was necessary before these degrees of specification could be carried
out.
1.5.4 Objective 2 – Identification of loan words. Evidence for and against loaning.
Usual criteria for identifying loans are:
1.5.4.1 The loaned words have not formed their own word families. Theyoften occur as one or a very
small number of words in a language. See Note Table 8.1a
1.5.4.2 They have not adopted the morphemic/syntactic structure of the host language.
1.5.4.3 They are less likely to attest words from basic vocabulary.
As mentioned above, if a large word family is shared between many language families in Africa and
the ST linguistic area, most of the lexemes are not likely to be based on recent loaning. Hence ancient
loaning between African non-Afro-Asiatic and Afroasiatic languages in prehistoric Africa is not relevant
to the present study, given the separate histories of AA and non-AA languages prior to their speakers’
migration(s) out of Africa during the early or mid-Holocene. See Chapter 4 section 4.0.1.
For loaning to and from Chinese languages see Norman 16-22
1.5.5 Objective 3 - Inclusion of Basic core vocabulary at all stages of the comparison to identify
words which are less likely to be loans.
There are two ways of identifying basic vocabulary.
1.5.5.1 Basic core vocabulary comparison can be carried out through use of a standard vocabulary
which is found in all languages, i.e. a universal set of concepts which are native to even the simplest
languages and hence constitute part of its original stock. The most commonly used list of these is the
Swadesh list, a list of 100 or 200 words in English widely used after its inception in the mid-20th century.
G. Starostin’s Lexicostatistical Approach towards Reconstructing Proto-Khoisan is an important recent
example of use of the 100 word list to advance Khoisan research. It is cited throughout the present study.
Hence special attention has been paid to the inclusion of statistics for basic language lexemes as
represented by the English glosses of the 100 word Swadesh list. They have been flagged to facilitate
compilation of statistics, as in the first element of column 1 in Table 1.5.1 above for the Close
Correspondence (CC) set A.5a.1: Swadesh “to fly”
1.5.5.2 In an extended sense the basic core vocabulary of a language is made up of sets of words
which are closely related semantically to the standard core words. They also resist borrowing and can be
considered to be early in a language.
Examples of these sets are those composed of words for body parts and many natural objects. They
are not dependent on a given society’s socio-cultural practices or its material culture. The Swadesh list
includes many, but not all, of these. In this study these basic language words do not appear explicitly in
the Swadesh list, so they are not flagged in the tables. But the grouping of such terms in the broad
semantic fields B and C referring to natural objects and body parts respectively provides a second means
for recognizing their presence.
Words other than the basic language group are generally designated as “cultural” and are more subject
to loaning. For example words for artefacts and many socio-cultural practices are highly subject to
loaning. In Africa kinship terms are often borrowed by neighboring groups which are not closely related
linguistically, but practice intermarriage and have other close social contact. (See w.f. D.37.1).
For statistics on basic vocabulary in the Chapter 2 A-H data see Chapter 3 Section 3.2..
1.5.5.3 Results of basic vocabulary comparison between large word families.
Both the large single independent and generic word families mentioned above contain a substantial
percentage of basic language vocabulary. For example, there are 12 large single independent families
containing basic language vocabulary and these make up 30.8% of the 39 large independent families.
(See Chapter 3 Table 3.1.3a). For very large generic word families the proportion of word families
containing basic language is much higher. Of the 21 largest generic word families 17 ( = 81%) contain at
leasr one basic language term of the Swadesh list. (See Chapter 3 section 3.3.2)
15
1.5.6 Objective 4- Establishing parameters for root identification and phonetic /semantic
correspondence criteria. A rigorous methodology will require the identification of lexical roots through
well-defined phonetic and semantic matching criteria.
1.5.6.1 Root and affix identification
Complete word families are composed of sets of semantically and phonetically related words which can
show their relationships through either the roots or the affixes. However most of the words of the present
study represent matching root morphemes.13 Highly isolating languages such as those of Modern
Standard Chinese (based on Beijing dialect) contain few readily identifiable affixes. (Norman 1988a 10)
Affixes cannot be dealt with comprehensively in this comparative work since, with certain exceptions,
affix correspondences are not attested widely enough between African and ST languages to permit
construction of an inventory comparable to that of the lexical roots. However they are described in notes
of records when they form part of an etymology, so they are summarized in Chapter 10 sections 10.3.1-4.
In some cases a supposed ST “prefix” corresponds to an initial radical of the African language
correspondence. (See chapter 10 section 10.3.2-3 and notes A.1a.1, A.10a.5, C.1a.3 and C.38a.2-3 on
Khoisan.)
1.5.6.2 Phonetic / semantic correspondence criteria.
As mentioned above root identification can be dealt with by grouping similar ST ↔ AA
correspondences together and then separating them into smaller groups which are even more similar.
“Most similar” and “even more similar” are, of course, not well-defined expressions. A preferable term
is “minimal contrast” (a form of bilateral opposition). A fundamental distinction in comparing two
morphemes is whether they contrast or not. Non-contrastive morphemes are those which have the same
semantics and are composed of the same phonemes in the same order. The phoneme is, of course an
abstraction which can represent a group of analytically different sounds which are intelligible as a
meaningful unit when heard by native speakers of a given language. The standard orthography of a
language may omit certain phonemes which its notation does not account for, or it may represent them
differently from what a reader might expect. Nevertheless, we can begin a comparative study of two
languages or language families using the standard orthography of the languages, if enough morphemes
are compiled to separate them into continually smaller matching sets.
Hence criteria must be provided to identify levels of contrast between morphemes. Root morphemes
which have the same ultimate etymology in e.g., Indo-European, can show important variances between
the subfamilies, e.g. Romance or Germanic of the superfamily. But the family itself was established
through identification of minimally contrasting morphemes.
The term “minimally contrasting morpheme” denotes those morphemes attesting a single observable
contrast of either a consonant or a vowel. This phonetic relationship is comparable to Duanmu’s
definition of a minimal pair as “a pair of words which differ in only one sound”. For example in standard
Chinese the words mai “buy” and nai “milk” form a minimal pair. (Duanmu 14). However, the term
“minimal pair” in this case refers to closely matching morphemes in the same language, but it does not
involve semantic matching. For this reason the present study employs another term “close
correspondence” to identify minimal contrasts of both phonetics and semantics. (Linguists technically
call these lexical isoglosses). The phrase “close correspondence” (CC) is a short form of this “lexical
close sound and meaning correspondence” which may be more useful for non-linguists primarily
studying language as a key to pre-historic culture. These close matches might involve variant
13
Note 1.5.6 Benedict’s comparative work was based for the most part on the comparison of lexical roots. “The
Sino-Tibetan stock outlined above has been set up on the basis of a series of monosyllabic roots shared by Tibeto-
Karen and Chinese” (Benedict 1972 3). He considered that classification based on structural features such as
morphology and tonal systems existing in various East Asian languages did not prove their common origin. “In
general lexical considerations are here of primary importance, morphological and syntactical considerations of
secondary importance”. (Benedict 1972 4). He held that Chinese originally possessed prefixes and suffixes, though
they had become only remnants in Old Chinese. The present study has reported suffixes with grammatical functions
in ST languages, but these representgrammaticalized independent roots.. (See Notes D.3c.1-2, D.25.2 (2,) G.33.1,
and H.6a.2, See also Chapter 10 section 10.6.1 on directioal verbs in Chinese)
16
morphemes of the same language, or of languages known to be related, but they also serve as
instruments for discovery of previously unknown linguistic relationships. This latter type of discovery
occurred when Sanskrit and most European languages were found to have a massive number of common
lexical roots, thus incorporating Indo-Aryan languages into the known European superfamily which then
became the more extensive Indo-European one. Hence close correspondence sets can be a pair or group
of morphemes from the same language, the same language subfamily, the same language superfamily or
of two superfamilies as yet unidentified as possessing common word families. In the present study an
initial comparison was done between all African superfamilies and Sino-Tibetan. Results of this showed
that the Afro-Asiatic superfamily has the highest incidence of close correspondences with the Sino-
Tibetan lexicon. See Supplementary Table 1.
In the following example the non-palatalized F.15b.1 TB and Sinitic initial velar k- morphemes contrast
with the palatalized initial ch- / c- / ki- F.15b.2-3 sets. The palatalization is a minimal contrast, the
other root elements being the same. The Chadic velar initial ƙ = /k’/ is pronounced as back or front
palatalized ky- or ch. (See also Note A.33.1 Chadic-Hausa and its references). Hence the closely
corresponding morphemes are set up in separate correspondence sets. The contrast is minimal both across
each CC set and between their Column 1-2 ST and Chadic variants.14
Table 1.5.6.2 Identifying close sound / meaning correspondences
F.15b.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-N. E. Cushitic- Semitic-Arabic NS-Masai NC-
kháng-pa “house” Bauci- Pa’a Oromo (Iraqi) (enk)aŋ Common
“in compounds also as kani “hut ganda makaan, “home, Bantu
part of the house: (house)” “village” mukaan kraal” ganda
room, story, floor etc.” W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- “room, space” “chief’s
káŋ “house, home” Ngizim Afar Egyptian khanu enclosure”
S. Chinese-Kejia gándə̀řvú ganta / “private part of a
[Hakka] (MacIver) “area (within ganda building, most
kan1 / kan3 compound)” “village” sacred part of a
(Lau Chunfat) E. Chadic- “encamp- temple”
gan1 / gan3 Migama ment of Written Arabic
“a numerical classifier kankama nomad xan “hostel,
for rooms” “compound” houses” caravansary, inn”
F.15b.2 S. Chinese- W. Chadic- N.
Yuè (Cantonese) Bauci- Tsagu
chàhng “a story k’an “room”
(of a building)” Proto-Chadic
N. Chinese- MSC k’an
jiān measure word “hut (house)”
“for room”
F.15b.3 W. Chadic-
Chinese- Kejia Ron
(Hakka) (Kulere)
(MacIver, Hailu) cyèn / cèn
kien1 / kien3 / “Haus”
ken1 “a numerical [house]
classifier for rooms” W. Chadic-
S. Chinese–Min Polci
kiêng “classifier for keen
buildings, etc.” “house, hut”
14
Note 1.5.6.2 In this example the contrast is between initial consonants. A minimal pair is also present when
there is a single vowel contrast, e.g. between front and back vowels. See Anttila 61-62 (Umlaut Phenomena) and
Anttila 208.
17
Obviously the above table does not represent a systematic phonemic analysis. A systematic comparison
of sound variances of phonemes can only be made between individual languages.
A complete phonology of each language is necessary to carry this out. However the unavailability of
such data at this stage does not preclude a study of sound correspondences between individual
morphemes, especially when multiple closely matching lexemes run parallel between the two or more
languages being compared. In the above table there is a parallel sound shift between the F.15b.1-3
Chadic variant forms and the F.15b.1-3 Sinitic ones. See also chapter 9 section 9.8 - Palatalization of
velars and its references.
1.5.7 Parallel close correspondences represent minimally variant matching roots in ST and AA.
In another example sets C.12a.1 and C.12a.2 show parallel CC’s between Tibeto-Burman and
Sinitic which match closely similar variants within West Chadic. Set C.12a.3 shows a sound shift from
the C.12a.2 morphemes which is an additional close correspondence. Hence there is a succession of three
matching close correspondences. This indicates a common inheritance by TB and Sinitic of the two
Chadic roots, and is the basis for their inclusion within the one Sino-Tibetan family. In the next example
an explicit marker has been added to show the C.12a.1-C.12a.2 TB and Chinese morphemic variants’
matches with the Chadic variants..
C.12a.1 TB- Chin-Mikir W. Chadic – Bole / Tangale

phi “back, backwards” pii “back, rear, behind, last”
TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – N. Bauci Group-
phyir adv. “back, towards Mburke ʔpíí “back”
the back, behind” W. Chadic- Ron (Daffo)
phyi bkan du nyal-ba fí pl. fiyái “back” [body part]
“to lie on one’s back” [Chadic sound variance ↓
phyi / phi ← parallels TB / Chinese
“behind” “outside” ↓ sound variance
5
C.12a.2 C. Chinese-Wu pe W. Chadic- Bole-Tangale-- Egyptian
“the back, the back side, the Ngamo bèy “back” peh̟uiu “back (of
reverse side” W. Chadic- Gwandara a man)” “the end”
N. Chinese –MSC / Beijing (Toni) bəy “back” peh̟ui
bèi “back of the body” (Nimbia) be’ “back” “the buttocks,
pèi (WG) “the back, Proto-Chadic the stern of a boat,
behind” *b-y “back” the back generally”
C.12a.3 S. Chinese- Yuè C. Chadic- Higi-Nkafa
(Cantonese) mbwi “back” [body part]
bui “the back“ “behind” W. Chadic- Angas
bui-jek “back (of the body)” bwin “the small of the back”
jek “body”
/
In the following example there is a single sound change in the medial vowel between the two sets. The
close C.22c.1 ST correspondences match the C.22c.2 AA correspondences; hence there again are lateral
close correspondences (ST ↔ AA-Cushitic) which are also vertical close correspondences, i.e. (ST ↕ ST)
and (AA-Cushitic ↕ AA-Cushitic)
C.22c.1 TB-Kiranti-Yamphu Proto-AA Berber –
phä:k-ma “to strike with the (Orel/Stolbova 1995) Tuareg
hand, to slap” *bak- “squeeze, strike” [Tamasheq]
S. Chinese- Yuè (Cantonese) N. Cushitic- Beja [Bedauye] bakkatkat
paak “to strike with the hand, bag- “beat” “beat”
to slap, to clap, to pat”
18
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka]
pag5 “strike with the hand,
to clap”
There is a parallel sound
variance between TB ↕ Chinese
and N. Cushitic ↕ E.Cushitic
C.22c.2 TB-Tibetan Proto-Cushitic
phóg-pa phog perf. *poɣ- or
“to hit, strike, touch” *boɣ- “to hit”
Jaschke 357 Proto-Afro-Asiatic
S. Chinese-Min *-boɣ-
phok1 “strike, box”, “to hit”
“engage in hand-to-hand E. Cushitic- Somali
combat” bog- / bug-
S. Chinese- Yuè (Cantonese) “beat”
bok “to strike, to box”
/
In the following table the G.16.1-2 TB variants parallel the variance between the West and East
Chadic forms. Also the G.16.3 N. Chinese ↔ W. Chadic root correspondence parallels the G.16.4
Tibetan ↔ West and Central Chadic root correspondence.
Swadesh “one” W. Chadic-Hausa
G.16.1 Proto-Sino-Tibetan ‘daya n. and adj.
*dāy ~ *dān “one” “same”
“single, one, only” ‘daya, biyu, uku
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] tāi “one, two, three”
TB-Bodo, Garo-Bodo otay [used in counting]
“single, one” ‘dai-‘dai adv. “one each”
“one by one, separately, singly”
G.16.2 TB-Chin-Lakher E. Chadic-Mokulu N. Cushitic-
dei “single, one” ‘dey Beja
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu “seulement” [only] [Bedauye]
tě “single, one” “whole, only” də’i “alone”
G.16.3 Proto-Sino-Tibetan W. Chadic- Gwandara NC-
*dāy ~ *dān “single, one, whole, danda Fulfulde
only” “alone” [Fulani]
Proto-Tibeto-Burman W. Chadic- Angas tan
*dāy ~ dān or *tāy ~ tān dânî “alone,
“single, one, whole, only” “alone, only” only”
N. Chinese –MSC
dān “one, single” “singly, alone”
“only”
Old Chinese *tân “single,
simple”
G.16.4 W. Chadic- Ron (Daffo) NC- S.W.
TB-Tibetan ’dàŋgat “one, alone” Mande-
dang-po “Einsamkeit” [loneliness] Kpelle
“the first with respect to number, C. Chadic-Margi taang
rank, time” tang “one” “one”
taŋbo “first” C. Chadic- Padoko
taŋa “un “ [one]
19
(For other examples of Chadic ↔ ST parallel correspondences see w.f’s C.24b.1-4, B.3d.1-3 and sets
G.8a.3-4.)
Such instances of parallel matching of roots exhibiting the same morphemic variants between two or
more ST and AA language families reveal cross-family grids of close correspondences. The very large
numbers of these throughout this study constitute firm evidence that the African family and the Asian
family are historically related. Each time such a grid is identified the hypothesis of historical
relationship is further confirmed. (See also sets A.3.1, A.7a.1, A.7a.3, B.3d.1-3, B.9.1-2, B.9.2-3,
B.11a.1-2, B.25.1-2, B.11c.1-2, C.22b.1-2, C.24b.1-4, C.28a.1-2, C.12a.1-2, D.7.1-2 etc. These are but a
small number of those in the Chapter 2A-H comparative tables.
In general no statistics need to be compiled for parallel close correspondences, since the record
structure itself generates them in tables containing multiple close correspondence sets. However for
examples of Hausa/Gwandara morpheme variant forms matching ST form variances see Chapter 5
Section 5.5.
1.5.8 Semantic matching must be fairly rigorous.

Semantic matching can be fairly well determined in most cases. For phonetically matching ST and AA
lexemes, when synonymous English, French etc. glosses are used in multiple lexical sources, semantic
matching is adequately established. Synonyms should be numerous in order to give precision to the
semantics. Hence the study uses multiple dictionaries and grammars of the various ST and AA languages
to guarantee semantic matching. It also prefers correspondences having the same grammatical form, e.g.
noun, verb, ordinal number etc.15 (See Chapter 2 section 2.0 for ordering of the Chapter 2A-H data
records (word families) in broad semantic fields composed of correspondences of lexical or syntactic
correspondences).
1.5.9 Segmentation
Root identification often involves decisions on segmentation. Segmentation is not usually necessary in
Sinitic languages since they are predominantly monosyllabic. However Sinitic monosyllables are often
the result of the reduction of an etymologically disyllabic morpheme through loss of a final element
(apocope) as in the C.22a.2. TB-Proto-Kiranti *bhák <ProtoAA *pakuh̟ of Table 1.6.3 below. (See also
C.8a.1-2 and C.8a.3-4 ).
In the following uncommon case the TB monosyllabic forms appear to be the result of apocope while
the Chinese disyllabic form matches the disyllabic Ethiopian Semitic-Amharic shape.
Swadesh “all” S. Omotic Semitic- Arabic Songhay S.
G.23.1 TB-Meithei kul *kull- “all” (Iraqi) kull “all” (Koroboro) Khoisan-
/ TB-Siyin kul Proto-Afro- “whole, entire, all” kúlú ǀXam
TB-Chin-Lai (Haka) Asiatic West Semitic- “tous, tous ku:
kul “twenty / all” *-kal- / *-kull- Ethiopian-Amharic entier” “all”
N. Chinese –MSC “all” hullum [all, the
húlún “whole, entire” E. Cushitic-Afar “all of them, whole]
húlún tūnxia kùlli “every” everything”
“swallow wholesale” “tout” (Fr.) hullu “every, all”
15
Note 1.5.8 The Chapter 2 A-H analytic tables below include a few etymologies based on a characteristic
attribute of the referend (e.g. the lion as “roarer” (Note A.19b.1), or a producer → product relationship, e.g.
acacia tree → gum, resin, gum Arabic, (Note- B.32.2), or a grounded inference of historical relationship , e.g
arrow → needle (F.14.1-2).
After some consideration it was decided that word families which may be based on onomatopoeia would be
included in the Chapter 2 A-H Analytic tables since the sounds of the words imitating a natural sound differ between
otherwise related language families. Examples are found in Note A.37.2, and sets E.21.1 (South Semitic Extended)
and A.1a.3.
20
The comparison of ST with African close correspondences can sometimes aid decisions on
segmentation. In the following A.10a.1 CC set Benedict (1972 44) segments after the khi- of the A.10a.1
Kiranti khia. If this is pronounced ki-a and not kya then the morpheme is disyllabic and therefore in
opposition to the A.10a.2-3 TB khyi / kwi forms which are monosyllabic. The comparison shows that
in fact the 10a.1 Kiranti khi-a is morphologically close to the 10a.1 AA-Chadic and NC-Mande
morphemes and thus contrasts with sets A.10a.2-3. Since these show both mono- and disyllabic,
correspondences with the TB forms of A.10a.2-3 , they are plausibly the result of coalescence into
monosyllables. In set A.10a.3 the TB-Kanauri kui closely corresponds to the disyllabic E. Chadic-
Sokoro kuwī and exactly corresponds to the coalesced Chadic-Hausa kwī. The Khoisan ǂʔhwi is
disyllabic since the click + stop is a fully syllabic initial before its -wi second syllable. Hence the
proposed etyma are *kila “dog” ~ *ǂʔhwi “dog”.
Swadesh “dog” C. Chadic-Bura Proto-Afro- NC- S.W. Mande –

A.10a.1 kila “dog” Asiatic Mende, Bandi, Loko
TB-Kiranti-Limbu C. Chadic–Sukur *k-y-l- ngila
khi-a “dog” kɪrra “dog” “dog” “dog”
[Disyllabic corresp.] E.Chadic–Lele
gìrà “dog”
A.10a.2 E. Chadic-Kwang S. Khoisan-|Nu‖en
TB-Tibetan kìyē / kíyé ǂkhi “dog”
khyi “dog” “dog” NC- S.E. Mande –
(Tsang prov.) C. Chadic–Higi-Nkafa kɪrrε Bisa gyíì “dog”
“pronounced as kyi / –Higi-“Fali”- (Kiria) NC- Lebir
or ki” kɪrri “dog” gi / gyí
S. Chinese-Yuè C. Chadic–Lamang “dog”
(Cantonese) kɪrrε “dog” C. Khoisan-Proto-
kei “a fierce dog” C. Chadic–Gisiga Khoe g|iri
kəre / kiri “dog” “jackal, fox”
A.10a.3 W. Chadic- Hausa N. Khoisan-!Kung
TB-Kanauri kwīykwiyòo ǂʔhwi
kui “dog” < *kwiy-kwiyòo “dog”
TB-Thebor < *kuy-kuyòo m.
khui “dog” “puppy, hyena pup”
TB- Burmese
khwijh “dog” E. Chadic- Sokoro
TB-Jingpho kuwī / kúyo / kúyú
[Kachin] “dog”
gwi / gui2 “dog”
1.5.10 The question of African/Afroasiatic roots which correspond to both Tibeto-Burman and
Sinitic roots, i.e. African > ( TB ↔ Sinitic cognates).
The research can identify any African/Afroasiatic roots common to the two subfamilies of ST,Tibeto-
Burman and Sinitic.These become proposed TB ↔ Sinitic cognates and their presence serves to
strengthen the hypothesis of African/Afroasiatic origins since it provides a criterion external to ST which
disconfirms any assertion of chance matching.
Possible loaning within the ST area should also be considered, but this is mainly a question concerning
classification of languages within ST. Internal loaning does not disconfirm an African origin since the
presumptive internally loaned words have already been identified in African/AA languages. Nevertheless,
African root > TB ↔ Sinitic cognates make explicit the African sources of both TB and Sinitic. They
have been counted and appear in the statistics at the beginning of each Semantic/Syntactic group
21
(Domain) (A through H) of the Chapter 2A-H comparison.; these are compiled in Chapter 3 Table 3.4
Column 2. This summary also lists corresponding lexemes which have been identified only in African >
TB or only in African > Sinitic. These are also reported in Chapter 9 sections 9.1 and 9.2 as an aid in the
discussion of migration routes of populations of African origin into Central and East Asia.
1.6 Identification of proto-forms.

1.6.1 Current discussions on identification of proto-forms.
There have been no comprehensive studies of sound changes within or between African/AA
language superfamilies. However as Roger Blench has stated “In a sense, for the pre-historian, it is
enough that a term can be shown to be present in a proto-language; its exact phonological form is
irrelevant.”16 Benedict, Matisoff and van Driem have shown that it is possible to construct solid TB
etymologies without establishing a full set of interrelations between subfamilies of TB based on regular
sound changes.They did not consider it necessary to elaborate levels of classification in the process of
reconstruction, nor establish a compehensive set of sound change patterns as a basis for proposed TB
proto-roots. Still these solid etymologies have been widely accepted by TB experts.
(See Matisoff 2003 536).
Karlgren and other experts’advances in the proposal of Old Chinese proto-forms have not resulted in a
general consensus among experts in the field on a “correct” system of reconstruction. In an analysis of the
method used in Karlgren’s Old Chinese “reconstruction” Handel comments:“What are generally termed
‘reconstructions” of Old Chinese and Middle Chinese are in fact not ‘reconstructions’ of Old Chinese in
the normal technical sense of the term, rather they are complex, but nevertheless incomplete sets of
inferences about the phonological properties of spoken forms presumed to underlie the textual evidence
from those periods”. (Handel 546 note 11). Norman makes a similar observation about Old Chinese.
“All linguistic reconstrructions are by their nature subject to revision. No doubt much of the difficulty
encountered in Sino-Tibetan comparative work is due to the inadequate reconstructions of Old Chinese
which we must employ” (Norman 1988a 14).
(See also Note E.27.1-2).
1.6.2 The early historical process of identifying proto-roots.

A review of research on Indo-European origins shows stages of development.The family relationship
between Indo-Iranian languages and European languages was firmly established quite early. The formal
identification of Indo-European proto-roots took much longer, but was possible since the earlier
hypothesis of the common origin of these languages had proved so successful in explaining their
similarities.17
16
Note 1.6.1 See for example Note-A.10d.1. Blench has called such proposed etyma “quasi reconstructions”
(Blench 2010a 3). In the present study the term “approximate etymon” is used. This term implies that the root
has a solid basis but may be amended by further research. The term “proto-form” as distinct from “proto-root”
refers to roots common to multiple language families identified through massive comparison of cultural vocabulary
(as done for AA by Ehret and Orel/Stolbova, or for Tibeto-Burman by Benedict/Matisoff 1972). Moreover under a
migration from Africa hypothesis the proposed etymon will represent the development of an AA or other African
language root at the time of the posited migration and not necessarily a proto-root existing in a related older
African language superfamily. See also Note-Table 1.6.8b below.
17
Note 1.6.2 “Perhaps the greatest source of confusion in recent taxonomic debates has been the role that sound
correspondences, for example Grimm’s law, play in classification. It is clear that many historical linguists see
regular sound correspondences as playing some crucial role in identifying valid linguistic taxa. In reality sound
correspondences are only discovered after a linguistic family has been identified, for the simple reason that sound
correspondences are properties of particular linguistic families. They are not - and could not be- a technique for
discovering families. When the Indo-European sound correspondences were worked out in the nineteenth century,
not for a minute did any of the Indo-Europeanists believe that they were “proving” Indo-European, the validity of
which had not been in doubt for decades.” Ruhlen 1994 286
22
However many of the African/AA languages are much older than any Indo-European language and they
have borrowed extensively from each other in Africa during millenia of pre-history. We are not aided by
historical knowledge of the time of a migration such as we have with the 1066 CE Norman conquest of
England. Research on the human genome in contemporary biology can sometimes aid linguistic research
on the geography of the migrations of populations carrying a particular language. For example Wood et
al. have been able to show an association between the oldest human genes and the Khoisan language.
(Wood 2005 Fig.2). However few geneticists have attempted to identify the language associated with a
haplogroup [a type of stable chromosome] because there is no intrinsic link between the gene and the
language spoken by its carriers. The same gene can be carried by populations who speak different
languages.
Whatever the position taken on a standard for proto-form validity, any comparative work on languages
requires at least a tentative identification of the historically original root which is the source of the
presently existing (synchronic) variant forms. This is not an assertion of a definitive proto-root, but shows
that it is possible to provide a plausible one. So the etymologies must be considered “approximate” or
“tentative” since in only a few cases have regular sound changes been made explicit, and because further
research on African and Asian language families will often show a need for modifications. Hence the
etyma of the present study are called proto-forms rather than proto-roots. If linguists require the “gold
standard” exemplified in the formal reconstruction of Indo-European, then researchers who support
proposal of proto-forms less perfect than the hierarchical levels leading to proto-roots will better call
their work one of language prehistory, rather than linguistics.
In 1770 Judge Jones in India discovered Indo-Aryan as a new branch of what had been called
European languages. He is often considered to be a major founder of modern comparative linguistics, but
judged in terms of the present-day linguistic “gold standard” modeled on IE sound changes at all levels,
he was a “philologist” or a “linguistic pre-historian”, not a linguist. This does not diminish his
importance in the history of comparative study of languages.
1.6.3 Progressive identification of proto-forms in ST.

The morphemic structure of some Tibeto-Burman languages raises questions during root
identification. Classical (Written) Tibetan, for example, contains large numbers of disyllabic morphemes.
Sometimes these at first appear to represent a root plus an affix. But when compared with multiple
African morphemic correspondences, the question arises as to whether the TB form inherited an African
root plus affix or simply corresponds to a disyllabic African root. Resolving this question requires
positing of a proto-form at least at the AA subfamily level.
AA-Semitic and AA-Chadic proto-forms elaborated by Ehret, Orel, Stolbova, S.Starostin and
Militarev for Afro-Asiatic often resolve this type of question and are reported throughout the study. Ehret
includes many AA affixes in his proto-form analysis and these have not thus far been found in otherwise-
matching ST morphemes. A large number of AA words, especially those for basic language lexemes,
have not been subject to proto-root reconstruction in the proto-AA studies of Ehret and Orel/Stolbova..
Furthermore, though the present study uses a filter of Afro-Asiatic to carry out the comparison, there is
much evidence in many cases that a non-AA African root represents the most likely ultimate etymon.
Hence, when dealing with African-based etymologies, it is important to be aware of the existence of
proximate etyma and ultimate etyma. An AA proto-form or an amply attested Nilo-Saharan, Niger-
Congo, or Khoisan root may be proximate or ultimate. Chadic languages in particular give evidence of
having adopted non-AA roots even into their basic core vocabulary.18 Many of these are attested in ST.
The Khoisan form may be the ultimate root in these cases with the AA, NS or NC form as the proximate
one. (See Khoisan matches with ST↔AA, NS or NC in Supplementary Table 3 Table 1.1.1 Khoisan ↔
ST comparative data).
18
Note 1.6.3 “---it has long been clear that a number of words from Hausa basic vocabulary, such as “sun”,
“moon”, “night”, “fire”, “water”, “ashes”, ”meat, animal” are not Chadic.” Skinner [viii]. See also Chapter 5
Note 5.1.2a (Chadic-Hausa).
23
The ulimate form cannot always be distinguished from the proximate form, especially when the
morpheme is found in more than one African superfamily. Yet in some instances it may still be possible
to identify both a proximate and ultimate form guided by a general consensus that Khoisan is the oldest
known human language. Also the term “ultimate form” refers only to African etyma based on languages
which are still spoken. There is no guarantee that even the oldest African language known today reflects
the earliest human speech lexically.
Since some of the data included in Chapter 2A-H was added during later phases of the research, many
etymologies were not posited until the full study had been completed. This is especially true for basic
language terms.
In the data records the bold type used for matching syllables designates a monosyllabic or polysyllabic
root correspondence. For example in the following word family the C.22a.2 Kiranti and Tibetan
morphemes match on the C.22a.2 African forms on the vowel –a-; both TB and Chinese C.22a.1 forms
attest an –o- and this variance is also attested in Chadic, NS and NC.
All the table’s African forms in sets C.22a.1 and C.22a.2 including the Proto-AA one have a second
syllable, so the monosyllabic TB forms can plausibly be considered to be reductions of a disyllabic form
to a monosyllable through apocope. These correspondences also indicate that the k- initial of the African
second syllable should be retained as the final of a root in the Tibetan and Kiranti forms which are no
longer disyllabic. But etymologically segmentation probably ocurred before the –k, i.e. (ba-ka).
So at this point the researcher might consider the proto-root to be the disyllabic baka. However the
second syllable vowel varies in the whole table between contrasting -a ~ -u/o. So the proto-ST form
can conservatively be posited as *b‫ככ‬k‫כ‬- “upper arm” ~ *bhák- “shoulder”. The extended ST and
African/ forms are taken into account when making this determination.
Table 1.6.3 Example of progressive identification of proto-forms.
C.22a1 TB-Kiranti-Dumi W. Chadic- Tangale NS- NC-Proto-
bokto “shoulder” bokbok Bagirmi Bantu
Chinese- Cantonese “wing” boko -b‫ככ‬k‫ככ‬/
bok “the shoulder”, W. Chadic- Prio “arm” NC-Efik
the upper arm” b’əkb’ə k “wing” -b‫כככ‬
k̀ “arm”
Chinese- Hakka NC-
bok7 / pok7 “the upper Dagomba
arm, the shoulder” boɣo “arm”
Swadesh “hand” Proto- W. Chadic Proto-AA NS-Baka NC-Mande-
C.22a.2 *pak(k)a “wing, shoulder” (Orel / baka Gbaya
TB-Proto-Kiranti / *(ba) + baka “wing” Stolbova “arm” baxa “arm”
*bhák “shoulder” W. Chadic – Tangale paka 1995)
TB-Tibetan “hand, arm, branch, (front) *pakuh̟-
phyag “the hand” paw” “hand, arm”
C.22a.3 E. Chadic-Masa Group-
TB-Mao Naga Misme ba “shoulder”
o-ba “arm” -Peve ‘ba “arm”
Base correspondences for positing etyma:
C.22a.2 TB-Proto-Kiranti *bhák “shoulder”
< Proto- W. Chadic *pak(k)a “wing, shoulder”
C.22a.1 Chinese-Cantonese bok “the shoulder, the upper arm”
< NC-Proto-Bantu - bɔ‫כ‬kɔ‫“ כ‬arm”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *bɔ‫כ‬k- “upper arm” ~ *bhák- “shoulder”
C.22a.1 TB-Kiranti-Limbu phoktaŋ n. “shoulder”
C.22a.2 TB-Chin-Mikir ri-pak “palm of hand”
ST Proto-form *Pek “hand, arm”
24

C.22a.1
NC-Proto-Bantu *-bókò “hand” “five”
C. Chadic- Bura bubuka “wing”
Proto-Chadic (Newman, P.) *p-k “wing, shoulder”
NC-Benue-Congo- Cross River Group- Efik -bɔ‫כ‬k “arm”
C.22a.2
W. Chadic-Pero b’əkb’ək “wing”
W. Chadic – Karekare baka(a) “arm”
Chadic root (E. and W. Chadic) paka “hand”
1.6.4 Further sorting of the Chapter 2A-H comparative data for sorting etyma..
Proposing etyma involves a second and narrower sorting of the Chapter 2A-H data. In the preceding
comparison the data was sorted into closely corresponding sets of correspondences. These were then used
to further sort the close correspondences by selecting those which show the most exact matching.
1.6.5 Etyma based on a single CC set.
Even single CC sets can provide data for a tentative root postulation. Though the CC set of the example
is the only one thus far identified, it provides multiple morphemes for comparison, and the researcher
can determine whether the root is etymologically polysyllabic or monosyllabic.
Table 1.6.3
F.9a.1 C. Chadic-Mofu- Proto-Cushitic Egyptian Kanuri N. Khoisan-
TB-Tibetan Gudur (Ehret) karkar kálàngin !’O-!Kung
h’khál-wa / ŋalŋal- *kal- “anything “turn galə
’kál-ba “to spin” “mettre en boule” “to go round” round, over, “roll”
(C. and W. Tibet) [roll up, lit. make Proto-AA staff, stick, return” C. Khoisan-
’kál-ce “to spin” into a ball]” *-kal- “to turn roll, Nama
round” cylinder” gari “roll”
In this example most of the African root correspondences are attested as kál-. and this is the Proto-
AA form. Chadic forms and Khoisan show an alternation of gal- / gar- and Egyptian has kar-. The
Tibetan ‘khál- form closely corresponds since its only difference with the African kál- forms is the
initial glottal stop. Strictly applied, the CC minimal pairs rule excludes the C.Chadic ŋal- and the
Khoisan gar- as CC’s since they differ in two respects: Tibetan has an initial glottal stop, the other forms
lack it; also C. Chadic ŋal- has a nasalized velar and Khoisan a gar- initial rather than the velar k-, or
the root final tap -l rather than the approximant -r.
The forms which are not exact close correspondences with the Tibetan ‘khál- can be seen to be close
correspondences with forms which are so.They could be placed in the Extended word family section, but
since they approximate multiple minimal pairs, in this case they are included in the single CC set.
But the Egyptian kar- is still a CC with the other African kál- forms, and the Khoisan gari shows a
clear relation to it as an alternate form of the other Khoisan root galə. Despite the variant forms of the
TB and African/Afroasiatic ↔ ST morphemes, the Proto-AA, Proto-Cushitic and Khoisan are first
syllables of a polysyllabic word whose second syllables vary or are affixes, so the first syllable is the root
stem and is the most indicated as etymon and PAA *-kal- is the proposed proximate etymon (which as
mentioned is also “approximate”) and Khoisan gal- the ultimate one, i.e.

F.9a.1 TB-Tibetan h’khál-wa “to spin”
< PAA / Proto-Cushitic *kal- “to go round, turn around” / N. Khoisan-!’O-!Kung galə”
Approximate Tibetan etyma *kal- “to go round, turn round” ~ *gal- “roll”
25
The study has not, however, provided strict criteria for identifying which form is proximate and which
is ultimate. As mentioned, we follow the general position of Africanists that Khoisan is the older
language, so it probably is the ultimate source when its lexemes match AA, NS or NC roots. It cannot
be definitively proposed as ultimate since there is a possibility that late Khoisan speakers borrowed words
from Afro-Asiatic or other African superfamilies. “The large number of similarities seen across Khoisan
families is the result of borrowing and convergence that has taken place across centuries, if not millennia”
Traill 2008 v.3 228.
1.6.6 Etyma based on multiple CC sets.
In the following table the two ST CC sets’ morphemes primarily contrast in the final vowel. Set A.2c.1
AA/NS attestations terminate in a back vowel, and those of set A.2c.2 in a front vowel. This variance is
also found between the Chadic, Egyptian and Nilo-Saharan morphemes. The A.2c.2 Nilo-Saharan čiraa
/ círówà variants attest the –a final along with the disyllabic -ówà which best matches the Kiranti and
Hausa forms of this set. The A.2c.2 Khoisan ʒìrá form possibly generated the Khoisan tsera, the NS
čiraa and the PAA/Omotic *c̟ir(aʕ)- / *č’era.
The evidence suggests that the A.2c.2 Hausa shirwà is the proximate source of the Kiranti cirwa.
The Khoisan Tsika ʒìrá can be plausibly proposed as the ultimate ST etymon with the shift čiraa >
círów > círówà occurring in NS-Songhay, the transitional form círów being preserved in the A.2c.1
MSC chio attestation.
Swadesh “bird” E. Chadic- Egyptian Songhay

A.2c.1 Masa tcheru (Koroboro)
Chinese-MSC Group- “vulture, kite, círów /
chio / tsio Koyra, glede” círówà
“small birds” Zayse “oiseau”
ts’io ts’ilo [bird]
“the magpie, “kite, hawk” cirów bi
jackdaw, jay” “pintade” (Fr.)
[guinea fowl]
A.2c.2 W. Chadic- Proto-Afro- Egyptian NS- Songhay C.
TB-Kiranti-Kulung Hausa Asiatic tchera-t (Koroboro) Khoisan-
cirwa shirwàa *c̟ir(aʕ)- “vulture, kite” čiraa “bird” /Tsika
swallow”[bird] “kite hawk” “bird of prey” círów / círówàʒìrá
f. Omotic- “oiseau” (Fr.)“bird”
Ometo- [bird] -Naro
Kachama tsera
č’era “bird” “bird”
The table structure places the proposed etyma in the box after the main section close
correspondence sets.
A.2c.1 N. Chinese-MSC chio / tsio (WG) “small birds” < NS-Songhay círów ”bird”
Approximate N. Chinese etymon *círów ”bird”
A.2c.2 TB-Kiranti-Kulung cirwa “swallow”[bird]
< W. Chadic- Hausa shirwàa f. “black kite (hawk)” “kite hawk” < NS-Songhay círówà <
círów < čiraa < C. Khoisan-Tsika ʒìrá “bird”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *ʒìrá “bird” ~ shirwàa “kite hawk”
In this case proto-form identification is facilitated by the existence of the matching variant forms in the
NS subfamily.
1.6.7 Cases of separate but related etyma for Tibeto-Burman and Sinitic sub-families.
26
In the following B.11a example sets 1 and 3 both correspond to an NC-Mande form and sets 3 and 5
contain a matching Khoisan root. W. Chadic attests reflexes of all the variants and W. Chadic-Hausa
attests both the set 1 and 3 forms.
Hence it might be conjectured that the B.11a.3 morphemes constitute the single basis for derivation of
the ultimate root due to its Proto-AA and Khoisan correspondences. There is some evidence for this since
the B.11a.3 set also attests Old Chinese and Mande forms as well as Khoisan and the AA Proto-form.
However set B.11a.1 may represent an older Mande form with initial g- and medial -b- which has
generated both the b- and xw- initials respectively in the B.11a.2 and B.11a.3 morphemes. The variant
ST forms could be derived from different proximate Chadic roots present in different migrations, but it
cannot be excluded that there may be an unidentified second Khoisan root which could account for the
variant Chadic and ST forms.
Thus the B.11a.1 gb- initial gives a basis for tentatively positing *gbà- as the proximate proto-form of
Tibetan and Karen, but B.11a.3 kwar as the proximate source of Old Chinese and TB- Nung while the
initial k- has been lost in the B.11a.2 shape; hence *gbar- and *kwar- are proposed separately for TB
and Sinitic. If future research determines that the set *gba- NC-Mande form is derived from a Khoisan
form, then a Khoisan morpheme could be proposed as the ultimate root and as the Sino-Tibetan proto-
form. So here either a Khoisan or NC form may represent the ultimate root.
However, as mentoned, it is also possible that late in Khoisan’s history lexemes such as F.5.2 !k‫כ‬rε̎
“dish” were borrowed from NC or even AA. This uncertainty is probably due to the large amount of
linguistic contact between the language superfamilies in pre-historicAfrica.19
So the etymological history is complicated by possible Khoisan or NC borrowings from other African
families. However Khoisan was the dominant language in E.Africa before the emergence of AA in this
area. (See Note 1.1.3 above) and Semino’s reporting of genetic links between the populations which
spoke these languages. (Semino, O. 2002, 265-268)
.
Swadesh W. Chadic- E. Semitic- NS- NC-S.E.-
“to burn” Hausa gòobařā Cushitic- Ethiopian- Maba Mande-Mano
B.11a.1 TB-Tibetan “fire, Rendille Amharic Group- gbà
h‘bár-ba / ‘hbár-wa conflagration” guba abärra vi.. Masalit “fire”
“to burn” C. Chadic-Gude vt. “to “be aglow, gubra
“to catch fire,” ‘bərə “shine” burn” shine” “(of “flame”
TB-Karen gəbɔ sun) “light up”
“bright”
B.11a.2 C. Chadic- West
TB-Kanauri Musgu (Ethiopian)
bar vi. “burn” bára Semitic-
/ par vt. “burn” vi. Amharic
TB-Tibetan bar “shine” bärra “burn”
“to burn, to catch fire, “(of light) be
to explode” alight,
‘bar “blaze, burn” light up”
TB-Tani-Miri par
“burn, kindle” par
“light (as a fire), ignite”
19
Note 1.6.7 Cyffer refers to the NS classification of Bender as more correct than that of Greenberg because it
“shows that areal features or contact phenomena “ give a clearer picture of the relationships of the Nilo-Saharan
subfamilies. “The [NS] Saharan languages, too, have sometimes been connected with Afro-Asiatic, and even Niger-
Kordofanian”. He considers that the existing similarities between Songhay, Afro-Asiatic,and Niger-Kordofanian are
best explained as a result of linguistic contact rather than genetic inheritance. (Cyffer 2008 v. 3 235). This
borrowing is common in other African language families. See also note for Chapter 5 section 5.1.2b.
27
Swadesh “fire” W. Chadic- Proto- Kanuri Khoisan-

Swadesh “burn” Goemai Afro- kwára ǂHoan
B.11a.3 khw̄:r Asiatic “bush ɵgoa
Old Chinese “burn” *(ʔa-)- fire” “fire”
Xwâr W. Chadic-Hausa ɧwar- war NC-Mande-
“burn, fire” (Daura dial.) “burn” “burn, Bambara
TB- Nung kuwārà roast” guā / gwà
hwar “a big bush fire” “fire of
“burn, kindle” household”
NC-N.
Mande- Jula
gwa
“fire”
B.11a.4 W. Chadic- N. Proto-AA Egyptian
Middle Chinese Bauci- Warji *-waʔ-/ ua
xwaX “fire” ħwa- *-wâa- “to burn,
TB-W. Kiranti-Bahing “burn” “to to be hot”
hwa “light” glow,
burn
(of fire)”
B.11a.5 Proto-W. Chadic Semitic- S. Khoisan-
N. Chinese-MSC *ʔagwar Arabic Masarwa
ħwà “burnt bits” waʔr ‖gwa
“burn up, incinerate” “to make the “ashes”
“fire” fire to flare” S. Khoisan-
!Xóő
‖gòa
“ashes”
S. Khoisan-
|Gwi ǂgúà
“ashes”
B.11a.1
TB-Tibetan ‘bár-ba / ‘bár-wa “to burn” “to catch fire, to be ignited, to blaze”
< NC-S.E.- Mande- Mano gbà “fire” / E. Cushitic-Rendille guba /
W. Chadic- Hausa gòobařā “fire, conflagration”
B.11a.3
Old Chinese *Xwâr “burn, fire” / TB- Nung hwar “burn, kindle”
< W. Chadic-Goemai khw̄:r “burn” / W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Warji ħwa- “burn” /
NC-Mande- Bambara guā / gwà “fire of household” /
Khoisan-ǂHoan ɵgoa “fire”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *gbà- “to burn” “blazing fire” ~
Approximate Sinitic etymon *kwar- “burn brightly, blazing fire”
See the full record in Chapter 2B B.11a.1-5
1.6.8 Cases of etyma for only one ST- subfamily or one language.
The two following examples show that the analytic tables also support proto-form proposals for only
one ST subfamily or an individual language. For example, related sets of root correspondences may have
been identified only between TB ↔ African/AA or only between Sinitic ↔ African/AA. In these cases
the etymon is labeled as a TB etymon or a Sinitic etymon; in the following case the etymon is for Sinitic
only.
28
Table 1.6.8a
Swadesh “dog” W. Chadic- Proto-AA N. Khoisan- Zul’hoan
A.10b.1 Ron (Fyer *küHen“ ǂghúiŋ “dog”
Old Chinese kweéŋ dog” S. Khoisan-!Kwi- ǀXam, ‖Ng
*k’uən “dog” / “dog” !wiŋ ~ !úiŋ ~ !húiŋ “dog”
*khwenX “dog” / *khwin “dog” S. Khoisan-Proto-!Wi
Middle Chinese ǂ(ʔ)úiŋ “dog”
hiwen: “dog”
A.10b.1 Old Chinese khwin “dog”
< W. Chadic-Ron (Fyer) kweéŋ “dog” / N. Khoisan- Zul’hoan ǂghúiŋ “dog”
/ S. Khoisan-!Kwi- ǀXam, ‖Ng !wiŋ ~ !úiŋ ~ !húiŋ “dog”
Approximate Sinitic etyma: *ǂghúiŋ ~ !wiŋ
/
In the following case the research has identified only a TB-Kiranti match with the African root. This
would become a Tibeto-Burman etymon if another TB family correspondence is discovered.
Table 1.6.8b
Swadesh “dog” W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Semitic-Old NS-Kanuri
A.10d.1 Ngizim Afar, Konso Aramaic kùtùrú
TB-Proto-Kiranti kútə́řu kùta “dog” qurti-son “young dog, pup,
*ku°tu / *ku°cu “dog” “puppy” “little dog” puppy”
[Disyllabic corresp.] C. Chadic- Proto-E. NS-Tepeth
TB-Kiranti-Tulung Bura Cushitic, Burji kudo’ “dog”
ku°tüma “puppy” kutiru *góta “hyena” NS-Nuer
TB-Kiranti-Limbu “puppy” kut kut /
kutibā C. Chadic-Bata kut ku(t)ni
“puppy” kəde “dog” “colt, pup”
Starostin. S.
Kiranti Etymology
A.10d.1 TB-Proto-Kiranti *ku°tu “dog” / TB-Kiranti-Limbu kutibā “puppy”
< C. Chadic- Bura kutiru “puppy” / NS-Kanuri kùtùrú “young dog, pup, puppy”
Approximate TB-Kiranti etymon: *kuti- / kùtù- “young dog, pup, puppy”20
There are 177 word families identified in the study which exist in only one of the ST language
subfamilies (Sinitic or TB).
See Chapter 9 section 9.2
1.7 Conclusions on etymologies

In general the method of massive comparison with phonetic and semantic analysis of close
correspondence totals facilitates the identification of proto-forms which serve as useful approximations of
a proto-root.
20
Note- Table 1.6.8b (Etymon) The proximate etymon is proposed to be derivedfrom the Chadic and NS variants
kùti- / kutu- which are matched in TB-Kiranti. However, the vowel within E. Cushitic-Sidamo (Extended) also
shows a similar vowel shift between the singular and plural forms, góti- pl. gótó “hyena”. (A.10d.1 Extended).
The Cushitic forms may represent the proximate root, if the Kanuri morpheme has been borrowed from AA. This is
a typical case of Blench’s observation (mentioned in note 1.6.1) that we can know that the root existed in the proto-
language, but cannot determine the exact form.
29
Hence in many cases a table gives evidence that an Afro-Asiatic proto-form is not the ultimate source of
a given TB lexeme. This gives rise to a subhypothesis, i.e. ST is often composed of roots which are
derived from a particular branch of an AA or other African language subfamily (proximate roots), but the
ultimate root probably lies in another African language superfamily.
Since the non-AA African languages have not been systematically compared to ST, a great number of
candidates for proximate and ultimate root are doubtless yet to be identified. Pre-historic loaning between
superfamilies, particularly in the African Sahel, makes identification of the linguistic locus of the proto-
form difficult, but does not undermine the hypothesis of African/AA origins of a large portion of the
Sino-Tibetan lexicon. On the contrary, the appearance of a root in various African superfamilies
strengthens the hypothesis of pre-historic migration(s) from Africa into Asia and a genetic relationship
between African/AA → Sino-Tibetan-speaking populations.
Etymologies provide a new perspective from which TB ↔ Sinitic cognate words can be identified.
They give additional confirmation to the traditional classification of TB and Sinitic languages as distinct
subfamilies of a common family. Etymologies also clear up confusions which are thus not relegated to
the proto-language level. (Antilla 333).
30
Chapter 2
A comprehensive comparison of Sino-Tibetan with Afro-Asiatic. Word Families in Analytic Tables
resulting from the Chapter 2 comparison
Using the above rules for correspondences Chapter 2 carried out a comprehensive comparison of Sino-
Tibetan with Afro-Asiatic and its related African language lexemes using analytic tables.The perspective
(filter) was Sino-Tibetan↔Afro-Asiatic. Lexical roots of the other African language superfamilies, i.e.
Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Congo and Khoisan were included only insofar as they correspond to the roots
common to ST and AA. A later comparison of the resulting data directly with Khoisan added a certain
number of sets which did not contain an Afro-Asiatic lexeme, but no new tables were created.
2.0 Semantic/Syntactic ordering of the Chapter 2 records To facilitate comparison of characteristics
of groups of word families including basic as well as cultural words in the inventory, the
correspondences were first sorted into eight broad semantic categories (domains).A-H.
2.0.1 Word Families in Analytic Tables A-H
The broad semantic fields are:
Semantic/Syntactic Domain A Animals
Semantic/Syntactic Domain B Objects in Nature: plants, earth, fire , water etc.
Semantic/Syntactic Domain C Human body and related terms
Semantic/Syntactic Domain D Kinship and social group terms
Semantic/Syntactic Domain E Human communication: cognitive and intentional terms
Semantic/Syntactic Domain F Artefacts and related actions
Heterogeneous word fams. G Qualities, time words, numbers, quantifiers, pronouns
Semantic/Syntactic Domain H Verbs, transitive and intransitive
Each group contains in varting amounts “basic” or “cultural” language. Many lexemes of Semantic/
Syntactic domains B (Natural objects) and C (The human body) form part of the basic core vocabulary.
Semantic/syntactic domains A (Animals), D (Kinship, human groups), and F (Artefacts) mostly contain
“cultural” language. Semantic/syntactic domain E (Cognitive terms) is difficult to categorize. It is mainly
composed of verbs which, though sometimes transitive grammatically (they can take objects, e.g. to plan
a project, to conceive a ruse), in fact denote mental acts or states of the subject. The G domain contains
single digit numbers and pronouns both being partially composed of basic language, while the final
domain H is purely syntactic, containing verbs. For statistics of basic language terms in each Semantic
Domain see Chapterr 3 section 3.2.
2.0.1.1 Consequences of the semantic/syntactic sorting. An interesting result of this semantic sorting
was the discovery that each domain is mainly associated with only one or two grammatical categories,
e.g. count nouns (Domains A, C), mass nouns (Domain B), collective and count nouns (Domain D),
verbs (expressing human intentional states) (Domain E), and transitive verbs (Domain H).
The G domain includes the derived syntactic groups adjectives and adverbs. These latter are qualifiers
which as such are subordinate to nouns or verbs, and thus can fluctuate between a nominal or verbal
meaning. Because of this variability they are placed in this “heterogeneous” field.
As an example the G.1a.1 Tibetan ŋar- / kar- roots show nominal, verbal and adjectival syntax. Their
Chadic CC’s are nouns, the Cushitic CC’s are adjectival or stative verbs, the Semitic and Berber CC’s are
stative verbs, the Egyptian word is a past participle (verbal and adjectival) and the NS lexemes are
mainly ideophones. Ideophones are qualifiers that characterize a manner, state, appearance or other
quality of a noun phrase in the sentence. These also occur widely in Chadic languages. See Newman, P.
2000 78. Including all these in the G heterogeneic field permits the researcher to concentrate on their
shared correspondences with ST rather than deal in extended grammatical analysis.
All the Domains compensate for a deficiency found in a single alphabetic (or otherwise organized) list
of basic vocabulary words. For example the Swadesh list contains the two entries “water” and “rain”.
31
However the comparative study shows that “water” and “rain” are only two of the words which
represent the natural object “water” and its forms. Others such as “river”, “stream”, “spring”, “lake”,
“pond”, “water hole” are more specific nouns. Other semantically related roots of the concept “water”
occur in this same word family as verb forms, e.g.“to flow”, “to pour”, “to spill, “to flood” etc. Thus
many of the languages in the present study contain morphemes which are somewhat different
semantically but closely related phonetically under a more generic concept for the entity. For example in
the following B.15a.1 set, only a small number of the morphemes are directly designated by the English
gloss “water”; the others signify forms or active states of this natural object and exhibit close phonetic
similarity with the other words which represent it indirectly. In all three sets the morphemes of the
correspondences are organized first by the sets of phonetic similarities, then by semantic similarity under
the general concept of water. See also the introduction to Chapter 2A-H below.
Table 2.0.1.1 Grouping closely corresponding roots containing different but related semantics
Swadesh W. Chadic – C. Cushitic- W. (Ethiopic) NS-For [Fur] S. Khoisan-
“rain” Bachama Bilin Semitic- kɔwí Nu‖en
B.15a.1 gùrɛ‫כ‬y kurā / kuri Gurage “rain” !kwe
TB-Qiangic- “lake” “Fluss” kure NS-Berta “rain”
Pumi Dayang Mukarovsky 299 [river] “pond, flood kɔ̃ì Starostin, G.
gwí C. Chadic – Skinner 161 of water” “rain, cloud” 2003
“rain” Padoko Leslau 1979 NS-Nyimang 2821
Matisoff kúre v.3 348 kwe Khoisan-
2003 171 “urine” “water” Tati
S. Chinese-Min Jungraithmayr Ruhlen xwere
khué 1994 v.2 335 1994 327 “waterhole”
“stream” Ruhlen 1994
Bodman 1987 #615 67
v.2 155
Swadesh C. Chadic- Fali Proto-AA Egyptian NS-Nuer
“rain” (Gude- Mubi) (Orel / qerá kir, kiri
B.15a.2 kurabi Stolbova “rainstorm, “river”
TB-Bodo/Garo- “rainstorm” 1995) tempest, Huffman 24
Digaro C. Chadic- Margi *kur- thunder-
kəra kula “river” storm”
“rain” “rain” C. Cushitic- Budge v.2
Benedict 1972 Mukarovsky 290 Bilin 775
109 kurā /
[Disyllabic kuri
corresp.] “Fluss”
[river]
Skinner 161
21
Note- B.15a.1 (Khoisan) In this case the B.15a.1 Khoisan form corresponds closely to all the AA subfamilies
plus NC-Mande and Nilo-Saharan and these show a close correspondence with the ST forms. Semantics are those
of “stream”, “rain”, “river”, “water”. These multiple correspondences in three different AA languages suggest a
,proximate origin in Cushitic or Semitic. Mande and NS are older than any of the AA languages, but the ultimate
origin is probably Khoisan which, as well as corresponding closely in all B.15a.1 phonetic/semantic variants attests
the probably original meaning of all forms, i.e. ‘rain” or “water”.
32
Chapter 2A
Words representing Animals: names, body parts, actions and products.
Semantic Domain A word families.
The scope of the A group is the semantic domain consisting of the Sino-Tibetan and African /
Afroasiatic words denoting animals. Also included are words usually associated with animal actions or
products .
The words are mainly “cultural” as their referents exist only in certain cultures. The Swadesh basic
language list contains only the terms “dog”,“louse”, and “bird”, these being present in almost all human
cultures. Also included are shared cultural roots based on practices which probably occurred early in
animal hunting and/or domestication, e.g. “castrate / castrated animal” (A.6a.1), “slaughter, slaughtered
animal” (A.7a-b.), “wealth” (A.9d.1). Phonetic correspondences of words for all of these are found only
through massive comparison.
The small number of names of animals in the Swadesh list illustrates the limitations of using it alone
as a research tool for the African/Afroasiatic ↔ Sino-Tibetan comparative study.
2A Domain statistics
Number of tables and word Families
Tables = 37 numbered analytic tables which represent an individual or generic word family.
Individual word families = 65
The count is of individual word families including those within a generic word family.
Single large word families (containing four or more Close Correspondence sets) = 3
“egg” A.26.1-7
“dung, excrement” A.27.1-4
“louse, fly” A.29.1-6
Generic word families = 14 These are:

“bird” “partridge, hawk” A.1.a-c
“bird, chick” A.2.a-c
“to fly, to jump” A.5.a-b
“cow, bull” “flesh, meat” “castrated” A6.a-e
“to kill” “to strike dead” A.7.a-b
“equids” “horse, colt” A.9a-d
“canines” “dog, fox, hyena” A.10.a-f
“sheep, goat” “meat, flesh” A.12a-b
“scorpion, crab” A.13a-b
“biting, sucking insect” A.14a-c
“elephant” A18.a-b
“animals which roar, make loud noises”, e.g. “elephant” “lion, leopard” A19.a-c
“snake, worm” A.20a-b
“buffalo, cow” A.21a-c
Basic vocabulary- Swadesh list

In the A domain 24 word families contain one or more sets of ST ↔ African/Afroasiatic language close
correspondences which match lexemes of the100 word Swadesh list. 8 of these correspondences are
found in the 14 generic word families.
These Swadesh terms are counted only once for a word family, but the same term may appear more
than once within generic word families and are counted separately in each one of its individual families,
e.g. different words meaning “bird” are found in both word families A.1a and A.1b so they constitute two
occurrences of the Swadesh term.
33
Tibeto-Burman ↔ Chinese cognates: 40
Proto-Afro-Asiatic ↔ Sino-Tibetan (TB and/or Sinitic) root correspondences: 19
Polysyllabic correspondences: 30 (Only one polysyllabic correspondence per word family is counted)
Etymologies:
Etymologies have been proposed for three levels of ST languages: i.e. ST level, TB or Sinitic levels and
a few individual ST languages.
Sino-Tibetan etymologies 23
Tibeto-Burman etymologies 13
Sinitic etymologies 7
Tibetan etymologies 16
Cantonese etymologies 2
TB-Kiranti etymologies 2
Hakka etymologies 2
The matching of Khoisan lexemes containing click initials may be unfamiliar, but is explained in notes.
For a proposed key to the matching of click initials with non-Khoisan roots, see Supplementary Table 3
section 1.1a-e.
A high percentage of the lexemes in the present chapter are count nouns. The only exceptions to this
are in the following correspondence sets:
A.5a,b,c- These morphemes include variant forms of a Proto-AA verb root which means “to fly, jump”.
A.6a.; 7a,b - These morphemes mean “to kill, slaughter”. The semantics of this set also occur in reference
to humans, but the word is included here because of its most common reference to animals.
The A.6a and A.11 tables contain terms for slaughtering which also mean “slaughtered animals” such
as “cow, flesh”, “meat” “game” along with verbs and nouns referring to the act of castrating and to
castrated animals.
2A Domain Tables – Animals etc.
ST-Languages African/AA languages-Close correspondences
A.1a-b AA – Chadic AA-Cush. AA- Nilo- NC,
Sem. Saharan Khoisan
Swadesh “bird” W. Chadic–Bole Cushitic- NS-Daza S.
A.1a.1 TB-Tibetan karmata Arbore karabu Khoisan-
kharada “name of a “white hawk” kore “vulture” Nu’en
22
bird” Das 9 Skinner 137 “kite” Skinner ǂkariron
[Disyllabic corresp.] 277 “bird”
22
Note- A.1a.1 (Tibetan) The morphemes of the Tibetan kara- root and its African/Afroasiatic close
correspondences kar- / kor- / kur- match those of the present A.1a.1 table on their root stem but contrast with
the tsa- / sa- / cha- / s- initials of the A.1b forms. This is one of a set of TB lexemes which attest similar
prefixation and match African/AA lexemes but only on the root stem.:
A.1b A.1a
TB-Tibetan tsa-ko-ra “a partridge” Cushitic-Arbore kore “kite” (A.1b.1, A.1a.1)
TB-Chin-Lushai sa-kor “horse” NS-Kanuri, AA koro “donkey, ass” (A.9a.1)
TB-Miri spre / spra “monkey” AA vre / bare ~ bura / vííra “monkey” (A.31.1-2)
TB-Tibetan sbrul “snake” NC mburu “viper” (A.20b.1)
TB-Tibetan sgál-pa “the small of the back” AA kal-ée “kidney”“rene, rognoni, lombo” (C.7.2)
TB-Tibetan sdig-pa “scorpion” AA ‘dig- / ‘dik- “scorpion” (A.13a.1)
Proto-TB *(s)ka“jaw, chin” AA gác- “jaw, chin” (C.29a.3)
There are two different theories which provide an explanation of this divergence:
34
khra W. Chadic – Hausa Cushitic- NS-Barea S.

“a small bird of prey, kařàmbatàa n. f. Boni karba Khoisan-
sparrow-hawk, “eagle, kor- “bird” |Xam
falcon” kestrel species” “hawk” Greenberg k”ari
Jaschke 48 Skinner 137 Omotic- 1966 96 “bird”
“kind of hawk or “black-crested Janjero Ruhlen
falcon” Das 166 hawk-eagle” kura 1994
khra-zhur Newman, P. “hawk” #166 48
“a species of eagle” 2007 108 Skinner 147
Jaschke 48 Bargery 2002
Das 167
See also A.4.3
TB-Tibetan
A.1a.2 W. Chadic- Proto- Proto- NS-Kanuri Proto-
TB-Tibetan Gwandara Cushitic Semitic kwará- W.
khwa “small crow” akwākwā (Ehret) *kwā(kw)- máta Nigritic
“raven” Das 137 “crow” *xwar- “owl, “swift, *-kwal
TB-Kiranti-Limbu Skinner 105 “crow” raven, sunbird” “kind
akhwa C. Chadic-Gude Skinner vulture” Cyffer of
“crow” kwāryat- 105 Militarev, 1990 106 hawk”
Starostin, S. “kite hawk” A. 2006 Skinner
Kiranti Etymology Skinner 105 147
A.1a.3 W. Chadic – Bole Proto-AA W. Songhay NC-
TB-Tibetan kaki “crow” (Orel / Ethiopian (Djenne) Mande
kāka “the crow” W. Chadic – Hausa Stolbova) Semitic- gaaga kāka /
Jaschke 1 hankākà “crow” *ġak’- Geez “pied kākā
[Disyllabic corresp.] Skinner 105 “crow” qaqer crow” “crow”
[↑TB ↔ Chinese W. Chadic-Angas Skinner 105 “crow” Heath Skinner
cognates↓] ngak “crow” Skinner 105 v.2 72 105
S. Chinese-Yue C. Chadic - Mafa-
(Cantonese) Mada group
ngà “crow” ŋga’ak “crow”
Kwan 115 Skinner 105
1. The sa / s- initial is a prefix meaning “animal / meat, flesh” Benedict and Matisoff proposed this explanation.
(Benedict 106-108, Matisoff 2003 102). See also note A.14a.1-2 for discussion. These give evidence of its usage
as an identifier of animals which are edible, thus hunted. (See note A.6d.2-3). For this reason they contrast with
the kar- / kor- “bird” morphemes of the present table. In African languages these latter most commonly refer to
birds of prey or scavengers such as crows and vultures which are generally repugnant to humans as food.
However, in the following A.1b word family containing the sâ- prefix the common referent in Africa and Tibet
is the partridge/guinea fowl, still prized for its taste. It belongs to the same species, gallinule, as its domestic
variety (chickens etc.). See also note A.9a.1, and set A.1c.3 .
2. Alternatively the s- / sa initial syllables found in the following A.1b.1, A1c.4 Tibeto-Burman lexemes may
be the result of a Khoisan click initial. In these CC sets the Khoisan forms show different initials.The A.1a.1 S.
Khoisan-Nu’en ǂkariron contains the palato-alveolar /ǂ/ click which when lost preserves only the basic velar
sound of all clicks. (See note C.38a.2-3 Khoisan) It contrasts with the A.1b.1 S. Khoisan-Khakhea ǀk’arika (ǀ =
dental click) which tends to generate an (s-, sh-, sha- or (t- / te ) initial in TB languages. (See sets A1c.3,
A.2a.2, note A.13b.2 (Khoisan) and Supplementary Tables 3 Section 1.1b..
Since a full study of Khoisan click correspondences with TB lexemes is not within the scope of this study, the
evidence is not as yet sufficient to claim that Benedict’s hypothesis is not correct in all cases. See further
discussion in Chapter 10 section 10.3.3 and examples in Supplementary Tables 3 Khoisan Table 1.1.b
35
A.1a.3 W. Chadic–Bole Proto-AA W. Semitic- Songhay NC-

TB-Tibetan kaki “crow” (Orel / Geez (Djenne) Mande
kāka “the crow” W. Chadic–Hausa Stolbova) qaqer gaaga kāka /
Jaschke 1 hankākà *ġak’- “crow” “pied kākā
[Disyllabic corresp.] “crow” “crow” Skinner 105 crow” “crow”
[↑TB ↔ Chinese Skinner 105 Skinner 105 Heath Skinner
cognates↓] W. Chadic-Angas v.2 72 105
S. Chinese-Yue ngak “crow”
(Cantonese) C. Chadic-Mafa-
ngà “crow” Mada group
Kwan 115 ŋga’ak “crow”
Skinner 105
A.1a.1 TB-Tibetan
kara-ru-be-ka “a kind of bird” kharanda “a sort of wild duck” Das 10
khra-bo “magpie” Jaschke 37 skyar-mo “heron” skyar-po “snipe, woodcock”
ĉu-skyar “duck” Jaschke 26
A.1a.3 Proto-Kiranti *ga(k) “crow” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] ù-khan “crow” Matisoff 2003 447
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ka “crow” Benedict 99-100, 201
Extended African/AA language word family:
A.1a.1
NS-Songhay[Koroboro] gáar-gáara “corbeau pie” “corvus albus” [pied crow]
Proto-Semitic *ɣārib “corvo” [crow] Skinner 278
W. Chadic–Geji kalamata “hawk, kite” Mukarovsky 202
Omotic-Janjero kura “hawk”
W. Semitic-Ethiopian- Amharic kura “crow” “raven” n. Leslau 1976 71, 310
Semitic-Arabic ɣurab (IPA) n. “crow” Merriam-WebsterArabic 37
Cushitic-Arbore kore “kite” Skinner 147
A.1a.3
W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Pa’a gāga “crow” Skinner 105
C. Chadic-Gude ɣāka or ɣak “crow” Skinner 105
NS-Kanuri ngágə “crow” Cyffer 1990 133 Skinner 105
E. Cushitic- Rendille khaakle “crow (pied)” Pillinger 185
NS-Anywa [Anuak] āgáak “crow” Reh 3
C. Chadic-Dghwede (Zəɣwana) ɣágà “crow” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006
C. Chadic-Munjuk gágrai “guinea fowl” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006
E. Cushitic-Proto-Saho-Afar *kāk- “raven” Militarev, A. 2005 Saho-Afar Etymology
A.1a.1
IE- Sanskrit khara “an osprey, a heron, a crow” etc. kharakoNa “the francolin partridge”
karAyika “a bird, a small kind of crane” kalikara “the fork-tailed shrike” “a kind of chick”
kalakaNTha “a peacock, gallinule, a sparrow” Cologne Lexicon [Disyllabic correspondences]
IE-Pashto karak “quail” Raverty 786
IE-Hindi garur “eagle” m. Scudiere 228
Proto-Altaic *karV “a kind of bird” ; *karmo “a kind of aquatic bird”
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *kara- “a kind of bird” *karbu “a kind of aquatic bird” ;
*karmu- “a kind of bird of prey”
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *kordaj- “a kind of aquatic bird” / *KArga- “crow, raven”
Altaic-ProtoTurkic *Kārt- “a kind of bird of prey” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
36
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish kartal “eagle”

Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz / Turkic-Azeri garha “crow’
Altaic-Kazakh karha “crow” taskara “vulture”
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur karha “crow”
Turkic-Turkmen / Turkic-Azeri garga “crow, raven”
Altaic-Turkic-Tuvan kaargan / qarhan “crow, raven” / Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek qironqara “hawk”
Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
IE-Pashto kārga “a crow, the common crow” Raverty 1140, 1149
Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 26
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur tazkara “vulture” Uyghur Dictionary
Altaic-Mongolian keriyen “crow” / kerije “raven” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
A.1a.2
IE-Hindi gauraiyā “sparrow” Scudiere 232
Kartvelian-Georgian, Megrel kor- “hawk” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 26
A.1a.3
IE-Sanskrit kaka “crow” khaga “bird” Cologne lexicon
IE-Bengali ka:k “crow” Thompson 43
See also Supplementary Table 2 A.1a.3
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur qaghav “crow” Uyghur Dictionary
/
ST-Languages African/Afroasiatic languages- Close correspondences
A.1b Afro-Asiatic – AA-Cush., Afro-Asiatic- NS NC,
Chadic Proto-AA Semitic Khoisan
Swadesh “bird” W. Chadic-Hausa S. Cushitic- W. Semitic- S. Khoisan-
A.1b.1 zàkaràa m. Irakwe Ethiopian-Gurage Khakhea
TB-Tibetan “rooster” sakäri žəgəra / žəg’ra ǀk’arika
tsa-ko-ra Newman, P. 2007 “guinea fowl” “guinea fowl” “bird”
“a partridge” 229 Skinner 294 Leslau 1979 Ruhlen 1994
Das 995 Skinner 294 v.2 29 #166 48
[Trisyllabic sàagarā f. Semitic-Aramaic
corresp.] “pullet” ts̟agra “falcon”
dza-go-ra Newman, R. 1990 Comprehensive
“partridge” 40 Newman, P. Aramaic Lexicon
Goldstein 845 2007 174
A.1b.2 W. Chadic – Hausa Proto-AA Semitic-Arabic
TB-Tibetan tsàakō m. *cagah’ (Iraqi)
tsa-kór tsàakuwā pl. “bird” s̟agur
“partridge” “baby chick” Militarev / “hawk, falcon”
[Disyllabic Newman, P. 2007 Stolbova Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
corresp.] 204 AA-Etymology part 1 84
Jaschke 429 Skinner 267, 29423 2007 part 2 267
23
Note- A.1b.2 (Hausa) The Hausa form tsàakoo is derived from an original form tsààkuu which is still present
in the Hausa plural. See Newman, P. 2000 237 Section 2.2 for the sound change rule “lowering of final u > o” for
the second radical, i.e. -koo < kuu. See also Notes A.9b.1 (Hausa) and set A.25.2 (Hausa)..
The final -u is also present in A.1b.2 C.Chadic-Kilba-Pela jaku which also corresponds on this second radical
to the Chinese and Khoisan morphemes of A.1c.3. It is also found in the A.1c.4 C. Chadic-Gude tsekwa which
closely corresponds to the A.1c.5 Tibetan segba. (In Tibetan final *-wa = final *-ba . See Jaschke “Phonetic
Table” xix-xx.
Hence the Tibetan A.1b.2 tsa-kór and A.1.c.4 sēgba constitute disyllabic correspondences to both the older
and more recent forms of a Chadic root tsakuu- > tsakoo-/ tsekw- . The Chinese A.1c.3 zhègū / chīgù
37
cagar C. Chadic-
“pheasant” Mandara
Goldstein 729 c’aako “chick,
“young bird”
Jungraithmayr
1994 v.2 70
C. Chadic- Kilba-
Pela jakū “bird”
Jungraithmayr 1994
v.2 22
W. Chadic–Ron
(Bokkos)
shikóòr “Huhn”
[fowl, hen]
Jungr. 1970 146
A.1b.3 TB- C. Chadic–Bura C. Cushitic- Semitic- Aramaic
Tibetan shaka / sheka Agaw zāg / zāgā
chagaà “chick, baby ĉága / ĉ̟áġă “a young cock or
“chicken, chicken” “bird” “hen”
a kind of Dictionary of Bura Militarev, A. Comprehensive
water-fowl” Proto-Chadic Cushitic-Agaw Aramaic Lexicon
chagöö tsàakū Etymology
“vulture” “chick” 2005
Goldstein 729 Newman, P. 2000
S. Chinese-Min 237
ciăq C. Chadic-
“classifier for Mandara
animals, birds” tsakala
Bodman 1987 “cock”
v.2 126 Skinner 294
A.1b.1
TB-Tibetan tsa-kór / tsa-ko-ra “a partridge” cagar “pheasant”
< W. Chadic–Hausa sàagarā f. “pullet” / S. Cushitic-Irakwe sakäri “guinea fowl”
A.1b.3
TB-Tibetan chagaà “chicken, a kind of water-fowl” / S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] zak7 / chak7 / zhak7
“classifier for hen, pigeon, bird, ox, goat” zha5 “partridge”
< Proto-Afro-Asiatic *tsagah̟ “bird” /
C. Chadic–Bura shaka / sheka “chick, baby chicken”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *sakära ~ *tsagah̟ /*tsààkū “guinea fowl” “chick (young
bird)”
A.1b.1
S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) jaahk “a kind of pheasant with long tail feathers”
Chik / Ng Lam 367
TB-Tibetan tsa-kra bāka “the red goose” (Anas casarca) Das 995 Jaschke 429
TB-Written Burmese ca < Proto-Lolo-Burmese m-dzya “sparrow” Matisoff 2003 169
lexemes also appear to be variants of the older forms of the Chadic tsààkuu, and ultimately of the A.1c.3 Khoisan
ši-‖gu root. See also Note A.25.2.
38
TB-C.Loloish-Lahu jà “sparrow” Matisoff 2003 169

S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] zha5 “partridge” Hakka Dict. (Lau Chunfat)
TB-Qiangic-Pumi Dayang (rGyalrong) pa-tsa “sparrow” Matisoff 2003 168
A.1b.3 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] zak7 / chak7 / zhak7 “numerical classifier for hen, pigeon, bird, ox,
goat” Hakka Dict.
A.1b.1
W. Chadic-Gwandara jàkára “cock” Matsushita 1972 53
W. Semitic-Ethiopian- Tigrinya zagra “guinea fowl” Leslau 1963 165
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic ğəgra “guinea hen” Leslau 1976 202
NC-Benue-Congo-Ribina (Plateau 1B group) be-tokóro “fowl, chicken”
Williamson/Shimizu v.1 173
W. Chadic-Angas tâkwârâ “partridge” Foulkes 103
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage hekura “crow” Skinner 105
W. Chadic-Hausa jigàl f. dialectal variant “vulture” Newman, P. 2007 99
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) s’igar “falcon” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 267
A.1b.2 Semitic-Aramaic šagrāq / šagrākā “crow” Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon
A.1b.3 C. Chadic-Mandara tsakala “cock” Skinner 294
C. Chadic – Mofu dzagolok “cock” Skinner 294
C. Cushitic- Bilin jägira “guinea-fowl” Skinner 294
C. Chadic-Zime-Dari shageni “bird” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 71
W. Chadic–Hausa tsagagī m. “wood ibis (bird)” Newman, P. 2007 203
C. Chadic-Sukur jak / ják “bird” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 23
NS-Anywa [Anuak] ājáak “ibis” Reh 4
A.1b.1 IE-Sanskrit cakora “partridge” “a hen, sparrow etc.” “the Greek partridge (Perdrix rufa)”
“a hen, sparrow” cakraGga / cakravAka “the cakra bird” “a goose” zakatavila “a gallinule”
See also Supplementary Table 2 A.1b.1
Kartvelian-Megrel čqor- “quail” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 13
Kartvelian-Georgian (m) ̣čqer- “quail” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 13
A.1b.2
IE-Sanskrit śakuni “a bird, a vulture, kite, eagle” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Sanskrit, IE-E. Iranian-Avestan śakunti / śakunta Cologne Lexicon “bird” Witzel 1999b
Proto-Altaic sako-sako “magpie” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
A.1b.3 IE-Sanskrit jaGgala “the francoline partridge” zakatavila “a gallinule”
zakatara “a bird of prey” zakatara “a bird of prey” zakuna “a bird (esp. a large bird or one of
good or bad omen)” zakunta “a bird, bird of prey” “a blue jay” Cologne Lexicon
Altaic-Proto-Turkic sagiskan “magpie” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
IE-Pashto jahk “a pheasant” Raverty 328
Altaic-Turkic-Oryat taka “hen, fowl” / Altaic-Turkic-Khakassian taɣak “hen, fowl”
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *tiakigu “hen, fowl” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Sari-Yughur takagi “hen, fowl”
Altaic-Turkic-Karakhanid *takagu “hen, fowl” http://starling.rinet.ru./c
/
Swadesh “bird” C. Chadic- E. Cushitic-Oromo
A.1c.1 S. Hurza, Vame ĉ’ukuru n.
Chinese- dzugur- “colomba”
(Cantonese) jéuk “chicken” [dove]
“bird” Kwan 40 W. Chadic- Borello 82
“a general name of
a small bird”
39
cheuk / jeuk N. Bauci-Tsagu C. Cushitic-Bilin

“magpie” cukuran ğägrina
Chik / Ng Lam Mukarovsky “guinea-fowl”
481, 505 129 Leslau
TB-Tibetan Skinner 294 1963 165
sh̄‫כ‬gdra
“partridge”
Goldstein 1108
A.1c.2 TB-Proto- C. Chadic– C. Cushitic- Bilin NS-Maba
Kiranti *cè°kcere Bura je’xala “bird” Group-
“a partridge” shaka / sheka Skinner 294 Maba
TB-Kiranti- “chick, baby N. Cushitic-Beja sek
Yamphu chicken” [Bedauye] “hen”
cikcikya Dict. of Bura jik m. “der Hahn” Edgar 369
“partridge” [cock]
Starostin, S. Reinisch 105
Kiranti Etymology 24
A.1c.3 C. Chadic- Semitic- S. Khoisan-
Chinese-MSC Boka Aramaic Masarwa
chīgù “sparrow cikara bšek ši-‖gu
hawk” “cock, rooster” “falcon” “bird”
DeFrancis 113 Skinner 294 Compre- S. Khoisan-
zhègū hensive Proto-Taa
“Chinese francolin, Aramaic *|gū “bird”
partridge” Lexicon Starostin, G.
Wu, J. 885 2003 9
[Disyllabic
corresp.]
A.1c.4 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic-
segba Gude
“quail, grouse” tsekwa
Goldstein 1143 “bird species”
[Disyllabic Skinner 294
corresp.]
A.1c.2 TB-Proto-Kiranti *cè°kcere “a kind of bird, a partridge”
< C. Cushitic- Bilin je’xala “bird” / N. Cushitic-Beja [Bedauye] jik m. “der Hahn” [cock A.1c.3
A.1c.3 Chinese-MSC chīgù sparrow
< S. Khoisan- Masarwa ši-‖gu “bird”]
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *jik- ~ *ši-‖gu “bird”
Extended Sino-Tibetan language word family:
A.1c.2 TB-Kiranti-Kaling cekcere “small brown bird” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
24
Note- A.1c.3 (TB-Kiranti, Chadic, Cushitic, NS) There may be a pre-historic convergence of this *ce’k- / cik
“bird” root with the *jik- , zhek, shek, shek “body” forms of Chapter 2C C.8a.2, e.g. C.8a.2 (Cantonese)
jek “a body”. See also Notes A.6d.2-3 “meat, flesh” and set A.6c.2 “animals to be eaten”. The Chinese
character radical used in the associated ideogram signifies birds, but one of its more complex forms functions as
the measure word for morphemes referring to other animals and parts of the human body.
40
A.1c.3
S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) jegū “partridge” Kwan 339 jek “a numerary adjunct for hen, pigeon,
bird” Chik / Ng Lam 481 [the character radical is that used for “bird”].
C. Cushitic- Bilin jägira “guinea-fowl” Skinner 294
TB-Tibetan sheju “grouse” Goldstein 1090
A.1c.1 W. Chadic-S. Bauci-Guruntum jokshi “bird” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 22
A.1c.3 E. Cushitic- Kambata zigree-ta “guinea fowl” Hudson 74
S. Khoisan-!Kwi-|’Auni si-|u “bird” Starostin, G. 2012 11
C. Chadic-Zime-Batna sékné / ya sēkné “bird” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 71
Cushitic-Alaba, Kembata, Saho z/j-gr- “guinea fowl” Skinner 294
NS-Maba Group kùjik “bird” Edgar 369
A.1c.4 S. Khoisan-|Nu‖en si-|kou “bird” Starostin, G. 2003 9
W. Chadic-Hausa càkwaikwaiwàa “starling” Newman, P. 2007 31
A.1c.4 Semitic-Hebrew sekhvee “rooster, cock” Baltsan 375
A.1c.1
IE-Sanskrit zakatavila “a gallinule” zakatara “a bird of prey”
A.1c.3 IE-Pashto shikraey “a hawk, a falcon” Raverty 534, 655
IE-Sanskrit cikura “a kind of bird” Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2
↓↓
A.2a-c Afro-Asiatic – AA-Cush. AA- NS NC
Chadic Proto-AA Semitic.
Swadesh “bird” W. Chadic- Hausa Proto-AA Semitic- NC-
A.2a.1 tsâttēwàa *c’uc’- Arabic Common
S. Chinese-Kejia < *tsew-tsēwàa “chick” šuha Bantu
[Hakka] “a swift, Militarev/ “kite, hawk, *-c’ucu
(Bao’an, Hailu) a swallow” Stolbova vulture” “chicken”
1
ts’u Newman, P. AA Etym- Skinner
(Lau Chunfat) 2000 234, 2007 ology Egyptian 276
chu1 / cu1 n. 206 E. Cushitic- asu
(Dongguan, W. Chadic- Oromo “birds”
Lau Chunfat) Gwandara c’uc’o / Budge
“chick ” “bird” (all dialects) c’uc’ii v.1 9
Hakka Dict nsusuwa / “chick”
ncucuwa / Gragg 87
nsûtsûwã Skinner 276
“bird”
Matsushita 1974
#349 87 25
25
Note- A.2a.1 (Gwandara) Gwandara is very closely related to Hausa within the W.Chadic subgroup. It is
“a creolized offshoot of Hausa rather than a sister language”. Gwandara culture contains oral traditions
concerning the separation of the Gwandara group from the Hausa group which indicate that it probably occurred as
recently as 300 years ago. However Gwandara and Hausa are no longer mutually intelligible. Newman, P. 2000 1
41
A.2a.2 Proto-C. Chadic E. Cushitic- W. Semitic- NS-Tubu S.

N. Chinese-MSC č’Vy / č’Vw Burji Ethiopian [Teda] Khoisan-
ch’ūèh (WG) “”bird” c’úuw-ee *c’əw- cəuri !Kwi-
“the magpie, “type of bird” “chicken” c’wəya “Vogel” ‖Xegwi
jackdaw, Stolbova, Olga Sasse “chick” [bird] |hui
jay and similar C. Chadic- 1982 50 Skinner Lukas “bird”
birds” Mathews Etymology 206 241, 276 1953 [203]
#1184 169
[Disyllabic corresp.] N. Cushitic- S.
Old Chinese, Beja Khoisan-
Middle Chinese [Bedauye] !Kwi-‖Ng
tsywij “generic siwi |wí
term for short-tailed “chick” “bird”
birds” Skinner 276 Bleek
from Shuowen jiezi E. Cushitic- 1956 334
(of Han dynasty, Qabenna Starostin,
206 BCE to 220 CE) ĉuwa- / G. 2012
Sagart 1999 ĉuwēta 11
157, 162 “chick 2003 9
tsywi “bird” Leslau 1979
Branner 137 v.3 191
[Disyllabic corresp.]
A.2a.3 E. Chadic-Somrai NS-Kanuri N.
S. Chinese-Min gwi kwiye Khoisan-
kuê “chicken” “Rebhuhn” “par- ‖Khau‖’e
Bodman 1987 v.2 [partridge] tridge” !gwi
152 Skinner 194 Skinner “pauw
N. Chinese- MSC / C. C.hadic- 194 (a kind of
(Beijing) chūi Buduma (Yedina) peacock”
(WG) “short-tailed kūyē “partridge” Ruhlen
birds” Mathews Stolbova, Olga 1994 60
#1466 20 C.Chadic
què “sparrow” Etymology 2006
Wu, J. 566
“magpie” “sparrow”
Manser part 2 369
A.2a.4 W. Chadic- Bole-
S. Chinese-Kejia Tangale- Bole
[Hakka] jawi
(Meixian) “chicken”
tiau1e “bird” Jungraithmayr
Hakka Dict. 1994 v.2 70
A.2a.1
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ts’u1 / chu1 / cu1 n. “chick , a fledgling” “bird”
< Proto-Afro-Asiatic *c’uc’- / Cushitic- Oromo c’uc’o / c’uc’ii n. “chick” /
W. Semitic-Ethiopian cəwcwəya “chick” / Egyptian asu “birds”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *s’u- ~ c’u- “chick” “small bird”
A.2a.1
N. Chinese-MSC chú (WG) “a chick, a fledgling” Mathews #1406 196 “young bird” Wu, J. 102
42
S. Chinese-Min chhu1 “chick, fledgling, very young bird” Hakka Dict.

N. Chinese-MSC tz’ū (WG) “the female of birds” Mathews #6979 1032
A.2a.2
TB-Tibetan ciiwə “sparrow” Goldstein 380
TB-Nepali cuiya “a species of bird” Starostin. S. Yamphu Dict.
S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) jèui “a general name of short-tailed birds such as pigeons”
Chik / Ng Lam 481
A.2a.3 N. Chinese-MSC (Beijing) kûngchywè (Y) “peacock” máchywè (Y) “sparrow” Chen 74
A.2a.1
C. Chadic-Gudu cuo “bird species” Skinner 276
E. Cushiic- Oromo
cuci “pulcino” [newly hatched chick] Borello 81
cululle “nibbio, falco, sparviero, avvoltoio” [kite, falcon, sparrow-hawk, vulture] Borello 82 ;
culule “hawk” Foot 11
Proto-Low E. .Cushiitc *čulul- “a kind of bird of prey”
Militarev, A. Low E. Cushitic Etymology 2005
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari čulullu “kind of bird of prey” Leslau 1963 51
W. Chadic-Pelci sura “kite hawk” Skinner 245\
W. Chadic-Ngamo šuli “kite hawk” Skinner 245
A.2a.2 Central Chadic-Bura civira “guinea fowl” Stolbova, Olga Central Chadic-Etymology 2006
A.2a.3 N. Khoisan-!O!Kung !gwi “pauw (a kind of peacock)” Ruhlen 1994 60
S. Khoisan-!Kwi-Nǀuu |ghui-si “bird, vulture” Starostin, G. 2012 11
N. Cushitic-Beja (Bedauye) kwiikway “crow, raven” Starostin, S. Bedauye (Beja) Etymology)
Cushitic-Dullay gurre / g’urre “Rebhuhn” [partridge] Skinner 194
NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] dukure “tawny eagle ” Taylor 41, rukure “a large falcon ” Taylor 160
A.2a.4 Khoisan-Sandawe thui “bird” Starostin, G. 2012 9
A.2a.1
Kartvelian-Laz čučul- “chicken” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 12
IE-Pashto chūcha “a kind of pheasant” Raverty 374
Altaic-Mongolian-Khalka čūčal “snipe” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
-Mongolian-Kalmuck čūwčl “snipe” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
-Mongolian-Ordos čūčil “snipe” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur chüje “chicken” Uyghur Dictionary
Proto-Mongolian čuwčali “snipe” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
A.2a.2 Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho ’oe / o’e “bird” Kobayashi Table 1 #63 2
A.2a.3 Proto-Altaic *kiure “woodcock” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
A.2a.4 Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh, Nogai, Balkar, Tatar, Karakalpak tawiq “hen, fowl”
Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology http://starling.rinet.ru./c
/
Swadesh “bird” W. Chadic-Fali Mucella Semitic- NS- N. Khoisan-
A.2b.1 S. Chinese-Min šaru “kite, hawk” Written Songhay- ‖Kh’au-‖’e
ciàu “bird” Skinner 245 Arabic Gao ‖áru
Bodman 1987 v.2 78, 126 W. Chadic-Hausa jauzal / [Koro- “sparrow”
N. Chinese- MSC / Beijing shāhòo m. “hawk, jawazil boro] Ruhlen 1994 63
ch’iao (WG) falcon” Newman, P. “young kyiraw C. Khoisan-
“the magpie, jackdaw, 2007 183 pigeon” “bird” Naro ‖áruba
jay and similar birds” Skinner 241 Wehr 175 Greenberg “sparrow”
Mathews #1184 169 Bargery 2002 1966 134 Ruhlen 1994 63
jiāo “wren” Wu, J. 340
43
chiāo (WG) W. Chadic- Bole-

“small bird like the tit or Tangale-Bole
wren” jaro / yàró
Mathews #728 100 “bird”
S. Chinese-Kejia Jungraithmayr 1994
[Hakka] v.2 22
(Meixian, MacIver, W. Chadic-N.Bauci-
Lau Chunfat) Mburku
jiau2 “bird” gyalu
Hakka Dict. “kite hawk”
Skinner 147
A.2b.2 W. Chadic- Bole- NC-E.Mande-
N. Chinese - MSC / Tangale-Bole jaro / Bobo
Beijing yàró yálo “bird”
yào “harrier, sparrow “bird” Mukarovsky 95
hawk” Jungraithmayr 1994
Wu, J. 805 v.2 22
(Lau Chunfat)
yau2 / yau4
“sparrow hawk, hawk”
Hakka Dict.
A.2b.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] jau5 “bird”, jau5 jau3 “sparrow hawk, hawk”
< W. Chadic- Bole-Tangale- Bole jawi “chicken” / Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) jawlabah “dove, pigeon”
/ NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] jāungal “guinea fowl”
A.2b.2 S. Chinese-Min ciàu “bird”
< NS-Songhay- Gao kyiraw “bird” / C. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e ‖áru “sparrow”
Approximate Sinitic etymon: *šaru “kite, hawk” ~ *‖áru “sparrow” “small bird”
Extended Sino-Tibetan word family:.
A.2b.1
S. Chinese-Min (Taiwanese) ciâuà “bird” Bodman 1983 155
N. Chinese- MSC / Beijing qiâo “sparrow” Wu, J. 548 jiāqiâor “sparrow” Wang, F. 238
jiā “house. home”
t’iāo (WG) “the eagle, the vulture, also used for hawks” Mathews #6274 908
A.2b.2
S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) yíu “a kite (a bird)” Chik / Ng Lam 504
Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] yeu2 / yeu4 “sparrow hawk, hawk” Hakka Dict.
tiau-tsə3 “bird” Ramsey 114
A.2b.1
Chadic- Gwandara jabuwa “guinea fowl” Matsushita 1972 53
W. Chadic-Hausa (Daura dial.) zābō “a guinea fowl” Matsushita 1993 57
C. Chadic-Mwulyen sòóro vt. “kite” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology
NC-Nupe kparo “grouse, partridge” Skinner 194
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic t’awos “pheasant, peacock” Leslau 1976 234
NS-Songhay (Djerma = Koroboro) tyurò “bird” Greenberg 1966 134
A.2b.2
W. Chadic-Bole-Tangale-Dera yáwè pl. yápin “chicken” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 70
W. Chadic- S. Bauci- Jimi yabo “chicken” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 70
44
W. Chadic-Ron (Fyer) yad’ú “Vogel” [bird] Jungraithmayr 1970 90

W. Chadic-Bole-Tangale-Tangale yaabe “chicken” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 70
A.2b.1
IE-Pashto char-charru “a hen sparrow” Raverty 359
Proto-Altaic *kiăro “crow, raven” sàru “a bird of prey” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Balkar, Karaim, Middle Turkic tawuk / Altaic-Uzbek təwuk “hen, fowl”
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish tavuk Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology http://starling.rinet.ru./c
A.2b.2
IE-Sanskrit gaura-titiri m. “a kind of partridge” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Hindi gauraiya “sparrow” Scudiere 156
/
Swadesh “bird” E. Chadic-Masa Egyptian Songhay
A.2c.1 Chinese Group-Koyra, tcheru (Gao)
-MSC chio / tsio Zayse “vulture, círów /
(WG) “small birds” ts’ilo “kite, hawk” kite, círówà
ts’io (WG) Skinner 245 glede” “oiseau”
“the magpie, jackdaw, Budge [bird]
jay and similar birds” v.2 909 cirów bi
Mathews #1184 169 “pintade”
chiu (WG) [guinea
“the pigeon” fowl]
Mathews #1200 172 Ducroz 53
A.2c.2 W. Chadic-Hausa Proto-AA Egyptian NS- C.
TB-Kiranti-Kulung shirwàa f. *c̟ir(aʕ)- tchera-t Songhay Khoisan-
cirwa “black kite “bird of prey” “hawk, (Koroboro) Tsika
“swallow”[bird] (hawk)” Militarev / falcon, čiraa ʒìrá
Starostin, S. Newman, P. Stolbova vulture, “bird” “bird”
Kiranti Etymology 2007 186 2007 kite” Heath Starostin,
[Disyllabic corresp.] Skinner 245 *sir- Budge v.3 70 G. 2003 9
C. Chadic-Gude “kite” v.2 910 C.
žira “hawk” Skinner 245 Khoisan-
Skinner 245 Omotic- Naro
Proto E. Chadic Ometo- tsera
*sir- “hawk” Kachama “bird”
Stolbova, Olga č’era “bird” Ehret 1982
E. Chadic- Ehret 1995 [177]
Etymology #563. 296
A.2c.1 N. Chinese - MSC / Beijing chio / tsio (WG) “small birds”
< NS-Songhay círów ”bird”
Approximate N. Chinese etymon *círów ”bird”
A.2c.2 TB-Kiranti-Kulung cirwa “swallow”[bird]
< W. Chadic- Hausa shirwàa f. “black kite (hawk)” “kite hawk”
< NS-Songhay círówà < círów < čiraa
< C. Khoisan-Tsika ʒìrá “bird”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *ʒìrá- “bird” ~ *shìrwaa “kite hawk”26
26
Note- A.2c.1-2 (Etymon) The evidence suggests that the A.2c.2 Hausa shirwà is the proximate source of the
Kiranti cirwa. The Khoisan-Tsika ʒìrá can be plausibly proposed as the ultimate ST etymon with the shift čiraa
45

A.2c.1 TB-Tibetan kāŋciu “sparrow” kāŋ “house” (F.15b.1) Goldstein 114
A.2c.1 NS-Saharan-Songhay (Gao) cirów bi “pintade” [guinea fowl] Ducroz 53
(Dendi) tyíʀò “oiseau” [bird] tyíʀò bí “pintade” [guinea fowl] Zima 173
(Gao) cír-beeri-gisma “grande outarde d’Afrique” [the greater bustard of Africa] Ducroz 53
S. Cushitic-Alagwa, Burunge ciraʕa “bird” Militarev / Stolbova
A.2c.2
C. Khoisan-Hiechware zera Starostin, G. 2003 9
C. Khoisan-Tsua ʒera “bird” Starostin, G. 2003 9
Khoisan-Hietsho zera “bird” Ehret 1982 [177] Starostin, G. 2003 9
E. Cushitic-Oromo čirii “kind of bird” Gragg 84
E. Cushitic-Sidamo c’irre “bird” Militarev / Stolbova
A.2c.1
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *cirokej “a kind of duck”
Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
A.2c.2
IE-Pashto chirgurraey “a chicken” Raverty 360
IE-Hindi cir̝iyā “bird” m. Scudiere 20, 237
See also Supplementary Table 2 - A.2c.2
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho tʃē’rē “bird” Kobayashi Table 1 #63 2
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari tʃē’rē “bird” Kobayashi Table 2 #63 8
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali tʃē’rē “bird” Kobayashi Table 3 #63 13
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish serče “sparrow”
Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen serče “sparrow” sar “starling”
Altaic-Turkic-Chuvash śerźi “sparrow”
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *sarɨ “bird of prey, kite” “a kind of falcon” “starling” “siskin”
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur sa(r) “bird of prey”
Altaic-Turkic-Tuva sarɨ “a kind of falcon”
Altaic-Turkic-Azerbaidzhan sar “a kind of falcon” särča “sparrow”
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek sarɨ “bird of prey”
Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz sarɨ “bird of prey” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology http://starling.rinet.ru./
↓↓
ST-Languages African/AA languages- Close correspondences
A.3 AA – Chadic AA –Cushitic AA-Semitic NS NC
A.3.1 N. Chinese- W. Chadic- Hausa S. Cushitic- Semitic-
MSC / Beijing sûn sunsu “bird” Asa Aramaic
“hawk, falcon” Wu, J. 658 Bargery 2002 (Aramanic) sonqor
Manser part 1 203 tsuntsū “bird” šuʔununu m.
chún / chwún (Y) c’unc’uwa “hawk” “falcon”
“the quail” “bird” Militarev, A. Compre-
Huang 67 Wu, J. 110 Skinner 276 S. Cushitic hensive
sûnzhûn “hawk, falcon” tsuntsun-Maka Etymology Aramaic
Hakka Dict. m. “peacock” 2005 Lexicon
[Disyllabic corresp.] Newman, P. 2007 210
Old Chinese chun 2 “quail”
Sagart 1999 162
> círów > círówà occurrring in NS-Songhay, the transitional form círów being preserved in the A.2c.1 N.
Chinese-MSC chio attestation. See sound change rule –o → -owa in Newman, P. 2000 213-214
46

A.3.1 N. Chinese-MSC / Beijing chún “the quail”
< W. Chadic-Hausa c’unc’uwa “bird”
Approximate Sinitic etyma: *c’un- “bird” ~ suntsun “peacock”
A.3.1
S. Chinese-Min chun2 “hawk, falcon” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sèun / chèun “quail” Chik / Ng Lam 506 Kwan 392
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian) s’iun2 n. “quail” t’un2 / s’un2 “quail”
s’un3 / zhun3 “hawk, falcon” Hakka Dict.
A.3.1 Semitic-Written Arabic summun “quail” Wehr 503
W. Chadic-Ron (Sha) cicyen “guinea fowl” Skinner 276
Egyptian tchems “a (kind of) bird” Budge v.2 907 Skinner 276
E. Cushitic-Rendille chimbír “small bird (of any kind)” Pillinger 85, 313
E. Cushitic-Somali shimbír “bird” Awde 1999 55
A.3.1 IE-Sanskrit sunara “sparrow”. Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 A.3.1
Altaic-Mongolian shongkor “falcon”
Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh sonkar “falcon” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari tʃē’ɳē / tʃē’’ɳē “bird” Kobayashi Table 2 #63 8
↓↓
A.4 AA – Chadic AA – AA-Berber Nilo-Sah. NC
Cush.
A.4.1 S. Chinese- W. Chadic-wandara Kanuri
Kejia [Hakka] kahi “hen” kájì
Meixian) C. Chadic-Buduma “guinea fowl”
kai1 (Lau Chunfat) kāji “guinea fowl” Cyffer 1990
gai1 “chicken, hen, Skinner 142 74
cock, domestic W. Chadic-Hausa Lukas 1937
fowl” Hakka Dict. kàazā kàajī 206
S. Chinese-Yuè f. pl. “hen, chicken” Skinner 142
(Cantonese) Newman, P. 2007 kāzì
gài “chickens” 112 Kraft 349 “guinea fowl”
Chik / Ng Lam 483 Skinner 14227 Barth 202
A.4.2 Middle W. Chadic – Karekare Berber – Maba Group-
Chinese kej kezi “cock” Tuareg Maba, Masalit
“chicken” [found in Skinner 142 [Tamasheq] kùjik / kujik
the Shang ekəji “coq” “bird” Edgar 90
inscriptions] [Fr.] [cock]
TB-Bai ke1 tekəjit
“chicken” “chicken”
Sagart 1999 192 Skinner 142
27
Note- A.4.1 (Chadic-Hausa) In Hausa “when followed by a front vowel, either i(i) or e(e), the alveolars s,z and
t palatalize to sh, j and c respectively.” “Palatalization is significant both as an active process and as a historical
result of the process.” Newman, P. 2000 414). Newman uses the above-cited singular and plural forms of kàaza
i.e.kàazā → pl. kàajī “hen, chicken” to illustrate this sound change.
The table suggests that Chinese has inherited the A.4.1 NS-Kanuri/Chadic kájì / kahi form and Tibetan the
A.4.3 NS-Maba kaju form. See also Notes B.5b.1, C.31d.1 Proto-Chadic (Extended) and E.16a.1,2-4.
47
A.4.3 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Gwandara Maba Group-

kha-zhúr kàazar duuts’èe Maba
“water-hen” “stone partridge” kaju-mar
Jaschke 3728 Matsushita 1974 “cock,
kha-shúr #38 88 male bird”
“water-hen” duutsèe “stone” Edgar 290
Das 134 W. Chadic – Bedde
[Disyllabic corresp.] kazə “cock”
See also A.1a.1 Skinner 142
A.4.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] kai1, gai1 “chicken, hen, cock, domestic fowl”
< W. Chadic- Gwandara kahi “hen” / C. Chadic- Buduma kāji “guinea fowl” /
NS-Kanuri kájì “guinea fowl”
A.4.1 Tibetan kha-zuhr “water hen” < NS-Maba kaju- “cock, male bird”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *kahi / *kaji “guinea fowl” ~ * kaju- “cock, male-bird”
A.4.1
Sino-Tibetan *kaay “chicken” “root found in all ST phyla. Blench 2009b 9
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu ğâʔ “chicken” Matisoff 2003 61,146
A.4.2 S. Chinese-Min ke1 “chicken, hen, cock” Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese- MSC / Beijing jī “chicken” Sagart 1999 309 Wu, J. 309 [loss of initial kə. See A.20a.2
below] mũji “hen (of fowl)” Chen 153 mŭ “mother” ”female (animal)” Wu, J. 482
mŭgǒu “bitch” Manser 38
A.4.1 Berber-Tuareg [Tamasheq] tekahit “chicken” Skinner 142
A.4.2 W. Chadic- Karekare kezi “hen” Skinner 142 kyeezi “chicken” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 70
A.4.3
W. Chadic- Hausa kàazař dūtsèe “stone partridge” Newman, P. 2007 112
W. Chadic- Gwandara (Gitata) kazá para “stone partridge” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 70
Barth 200 (Koro) kaza / kajá fa “stone partridge” Matsushita 1974 #358 88
kaja “fowls, hen” Matsushita 1972 59
W. Chadic-Bole, Ngamo kaja “cock” Skinner 142
NS- Maba Group-Maba kájangar “partridge” Edgar 251
W. Chadic–Ngizim gâazá “hen” Schuh 73 Skinner 142 gaja “cock” Skinner 142
NS-Kanuri káza Yáráva “domestic duck” [< NC-Yoruba-Yarava] Lukas 212
NS-Maba-Kodoi kuujik “bird” Edgar 290
A.4.1 South Daic-Lao gay2 “chicken” gay2: pu6 “cock” Marcus 45, 47
A.4.2
Proto-Tai *kǝiB “chicken” Sagart 1999 192
Sanskrit A.4.2-3 keJca “kind of sparrow” kaJcula “a partridge” Cologne Lexicon.
Proto-Altaic *kiujilV “a kind of bird” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology http://starling.rinet.ru./c
A.4.3 Sanskrit kaJcula “a partridge” Cologne Lexican. See also Supplementary Table 2 A.4.3
Proto-Altaic *kùja “a kind of aquatic bird”
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *kajil- “a kind of aquatic bird”
Alytaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *kuju- “a kind of aquatic bird” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
28
Note-A.4.3 (Tibetan) A water hen is any of small aquatic birds of the genus Gallinula distinguished from rails
by a frontal shield and having a resemblance to domestic hens (also called marsh hen, swamp hen].
48
The two A.5a-b tables show that all three proto-Cushitic root stems *pîr- / *pûr- / *pâr-
reconstructed by Ehret are attested in Tibetan, and two of these match Benedict’s proto-TB
reconstructions. The A.5a.1 fir- / phir- / pir root “fly” is found in all four African language families.
It is also noteworthy that the three variant forms in Tibetan, i.e. A.5a pir, A.5b.1 pur and A.5b.2
h’phar, match variant forms in Chadic languages.

A.5a-b Afro-Asiatic AA -Cushitic AA-Semitic, Nilo- NC
– Chadic Berber Saharan
Swadesh “to fly” W. Chadic - Proto- Egyptian Songhay NC-Fulfulde
A.5a.1 Hausa Cushitic pi (Djeene) [Fulani]
Proto-TB fira *pîr- / “to fly, firri “fly, fīra
*pur ~ *pir v. “fly, soar” *pûr- to ascend” soar” “fly, flee”
“fly” Skinner 69 “to fly, Budge Heath Taylor 55
Benedict #398 jump” v.1 234 v.2 66
1972 83, 181, 205
TB-Tibetan C. Chadic – Proto-AA Berber- Maba NC-Proto-W.
phir = “fly” Daba, *-pîr- Schilha Group- Sudanic
Goldstein 2001 Musgoy “to fly” firri “fly” Masalit pil
172 mbir Proto-Omotic Mukarovsky fir-ig fly” “to fly”
TB-Tibetic- “fly, jump” *pir- “to fly” 177 Edgar 173 Ruhlen 1994
Tshona-Cuona C. Chadic – Ehret 1995 Greenberg 317
Mama Mulwi #51 96 1966 57
phir “fly” biri “fly”, N. Omotic-
Matisoff 2003 397 Stolbova, Oyda
C. Chinese-Wu Olga fiir “fly”
fi1 “fly, flit” C. Chadic Mukarovsky
Hakka Dict. Etymology 177
A.5a.2 Songhay NC-Mande-
S. Chinese-Yuè (Gao) Samo (Kouy,
(Cantonese) fèelè Djurum)
fèi “fly (as birds)” “planer” pεrε v.
Kwan 193 [to hover, “jump, fly”
“fly” soar, glide] Mukarovsky
“hang in the air” Ducroz 84 177
Chik / Ng Lam
493
A.5a.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *pir v. “fly” / TB-C. Tibetan ‘phir-ba “to fly ”
< Proto-Afro-Asiatic *-pîr- “to fly” / Proto-Cushitic *pîr- “to fly, jump” / Proto-Omotic *pir-
“to fly” / Berber- Schilha / NS-Songhay firri “fly, soar” / NC-Fulfulde (Fulani) fīra “fly, flee”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *pir- “to fly”
A.5a.1
TB-C. Tibetan (Tsang province) ‘phir-ba “to fly ” Jaschke 356
TB-Gurung pihr-i-bā “fly” Matisoff 2003 397, 607
TB- Bodo/Garo-Dimasa, Bodo bir “to fly” Benedict 1972 83 Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Garo bil “to fly” Matisoff 2003 501
TB-W. Kiranti-Bahing byer ”to fly” Benedict 1972 83 Matisoff 2003 399
TB-Tani-Miri ber ”to fly” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
49
TB-Tamangic-Thakali pihr-la ”to fly” Matisoff 2003 397

TB-Tamangic-Gurung pihr-i-ba “fly” Matisoff 2003 397
A.5a.2
N. Chinese- MSC / Beijing fēi “fly, flit” “hover or flutter in the air” Wu, J. 193 “fly (as a bird)”
Wang, F. 144
C. Chinese-Wu fE1 v. “fly; flutter” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Min pê ”to fly” Bodman 1987 v.1 345, v.2 164
S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) beih ”to flee from” Po-fei Huang 359
A.5a.1
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *bir- “to fly, jump” Militarev, A. Afroasiatic Etymology
W. Chadic-Angas pir “to open, extend, as the wings of a vulture before rising to fly” Foulkes 265
E. Cushitic-Afar pərr “jump” Militarev A. Saho-Afar Etymology
W. Chadic–Gwandara, C.Chadic – Gude fər / pər “flying of birds” Skinner 69
C. Cushitic-Boyo fìry “flee” Greenberg 1966 57
N. Omotic-Ometo *pir “to fly” Ehret 1995 #51 96
N. Cushitic-Beja [Bedawye ] fir “fliegen” [fly] Reinisch p. 81 “fly” Mukarovsky 177 ;
Proto-Bedauye (Beja) *bir- “ jump” Militarev, A. Proto Bedauye Etymology
NS-Songhay (Gao) fírrìm “sauter brusquement, surnager” [to jump suddenly, to float] Ducroz 88
Semitic- Arabic jafiru (IPA) v. simple past “escape” Merriam-Webster Arabic 51
part 2 349
E. Cushitic-Oromo birbir “restless hovering (of a bird) Foot 7
NS-Kənzi firr / firri “fliegen” [fly] Skinner 70
C. Chadic-Masa pìr “s’elever au dessus du sol” “bondir, sauter ” “voler” Caitucoli 130
E. Cushitic-Rendille firda “flee, run away, escape (from some danger)” fírid “flight, fleeing, escape”
Pillinger 115 káfirda “flee from, un away from, escape from” Pillinger 174
E.Cushitic-Gedeo birret “to fly” Hudson 66
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari bir baya “fly” Leslau 1963. 44
Omotic-Janjero fillo “jump” Skinner 69
A.5a.2
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) firaar “flight, escape” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 349
NC-Igbo fé “fly” Ruhlen 1994 317
E. Chadic-Dangaleat [Dangla] bēré “jump while running”
E. Chadic-Bidiya ber “sauter” [jump] Stolbova, Olga E. Chadic-Etymology
A.5a.1
Proto-Altaic *p’īle / *p’ili “to fly, soar, flap” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Kartvelian-Svan per- “to fly” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology
/
Swadesh “to fly” Proto-Chadic Proto-Cushitic NS-Kanuri
A.5b.1 *pərə *pîr- / fə́r / fə́́rét
TB-Tibetan “to fly, jump” *pûr- ideo. “describes
‘phur-ba Newman, P. “to fly, jump” sudden movement,
“to fly, jump” 1977 #51 2 6 Ehret 1995 take-off into flight”
Jaschke 356 Ehret 1995 #51 96 Cyffer 1990 47
pur “to fly” #51 96 E. Cushitic- Burji Hutchison
Goldstein 704 bûrr- v. 1981 348, 349
TB-Kham / “fly”
Magar-Magar
bhur-ko /
50
TB-Kham / E. Cushitic-
Magar-Kham Kambata
bhur-nyā “fly” v. bûrriy- v.
Matisoff 2003 397 “fly” Hudson 66
A.5b.2 W. Chadic – Proto-Cushitic Semitic- Anywa [Anuak]
TB-Tibetan Goemai *pâr- Hebrew pʌʌr
h’phar-wa (Ankwe) “to fly, jump” parakh “to jump”
“to leap up, to fly pʔaar Proto-Omotic v. past Reh 64
up, “jump” *par- “flew off” Dinka
to bound” Greenberg “to fly” Baltsan 335 par “to fly”
Das 848 1966 57 S. Omotic- Dime Ruhlen
par p’ār far- 1994 317
“to bounce up, “fly, soar” “to jump”
to fly up” Skinner 69 Ehret 1995
Goldstein 703 #51 9
See also set E.23a.3 E. Chadic– N. Cushitic- Beja NS-Nuer
(Tibetan) Sumray [Bedawi] fār bar
pâr “fly” “jump, hop” “to run away,
Jungraithmayr Greenberg to fly,
1994 v 2 211 1966 57 to flee”
Reinisch 81 Huffman [5]
A.5b.3 Proto-W.
N. Chinese-MSC Chadic
pâo *paw-
“run, “jump”
run away” Skinner 69
“escape, flee”
Wu, J. 510
S. Chinese-Yuè
(Cantonese)
paau “to jump,
to leap”
Chik / Ng Lam 439
A.5b.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *pur v. “fly” / TB-Tibetan ‘phur-ba “to fly, jump”
< Proto-Chadic *pərə “to fly” / W. Chadic – Gwandara, C. Chadic – Gude fər / pər “flying of
birds”
A.5b.2-3
TB-Tibetan ‘phar-wa “to leap up, to fly up, to bound”
< W. Chadic – Goemai pʔaar “jump” / S. Omotic- Dime far- “to jump” /
N. Cushitic- Beja [Bedawi] fa:r “jump, hop” / Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi) farr / farra “to flee, run
off, run away, escape”
N. Chinese-MSC pâo “”run, run away” “escape, flee” / S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) paau
“to jump, to leap”
< Proto-W. Chadic *paw- “jump”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *pʔaar ~ *paw- “to fly” “to jump, to fly up”
A.5b.1
TB-Bodo/Garo-Dimasa bur “fly” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Newari (Dolakha) bw‫כ‬r- “fly” v. Matisoff 2003 397
51
TB-Chamling burɦ- “fly” Matisoff 2003 397

Proto-Chinese pur “fly” Matisoff 2003 505
A.5b.2 TB- Abor-Miri ber “to fly” Benedict 1972 83
A.5b.3 Old Chinese *pi̭wər “fly” Karlgren GSR #580a
A.5b.1
NS-Tubu [Teda] bur “fliegen” [fly] Lukas 1953 189
C. Chadic- Yedina fər “fly” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 210
A.5b.2
Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi) farr / farra “to flee, run off, run away, escape” Greenberg 1966 57
Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 348
NS-Kanuri farngîn / farjîn “jump, fly” Cyffer 1990 43 Hutchison 153
W. Chadic–Kofyar paar “fly” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 210
E. Cushitic- Oromo barr-isu “volare” [to fly] Borello 47
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic, Harari bärrärä “fly, ”to soar” Leslau 1976 89
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Tigre bärra “fly” Leslau 1963 46
C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur varr / verr “envol d’oiseaux,” [taking flight (of birds)]” Barreteau 250
C. Chadic-Fali Jilvu vàru “run” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006
Semitic-Aramaic far “flee” Greenberg 1966 57 (Yemeni) mafarr “escape, flight” Qafisheh 463
Semitic-Syriac parr “run away” Leslau 1979 v. 3 155
W. Chadic-Angas piar “jump, leap” Greenberg 1966
W. Chadic-Hausa fař-fař ideo. “moving up and down of wings by birds” Newman, P. 2007 61
Egyptian apa “to make to fly, to fly” pa / pai “to fly, to jump” Budge v.1 42, 230
A.5b.2 IE- Sanskrit parAgA “to go away, fly, escape” parApat “to fly away or past, escape, depart”
parAdru “to run, away, flee, escape” Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 A.5b.2
↓↓
A.6a-d AA- Afro-Asiatic –Cushitic AA-Semitic, Nilo-Saharan NC
Chadic Berber
A.6a.1 E. Cushitic- Afar W. Semitic- Kanuri
S. Chinese-Kejia sangise v. Ethiopian- yesanggîn
[Hakka] (Meixian) “castrate” Tigrinya “castrate
san1 “geld” (an animal), geld” sängäwä (domestic
Hakka Dict. Parker / Hayward 188 “castrate” animal) by
N. Chinese-MSC E. Cushitic- Oromo Leslau 1979 surgery
shàn (WG) sang-omu v.3 552 or pounding
“to geld a horse or “essere castrato” W. Semitic- the testicles”
ass” [to be castrated] Ethiopian- Cyffer 1990
Mathews #5646 776 Borello 368 Amharic sänga 190
“castrate or spay” E. Cushitic- Hadiyya, “steer, castrated”
Wu, J. 595 Alaba sanga Leslau 1976 56
“castrated animal” “ox”
Leslau 1979 v.3 552 Sasse 1982163
A.6a.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] san1 “geld”
< E. Cushitic- Afar sangise “castrate” (an animal), geld” / South (Ethiopian) Semitic- Tigrinya
sängäwä “castrate” / NS-Kanuri yesanggîn “castrate (domestic animal) either by surgery or
pounding the testicles” / W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic sänga “steer, castrated”
Approximate Sinitic etyma: *sang- “to castrate (an animal)” ~ *sanga “ox” “gelded animal”
52

A.6a.1 TB-Kiranti-Limbu sakma vt. “castrate” van Driem 1987 507
N. Chinese-MSC shēng “domestic animal” shēngchu “livestock” Wu, J. 613 DeFrancis 817
S. Chinese-Min ciēng-sî “domestic animal, livestock” Bodman 1987 v.2. 127
A.6a.1
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari, Tigrinya sänga “castrated animal” sängaaša “castrate an animal by
crushing his nerves” Leslau 1979 v.3 552, 1963 141
E. Cushitic-Oromo sanga “gelding, bullock, ox” Sasse 1982 163 Gragg 351
E. Cushitic- Afar sànga / sànka “gelded animal” Parker / Hayward 188
E. Cushitic-Oromo shanga “castrato (in generale de buoi, cavalli, asini)” [castrated, generally of
oxen, horses, donkeys] sangomsu “castrare” [to castrate”] Borello 368
A.6a.1 IE-Sanskrit sanDhaya “to castrate, to emasculate” etc. Cologne Lexicon.
/
A.6b.1 S. Chinese-Yuè C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur
(Cantonese) ‘gusaŋ
sàng / sàngchūk “taureau”
“livestock” [bull]
Chik / Ng Lam 292 Barreteau 446
Kwan 275 See also A.21.a.3
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu
sanga “buffalo”
Proto-Kiranti *sang
“buffalo” Starostin, S.
Kiranti Etymology
A.6b.2 W. Chadic- Hausa E. Cushitic-Oromo Egyptian
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu sānìyā “cow” sa’a / sa’ani n. sam
sana “buffalo” Newman, P. 2007 178 “mucca, vacca” “wild bull”
Starostin, S. Jungraithmayr 1994 [milk cow, cow] Budge v.2 636
Kiranti Etymology v.2 9 Borello 362
Swadesh “meat” W. Chadic – Hausa Proto-Semitic
A.6b.3 shānu “cattle” *šaʔn-
TB- Jingpho [Kachin] pl. of sāniya “small cattle”
šàn1 “flesh, meat, deer” Newman, P. Militarev /
Benedict 1972 46 2007 178 Stolbova
A.6b.1 Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) sàng “livestock” / TB-Proto-Kiranti *sang “buffalo”
< E. Cushitic- Oromo sanga “ox” /
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *sanga “ox” “buffalo”
A.6b.1
S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) sānghau “cattle” Po-fei Huang 434
Chinese- Wu seŋ1 “livestock; sacrificial animal” Hakka Dict.
TB-Kiranti-Limbu s‫כ‬ŋwʔel n. “male buffalo” van Driem 1987 515
53
A.6b.3 Proto-Tibeto-Burman šán “flesh, meat” Matisoff 475

Old Chinese *šiĕn Karlgren GSR #386a-c “body”29
C. Chinese-Wu seŋ1 “body, trunk” “one’s own person, oneself” Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC shēn “body” Wu, J. 607 Manser part 2 394
shēnti “body” Wang, F. 415 [Compound of this root and that of C.8a.5]
S.Chinese-Min sîn-khŭ “body (physical)” Bodman 1987 v. 2 1 72
A.6b.1 E. Cushitic- Burji sáng-a “ox” Sasse 1982 163
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Masqan, Gogot, Selti, Wolane) sanga “ox fattened to be eaten, big bull”
Leslau 1979 v.3 552, 163
E. Cushitic-Gedeo sanga “ox for beef” Hudson 259
A.6b.2 S. Cushitic- Ma’a (Mbugu) šane “he-goat” Militarev / Stolbova
A.6b.3
Berber–Tuareg [Tamasheq] isan pl. “viande” [meat] Skinner 22
Semitic-Akkadian sͅēnū “gregge di ovini” [flock of ovines] Skinner 223
Asian non-ST languages with correspondences to the African/AA roots:
A.6b.2 IE-Pashto sāndda “a male buffalo” Raverty 573, 2d ed. 618
IE-Sanskrit sanDa “a bull fit for breeding” sanDhaya “bull” Cologne Lexicon. .
A.6b.3 IE-Hindi jānvar “animal”m. Scudiere 10, 246 janavara “animal” Kobayashi Table 2 #91 8
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari ʤanowar “animal” Kobayashi Table 2 #91 8
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali ʤanowar “animal” Kobayashi Table 3 #9 15
/
Swadesh “meat” W. Chadic – Hausa E. Cushitic- Sidamo
A.6c.1 Chinese-Kejia sâ “bull” sâ “a cow”
[Hakka] sa1 “a large-size buffalo” Greenberg 1966 54 Gasparini 281
Hakka Dict. Skinner 223 E. Cushitic-Rendille
TB-Chin-Lushai sa “animal” / “ox, bull” saáh “cow”
śa “flesh, meat” Benedict 1972 46 Newman, P. 2007 173 Pillinger 253
Starostin, S. ST Etymology W. Chadic – Gwandara sarsar
TB-Written Burmese (Toni, Koro) “dried, meat”
sâ “flesh, meat, animal” sâ’ “bull” Pillinger 256
Matisoff 2003 448 Matsushita 1974 E. Cushitic-Somali
sà “beast” Benedict 1972 46, 90 #274 74 sa: “cow”
TB-Kiranti-Limbu C. Chadic– Kuri Greenberg 1966 55
sa n. “meat, flesh” sa “cow”
van Driem 1987 504 Greenberg 1966 54
A.6c.2 W. Chadic – Gwandara N. Cushitic- Beja
Proto-Tibeto-Burman (Karshi) šâ’ “cow” [Bedawi]
*sya = *śa Matsushita ša “Fleisch” [meat]
“flesh, meat, animal” Benedict 1972 #181 1972 105 š’a “Kuh” [cow]
46, 168, 207 1974 #274 7430 Reinisch 207, 208
29
Note- A.6b.3 Old Chinese (Extended) Benedict and Matisoff consider the Old Chinese š��“body” morpheme
1
to be cognate to the A.6b.3 TB-Jingpho šàn “flesh, meat, deer”. Benedict 1972 99, Matisoff 2003 448, 449 note c.
1 1
The A.6b.1 C.Chinese-Wu Extended morphemes seŋ meaning “livestock” and A.6b.1 Extended seŋ “body,
trunk” “one’s own person, oneself” confirm the association of the two meanings in Chinese also. The two meanings
are expressed by slightly different morphemes in N.Chinese-MSC.In MSC shēng means domestic animal”,
whereas shēn means “body”. The use of this root to designate both the human and animal body seems to be a
particularity of Bejing and Wu, but in this respect they are similar to the dual semantics existing in the C.8a.2
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *dzik- “body, meat” root. See also Note A.6d.2-3 below.
54
TB-Tibetan ša “ox, cow”

sha “flesh, meat” Greenberg 1966 55
Jaschke 554 Goldstein 1089 Das 1226 ša‫“ כ‬boeuf, vache,
shaa / shāā viande” [ox, cow,
“deer” meat]
Goldstein 1090, 1106 Jungraithmayr 1994
v.1 116
A.6c.1 TB-Written Burmese sâ “flesh, meat, animal”
< W. Chadic – Hausa sâ “bull” / E. Cushitic- Sidamo sâ “a cow”
A.6c.2 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *śa “flesh, meat, animal”
< W. Chadic – Gwandara šâ’ “cow” /
N. Cushitic- Beja ša “Fleisch” [flesh, meat], š’a “Kuh” [cow] / Proto-Cushitic *šāc - “cow”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *sâ- ~ ša “flesh, meat” “cow, buffalo”
A.6c.1 TB-Newari sa “meat, flesh” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Meithei sá “animal, flesh, body” Matisoff 2003 32
TB- Naga-Tangkhul a-sa “flesh” Matisoff 2003 110
TB-Nung [Rawang] śa “meat, flesh” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
A.6c.2
TB-Tibetan sha-ba / shwa-ba “hart, stag” Jaschke 556 bcha-ma “cattle or livestock kept for
slaughter” Das 1252
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] šat2 “deer” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-S. Loloish-Bisu ʔaŋ-ʃà “meat” Matisoff 2003 109
C. Loloish-Lahu šā “animal, game” ɔ‫כ‬šā “meat” Matisoff 2003 108
A.6c.1
E. Cushitic-Oromo sa’a / saawa “cow” Gragg 8 sa’a / sa’ani n. “mucca, vacca”
[milk cow, cow] Borello 362
C. Chadic–Kotoko-Logone nàsáá “cow” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 93
E. Cushitic-Afar sà “large kudu deer” Parker / Hayward 188
E. Cushitic-Burji sáa “cow” Sasse 1982 161
E. Cushitic-Somali sā‫“ כ‬boeuf, vache, viande” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 116
E. Cushitic-Afar saaҁ “cattle” Militarev. A. Saho-Afar Etymology /
E. Cushitic-Boni saʔ “cow” Sasse 161
Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi) lašša “carcass, animal body dressed for meat” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
part 2 421
E. Cushitic-Sidamo saada “cattle” Hudson 37 “cattle (including also sheep, goats, asses), herd,
flocks, property” Gasparini 281
Egyptian sáab “a castrated animal for sacrifice” Budge v.2 641
W. Chadic – Ron (Daffo) safat “Tiere” [animal] Jungraithmayr 1970 220
C. Chadic – Kola zà “cow” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 93
W. Chadic-Ngizim tlà “cow” Schuh 16131
E. Cushitic-Rendille sar “living body of a person or animal”
gasar “buffalo” Pillinger 122, 256
30
Note- A.6c.2 (Chadic-Gwandara) For background information on the domestication of cattle in Africa and
Asia see Chapter 6 section 6.2.2.1-3, Chapter 8 note 8.1.3.1 and chapter 9 sections 9.3, 9.7.
31
Note- A.6c.1 (Chadic-Ngizim Extended) The Ngizim tlà morpheme appears to be an intermediate form between
the very widespread A.6b.2 AA ša form, and the more conservative A.12b.1 (Extended) Proto-Semitic
*ɬ’ (*ɬa’) “sheep” and Proto-Chadic *hla “cow”.
55
E. Cushitic-Kambata gasara “buffalo” Hudson 8, 318

C. Chadic– Margi hsa “cow” Greenberg 1966 54
A.6c.2 Proto-Cushitic (Ehret) *šāc- “cow” Skinner 223
Omotic- Janjero aša “meat” Greenberg 1966 59 aša “meat” Skinner [1]
W. Chadic- Ron (Kulere) sháshá “gazelle” Jungraithmayr 1970 355
A.6c.1 IE-Sanskrit kāsara “buffalo” sahari, sadhi “a bull” saras / sarasvat / kāsara “a buffalo”
ushā “a cow” Cologne Lexicon.
A.6c.2 IE-Bengali shār̝ “ox” Thompson 116 See also Supplementary Table 2 A.6c.1
/
A.6d.1 C. Chadic- E. Cushitic- A.6d.1
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu Musgu Gedeo, Hadiyya Niger-
saŸa “buffalo” saye saayya “cow” Congo-
[Disyllabic corresp.] “cow” Hudson 44, 258 Soninke
TB-Proto-Kiranti Greenberg E. Cushitic- sya niaya
*saŸ “buffalo” 1966 541 Oromo saaina “cow”
Starostin, S. saayana pl. Greenberg
Kiranti Etymology “cow” Hudson 44 1966 16
A.6d.2 Swadesh E. Cushitic- Somali Semitic- NS–Kanuri
“meat” sac “cow” Ethiopic- cágən
TB-Tibetan Awde 1999 45 Amharic “domestic
tsag-sha səg animals
“flesh of larger E. Cushitic- Tsamai “meat, which are
animals” sagan-ku flesh” eaten”
Jaschke 444 32 “meat (animal)” Leslau 1976 cágə / cágə̂
tsag “the yak” Mukarovsky 256 59, 406 “muscle,
tshag-sha E. Cushitic- Afar sinew”
“yak beef” Das 1019 saga Cyffer 1990
ɣyag “the yak“ “cow [vache]” 24
(Bos grunniens) Parker / Hayward
“reckoned by the 185
Hindus among the
antelopes”
Jaschke 516, 668
32
Note- A.6d.2-3 (Middle Chinese). The A.6d.3 Middle Chinese �z‫כ‬juk “meat” and its Egyptian, Mande sug
“flesh, meat” cognates may be related to the C.8c.2 Chadic cúk-“body”. The Cushitic/Semitic/Chadic sag /
shag- / shəg / šug morphemes of the present word family refer to the bodies of animals, especially birds and
bovids, whereas the C.8c.2 cúk- / sug- forms refer to the human body. The C.8a.1-2 Proto-AA *dzi- / *dzik-
and Proto-Chadic forms mean both the human and animal body. Contemporary Chadic forms refer to the body
generically. See also Note A.6b.3 above.
The evidence suggests that the C.8a.2 jìk- and the present A.6d.2 sheg- / shag- roots generated the parallel
7
variants jek / chak / zak / cè°k meaning “bird”found in tables A.1b and A.1c. The Chinese character used to
represent jek has a base radical which signifies “bird”. Here there may be a convergence in Chinese of the two
different roots most of whose reflexes are phonetically close, and have different proximate African origins, though
they give evidence of being ultimately related. It is noteworthy that the roots denoting “bird” in A.1b, and
A.1c.1-5. closely parallel those meaning “body” in the present A6d.2 set and sets C.8a.2, C.8c.2. Therefore, taking
into account that birds and bovids were hunted as a substantial source of food, these first syllables of roots
meaning “bird” as in A.1b.1-3 may be reflexes of the AA proto-roots meaning “animal body, meat”. Under this
hypothesis the disyllabic A.1b.1-2 morphemes tsakar- etc. are compounds of the present A.6d.2 tsak-“meat,
body” root with the A.1a kar-“bird”root. See also notes A.1a.1, A.1c.3, A.9a.1, A.6b.3 and set A.1c.1.
56
A.6d.3 E. Chadic- E. Cushitic-Barso Egyptian Semitic- N. Mande-

Middle Chinese Kera kú- soʔo sug Arabic Susu
�z‫כ‬juk súki “meat” “a piece of šugga sugbe
“meat” “meat” Militarev / flesh” “a side of “meat
Norman 230 Mukarovsk Stolbova Budge 652 meat” (animal)
y 256 Dict. of Iraqi Muka-
kú- “cow” Arabic 245 rovsky 256
(A.21a.3)
A6d.2 TB-Tibetan tsag-sha “flesh of larger animals” / tsag “the yak”, tsag-bo “yak that is killed
for food” “cattle to be killed for meat”
< E. Cushitic- Afar saga “cow” / W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic səga “meat, flesh” /
NS-Kanuri cágə / cágə̂ “muscle, sinew”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon: *tsag- “flesh, meat” “bovid”
A.6d.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *dzay “cattle, domestic animal” Matisoff 2003 209
TB-E. Kiranti- Sampang sya “flesh” Benedict 1972 46
TB-Kanauri śya “flesh, meat, game” Benedict 46
TB-Karenic-Pho (Delta) s’əyɑ4 “meat, flesh” Matisoff 2003 481
A.6d.2
TB-Tibetan shagee “dressed carcass of an animal” “share of meat” Goldstein 1089
dzag� “an offering of meat -- to deities” Goldstein 903
sagbun “body” Goldstein 955
shagee / shāgöö “muscles of the body” Goldstein 1089
A.6d.1 W. Chadic- Ron (Bokkos) hòsay “Büffel” [buffalo] Jungraithmayr 1970 142
A.6d.2
E. Cushitic- Kambata saʕa “cow” Hudson 44 Parker / Hayward 89
E. Cushitic-Afar saq “small stock (animal)” Parker / Hayward 184
E. Cushitic-Afar xagar “body” Parker / Hayward 89
Proto E. Cushitic *shac “cow” Sasse 1982 161
W. Chadic-Karekare shegga “wild animal” Skinner 274
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Ge’ez səga “meat (animal)” Mukarovsky 256 See also C.8c.2 (Tibetan)
A.6d.3
W. Chadic- Hausa tsōkàa “muscle, a piece of (lean) meat other than the entrails” Newman, P.
2007 209 “prime meat, flesh, muscle” Skinner 274
C. Chadic– Musgu, Musgum ksög “Fleisch” Skinner 274 soog / ksoog “meat (animal)”
Mukarovsky 256 ; soog, ksoog Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 34 ”meat (animal)”
A.6d.1 IE-Sanskrit sairiba “a buffalo”
A.6d.2 IE-Sanskrit zakkari “a bull” jaGgala “meat” chāga / chāgala “a goat” Cologne Lexicon.
chā’ga “ram, goat” Kuiper 1955 161 See also Supplementary Table 2 A.6d.1-2
/
A.6e.1 W. Chadic – E. Cushitic- Berber- Egyptian S.Khoisan-
S. Chinese-Yuè Boghom Oromo Tuareg sau |Nu-‖’en
(Cantonese) sau / saw sa’a / saawa [Tamasheq] “sheep” tsau(ma) “calf”
sau “a beast or “meat” sa’ani / esaw Budge Khoisan-!Kung
animal” Jungraith- saawi “taureau” v.2 zãũ “calf”
Chik / Ng Lam mayr 1994 n. “cow” [bull] 642 Ruhlen 1994
297 v.2 232 Gragg 8 Skinner 258 #192 49
57
A.6e.2 W. Chadic- Semitic-

S. Chinese-Yuè Ngizim Aramaic
(Cantonese) sáurák šwrh-
sàu “meat “cow”
“dried meat” (in strips, Militarev, A.
Chik / Ng Lam dried)” Semitic
375 Schuh 145 Etymology
2006
Swadesh “meat” C. Chadic Proto-East NC-N. Mande-
A.6e.3 TB-Lolo- – Buduma Cushitic Malinke,
Burmese-Maru su *so’- “meat” Mandinka
ŝò “flesh, meat” “meat” Skinner 235 sùbu
Matisoff 2003 E. Chadic “meat (animal)”
165 – Barein Mukarovsky
TB-Tibetan sū meat” 256
su̱ù “quarter of Greenberg
a carcass of 1966 59
meat” Mukarovsky
Goldstein 970 256
A.6e.1 S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) sau “a beast or animal”
< E. Cushitic-Oromo saawa, saawi “cow” / N.Khoisan-!Kung zãũ “calf”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *saw- “cow, calf”
A.6e.1 TB-Tibetan s‫“ ̀ ככ‬cattle, livestock” Goldstein 962
A.6e.3 N. Chinese-MSC shòu “beast, animal” Wu, J. 633
shòuxing lit. beast nature “beastly, crude, uncivilized” DeFrancis 855 [Compound of this root and
D.16.1 xìng “nature, character”]
A.6e.1 E. Chadic – Lame šíàú “bull, cow” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 232
C. Khoisan-Nama tsãub “calf” Ruhlen 1994 #192 49
Proto-S. Cushitic *ĉawr- “bull” Militarev / Stolbova
Proto-W. Chadic *ĉaw- “meat” Stolbova, Olga West Chadic Etymology
NS-Kanuri sáuré “large herd of cattle” Cyffer 1990 155
A.6e.2 W. Chadic-Barawa šàu- “meat” Militarev / Stolbova
E. Chadic- Ndam suwi “cow” Greenberg 1966 54
A.6e.2 C. Chadic–Boka ŝuwə “meat”
Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006
C. Chadic- Mandara, Gidder šo:a / soa: “meat” Greenberg 1966 59
A.6e.3 C. Chadic-Musgum sō “meat” Militarev / Stolbova soog, soo ”meat (animal)”
Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 34
E. Cushitic-Somali soʔ “meat” Militarev / Stolbova so’ “meat (animal)” Mukarovsky 256
Semitic-Hebrew shor n. m. “ox, bull” Baltsan 404, 498
A.6e.1 IE-Sanskrit saura “a cow” saurabheya “a bull” surabhi “any cow” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Pashto saur “a bull” Raverty 301 See also Supplementary Table 2 A.6e.1
A.6e.3
IE-Bengali mangsho “meat” Thompson 111 gorur mangsho “beef” Thompson 87
shukorer mangsho “pork” Thompson 118
↓↓
58

A.7a-b AA – AA-Cushitic, AA- NS NC
Chadic Proto-AA Semitic etc.
Swadesh C. Chadic- Proto- Highland, Egyptian NC-S.W.
“to kill” Glavda N. Highland shā Mande-
A.7a.1 tsa E. Cushitic “to cut, to slay” Bandi, Loma
TB-Tibetan “kill” *ša- “to kill” / Budge v.2 730 saa / sa v.
shā / shā shā Muka- *ca- “to kill” shaā “die (kill)”
“to slaughter, rovsky 141 Ehret 1995 “to smite,
to kill animals” #480 264 to conquer”
Goldstein 1092, 1110 E. Cushitic- Budge v.2 723 NC-N.
N. Chinese-MSC Sidamo Mande-
shā shâ Bambara
“kill, slaughter” “to kill” sà v.
Wu, J. 590 Gasparini 298 “die (kill)
“to kill, to murder” Mukarovsky
Mathews #5615 772 141
A.7a.2 Proto-Afro-Asiatic Semitic-Hebrew NC-N.
C. Chinese-Wu *-jaʕ- or shakhat v. Mande-Bozo
saʔ7 v. *-dzaʕ- “slaughtered” sa v.
“kill, slaughter” “to kill (animal)” Baltsan 384 “die (kill)
“murder, Ehret 1995 “slaughter” Mukarovsky
put to death” #480 264 Oxford English- 141
“fight” Hebrew Dict.86
Hakka Dict.
A.7a.3 Egyptian
N. Chinese-MSC shaai
zăi “slaughter”
“slaughter, butcher” shāi
Wu, J 862 “to cut, to slay”
Chinese-Kejia Budge v.2
[Hakka] 723, 730
cai2
“kill”
Hakka Dict.
A.7a.1 TB-Tibetan shā / shā shā “to slaughter, to kill animals” / N. Chinese-MSC shā “kill,
slaughter” “fight, go into battle” “to kill, to destroy, to murder”
< Proto- N. Highland E. Cushitic *ša- “to kill” / E. Cushitic- Sidamo shâ “to kill” /
C. Chadic-Glavda tsa “kill”
A.7a.3 N. Chinese-MSC zăi “slaughter, butcher”
< W. Chadic- Ngizim zàyát “slaughter animal” / Egyptian shaai “slaughter, slayer”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *shâ ~ zày- “to kill, slaughter”
A.7a.1
TB-Tibetan
bça “to slaughter, to kill” Das 1252 ;
bsad “killed” past aspect Hodge 31
tsaàluù / shaluù “sheep to be slaughtered for meat, to be killed” Goldstein 873, 1110
bshá-ba bshas perf. “to slaughter, to kill (anumals for food)” Jaschke 567 Das 1252
59
N. Chinese-MSC shāsi “kill” Manzer 244

A.7a.3 N. Chinese-MSC zăishā “slaughter, butcher” Wu J. 862 [Compound of this root and A.7a.1.]
A.7a.1
C. Chadic-Ngweshe ts’awe “kill” Mukarovsky 141
S. Cushitic-Dahalo tsaa’- “die” Mukarovsky 141
W. Chadic-Ngizim zàyát (vn. of zìidú) “slaughter animal by cutting throat ;
(with human object) “execute ” Schuh 184
A.7a.2 Semitic-Arabic jaqtulu (IPA) v. “kill” Merriam-Webster Arabic 82
A.7a.2 Sanskrit chagh “to smite or slay” “kill” jaghnu “striking, killing ” etc. Cologne Lexicon
See also Supplementary Table 2 A.7a.2
/
Swadesh “to kill” W. Chadic- Semitic- Ge’ez
A.7b.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman Gwandara qašä
*g-sat = *g-săt “kill, fight, strike” kíša “to kill” “throw down, make fall”
Benedict 1972 #58 112, 207 Matsushita 1974 Skinner 139
“The general Tibeto-Burman sense is 65 Egyptian
“kill by striking” Benedict 1972 112 kàshe-kàshe ketcha ketcha
33
Matisoff 2003 136, 335 n.m. pl. “killing” “to kill, to throw down”
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] gəsat ~ kəsat Skinner 139 Budge v.2 799
“to fight, a fight” Benedict 1972 112 vg.4 (completive
[Disyllabic corresp.] See set E.18.1 and aspect) Newman,
Chapter 10 Section 10.5 on reduplication P. 2007 110
A.7b.2 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] Egyptian
(Meixian) sat7 / sat8 sāt’ “to cut, to destroy,
(Lau Chunfat) sad5 v. “kill, slaughter” to slay” Budge v.2 591
Hakka Dict. sāti “slaughterer,
TB-Jingpho [Kachin ] / executioner”
TB-Burmese sat “kill” Benedict 1972 shāt “to cut, to cut off,
#58 27, 112 Matisoff 2003 330 to slay” “slaughter,
Old Chinese *săt “kill” carnage” Budge v.2
Karlgren GSR #319d Matisoff 2003 335 644, 730-731
Middle Chinese s’ăt “kill” See also H.30b.1
Norman 1988a 13
A.7b.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *g-sat = *g-săt “kill, fight, strike”
< W. Chadic – Hausa kisàa pl. kàshe-kàshe n. m. “killing” kasa “defeat”, kisà n. m. “killing,
defeat” / Semitic- Ge’ez qašä “throw down, make fall”, Berber – Tuareg [Tamasheq] agsar
“atterrir, s’abattre”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *kasat “kill by striking down”
32
Note- A.7b.1-2 (Proto-TB, TB Jingpho) The Proto-Tibeto-Burman correspondence to Chadic and Cushitic
forms indicate that the *g- initial in TB languages is a form of a Chadic/Semitic ka- / ki- / ga- first radical. The
A.20a/1-2 root most closely matches two similarly contrasting morphemes meaning “cut”. See note H.30a.1-2.
See also Notes- A.20a.2, A.27.3, B.14c.2, C34,1-7, and sets H.30b.1, H30c.1 and H.24e.1
Benedict states concerning the TB *g- prefix that “the form written *g- is to be interpreted as gə- (with ə as
a separate phoneme) or as *gă- (with ă as an allophone of the phoneme /a/ in syllables with reduced stress).
Benedict 1972 112. He considers the Jingpho [Kachin], Burmese morphemes to be rare cases of a TB language
in which this is a verb prefix. These are not rare in African languages, but are commonly lost in ST, see Chapter
10 section 10.3.2 on the “disappearing k-”.
60

A.7b.1 TB-Tibetan ɣsod-pa bsad pf. “to kill, slay, murder, slaughter” Jaschke 591 ;
bsad-pa “killed, also killing” Das 1316 bsat “kill” Norman 1988a 13
A.7b.2
S. Chinese-Min sat “to kill, to murder, to slay” Amoy-English Dict. 673
TB-Kham, Trung sat “kill” Starostin, S. ST Etymology Norman 1988a 13
TB-Kiranti-Limbu -sεtt- / -sεt- vt. “ritually slaughter” van Driem 1987 259
sεtmaʔ vt. “traditionally slaughter” van Driem 1987 510 ;
TB-Newari-Dolakha syāt- “kill” Matisoff 2003 443
A.7b.1
Omotic- Janjero keja “kill” Skinner 139
W. Chadic- Hausa kaashèe “kill” vg.4 Newman / Ma 1992 64. On the completive aspect of Hausa verbs
see Chapter 10 section 10.2.1.2
NS- Songhay (Koyra) koosu “cut the throat of, slaughter” Heath v.1 173
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) gasgas “to cut up, cut to pieces” tgasgas “to be cut up, be cut to pieces”
gisa “to harm, hurt” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 1 390
E. Cushitic-Rendille agiis vt. igiis, igaas- perfective forms “kill, murder, destroy” Pillinger 62
Berber–Tuareg [Tamasheq] agsar “atterrir, s’abattre” [knock down, be slaughtered] Skinner 139
A.7b.2
NC-N. Mande- Soninke saate n. “death” Mukarovsky 14134
Egyptian tchat “to stick an animal, to cut the throat of a beast” Budge v.2 900
A.7b.1
IE-Sanskrit kSad “to cut, dissect, divide, kill” zad “to fell, throw down, slay, kill”
Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Old Indian ḳsatá “to hurt, injure, wound” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 145
See also Supplementary Table 2 A.7b.1-2 and set H.30b.1 Sanskrit kSata “broken, torn, rent”
“wounded, hurt”
↓↓
A.8 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic Afro-Asiatic -Cushitic AA- Nilo- NC
Sem. Saharan
A.8.1 W. Chadic–Gwandara E. Cushitic- Sidamo Anywa
TB-Tibetan (Karshi, Toni, Koro) gângo f. / gângicco m. [Anuak]
rkyaŋ jàŋkyi “donkey” gângicca f. “mule” gʌ̄ʌŋŋū
“the wild ass or Matsushita 1974 Gasparini 114 “mule”
horse of central #278 75 Proto-E. Cushitic *gaang- Reh
Asia” C. Chadic-Padoko “mule” Sasse 1982 73 26, 113
Jaschke 17 -žəŋwa “donkey” E. Cushitic- Oromo okw�� ɲ
gyaŋ W. Chadic-Hausa gangé “mulo, mula” [mule] “horse”
“Tibetan wild kanki “hartebeest” Borello 165 Reh 61
ass” Skinner 136 Proto-High E. Cushitic
Goldstein 42 gwanki / gwamki *gâng- “mule”
“roan antelope” Militarev, A. High E.
35
Skinner x, 97 Cushitic Etymology
34
Note- A.7b.2 (NC-Mande Extended) Mukarovsky considers this Mande form to be cognate to the Chadic-
Glavda tsa (A.7a.1) and Ngweshe tsawe (A.7a.1) which mean “kill”. Mukarovsky 141. It gives evidence of
being cognate but it more closely matches the present A.7b.2 forms.
61

A.8.1 TB-Tibetan gyaŋ “Tibetan wild ass”
< W. Chadic – Gwandara jàŋkyi “donkey”
Approximate Tibetan etymon: *jaŋ- “African wild ass, donkey”
A.8.1 TB-Tibetan rkyang “Equus kiang, or the wild ass of Tibet and higher Asia. It is found
everywhere in Tibet in large droves” Das 78 gyaŋdraa “zebra” Goldstein 42
A.8.1
E. Cushitic-Burji gang-ee f. / gaangee f. “mule” Sasse 1982 73, Hudson 103
E. Cushitic- Rendille gaángey “mule” gaángo “zebra” Pillinger 120
See Sasse 1982 73 for other Cushitic language attestations with semantics of “mule” or “zebra”.
NC-Gbaya kaŋara “male de certains antilopes” Skinner 136
E. Chadic-Dangaleat gangilam “Grand Koudou” [greater kudu] Skinner 136
Semitic-Shuwa Arabic janga “mare” Skinner 120
C. Chadic-Daba njen “donkey” Skinner 120
W, Chadic- Ron (Bokkos) njake “donkey” Skinner 120
Berber-Tuareg ejak “donkey” Skinner 120
C. Chadic–Glavda kyáka “antelope (like donkey)” Rapp / Benzing 57
W. Chadic–N. Bauci-Tsagu žāƙ- “donkey” Skinner 120
W. Chadic–Hausa jākii “donkey” Skinner 120, Kraft 346
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) ja‫ح‬aš “young donkey” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 67
A.8.1 IE-Sanskrit eKANda “a kind of horse” cakrin “an ass” cakrivat “an ass” Cologne Lexicon
See also Supplementary Table 2 A.8.1
IE-Tokharian yákwe “Pferd” (Ger.) [ horse] Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 32
Altaic- Turkic-Uyghur ešäk “donkey” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology eshek “donkey, ass”
Uyghur Dictionary
Altaic- Turkic-Turkish, Kyrgyz, Karakalpak, Balkar ešek “donkey”
Altaic- Turkic-Uzbek ešak “donkey” / Altaic- Turkic-Turkic-Azeri eššäk “donkey”
Altaic- Turkic-Turkmen eshek “donkey” /
Altaic- Turkic-Kazakh esek “donkey” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
↓↓
A.9a-d Afro-Asiatic – AA –Cushitic AA- Nilo-Saharan Khoisan, NC
Chadic Sem.
A.9a.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – Hausa E. Cushitic- Kanuri,
ku-rúg “colt of an k’urù Oromo Bagirmi
ass” Jaschke 3 “horse of small korommi kóro donkey”
gu-rug “In Ladak stature”, “vitello, Skinner 3
colt or foal of an aguru “donkey” torello” [calf, “donkey, ass”
ass” Jaschke 69 Newman, P. 2007 young bull] Cyffer
Das 220 133 Borello 238 1990 99
Lukas 1937 5
35
Note- A.8.1 (Hausa) The Hausa words kanki “hartebeest’ gwanki / gwamki contain a root which in other
instances designates an equid, the donkey, but was used in some African languages to refer to these bovids, the
hartebeest and roan antelope. Hartebeests (Alcelaphus bucelaphus) are large antelopes found today in the African
Sahel and southern Africa. They are now extinct north of the Sahara although they were there in large numbers
before they were hunted into extinction during the last two hundred years. They belong to the Bovidae family along
with other antelopes, cattle, sheep and goats. See also note A.24.1 (Chadic).
62
TB-Naga-Ao W. Chadic-Bole,
Chungli C. Chadic- Buduma,
kor “horse” Masa-Peve koro
Matisoff 2003 400 “ass” Greenberg
1966 52
“donkey”
Blench 1999b 65
A.9a.2 W. Chadic-Tangale Tubu [Teda] C.
TB-Chin-Lushai la-ngóro agər “Esel” Khoisan-
sà-kôr “horse” “donkey, ass” [donkey, ass] Nama
Matisoff 2003 Jungraithmayr 1991 Lukas 1953 !goreb
40036 113 188 “zebra”
Ruhlen
1994
#645 69
A.9a.3 TB-Tani- Omotic- Kanuri
Miri / TB-Tani- Mao kuuri ngərí
Gallong-Deuri “donkey” “gazelle”
guri “horse” Blench Cyffer 1990
TB-N. Naga- 1999 65 137
Chang
kuri “donkey”
Matisoff 2003 400
[Disylalbic
corresp.]
A.9a.1 TB-Tibetan ku-rúg, gu-rug “colt of an ass” / TB-Naga-Ao Chungli kor “horse”
< W. Chadic – Hausa k’urù “horse of small stature”, aguru “donkey” / C. Chadic- Buduma,
Masa-Peve koro “ass” / C. Khoisan-Nama !goreb “zebra”
A.9a.3 TB-Tani-Miri / TB-Tani-Gallong -Deuri guri “horse” / TB-N. Naga- Chang kuri “donkey”
< Omotic-Mao kuuri donkey” / C. Khoisan-Nama !goreb “zebra”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma: *guru ~ *koro “small horse, donkey = [equid]
A.9a.1
TB-Naga-Lotha korrū “horse” Matisoff 2003 400
TB-Tibetic-Tsangla (Motuo Monpa) kurta “horse” Matisoff 2003 400
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *kor “horse” Matisoff 2003 400
A.9a.2 TB-Chin-Tedim sa-kòl “horse” -Thado sʌ� kòl “horse” Matisoff 2003 400
A.9a.3
TB-Naga-Sangtam kuri “horse” Matisoff 2003 400
TB-Bodo-Garo-Deuri guri “horse” Matisoff 2003 400
A.9a.1 C. Chadic–Tera kóró “ass” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006
E. Chadic- Sokoro kuro: “ass” Greenberg 1966 52
E. Cushitic- Oromo qorqê n. “specie di antilope equina, bruno chiaro con code lunga” [species of
equid antelope, light brown with long tail] Borello 347 qorkē “hartebeest” Skinner 97
36
Note- A.9a.1 Benedict proposes sa /sya “animal” as the basis of the s- prefix of words for animals in Tibeto-
Burman languages such as the present one. See note A.1a.1, sets A.31.1-2 and discussion in chapter 10 section
10.3.3..
63
NS-Kanuri koro ngasai “roan antelope” Cyffer 1990 135. See also A.24.1 (Chadic)
E. Chadic- Nancere kurá “donkey” Blench 1999b 65
Omotic-Chara kura “ass” Greenberg 1966 52
Semitic-Aramaic kr “donkey” Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon
E. Cushitic – Rendille inkuraarú “donkey colt” “young donkey” Pillinger 157, 331
Proto-Chadic *kwar- “donkey” Ehret 2001 272
NS-Anywa [Anuak] ōgwār “zebra” Reh 60, 134
W. Chadic–Ngizim kwáará “donkey” Schuh 101
C. Chadic – Masa kūlum “le cheval” (Fr.) [horse] Caitucoli 104.
E. Cushitic–Oromo kulula “asinello” [donkey] Borello 242
E. Cushitic-Saho okalo “ass” Greenberg 1966 52
A.9a.2 C. Chadic– Gaanda kwari “ass” Stolbova, Olga C.Chadic Etymology
Proto-AA *kwer- “donkey” Ehret 2001 272
A.9a.1 IE-Sanskrit kuru “a horse” kurutin “a horse” Cologne Lexicon.
gardabha “foal, young of an ass” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 50
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek qulun “a young horse just after birth or less than a year old” English-Uzbek
Dictionary
A.9a.2 IE-Hindi ghor̝ā “horse” ghor̝ī “mare” Scudiere 77, 234 Kobayashi Tables 1,2,3 #98 3, 8, 15
IE-Bengali ghorā “horse” n. Thompson 48, 104
IE-Pashto
ghorā-khar “the wild ass or onager” gh’yara “the wild ass or onager” Raverty 745, 852
IE-Sanskrit khara “ass, mule” gaurakhara “a wild donkey” [lit. buffalo donkey]
gaura “a kind of buffalo” “the Bos gaurus” kharu “a horse” khara m. “a donkey” “an ass”
“a mule” khara kutī “a stable for asses, a stall” Cologne Lexicon
kutu “hut, house” (F.8c.2 )
IE-Middle Persian kurrag Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology
IE-North Persian kurra “Fohlen” (Ger.) [foal, colt] Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology
IE-Hittite kurka “Fohlen” (Ger.) [foal, colt]
Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology
A.9a.3 IE-Pashto
khar “an ass, a donkey”
khára “a female donkey” Raverty 409 khargaey “a young ass” Raverty 413
Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh kürre “young donkey” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *gúri “deer, game” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
/
A.9b AA–Chadic AA-Cushitic AA- NS Khoisan
Sem.
A.9b.1 W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Proto-Cushitic N. Khoisan-!Kung
TB-Tibetan Mburke, Jimbin (Dolgopolski) !kwere
dagöö̀ / dáakù “horse” w
*d-( )�-r “zebra”
dagööbo C. Chadic- Margi “donkey” Ruhlen
“a wild or tágú Skinner 17837 1994
untrained horse” “horse” #645 69
37
Note- A.9b1 (Proto-AA ) Note that the -kwar- morph exists as an independent root in A.9a.1 Extended
W. Chadic–Ngizim kwáará “donkey”. There seems to have been an early convergence of two different roots
w
*daw- or da- as in A.9c.2 Proto-AA and the A.9a.1 Extended Proto-Chadic kwar. Dolgopolski’s *d-( )� -r
reconstruction is a plausible expression of such a convergence. Ehret reconstructs Proto-AA *kwer- “donkey”
(A.9a.3 Extended). See also Chapter 10 section 3.3.2 on d-/t- initials resultng from a Khoisan alveolar click./
64
[Disyllabic C.Chadic- Kilba-Pela C. Cushitic-Bilin (! Alveolar click is

corresp.] taku “horse” dəkwara “ass, posited to generate
dagööma Jungraithmayr donkey” d- / t- initial in
“mare” 1994 v.2 194 Blench 2000 AA).
Goldstein 457 C. Chadic- Bura Table 21.3 Supplementary
taku “horse” Table 3
Newman, P. 1966 #50 section 1.1.d
A.9b.1 TB-Tibetan dagöö̀ “a wild or untrained horse”
< W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Mburke, Jimbin
dáakù “horse” / N. Khoisan-|Kung !kwere “zebra”
Approximate Tibetan etymon: *də�w-r “horse”
A.9b.1
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *dakw(-ar)- “kind of equid” Militarev / Stolbova AA- Etymology 2007
Proto-Cushitic (Ehret) *di�w’- “donkey” Skinner 120
Proto-W. Chadic *dakw “kind of equid” Stolbova, Olga W. Chadic Etymology
Cushitic-West Rift-Irakw dakwaay “ass, donkey” Blench 2000 Table 21.3
Omotic-Agaw dəxwara “donkey” Blench 1999 65
W. Chadic- Ngizim dákwtà “a horse with all four feet and forehead white, the rest dark” Schuh 40
W. Chadic-N. Bauci- Tsagu dáakən “horse” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 194
C. Cushitic-Qwara dêkara “ass” Militarev / Stolbova
Proto-Cushitic duqārā “donkey” Militarev / Stolbova
W. Chadic-Hausa dōkìi “horse” < daukìi (< dawkì pl. dawāki) Newman, P. 2000 236
Jungraithmayr 1994 v. 2 194 ; dùƙushī m. “colt” dùƙusa f. Newman, P. 2007 48 Skinner 5138
W. Chadic- Gwandara (Karshi, Toni, Koro) dókyi “horse” Matsushita 1974 #276 74
W. Chadic-Ngizim dùukà “horse” Schuh 50
E. Chadic-Dangaleat [Dangla] dèwki “antilope cheval” [roan antelope, lit. horse antelope]
Fédry 186. See also A.24.1 (Chadic)
W. Chadic-N. Bauci Group *d-wk- “horse” Skinner 49
A.9b.1
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *aduɣu “horse(s), cattle” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
Altaic-Mongolian tax / taki “wild horse” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 3
/
A.9c.1 C. Chadic-Bacama dèwé “horse” Proto-AA *dam- /
TB-Tibetan Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 95 *dawak “equid”
dəwa W. Chadic- Hausa dóokii < daukī < (Orel / Stolbova 1995)
“colt” dawki) dawākī pl. “horse” Skinner 49
Goldstein 461 Newman, P. 2000 236 C. Cushitic-Qwara
[Disyllabic corresp.] W. Chadic-Miya duwakə “horse” dewara “donkey”
Stolbova, Olga W. Chadic-Etymology Militarev, A. C.
Cushitic Etymology
A.9c.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Angas
da “horse” Goldstein 456 dā “horse”
38
Note- A.9b.1 (Hausa Extended ) Hausa here retains the A.9c.1 daw- root’s initial syllable as the plural but
shows a shift to dóo- in the singular. The vowel change to -óo- here gives evidence of following a regular
sound change (Medial *u > *o). Long /u / is lowered to the corresponding mid-vowel /o/ when the preceding
syllable contained long / áa / as in the other Chadic forms. See Newman, P. 2000 237 Section 2.2 213-214 and
Note A.1b.2..
65
TB-E. Tibetan E. Chadic- Masa Group- Lame,

(Khams Prov.) Peve, Misme nda’ “horse”
ta “horse” Jaschke xix Skinner 49
A.9c.1 TB-Tibetan dəwa “colt”
< C. Chadic-Bacama duwe “horse” /
W. Chadic- Hausa dóokii < daukī < dawki) / Proto-Afro-Asiatic *dawak “equid”
Approximate Tibetan etymon: *daw- “equid”
A.9c.1 TB-Tibetan ʼdó-ba “a breed of fine horses” Jaschke 279
Extended African/AA language word family
A.9c.1 E. Chadic-Bidiya d’awd’aw “antilope cheval” [roan antelope, lit. horse antelope] Skinner 49
See also A.24.1 (Chadic)
C. Chadic-Bacama duwe “horse” Skinner 49
W. Chadic-Angas dāwlyeŋ “pony” yem “child” Skinner 49
C. Cushitic-Khamir dǚharā “donkey” Militarev / Stolbova
C. Cushitic-Qemant dohuara “donkey” Militarev, A. C. Cushitic Etymology
W. Chadic-Bedde duhu “horse” Skinner 49
A.9c.1 IE-Sanskrit dhaureya / dhaureya “horse”
dur “horse” dhauritaka “a horses’ trot” Cologne Lexicon.
Old Indian dhúrya- m. “beast of burden” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 29
See also Supplementary Table 2 A.9c.1
A.9c.2 Altaic-Mongolian-Ordos adū “horse(s), cattle” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
-Mongolian-Dagur adō “horse(s), cattle” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
/
A.9d.1 Tibetan E. Cushitic-Gedeo hor- “become rich”
dkór “wealth, riches” hore “cattle, herd, money” horte “property, wealth”
Jaschke 11 “substance, wealth, Hudson 246
riches, property” Das 5539 E. Cushitic-Oromo horri “money, treasure, wealth,
animals, cattle, livestock” Foot 29
A.9d.1 Tibetan ḡ̄‫�כ‬
r “property, wealth (in general)” Goldstein 22
39
Note- A.9d.1 (Tibetan) This table supplies a possible explanation to a puzzlement expressed by Jaschke on the
etymology of the Tibetan dkór “wealth, riches”. “Mthil-dkor, yang- dkor, sa-dkor, are expressions current in
Central Tibet which I could not get sufficiently explained” Jaschke 11. Jaschke knew that yang-ra means “buck,
ram, he-goat” in Tibet (Jaschke 506) and gyaŋ denotes the Tibetan wild ass”. (A.8.1 above). He also lists gnyan /
rnyan “wild sheep, argali” Jaschke 191, 195, glāŋ “bull, bullock. See also Note- A.17.1 (Tibetan). Also sa-dkor
means “cow/yak wealth”. (sa “animal, cow” (A.6c.1) ; sha “flesh, meat, deer” in Tibetan. See A.6b.2 above.
The question seems mostly to be about dkor as wealth. Chadic-Hausa has the term duukiya “wealth” which
w
Skinner suggests is derived from doki “horse”.Skinner 51. Also Dolgopolski’s Proto- Cushitic *d-( )k -r “donkey”
(A.9b.1) corresponds closely to the Tibetan dkór “wealth”. In Central Tibet this root was apparently used as a
generic term for domesticated animals which supplied meat or transport.
Hence yang-dkór etymologically means “sheep-wealth”. yang “animal” as exemplified in the Chadic/NS
morphemes: shikyen pl. shikyan “goat” (Jungraithmayr 1970 146), NS-Nuer yaŋ “cow” (Huffman 51) and
NS-Anywa dhìaŋ “cow” Reh 21. Mthil-dkor remains unexplained. See also Chapter 6 section 6.2.1.1. The
Cushitic references show the explicit connection between the concepts of “wealth” and “possession of domestic
animals”. The hor- root is attested throughout E. Cushitic. Early Tibetans were cattle and sheep herders, and Tibet
still has a considerable population of nomadic cattle herders.
Throughout the African Sahel cattle-keeping peoples still measure wealth by the number of animals in their
herds. Thus Tibetans appear to have retained this African cultural feature in their language.
66

A.9d.1 E. Cushitic-Gedeo hor-em “breed, multiply” / - Burji hor-ad’ / horʔ “breed, multiply”
Hudson 246
E. Cushitic-Oromo horu vi. “moltiplicarsi di bestiame, riprodursi, farsi denaro, arricchirsi”
[have an increased number of cattle, to reproduce, to make money, to become rich] Borello 215-216
Berber-Tawllemmet e-hərə “ram” “sheep and goats” Militarev / Stolbova
↓↓
The following two word families show an exceptional pattern. All but one of the A.10a-b
correspondence sets are similar in that they contain Khoisan correspondences (8 of the combined 9 sets,
2 of which A.10a.5 and A.10a.6 thus far show no AA, NC or NS correspondent) and there is no Semitic
or Egyptian correspondence. .Both of the 2 families represent the basic vocabulary term “dog” or its
oldest equivalent “wild canine”. The Khoisan correspondences of the A.10a word family are from the
three branches of Khoisan, North, Central and South; the Khoisan close variants of set A.10b.1 represent
both North and South Khoisan morphemes.
Both of these tables contain Proto-Afro-Asiatic and proto-ST subfamily reconstructions, i.e. A.10a.3
provides a close correspondence to Benedict and Matisoff’s proto-TB root and A.10a.1 Orel / Stolbova’s
proto-AA root; A.10b.1 shows an Old Chinese correspondence with a South Khoisan lexeme
Hence the tables supply a basis for positing Khoisan as the ultimate source of both Proto-TB and Proto-
Sinitic forms, so there is no evidence of a unitary ST proto-root.
This is not only strong substantiation of the African origins hypothesis, but leads to a probability that
populations carrying the variantsources entered into East Asia on different routes.
See Chapter 9 Sections 9.4-9.5
A.10.a-f Afro-Asiatic– Proto-AA AA- NS Niger-Congo
Chadic Sem.
Swadesh “dog” C. Chadic–Sukur Proto-AA NC-S.W. Mande
A.10a.1 kɪrra “dog” (Orel / –Mende, Bandi,
TB-Kiranti-Limbu Jungraithmayr 1994 Stolbova Loko
khi-a “dog” v.2 107 1995) ngila “dog”
Benedict 1972 44 C. Chadic-Bura *k-y-l- Mukarovsky 144
[Disyllabic corresp.] kila “dog” “dog”
Mukarovsky 144 Skinner 138
A.10a.2 E. Chadic-Kwang NC-S.E. Mande –
TB-Tibetan kìyē / kíyé “dog” Bisa
khyi “dog” C. Chadic–Higi- gyíì “dog”
Jaschke 46 Nkafa -Lebir
Goldstein 132 Norman kɪrrε “dog” gi / gyí
1988a 13 –Higi-Fali (Kiria) “dog”
khyi “dog, kɪrri “dog” Mukarovsky 145
“pronounced as C. Chadic– C. Khoisan-
Proto-Khoe
kyi or ki” Gisiga kəre /
g|iri “jackal,
Das 159 kiri “dog” fox”
S. Chinese-Yuè Jungraithmayr Starostin, G.
(Cantonese) 1994 v.2 107 2006-2008
kei “a fierce dog” S. Khoisan-
Chik / Ng Lam 238 |Nu‖en
ǂkhi
“dog”
Starostin, G.
2003 13
67
A.10a.3 E. Chadic-Sokoro N. Khoisan-

TB-Kanauri kuwī / kúyo / kúyú !O!Kung
kui “dog” “dog” Jungraithmayr |gwǐ
TB-Thebor 1994 v.2 107 “dog”
khui “dog” Blench 1999 67 Bleek 48
Benedict 1972 4 W. Chadic-Hausa Ruhlen 1994
TB-Burmese kwīykwiyòo 302
khwijh “dog” < *kwiy-kwiyòo N. Khoisan-
Starostin, S. < *kuy-kuyòo m. !Kung
ST Etymology “puppy” Newman, ǂʔhwi
Proto-Tibeto-Burman P. “dog”
*kwiy ~ *kwəy 2000 235 Starostin, G.
“dog” Benedict 1972 “hyena pup” 2003 13
#159 44, 202 Newman, P.
2007 12340
A.10a.4 C. Chadic- Musgoy NS-Berta N. Khoisan-
TB-Written Burmese kwéykwoya agwe !O-!Kung
khw�“dog” “hyena” “hunting ǂwe “dog”
Norman 1988a 13 Jungraithmayr 1994 dog” Starostin, G.
Matisoff 2003 448 v.2 205 Skinner 200 13
138
A.10a.5 N. Khoisan-Doke
TB-Burmish-Samong !gwi
təkhwi “brown hyaena”
“dog” S. Khoisan-Ng
TB-Jingpho-Jili !gwi
təkwi “dog” “brown hyaena”
Benedict Starostin, G.
1972 11 5 2006-2008
TB-Mru S. Khoisan-
tăkhwi “dog”41 ǀXam !gwai
Matisoff “hyena”
2003 Ruhlen 1994
102 note 44 302
Note- A.10a.3 (Chadic-Hausa, Etyma) P. Newman cites the Proto-Hausa *kwuykwuyo “puppy” root as an
instance of a regular sound change in Hausa of /u / to /i /. “Reduplicated words illustrate the change of /u/ to
/ I / conditioned by /y / in the same as well as in the following syllable”. Hausa *kwuykwuyòo > kwikwiyòo
“puppy, hyena pup, lion cub”. Newman, P. 2000 239. According to Newman’s etymology the reduplication of the
A.10a.3 kuwī + kúyo. E. Chadic-Sokoro morphemes would represent the earlier Chadic form. However the N.
Khoisan ǀgwí form should be taken into account in any etymology of the Chadic (and TB) forms. Note that both
the TB *kwiy root and the A.10c.2 Old Chinese ku root correspond to a N. Khoisan variant.
Hence the proposed TB etymology for this set is *kwiy “puppy, dog”. This simply proposes (in accord with
Benedict) that one of the inherited TB roots was *kwiy. Since both proto-AA and the older African language
family, Khoisan, have variant A.10a and A.10b forms, the question of an ultimate proto-root for the A.10 word
families remains open. See also Note A.10b.1 (Old Chinese) .
41
Note- A.10a.5 (TB t- initial forms) The TB-Samong təkhwi, TB-Jili təkwi “dog” and TB-Mru tăkhwi “dog”
morphemes all correspond to the Khoisan form containing an initial dental or alveolar click before a glottal/velar.
There are other instances of this correspondence. See A.26.5, B.31.3, C.51.5 , Chapter 10 Note 10.3.3.2 and
Supplementary Tables 3 sections 1.1b and 1.1.d.
68
A.10a.6 N. Khoisan-
TB-Chin-Tiddim !Kung
ʔwi ǂʔhwi
“dog” “dog”
Matisoff 2003 139 Starostin, G.
2003 13
A.10a.1 TB-Kiranti-Limbu khi-a “dog”
< C. Chadic–Sukur kɪrra “dog” / C. Chadic – Bura kila “dog” / NC- S.W. Mande – Mende,
Bandi, Loko ngila “dog”
A.10a.2 TB-Tibetan khyi “dog”
< E. Chadic–Kwang kìyē / kíyé “dog” / NC- S.E. Mande–Bisa gyíì “dog”
A.10a.3 TB-Kanauri kui “dog” / TB-Thebor khui “dog” / TB- Burmese khwijh “dog”
< W. Chadic- Hausa kwīykwiyòo “puppy” m. / N. Khoisan- !Kung ǀgwī “dog”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma: *kila “dog” ~ *ǂʔhwi “dog”
A.10a.3
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] gwì “dog” Benedict / Matisoff 1972 #332 121 2003 196
gui2 “dog” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Chepang kwi “dog” Matisoff 2003 448
TB-Garo-Digaro nkwi “dog” Benedict 1972 44
A.10a.4 Proto-Lolo-Burmese *kwəy2 “dog” Matisoff 2003 62, 448
A.10a.5 TB-Nung təgi “dog” Benedict 1972 115
A.10a.6
TB-Karenic-Pwo, Sgaw thwì “dog” Benedict 1972 133, 151 Matisoff 2003 96, 139, 448
TB-Chin-Lushai ui “dog” Matisoff 2003 96 139
TB-Chin-Lai uy “dog” Matisoff 2003 96
A.10a.1
E.Chadic–Lele gìrà “dog” Jungraithmayr 1994 v. 2 107
NC- S.W. Mande–Loma gile “dog” Mukarovsky 144
W. Chadic-Ron (Daffo-Butura0) cìra “Hund” [dog] Jungraithmayr 1970 213
NS-Kanuri kə́ri “dog” Cyffer 1990 94 Skinner 138
W. Chadic–Gwandara [all dialects] kəre “dog” Matsushita 1974 #279 75.
A.10a.2
Khoisan-Nama |giri-b “jackal, fox” Starostin, G. 2006-2008
C. Chadic–Lamang kɪrrε dog” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 107
C. Chadic-Higi-Baza kɨre “dog” Starostin, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006. .
C. Khoisan-Proto-Khoekhoe |iri “black-backed jackal” Starostin, G. 2006-2008 .
W. Chadic-Hausa (Kano dialect) k’irik’iinju “a wild hunting dog” Skinner 164 Matsushita 1993 279
Proto-E. Cushitic *ker- “dog” Skinner 138
A.10a.3
W. Chadic- Hausa kūrèe “male hyena” Newman, P. 2007 118
C. Chadic-Higi Futu kùrè “dog” Stolbova, Olga E. Chadic Etymology
E. Chadic- Kwang gə́:rény / gə:rény / gō:rény “hyena” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 205
A.10a.4
S. Khoisan-‖Xegwi ‖kwi “dog” Starostin, G. 2006-2008
C. Chadic-Daba kweykwaya “hyène” Skinner 164
A.10a.1-2 IE-Sanskrit khikhi “a fox”
kikhi “a small kind of jackal or fox” khigkhira “a fox” Cologne Lexicon.
69
Altaic-Mongolian kirs “steppe fox” Starostin, S. Altaic Etymology

See also Supplementary Table 2 A.10a.1-2
/
Swadesh “dog” W. Chadic- Proto-AA S. Khoisan-!Kwi- |Xam
A.10b.1 Old Chinese Ron (Fyer) (Orel / !wiŋ ~ !úiŋ ~ !húiŋ “dog”
*k’uən “dog” kweéŋ Stolbova N. Khoisan-Zul’hoan
Karlgren GSR 479a-d “dog” 1995) ǂghúiŋ “dog”
Benedict 1972 11 Jungraith- *küHen- Bleek 1956 433, 467
*khwenX / *khwin mayr 1994 “dog” Starostin, G. 2012 1743
“dog” Sagart 1999 [190] v.2 106 Skinner 138 S. Khoisan-Proto-!Kwi
Middle Chinese khiwen: ǂ(ʔ)uiŋ “dog”
“dog” Norman 1988a 1342 Starostin, G. 2003 13
A.10b.2 Chinese-Kejia Omotic – S. Khoisan-!Kwi-ǂKhomani
[Hakka] (Meixian, Lau Bencho ǂ’an “dog”
Chunfat) kian3 “dog, canine” kyan “dog” Starostin, G.
Hakka Dictionnary Skinner 138 2003 13
A.10b.3 S. Chinese-Min Omotic- S.. Khoisan-‘Auni
(Fuzhou) kheiŋ “dog” Gamergu |kãĩn
Sagart 1999 190 kenē “dog” “dog”
S. Chinese-Min (Zhèróng) Ruhlen 1994 Ruhlen 1994 302
khen3 “dog” 302
Norman 1988a 190 Militarev, A.
Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] Omotic
3
k’ien (MacIver) Etymology
“dog, canine” Hakka Dict. 2005
A.10b.1 Old Chinese khwin “dog” < W. Chadic-Ron (Fyer) kweéŋ “dog” /
N. Khoisan- Zul’hoan ǂghúiŋ “dog”
/ S. Khoisan-!Kwi- ǀXam, ‖Ng !wiŋ ~ !úiŋ ~ !húiŋ “dog”
Approximate Sinitic etyma: *ǂghúiŋ ~ !wiŋ
42
Note- A.10b.1 (Old Chinese)
Norman and Sagart state that Chinese has two common words for dog”. Both consider that the Old Chinese
*khwin / khwenX roots are the oldest. Norman proposed that the other common word for “dog “ gou is derived
from *klu a proto-form from a language ancestral to the modern Miao-Yao language. (Norman 1988a 17). (See
A.10c.1 following) This and the following table establish that both *khwin and gou are very old in African
languages. The *khwin form is found in Afro-Asiatic (including a proposed Proto-AA root) and in the
ŋ
closelycorresponding Khoisan ǂghúi morpheme. The gou root is discussed in Note A.10c.1 following.
With reference to Old Chinese, Benedict considered that the final consonant –n of k’uən was originally a
suffix “apparently related to the widespread dental suffixes of Tibeto-Burman”. Benedict 1972 157. This supported
his view that “Chinese originally possessed suffixes”. This case of posited –n suffix, however, can just as well be
explained as the variant final of two roots existing within African languages. For example ST attests both the
Proto-Tibeto-Burman A.10a.2 *kwiy “dog” and the A.10b.1 Old Chinese k’iwən “dog”. These two forms cited
by Benedict both have close Chadic and Khoisan correspondences, the former existing in A.10a.3 Chadic and
Khoisan, the latter in A.10b.1 W. Chadic, Proto-AA and Khoisan. Also the final of the A.10a.3 N. Khoisan-
!Kung |gwí “dog” contrasts with that of the A.10b.1 S. Khoisan-ǀXam and ‖Ng !kúiŋ in the final nasal ŋ.
43
Note-A.10b.1 (Khoisan, Old Chinese) The evidence of the A.10b.1 set suggests that the Chadic or PAA form is
ŋ
the proximate proto-form of the Old Chinese *k’uən, while the A.10b.1 closely corresponding Khoisan ǂghúi
form is the ultimate and proto-form since *khwin is an Old Chinese variant. Hence this may be a pre-Neolithic
root. Under this hypothesis the word families A.10d, e and f ,N. Chinese and TB lexemes are later forms resulting
from Neolithic migration(s). See also Chapter 9 section 9.4 on a possible pre-Neolithic migration.
70

A.10b.1
N. Chinese-MSC ch’ǖen / ch’ǖan (WG) “the dog” Mathews #1650 234
quăn “dog, canine” Sagart 1999 190 Wu, J. 565
TB-Tibetan-Bunan goa-nu “fox” Benedict 1972 34
A.10b.2 TB-Jingpho [Kachin] čəkhyõn “fox, wolf, wild dog” Matisoff 2003 407
A.10b.1
S. Khoisan-ǀXam, ‖Ng !uiŋ “dog” Starostin, G. 2003 13
S.E. Mande- Samo T. gyiŋ / jiŋ “dog” Mukarovsky 145
A.10b.2
Omotic-Gimira kjan “dog” Ruhlen 1994 302
E. Chadic-Birgit kájàn “dog” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 107
Omotic-Mao kano “dog” Ruhlen 1994 302 Omotic root *kàna “dog” Blench 1999 67
E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] kànyà “dog” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 107
NS-Songhay (Gao) [Koroboro] hanši “dog” Greenberg 1966 137
A.10b.3 Omotic-Dime keenu “dog” Ruhlen 1994 302
Militarev, A. Omotic Etymology 2005
A.10b.1
Proto-IE *k’wen- “dog” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology
IE-Armenian skund “young dog, wolf” Nikolayev, Sergei IE Etymology 121
IE-Pashto kūngraey “a pup, a puppy” Raverty 823
IE- Sanskrit çvan “dog” Ruhlen 1994 302 śvan “a dog, hound” Cologne lexicon.
A.10b.2 Proto-IE *(s)kan- / *(s)kane- “puppy, cub” Nikolayev, Sergei IE Etymology 121
/
A.10c.1 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Semitic- NS- N. Khoisan-
Swadesh “dog” Karekare Oromo Hebrew Songhay Zul’hoan
Old Chinese kóoróo “dog” gullo goor n. koro ǂghóá
*g’wo “fox” Blench 1999 65 “grossa iena” m. “cub, “hyena” “dog”
Karlgren GSR W. Chadic-Hausa [big hyena] whelp” Skinner Starostin, G.
#41i kōlō m. “dog” Borello 188 Baltsan 154 2003 13
Benedict 1972 166 44 Newman, P. 2007 113
N. Chinese-MSC 115 “dog
gôu n. “dog” (abusive term)”
Wang, F. 171 Newman / Ma
Wu, J. 239 1979 68
A.10c.2 C. Chadic- Omotic- Semitic- NS-Anywa Proto-N.
TB-S. Loloish-Mpi Mokulu Gimira-Bene Aramaic gùok / Khoisan
khɯ2 kūrusu Non kūr gūr / gūū pl. *ǂghú “dog”
“dog” “chiot” “dog” guru “dog” Starostin, G.
Matisoff [pup, puppy] Blench “whelp” Reh 28 2003 13
2003 25, 196 Skinner 138 1999 65 gūrī / NS- NC- N.
44
Note A.10c.1 (Old Chinese) “It is generally agreed that the Chinese dog (Canis familiartis) originated from the
Chinese wolf.“ (Liu / Chen 97) However, The Old Chinese, Tibetan (A.10c.4) and Central, NE Asian lexemes
cited above suggest that the wild canine ancestor of the dog in China, if domesticated locally, was the “fox”.
However, the archaeologists also point out that it is unclear when the process of domestication in China occurred.
“There is still a gap in the record between ancestral canids in the Paleolithic and fully domesticated dogs in the
Neolithic.” “The earliest domestic dog has been reported as present at Nanzhuzntou in Hebei. (ca.10,000 BP)
(Liu / Chen 97).
71
Old Chinese gurītā Songhay Mande- Bozo

*ku “dog” “young (Djenne) Dia
Karlgren GSR female k‫ככ‬r‫כ‬ gûû
#108d animal” “hyena” “dog”
Matisoff 2003 Compre- Heath Mukarovsky
201, 448 hensive v. 2 128 144
*kuwX “puppy, Aramaic
dog” Sagart 1999 Lexicon
19045 See also G.9.1
A.10c.3 E. Cushitic- C. Khoisan-
S. Chinese-Min Saho ‖Kh’au-‖’e
kaù “dog” okaalo !káu
Bodman 1987 v.2 “dog” Ruhlen 1994
84, 145 Hakka Dict. Skinner 138 #332 55
C. Chinese-Wu E. Cushitic- C. Khoisan-
(Wēnzhōu) Gawwada Naron !gau
kau3 “dog” xar-o “dog” “spotted
Norman 1988a 190 Blench hyena”
Rose 161 1999b 67 Ruhlen 1994
#332 55
A.10c.4 E. Chadic- Proto-AA S. Khoisan-
TB-Burmish-Mar Kabalai gàrà (Orel / Proto-Taa
kha “dog” “dog” Stolbova ǂqha
Matisoff 2003 196 Stolbova, Olga 1995) “dog”
TB-Tibetan-Amdo E. Chadic- *kar / *kayar
gaa “fox” Etymology “dog”
Benedict 1972 34 Skinner 138
A.10c.5 W. Chadic-Hausa NS- S. Khoisan
TB-Akha kàrē Kanuri -!Xoo
xa-ye “dog” karê ǂqhai
“dog” Newman, P. “spotted -Masarwa
Matisoff 2003 407 2007 109 hyena” ǂxai
Cyffer “dog”
1990 80 Starostin, G.
2003 13
45
A.10c.1-2 (Old Chinese) As mentioned in Note A.10b.1, the Chinese-MSC gôu form corresponds closely to N.
Khoisan ghóá,a variant of the proto-N. Khoisan *ǂghú which itself corresponds to the Old Chinese proto-form
*ku. Sagart states that Proto-Miao-Yao “appears to be related to [Chinese] gôu i.e. < kuwX “puppy, dog”. Sagart
190. The A.10c.2 Khoisan *ǂghú and NC-Mande gûû are closest to the Old Chinese proto-form *ku while
A.10c.1 Chadic-Hausa kōlō and Cushitic-Oromo gullo morphemes are closest to Norman’s proposed proto-
Miao-Yao loan form *klu. Hence the comparative data support Norman’s proposal of the Miao-Yao *klu as
cognate to the A.10c.1 N. Chinese-MSC gôu n. “dog” since the A.10c.1 Chadic-Hausa kōlō and Cushitic-
Oromo gullo morphemes are probable proximate sources .They could have been brought into E. Asia by
speakers of African languages, possibly within the same wave of pre-historic migration as the Miao-Yao *klu.
Hence the hypothesis of a loan is not the only possible explanation of the origin of gôu.
Note A.10c.3 The A.10.c.3 Cushitic okaalo and xar-o are relevant to the Chinese etymology in this case as
proximate sources of the Min, Wu and Kejia variants. Both of these etyma proposed by Sinitic scholars as related
to Chinese are also consistent with the A.10c.1 proposal of Chadic kóoróo “dog” and Songhay koro “hyena”
as sources of Chinese gôu “dog”. Interestingly, however, in both sets the Khoisan correspondence is the closest
match to the Chinese lexeme. See also Note A.10d.1 following on determining proximate and ultimate roots
72

A.10c.2 Old Chinese kuwX “the naked pup or whelp of dogs and other animals” /
TB-S. Loloish-Mpi khɯ2 “dog”
< NC- N. Mande- Bozo Dia gûû “dog”
A.10c.3 S. Chinese-Min kaù “dog”
< C. Khoisan- ‖Kh’au-‖e !káu / C. Khoisan-Naro !gau “spotted hyena”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *gûû / *gau “dog”
A.10c.2 N. Chinese-MSC, Beijing mŭgǒu “bitch” Manser 38
A.10c.2 C. Chinese-Wu kɤw5 “dog” Hakka Dict.
A.10c.3
S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) gáu “dog” Kwan 146
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ngau2 “mastiff; large, fierce dog” / (Meixian) kεu3 (Lau Chunfat)
kgeu3 / geu3 “dog (Canis familiaris)” Hakka Dict.
A.10c.1
E. Chadic- Sokoro kuwī / kúyo / kúyú “dog” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 107 Blench 1999 67
E. Cushitic- Rendille kooryante “bat-eared fox” Pillinger 201
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Ennemor) gōĉa “hyena” Leslau 1979 v.3 259
E. Chadic-Kera gòrnòy “dog” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 205
E. Chadic- Lele gònì “hyena” Jungraithmayr 1994 v. 2 205
NS-Anywa -guok pl. -gùú “puppy” Reh 28
Berber–Tuareg [Tamasheq] aɣoray “male hyena” Skinner 154 201 ;
akorhi / akorhal “fennec” Cortade 212
A.10c.2 C. Khoisan-Naron agu “dog” Ehret 1982 [177]
Proto-Semitic *gurw- “puppy” Skinner 163
Semitic-Old Aramaic gūr, gūrā “whelp” gūrī, gūrītā “young female animal”
Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon
E.Chadic-Bidiya kúrkido “chiot” [pup, puppy] Skinner 107
C. Chadic- Higi (Kamale) kurε “dog” - (Kiria) kuri “dog” Mukarovsky 144
C. Chadic- Higi (C. Chadic-Kada kəra “dog” Blench 1999 57
NC-S.E. Mande-Dan kula “dog” Mukarovsky 144
NC- N. Mande- Kono wulu / ngulu “dog” Mukarovsky 144
E. Chadic- Bidiya kurkid’o “chiot” [pup, puppy] Skinner 163
W. Chadic- Hausa kura kuràye pl. “hyena” Newman, P. 2007 118 Skinner 154
Proto-Cushitic *kw-rkw-r- “puppy” Skinner 163
A.10c.3
N. Khoisan- !’O-!Kung !k’āū “spotted hyena” Ruhlen 1994 #332 55
S. Khoisan-!Xoo ǂgxū “hunting dog” Starostin, G. 2003 13
Semitic-Hebrew kalbah “bitch” Baltsan 162
E. Chadic-Kabalai gw‫̀ככ‬rrnay “dog” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 205
A.10c.4
E. Chadic-Tumaki gá “dog” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2107
E. Cushiic- Rendille kár “male dog” Pillinger 180
Khoisan-Sandawe kāka “dog” Starostin. G. 2003 13, 2006-2008,
E. Cushiic- Konso káre “dog” Blench 1999b 67
E. Cushiic-Saho kare “dog” Militarev, A. Saho-Afar Etymology
W. Chadic-Dyarim kàra “dog” Blench 2007 45
Semitic-Arabic gaʕar “hyena” Militarev, A. Semitic Etymology 2006 #201 11
A.10c.5 Khoisan- Proto-Taa ǂqhai “dog” Starostin, G. 2003 13
N. Cushiic-Beja [Bedauye] karáy “die hyane” (hyaena)” Reinisch 147
73

A.10c.1 Proto-IE skol- “puppy” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology
A.10c.2 IE-Avestan kukurrah / kukura / kukkurra / kurkura “a dog” AV
kurkurIya “behave like a dog” Cologne Lexicon.
IE- Pashto ku-karraey “puppy, whelp, cub” Raverty 821. Originally this as a composite could have
meant “small dog”. Note Hausa kàrē of A.10c.5 above, and Hausa k’ure / k’uru “be small,
narrow” of G.9.1.
IE-Bengali kukur “dog” n. Thompson 44, 95
Austronesian-Puyuma kurkur “dog” ; -Paiwan kuku “puppy” Sagart 1999 190
IE- Sanskrit koka “a wolf” Cologne Lexicon.
A.10c.3
Hmong-Mien-Proto-Miao-Yao *qlAuB “dog” Sagart 1999 190
Hmong-Mien-Miao-Yao klu “dog” Norman 1988 17
Sanskrit kauleyaka “a dog, especially a hunting dog” Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2- A.10c.2-3.
A.10c.4
Proto-Altaic *kărsi “fox, marten” / Proto-Turkic *KARsak “fox, marten”
Proto-Tumgus-Manchu karsi “fox, marten” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
http://starling.rinet.ru./c
/
Swadesh “dog” W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Semitic- NS-Kanuri
A.10d.1 Ngizim Afar, Konso Old kùtùrú “young dog,
TB-Proto-Kiranti kútə́řu kùta Aramaic pup, puppy”
*ku°tu / *ku°cu “puppy” “dog” qurti- Cyffer 1990 105
“dog” Schuh 100 Parker / son Schuh 100
[Disyllabic corresp.] C. Chadic- Bura Hayward 152 “little NS-Tepeth
TB-Kiranti-Tulung kutiru Blench 1999b dog” kudo’ “dog”
ku°tüma “puppy” “puppy” 57 Compre- Blench1999b 67
TB-Kiranti-Limbu Dict. of Bura Proto-E. hensive NS-Nuer
kutibā “puppy” C. Chadic-Bata Cushitic, Burji Aramaic kut kut /
Starostin. S. kəde *góta Lexicon kut ku(t)ni
Kiranti Etymology “dog” “hyena” “colt, pup”
Blench Sasse 8 Huffman 25
1999b 67
A.10d.1 TB-Proto-Kiranti *ku°tu “dog” / TB-Kiranti-Limbu kutibā “puppy”
< C. Chadic- Bura kutiru “puppy” / NS-Kanuri kùtùrú “young dog, pup, puppy”
Approximate TB-Kiranti etymon: *kuti- / kùtù- “young dog, pup, puppy” 46
A.10d.1 E. Cushitic- Sidamo gót-icco pl. gótó “hyena” Hudson 83 gotò “hyena” Gasparini 130
Sasse 82
Cushitic-Kambata, Qabenna, Alaba gota “hyena” Leslau 1979 v. 3, 259
E. Cushitic-Kambata go-ticcu pl. go-ta “hyena” Sasse 82
46
Note-A.10d.1 (Etymon) The proximate etymon is proposed to be derived from the Chadic and NS variants
kùti- / kutu- which are matched in TB-Kiranti. However, the vowel in E.Cushitic-Sidamo (Extended) shows a
similar vowel shift between the singular and plural forms, góti- pl. gótó “hyena”. (A.10d.1 Extended). The
Cushitic forms may represent the proximate root, if the Kanuri morpheme has been borrowed from AA. This is a
typical case of Blench’s observation that we can know that a form of a root existed in the proto-language, but
cannot determine the exact form. See Chapter 1 Section 1.6.1 and note.
74
E. Cushitic- Haddiya *go-ticco “hyena” Hudson 82

Proto E. Cushitic *go-ticco “hyena” Hudson 82
A.10d.1
IE-Pashto (Pushtu) kutaraey “a pup, a puppy, a cub” Raverty 814
IE-Hindi kuttā “dog” m. Scudiere 48, 220 Kobayashi Tables 1-3, 7, 13.
[Disyllabic corresp.] See also Supplementary Table 2 A.10d.1
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan gadhwa “a bitch, a female dog” Peterson, J. 1995
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish kurt “wolf” Tureng 733 Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
-Turkic-Azeri kurd “wolf”
Proto-Altaic *kiutí “a kind of fox” [Disyllabic correspondence]
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *küderi “a kind of fox”
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *kitiri “a kind of fox” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
/
A.10e.1 C. Chadic-Zime- Proto-S. Cushitic Semitic- Arabic
Proto-TB *gwa “fox” Batna gwàrày *k(w)ari (Iraqi) waawi
Matisoff 2003 592 “hyena” “dog” “jackal”
Benedict 1972 Jungraithmayr 1994 Skinner 138 Dict. of Iraqi
34, 167, 186, 200 v.2 205 Cushitic- Ma’ Arabic
TB-Tibetan-Chamba C. Chadic- Daba ware “hyena” part 1 95
Lahuli gûa “fox” kwàya kwàya Skinner 286 part 2 487
Benedict/Matisoff “hyena”
1972 34 Jungraithmayr 1994
v. 2 205
Swadesh “dog” E. Chadic-Dangaleat E. Cushitic-Gedeo Egyptian
A.10e.2 [Dangla] warsha uahr
TB-Tibetan wakirka “dog” “dog”
wa “fox” “espèce de chacal deHudson 265 Budge v.1 147
Jaschke 470 la taille d’un chien”
E. Cushitic-Afar Semitic-Arabic
C. Chinese-Wu Fédry 144 wàkri waʕ-waʕ
wɑ̌ “dog” Rose 161 Proto-W. Chadic wàkarwai pl. “jackal”
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu *kwar / *kyar “jackal” Militarev, A.
wa:kpa “dog” Parker / Hayward Semitic
“a kind of jackal” Skinner 138 208 Etymology.
Starostin, S. 2006
Yamphu Dict.
A.10e.3 E. Cushitic-Oromo
Proto-Lolo-Burmese wango “fox”
*wan Hudson 67
“wolf, jackal, dhole” “volpe,
(Cuon javanicus)” sciacallo”
Matisoff 2003 [fox, jackal]
261, 407, 449 Borello 419
A.10e.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *gwa “fox”
< Proto-S. Cushitic *k(w)ari “dog”
A.10e.2 TB-Tibetan wa “fox” / TB-Kiranti-Yamphu wa:kpa “a kind of jackal”
< E. Chadic- Dangaleat wakirka “espèce de chacal de la taille d’un chien” [dog-sized jackal] /
Proto-E. Cushitic *warāb- “hyena”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *gwa “hyena, dog”
75

A.10e.1
Middle Chinese ɣwa “fox” Norman 1988a 44
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *kywal “jackal, dhole” Matisoff 2003 407, 449
TB-Proto-Northern Naga *C-khyual “wolf” Matisoff 2003 261
TB-Tibetan wamo / wagyeè “fox” Goldstein 919
A.10e.3 TB- Bunan gwaun “jackal”
Starostin, S. Sino-Tibetan-Etymology
A.10e.1
Proto-W. Chadic *kwar “dog” Skinner 138
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Caha) ägwärägweyä “hyena” Leslau 1979 v.2 342
W. Chadic–Ron (Bokkos) kyàra “dog” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 106
W. Chadic–Ron (Kulere) gyara “dog” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 106
W. Chadic – Hausa kyarkeci / kyalkeci “wild dog” Skinner 164
A.10e.2
C. Chadic-Bura
pwaha “fox” ufwa “very small red fox” Dict. of Bura
E. Cushitic-Rendille waraába “hyaena” Pillinger 291
E. Cushitic - Somali waraabe “hyena” Awde 1999 64
E. Cushitic-Oromo warabessa “iena maculata” [spotted hyena] Borello 420
Proto-E. Cushitic *warāb- “hyena” Skinner 286
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Endegeñ) wälange, wälangiya “jackal”
Leslau 1979 v.2 342
E. Cushitic- Arbore warac- “hyena” Skinner 2861
NC-Adamawa-Eastern-Mangbei vwa “dog” Greenberg 1966 17
↓↓
Swadesh “dog” W. Chadic-S.. NC- N. Mande- Soninke
A.10f.1 Bauci-Geji wulle
S. Chinese-Yuè vwulli “dog”
(Cantonese) “hyena” Mukarovsky 14447
wùhlei Jungraithmayr
“fox” 1991 v.2 204
Kwan 196
A.10f.1 S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) wùhlei “fox”
< NC- N. Mande- Soninke wulle “dog”
Approximate etymon: *wulle “dog”
A.10f.1
NC- N. Mande-Kono wulu / ngulu “dog” Mukarovsky 144
E. Cushitic-Derasa wɔl- “dog” Mukarovsky 144
W. Chadic- N. Bauci-Pa’a wur- “hyena” Skinner 286
W. Chadic- Hausa wurji “hyena” Skinner 286
W. Chadic- Tangale wowóù “a wild hunting dog” Jungraithmayr 1991 163
↓↓
47
Note- A10f.1 (NC-Mande) N. Mande contains four other languages which attest a wul- “dog” root stem. These
are Malinke, Bambara, Jula, and Vai. Mukarovsky 144
76

A.11 AA – Chadic Afro-Asiatic -Cushitic AA- NS NC
Sem.
A.11.1 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Rendille
S. Chinese-Kejia Dyarim tunnaan
[Hakka] (Meixian) tàm t‫ככ‬ŋ̀‫כ‬s pl. “(act of) beating”
1
tun “castrate (an “sheep” “(act of) castration”
animal)” Hakka Dict. tàm Pillinger 281-282
TB-Tibetan “sheep” E. Cushitic- Oromo
thong-ce Blench 2007 47 tumacca “castrazione”
“to castrate” [castration]
Jaschke 537 Borello 403
A.11.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – E. Cushitic-Oromo NC-N. Mande-
thoŋ-pa “a ram that Hausa tumaamaa “castrate” Mandinka
is castrated” tunkìyā / tumāki Blench 1999b 61 saa
Jaschke 238 Das 593 pl. “sheep, ewe” “fat, well-fed kótoŋ
ra-thoŋ “a castrated Newman, P. castrated sheep or goat” “ram, whether”
he-goat” “a gelded 2007 212 tuntunoo n. saa “sheep”
he-goat” Skinner 262 “fat male sheep Mukarovsky
Jaschke 238, 52148 Blench 1999b 61 (goat, bull)” Gragg 380 293
A.11.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] tun1 “castrate (an animal)”
< E. Cushitic- Rendille tunnaan “act of castrating, castration, beating, grinding”
A.11.2 TB-Tibetan thoŋ-pa “a ram that is castrated, wether”, ra-thoŋ “a castrated he-goat”
< NC-N. Mande- Susu yaxe köntonyi “ram, whether” / E. Cushitic-Oromo tuntunoo n.
“fat male sheep (goat, bull)”, tumaamaa “fat, well-fed castrated sheep or goat”
Approximate ST etymon: *tun- “castrated ram, goat” “act of castrating, castration, beating”
A.11.1 TB-Tibetan thung-dree “the scrotum / testicle of a castrated goat or sheep (used in Tibetan
medicine)” Goldstein 494
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] dong “to castrate” Starostin, S. ST Etymology.
A.11.2 TB-Bai (Dali) tɕɯŋ‫“ כ‬sheep” Blench 2009a 5
A.11.1 W. Chadic– Gwandara túnkiyā “sheep” Matsushita 1972 118
E .Cushitic- Burji, Hadiyya tum- “pound” “castrate an animal” Hudson 37
-Burji tuma ”castrate (by crushing testicles), churn, pound.” Hudson 222
E. Cushitic- Sidamo tuma ”to strike, to hit” “to castrate, to geld (properly for goats and sheep)”
Gasparini 318 See also F.22.2 (Extended) *tum- “to pound, beat”
E. Cushitic- Oromo tumamessa “animale castrato” tumu “battere, picchiare” “castrare”
[beat, knock, castrate] Borello 403 cidan tumu “castrare” [to castrate] cidan “testicles” Borello 77
48
Note- A.11.1 (TB-Jingpho Extended) The morphemes in this table are included in the A domain since their
semantic content represents both “castrate” and “castrated animal”. As several of the African/AA language
extended word family morphemes indicate, the “castrate” meaning is derived from verbs meaning “pound, beat”.
So the word family is also found in H.29b.1 with meanings of “pound, strike” and in one case “castrate”.
Those attesting a final –k, e.g. Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova) *duk- “break, pound” *tuk- “strike” / Proto-AA
(Ehret) *-duk’- “break into pieces by hitting”. and H.29b.2 Old Chinese tǔk “beat/strike” “castrate” correspond
to
W. Chadic- Ron (Scha) təkai “Kastrieren” [castrate]. .
The A.11.2 thoŋ / tun- morphemes of this table contrast with the H.29b.1 Proto-AA *duk- in their root finals
n or –ŋ but correspond more fully with the H.29c.1 d̀ɔŋ- / dʊ‫כ‬ɔng “knock, hit” attestations.
77
NS-Songhay (Koyra) tutum “hit hard, beat, castrate” Heath v.1 247
A.11.2
E. Cushitic-Sidamo tumâlessa “castrated (calf, goat)” Gasparini 318
NC- N. Mande- Susu yaxe köntonyi “ram, whether” yaxe “sheep” Mukarovsky 293
E. Chadic-Mubi tǔmák “sheep”
C. Chadic-Tpala tǝmâk “sheep” Blench 1999b 61
Proto-Chadic (Newman, P.) *təmki “sheep” Newman, P. 1977 31 Skinner 262 49
W. Chadic- Gwandara (Nimbia) túmákywe “sheep” Matsushita 1974 #272 74
W. Chadic-Dyarim tàm “sheep” Blench 2007 47
C. Chadic-Bade taaman / təmakun “sheep” Blench 1999b 61
↓↓
A.12a-b Afro-Asiatic – AA-Cush., AA- Nilo- NC
Chadic Proto-AA Semitic Saharan
A.12a.1 N. Chinese-MSC Proto-Chadic C. Cushitic- Egyptian Maba NC-Ewe
lù “deer” Chen 65 (Newman) Khamir ȧrù Group- lu
50
lú “donkey, ass” *ɬəw- / *ɬw luwā “stalled Aiki “female
Wu, J. 444-445 “meat, animal” “cattle” ox” àlù antelope”
ròu “meat, flesh” Skinner 223 Militarev / Budge “sheep” NC -Ahlo
Wu, J. 579 Jungraithmayr Stolbova v.1 69 Maba ulu
Chinese- Jiangdong 1994 v.1 116 Group- “female
(dialect of Yangzi W. Chadic – Masalit antelope”
estuary, 4th century CE) S. Bauci-Jimi aru “ram” Greenberg
rou4 “deer, cervidae” lowa “meat” Edgar 148 1966 153
Sagart 1999 [197] Jungraithmayr NS-Teda
TB-Tibetan lu̱ù 1994 v.2 232 arro
“sheep” ruru “deer” Chadic– Karekare “he-goat”
Goldstein 1043, 107 ló “meat, animal” Blench
rōō “herd of livestock” Greenberg 1966 54 1999b 62
Jaschke 1043
A.12a.2 Proto-AA
Old Chinese *lôʔ- pl.
a
rok > “cattle”
Middle Chinese *ɬôw sing.
luwk “cow”
“deer” Ehret 1995
Sagart 1999 [161] #888 42851
49
Note- A.11.2 (Proto-Chadic Extended) “Sheep and goats spread through the Sinai into Africa by or about 7000
BCE, first to the far northeasterly groups of the northern Erythraitic peoples.” “The word *tam “sheep” in the
Saharan branch of [Nilo-Saharan] Saharo-Sahelian came from an early form of the proto-Chadic language”.
Ehret 2002 78.
50
Note- A.12a.1 (NS-Maba group) Ehret states that the NS-Saharan and Sahelian subbranch roots referring to
goats and sheep were borrowed from languages of the Afro-Asiatic family, “which we know to have been spoken to
the immediate north and east of the Nilo-Saharan areas”. Ehret 2001 232.
51
Note- A.12a.2 (Proto-AA) Ehret reconstructs Proto-AA lôʔ with a meaning of “cattle” and notes that there
was an “Egyptian, Semitic innovation: [which was ] a generalization of the plural to domestic animals in general,
then narrowing in Proto-Semitic (A.12b.2) and Egyptian to different specific animals” Ehret 1995 # 888. 428. The
Extended A.12a.1, A.12a.3 Tibetan forms considered to be reflexes of this proto-root would be a result of this
innovation since they attest the Cushitic semantics of “sheep” or “goat”. However, the North Chinese/
Tibetan/Burmese semantics of “deer” and Sanskrit “antelope” imply that the root probably predates
78
A.12a.3 W. Chadic-
S. Chinese-Yuè Tangale
(Cantonese) lug
lúk “deer” “antelope
Kwan 125 (big as a donkey)”
Chen 65 Jungraithmayr
Middle Chinese 1991 116
luwk “deer”
Sagart 1999 161
A.12a.1 TB-Tibetan lu̱ù “sheep” / Chinese-MSC lù “deer”
< Proto-Chadic *luw- “meat” / E. Chadic- Kofyar luwa “meat, animal” / NS- Maba Group-
Aiki àlù “sheep”
A.12a.2 N. Chinese-MSC ròu “meat”
< W. Chadic–S. Bauci-Jimi lowa “meat” / Proto-Chadic *ɬw “meat” / Proto-Cushitic *ɬôw “cow” /
E. Cushitic-Rendille loólyo
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *luw- ~ *ɬôʔ “meat” “antelope, sheep/goat”
A.12a.1
TB-Kham lū “sheep” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Tibetan lu-gu or lug-gu “lamb” Das 1214 [gu is a diminutive suffix. See G.9.1]
TB-Tujia ruo2 “goat” Blench 2009a 2
N. Chinese-MSC niúròu “beef” Wang, F. 396
A.12a.3
TB-Tibetan lug “a sheep” Jaschke 547 Das 1214
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] lug6 / luk8 “deer, stag, doe” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) lúhk “deer, stag, doe” Chik / Ng 507
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *lug “sheep” Matisoff 2003 363
Old Chinese *bhlu[k]-s “animal” Sagart 1999 [197]
A.12a.1
W. Chadic–Ron (Sha) luw / low “Fleisch” [flesh, meat] Jungraithmayr 1970 286
W. Chadic- Warji hluu-na “meat, animal” Newman, P. 1977 29
NS- Maba Group-Zaghawa aro “ewe” òòru “flock” Blench 1999b 62
C. Chadic- Mandara- Lamang hluwi “meat, animal” Newman, P. 1977 29
IE. Chadic- Kofyar luwa “meat, animal” Newman, P. 1977 29
W. Chadic –Sura luwaa “meat” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 Mukarovsky 256
W. Chadic- Ngizim tlùwái “meat” “animal (generally wild)” Schuh 163, 188
W. Chadic – Ngamo lu “meat” Skinner 220
C. Chadic- Kotoko-Kuseri ɬù “body” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 232
W. Chadic–Tangale lọ “animal, meat” Jungraithmayr 1991 115
C. Chadic- Masa *slīw “la chair, la viande” Caitucoli 114
W. Chadic–Ron (Fyer) ló “Tier, Fleisch” Jungraithmayr 1970 87
W. Chadic–S. Bauci- Kir tlo “meat” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 232
A.12a.2
Proto-Cushitic *ɬôw / *ɬôʔ pl. “cow” Ehret 1995 #888 428
Nuer rok “cow with spreading horns” Huffman 42
domestication of animals and originally referred to antelopes or deer. See also Note A.12b.1 Chadic Extended
following.
79
W. Chadic–S. Bauci-Geji, Jimi hlo “meat” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 232

W. Chadic–Ron (Daffo-Butura) ló(h) “Fleisch” [flesh, meat] Jungraithmayr 1970 217
A.12a.1-2 IE-Sanskrit ruru “a species of antelope” rucu “a deer with black horns” ruruzIrsan
“deer-headed” “having a deer’s horns” rohi “a kind of deer” Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2
Hmong-Mien-White Hmong lwj “the Sambar deer” Heimbach 122
/
A.12b.1 W. Chadic- Proto-Cushitic
TB-Tibetan Dyarim ɬá (Dolgopolski)
ra “goat” “cow” *r-h-’
Goldstein 1017 Blench 2007 “goat”
TB-Kiranti- 48 Skinner 213
Yamphu Proto-Chadic S. Cushitic-Gorwaa
gla “musk deer” *ɬa “cow” ‘áaraa “goats”
Starostin, S. Newman. P. Blench 1999b 62
ST Etymology #30 1977 24 E. Cushitic- Burji
Ehret 1995 araashoo
#888 428 “sheep, ewe”
Hudson 178
A.12b.2 W. Chadic- Proto-Afro-Asiatic Proto-
TB-Burmese Hausa (Orel/Stolbova Semitic
laʔ / sla ràago “ram” 1995) *ɬʔ (*ɬaʔ)
“musk deer” ràagon dutse *lax- “sheep, “sheep”
Starostin, S. “Barbary goat” Ehret 1995
ST-Etymology sheep” *la’ / law “cattle” #888 428
TB-Tibetan Newman, P. Skinner 223 *ɬā’ “ovino”
lāwa 2007 165 E. Cushitic- [sheep-like
“musk deer” marak’i Rendille animal]
Goldstein 209 “calf” láh “old or mature Skinner 213
Skinner 213 ewe” Pillinger 208
A.12b.3 W. Semitic- NS-Anywa NC-
TB-Tibetan Ethiopian- [Anuak] Fulfulde
rá-ma Amharic rɔ‫כ‬ɔmɔ‫כ‬ (Fulani)
“goat, lam “sheep” ramnde
she-goat ” “cow” Reh 72, 123 “a he-goat”
Das 1160 Leslau 1976 Taylor 156
Jaschke 521 7, 309
A.12b.4 E. Cushitic- NS-Maba Kordo-
TB-Tibetan Rendille Group- fanian-
ri-gu riíy “goats Masalit Talodi
colloquial (in general)” arii / ári uri
“young goat, Pillinger 248 “ram” “antelope”
kid” Jaschke E. Cushitic- Oromo Edgar 148 Greenberg
521 ree Blench 1966 153
“baby goat” “capra” [goat] 1999b 62
Goldstein 1032 Borello 358 NS-Kuliak
ri̱wu “a baby reetii pl. ree’oota ri “goat”
goat, kid” “goat” Blench
Goldstein 1047 Gragg 342 1999b 6, 2
80
A.12b.5 C. Chadic- Proto-Cushitic Semitic-

TB-Tibetan Padoko (Ehret) Mehri ‘
rəgu vileke *leg’- / *le’g- elīk
“kid (baby “calf” “calf” “camel calf”
goat)” Skinner 197 Skinner 197 Skinner 197
Goldstein 1017 E. Cushitic- Oromo
recco pl. reʔe
“goat”
Hudson 258
A.12.b.1 TB-Tibetan ra “goat”
< Proto-Cushitic *r-h-’ “goat”
A.12b.4 TB-Tibetan ri-gu / ri̱wu “young goat, kid”
< E. Cushitic- Rendille riíy “goats (in general)”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon: *raʔ “goat, sheep” ~ *rii “goat”
A.12b.1
TB-Tibetan ra-thug “he-goat ” Goldstein 1017 ra-mo “female goat” Goldstein 1018
TB-Proto-Kiranti *tò-la “musk deer” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
A.12b.2 TB-Tibetan rá-gu “kid (baby goat)” Jaschke 521 [This is possibly a diminutive of the
basic rá- root. See G.9.1]
Extended African /AA language word family:
A.12b.1 Proto-Semitic *ɬ’ (*ɬa’) “sheep” Ehret 1995 #888 428
Chadic root hla, tla “cow” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 92-9352 *hla “bovine”
Newman, P. 2000 239
C. Chadic-Higi Ghye, Lame la “sheep” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic-Etymology
W. Chadic- Gwandara (all dialects) ràgo “ram” Matsushita 1974 74
E. Cushitic- Rendille láh “old or mature ewe” Pillinger 208
Proto-Semitic *la “ovino” Skinner 213 *rahl- “ewe” Skinner 213
E. Cushitic- Afar làa “cattle, cows” àla “animal, wild animal” lā “Vieh, Rinder” [cattle] Militarev /
Stolbova ; lagàddu “male lamb”
Parker / Hayward 37, 154 laạh “she-goat” Militarev, A. Saho-Afar Etymology
E. Chadic- Mubi la “cattle” Greenberg 1966 54
A.12b.2 E. Cushitic-Afar
Proto-Cushitic (Dolgopolski 1973) l-h̟-’ “sheep, goat” Skinner 213
A.12b.3
Semitic-Arabic laħm al khenzeer “pork” n. Merriam-Webster Arabic 119 ;
(Iraqi) la‫ح‬am “meat, flesh” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 419
la‫ح‬m il baqar (IPA) “beef” baqar “cow” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 41
A.12b.4
E. Cushitic -Somalii riyo “goats” ri “nanny goat” Awde 1999 45
Proto-S. Cushitic *ʔari “goat” Militarev, A. S.Cushitic Etymology
Omotic-Koyra ‘áare “flock of sheep” Blench 1999b 62
Maba Group-For (Fur) uli / uri “sheep” Greenberg 1966 144
Semitic-Aramaic rh̝ēlā “ewe” Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon
52
Note- A.12b.1 (Chadic Extended) Jungraithmayr lists13 Chadic correspondences of hla or tla meaning “cow”
Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 92-93. This Chadic root plausibly belongs with the ra root of this table but is found in TB-
Tibetan with semantics of “goat, sheep”. As indicated by the TB-Burmese CC of this set and the Chinese forms of
the previous table, the root probably predates domestication of animals and meant “deer” or “wild animal” at the
time of the earliest of the proposed migrations. See also Chapter 6 section 6.2.1.
81
E. Cushitic-Afar reyta “doe goat, nanny goat” Parker / Hayward 181

E. Cushitic- Burji aray / aree “sheep” Hudson 178
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Chaha, Eža, Masqan) are “cows” Leslau 1979 v.2 148
E. Cushitic- Oromo riidama “fat, beautiful, sterile sheep (sheep, goat, deer etc.)” Gragg 343
NS-Shilluk, Lango, Dinka, Anywa [Anuak] riŋo “meat” Greenberg 1966 102 Reh 71
NS-Mangbetu ri “meat” Greenberg 1966 123
NS-Lombi eri “meat’ Greenberg 1966 123
A.12b.4 Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho u’riʔ “animal” Kobayashi Table 1 #91 2
A.12b.5
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *elik “wild goat” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Old Turkic elik “wild goat” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish (dial.) elik “wild goat” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz elik “wild goat” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Tuva, Kazakh elik “roebuck, wild goat” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Karakhanid elik “wild goat” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Karakalpak elik “wild goat” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
↓↓
A.13a-b Afro-Asiatic– AA- AA- Nilo- Niger-Congo
Chadic Cush. Sem. Sah.
A.13a.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic–Sura NC-Benue-Congo-
sdig-pa “scorpion” ‘digir Degema
Jaschke 293 Das 714 “scorpion” (Kwa: Delta Edo
Benedict 1972 26 W. Chadic–Dera group)
sdig-srin “crab” Jaschke 293 ‘digilin á-’dikòhóro
TB-Lepcha “scorpion” “crab”
dik-lâŋ-jik Jungraithmayr Williamson-Shimizu
“scorpion” 1994 v.2 92
Benedict 1972 26 v.2 28253
A.13a.1 TB-Tibetan digbə ra̱ňa “scorpion” / sdig-srin “the crab”
< W. Chadic –Sura ‘digir “scorpion” / NC-Benue-Congo-Degema á-‘dikòhóro “crab”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon: *‘dig- “crab, scorpion”
A.13a.1 TB-Tibetan
digbə ra̱ňa “scorpion” digsin “crab” Goldstein 592 sdig-srin “the crab Das 714
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *(s-)di.k “scorpion” Benedict 1972 #56 26, 200
TB-Bodo/Garo-Garo na-tik “shrimp” na “fish” Matisoff 2003 345
53
Note- A.13a.1 (Chadic) Jungraithmayr considers the root to be *d’gt derived from a non-Chadic source.
Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 143. See Jungraithmayr 1994 v. 2 282 for 5 other reflexes which correspond less
closely to the Tibetan form.
The Niger-Congo correspondence suggests a possible non-Chadic source of the TB root. Like the Chadic
attestations it does not attest the final *-t of Jungraithmayr’s reconstruction.
The Tibetan s- prefix in this case appears to represent a shift to an alveolar sibilant from the ejective pre-
glottalized dental (‘d) of the Chadic and NC forms. Under this hypothesis it is not an instance of the explanation
of s- prefixation as sa- / s- “animal” mentioned above in Notes A.1a.1 and A.9a.1. It is possibly a case of
inheritance by Tibetan of a click phoneme expressed as á-’di- in the NC transcription of Williamson-Shimizu.
This is also notated as a glottal initial ‘d in the two Chadic correspondences. See also Chapter 10 section 10.3.3.2
and Supplementary Table 3 section 1.1.
82
Proto-Tibeto-Burman di:k “scorpion, crab” Matisoff 2003 586

C. Chadic–Tera díŋgilíng “scorpion” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006
Proto-C. Chadic *díŋgil- “scorpion” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006
/
A.13b.1 *k(y)a:y “crab” NC-Benue-Congo-Ekoid
Matisoff 2003 262, 598 Bantu A
TB- Naga-Tangkhul ə-kai “crab”
khai-reu “crab” Williamson / Shimizu
Old Chinese *ɣāi “crab” v.1 90
Benedict 1972 25, 166, 193 NC-Benue Congo-
S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) Ekoid Bantu F, G, H
gaai “shelled aquatic animal” ə-káə “crab”
kèi “a variety of small crab” Williamson / Shimizu
Chik / Ng Lam 8, 403 v.1 91
A.13b.2 S. Khoisan –
TB-Kuki-Chin-Naga-Khoirao |Nu‖’en ‖kaī
tśəgai “crab” “scorpion”54
Matisoff 2003 210, 515 Ruhlen 1994 #480 62
TB-Karen-Sgaw See also Chapter 10
shɣε “crab” Section 10.3.3.2
Matisoff 2003 217 and its note.
A.13b.3 W. Chadic- Semitic-Aramaic
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu Hausa ʕegrab
á-chègu ~ á-chiku “crab” [k’yāguwā] “scorpion”
[Disyllabic corresp.] k’aguwa Comprehensive
Matisoff 2003 212, 515 “crab” Aramaic
TB-Chin-Lushai Newman, P. Lexicon
55
ai ~ chakai 2007 125
“crab” Matisoff 2003 447
A.13b.4 TB-Lepcha Egyptian
tahi “crab” tai “scorpion”
Matisoff 2003 139 Budge v.2 819
TB-Chin-Khami
təai “crab” Benedict 1972 25
Matisoff 2003 262
A.13b.1
S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) gaai “shelled aquatic animal”
< NC-Benue-Congo-Ekoid Bantu A ə-kai “crab” / S. Khoisan –ǀN u‖’en ‖kaī “scorpion”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *’kai “crab” ~ k’yāg- “crab, scorpion”
A.13b.1
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *d-ka:y “crab” Benedict 1972 #51 25, 116, 201, Matisoff 2003 262
S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) háaih “crab” Kwan 110
54
Note- A.13b.2 (Khoisan) There is evidence here of a correspondence between the TB tśə c.-/sh- initial and a
Khoisan alveolar lateral click / ‖ /. See other examples in Supplementary Tables 3 Khoisan section 1.1c.
55
Note- A.13b.3 (Hausa) Hausa k’yāguwā is an accurate transcription of the morpheme written as k’āguwa.
See Newman, P. 2000 416, notes A.33.1and sets E.5c.2, and E.7b.2.
83
A.13b.2
TB-Lepcha tăhi < *takhi “crab” Benedict 1972 25
TB- Chin-Mikir tśehe < *tekhe “crab” Benedict 1972 2
A.13b.1 C. Khoisan –Tati ‖kadi “scorpion” Ruhlen 1994 #480 62
A.13b.2 Semitic-Arabic ‫ع‬agrab “scorpion” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 1 155 part 2 318
ʕagrab (IPA) “scorpion” Merriam Webster Arabic 137 ‫ =ع‬voiced pharyngeal spirant.
Semitic-Hebrew m. ‘akrav “scorpion” Baltsan 9
A.13b.1 Proto-Altaic kējna “crab, tick” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
A.13b.3 IE-Sanskrit ajakava “kind of vermin, centipede or scorpion” Cologne Lexicon.
↓↓
In the following word family the semantics vary in African languages between types of small insects
such as “louse, fly, bee, chigger, tick”. Some of these insects are difficult to distinguish through ordinary
observation, but have the common characteristic of being biting/sucking insects.
A.14a-c AA – Chadic AA –Cushitic AA- NS NC
Sem.
Swadesh “louse” W. Chadic– Proto-Cushitic Kanuri NC-Wolof
A.14a.1 TB-Jingpho Hausa (Dolgopolski cígə jìga
[Kachin] tsiʔ “louse” jìgā f. 1973) “fly” “insect”
Benedict 1972 108 “jigger flea” *ts-Gw-n(s) Cyffer Krio
TB-Tibetan chig Skinner 124 “fly, louse” 1990 26 jìga
“louse” Das 1233 “jigger” Skinner 262 “insect”
Jaschke 558 Newman, P. N. Cushitic- Skinner 124
TB- Chin-Mikir 2007 99 Beja (Bedauye)
chikli “flea” Walker 281 s(ʔ)gee
S. Chinese-Yuè “louse”
(Cantonese) sīk Militarev, A.
“a poisonous insect” Bedauye
“to sting” Etymology
Chik / Ng Lam 404 56 2005
A.14a.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Proto-AA
h̟ji-ba / lj‫ככ‬i-ba “a flea” Hausa jibar- “bee,
Jaschke 175, 183 mājib’āri fly” (Orel /
h̟ji-wa / lji-wa “bee, fly” Stolbova 1995)
“a flea” Das 455, 470 Skinner 193 Skinner 193
A.14a.3 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- NS-Kənzi NC- N. Mande-
TB-Nung Angas Somali issi Mandinka
[Rawang] shî šilin ”tick” “Laus” síi
śi “louse” “sausage fly” Leslau 1979 (Ger.) “fly”
Benedict 1972 107 Foulkes 279 v.3 578 Skinner Mukarovsky
Starostin, S. 140 176
ST Etymology
56
Note- A.14a.1-2 (TB-Chinese The African/AA lexemes here confirm Benedict’s reservations as to whether the
intial s- of his A.14a.1 Extended Proto-TB *srik “louse” is a prefix and thus follows the general explanation of s-
prefixation meaning animal, meat. See also notes A.1a.1, A.19a.2, C.5a.1 and C.50.2 “In a couple of animal
names [Benedict] ultimately deems the sibilant element to be part of the root initial, and not a prefix, though much
hesitation is displayed on this point.” Matisoff 2003 102
84
N. Chinese- MSC E. Cushitic- Khoisan-

shī “louse” Wu, J. 616 57 Rendille ǂHoan cʔí
chī (WG) “a louse, chilím “louse”
aphid, nit” “tick(s)” Starostin, G.
Mathews #415 55 Pillinger 85 2003 23
S. Chinese-Kejia
[Hakka] (Meixian)
tshi2 “chicken louse”
Norman 1988a 241
A.14a.4 E. Cushitic-
TB-Naxi Lijiang Rendille
ʂu “louse” leysúusu
Matisoff 2003 390 “flea”
Pillinger 339
A.14a.1 TB-Tibetan chig “louse” / TB-Kuki-Chin-Mikir chikli “flea”
< W. Chadic–Hausa jìgaa “jigger flea” / NC-Wolof jìga “insect” Krio jìga “insect”
A.14a.3 N. Chinese-MSC shí “louse” / TB- Nung śi “louse”
< NS-Kənzi issi “Laus” [louse] / Khoisan-ǂHoan cʔí “louse”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *jìg- ~ *shi “louse, flea, insect”
A. 14a.1
TB-Tibetan shīg “louse” Jaschke 558 “louse (lice)” Goldstein 1095
TB- Magari sik “louse” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu sik “louse” ; bujik “bug, insect or worm” Starostin, S. Yamphu Dict.
[compound of this root and that of A.20a.1]
TB-W. Kiranti-Hayu sek “louse” Matisoff 2003 152.
TB- Mikir tśikli “flea” Benedict 1972 #132 108
TB-Kiranti-Limbu sigip n. “bedbug” siʔ n. “louse” van Driem 510 Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *s-rik = *śrik “louse”
Benedict 1972 107, 206 Matisoff 2003 102
A. 14a.3
N. Chinese-MSC zhì “leech” Wu, J. 905 zhi meas. for “lice” DeFrancis 854
TB-Loloish-Yi-Nanjian ɕi5 “louse” Matisoff 2003 390
TB- Thebor, Kiranti-Kulung si / sí “louse” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Tibetan ji / jiwə “flea” Goldstein 396 ;
57 2
Note- A.14a.3 (MSC) The Chinese-MSC shi and Hakka tshi lack the final –g of the A.14a.1 morpheme. This
regular absence of the final - g in MSC roots has been noted by Sinitic scholars as contrasting with southern
Sinitic languages, e.g. the A.14a.1 Cantonese sīk morpheme. “The Middle Chinese ending consonants –p, and –-k
merged by the 14th century into a glottal stop, leaving no trace of the original consonants. The change affected both the
vowels and the tones.” Ramsey 142. See also the C.21.a.1-2 Hakka– MSC contrast. In this case Hakka has a
northern rather than a southern shape. The change is not limited to Chinese languages. The reduction of the final
velar to at most a glottal stop is also found in TB languages. See TB examples above in A.14a.1 vs. A.14a.2 and
A.14a.3. See also sets B.25.1-2 + note, C.8c.1-2, C.40.1,4 and C.51a.1-2. The C.8a.2-3 sets and note give an
example of this variance paralleled by both Tibeto-Burman and Sinitic with Proto-AA and Proto- Chadic.
The evidence from the present table shows that this contrast is also present in the NS and NC African superfamilies.
See Note C.16.2-3 and sets C.1a.1-2 for NS, and TB-Jingpho [Kachin] tsiʔ “louse”. Benedict 1972 108 and
C.8c.1-2 for NC.
w-
The proto-Cushitic *ts-G n(s) form of the present table indicates that the form attesting final -g/k is the older
one in AA.
85
TB-Bodo/Garo-Garo tśi-pu “bug” Matisoff 2003 178 [compound of this root and that of A.20a.1]
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu še “louse” Matisoff 2003 261
TB-Kanauri tsià “louse” Benedict 1972 64
A. 14a.4 S. Chinese-Jin (Yangqu) kəʔ-tsɛu (Xinzhou) kəʔ-ts‫“ כ‬flea” Sagart 1999 99, 106
S. Chinese-Min (Xiamen) kətsau “flea” Sagart 1999 99 ka suaʔ “cockroach”
Norman 1988a 214. See also Chapter 10 section 10.3.2 “moveable k”
A.14a.2 Proto-N. Khoisan *cʔíŋ “louse” Starostin, G. 2003 23
A.14a.3
C. Chadic-Guduf čìčàa “louse” Stolbova, Olga C.Chadic Etymology
C. Chadic-Gava čìčà “louse” Stolbova, Olga C.Chadic Etymology
NS-Bari ciro(tat) “louse” Greenberg 1966 102
C. Chadic-Bura ciri “general name for fly and bee group of insects” Dictionary of Bura
A. 14a.4 Omotic-Janjero tu’a- “louse” Skinner 275
C. Chadic-Mandara Group (m-) ts-ts- “louse” Skinner 275
A.14a.1
Altaic-Turkic-Khakassian sik, sēk “fly” / Altaic-Turkic-Oyrat sēk “mosquito”
Altaic-Turkic-Tuvan sēk “fly”
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian ciɣV- “locust” “wood louse” / Altaic-Mongolian-Buriat šigej- “locust”
“wood louse”
Altaic-Mongolian-Kalmuck šigej- “locust” “wood louse” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek chigirtka “locust” “type of grasshopper” English-Uzbek Dictionary.
Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen čekirtge “locust, grasshopper” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho, Mundari s’iku “louse” Kobayashi Table 1 #87 2, 8
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho si’kȋ: / s’iki’je “mosquito” Kobayashi Table 1 #85 2
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari si’kȋ’ɳȋ / sȋ’k’ri “mosquito” Kobayashi Table 1 #85 8
IE-Sanskrit A.14a.1 suksmaSika “a small fly, mosquito” suksma “minute, small”
[compound of A14a.1 and G.8a.3 roots]
IE-Old Indian makśika “fly, bee” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 85
IE-Sanskrit māksīka “spider, louse” Cologne Lexicon.
A.14a.2 Kartvelian-Laz čič- “firefly” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 7
Kartvelian- Georgian cicci-natela “firefly, moth” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 7
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan makśī “Fliege” (Ger.) [fly ] Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 85
IE-Bengali machi “fly”n. Thompson 72, 100
IE-Sanskrit cicciTiGga “a kind of venomous insect” [compound of A14a.1 and A14c.1 roots]
Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 A.14a.1-2
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek chivin “fly” “insect of the familyMuscidae” “midge” “mosquito”
English-Uzbek Dict.
A.14a.3 IE-Sanskrit śiri “locust” Cologne Lexison
/
Swadesh “louse” C. Chadic- Mandara (Wandala) C. Cushitic-
A.14b.1 tšētša “louse” Xamta
Middle Chinese sjet “louse” Barth 207 ts’ɨts’a n.
Norman 1988a 214 E. Chadic-Migama “fly”
S. Chinese-Kejia ‘asid’ “Laus” (Ger.) Mukarovsky
[Hakka] Skinner 275 176
(MacIver, Meixian) set7 Skinner 276
(Lau Chunfat) sed5
(Hailu, Siyan) sit7 “louse” Hakka Dict.
86
A.14b.2 S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) W. Chadic- Hausa

sāt “flea” “louse” Kwan 192, 278 màtsàttsàku “leech”
kaat8 tsaat8 “cockroach” Newman, R. 1990 150
Norman 1988a 214 Skinner 275 58
sat7-na3 “louse” Norman 214 “leech, fluke”
Old Southern Chinese Newman, P. 2007 153
dzât “cockroach” (Damagaram dial.)
S. Chinese-Min (Ningden) sat8 tsādà “fleas”
“cockroach” Norman 1988a Matsushita 1993 75
214, 238 (Katsina dial.)
(Xiàmén) sat7 bu3 “louse” màc’àcc’aku n. m.
Norman 1988a 214. “leech” Newman, R. 1990 150
Approximate Chinese etyma *tšēt- “louse, fly” / *tsàtts- “leech”
A.14b.1 Middle Chinese sjet sjuet “cricket” Norman 1988a 87
A.14b.1 Semitic-Hebrew matsetsa v. “sucked” Baltsan 245
C. Chadic-Gisiga, Mandara group (m)ts-ts- “louse” Skinner 275
C. Chadic-Mafa tsəd’- “sucer” [to suck] Skinner 275
A.14b.2 W. Chadic-Hausa (Daura dial.) saatsa / tsātso “an earwig” Matsushita 1993 55
A.14b.1 Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho ‘tshidu “flea” Kobayashi Table 1 #86 1
A.14b.2 IE-Sanskrit satcarana “louse, locust” ”suksmasatcarana “a sort of tick or louse”
[compound of A14b.2, G.8a.3 and A.30.4 roots] Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2 A.14b.2.
/
Swadesh “louse” C. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Berber-
A.14c.1 TB- Logone Afar, Saho Tamazight
Bodo/Garo- Dimasa mtigulas təkwan “bugs” tixxuyin
thi-ku “louse” “Floh, Wanze” Militarev, A. “fleas”
Benedict 1972 107 [flea, insect] Saho-Afar Skinner 262
[Disyllabic corresp.] Skinner 263 Etymology
A.14c.2 TB-Tibetan S. Cushitic- Egyptian NC- N.
gti-khe “a kind of Burunge tekk-t Mande- Susu
c
louse” tika iya “tsetse fly” “a kind of tige n.
Jaschke 206 Das 522 Mukarovsky 176 insect” “fly”
TB- Bodo/Garo-Garo E. Cushitic- Sidamo Budge Mukarovsky
tik “louse “ tiiticca n. v. 2 845 176
Benedict 1972 107 “fly” Gasparini 66
A.14c.1 TB- Dimasa thi-ku “louse “
< C. Chadic-Logone mtigulas “flea, insect” / Berber-Tamazight tixxu “fleas”
A.14c.2 TB- Garo tik “louse “ ↔ NC- N. Mande- Susu tige “fly”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon: *tike / *tigu- “louse, flea, fly”
A.14c.1 TB-N. Naga-Tangsa-Moshang thik “louse” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Naga-Chokri- təkhrì “louse” Matisoff 2003 142
58
Note- A.14b.2 (Chadic) Skinner considers the Chadic names of sucking insects such as lice and leeches to be
derived from a root similar to the Hausa tsots- root stem meaning “suck, kiss”. Skinner 275.
87

A.14c.1 W. Chadic-Hausa tunkuyau “flea” Skinner 262
A.14c.2 E. Cushitic- Hadiyya teekay-a “fly” Mukarovsky 176
Berber–Tuareg [Tamasheq] tillik tilkîn pl. ”puce” [flea, fleas] Cortade 378
NS-Kanuri tīrgāfo “flea” Barth 206
A.14c.i1 Proto-Cushitic (Dolgopolski) *t-(k)kw-n- “biting insect” ts-Gw-n(s)- “fly, louse”
Skinner 262
A.14c.1-2 IE- Sanskrit diGka “the nit of a louse” cicciTiGga “a kind of venomous insect”
[compound of A14a.1 and A14c.2 roots] [Disyllabic corresp. with Cushitic-Sidamo tiiticca]
Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 A.14c.1-2
A.14c.2 Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari ti’ki “flea” Kobayashi Table 2 #86 8
↓↓
A.15 AA- Chadic AA – AA-Semitic etc. NS NC
Cush.
A.15.1 TB-Kuki-Liangmei C. Chadic- W. Semitic-
kabak “pig” Masa Ethiopian-Gurage
Matisoff 2003 329 bakum (Caha, Eža,
TB- Proto-Kiranti “le cochon” Ennemor)
*ʔpək “pig” Starostin, S. [pig] abäg’ar /
Kiranti Etymology Caitucoli 48 a+bäg’ēr
TB-Chin-Mikir “wild pig”
phak “pig” Walker 132, 367 Leslau 1979
Blench 2010a 12 59 v. 2 460,
v. 3 7
A.15.2 TB-Kuki-Rongmei E. Chadic- W. Semitic-
gəwak “pig” Mubi Ethiopian-Gurage
Matisoff 2003 329 gerwa (Endegen)
Proto-Lolo-Burmese “Wild- awäg’er
TB-Lolo-Burmese-Garo schwein” “wild pig”
*wak “pig” [wild pig] Leslau 1979
Benedict 1972 23, Skinner 94 v.2 460,
Matisoff 2003 62 v.3. 7
Blench 2010a 12
A.15.3 NC-NC-Benue
TB-N. Naga-Tangsa- Congo-Batu, Abõ,
Moshang vak vake / vəke
“pig” “pig
Starostin, S. (domestic : wild)”
Kiranti Etymology Williamson-
TB-Kuki-Chin-Lushai Shimizu v.2
vɔk “pig” 267-268
Blench 2010a 12
59
Note- A.15.1 (TB-Mikir) Beckwith considers phak to be an ancient loanword “from an unknown Indo-
European language.” Beckwith 743. On this hypothesis it is a reflex of the Proto IE *pork- “pig”. However, the
African bak- / bag- / vak- roots of this table are found in two African language superfamilies (AA and NC). The
correspondences are closer to the TB forms than is the proposed Proto-IE form. This supports a hypothesis that
the ST name of this domestic animal is ultimately derived from a language of the African/AA linguistic region.
88

A.15.1-2 TB-Tibetan pag-ba “pig, hog” / TB-Burmese, Garo wak “pig”
< W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage abäg’- , awäg’- “wild pig”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon: *abäg’- ~ vak “wild pig”
A.15.1
TB-Tibetan phag-pa “swine, hog, pig” Jaschke 339 Das 818 pagba “pig, hog” Goldstein 675
TB-Kiranti-Limbu phak “pig” phaksa “pork” sa “meat” van Driem 1987 495
TB- Mikir phakleng “wild pig” Walker 132, 167
TB- Proto-Kiranti *ʔpək “pig” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
S. Chinese-Min bâq “meat (especially pork)”60 tī -bâq “pork”
gū -bâq “beef” Bodman 1987 v.2 97, 120 ;
(Taiwanese) Bodman 1983 6, 146 ; ti-bâq “pork” ti “pig” Bodman 1983 87, 199
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *pak = *pwak “pig” Benedict 1972 #43 14, 23-4, 205
TB-Tibetan phag-rgod “wild boar” ; phag-sha “pork” Jaschke 339
pag-sha “pork” Goldstein 675 sha “meat”
TB- Qiangic-Pumi-Dayang-rGyalrong pak “pig” Blench 2010b Data sheet
Sino-Tibetan root brak “pig” “widely attested in ST” “also in Austronesian” Blench 2009a 5
Old Chinese *ba1 “pig” Sagart 61 1999 191-192
på “sow, pig” Karlgren GSR39d Matisoff 2003 328
A.15.2
TB-Lolo-Burmese-Burmese wak-sa “pork” wak-ʔəsâ “pork” Matisoff 2003 106
C. Loloish-Lahu vaʔ-ša “pork” vak-ʔəšā “pork” -Lahu vàʔ “pig” Matisoff 2003 106, 318
Old Chinese g’iwag1 “kind of boar” Karlgren GSR 803a-b Matisoff 2003 328
Proto-TB *pwak “pig” Matisoff 2003 62
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] wa < *pak “pig” Benedict 1972 14
A.15.3 TB-C. Loloish-Lahu va “pig” Benedict 1972 87 vàʔ “pig” Matisoff 2003 62, 318
TB-Loloish-Yi-Lolopho vεʔ “pig” Benedict 1972 87
TB-Loloish-Nusu vaʔ “pig” Blench 2010a Table 8
A.15.3 NC-Nama (Central Jukanoid: Jukun- Mbembe-Wurbo Group: Nzare Group)
vəke “pig (domestic, wild)” Williamson-Shimizu v.2 267
A.15.1 IE-Sanskrit pagkakrida “a pig”62 pagkakridanaka “a pig” Cologne Lexicon
60
Note- A.15.1 (S. Chinese-Min Extended) In Chinese- Min the generic word for “meat” bâq also means
“pork”. This suggests that pigs had become the staple meat source in Southeast China before domestic goats,
sheep or cattle were introduced.
TB-Tibetan, Burmese and Lahu show a contrasting situation. In Tibetan phag-sha “pork” the sha element
means “meat” but requires the phag root to specify it as “pig meat”. Hence the generic word for “meat” is
sha, a Cushitic root for “meat” from various animals, not including pigs, probably the wild and domesticated
yak and buffalo, and later goats or sheep. See A.6c. 1. In A.15.2 Extended Burmese and Lahu the ə- prefix is a
genitive construction with common nouns prefixed to the thing possessed, in this case sa / ša “meat”.
Matisoff 106.
Thus the TB semantics indicate that the domestic animals which were not pigs had become the staple meat
source in Western Sino-Tibetan languages before pigs were introduced.
61 1
Note- A.15.1 (Old Chinese Extended ) “The name of the wild animal ba [wild pig] may be related to the
Tibeto-Burman form *pwak “domesticated pig”. Benedict 1972 #43 14, 23-4, 205, confirmed by Sagart 1999.
1
Note also the Old Chinese A.15.2 Extended *g’iwag “kind of boar” corresponding to the A.15.2 main section TB-
Kuki-Rongmei gəwak “pig” and the W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage awäg-.
89
See also Sanskrit Supplementary Table 2 A.15.1

Austro-Thai *mba(g)- “pig” Benedict / Matisoff 23-24, note 78, 189 63
↓↓
A.16 AA – Chadic AA –Cushitic AA-Semitic Nilo- NC
Saharan
Swadesh “fat” Proto-Chadic Proto-AA Semitic – Anywa
[oil, grease] *mar “oil” (Orel/ Akkadian [Anuak]
A.16.1 TB-Tibetan Newman, P. Stolbova 1995) māru “fat” màaɔ‫“כ‬oil,
mar “butter” 1977 #95 30 *mori’ “fat, oil” Leslau fat, grease”
Jaschke 411 Das 954 C. Chadic – Skinner 192 1979 màar dhɪaŋ
maa / margo Bacama E. Cushitic- v.3 418 “butter”
“butter” mare “oil” Oromo Skinner [lit. cow oil]
marnaà “vegetable Greenberg moora n. “fat, 192 Reh 46, 104
oil” Goldstein 791 1966 60 64 suet”
Borello 309
A. 16.1 TB-Tibetan mar “butter” \
< Proto-Chadic *mar “oil” / Semitic – Akkadian māru “fat”
Approximate Tibetan etymon: *mar “oil, fat”
A. 16.1
W. Chadic –S. Bauci- Kir màr “oil” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 260
W. Chadic-Ron (Kulere) mààr / màr “oil” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 260
Semitic- Amharic mora n. “animal fat” Leslau 1976 19, 344 Skinner 192
C. Chadic – Tera mar “oil” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 261
C. Chadic – Gude mara “oil” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 261
62
Note- A.15.1 (Sanskrit Extended). The Cologne database also glosses this morpheme as “sporting in the mud”
since pagka in Sanskrit means “mud” and krIda means “sport, amuse oneself”. The comparative tables give
evidence that the pag root means “pig” or “pork” in the two Sino-Tibetan languages cited above plus the
following: TB-Kiranti-Limbu phak “pig” TB- Mikir phakleng “wild pig” TB- Proto-Kiranti *ʔpək “pig”
TB-Tibetan phag-rgod “wild boar” TB-Kiranti-Limbu phaksa “pork”, S. Chinese-Min bâq “meat (especially
pork)” tī -bâq “pork” gū -bâq “beef” (Taiwanese) ti-bâq “pork” ti “pig”. ; phag-sha “pork” Jaschke 339
pag-sha “pork” sha “meat”. Hence “sporting in the mud” seems not to be a correct gloss on the morpheme,
but perhaps is just a folk etymology.
63
Note- A.15.1 (Austro-Thai Extended) Benedict and Matisoff consider this to be a possible loan from Austro-
Thai since the morpheme exists in that language family. Benedict 189. This may well be the case, and, if so, the
above table presents evidence for an African origin of the morpheme in Austro-Thai also with TB being the
indirect heir. This also suggests the existence of an Austro-Thai substratum in SE China and Taiwan which was
also the origin of the A.15.1 (Extended) S. Chinese-Min lexeme bâq “meat (especially pork)”
“Several lines of evidence suggest that the pig was already domesticated by 7000 BC in the Huai River Valley”
(in Anhui province at Jiahu . an early Neolithic site) Liu / Chen 99..
64
Note- A. 16.1 (Chadic) This root is dominant in West and Central Chadic, but occurs only once in East Chadic.
Semantics are quite stable, “fat, oil”. It apparently is not attested in Chinese languages. Nor is it listed as a root in
Tibeto-Burman by Benedict or Matisoff. Jungraithmayr reconstructs it as *mbur / *mààr “oil, fat” and
considers that its reflexes ”undoubtedly stem from Non-Chadic languages.” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 130. The
morphemes listed here are a subset of Chadic variants which are close to the Tibetan form. Hence the Tibetan
morpheme gives evidence of being inherited from a Chadic language. Jungraithmayr includes 77 morphemes
some of which more closely match his proposed *mbur- Chadic proto-root, e.g. W. Chadic-Sura mwɔɔr “oil”
Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 260.
90
C. Chadic – Bura mal “oil” Stolbova, Olga C.Chadic-Etymology

W. Chadic – Karekare marù “oil” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 260
W. Chadic – Ngizim məràk “oil” Schuh 105
W. Chadic – S. Bauci- Boghom maayi / mà: / ma:y “oil” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 260
E. Chadic – Dangaleat [Dangla] mora “petits morceaux de viande” Skinner 192
W. Chadic–Hausa mâi “oil, fat”
< Proto-Chadic *mar Newman, P. 2000 227
Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 260 may “oil” Greenberg 1966 60 65.
E. Cushitic- Burji, Gedeo maala “meat” Hudson 98, 210, 254
NS-Songhay (Koyra) máaní “(animal) fat” Heath v. 2 144 ;
(Gao) “être gras” “graisse” Ducroz 172
NC-Kahugu (ma)ni “oil” Greenberg 1966 21
W. Chadic- Geruma móori “oil” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 260
E. Cushitic- Oromo moora n. “grasso, untume” [grease, lard] Borello 309
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage mora “fat” Skinner 192
A.16.1
Proto-IE *smerw “butter, marrow” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 128
IE-Tocharian smare “smooth, oil” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 128
Proto-Tungus-Manchu *mala “plant oil” /
Proto-Altaic *male “plant oil” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Tatar, Uyghur, Turkmen, Khyrghyz, Kazakh, Bashkir, Uzbek mɔj “fat”
Altaic-Turkic-Khakassian sar-maj “butter” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
IE-Hindi malāī “cream” Scudiere 38
South Daic-Lao na:m5 ma:n3 keuang2 n. “oil” Marcus 150, nam5 man3 mu4 “lard (pig)”
Marcus 119 nam5 man3 “fat (pig or animal)” Marcus 79 nam “meat, fat” (A.21c.2)
↓↓
A.17 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA – AA- NS NC
Cush. Sem.
A.17.1 TB-Tibetan Chadic root
laŋgöö “wild elephant” làngá “elephant”
Goldstein 209 Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 58
[Disyllabic corresp.] W. Chadic- N. Bauci group- Pa”a
66
glāŋ “elephant” Jaschke 80 lenga / làngá “elephant”
A.17.1 TB-Tibetan laŋgöö “wild elephant”
< Chadic root làngá “elephant”
Approximate Tibetan etymon: *laŋga “elephant”
65
Note- A.16.1 (Hausa-Extended)
The sound variance between the A. 16.1 (Hausa Extended) mâi “oil, fat” and Proto-Chadic *mar results from
a regular sound change of non-initial *-r to *y / i in Chadic. See Newman, P. 2000 227. Other instances are
reported in notes A.30.1 (Hausa), B.9.1-2, H.22.1-2 ( Chadic) and H.38a.4 (Hausa),
66
Note- A.17.1 (Tibetan) Jaschke and Das report that glāŋ means “bull, bullock, ox” and also “elephant” in
Tibetan. Jaschke 80, Das 425. The Tibetans of their time (early 20th century) distinguished the elephant from
these other animals by also designating it as glaŋ-po-che lit. “big / large bull”.cē “big, large”.
67
Note- A.17.1 (Chadic) làngá is not a widely occurring root in Chadic languages. (Thus for Jungraithmayr a C
root ). The three existing reflexes are listed in this record. It is most likely a loan word into Chadic, perhaps from
Nilo-Saharan. See for example NS-Berta la(a)n “cow, ox” Skinner 223, NS-Nuer yaŋ “cow” Huffman 50..
91

A.17.1 TB-Tibetan glaŋ “elephant” Das 1056 Jaschke 80
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *glaŋ “elephant” Matisoff 2003 302, 590
A.17.1 W. Chadic- S. Bauci group- Jimi lingo “elephant” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 124
↓↓
A.18a-c Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA–Cush. AA-Sem. NS NC
A.18a.1 C. Chadic- Mandara Proto-AA Nuer
TB- Jingpho [Kachin] gwe / guwe *gaway kwi
gwi ~ məgwi “elephant ” “buffalo “small
“elephant ” Jungraithmayr elephant ” elephant”
Benedict 21, 168 1994 v.2 125 Militarev / Huffman 26
Old Chinese W. Chadic- Hausa Stolbova
*gwia / jwien gīwā f. pl. gīwāye AA-Etymology NS-Bagirmi
“elephant” “obsolete” “elephant ” 2007 68 68 (Koelle
Karlgren GSR Newman, P. 1854)
27a-e 2007 75 gewa
Matisoff 2003 200 Jungraithmayr 1994 “elephant”
[Disyllabic corresp.] v.2 124 Skinner 85
Skinner 85
A.18a.2 Old Chinese C. Chadic-Higi-Gye
n
*gwia / *jwie čɨwè
“elephant” “ “elephant”
(obsolete)” C. Chadic-Higi-Nkafa
Karlgren GSR 27a-e čùwè
Matisoff “elephant”
2003 200 Stolbova, Olga
68
Note- A.18a.1-2 (Jingpho, Old Chinese, etymon) The CC-Gude Extended ngwi- “root meaning “buffalo”
and ngu- meaning “bush cow” correspond respectively to the gwi(y) morphemes of this table meaning
“elephant” and the A.21a.3 gu- “root” meaning “cow, ox”. In the above A.18a.2 and the A.21a sets these
roots in some cases have semantics of “male animal “ or “bull”. These as in English refer to both male bovids
and male elephants.
Stolbova and Militarev consider that these and other AA variants of the two tables have a common origin in the
proto-AA root *gaway- which meant both “buffalo” and “elephant”. A.21a.1 Extended Omotic-Kafa (Kaficho)
and Omotic-Anfillo attest *gāho “buffalo” . These in turn match the A.21a.1 Chadic, NS, Khoisan, and NC
kau-, ngáw-, gau, roots meaning “cow, buffalo” “bull”.
Concerning the Proto-Tibetan Extended *m-gwi(y) Benedict observed “This TB root can be reconstructed in
either *-i or *-əy.” Benedict 184. In this respect note the gīwā f. sing. gīwāye pl. variation in Hausa. In the
main section above, only the Proto-AA entry shows semantics of both elephant and a bovd, but both of these
meanings are attested in the African extended sections.
67
Note A.18a.2 (Central Chadic) The A.18a.2 evidence suggests that the palatalized či- / ču- initials of the Central
Chadic forms of these roots have been inherited by Chinese-MSC as “elephant”, whereas the A.18a.1 TB- Jingpho
[Kachin] has inherited the non-palatalized variant Chadic gwi as “elephant” whilethe southern Chinese
languages cited in A.21a.1, A.21a.3 have inherited the non-palatalized form ngau as “ox, cattle, cow, bull”
(Cantonese) or gu (Hakka and Min) “cow, bull, ox”. The non-palatalized g- is older as found in the A.18a.1
Proto-AA *gaw- “buffalo, elephant ”, the A.21a.1 S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) ngàuh “ox, cattle, cow, bull” and
the Khoisan |gàuh, |kau “buffalo”. See also Note B.32.1,3 and Chapter 9 section 9.8 below for other contrasts
between north Chinese palatalized and south Chinese non-palatalized initial velars.
92
[Disyllabic corresp.] C. Chadic Etymology

Proto-Tibeto-Burman 2006 648
*gwi(y) “elephant ” Benedict
Matisoff 2003 200, 592 121, 167-8, 184 ,
N. Chinese-MSC 200169
jiào “male animal
Wu, J. 342
A.18a.1
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *(m-) gwi(y) “elephant ” / TB- Jingpho gwi ~ məgwi “elephant ” /
Old Chinese *gwia / jwien “elephant (obsolete)”
< C. Chadic- Dghwede gwínè “elephant ” / NS-Nuer kwi “small elephant”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *gwí “elephant” ~ *gaway “buffalo, elephant”
A.18a.1
ST-Proto-form *q(h)uj “elephant” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Rawang (Nungish) məgo < *məgwi “elephant” Benedict/Matisoff 168 note 449
TB-Haka wi “elephant” Benedict/Matisoff note 332 121
Starostin, S. ST Etymology
A.18a.1 Berber-Ghat giwa “elephant” Militarev, A. Berber Etymology.
NS- Nuer gw‫כ‬r “elephant” Huffman 16
C. Chadic-Gude ngwiya “buffalo”, nguya “bush cow” Militarev / Stolbova
C. Chadic-Mandara [Wandara] guwe “buffalo” Militarev / Stolbova
Proto-C. Chadic *čiw(-ar)- “elephant” Stolbova, Olga Proto-C. Chadic Etymology 2006
W. Chadic- Gwandara (Nimbia) gyuwo (Gitata) gyuwa “elephant” Skinner 85
W. Chadic-Hausa giyèe “male elephant” Newman, P. 2007 75
W. Chadic-Gwandara (Karshi, Koro ) gyíwa “elephant” Matsushita 1972 48 1974 # 302 79
Proto-Berber gi(w)- “elephant” Berber Etymology Militarev, A. 2006
NC-Fulfulde (Fulani) nyīwa “elephant” Taylor 235
A.18a.2
W. Chadic- Gwandara (Cancara) jiwa “elephant ” Matsushita 1974 #302 79
C. Chadic-Ngwaxi ciwə̀r “elephant” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006
C. Chadic-Bura ĉiwar “elephant” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006
C. Chadic-Hildi [Margi] čiwaru “elephant” Militarev / Stolbova
C. Chadic-Wamdiu ĉiwàr “elephant” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 200668
Proto-W. Chadic *giw- “elephant” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006 648
C. Chadic-Kilba ĉuwar “elephant” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006
Semitic-Aramaic swrh “bull” Militarev / Stolbova C. Chadic Etymology 2006
A.18a.2 IE-Sanskrit sivàra “elephant” Cologne Lexicon
The A.18a and A.18.b word families contrast mainly in that the ST and Chadic languages attest
morphemes with and without the *-n second radical final. P. Newman, and Jungraithmayr reconstruct
*giwan or *gywn as the Chadic root. Jungraithmayr v.1 58. “Old Hausa clearly allowed both of the
nasals /m/ and /n/ in word final position. At some early historical period, both of these nasals (N) were
lost by a general *N > 0 rule. Example giiwaa “elephant < P[roto]-Chadic] *giwan.” Newman. P.
2000 230
93
The final *-n has been lost in three of the A.18a.1 Chadic languages including Hausa, and these are
closest to TB Jingpho [Kachin] and Old Chinese. (A.18a.1-2) The final –ŋ / -n has been retained in the
following A.18b Chadic languages, as well as in Tibetan (A.18b.1) and Cantonese (A.18b.2). Thus
these latter give evidence of having inherited and retained the more conservative form of the root.
A.18b.1 TB-Tibetan Proto-Chadic *giwan
gi-waŋ / giuwaŋ “elephant” Newman, P. 2000 230
“a yellow pigment, *gyəwan “elephant”
an antihelminthic medicine, Ehret 2002 80
the best quality of gi-waŋ C. Chadic- Lamang
is that which is obtained giwan / giiwàŋ “elephant”
from an elephant” Jungraithmayr 1994 v. 2 125
“name of a concretion C. Chadic-Hwona
which an elephant has on čɨwānà “elephant ”
its neck” Jaschke 68 Stolbova, Olga Central Chadic
70
Das 1056 Etymology 2006
A.18b.2 E. Chadic- Kabalai Proto- Afro-Asiatic
S. Chinese-Min jùnə “elephant ” *�áHun- “elephant”
chhiuN7 “elephant” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 125 C. Cushitic-Proto-Agaw
Hakka Dict. Proto-Chadic *�áHun- “elephant”
y
*g wn “elephant” Militarev / Stolbova
Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 58 71 AA Etymology 2007
A.18b.3 S. Chinese-Yuè C. Chadic-Fali-Muchella Proto-Afro-Asiatic
(Cantonese) �unu (Orel / Stolbova 1995)
jeuhng “elephant” *jeHun-
“an elephant” Kwan 158 E. Chadic-Kabalai “elephant”
Chik / Ng Lam 431 �uno “elephant” Skinner 295
S. Chinese-Kejia (Hakka) Militarev / Stolbova W. Semitic-Ethiopian-
siong5 “elephant” C. Chadic-Tera j Amharic zəhon
Hakka Dict. juwàn “elephant ” “elephant”
Jungraithmayr 1994 v. 2 124 Leslau 1976 178
A.18b.3 S. Chinese-Min chhiuN7 “elephant”
< Proto-Chadic *gywn “elephant” / A.18b.4
S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) jeuhng “an elephant”
< W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Miya yəwun “elephant” / E. Chadic- Kabalai jùnə “elephant ”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *gywun ~ *jəwun “elephant ”
A.18b.1
W. Chadic- Bade/Ngizim Group- Duwai giiwən “elephant ” Newman, P. 1977 #43 25
C. Chadic-Fali-Kiria čùwùnù “elephant”
Stolbova, Olga Central Chadic Etymology 2006
C. Chadic-Dghwede gwínè “elephant ” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 125
70
Note- A.18.b.1 (Tibetan) This, the most widely occurring root for ‘elephant” in Chadic languages, appears in
Tibetan only as a medicine extracted from an elephant gland. Its close correspondence to the Proto-Chadic
*giwan, however, indicates that the original meaning is “elephant”.
71
Note- A.18b.3 (Chadic) Jungraithmayr includes all the Chadic variants in A.18a.1-2 as reflexes of a proposed
y
Chadic proto-root *g wn, his A root. Newman (A.18b.1) includes the main vowel a in the second radical of
the proto-root so that his Proto-Chadic form includes the vowel correspondence also. The Jungraithmayr form
more exactly corresponds to the A.18b.2-3 PAA variants, but Tibetan gives evidence of being a reflex of the
A.18b.1 Proto-Chadic form.
94
A.18b.2
Proto-Berber gi(w)- “elephant” Berber Etymology Militarev/, A. 2006
W. Chadic- S. Bauci- Boghom yuwan / ywa:n “elephant ” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 124
W. Chadic- Bole/Tangale-Karekare ʔuwan “elephant ” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 124
W. Chadic-N. Bauci- Siri yòòwaní / yawani “elephant ” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 124
A.18b.3
C. Chadic-Fali-Gilli *�uʔwuni “elephant” Militarev / Stolbova
NC-Benue-Congo-Bamileke jin “elephant” Williamson / Shimizu #34 v.1 136
NS- Daza kuwun “elephant” Greenberg 1966 138
Old Nilo-Saharan *kowon “elephant” Ehret 2002 80
NS- Teda kuhun “elephant” Greenberg 1966 138
W. Chadic-Gera junguma “leopard” Skinner 295.
W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Diri, Pa’a juŋgwa “hippopotamus” Militarev / Stolbova
W. Chadic-Ngizim jàunàk “elephant” Schuh 83 Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 124
W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Miya yəwun “elephant ” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 124
Proto-Cushitic (Dolgopolski) *j-nkw-r “elephant” Skinner 295
W. Chadic- Bole/Tangale-Bole jauno’ = (yauno) “elephant” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 124
C. Chadic- Matakam, Mafa jəŋgwaya “leopard” Skinner 295 See note A.19b.1 for the etymology of
this root which means both “elephant and “leopard”. This association is also attested in A.19a.2.
/
The following A.19a-c group of related word families is structured like the others in the study. It
employs phonetic matching at the first level of comparison, then groups the results by semantic
similarity. But it differs from the others in that the semantics of all three groups of phonetically similar
morphemes refer to wild felines or elephants. Etymological research revealed a semantic unity based on
a characteristic common to these and other animals. So the proximate proto-forms designate the similar
names of the different animals, and these are seen to be derived from the same ultimate root which
denotes “animals which make loud noises”. See Subtable A.19c below. It integrates the ST and AA/
African homonyms meaning “make loud noises”, “raise the voice in anger” into a unified semantic /
phonetic field with their cognates designating the animals themselves.
A.19a-b AA– Chadic AA – AA-Sem. NS NC
Cush.
A.19a.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-N. Bauci-
gzig “the yellow leopard Tsagu
Das 1104 “leopard” zəgən “leopard”
Jaschke 49372 Skinner 295
72
Note- A.19a.1 (Tibetan)
The word for the extant feline in Tibet is traditionally glossed as “snow lion” or “snow leopard” in English. The
A.19a.1 Tibetan word gzig / sig refer to a leopard which still lives in the high valleys of the Himalayas. Fuller
information has been presented on the Internet at www.//snowleopard.org. and www.defenders.org. The snow lion
“myth” is very important in Tibetan culture and figures in much pageantry and dancing. Note that the A.19a.1-2
Chadic root *š’gɮ and W. Chadic- N.Bauci- Tsagu morpheme zəgən attest the presence of both meanings “lion”
and “leopard” in W. Chadic.
The Asian feline species called “lion” in English is a sub-species of the more common African lion. It is
scientifically designated as Panthera leo persica, and was in modern times still extant across the Middle East into
Northwestern India (where it survives in a park of Gujarat state). Hence it would have been known continuously
to pre-historic migrants on an itinerary from the Middle East/Africa to Tibet and north India. In Tibetan the A.19b.1
designation for the lion senge is also a name for the Indus river, i.e. senge kabeb “Indus River” lit. “lion River”
Goldstein 1126. This suggests an awareness of the presence of lions in the Indus River region by Tibetan speakers
at some earlier period of Tibetan history since lions are no longer extant in the region of the Indus close to Tibet.
95
TB-Proto-Lolo-Burmese
*zik “leopard”
Matisoff 2003 28
A.19a.2 TB-Chin-Lushai W. Chadic-Hausa W. Semitic- NC-
sakei “tiger” zākìi “lion” Ethiopian- Fulfulde
Matisoff 2003 102, 111 Skinner 295 Gurage [Fulani]
note 66 73 W. Chadic–Ngizim žägwara njagáwu
TB-Chin-Lakher jágádláu “lion” “leopard” “lion”
tśəkei “tiger” Schuh 83 / žãgwar pl. njāgaji
Benedict 116 Ehret 1995 #565 29774 “elephant” Taylor 94
Matisoff 2003 510 àjàgúm “hippopotamus” Skinner 295
[Disyllabic corresp.] Schuh 7, 204
TB-Written Burmese Chadic root-
sac “leopard” W. Chadic, C. Chadic
khye-sac “leopard cat” (Jungraithmayr)
Matisoff 2003 *š’gɮ “lion”
28, 344, 510 Ehret 1995 #565 297
A.19a.1 Proto-TB zik “leopard”
< W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Tsagu zəgən “leopard”
A.19a.2 TB-Chin-Lushai sakei “tiger”
< W. Chadic- Hausa zākìi “lion” / W. Semitic-Ethiopian- Gurage žägwara “leopard”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma:
Proximate proto-forms *zik- “lion, leopard” / *zāk- “lion, leopard” “elephant” “animals which
make loud noises”;
Ultimate proto-form: t’s̟aak “shout” “roar”
A.19a.1
TB-Tibetan sigdruù “leopard cub” ; sigdzaŋ “leopard’s den” Goldstein 968
TB-Tani-Miri si-ke “species of civet” [cat] Benedict 116 Matisoff 2003 510
TB-Kiranti-Limbu sigebā “lion” Starostin. S. Kiranti Etymology
S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) sì / sìjí “lion” Kwan 274 Chik / Ng Lam 296
TB-Proto-Kiranti *sik’-ba “tiger, leopard” Starostin. S. Kiranti Etymology
73
Note A.19a.2 (TB-Chin-Lushai) The disyllabic correspondence between Lushai and Hausa indicates that the
sa- syllable of the Lushai morpheme is not a prefix but that the whole morpheme has been inherited from the
Hausa form. See example of sa- as prefix to animal names in Notes A.1a.1, A.9a.1 and the summary in
Chapter 10 section 10.3.3.
74
Note- A.19a.1-2 (TB, Chadic) Under the same Hausa entry zakii “lion” Skinner includes as AA cognates
various closely similar roots which denote the elephant or hyena. He does not speculate on the reason African AA
speakers designated different animals with the same root. These widespread homonyms, however, suggest
African etymologies for them similar to their names but different in meaning. The common characteristic of these
animals is the loud noises they make. This underlying meaning was signaled by Ehret when he posited the W.
Chadic, C. Chadic proto-form *š’gɮ “lion” to be a reflex of an Afro-Asiatic protoroot *ceyg- or Proto-Omotic
*c’ayg- ”to shout”.
On this basis Ehret also includes the A.19a.2 W. Chadic-Ngizim (Extended) jagadlu “lion” as a reflex of the
Proto-AA root, and he considers “lion” to be etymologically “the roarer”. Ehret 1995 #565 297.
Similar roots meaning “lion” “elephant” “hippopotamus” and “hyena” are found in the A.19a.2 and A.19b.1-2
close and extended correspondences. These have been compiled in Subtable A.19c below.
96

A.19a.1 C. Cushitic-Awiya [Awngi] ziɣoni “elephant” Militarev/ Stolbova
A.19a.2 W. Chadic–Karekare cagalau “leopard” Skinner 295
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Masqan, Gogot) zogara “leopard” Leslau 1979 v.2 366-367
TB-Tibetan gza “the snow leopard, nearly white with small clusters of black spots, living on the
higher mountains” Jaschke 587
Omotic-Koyra zakka “elephant” Omotic-Janjero zākno “elephant” Skinner 295
A.19a.1-2 IE-Tokharian śiśak / secake < sēnśake “lion” Nikolayev, Sergei IE Etymology120
A.19a.2 IE-Sanskrit gza “lion” Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 A.19a.2
/
The following table combines the two roots A.19b.1 sing- “lion” with the A.19b.2 tshaŋ / chaŋ
“elephant”. The previous table and note showed that the proximate etymon was *zāk- “lion,
leopard” “elephant” and the ultimate root was t’s̟aak “shout”. The twofold surface semantics of “lion”
and “elephant”are repeated in the table with variant forms of the animals’ names which reflect the
same semantic base of “making loud noises”
A.19b.1 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic–Bura Benue-Congo-
siŋ-ge “the lion” singi / tsingi “lion” Bagam
[Disyllabic corresp.] C. Chadic-Bura group sɨŋ ~ syŋ
séŋ-ge “the lion” Das 1268, *TSəŋg-y “lion” “elephant”
1274 Jaschke 575-576 Dict. of Bura Williamson /
seŋge “mythical snow lion” Shimizu v.1 #34
Goldstein 1126 75 C. Chadic- Masa 134-135
Old Chinese *suan-ŋei “lion” zìŋil “la panthere”
Witzel 1999b 56. [panther] Caitucoli 156
A.19b.2 TB-Burmese W. Chadic-Pero C. Cushitic- NC-Benue-Congo-
tshaŋ “elephant” cəŋgin Bilin �anā Ndoro
Benedict 133, 142, 151 “lion” “elephant” a-saŋgama
chaŋ “elephant” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 C. Cushitic- “elephant”
Norman 1988a 19 223 Qwara �ānā -Benue-Congo-
N. Chinese-MSC Skinner 295 “elephant” Bapi (Mbam
syàng (Y) “elephant” Chen 89 C. Cushitic- Nkam Group)
hsiàng (WG) “an elephant” Khamta sɨə́n “elephant”
Mathews #2568 380 djāni -Benue-Congo-
xiàng “elephant” “elephant” Bachingou
Wu, J.756 DeFrancis 1022 Militarev / sɨəñ ə̃ “elephant”
Old Chinese *dzi̭aŋ “elephant” Stolbova Williamson /
Karlgren GSR #728a Shimizu v.1 #34
Matisoff 2003 302 134-135
A.19b.1 TB-Tibetan siŋ-ge “the lion”
< C. Chadic– Bura singi / tsingi “lion” / C. Chadic- Masa zìŋil “la panthere”
A.19b.2 TB-Burmese tshaŋ “elephant” chaŋ “elephant”
< NC-Benue-Congo-Ndoro saŋgama “elephant”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: Proximate forms: *singi “lion” ~ *saŋ- “elephant” ;
Ultimate form: t’s̟aak “shout” See A.19c.5 below.
75
Note A.19b.1 The sing / seŋg root reflects the A.19c.5 African roots meaning “make a loud noise” as
ultimate sources for the siŋ-ge / séŋ-ge “lion” lexeme and its homonyms in C.Chadic-Bura, C. Chadic-Masa
and W/ Chadic-Pero below, and in W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Siri �á ŋgwa “hippopotamus”, Proto-Afro-Asiatic
*�ánaH- “elephant” and West Chadic-Karkare-Bole *Z-nge hyena below in A.19b.1 Extended.
97

A.19b.2 Middle Chinese zjang “elephant” Norman 1988a 19
S.Chinese-Kejia (Hakka (Meixian) siong5 (Lau Chunfat ) xiong4 “the elephant” Hakka Dict.
A.19b.1 C. Chadic-Zime-Batna tsindzir / tiŋir “leopard” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 223
E. Chadic- Kwang sèmki / sémgí “lion” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 223
Chadic root *sèmki “lion” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 112
Niger-Congo-Swahili simba “lion” Awde 2000 216
Niger-Congo-Common Bantu *cimba “cat, lion, leopard, genet” Skinner 42
W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Siri �iŋgwa “hippopotamus” Militarev / Stolbova
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *�inaH- “elephant”
Militarev / Stolbova Afroasiatic Etymology 2007
W. Chadic-Karekare-Bole *Z-nge “hyena” Skinner 295
C. Chadic- Masa zimi “lion” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 226
NC-Nkwen (Mbam Nkam Group) n-tshen “elephant”
Williamson / Shimizu #34 v.1 134.
A.19b.1
Proto-IE *sing’h “lion”
Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012.
IE-Pashto shin-m’zarǽy “the lion” Raverty 2d ed. 668
IE-Bengali shingho m. “lion” n. Thompson 80, 109
IE-Sanskrit simha m. “lion”76 “early Vedic” Cologne Lexicon. Witzel 1999b 56.
sinha m. “a lion” m. sinhaya “to be or become like a lion” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Hindi sinha m. “lion” m. Scudiere 337
South Daic-Lao dtua1 si:ng4 n. “lion” Marcus 124
IE-Sanskrit sindhura m. “elephant ” Cologne Lexicon
A.19b.2 South Daic-Lao sang5 “elephant” Marcus 70, nga3 sang5 “tusk (elephant)” Marcus 239
See also C.29b.1 Extended Lao.
IE-Sanskrit candira m. “an elephant” sannāhya “a war elephant” sama-ja / samajate m.
“an elephant” Cologne Lexicon
Proto-Tai *jaŋ “elephant” Norman 1988a19
/
The following subtable shows phonetic/semantic relationships between elephants, lions and other
animals which make loud noises and their Sino-Tibetan and African correspondents meaning “shout,
speak loudly, angrily etc.)
76
Note- A.19b.1 (Sanskrit Extended) For Sanskrit Witzel reconstructs this root as: *sengha / singha > sing˄ha
> sinjha > simha based on an Indo-Iranian root which is “a very old loan from a Central Asian substrate”. This
substrate has influenced several of the surrounding language areas, e.g. Tibetan seŋ-ge and Old Chinese
*suan- ŋei” Witzel 1999b 56. On an Afican/AA substratum in Sanskrit see Chapter 8 Section 8.1 and
Supplementary Table 2 A.19b.1.
98
Subtable A.19c
Names of animals corresponding to words meaning “make loud noises” “raise one’s voice in anger”
Sino-Tibetan roots < African language correspondences
A.19c Sino- Sino-Tibetan African language African language
Tibetan names of correspondences correspondences to the correspondences
animals which meaning “make name of the animal in meaning “make loud noises”
make loud noises loud noises” col. 1
A.19c.1 Chinese-S. Min W. Chadic-Gera NS-Songhay
S. Chinese-Kejia ziong junguma “leopard” kòsòŋgù
(Hakka) “to shout, make W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Diri “parler en elevant la voix, avec
siong5 noise” C. Chadic- Matakam, violence, faire du bruit”
“elephant” chàngsùng Mafa jəŋgwaya [speak raising the voice, with
S. Chinese-Yue “chant” “leopard” violence, make noise]
(Cantonese) C. Chadic-Fali- kòsòŋgi “bruit” [noise]
jeuhng Muchella
“an elephant” �unu “elephant”
E. Chadic-Kabalai
�uno “elephant”
juŋgwa
“hippopotamus”
A.19c.2 Chinese-MSC NC-Benue-Congo-Ndoro NS-Kanuri
TB-Burmese shēngxiǎŋ a-sangama sanngin “call to prayer”
tsaŋ / “sound, noise” “elephant” “call out the prayer”
tshaŋ xiǎŋ “sound, noise” NC-Benue-Congo-Ndoro samma “call”
“elephant” “noisy, loud” sɨəngama “elephant” samma‫ح‬
N. Chinese-MSC xiǎŋbi (of a horse “to make hear, cause to hear”
syaŋ / mule etc.) “snort”
xiǎŋ chàng (of cock)”
“elephant Chinese-S. Min
Old Chunese sang1 “sound,
dziaŋ “elephant” voice, noise” Hakka
Dict.. chàn gwai
“to rebuke, to scold”
chàngsùng
“chant”
A.19c.3 S. Chinese-Yuè A.19a.1 NS-Kanuri
TB-Tibetan (Cantonese) W. Chadic-N. Bauci- cingin /
gzig chìk hot Tsagu cigékin
“the yellow “to shout or bawl zəgən “attack verbally, speak
leopard” angrily” “leopard” harshly to”
Das 1104 jìk “to scold,
“leopard” to revile” C. Cushitic-Awiya
sigdruù “to reproach” [Awngi]
“leopard cub” TB-Tibetan ziɣoni “elephant”
TB-Proto-Lolo- rdsig-rdsig /
Burmese rdzig-rdzig
*zik “leopard” “to address one
harshly”
tshig-pa zaba
“to be angry”
99
A.19c.4 S. Chinese-Yuè Chadic-Hausa Proto-AA

TB-Chin-Lushai (Cantonese) zaki “lion” (Orel / Stolbova 1995)
sakei “tiger” jaak / jīk W.Chadic-Ngizim t’s̟acak
TB-Chin-Lakher “to argue, to jagadlu “lion” “shout”
tśəkei “tiger” dispute” “the roarer” W. Chadic-Hausa
TB-Written jaak yau faahn žãgwar “elephant” zaàga “shout at”
Burmese yihn Omotic-Koyra Semitic-Hebrew
sac “leopard” “there are noisy zakka “elephant” sha’ag “roared”
khye-sac arguments among NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] tsa’ak “shouted, yelled”
“leopard cat” the people” njagáwu za’ak “cried out”
jaak jaak “lion” NS-Anywa
“cries of a bird” Ethiopian Semitic- jak “to shout at sb.”
Gurage E. Cushitic-Rendille
žagwara “leopard” jaakha
žaxwara “elephant” “to quarrel verbally with raised
W. Chadic-Karekare voices”
cagalau W. Semitic-Ethiopian-
“leopard” Amharic täĉäqäĉcäqä
“fight (vi.), quarrel, argue,
dispute, squabble”
Proto-S. Cushitic
*ty’ʌg-
“to curse”
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi)
s̟aa ‫“ح‬to call out, yell, shout”
E. Cushitic-Oromo
sagalle “voice, echo, sound”
A.19c.5 S. Chinese-Yuè C. Chadic–Bura Egyptian
TB-Tibetan (Cantonese) singi / tsingi shenn
siŋ-ge singyam “sound, “lion” “to cry out,
“the lion” noise” seng NC-Benue-Congo- to invoke”
[Disyllabic “noise” Bagam shen
corresp.] daiseng “loud” siŋ ~ syŋ “to proclaim,
séŋ-ge “the lion” [lit. “big noise”] “elephant” to curse”
seŋge daiseng ngaai C. Chadic- Masa “to rage, to wrangle”
“mythical snow “shout” zìŋil NS-Kanuri
lion” N. Chinese-MSC cingin / cigékin
“la panthere” [panther]
dashēngjyau C. Chadic-Bura group“attack verbally,
“’shout, speak *TSəŋg-y speak harshly to”
loudly” “lion” Proto-AA
W. Chadic-Pero *sim- “call”
cəŋgin “lion”
A.19c.2 South Daic-Lao song2 siang4 v. “sound” siang4 n. “sound”
n. paat siang4 “roar” Marcus 187 siang4 huhng d:ang “shout” Marcus 187 199
South Daic-Lao sang5 “ elephant” Marcus 70 nga3 sang5 “tusk (elephant)” Marcus 239
Proto-Tai *jaŋ “elephant” Norman 1988a 19
A.19c.3
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *sigit “to cry, shout” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *sigu “to cry, shout” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
100
A.19c.4
Proto-Altaic *sagè “to cry, shout” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-ProtoTungus-Manchu *sag- “to cry, shout” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
A.19c.5 South Daic-Lao dtua1 si:ng4 n. “lion” Marcus 124
↓↓
A.20a-b AA – Chadic AA –Cush. AA-Sem. NS NC
A.20a.1 C. Chadic- Proto-Semitic
Proto-Kiranti Hitkala būbu *bur
*bhu “snake, worm” “Schlange” [Ger.] “kind of insect”
Starostin, S. [snake] Militarev, A.
Kiranti Etymology Skinner 149 Semitic
Proto-Tibeto- C. Chadic- Gava Etymology
Burman buba “snake” 2006
*buw = *bəw Skinner 149
“insect, snake” W. Chadic-Gera
Benedict bur-si “mosquito”
# 27 19, 22 Militarev /
TB-Tibetan Stolbova
bu “insect, bug” W. Chadic- Hausa
Goldstein 762 77 (Hadejia dial.)
TB-Magari bùurà kâi
bul “snake” “the termite
Starostin, S. ST zago” Matsushita
Etymology 1993 202
A.20a.2 W. Chadic- Hausa E. C.
TB-Tibetan kùbūbuwàa Cushitic- Khoisan-
h̟buu / ‘buu “viper” Afar Naro
“worm, insect, Newman, P. gùbun ǀkaūba
any small vermin” 2007 116 “very “snake”
Das 919 Skinner 149 poisonous Ruhlen
Jaschke 393 snake” 1994 63
Benedict 19, 123 Parker /
Norman 1988a Hayward
Table 1.2 13 116
Skinner
149
A.20a.3 E. Chadic- Masa E. NC-
TB-Mirish-Bengni Group- Lame Cushitic- Fulfulde
bɯr-ta budor Sidamo [Fulani]
“snake” “snake” būte mburu-tu
Matisoff 2003 417 Skinner 21 “viper” “guinea
[Disyllabic corresp.] Skinner 21 worm”
Taylor 22
77
Note A.20a.1-2 (Tibetan) The contrast between sets A.20a.1 and A.20a. 2 is based on the presence or absence
of an initial. velar or glottal stop. This occurs in both nouns and verbs in Chadic, Nilo-Saharan, Khoisan and
Tibeto-Burman languages. Note that Hausa shows the root with and without the initial velar. The disappearing
initial k- phenomenon has been identified in several contexts . See further discussion in Notes B.3d.1-2,
B.11a.2-3, B.14c1-2, B.21.1-2, C.34.1-3, 5-7 and Chapter 10 section 10.3.2.3-4.
101
Proto-C. Chadic- *būt-

Etymology “puff
butur- adder”
“kind of snake” Militarev,
Stolbova, Olga C. A. High E.
Chadic Etymology Cushitic
2006 Etymology
A.20a.4 C.. Chadic-Fali NS- Maba NC-S.E.
TB-Naga- Muchela Group Mande- Ma
Yimchungru mùburù Masalit mburu
phuru “snake” “termite” àbù(rù) “viper”
Matisoff 2003 417 Stolbova, Olga júluk Muka-
TB-Kuki-Chin-Mikir Central Chadic- “snake” rovsky
phurul ~ phurui Etymology 2006 Edgar 129 345
“snake”
Benedict 19
Walker 412
A.20a.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *buw = *bəw “insect, snake”, *bəw “bug” “insect, vermin” /
Proto-Kiranti *bhu “snake, worm”
< C. Chadic- Hitkala būbu “Schlange” [snake] / E. Cushitic- Sidamo būte “viper”
A.20a.2 TB-Tibetan ‘buw “worm, insect” / Proto-Kiranti *bhu “snake, worm”
< W. Chadic- Hausa kùbūbuwa “viper” / E. Cushitic- Afar gùbun “very poisonous black
snake” / C. Khoisan-Naro ǀkaūba “snake”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon: *buw- / “insect, snake” ~ *kùbū- “viper”
A.20a.1
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *bəw “bug” “insect, vermin, bug” Matisoff 2003 178, 184
Middle Chinese bjəu “bug” “insect, worm” Norman 1988a Table 1.2 13
TB-Qiangic-Pumi-Dayang bərá “snake” Matisoff 2003 76
Proto-Lolo-Burmese *bew2 “insect, vermin” Matisoff 2003 19, 183
TB-Lepcha bû “reptile, worm” Benedict 19
TB-C. Loloish-Lisu bɯ “insect, vermin” Matisoff 2003 183
TB-C. Loloish-Ahi bö ~ bu “insect” Benedict 22
TB-S. Loloish-Aka beü ~ bü “snake” Benedict 19
TB-Trung bə “snake” Norman 1988a Table 1.2 13 bɯ “snake” Matisoff 2003 417
TB- Nung bö “snake” Benedict 19 bɯ “insect, vermin” Matisoff 2003 184
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu bujik “bug, insect or worm” Starostin, S. Yamphu Dict.
[compound of this root and that of A.14a.1]
TB-N. Naga-Tangpa-Moshang, Namsangiya pu “snake, worm” Starostin, S. Sino-Tibetan Etymology
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu pû “insect, vermin” Matisoff 2003 184
TB-Garo tśi-pu “bug” Benedict 19 Matisoff 2003 178 [compound of this root and that of A.14a.2]
A.20a.2 TB-Kiranti-Limbu kubu “a worm which eats wood”
Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
TB-Jingpho-Kadu kəphu “snake” Benedict 19
TB-Tibetan �buriŋ “snake” Jaschke 393 Das 919
A.20a.3
TB-Naga-Tangkhul phərɯ / phərə “snake” Matisoff 2003 385, 417
TB-Tibetan sbrul “serpent, snake” Jaschke 407
102
TB-Thebor brul “snake” Benedict 111 Matisoff 2003 151

Proto-Tibeto-Burman *b-rul “snake” Benedict # 447 15, 43, 78, 83, 111, 119, 137, 147
TB-Chin-Lushai rul “snake, small caterpillar, worm, grub”
Starostin, S. ST Etymology ;
rúul “snake” Matisoff 2003 44
TB-Burmese mruj “snake” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) fui3 “a species of venomous snake” Hakka Dict.
TB-Written Burmese pûi “insect/worm” Norman 1988a 13
A.20a.1
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] mbūbu pl. būbi ”fly” Taylor 20
C. Chadic-Bura Group *p-bu “snake” Skinner 149
A.20a.2
NS-Kanuri kelbúrwu “kind of poisonous snake” Cyffer 1990 86
C. Chadic-Fali Gili mbur-ta “termite” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006
A.20a.3 E. Cushitic-Oromo butii “kind of snake” Gragg 73 “vipera nera velenosissima” [black
viper, very poisonous snake] Borello 69 buti “viper” Foot 9
A.20a.4 NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] mburūtu pl. burūti “guinea worm” Taylor 22
A.20a.1 IE-Sanskrit bhujaMgha “a serpent, snake” bhujiu “a snake or viper” bhujáka / bhujága
“a snake” Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 A.20a1.
A.20a.3 IE-Sanskrit bhUlata “an earth worm” fùllarika “a serpent” fùllaka “a worm or snake”
phùllarika “a snake, serpent” Cologne Lexicon.
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *bürge “flea” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 9
Proto-Turkic *bürče / *bürge “flea” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 9
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek *bürga “flea” English-Uzbek Dictionary
-Mongolian-Khalka büreg “flea” / Mongolian-Kalmuck, Ordos bürgə “flea”
-Mongolian-Baoan bərgə “flea” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology http://starling.rinet.ru./c
/
A.20b.1 W. Chadic-Bura
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) fufukir
fūk “a viper” Chik / Ng Lam 404 “poisonous snake,
TB- Maru aphuk “insect, vermin” the puff adder”
Matisoff 2003 183 Dictionary of
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) fuk7 / Bura
(Meixian) puk7 / (Lau Chunfat) fug5 “a viper”
Hakka Dict.
A.20b.2 W. Chadic-Angas NS-Kanuri
N. Chinese-MSC bùrshi “vermin, fùshi
fùshé especially a tiny “hoodless
“Pallas pit viper” Wu, J. 214 maggot” cobra”
Manser part 2 136 Foulkes 279 Cyffer 1990 53
A.20b.2 N. Chinese-MSC fùshé “Pallas pit viper”
< NS-Kanuri fùshi “hoodless cobra”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *fushi “viper”
A.20b.2
TB- Kiranti-Yamphu pusäʔ “snake” Benedict 19 Starostin, S. Yamphu Dict.
TB-Kiranti-Sunwar bussu “snake” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
103
↓↓
A.21a-c AA – Chadic AA- AA- NS NC, Khoisan
Cush. Egyptian
A.21a.1 C. Chadic- Glavda N. Khoisan-!Kung
TB-N. Naga-Chang káwa “bull” |gàuh,
ŋʌ̂u “cattle” káwà “buffalo (male)” |kau /
Matisoff 2003 166 Rapp / Benzing 51 N. Khoisan--Hukwe
S. Chinese-Yuè W. Chadic- Bole / |gau
(Cantonese) Tangale-Kirfi C. Khoisan-Nama,
ngàuh “ox, cattle, kaunong / kaunu Korana
cow, bull” “buffalo” |gao “buffalo”
Chik / Ng Lam Jungraithmayr 1994 Greenberg 1966
29178 v.2 50 #18 76
A.21a.2 E. Chadic-Kabalai NC--Benue-Congo-
TB- Nung gwàbènè Ikulu
ŋwa ~ ŋa ~ nwa “buffalo” kuwah
“cattle” Jungraithmayr “buffalo”
Benedict 50 1994 v.2 50 Williamson/ Shimizu
v.1 49
A.21a.3 C. Chadic- Egyptian NC-Benue-Congo-
S. Chinese-Kejia ‘gusaŋ gu Amo
[Hakka] “taureau” [bull] “a kind ku-káwi
ku3 / gǔ3 Barreteau 446 of C. Khoisan-Khoekhoe-
“cow, bull, ox” cattle” Gowab
Hakka Dict. Budge ‖goo “bull”
v.2 805 Blench 2007 6
A.21a.1 Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) ngàuh “ox, cattle, cow, bull”
< C. Chadic- Glavda káwa “bull”, káwà “buffalo (male)” / N. Khoisan-!Kung |gàuh,
78
Note- A.21a.1 (TB-Naga-Chang, S.Chinese–Yue) In China there are two species of cattle, humpless taurine
(Bos Taurus) and humped zebu (Bos indicus), considered to have been domesticated independently. Modern
Chinese cattle have been divided into three groups distributed geographically in the north, central and southern
regions. “Phylogenetic analysis suggests that the southern breeds are dominated by zebu mtDNA,whereas the
northern breeds are dominated by taurine mtDNA.” The central groups are hybrids of the two. “These data
strongly suggest that cattle were introduced to China from the north and south through different routes”.
(Liu / Chen 106). Taurine cattle were domesticated in the Near East around the 8th millenium BCE ; this indicates
that the northern taurine cattle were brought to China after this time. They could have entered northwest China
from a north central route which crossed Afghanistan, forked north along the western Himalayas, then across the
southern edge of the Taklamakan desert into northwest China. The human populations who lived in this area
possessed West Asian/African genes. See Li, Chunxiang 2010, Di Cristofaro, J. 2013 and Zhong 2011. See also
Note- A.21b.2 (Old Chinese) following and Chapter 9 Section 9.4.1.2
All indigenous buffalo remains in China have been identified as the zebu type, hence identical to the type in
Southeast Asia/and NE India, so the south Chinese bovid populations are unlikely to be derived from the
northern taurine wild buffalo in China which has the different DNA. (Liu / Chen 109-110). The common root
found in Sanskrit, TB-Naga (on the border of NE- India and NW-Myanmar) and S. Chinese (Yue) suggests a
cultural contact between NE India and Yunnan province in S. China. “The buffalo images in the Cangyuan rock
art, Yunnan (first through fifth centuries CE) have been interpreted as buffalo, configured in both hunted (i.e.
wild) and domesticated forms )”. These suggest that Yunnan may have been part of a distribution area of the wild
ancestor, ǀkau “buffalo” See also Chapter 6 section 6.2.2.2 and Chapter 9 Sections 9.6 and 9.7.
104
A.21a.3 S. Chinese-Min gú “ox, cow” / S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ku3 / gǔ3 “cow, bull, ox”
< NC-Benue-Congo-Amo ku-káwi “buffalo”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: * |gàuh ~ gú “buffalo” “cow, bull”
A.21a.1
S. Chinese-(Yue) seuingau “buffalo” Kwan 51 seui “water”
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] ŋā “cattle” Matisoff 2003 167
Sino-Tibetan root ŋwV “cow, ox” “widely attested in ST” “also in Daic and Austrasiatic”
Blench 2009a 5
A.21a.2
TB- Written Burmese nwâ “cattle” Benedict 50 Matisoff 2003 167
TB-Trung-Dulong nuŋ-ŋwà “yellow buffalo” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
Proto-TB *ŋwà “horned cattle” Sagart 194
A.21a.3 N. Chinese-MSC
gǔ “bull” “male” Wu, J. 243
kǔ “a bull” “a male” Mathews #3457 514
S. Chinese-Min gú “ox, cow” cuî-gú “buffalo, water buffalo” cuî “water”
Bodman 1987 v.2 76, 135
See also D.4c.2 (N. Chinese-MSC)
A.21a.1
NC-Benue-Congo-Gure kawi “buffalo” Williamson / Shimizu v.1 49
Omotic-Anfillo (Southern Mao) gāhō “buffalo” Militarev, A. Omotic Etymology 2005
Omotic-Kafa gāho “buffalo” Militarev, A. Omotic Etymology 2005
C. Khoisan-Khoe-Kwe kx’áò “bull” Blench 2007 6
C. Chadic-Gava kawa “bull” Stolbova, Olga C.Chadic Etymology
Proto-S. Cushitic *ʔaw- “bull” Militarev, A. 2005
Proto-E. Cushitic *ʔawr- “bull” Ehret 1995 #1005 476
Proto-S. Cushitic *cawr- “bull” Militarev, A. S.Cushitic Etymology
W. Chadic-Bole/Tangale-Kubii kabba “buffalo” Jungraithmayr 1994 v. 2 50
Proto-AA *yaw- / *yawr- “bull (2d shape:stem + *r noun suffix)” Ehret 1995 #1005 476
NS-Songhay (Dendi) hàẃ “boeuf” [ox, steer] Zima 106
C. Khoisan-Hiechware |hao “buffalo” Greenberg 1966 76
Proto-Cushitic *yaw- / *ʔaw- “bull” Ehret 1995 #1005 476
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic awra bare “bull, young bull” Leslau 1976 143, 287
NC-Benue-Congo--Benue-Cogo-Kuturmi kawa “buffalo” Williamson/Shimizu v.1 49
Omotic-S. Ometo-Zayse-Zergula galó “cow” Blench 1999b 58
W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Warji kavna “buffalo” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 50
A.21a.2
NC-Benue-Congo-Kadara e-kwa “buffalo” Williamson/Shimizu v.1 49
Proto-TB *ŋwa “cattle” Benedict #215 204 Matisoff 2003 167, 176
W. Chadic-Mburku ɣérwá “cow” Blench 1999b 58
A.21a.3
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] kūri “a cow with long horns and a small hump” Taylor 115
NC-Benue-Congo-Ijo ɔ-kʊ́ “buffalo” Williamson / Shimizu v.1 49
Egyptian khu “cattle for sacrifice” Budge v.1 537
gw “bull” Militarev, A. Egypyian Etymology 2005
C. Khoisan-Proto-Khoekhoe/Proto-Non-Khoekhoe
*kxo “meat” Starostin, G. 2003 24
Egyptian-Coptic ʔgoĺ “calf” Blench 1999b 58
NS-E. Sudanic-Nubian-Nobin goŕ “calf” Blench 1999b 58
105

A.21a.1 IE-E. Iranian-Avestan *gāu “ox, cow” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology
gao “ox, cattle” gava “cow, bull, ox” Peterson J. 1995
IE-Old Indian gau-h m. “ox” f. “cow” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology.
IE-Sanskrit gaura “a kind of buffalo, Bos Gaurus” gaupatya “the possession of cattle”
gaulaksana / golaksana “one who knows the good marks of cows” (See also note A.25.1-3). gava
“a cow, cattle” gavarjah “a bull” gavendra “a bull” gavala “the wild buffalo”
gavaya “the gayal” “cow” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Bengali goru “cow” Thompson 46, 93
A.21a.2 IE-Hittite guwau “Rind” (Ger.) “head of cattle” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology.
IE-Pashto ghwaayaey “a bull, an ox” Raverty 744
South Daic-Lao ngua3 maa2 n. “cow”, ngua3 pa2 n. “bull (animal)”, ngua3 kway3 n. “cattle”
Marcus 56, 37, 42
Daic-Siamese ŋwa n. “domestic ox’’ Sagart 1999 193
A.21a.3
IE-Sanskrit- gu “cow” go / gaus “an ox, a cow” pl. “cattle, kine, a herd of cattle” RV
go-sankhya “one who counts the cows, a herdsman Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2 A.21a.1-3
IE-Tocharian *ko / keu “cow”
Daic-White-Tai ŋo2 “water buffalo’’ Sagart 1999 193
/
A.21b.1 N. Chinese- MSC / Beijing niú “ox” NS-Maba-Group- Mimi
niunân “sirloin, tenderloin” Wu J. 499-500 niu / nyu “meat”
C. Chinese-Wu ɲiɯ6 “cow, ox, bull, cattle” NS-Maba-Group- Maba
Hakka Dict. niu / nyúúnú “meat”
Middle Chinese ngju “bovine” Sagart 57, Edgar 327 Greenberg 1966 142
TB-Tibetan li niu “Tibetan yak” Sagart 192
A.21b.2 Old Chinese *ni̭ŭg “bull, cow , ox” NS- Maba-Group- Maba
Karlgren GSR #998a-c Matisoff 176 79 ñuk pl. ñuu “gibier abattu”
7
Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian) ɲiuk “meat” [slaughtered game]
Norman 1988a 240 NS-Maba-Group- Masalit
“meat of animals” Hakka Dict. ñugul / ñu-gi / nyuŋ-ú
Middle Chinese nyuwk “meat” Sagart 197 “meat” nyu-k “meat” Edgar 327
A.21b.2 Old Chinese *ni̭ŭg “bull, cow, ox” / Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] niuk7 “flesh, meat” “meat
of animals”
< Maba-Group- Masalit ñugul / ñu-gi / nyuŋ-ú “meat” / NS- Maba-Group- Maba ñuk pl. ñuu
“gibier abattu” [slaughtered game]
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *ñug “meat, slaughtered game”
79
Note- A.21b.2 (Old Chinese) Benedict and Matisoff comment that “Chinese ni̭ŭg > ŋi̭ə̭u is distinct from this
series.” [i.e. the set of TB lexemes from which the Proto-Tibeto-Burman A.21a.2 ŋwa ’cattle’ is constructed].
Benedict/ Matisfoff note 164 50. The evidence from A.21a.2 and this table supports Benedict’s statement since
the A.21.a-b word families point to different African origins for the two Old Chinese ŋwa and ni̭ŭg roots,
plausibly an A.21b.2 Nilo-Saharan-Maba Group source for ni̭ ŭg and a Chadic or NC one for ŋwa (e.g. A.21a.2
E. Chadic-Kabalai gwàbènè “buffalo” or NC-Benue-Congo-Kadara e-kwa “buffalo”).
w
Sagart considers the Old Chinese form to be *ŋg u Bos [bovid] and the modern niu form to be derived
w
from this by a process *ŋg u > ŋgjuw > niu.
w
Both ŋʌ̂u and ŋg u appear to predate the domestication of bovids in Africa since *ŋʌ̂u primarily means
“buffalo” in the A.21a African cognates and A.21b niu(g) primarily means “meat” or “slaughtered game” in
the African NS forms. See also Chapter 9 Section 9.7.
106

A.21b.1
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu nû “cattle” Matisoff 2003167
N. Chinese-MSC shuiniú “(water) buffalo” Wu, J. 643
A.21b.2
Old Chinese �i̭ôk “bull, cow , ox” “meat, flesh”
Karlgren GSR #1033a-b Matisoff 2003 481
C. Chinese-Wu nioʔ8 “flesh, meat” “meat of animals” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Min (Jieyang) nêk8 “meat” Norman 1988a 240
A.21b.3 S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) yuhk “flesh, physical” “meat animals”
yuhk tâi “the body of blood and flesh” tai “body” Chik / Ng Lam 371-372, 500
A.21b.1 Egyptian unnu “cattle” (?) Budge v.1165
A.21b.1 Hmong-Mien-White Hmong nyuj “bull, cow” Heimbach 481
/
A.21c Afro-Asiatic AA – AA- Nilo- Niger-Congo
– Chadic Cush. Sem. Saharan
A.21c.1 W. Chadic- Kunama NC-Proto-Bantu
TB-Karenic-Sgaw Ngizim nya *nyàma
(Bassein) nyàmí “meat” “animal”
ňa “meat, flesh” “body fat, Greenberg Greenberg 1966 34
Matisoff 2003 481 fat on meat” 1966 123
nyà ”fish” Schuh 130 Maba NC-Swahili
Benedict 141 151 Group- nyàmà “meat”
TB-Tibetan Maba Awde 2000 183
nyà-mo “fish” ňa “food”
Jaschke 184 Edgar 321
nyà “fish”
Norman 1988a 13
A.21c.2 W. Chadic- Maba NC-Proto-Benue Congo
S. Chinese-Kejia Tangale Group- *-nam / *-n(i)am-
[Hakka] nam Masalit “animal, meat”
nam3 / nam5 “meat” ňami NC-Proto-W. Nigritic
“tender beef” Jungraith- “oil, fat” *nam
“dried meat” mayr Edgar 332 “animal”
Hakka Dict. 1991 123 Skinner 206, 211
A.21c.1 TB-Karenic-Sgaw ňa “meat, flesh”
< NS-Kunama nya “meat”
A.21c.2 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] nam3 / nam5 “tender beef” “dried meat”
< W. Chadic-Tangale nam “meat”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *nyam- / *nam- “meat” “wild animal”
A.21c.1
TB-Chepang ŋa ~ ňa “fish” Benedict 184
TB- Proto-Karen *hňa “meat” “flesh” Benedict/Matisoff 1972 128 note 350
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *sŋya “fish” Benedict 47, 141, 205 Matisoff 2003 165, 475
S. Chinese-Min ňá “muscle” Jaschke 184 ; ňá-bo “body, figure” Jaschke 184, Das 473 ;
107
A.21c.2
S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) naahm “tender beef” Chik / Ng Lam 376
N. Chinese-MSC niúnân “sirloin, tenderloin” Wu, J. 500 niú “ox”
TB-Tibetan nagmo “tender (meat)” Goldstein 634
A.21c.1
NC-Adamawa-Eastern-Bua nya “cow” Greenberg 1966 16
NC-Benue-Congo-Proto-Plateau *niam- “animal” Skinner 207
NC-Benue-Congo-Proto-Bantu *nyama “animal” Williamson / Shimizu 2, 34
NC-Adamawa-Eastern-Mambila nyama “animal, meat” Greenberg 13
A21c.2
W. Chadic- Angas nâm “meat, flesh” Foulkes 47, 251 Skinner 207
W. Chadic- Hausa nāmàa “meat, flesh, wild animal” Skinner 20780
NC-Adamawa-Eastern-Degha nama “animal, meat” Greenberg 1966 13
NC-Benue-Congo-Proto-Plateau *-nam “meat” Skinner 207
A.21c.2 South Daic-Lao na:m5 ma:n3 keuang2 n. “oil” Marcus 150, nam5 man3 mu4 “lard
(pig)” Marcus 119 nam5 man3 “fat (pig or animal)” Marcus 79 South Daic-Lao man3 “oil”
(A.16.1)
↓↓
A.22 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA– AA- NS NC
Cush. Sem.
A.22.1 N. Chinese-MSC C. Chadic- Mada dudu gizuwe
zhīzhū n. “spider” “spider” Skinner 86
Wu, J. 897 Wang, F. 601 W. Chadic–Hausa gízògizò “spider”
S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) Newman, P. 2007 75 Skinner 86
jìjyū “spider (insect)” W. Chadic-Gwandara (Toni)
81
Kwan 497 ògɨzògɨzò “spider”
[Disyllabic corresp.] Matsushita 1974 #335 84
A.22.1
N. Chinese-MSC zhīzhū “spider”
< C. Chadic- Mada dudu gizuwe “spider” / W. Chadic – Hausa gízògizò “spider”
Approximate Sinitic etymon: *gizu- “spider”
80
Note- A.21c.2 (Chadic-Hausa Extended) nāmàa “meat” is an early borrowing from “unidentified Niger-
Congo languages.” Newman, P. 2000 316.
81
Note- A.22.1 (MSC, Cantonese) The -zhū morpheme is a bound form in MSC. DeFrancis 1290. This and the
Cantonese jìjyu give evidence that the original term in Chinese was disyllabic and inherited as such from the
disyllabic Chadic form. In MSC there are other disyllabic words containing the zhū “spider”
bound morpheme, e.g. zhūsi “silk” and zhūwang “spider web, cobweb” formed with the independent
morphemes sī “silk” and wang “web”. DeFrancis 1309 . However these are probably reduced forms of the
trisyllabic compounded morphemes zhīzhūsi “silk” and zhīzhūwang “spider web, cobweb”. In Cantonese the
spoken word for “spider web” is the similar compound jìjyumohng, which retains the disyllabic form jìjyu.
Kwan 497
Entry of the single syllable zhū in character-based dictionaries is probably the result of the monosyllabic
structure of Mandarin Chinese imposed by a character-based script. Although the word is written as two
characters (representing syllables), when used in the spoken language they usually do not occur separately and zhū
is always in second position. “Zhizhu ‘spider’ is a disyllable that must be viewed as unanalyzable”. Norman
1988b 289. See also Note D.21a.1and Chapter 10 section 10.1.2.
108

A.22.1 S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) jyù “spider” Chik / Ng Lam 402
N. Chinese-MSC zhū / zhūzhū “spider (insect)” Wu, J. 914 chū (WG) “the spider”
Mathews 190 #1351
Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Dongguan, Kwangtung) zhi1 / zi1 / ci1 / zhu1 / zu1 n. “spider”
Hakka Dict.
A.22.1 W. Chadic – Gwandara (Karshi, Cancara) ògíjògíjò “spider” Matsushita 974 #335 84 82
W. Chadic-Hausa Gizò “trickster hero (of Hausa tales)” Skinner 86 yi gizòo “inspire fear in
someone by means of tricky changes in one’s appearance”83 Newman, P. 2007 75 bàkan Gizò [lit.
the bow of Gizo] “rainbow” baka “bow” [weapon] Skinner 86
C. Chadic–Mofu-Gudur gəzw- “tisser (une toile d’araignée)” [weave (a spider web] Skinner 86
C. Chadic-Margi ade giju “sky” Skinner 86
Semitic- Arabic mġeezil “a kind of sand spider found in the desert” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 335
↓↓
A.23 Afro-Asiatic – AA – AA-- NS Niger-Congo,
Chadic Cush. Sem. Kordofanian
A.23.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Tangale
byi-ba “rat, mouse” / biil “rat species”
byi-wa “rat, mouse” C. Chadic-
Benedict 46 Dangaleat [Dangla]
(W. Tibetan) sa-bili(g) “rat” kib’ilo “small rat
Jaschke 376, 570 species” Skinner 31
A.23.2 TB-Mikir NC-Yergam,
phidzu “rat” Dangana [Afusare]
Starostin, S. ipi “mouse”
Kiranti Etymology Kordofanian-
phiju “rat (common)” Miri fife
Walker 135 “mouse”
TB-Tibetan (Lahoul, Spiti Kordofanian-
provinces) phi-wa / phyi-ba Krongo
“the large marmot of the (ni)fi “mouse”
highlands of Asia” Greenberg 1966
Jaschke xx, 350, 358 156
A.23.3 TB- Burmese NC-Krawi
pwê “rat, mouse” pwe “mouse”
TB-Chin-Lushai NC-Kordofanian- Eliri
bui “bamboo rat” powi
Benedict 46 “mouse”
Matisoff 2003 196 Greenberg 1966 156
82
Note- A.22.1 (Chadic- Gwandara Extended) In addition to the Gwandara dialects cited above the other variant
forms are: Koro dialect ògúgúzo “spider” Gitata dialect əgúzo “spider”
C. Chadic–Mafa žigula “god, sky” shows palatalization of the initial as in Chinese, though the meaning follows
the ”sky, god” semantics.
83
Note- A.22.1 (Chadic-Hausa Extended) The spider is personified in West and Central African folktales as
Gizo, a preternatural hero and generally benign but playful figure who can change his appearance and play tricks.
He is also identified with the sky and a divine presence there. See Skinner 86 for a list of additional Chadic and
Cushitic cognates meaning “spider, “sky” or “god”.
109

A.23.2 TB-Tibetan phi-wa / phyi-ba “the large marmot of the highlands of Asia” /
TB-Kuki-Chin-Mikir phidzu “rat”
< NC-Yergam, Dangana (Afusare) ipi “mouse” / NC-Kordofanian- Miri fife “mouse”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon: *phi “rat, mouse”
A.23.2 TB-C. Loloish-Lahu fâ-phî “a marmot” Matisoff 2003 196
A.23.3 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *bwəy “bamboo rat” Matisoff 2003 196, 585
Extended African AA word family: yr1970 213
E. Chadic- Bidiya ceb’ilo “rat rouge” Skinner 31
NS-Nuer biel duop “mouse” Huffman 6
A.23.3 NC-Kordofanian-Lafofa poi “mouse”
↓↓
A.24 AA– Chadic AA– AA- Nilo-Saharan Niger-Congo
Cush. Sem.
A.24.1 W. Chadic- N. Bauci- NS-Tubu [Teda
Proto-TB Jimbin burngu b‫כ‬ŋgə́
*broŋ “antelope species” “Kuh (mit langen
“wild yak, Skinner 17 Hornern)”
buffalo” C. Chadic-Buduma [cow with long
Benedict bərga “buffalo” horns]
#136 40, 199 Skinner 17 Lukas 1953 194
A.24.2 W. Chadic- NC-Fulfulde
TB-Kiranti- Gwandara (Gitata) [Fulani]
Thulung bono / bwona mbana
beno “buffalo” “buffalo”
“ox” Matsushita 1974 Skinner 31
Starostin, S. #300 78
Kiranti Etymology W. Chadic–Hausa
b’áunā “buffalo,
West African bush
cow” Skinner 31
Newman, P. 2007 29
Jungraithmayr 1994
v.2 50
A. 24.2 TB-W.Tibetan ‘broŋ “wild yak”
< W. Chadic - Sura kəb’ən “buffalo” / W. Chadic – S. Bauci-Guruntum kébong “buffalo”
< W. Chadic- N. Bauci-Jimbin burngu “antelope species” / Approximate Tibetan etyma: *kəb’ən
“buffalo” ~ burng- “buffalo” “antelope species”
A.24.1 TB- Burmese prauŋ “buffalo, bison” Benedict 40 Matisoff 2003 294
A.24.1 NS-Maba-Aiki b‫כ‬ng̀‫כ‬r-‫“ כ‬waterbuck” Edgar 168
E. Chadic-Migama b’argu “roan antelope” Skinner 1784
84
Note- A.24.1 E. Chadic-Migama (Extended) b’argu Skinner identified this word meaning “roan antelope”
as cognate to phonetically similar words meaning “buffalo” Skinner x, 17. .
110
C. Chadic-Gisiga guvɔŋ “buffalo” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 50.

A.24.2 W. Chadic- S. Bauci-Guruntum kébong “buffalo” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 50
W. Chadic- Sura kəb’ən “buffalo” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 50
W. Chadic–N. Bauci- Miya, Kariyai kə̀və́n “buffalo” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 50
Proto-W. Chadic *k’abani / *kab’ani “buffalo” Skinner 31
E. Chadic–Birgit kàbàná “buffalo” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 50
W. Chadic–Bole-Tangale-Geruma kabani “buffalo” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 50
W. Chadic–N. Bauci-Siri kə‫כ‬və‫כ‬ní “buffalo” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 50
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] koba “roan antelope” Taylor 112
↓↓
A.25 AA –Chadic AA-Cushitic AA-Berber Nilo-Saharan NC
A.25.1 E. Cushitic- Berber– Kanuri
N. Chinese-MSC Somali Tuareg doworó
tuó “camel” tulo “hunch” [Tama-sheq] “hump
“hunch-backed” Leslau 1963 tuw- (of a camel,
tuózi “hunchback, 149 “bosse de ox etc.)”
humpback” Wu, J. 702 E. Cushitic- chameau” Cyffer
C. Chinese-Wu tu6 Sidamo [camel’s 1990 38, 200
“camel” “hunchbacked, tullite / tullo hump]
humpbacked” “hill, heap” Skinner 259
Hakka Dict.85 Gasparini 20
The roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus) has some external physical similarity to the African Cape buffalo,
which in turn is closely similar to the Asian buffalo. The roan antelope belongs to the same genus “Bovidae” as
the buffalo and domestic cattle. “Bovid” designates any hoofed animal in the family “Bovidae” of the order
Artiodactyla and includes antelopes, bison, buffalo, cattle, sheep, and goats. However the roan antelope shares
physical characteristics of both Equids (horse family) and Bovids. (cattle, antelope family). Equid characteristics
are its horse-like face, donkey-like ears and erect mane. The head and muzzle also resemble those of horses;
hence the scientitific name (Hippotragus equinus) incorrectly suggesting an equid. The kor- root means “equid
antelope” in E. Cushitic- Oromo qorqê (A.9a.1 Extended ) and refers to the roan antelope in Nilo-Saharan-
Kanuri koro ngasai A.9a.1 (Extended) above although it belongs to the Bovid family. “Roan antelope” is also
glossed in French as “antilope cheval” [lit. horse antelope] in A.9b.1 dèwki E. Chadic- Dangaleat (=Dangla)
(Chadic Extended).
The roan is the second largest antelope with a body about the same size as that of buffalos. As compared to most
antelopes the roan is behaviorally more similar to both the African and wild Asian buffalo in that it does not flee
when attacked, but fiercely defends its territory and has been known to kill even lions with its long sharp slashing
horns. See also note A.8.1 (Hausa) on the hartebeest.
85
Note- A.25.1-2 (Chinese, AA) The camel was probably known quite early in China, as it is native to Asia in the
area north and northwest of China. The root also appears in several Altaic languages as noted in the following
A.25.2 Asian non-ST language citations.
The humped animals native to the Sino-Tibetan linguistic area are the yak (Bos gruniens) and the gaur (Bos
gaurus). The yak is humped at the shoulder whereas the gaur has a longer ridged hump on its back along its
spinal column. See note A.21a.1 above.
In Buduma, Hausa, Burji, Somali, Oromo, and Harari the root simply means: “hump of animal”, or “hill, hunch,
hunch-backed”. The term does not mean “camel” as such in any of the African/AA correspondences. It refers
directly to the camel’s hump or neck when applied to camels. Hence the tou- / to- / tul- root as used to denote
humped animals appears to be secondary to an original meaning of “mound, hill, heap” which was then applied to
humans or animals with hunched backs, and ultimately camels.
Humped zebu cattle have been considered to have been introduced into Africa from India in the 4th century CE.
Camps 575. However Blench notes that the cattle which appear on the rock paintings of the Sahara (from the 5th
111
A.25.2 S. Chinese-Yuè W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Tubu [Teda]

(Cantonese) Hausa Burji tuzu “Hals
tòh “camel” *tūzo > tōzō dollo (Kamel)”
“hunchbacked” “hump” “hump” [camel’s neck]
Chik / Ng Lam 497 Newman, P. Skinner 49 Lukas 1953 191
tòhbui “humpback” 2000 235-6 Skinner 259
Kwan 227 86 “hump Daza
“hunchbacked” (e.g. of camel)” tuzu “cou de
Chik / Ng Lam 497 Newman, P. chameau”
bui “back” 2007 203 [camel’s neck]
(C.12a.3) Jourdan 34
A. 25.2 S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) tòh “hunchbacked” / C. Chinese-Wu tu6 “camel” “hunchbacked,
humpbacked”
< W. Chadic-Hausa *tūzo > tōzō “hump” / NS- Tubu [Teda] tuzu “camel’s neck”
Approximate Sinitic etyma: *to- / *tu- “hump, humpback”
A.25.1 N. Chinese-MSC luòtuo “camel” tuóbèi “hunchback, humpback” DeFrancis 962
“hunchbacked” Manser part 1 216
A.25.2
(MacIver) t’o2 “camel” “hunchbacked” humpbacked”
(Lau Chunfat)/ to2 “camel” “hunchbacked” humpbacked” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) tòhfùng “hump (of camel” Kwan 227
A.25.1
NS-Anywa [Anuak] tùo “lump, clod” “heap” Reh 703
W. Chadic-Hausa dōrō n. m. “convexity, round-shoulders” Newman, P. 2007 46
“being round-shouldered” Newman / Ma 1979 Bargery 2002
A.25.2 W. Chadic-Hausa tōzōn kabari “mound (of grave)” Newman, / Ma. 1979 122
Berber–Tuareg [Tamasheq] touhé “bosse de chameau” Cortade 65
W. Chadic-Hausa tudu n. m. “hill” Skinner 259
NS-Tubu [Teda] tu “montagne” [mountain] Skinner 259
Egyptian tu “mountan” Budge v.2 823
NS-Bagirme toto “hill” Skinner 259
C. Chadic- Mafa bodōgwa “hump of zebu” Skinner 49
NS-Kanuri dōgoro “hump of animal” Skinner 49
C. Chadic- Buduma dōgoro “hump” Skinner 49
A.25.2 E. Cushitic-Oromo tullu “monte” “monte, collina, gobbosità, monticello”
[mountain, hill, hump/hunch, mound] Borello 402 tula “mound, heap” Foot 54
Semitic-Harari tullu “hill, hunch” tullu halba “hunch-backed” “from Galla (Oromo)”
Leslau 1963 149 See also B.5c.2 including Extended forms
millennium BCE) “show cattle with some sort of a hump”. This has led to speculation that “humpedness” evolved
separately in the Sahara and in India. “Present day humped breeds almost certainly combine genetic material from
the indigenous breeds and the incoming zebu”. Blench 1999 49. The data can imply either that “humpedness”
emerged in genetically African cattle before the 4th century BCE or that zebu cattle were introduced into Africa as
early as the 5th millenium BCE.
86
Note- A.25.2 (Chinese-Yue, Wu, Hausa) The Chinese variants correspond to a vowel shift basic upon a regular
*ū > o sound change in Chadic. Initial syllable long ū lowers to the corresponding long mid-vowel ō followed
in the next syllable by a mid-vowel . Newman, P. 2000 235-236 See also Note- A.1b.2 (Hausa) above.
112

A.25.1 Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh, Karakalpak taw “mountain” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
A.25.2
Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz tō “camel” “mountain” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology 23
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur tögä “camel” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology 23
Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh, Karakalpak, Balkar tüje “camel”
Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology 23
↓↓
A.26 AA-Chadic AA-Cushitic, AA- NS Khoisan
Proto-AA Semitic
Swadesh W. Chadic- Proto- Songhay S. Khoisan-
“egg” Gwandara Lowland-E. (Djenne) Proto-Taa
A.26.1 koŋyi Cushitic gùŋgùri n. ǂúŋ
TB-Tibetan “egg” *ʔu-kun ”egg, testicle” “empty
sgo-ŋa / sgoŋ-ŋa Matsushita “egg” Heath v.2 81 ostrich egg”
/ 1972 66 Militarev, A. (Koyra) Starostin, G.
sgoŋ “egg, eggs” Low E. “testicles 2003 1
goŋa “egg” Cushitic (original sense See also
Jaschke 116 Etymology ‘egg’)” Note-
Das 326 2005 Heath v.1 111 C.38a.2-3
gondoò
“testicles”
Goldstein 278, 28087
A.26.2 C. Chadic- Proto-AA Semitic- Berta
S. Chinese-Yuè Bata (Orel / Amharic gogolo
(Cantonese) kōá Stolbova 1995) qolat “egg”
gòuyún “egg” *q̇ol- “testicles” Greenberg
“testicle” Militarev / “testicles” Hudson 1966 138
Kwan 528 Stolbova *k’̇ol- 150
“egg”
Skinner 178
A.26.3 W. Chadic- Proto-Cushitic S.Khoisan-
N. Chinese -MSC Ngizim (Ehret) !Koo
gãowán ngàavə‫כ‬n *k’wanh !gú-aŋ
“testis, “egg yolk” “egg” “egg”
testicle” Schuh 126 Skinner 178 S. Khoisan-
Wu, J. 225 Proto-AA |Nu||en
Manser part 1 453 (n)kwa(n)̣h !gu-oiŋ
[Disyllabic corresp.] “egg” “egg”
Militarev / Starostin, G
Stolbova AA 2003 15
Etymology
2007
87
Note-A.26.1 (Tibetan) The two meanings of this root in Tibetan and Songhay reflect a common African
metaphor. Many African languages have words with these dual semantics of “testicle, egg”.
See Skinner x, 178, 272. This association does not exist in English, but it is well-known to speakers of Spanish.
113
A.26.4 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Semitic S.Khoisan-

S. Chinese-Kejia Bole / Rendille Proto-form |Xam
[Hakka] Tangale- *ukkahó *ka(w)-hil- !k’aú:i
(Lau Chunfat) gau1 Karekare “eggs” “egg” “egg”
(Bao’an) gáwd’yá Pillinger 283 Starostin, Bleek
kau1 “testicle, “testicle” S. Semitic 1956 467
testis” Jungraith- Etymology Starostin, G.
Hakka Dict. mayr 1994 2012 24
v.2 322
A.26.5 S.Khoisan-
TB-Chin-Lushai ǂKhomani-
tui “egg” Nǀuu ǂui
TB-Jingpho “egg”
[Kachin] S.Khoisan-
məthwi “egg” ǂKhomani
Proto-TB ǂwi
*twey / *dwey “ostrich
“egg” egg”
2012 24
A.26.6 E. Cushitic- W. Semitic- Proto-S.
TB-S. Loloish-Bisu Saho Ethiopian- Khoisan
ʔaŋ-ʔu uṇkọkọho Gurage *‖gu
“egg” “egg” ənkula /. “egg”
Matisoff 2003 Militarev, A. ənkura Starostin, G.
109, 522 Saho-Afar “egg” 2008 379
Etymology Skinner
178
A.26.7 S.Khoisan-
TB-Written |Proto-Kwi
Burmese ʔu’ “egg” *ǂ(g)u
Matisoff 2003 180 “egg”
Proto-Lolo-Burmese, S.Khoisan-
TB-Nusu (Bijiang) |Proto-Taa
*ʔu “egg” *ǂgu
Proto-Tibeto- “egg”
Burman *ʔu “egg”
Starostin, G.
Matisoff 2003 199
2003 15
A.26.3 N. Chinese-MSC gãowán “testis, testicle”
< W. Chadic-Bole / Tangale- Karekare gáwd’yá “testicle” /
S.Khoisan-!Koo !gú-aŋ “egg”
A.26.6 TB-Written Burmese ʔu’ “egg” /
Proto-Lolo-Burmese, TB-Nusu ʔu “egg”
< Proto-S. Khoisan *‖gu “egg”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma !gú-aŋ ~ ‖gu “egg” “testicle”
A.26.1 TB-Tibetan
cagoŋ “bird egg, chicken egg” Goldstein 729 cha “bird, fowl”
bugoŋ “egg of an insect” bu “insect” Goldstein 762
114
A.26.4 TB-Lolo-Burmese-Maru au “egg” Matisoff 2003 180

A.26.7
TB-C. Loloish-Lisu hu “egg” Matisoff 2003 57
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu u “egg” Matisoff 2003 57
A.26.1 W. Chadic- Gwandara (Cancara) choŋgòŋ (Gitata) šəŋgwoŋ “testicles”
Matsushita 1974 #36 34
Highland E. Cushitic-Hadiya (Gudella) k’unk’a “egg” Militarev / Stolbova
E. Chadic- Lele gúnjùló “testicles” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 323
NS-Maha, Fadidja kombu “egg” Greenberg 1966 99
NS-Nuer tuŋ “egg” Huffman 47
NS-Anywa [Anyuak] tɔ‫כ‬ŋɔ̀ “egg” Reh 78, 99
A.26.2
W. Chadic- Gwandara (Newman) kwōyī “testicles” “egg, testicles” Skinner 178
W. Chadic- Hausa gōlō “testicles” Newman, R. 1990 274 Newman, P. 2007 75
E. Cushitic-Afar gələlō “egg” Militarev, A. Saho-Afar Etymology
E. Chadic- Migama gòlìlè “testicle” Jungraithmayr / Adams 87 Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 323
E. Chadic- Ndam gòy “testicle” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 323
A.26.4
N. Cushitic- Beja [Bedawi] kwahi “egg” Skinner 178
E. Chadic- Zumu kwáli “egg” Greenberg 1966 56
NS-Kanuri ngə́wúl “egg” Cyffer 1990 137 ngə́wə́l “egg” Hutchison 82
A.26.5 S. Khoisan-|Auni !úin “ostrich egg” Starostin, G. 2003 15
A.26.6
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic ənkulal “egg” Leslau 1976 136
Proto-N. Khoisan *!nu “egg” Starostin, G. 2003 15
N. Khoisan-!O!Kung !nu “egg”;
N. Khoisan - Zuǀ’hoan !nu “egg” Starostin, G. 2003 15
↓↓
A.27 AA– Chadic AA –Cushitic AA-Sem. NS Khoisan
A.27.1 Proto-Chadic Proto-Omotic Proto- NS-Sungor Khoisan-
TB-Tibetan *isi *šiy- “feces” Semitic- iši Proto-
lchi-ba “dung “excrement” Militarev, A. *ši’ +at- “excre- Hadza
(esp. of cattle)” Newman, P. Omotic Etymology “feces” ment” *c̟I
Jaschke 149 1977 25 2005 Skinner Greenberg “excre-
cisə “excrement” E. Chadic- Proto- N. Omotic 140 1966 99 ments”
Goldstein 693 Sokoro *ši “dung” Starostin,
S. Chinese-Kejia issi Omotic- Janjero, G. 2006-
[Hakka] (MacIver) “feces” Ometo šiya 2008
3 3
si / shi “feces”
“
excrement, dung” Skinner 140
Hakka Dict.
A.27.2 W. Chadic- Ron Proto-North- NS-Maba
TB-Nung (Bokkos) Omotic Group-
tsi “urine, urinate” shi’ “Notdurft *sh’e / sh’- Kodoi
Matisoff 2003 187 verrichten” “to urinate” ìsîî
TB-Karenic-Pwo, [to relieve Ehret 1995 “urine”
Sgaw shi “urine” nature] #489 268 iisi urinate”
Benedict 136, 148 Jungraithmayr Edgar 358
1970 146
115
A.27.3 W. Chadic- W.
TB-Tibetan Hausa Semitic-
gchi-ba / kāshī “feces” Ethiopian-
gtshid-pa “excrement” Ge’ez
“urinate ” 88 Newman, P. kācse
Jaschke 143-144 2007 110 “feces”
Newman, R. Skinner
1990 87, 94 139
A.27.4 TB-Tibetan E. Cushitic-Gedeo
gtshin “urine” shi’na “urine”
Jaschke 144 Hudson
Benedict 30 161, 260
A. 27.2 N. Chinese-MSC shi “excrement, faeces, dung”
< W. Chadic-Ron shishí “faeces” / Proto-N. Omotic *ši “dung”
A.27.4 TB-Tibetan gchi-ba / gtshid-pa “urinate”
< W. Chadic- Hausa kāshī “excrement”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *ci- “excrement, faeces, dung”
A.27.1
S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) sí “excrement” Chik /Ng Lam 113
N. Chinese-MSC shî “excrement, faeces, dung” Wu, J. 623 “ordure, dung (in comb.)”
Mathews #5784 807
TB-Tibetan gci-wa “to discharge urine” Das 386
C. Chinese-Wu sɿ1 “excrement, dung” Hakka Dict
A.27.2
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu jɨ̂ “excrement” Matisoff 2003189
Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] si3 / shi3 “excrement, dung” Hakka Dict.
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ts(y)I “urine” / *ts(y)i = *tshi “urinate” Benedict # 77 30, 208
A.27.3
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] tší ~ dźí “urinate” Matisoff 2003 187, 454
TB-Written Burmese chɨ̂ “urine” Matisoff 2003 187.
Extended African /AA language word family:
A.27.1
NS-Bulala isi “excrement” Greenberg 120
W. Chadic- Ron (Bokkos) shishí “feces” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 128-129
C. Chadic-Gude šid’a “contents of intestine” Skinner 140
NS-Bongo iši “excrement” Greenberg 1966 120
Khoisan-Hadza hiciya “excrements” Greenberg 1966 77
W. Chadic-Bauci group- Geji ʔìšì “feces” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 128-129
C. Chadic-Zime Batna ši “dirt” Militarev / Stolbova
E. Cushitic- Sidamo ç’ilo “human excrement” Gasparini 58
A.27.2
W. Chadic-Bole-Tangale Group- Karekare ishe “excrement” Newman, P. 1977 25
N. Bauci group- Kariya tsípír “urine” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 334
E. Chadic- Jegu shilwu “defecate” ish “feces” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 129
W. Chadic- Karekare išè “feces” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 128
88
Note-A.27.3 (TB-Tibetan) On TB initial g- see Note- A.7b.1-2, sets A.20a.1-2, H.24e.1.and Chapter 10 Section
10.3.2.3-4
116
C. Chadic- Bura njikinií “urinate” Dictionary of Bura

E. Cushitic- Hadiyya c’iro “excrement” Hudson 59
E. Cushitic- Sidamo çila “to evacuate one’s bowels” Gasparini 57
S. Khoisan-ǀXam tsai “to excrete” Greenberg 1966 77.
E. Chadic–Dangaleat [Dangla] sipe “urinate” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 334
A.27.3
W. Chadic- Gwandara kwaaši “feces” Matsushita 1974 #54 37 Skinner 140
E. Chadic-Krio kusi “intestins, excrément” (Fr). Skinner 140
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Ge’ez kwāsha “defecate” Skinner 139
A.27.4
E. Cushitic-Gedeo shi’n “urinate” Hudson 161, 260
E. Cushitic- Burji sinʔ-a “urine” Sasse 1982 166
A.27.2 Altaic-Turkic-Turkish,Uzbek, Kyrghyz, Oyrat, Nogai, Balkar, Karaim, Kumyk sij- “urinate”
“excrement” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology http://starling.rinet.ru./c
Hmong-Mien-Hmong chiv “manure, fertilizer” Heimbach 24
↓↓
A. 28 AAc – Chadic AA-Cush. AA-Sem. NS NC
A.28.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Hausa, E. Cushitic-Afar Semitic- Kanuri
dára / dár Gwandara daráge “water[ed] Written fe mádára-
“buttermilk” madařā “milk” down milk” Arabic be “milk
Jaschke 247 Newman, P. 2007 darágu “thinning darr cow”
Goldstein 58 143 down milk with “milk” Barth 188
[Disyllabic corresp.] “fresh milk” water” Wehr 318 fe “cow”
tara “buttermilk” Skinner 191 Parker / Hayward
Goldstein 523 Matsushita 1972 77 81
A. 28.1 TB-Tibetan dára / dár “buttermilk”
< W. Chadic- Hausa, Gwandara madařaa “milk (cow’s milk)” / Semitic-Written Arabic darr
“milk”
Approximate Tibetan etymon: *dara / *dar “milk”
A.28.1 TB-Tibetan dára “buttermilk” dár-ba “fresh buttermilk” Jaschke 247, 251
A.28.1 E. Cushitic-Somali ḑarārrmāl “one who milks during the day” Skinner 191 malin “day.”
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) darr “to be productive, give milk abundantly” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 156
E. Chadic-Dangaleat [Dangla] d’ààrè “se gonfler de lait (seins)” Fédry 204 Skinner 191
NS-Songhay (Koroboro) durumdurum “mixture of fresh and curdled milk” Heath v.3 97
E. Cushitic-Rendille ‘dambar “colostrum, first milk produced by mother (human or animal) after
giving birth”
E. Cushitic-Oromo ’dama “water removed from coagulated milk” “buttermilk, whey”
dama-ti “latticello, siero di burro” [curds, whey]
A.28.1 IE-Sanskrit dharaghosa “(milk) cooled after having been milked” dharosna “warm from the
cow (milk)” kadara “coagulated milk” taruNadadhi “coagulated milk five days old”
kadambara “the surface or skim of coagulated milk, sour cream” [Disyllabic corresp.]
kadambarIbIja “any cause of fermentation, ferment, yeast” Cologne Lexicon
See also Supplementary Table 2 A.28.1.
↓↓
117
ST Languages African/AA languages-Close correspondences

A.29 AA-Chadic AA –Cush. AA-Semitic NS Khoisan
A.29.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Hausa Egyptian
tsag-tsag / (Gobir dial.) tchakitcha
tsa-ga-‘bu / matsattsagi “gnat,
ča-ga-bu “grasshopper” “a variety of midge”
Jaschke 153, 442 grasshopper” Budge
89
ča-ga-pa “locust” Matsushita 1993 168 v.2 900
“grasshopper” Das 402 W. Chadic-Hausa
[Disyllabic corresp.] (Hadejia) zagō
Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] “a variety of large
tsa5 / tsak7 ~ za5 / white ant”
zak7 “grasshopper, Matsushita 1993 223
locust” Hakka Dict. Skinner 294
A.29.2 W. Chadic-Cip N. Khoisan-
S. Chinese-Yuè nja “termite” !Kung
(Cantonese) W. Chadic-Goemai jɔā jɔā
ja “locust, grasshopper”[Ankwe] n. “fly”
Chik /. Ng 401 nža “termite” Ruhlen 1994
Skinner 294 #279 53
A.29.3 N. Chinese-MSC NS-Anywa N.. Khoisan-
zâo “flea” cwáarrò ‖Kh’au-‖e
Wu, J. 867 “bedbug” žwažwa
Manser part 1 166 Reh 18, 90 “fly” n.
Middle Chinese Ruhlen 1994
tsawX “flea” #279 53
Sagart 1999 99
A.29.4 W. Chadic-Hausa Cushitic-
TB-Proto-Lolo- tsando “tsetse fly, flea Awngi
Burmese, Burmese species” Skinner 268 tsəntsa
*san “louse” k’udan tsando “fly”
Benedict 15 “tsetse fly” Skinner
Proto-Karen Newman / Ma 269
*sən “louse” 1979 123
Matisoff 2003 390 tsanyàa “cricket”
Newman, 2007 205
“cricket species”
Skinner 268-269
A.29.5 TB-Gyarung C. Chadic-Mada Proto- Semitic-
sar “louse” Benedict 84 ʒara Highland Hebrew
Matisoff 390 “cricket” E. Cushitic tsartsar n.
Proto-TB *sar ~ *śar Stolbova, Olga *z-r- “cricket”
“louse” C. Chadic Etymology “locust” Baltsan
Benedict 207, 84 Skinner 435
*s(y)ar “louse” 269
Matisoff 2003
390, 402, 613
89
Note- A.29.1 (Chadic) In large sections of the African savanna, winged termites similar in size to locusts
swarm at certain seasons. Locusts also swarm. Both these species are used as food and whole populations go out to
catch them when they are flying. (Personal observation).
118
A.29.6 TB-Deng C. Chadic-Higi Kamale

sal “louse” dzale
Matisoff 2003 “locust”
261 390 Skinner 269
A. 29.1 TB-Tibetan tsag “grasshopper”
< W. Chadic-Hausa zago “termite”
A. 29.2 N. Chinese-MSC zhà “grasshopper”
< W. Chadic-Goemai nža “termite”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *dza / nža- ~ zag “locust” “termite”
Extended Sino-Tibetan Word family:
A.29.2
N. Chinese-MSC màzha n. “locust” Wu, J. 454 “grasshopper” Wang, F. 327
zhàmêng “grasshopper” Wu, J. 872
A.29.3 S. Chinese-Min (Xiamen) ka-tsau “flea” Sagart 1999 99, 106
On k- prefixes see Chapter 10 secton 10.3.2 and sets A.6c.1, A.7b.1, A.20 a.2 and H.34a.1-2.
A.29.1
W. Chadic-Hausa (Hadejia) zagiyo “large termite” Skinner 294
W. Chadic-Dwot njak “termite” Skinner 294
A.29.2 C. Chadic-Lamang čáčá “louse” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology
A.29.3 N. Khoisan- !O -!Kung dzwadzwa “fly” n. Ruhlen 1994 #279 53
W. Chadic-Hausa k’wāro “insect” Skinner 180
C. Khoisan-Naro |garuba “wasp” Ruhlen 1994 #613 67
A.29.4
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) zanbuur “wasp, hornet” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 206
C. Chadic-Gude dzangərəla “termite species” Skinner 294
A.29.5
Semitic-Arabic
a‫ح‬šara “insect, bug” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 103
s̟urs̟ur s̟aras̟ur pl. “cricket, cockroach” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic pt. 2 262
ħaʃara (IPA) “insect” Merriam-Webster Arabic 77
C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur jaray “criquet (devastateur del recoltes)” [cricket (destroyer of harvests)]
Skinner 269
A.29.1
Altaic-Turkic-Khakassian saɣirti “locust, grasshopper” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Yakut saxsirɣa “fly” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
IE-Sanskrit zaka “a kind of fly” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Old Indian maśaka “mosquito, gnat” makśa “fly, bee”
Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 85
A.29.2 IE-Bengali mɔsha “mosquito” Thompson 71, 112
A.29.5
IE- Hindi macchar “mosquito” Scudiere 102
Proto-Altaic sarču “locust, dragonfly”
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *čačaraku “locust”
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *čarča- “locust”
Altaic-Mongolian-Buriat *sarsa “locust” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Turkic saričga “locust”
Turkic-Khakassian sarisxa “a kind of dragonfly”
Altaic-Turkic-Oyrat sariška- “locust” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology http://starling.rinet.ru./c
119
IE- Sanskrit zarabha “a grasshopper” “a locust” sArikAmuka “insect” KSarakIta “a kind of

insect” caraka “a cockroach” saragh “(of unknown derivation) a bee”
A.29.6 IE- Sanskrit zalabha “a grasshopper” “a locust” jhala “a cricket”
Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 A.30.1,4
↓↓
A.30 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA- AA- NS Niger-Congo
Cush. Sem.
A.30.1 C. Chadic-Wamdiu, Hildi N. Khoisan-!Kung
S. Chinese-Yuè *(a)ga’i “locust” Skinner 97 ‖k’am / kari “ant”
(Cantonese) W. Chadic- Hausa gàrā f. C. Khoisan-
ngáih “ant” “termite(s)” Newman, P. 1977 70 ‖Kh’au-‖’e
Kwan 19 “ant, white ant, termite” |�� |�ú
ĩ “ant”
baahkngáih Skinner 7790 Ruhlen 1994 #127 47
“termite” Proto-Chadic *gəɬa “termite” NC-Gbaya gāyā
Kwan 527 Newman, P. 1977 #129 32 “termite species”
baahk “white” Skinner 77 Skinner 77
A.30.1 S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) ngáih “ant”
< Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e |�� |�ú ĩ “ant” / NC-Gbaya gāyā “termite species”
Approximate Yue (Cantonese) etymon: ǀgai “ant, termite”
A.30.1
W. Chadic- Ron (Bokkos) ngal “termite” Newman, P. 1977 32
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] galgal “male termite, biting white ant” Taylor 62
W. Chadic- Gwandara gàra “termite” Matsushita 1972 42
↓↓
A.31 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA – AA- NS NC
Cush. Sem.
A.31.1 W. Chadic–S. Bauci- Buli Egyptian
TB-Tibetan bare / bərè “monkey” nfri
spre C. Chadic–Gisiga, Mandara Group- “monkey”
“monkey in general” Wandala vre “monkey” Militarev,
Jaschke 337 C. Chadic-Mbara bfrè “monkey” A.
Das 812 91 Stolbova, Olga Afro-Asiatic
C. Chadic Etymology 2006 Etymology
C. Chadic-Gidar brìá / bírya
“monkey” Blench 2007 48
A.31.2 TB-Tibetan E. Chadic– Masa
sprá “monkey” fira “monkey” Stolbova, Olga
Jaschke 335 C. Chadic Etymology 2006
“species of monkey” vííra / ví:irá “monkey”
Das 809 Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 237
90
Note- A.30.1 (Hausa) A shift from the Chadic -ar / -al finals to -i / -ai finals as in C. Chadic-Wamdiu is
typical . Newman, P. 2000 227. The same shift appears to occur between North and Central Khoisan. For Hausa
see notes A.16.1 Chadic-Hausa Extended, B.9.1-2 and H.22.1-2 (Chadic.).
91
Note- A.31.1-2 (Tibetan) On the *s- prefix “for animals” See notes A.1a.1, A.9a.1 above and summary in
Chapter 10 section 10.3.3.
120

A. 31.1 TB-Tibetan spre “monkey”
< W. Chadic –S. Bauci- Buli bare / bərè “monkey”
Approximate Tibetan etymon: * bərè “monkey”
A.31.1 W. Chadic–Hausa bírìì “monkey” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 236 Skinner 22
bírìì bírai pl. “monkey Kraft 385
W. Chadic–Gwandara (Karshi, Cancara, Toni) biri “monkey” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 236,
Skinner 22
W. Chadic–Dyarim bùrì “patas monkey” Blench 2007 48
W. Chadic–S. Bauci-Zaar vùrì “monkey” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 236
A.31.2
W. Chadic –Ron (Fyer) fììr “monkey” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 236-237
Proto-Afro-Asiatic (Orel/Stolbova 1995) *fìr- “monkey” Skinner 22
C. Chadic–Bacama bura:me / bùrámé “monkey” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 237
C. Chadic–Nzangi bürā / bùrāmé / bùrámé “monkey” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 237
↓↓
A.32 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA – AA- Nilo- NC
Cush. Sem. Sah.
Swadesh “horn” C. Chadic- Ngweshe
A.32.1 drú
TB-Tibetan ru “horn” “horn”
Jaschke 531 Jungraithmayr 1994
rudur v. 2 193
“horn (of an animal)”
Goldstein 1043
TB-Bodo/Garo-Digaro
ru / ro
“horn”
Benedict 113
A.32.2 C. Chadic-Guduf
TB-Tibetan dráwà “horn”
rwa “horn” C. Chadic-Dghwede
Jaschke 531 dràwá /
Proto-Tibeto-Burman dráwà
*rwat “horn” “horn”
Benedict 206 Jungraithmayr 1994
ST-Protoform v. 2 19392
*rua(k-)
“horn”
92
Note- A.32.2 (Chadic) Jungraithmayr classifies this as a D root *drm ”horn”. Chadic D grade roots are often
borrowings from outside AA. The form is found only in Central Chadic (Mandara) which has borrowed heavily
from other language families. The evdence of this table shows wider attestation in Chadic of a *drú ~ *də́r-
Chadic-proto-form
The final -m is not attested in the Chadic forms attested above which match the closest TB attestations in other
respects. On the other hand, a nasal final –ŋ is present throughout TB as shown in the Extended section and in
Matisoff’s selection of the Proto-TB root as *ruŋ “horn, corner”. This suggests that the TB variants with final -n
121
A.32.3 C. Chadic-Glavda
TB-Nung də́rawà
dəri “horn” “Horn”
Benedict 115 93 Rapp / Benzing 29
TB-Tibetan Jungraithmayr 1994
ga-dor / v.2 193
gwa-dor also go-dor C. Chadic- Muktele
“the tender growth of fresh horn in diráù “horn”
the three animals, rhinoceros, stag, Jungraithmayr 1994
and antelope” v.2 193
Das 204 C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur
rudur dəram
“horn (of an animal)” “horn”
Goldstein 1043 Stolbova, Olga
C. Chadic Etymology 2006
Base correspondences for positingetyma:
A.32.1
TB-Tibetan ru “horn”
< C. Chadic- Ngweshe drú “horn”
A. 32.3 TB-Tibetan ru-dur / ga-dor “horn” “fresh horn”
< C. Chadic- Glavda də́rawà “horn”
Approximate Tibetan etymon: *drú ~ *də́r- “horn (of animal)”
A.32.1
TB-Tibetan ruleb “flat horn” Goldstein 1043 leb “flat” ru’dál “a single horn”
Jaschke 275
TB- Kanauri rud “horn” Benedict 113
TB-Kiranti-Vayu, Bahing ruŋ “horn, corner” Matisoff 2003 145
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] ruŋ ~ ǹ-rǔŋ “horn” Matisoff 2003 145
TB-Lepcha ăróŋ “horn, corner” Matisoff 2003 145, 514
TB-Naga-Tangsa- Moshang əruŋ “horn, corner” Matisoff 2003 514
TB-Tsangla wa-roŋ “horn” wa “cow”
A.32.3 TB-Nung riŋ “horn” Matisoff 2003 496
C. Chadic- Wandala (Mandara) də́rrma “horn” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 193
A.32.3 Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho, Mundari
di’riŋ / di’riɲ “horn”
Kobayashi Tables 1, 2 #68 2, 8
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali
de’reɲ / de’re:ɲ / ‘diriɲ / di’riɲ “horn” Kobayashi Table 3 #68 14
↓↓
are derived from A.32.3 Central Chadic -m final morphenes.

93
Note- A.32.3 (TB-Nung) Benedict and Matisoff consider the initial d- to be a prefix. Benedict 115, Matisoff
2003 145. However the A.33.3 C. Chadic forms indicate that any d- initial is a contraction of a first radical də́r-
present in də́rawà etc.
Within Tibeto-Burman several variants have an initial g- e.g. Dimasa groŋ for which Matisoff constructs a
variant PTB root *g-ruŋ / *gruŋ. Matisoff 2003 145
122

A.33.1 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA-Cush. AA- NS Khoisan
Sem.
Swadesh “horn” W. Chadic- Hausa
A.33.1 TB-S. Loloish-Bisu k’àhō n. m.
ʔaŋ-khjáw “horn” [pronunciation
TB-S. Loloish-Phunoi kyàho] “horn (of
ʔã-cháu “horn” animal)” “horn for
Matisoff 2003 109 blowing”
N. Chinese-MSC Kraft 352, 382
jiâo “horn” “corner” “horn” Newman, P.
“angle” Wu J. 340 2007 125
Skinner 16694
A.33.2 Proto-N.Khoisan.
TB-C. Loloish-Sani (Nyi) *!khú “horn”
kɯ “horn” N.Khoisan-
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu Zul’hoan !khú
kɔ “horn” “horn” Starostin, G.
Matisoff 2003 182 2003 20
A.33.3 Omotic-
Proto-Tibeto-Burman Mocha
*kruw “horn” qáro
Benedict 113 “horn”
*krəw “horn” Ehret
Matisoff 2003 480 1995
#424 238
A.33.1 TB-S. Loloish-Bisu ʔaŋ-khjáw “horn”
< W. Chadic- Hausa k’àhō n. m. “horn”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon: * k’àhō n. m. “horn”
A.33.1 N. Chinese-MSC chio2 “a horn, a corner, an angle” Mathews #1174 167
xījiâo “rhinocerus horn” DeFrancis 1059 jiâoluò “corner, nook” Wu, J. 340
94
Note A.33.1 (Chadic-Hausa) “The fact is that the velars k, g, k’ undergo regular palatalization before front
vowels.---Although scholars have known this for some time, the change has tended to be neglected because the
palatalization of velars, unlike the palatalization of alveolars, is not reflected in orthography or in standard linguistic
transcription [which in Hausa is] ƙ” [transcribed in the present study as k’] Newman, P. 2000 416. Hence an accurate
transcription of k’àhō is k’yaho. The TB-S. Loloish-Bisu ʔaŋ-khjáw “horn” suggests that the proto root was also a
preglottalization (transcribed as ʔâ) before the k- plus a subsequent palatalization. The other A.33.1 ST
correspondences also have ejective initials, i.e. ch- and ji- (IPA ç and ʝ.), although they are palatalized rather than
glottalized. See also similar contrasting initials such as C.8a.3 (Hausa),) Whether or not the Hausa form contains an
initial plosive glottal or not, there is close correspondence between the two morphemes. Norman includes palatalization
of velars before i as one of the features which distinguishes the northern, e.g. Mandarin, and central dialects of Chinese
from the southern ones, e.g. Hakka , Cantonese and Min. Norman 1988a 182. See also Chapter 9 section 9.8. Alao note
1
the palatal / non-palatal contrast between B.32.3 MSC chiāo “glue, gum” ↔ B.32.1 Cantonese gàau / Hakka kau /
“glue, gum” ; F.6b.2 MSC jiāo “suburbs, outskirts” ↔ D.3c.1-2 Cantonese gàau “suburbs of a city” ; E.7b.2 N.
Chinese-MSC (WG) ch’iào / ts’iào “handsome, beautiful” ↔ E.7b.4 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gáau “handsome,
attractive” See also Note A.13b.3 above and sets E.5c.2, E.7b.2, F.7a.6 and H.16.1-2.
123

A.33.1 E. Chadic-Krio gaw “horn” Skinner 166
E. Chadic-Kera gàw “horn” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 193
N.Khoisan-ǂHoan !ho “horn” Starostin, G. 2003 20
W. Chadic-Ron (Kulere) gàl-aw / ngaal-àw “horn” Jungraithmayr 1970 352
W. Chadic-Ron (Sha) gyílu, gyíluwâw pl. “horn” Jungraithmayr 1970 285
A.33.2
N.Khoisan-‖Au‖en !ú “horn” Starostin, G. 2003 20
Khoisan-#Hoan !o “horn” Starostin, G. 2003 20
W. Chadic- Ron (Sha) gyílu, gyíluwâw pl. “horn” Jungraithmayr 1970 285
A.33.3 Omotic-Gonga k’ar- “horn” Ehret 1995 #424 238
A.33.2 South Daic-Lao kow4 sat3 “horn” Marcus 105
A.33.3
Proto-IE *kera(w) / *k’ru “horn”
IE-Hittite karawar “horn” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology
↓↓
A.34 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA –Cush. AA- NS NC
Sem.
A.34.1 TB-Tibetan W.Chadic- Hausa E. Cushitic- C. Khoisan-Tati
dzo “to cook meat” sōyàa vg.1 vt. Somali čoo
Goldstein 109 “fry in oil (anything sol- “bake”
TB-Bodo / Garo- except fried cakes)” “to grill, “roast”
Garo so sōyē m. “pieces of fried toast” Ruhlen 1994 48, 61
“boil, bake” meat” Newman, P. 2007 Muka-
Matisoff 2003 224 188 sūyàa n. sōyàa vn. rovsky 133
TB-Jingpho “frying, fried meat”
[Kachin] dźù Newman, P. 2000 113,
“boil, bake” 715 “pieces of fried meat”
Matisoff 2003 224 Newman / Ma 1979 113
A.34.2 E. Chadic- Masa Group- N. Khoisan-‖Kh’aue
TB-Chin-Lushai Lame tsu s’o / šou “roast”
śou “griller sur les braises” N. Khoisan-!Kung
“boil, bake” W. Chadic-Pelci sou / sau “roast”
Benedict 63 tsuru “cook” Ruhlen 1994 61
Matisoff 2003 224 Skinner 259 NC-N. Mande-
Written Burmese Proto-Chadic Soninke soro
chu “boil, bake” *surə “roast, fry” “cook, prepare food”
Matisoff 2003 224 Newman, P. 2000 227 95 Mukarovsky 132
A.34.1
TB-Chin-Lushai [Mizo] śou “boil, bake”
< W.Chadic- Hausa sūyàa n. sōyàa vn. “frying, fried meat” / N. Khoisan-‖Kh’aue,
N. Khoisan-!Kung s’o / šou ~ C. Khoisan-Tati čoo “roast”
Approximate Tibetan etymon: *sōyàa “frying, fried meat” ~ šou “roast”
95
Note- A.34.2 (Proto-Chadic) The variance between the A. 34.2 Proto-Chadic *surə and A. 34.1 Hausa sōyàa
/ suyàa is the result of a regular sound change of non-initial *-r to *y/i in Chadic “a very early change”. See
Newman, P. 2000 227. Other instances are found in notes A. 16.1 (Hausa-Extended), A.30.1 (Hausa), B.9.1-2
and H.22.2 (E. Chadic- Kabalai)
124

A.34.1
Proto-TB *tsyow “cook, boil, bake” Matisoff 2003 34, 223-224, 227
tsóba “fat, greasy” Jaschke 451 TB-Tibetan tsōbo / tsōwa “foods that are very greasy”
Goldstein 885 [Disyllabic corresp.]
Old Chinese *t’io “boil, cook” Karlgren GSR 45m Matsoff 2003 227
A.34.1
C. Chadic-Gisiga sòl “to roast” Mukarovsky 133
E. Chadic- Mokulu sòríyè “fry” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 154
W. Chadic-Hausa toyā vt. “fry (cakes in oil) “heat up oil or butter” 96
tuyā, tooye-tooye vn. “various kinds of fried cakes” pl. Newman, P. 2007 203
tuyā “deep frying” Newman, P. 2000 715
sòoyayyen dànkalìi “potato chips” [lit. “fried potatoes] Newman, R. 1990 41 dankali “potato”
A.34.2
C. Chadic-Gude sərə “roast, fry”
C. Chadic-Gaanda sùra-nʒi “fry”
Stolbova, Olga Central Chadic Etymology See also B.11c.3.
W.Chadic- Hausa sūyàa vt. “fry (cook with oil”) Skinner 235
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) nšuwa “to be broiled, roasted” See also B.11c.4.
↓↓
A.35.1 Afro-Asiatic – AA –Cush. AA- NS NC
Chadic Sem.
A.35.1 Proto-W. Chadic E. Anywa
TB-Tibetan *̣čiy- Cushitic- jíió /
tsi-tsi “mouse” “field rat” Somali jìéy pl.
Jaschke 431 Das 998 Stolbova, Olga jiir “rat, mouse”
dzīdzi “mouse, rat” W. Chadic “mouse, Reh 31, 113
Goldstein 846 Etymology rat”
jhi-tsi “rat” W. Chadic- Hausa Awde
(colloquial Central Tibet) tsiyo 1999 36
Jaschke 376 “rat species”
S. Chinese-Min Skinner 274
chhí “mouse, rat”
Amoy-English Dict. 86
A.35.2 C. Chadic- Maba Group-
TB-Tibetan Mandara Maba
rtsig-ge (Wandala) jík
“a mouse” jigale “rat” “rat, mouse”
Das 1010 Edgar 188 Edgar 188
dzīgi “mouse, rat” C. Chadic- Bura
Goldstein 846 kutsika
[Disyllabic corresp.] “bush rat”
Dictionary of
Bura
96
Note- A.34.1 Extended (Hausa) W.Chadic- Hausa has the variant forms sóóyàa / tóóyàà “fry”.
Jungraithmayr grades the variant Hausa tōyàa form as probably within the A group of reflexes (i.e. present in all
Chadic sub-groups and therefore primarily an AA form). Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 154.
125
A.35.3 TB-Tibetan Kanuri jílwa

ciwə “marmot” “mouse, rat” “rat, mouse”
Goldstein 706, 734 Cyffer 1990 71
A.35.2 TB-Tibetan rtsig-ge “a mouse”, dzīgi “mouse, rat”
< C. Chadic- Mandara (Wandala) jigale “rat” / NS-Maba Group- Kodoi jîk “rat, mouse”
Approximate Tibetan etymon: *dzīgi “mouse, rat”
A.35.1 TB-Tibetan tsi chung “shrew” Jaschke 431 (chung “small”) sai-tsi-tsi “mole”
Jaschke 431 cī “rat, mouse” Goldstein 734
A.35.3 TB-Proto-Kiranti *jicui “rat” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
A.35.1 E. Cushitic-Somali jíir- “mouse, rat” Mukarovsky 265
A.35.2 NS-Maba Group- Kodoi jîk “rat, mouse” Edgar 188
A.35.2 IE-Sanskrit cikka “a mouse” “a musk rat” cikkira “a kind of mouse” cikura “a musk rat”
Cologne Lexicon.
A.35.3 IE-Hindi cūwā “mouse” Scudiere 102 See also Supplementary Table 2 A.35.2
↓↓
Sino-Tibetan African languages-
Languages Close correspondences
A.36 AA-Chadic AA – AA-Semitic NS Khoisan
Cush.
A.36.1 W. Chadic-Hausa Semitic- N.Khoisan-!Kung
TB-Chin-Lushai k’yaurī m. Arabic !�ú�� “locust”
khau “grasshopper” “a thin grasshopper” ɣawɣa S. Khoisan-|Kham
TB-Chin-Thado, Newman, P. 2007 136 “locust !hau
TB-Naga-Tangkhul k’yaushe (Kano) (beginning N. Khoisan-
khau “grasshopper” “a kind of edible to fly)” ‖Kh’au-‖’e
Matisoff 2003 grasshopper” Militarev !hau “locust”
226, 595 Matsushita 1993 287 Stolbova Ruhlen 1994 #376 57
A.36.2 E. Chadic-Maba C. Khoisan-Naro
Middle Chinese Group-Lame gwagwa “wasp”
kwaX “wasp” guā’ā “insecte sp.” Ruhlen 1994
Sagart 1999 51 (Fr.) Skinner 176 #612 67
A. 36.1 TB-Chin-Lushai khau “grasshopper”
< Khoisan-!Kung !�ú �� “locust”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon: *!�ú �� “locust”
A.36.1 Proto-TB *ka:w “grasshopper” Matisoff 2003 226, 595
A.36.1 N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e gáu “wasp” Ruhlen 1994 #612 67
N.Khoisan-!Kung !�ú �!g�� a “wasp” Ruhlen 1994 #612 67
N. Khoisan-|Kham !khou “wasp” Ruhlen 1994 #612 67
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] hōwoure / kō.wōwe “insect” Taylor 86
E. Chadic-Maba Group-Lame kwareo “fly” Skinner 180
W. Chadic-Ngizim gwáará “type of large grasshopper” Schuh 77
W. Chadic-Hausa gwāri “grasshopper” Skinner 97
A.36.2 W. Chadic-Ngizim juwak “fly”n. Schuh 200
126

A.36.1 Hmong-Mien-White Hmong nkawj “wasp” Heimbach 482
/
A.37 AA – Chadic Afro-Asiatic AA- Nilo-Saharan NC
-Cushitic Sem.
A.37.1 Proto-W. Chadic E. Cushitic- Nuer
TB- Garo *kur “dove” Afar kúr
kru Skinner 154 kukkurru “dove”
“dove” E. Chadic- Masa group “dove” Greenberg
Benedict 38 kuruk Parker / 1966 99
TB-Jingpho “turturelle species.” Hayward
[Kachin] khru [turtle dove species] 151-152
“dove” Skinner 154
Benedict 38 W. Chadic-Bole/Tangale
*kurku
“pigeon”
Skinner 154
A.37.2 W. Chadic-Hausa NS-Songhay (Gao)
TB- Meithei aguwa kútú
khu-nu “dove species” “petite tourterelle
“pigeon” Skinner 154 du Senegal
Benedict 185 C. Chadic-Migama (Turtur afer)”
S. Chinese-Yuè gúggū [little turtle dove
(Cantonese) “pigeon” of Senegall
gù Jungraithmayr / Adams Ducroz 165
“a kind of pigeon” 89
Chik / Ng Lam 505 Skinner 154
A.37.2
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *kuw “dove”
< W. Chadic-Hausa aguwa “dove species”
Approximate Tibetan etymon: *aguwa “dove”
A.37.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *kruw = m-k(r)ew “dove” Benedict #118 38, 202
Matisoff 2003 125 596
A.37.2
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu gû “dove” Matisoff 2003 125
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ku1 “a species of pigeon” Hakka Dict.
A.37.1
NS-Anywa [Anuak] ākuurú “pigeon” Reh 116
NS-Kənzi [Kenuzi], Dongola kuru “Turteltaube” [turtle dove] Hoffman 118 Greenberg 1966 99
C. Chadic-Gudu kúrkútò “dove” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic-Etymology
W. Chadic-Dwot *kurkutuk “pigeon” Mukarovsky 147
NS- Merarit okur “dove”
NS- Shilluk akur “dove” Greenberg 1966 99
C. Chadic- Bata group *kurku “dove” Skinner 154
NS-Turkana akuri “dove” Greenberg 1966 99
NS-Bari gure “dove” Greenberg 1966 99
127

A.37.1 Sanskrit
kurava “a kind of dove”
A.37.2 Sanskrit
ghughu “making the sound ‘ghu-ghu’ ” “a pigeon”97
Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2 A.37.1-2
97
Note- A.37.2 (Sanskrit) As the Sanskrit ghughu morpheme suggests, the origin of the ku- morpheme may
well be ultimately based in onomatopoeia. However the West Chadic and Songhay forms account for variant ST
forms including both the Proto-Tibeto-Burman ones, considerably reducing the probablity of any independent
origin of these roots in ST through onomatopoeia.
128
Chapter 2B
Words representing objects in the natural world such as rocks, water, plants, fire etc.
Semantic Domain B word families.
The scope of this section is defined as the broad semantic domain comprising the Sino-Tibetan and
African/AA language words for objects in nature exclusive of animals and humans. As a consequence,
there are more mass nouns than in other sections.
2B Domain statistics
Individual word families = 67 The count is of individual word families including those within a generic
word family.
Large single independent word families
“grass, straw” B.7.1-4
“grain, millet” B.27.1-5
“moon, planet” B.29.1-5
“star, planet” B.30.1-4
Generic word families = 13
“earth” “agricultural field”, “tree, wood, to plant” B.1.a-b
“green, trees, plants, leaf, forest” B.2.a-b
“stone, gravel, sand, clay” B.3.a-d
“a block of stone or wood” “mound, mountain, hill, stone, rock” B.5.a-c
“burn, fire, kindle” “bake, roast” “hot, warm” “hot, spicy, haste, urgent” B.11.a-f
“dry” “dry up, wither” “roast, toast, burn” “hard” “stiff, stiffen” B.12a-c
“blossom, bud, flower” “swell, swelling” B.14.a-d
“water“ (in its various forms), and water-related states such as “flow” “pour”, “boil” B.15.a-f
“rain, water” “passage for water” “valley, hollow place” B.16.a-c
“moisture, dew, steam, wet” B.18a-b
“smoke, mist” B.20.a-b
“flat stone or rock, flat objects” B.22.a-b
“rice” “millet” “beans” B.33a-b
Basic-vocabulary- Swadesh list There are 26 word families which contain one or more sets of ST ↔
African language correspondences which match an English gloss of the 100 word Swadesh list.
10 of these correspondences are found in the generic families listed above.
The section contains 10 tables in which an ST morpheme corresponds closely to an Afro-Asiatic proto-
root. These tables contain 16 correspondence sets in which an ST morpheme corresponds closely to a
Proto-Afro-Asiatic root.
Etymologies
Min etymologies 1
/
129
ST Languages African/AA languages- Close correspondences

B.1a-b AA-Chadic AA – AA- Nilo-Saharan Niger-Congo
Cush. Semitic
B.1a.1 W. Chadic- Ron NC-N.Mande-
TB-Tibetan (Daffo) Vai
zhiŋ / shiŋ shingyil sɛnɛ
“field, ground, soil, “Erde, Boden, Land” “a farm when
arable land, [earth, ground, land] cleared and
cultivation” Jungraithmayr 1970 planted”
Das 1070 221 Mukarovsky
Jaschke 475 W. Chadic – 164
shiŋgə / S. Bauci group- Geji
shiŋga zhing
“agricultural field” “field (farm)”
Goldstein 928 Jungraithmayr
1994 v.2 13498
B.1a.2 C. Chadic-Lame Songhay NC-S.W.
TB-Tibetan şìní “to plant” (Djenne ) Mande-Kpelle
shiŋ deb C. Chadic-Peve siŋgi seŋ
“to plant, şine “to plant” “stick in, “to plant”
to cultivate, C. Chadic- Zime implant” Mukarovsky
to sow” sínè “to plant” Heath 164
Goldstein 928 Mukarovsky v. 2 169
164-165
98
Note- B.1a.1-2 (Chadic, Nilo-Saharan, Mande) 14 Chadic languages attest reflexes of a root which
Jungraithmayr reconstructs as *sn “fields (farm)”. Jungraithmayr v.1 64. 10 of these are W. Chadic languages.
They are the closest correspondences to the Tibetan variants.
Jungnraithmayr considers this to be a relatively recent loan word from Mande into Chadic. Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 64.
However there is much linguistic evidence that the borrowing was in the other direction since Chadic was associated with
Nilo-Saharan in the area of NE Africa where agriculture appeared. (See Note B.9.1 and Chapter 4 section 4.0.1.1. In any
case the seŋ root seems to be relatively old, i.e dating from the extension of agriculture into the north central and
northwestern Sahara around 7000 BCE. (Ehret 2002 66-67, 71 , chapter 4 section 4.0.1.2 and chapter 7 section 7.2.2)
The active verbal concept of “planting ” as in B.1a.2 Songhay siŋgi / siŋow) or Mande-Kpelle seŋ is plausibly
the basis for both B.1a.1 “agricultural field” and B.1b.1 “tree/wood”. This could support postulation of a Nilo-Saharan
or Niger-Congo-Mande origin. However in B.1a.1 (Extended) the NS languages which are not Saharan have semantics
of “sand” whereas the other citations of B.1a.1-2 including the NS-Saharan Songhay attestation are words denoting
agriculture or planting.
The following NS-Masalit form “tree” of B.1b.1 does not imply any agriculture, but suggests that the ultimate root
siŋ- is of Nilo-Saharan origin, while Mande and/or Chadic applied it to cultivated plants. The Songhay form was
possibly borrowed from Chadic during the period of the north central humid Sahara before 5000 BCE.
In the Sahara grains were harvested from wild grasses from about 11000 BCE in northeast Africa. (Ehret 2002
38). Probably due to an increase in rainfall, grain agriculture followed there and in the central Sahara by 8000
BCE. (Ehret 2002 61-62, 66-67). Hence the above TB attestations of the above root would be the result of
migrations out of Egypt at this time or somewhat later. The table is an instance of Chadic correspondences with
NC-Mande languages suggesting that a linguistic border existed between them at some point after the spread of
agriculture in northern Africa beginning about 7000 BCE. See also set B.24.1.
What is significant for the migration hypothesis of ST language origins is that the Sino-Tibetan words for
agriculture in the south central and east Asian regions correspond closely to African language words. See also sets
B.9.1-3, B.27.1-7, B.33a-b, B.35, and F.12c. These have been placed together for discussion in Chapter 7 where
agriculture in Asia is discussed in sections 7.3-5.
130

B.1a.1 TB-Tibetan zhiŋ / shiŋ “field, ground, soil, arable land, cultivation”
< W. Chadic – S. Bauci group- Geji zhing “field (farm)”
Approximate Tibetan etymon: shiŋ- “arable land” “planting”
B.1a.1
TB-Tibetan
gsiŋ-ma “pasture-ground, meadow” Jaschke 589 ;
cīŋ “a unit of area equal to 16.474 acres” Goldstein 359
sə̄shiŋ “arable field, cultivated farmland” Goldstein 1119 ;
shiŋ- sa “ground, soil, arable land” Das 1071 sa “the earth, soil, land” See also B.3c.2 below
N. Chinese-MSC
ch’ing (WG) “a hundred mou, about 15.13 acres” Mathews #1160 163 ;
qîng “a unit of area (= 6,667 hectares)” Wu, J. 556
TB-Tibetan zhiŋ-mkan “a reaper” Jaschke 475 ; shiŋ “farmer” Goldstein 928
B.1a.2
S. Chinese-Min ciêng “plant, sow” Bodman 1987 v.1 196 v.2 127, 199
TB-Tibetan zhiŋ rmo-ba “ to plough a field, to carry on agriculture” Jaschke 475
B.1a.1
W. Chadic –N. Bauci group- Siri zhináwi / shínáwi “fields (farm)” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 134
W. Chadic–N. Bauci group- Mburke shíná “field (farm)” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 134
W. Chadic–N. Bauci group- Pa’a sina / sina “field (farm)” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 134
W. Chadic–N. Bauci group- Kariya shə̂n, sîn “field (farm)” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 134
C. Chadic–Masa sìne “le champ” [a field] Caitucoli 135
W. Chadic–N. Bauci group- Tsagu shínan “field (farm)” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 134
W. Chadic–N. Bauci group- Miya shim “field (farm)” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 134
NS-Moru, Avukaya sînyī “sand” Greenberg 1966 144
NS- Miza sīŋɔ “sand” Greenberg 1966 144
NS-Bagirmi sīŋaka “sand” Greenberg 1966 144
NS- Masai sīnyai “sand” Greenberg 1966 144
B.1a.2
NS-Songhay
(Gao) síŋgòw “planter” [to plant] síŋ-síŋa “planter autour d’une calebasse”
[plant around a gourd] Ducroz 205
(Koyra) sinji / singi vt. “plant, e.g. pole in ground, implant, cram in, stick in”
“transplant (seedlings)” Heath v.1 220
/
Swadesh “tree” Egyptian NS-Maba NC-
B.1b.1 TB-Kiranti-Limbu shen Group- Fulfulde
siŋbon “wood” “a tree” Masalit- [Fulani]
van Driem 1987 511 Budge síŋyí singamru
-Bahing siŋ “wood, tree” v.2 745 / siŋgí “wood for
Matisoff 2003 528 / siŋɛ́ kindling”
TB-Naga-Tangkhul-Vayu “tree, Taylor
siŋ “wood” wood 175
Benedict 1972 55 material”
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] Edgar
(MacIver, Lau Chunfat) 369-370
sin1 / xīn1 “fuel, firewood”
Hakka Dict.
131
B.1b.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Cushitic-

shiŋ “tree, wood” Ron (Sha) Oromo
“a piece of wood, a log” cín “Busch, inc’ínni n.
Jaschke 558 Gebusch” “small
“tree” “timber” “firewood” [bush, bush”
Das 873 Norman 13 thicket] Gragg 225
çiŋ “a tree” Das 1233 Jungraithmayr Skinner
TB-Kanauri, Magari, Nung 1970 283 114
śiŋ “tree, wood” C. Chadic– Proto-Afro-
Benedict 1972 55 Bura Asiatic
TB-Trung dzinka *tsim- /
ciŋ1 “tree, wood” “tree” *tsam-
Starostin, S. ST Etymology tingshing “fruit, seeds,
Old Chinese “tree” foliage,
sjin “tree/wood” moshini plant growth
Norman 13 “tree” in general”
b
sin “firewood” Dictionary of Ehret 1995
Sagart 1999 52 Bura #51 96
#485 266
B.1b.1
TB-Naga-Tangkhul-Vayu , TB-Kiranti-Bahing siŋ “tree, wood”, S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] sin1 /
xīn1 “fuel, firewood” / Old Chinese sjin “tree/wood”
< NS- Maba Group- Masalit síŋyí / siŋgí / siŋɛ́ “tree (generic), wood material”,
B. 1b.2 TB-Tibetan shiŋ “tree, wood” “a piece of wood, a log” “tree” “timber” “made of wood”
< C. Chadic–Bura dzinka “tree” / tingshing “tree”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *shiŋ- “tree, wood” “to plant”
B.1b.1
TB-Proto-Kiranti *siŋ “tree” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu siŋ “firewood” siŋbu “tree, tree trunk” siŋak “large leaf”
Starostin, S. Yamphu Dict.,
TB-Kiranti-Kulung siŋ “firewood” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology,
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *siŋ “tree, wood” Benedict 1972 55, 165, 180
N. Chinese-MSC xīn “firewood, faggot, fuel” Wu, J. 769 DeFrancis 1060
hsīn / sīn (WG) “fuel, firewood” Mathews #2738 407
TB-Kirantii-Limbu sinse “jungle vegetation” Starostin, S. Limbu Dict.
Old Chinese si̭ə̆na “firewood” Karlgren GSR382n Benedict 1972 180 Matisoff 2003 347, 475
TB-Pa-o seŋ “tree” Benedict 1972 142
B.1b.2 TB-Tibetan tshaŋ / tshiŋ “a dense copse or thicket” Das 1020 “wood, grove, copse,
thicket” ; Jaschke 444 dzīshiŋ ; “plants” Goldstein 858 ;
tsēŋdziŋ “a dense grove / thicket / forest” Goldstein 873
ProtoTibeto-Burman *dziŋ1 n. “plant / tree” Matisoff 2003 281
C. Chinese-Wu ʦhiŋ1 “blue, green, black” “green grass” “not ripe” Hakka Dict.
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] tsiŋ “grass, grassy, green” Benedict 1972 80 tsiŋ ~ ketsiŋ “green”
Benedict 108
TB- Nung məshing “green” Benedict 108
N. Chinese-MSC ch’ìng / ts’ing (WG) “green, blue, black” Mathews #1168 164 ;
qīng “blue or green” “green grass, young crops” Wu, J. 551 ; qīngcài “green vegetables”
Wang, F. 378
S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) chìng “green, blue, black” Chik / Ng Lam 486
132

B.1b.1
W. Chadic-Ron (Fyer) yit ‘ŋ̀ kùshiŋ̀ “trockenes Holz” [dry wood] Jungraithmayr 1970 42
NS-Tubu [Teda] šindi “Pfahl” [pole, stake, pile] Lukas 1953 197
Semitic-Akkadian šimāhu “thorny bush” Militarev, A. Semitic Etymology 2006
B.1b.1
Altaic-Mongolian-Khalkha dasinga “board”
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *dašinga “board” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
B.1b.2
IE-Pashto (Pushtu) shin “green, bluish green” Raverty 668
Proto-Turkic simek ”forest, jungle”
Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology http://starling.rinet.ru./c
↓↓
ST Languages African /AA languages-Close correspondences
B.2a-b AA- Chadic AA- AA- NS NC /
Cushitic Sem. Khoisan
Swadesh “green” W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Proto-Khoisan,
B.2a.1 TB-Tibetan Hausa Kembata, Proto-Sandawe
jaŋ “green” Goldstein 402 tsaŋwa Hadiyya Ʒāŋ “green”
N. Chinese-MSC “green” *šānu- Khoisan (Kagaya)
tsāng (WG) “green, the azure Skinner 269 “green” jaang’gau
of the sky” Mathews #6714 984 tsanwā / Skinner “blue, green”
cāng “dark green” tsanwàa 269 Macro-Khoisan
Wu, J. 64 Huang 39 “light green” Etymology
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] Newman, P. Khoisan-Sandawe
1
(Hailu) ts’ang 2007 205 Ʒáŋga “green”
“blue, green, black” Starostin, G.
“not ripe” Hakka Dict. 2003 18
B.2a.1 N. Chinese-MSC tsāng “green, azure” / S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ts’ang1 “blue, green”
< W. Chadic-Hausa tsaŋwa “green” / Proto-Khoisan,Proto-Sandawe Ʒāŋ “green”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *tsàŋ- / Ʒāŋ “tree, forest” “green”
B.2a.1
N. Chinese–MSC chāng “(of the sea) dark blue” Wu, J. 64 shèng “unripe, green”
Wu, J. 610 shēngde “raw” “unripe, green” Manser 361, 397
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian, Dongguan) ts’iang1 (Lau Chunfat) qiang1 / qiang4 “blue,
green, black” “not ripe” Hakka Dict.
TB-Tibetan jaŋ / jəŋgu “green” jaŋgaa “light green color” Goldstein 402 ;
sngo-ljaŋ “bluish-green” Das 374 [compound of B.2b.1 and this root]
S. Chinese-Min câng “brown” câng siek “the colour brown” Bodman 1987 v.2 124
chheN1 “blue, green, black” “raw” “green grass” ”not ripe” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) chèng “green, blue, black” Chik / Ng Lam 486 Kwan 403
chùng “bright green” Chik / Ng Lam 392
sàng “uncooked, raw” Chik / Ng Lam 304
TB-Tibetan ljan-ku / ljan-gu “green” Jaschke 182
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ts’ong1 “green, deep blue, deep green” Hakka Dict.
B.2a.1 N. Khoisan-!’O-!Kung |aŋ “green” Starostin, G. 2003 18
N. Khoisan-!Kung |kang -!’O-!Kung |kãng “green, yellow” Ruhlen 1994 #306 54
133
/
Swadesh “leaf” NS- Maba NC- N.
B.2b.1 Group- Kibet Mande- Bozo
TB-Tibetan sɔŋo sə̂ŋó
sŋo-ló “leaf” “bush”
“the leaf of a plant” Maba [in sense of
sŋo “a root signifying Group- wild growth
blue or green” Kodoi or forest]
“as substance, plant, sɔŋo-ok / Mukarovsky
herb, vegetable, sɔŋoo 181
green” “leaf”
Jaschke 136 Das 374 Edgar 374
B.2b.20 W. Chadic- NS-Maba NC-S.E.
TB-Tibetan Gwandara Group- Aiki Mande-
tshaŋ-tshiŋ (Gitata) sʌŋa Samo
“a dense copse or tsàŋwâ < sɔŋɔ Bangasoko,
thicket” (Karshi, “leaf” Kiembara
“wood, grove, copse, Cancara) Edgar 374 etc.
thicket” Das 1020 càŋwâ kware
tshiŋ “tree” “grass” sááŋgaa
S. Chinese-Min Matsushita “forest,
châng “trees, plants” 1974 #99 45 thicket”
Amoy-English Dict. Mukarovsky
921 181
“shrub, thicket”
Hakka Dict.
cáng “classifier for
trees” Bodman 1987
v.1 232 v.2 124
N. Chinese-MSC
tsāngtsāng
(WG)
“dense foliage”
Mathews #6699 983
B.2b.3 Proto- Egyptian
S. Chinese-Yue Afro-Asiatic sām
(Cantonese) *tsim- / “a plant or
sàm *tsam- flower”
“luxuriant vegetation “fruit, seeds, Budge v. 2
or luxuriant growth of foliage, 645
trees” plant growth Semitic-
Chik / Ng Lam 227 in general” Akkadian
Ehret 1995 šamm-
#485 266 “grass”
Skinner 268
134
Swadesh “tree” W. Chadic- Maba

B.2b.4 Hausa Group-
N. Chinese-MSC sùnk’ūrùu Maba
ts’úng (WG) m. sùŋ-ɔ̀k
“a clump of trees “thick bush, “tree, wood”
“crowded together” uncleared land” Edgar 369
Mathews #6921 1021 Newman, P. sùŋo
S. Chinese-Yuè 2007 190 korkuro
(Cantonese) “dense,
chùhng “a shrub impene-
(plant), thicket” trable
chùng làm forest”
“a dense wood” Edgar 374
Chik / Ng Lam 50 citing
TB-S. Loloish-Bisu Barth 1862
tsɯ‫כ‬ŋ 66
“wood, tree”
Mastisoff 2003 524,
528
N. Chinese-MSC
cóng “clump,
thicket, grove”
Wu. J. 114
Se also B.14c.2
B.2b.5 Egyptian
N. Chinese-MSC shen
sēn “full of trees” “foliage of a
Wu, J. 589 plant”
“wooded” shen,
Merriam-Webster shenn
Chinese 112 “groves,
shēn (WG) gardens”
“luxuriant vegetation, shen-ta
overgrown, dark” “grass,
Mathews #5722 793 herbage”
shēnlín “a kind of
“forest” tree”
Merriam-Webster Budge v.2
Chinese 257 745
Middle Chinese shent
sjen “tree, wood” “brushwood,
Norman 13 bush, thicket”
Old Chinese “acacia”
dzien ~ dz’wen Budge
“grass, herb” v.2 748
Karlgren GSR #432b
Matisoff 2003 449
TB-Burmish-Achang
saŋ31-tseŋ55 n.
“plant, tree”
Matisoff 2003 281
135

B.2b.1 TB-Tibetan sŋo “leaf of a plant”
< NS- Maba Group-Kibet sɔŋo “leaf”
B.2b.4 N. Chinese-MSC ts’ung “a clump of trees”
< Maba Group-Maba sùŋ-ɔ̀k “tree, wood”, sùŋo korkuro “dense, impenetrable forest”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *sŋo “plant n., green” ~ suŋ “tree, forest” “green”
B.2b.1 TB-Tibetan sngo-ljaŋ “bluish-green” Das 374 [compound of this and the B.2a.1 roots]
sngo-sman “a medicinal herb” [compound of F.24.1 and this root]
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ŋow = *(s-)ŋow “white, green, yellow” Benedict 1972 # 296 66, 205
B.2b.2 S. Chinese-Min cáng “classifier for trees” Bodman 1983 71, 149; -1987 v.2 124
N. Chinese-MSC xiàng “rubber tree” xiàngshu “oak tree” Merriam-Webster Chinese 145, 310
TB-Tibetan lchaŋ-ma “willow, salix viminalis, almost the only leaved tree in Tibet” Jaschke 149
jaŋ “a seedling, shoot, sprout” Goldstein 402 Jaschke 181 jaŋma “tree” Goldstein 346
TB-Achang saŋ31-tseŋ55 n. “plant / tree” Matisoff 2003 281
B.2b.4 N. Chinese-MSC cóng “clump, thicket” Manser 79 “a clump of trees” Huang 70
B.2b.5 S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) shenṭesh “orchard, large garden, wood” Budge v.2 749
B.2b.1 NS-Maba Group-Kodoi suŋo-ok / suŋoo “tree, wood” Edgar 370
B.2b.2
W. Chadic-Bole šàgagàa “forest, thicket” Mukarovsky 181 Skinner 224
S. (Ethiopic) Semitic-Amharic ĉakka “woods, forest, jungle” Leslau 1976 240
E. Cushitic-Oromo ĉakka n. “bosco, foresta, selva” [woods, forest, jungle] Borello 73
Proto-Central Chadic *cyaʔ “leaf” Stolbova, Olga Central Chadic Etymology 2006
B.2b.4 NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] sukka “be thick (of bushes, grass, etc.” Taylor 182
B.2b.2 IE-Sanskrit
sanDa “a group of trees or plants, wood, thicket” sAndra “(of unknown derivation) a wood, thicket”
“a heap, cluster” “thick, solid, compact, dense” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Hindi jangal “jungle” Scudiere 86 jangal “wood” n.m Scudiere 243 saghan adj. “dense”
saghanta n.f. “density” Scudiere 330
B.2b3 IE-Sanskrit samUla “having, roots, overgrown, grassy, green, verdant” Cologne Lexicon
B.2b.4 IE-Bengali jɔngol “forest, jungle” n. jɔngli “wild” adj. Thompson 50, 107
See also Supplementary table 2 B.2b.2-4
↓↓
B.3a-d Afro-Asiatic AA- AA – NS Niger-
– Chadic Cushitic Semitic Congo
Swadesh “stone” W. Chadic – Cushitic- NC-
B.3a.1 TB-Tibetan North Bauci Proto-Rift Fulfulde
sēg-ma group *seh̝ [Fulani]
“small stones” *zək’iya “rock” cheke-
Jaschke 575 590 “stone” Skinner tēri
Das 1274, 1308 Skinner 267 271 “gravel”
“gravel” W. Chadic- Taylor
Goldstein 1158 Gwandara 24
S. Chinese-Yuè (Gitata, Koro)
(Cantonese). tsə́kúwa
sehk “stone” “pebble”
sehkjái “gravel” Matsushita
Kwan 208, 507 1974 #198 61
136
jái [diminutive C. Chadic –

particle] E. Bura
See Note D.3c.1-2 Group
*tsəka
“stone”
Skinner 267
B.3a.2 C. Chadic – Semitic- NC-
S. Chinese-Kejia Guduf Arabic (Iraqi) Fulfulde
[Hakka] zaɣazaɣa s̟axar (Fulani)
(Lau Chunfat ) “sand” “rock(s), chaka-
zag7 / Jungraithmayr stone(s)” chēri
(MacIver, Meixian) 1994 v. 2 281 s̟axri “gravel”
tsak7 “sand and gravel W. Chadic- “stony, Taylor
in shallow waters” Hausa rocky” 24
s’ak8 “stone, rock, tsakuwàa Dict. of Iraqi
mineral” “calculus “small stone, Arabic part 2
(as a kidney calculus), gravel” 259
kidney stone” Newman, P.
Hakka Dict. 2007 204
Skinner 267
Bargery 2002
B.3a.3 C. Chadic – Semitic-
TB-Tibetan Bura Arabic (Iraqi)
shāg-ma / hwom- s̟a‫ح‬raaʔ
shāg-ruù shaku “desert”
“small stones or “sandy soil” Dict. of
pebbles, gravel” Dictionary of Iraqi
Goldstein 1093 Bura Arabic
“pebble” Jaschke 556 part 1 53
[Disyllabic corresp.] part 2 258
shág-sa Egyptian
“rocky soil, soil tchā
having lots of pebbles” “desert”
Goldstein 1093 Budge
çag-ma v.2 902
“stone or rock, gravel”
Das 1230
B.3a.4 C. Chadic – West South
TB-Tibetan Wamdiu (Ethiopian) (Ethiopian)
dzago “clay” tsakwab’u Semitic-- Semitic-
dzagaa “mud” Gurage Amharic
“clay used for making Skinner 33 (Čaha, Eža, šäkla
bowls” Gyeto) “clay,
Goldstein 912 šäxra, pottery,
rdza / (Gogot, pot“
za “clay” Soddo) Leslau
Jaschke 467 šäxla “clay” 1976 64,
rdsa “clay or Leslau 1979 439
earthenware” v.3 576
Das 1056
137

B.3a.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sehkjái “gravel” / TB-Tibetan sēg-ma “gravel”
< W. Chadic- Gwandara (Gitata, Koro) tsə‫כ‬kúwa “pebble”
B.3a.2 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] tsak7 “sand and gravel”
< W. Chadic–Hausa tsakuwā “small stone, gravel”
B.3a.4 TB-Tibetan dzago “clay” / dzagaa “clay used for making bowls”
< South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic šäkla “clay, pottery, pot (earthenware container)”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *tsə́k- / *tsak- “pebble, stone” ~ *šäk- “clay, pottery”
B.3a.1
TB-Kiranti-Limbu luŋdzek n. “small stone, pebble” luŋ “stone, rock” van Driem 1987 460
TB-Tibetan do segma “gravel” Goldstein 590 do “stone”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sehkfaai “slab (of stone)” Kwan 483 sehktou “stone”
Matthews / Yip 38 tou “head” See set C.51.2 (S. Chinese-Yue Extended )
B.3a.3 C. Chinese-Wu zaʔ8 “stone, rock, mineral” Hakka Dict.
B.3a.1
C. Chadic–Glavda sə‫כ‬ghə̀la “sand” Jungraithmayr v.2 281 séɣèla “sand” Stolbova, Olga C.Chadic-
Etymology 2006
C. Chadic–Padoko dzegela “rocher” [rock] Skinner 124
C. Chadic-Gaanda čèkwitə “field” :ground” “sand” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic-Etymology 2006
B.3a.2
Proto-Central Chadic *caqwa “field” “ground” “sand” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic-Etymology 2006
C. Chadic–Gude səkwat “small rocky hill” Skinner 267
W. Chadic-Gwandara cékúwa “gravel” Matsushita 1972 30
–(Karshi) cókúwa (Toni) sókúwa “pebble” Matsushita 1974 #198 61
Semitic-Aramaic soʔ “rock used as the base of a building” Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon
B.3a.3
W. Chadic–N. Bauci Group –Tsagu s’akuwe “mountain” Skinner 267
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *c̟�K Vraʔ “sand” Militarev / Stolbova Afroasiatic Etymology 2007
Semitic-Arabic sʕaħra:ʔu “desert” Merriam-Webster Arabic 41
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) s̟axr “rocks, boulders” collective noun Qafisheh 364
Proto-Cushitic (Ehret) *tlaɣwh̟̟- “stone” ; (Dolgopolski) *tl-(k)-h’- “кáменъ, скaлá”
[stone, rock/cliff] Skinner 267
B.3a.4
West (Ethiopian) Semitic-Argobba šäkla “clay” Leslau 1979 v.3 576
West (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic ĉ’əqa “mud, clay, mire” Leslau 1976 238, 409
ĉ’äqayya “be muddy, be covered with mud” Leslau 1976 239
West (Ethiopian) Semitic--Gurage (Čaha, Eža, Gyeto) šäxra, (Gogot, Soddo) šäxla “clay”
Leslau 1979 v.3 576
E. Cushitic-Oromo s̝akla “tutti gli oggeti in cotto (pignatte, tegole, mattoni)” [all earthenware objects,
terra cotta (e.g. pots, tile, brick tile)] Borello 364
B.3a.2
Altaic-Turkic-Azarbaidzhan säki “”stone bench, pedestal”
Altaic-Turkic-Tatar säki ”stone bench, pedestal” English-Turkish Online Dictionary
B.3a.3 IE-Pashto sakhra’h / skhar ”a stone, a rock, a pebble” Raverty 592
IE- Sanskrit zAkvara “sand, gravel” zArkarA “gravel, grit, pebbles” “small stone” “gravelly soil”
jaGgala “arid, sterile desert” sAhasra / sAhasram Cologne Lexicon
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish çakil “sand” English-Turkish Online Dictionary
B.3a.4 IE- Sanskrit cikila / cikalla “mud, mire, a slough” Cologne Lexicon
138
/
Swadesh “stone” Proto-W. Chadic Proto-AA NS- Maba
B.3b.1 *zhígwa “hill, rock” *ciqal- Group-Mimi
TB-Tibetan (Ladaki) Skinner 124 “sand” siki
mchig “the nether W. Chadic-Hausa Milirarev, “sand”
millstone” jìgāwā “sandy Stolbova Edgar 374
Jaschke 164 chi / wasteland” Afro- Greenberg
chigu “millstone, Newman, P. 2007 99 Asiatic 1966 144
grinding stone” C. Chadic – Gude Etymology
Goldstein 379 zhígè “sand” 2007
N. Chinese-MSC Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2
shíku “rock, cave, 280
grotto” Wu, J. 618 C. Chadic–Mandara
S. Chinese-Yue (Wandala)
(Cantonese) šígga “sand”
jīk “gravel and sand” Stolbova, Olga
Chik / Ng Lam 328 C. Chadic-Etymology
B.3b.2 N. Chinese- C. Chadic–Margi Egyptian
MSC shí “stone, shìshwà utshi
rock” Wu, J. 618 “sand” “a kind of
TB-S. Loloish-Lahu Jungraithmayr stone”
šɛ-ši “sand” 1994 v.2 281 Budge
Matisoff 2003 487 v.1 189
note h
B.3b.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jīk “gravel and sand”
< C. Chadic – Gude zhígè “sand” / W. Chadic – Hausa jìgāwā “sandy wasteland”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *jig- “sand” “stone”
B.3b.1
TB-Tibetan tshigu “a large muller or grinding stone” Jaschke 447
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu mi-jɔ‫כ‬k “flint” Matisoff 2003 184 mi “fire” lit. “firestone”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jihksà “quartz sand” Chik / Ng Lam 324 sà “sand”
B.3b.2 N. Chinese-MSC shítóu “stone”
B.3b.1
C.Chadic-Gaanda ĉèkwita “sand” Militarev / Stolbova
E. Chadic-Lele jegli “être impropre a la culture” [unsuitable for agriculture]
njegle “terre infertile” [barren land] Skinner 124
B.3b.2 Egyptian teshi “a kind of stone” Budge v.2 844
NS- Kanuri círa “gravel” Cyffer 1990 27
B.3b.1 IE-Pashto shiga’h ”sand, gravel, small pebbles” shiglana “sandy or gravelly soil”
Raverty 656
IE-Sanskrit sikaTa “sand , gravel” “sandy soil” “gravel or stone”
sikatila “consisting of sand, sandy” sikatavat “abounding in sand, sandy” Cologne Lexicon See
also table B.3b.1:
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *sekü “”stone bench, pedestal” / Turkic-Turkish seki “stone bench, pedestal” /
Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen seki “”stone bench, pedestal” / Turkic-Kyrgyz seki “”stone bench, pedestal”
Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology.
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian čeɣel “sand, sandbar” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 15
139
/
B.3c.1 N. Chinese-MSC C. Cushitic- Egyptian
shā “sand, grit” Bilin shā
Wu, J. 591 shasshara “sand”
shā “pebbles, coarse sand, “sand” Budge v.2 723
gravel, gritty” Leslau 1963 Semitic-Arabic
Mathews #5610 772 145 ħasʕa: (IPA)
shāli “gravel, grit” “gravel
shākuang “placer mine” Merriam-Webster
Wu, J. 591 kuang Arabic 64
“mine, pit”
(C.18b.3 Extended)
B.3c.2 C. South (Ethiopian)
TB-Tibetan Chadic – Semitic- Gurage
sá “earth as elementary Guduf (Masqan, Gogot,
substance” zaazaa Selti) šähla “clay”
Jaschke 568 “sand” Leslau 1979 v.3
“the earth, soil, land” Jungraith- 576
Das 1255 mayr 1994 Egyptian tchā
Goldstein 1113 v.2 281 “desert”
Old Chinese Budge v.2 902
sa “sand” shā “sand”
Karlgren GSR 16a-c Budge v.2 723
Benedict 118 “barren ground”
Matisoff 2003 176, 487 “sandy soil (?)”
note h Budge v.2 730
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
sà “sand, tiny gravel or
pebbles” “ a kind of clay for
making utensils, vessels etc.”
Chik / Ng Lam 250, 324
Swadesh “sand” C. Proto-AA Semitic-Arabic Tubu
B.3c.3 Chadic- *šâp- safan [Teda]
TB-Tibetan Fali “earth, “dust, earth” besāfū
rdsab Kiria ground” Ehret 1995 “sand”
“mud, mire” ntsab’u Ehret 1995 #520 280 Lukas 1953
Das 1057 “mud” #520 280 198
Skinner
33
B.3c.4 N. Chinese -MSC W. Chadic-
Written-Burmese Hausa
sâi “sand” saimō m.
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] “infertile,
zài-bru “sand” barren land”
zài-ni “fine sand, dust” Newman, P.
Matisoff 2003 487 2007 175
shāmò “desert”
Wu, J. 590 Wang, F. 401
140

B.3c.1 N. Chinese-MSC shā “sand, grit”
< C. Cushitic-Bilin shasshara “sand”,
B.3c.3 TB-Tibetan rdsab “mud, mire”
< C. Chadic-Fali Kiria ntsab’u “mud”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *shā ~ * tsab- “sand, mud”
B.3c.2 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *sa “earth” Matisoff 2003 176, 612
B.3c.3
TB-Trung a3-sa1 “sand” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Tibetan dzā “clay used for making pottery” Goldstein 912
dzāma “clay, earthenware pot” Goldstein 913
S. Chinese-Min sa1 “sand, tiny gravel, tiny pebbles” “sand bank, desert”
Hakka Dict.
B.3c.4
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sàmohk “desert” Kwan 131 Chen 69 Po-fei Huang 431
N. Chinese-MSC sāhālā shàmo “the Sahara (desert)” Wu, J. 584
Extended African/AA word family:
B.3c.1
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Tigre š’äšär “small stone” Leslau 1963 145
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Gurage (Čaha, Eža, Ennemor etc.) ašawa “sand”
Leslau 1979 v. 2 526-7
B.3c.2 NS-Maba Group–Aiki, Rubga saŋe “sand” Edgar 374 Greenberg 1966 144
B.3c.3
E. Cushitic-Sidamo shāfa “sand” Gasparini 298 Ehret 1995 #520 280
E. Cushitic-Kambata shaafa “sand” Hudson 128
Omotic–Mocha ‘šawo “earth” Ehret 1995 #520 280
W. Chadic-Ngizim áišâw “earth” Ehret 1995 #520 280
W. (Ethiopian)-Semitic-Amharic ašäwa “sand” Leslau 1976 132 Schuh 217
Proto-Afro-Asiatic (Orel / Stolbova 1995) *t’s’awan- “flint, stone” Skinner 271
B.3c.4
E. Cushitic-Oromo s’anani “terreno arido e sfruttato” [dry and exhausted land] Borello 367
W. Chadic-Hausa tsandauri m. “barren place where soil is very hard” Newman / Ma 1979 123
B.3c.2 IE- Sanskrit zada “mud, slime”
B.3c.4 IE- Sanskrit saikaTa “sandy , gravelly” “consisting or made of sand” Cologne Lexicon
See also Supplementary Table 2 B.3c.4
Proto-Altaic *sāj “shallow, stony place” /
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *saj “shallow, stony place”
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *saj “shallow, stony place” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Siamese saaj / Proto-Tai *zaay “sand” Matisoff 2003 487 note h99
99
Note- B.3c.4 Proto-Tai “If the monophthongal WT [Written Tibetan] form [*sa] meaning ‘earth’ is indeed
cognate to Chinese sa “sand” (OC sa “sand” [GSR 16a-c] --- as suggested in STC [Benedict Sino-Tibetan-
A Conspectus] 188, it is possible that this is an old loan from ST into Tai”. Matisoff 2003 487 note h.
The evidence of AA ↔ ST correspondences meaning both “sand” and “earth, land” in the present B.3c.2,4-
b.3d.2 sets confirms Matisoff’s conjecture that the two lexemes are historically related. Under the migration
hypothesis, however, they could all have been generated in ST around the same time by a migration of AA
speakers into the area which is close to both southern and northern China without there being loaning from any
pre-existing ST language. The widespread occurrence of the sai / zai “sandy, stony” variant in Altaic as well as
141
/
B.3d Afro-Asiatic – AA- AA-Semitic, Nilo-Saharan Niger-
Chadic Cushitic Egyptian Congo
Swadesh “earth” W. Chadic- E. Semitic- Maba Group-
B.3d.1 Gwandara (Karshi) Cushitic Arabic Masalit
TB-Tibetan kaša “earth” -Sidamo ħaʃijja kasε / káas-è
kha̱sheè Matsushita 1974 qaççe (IPA) “countryside,
“a place (conveys #201 62 “border, “border” desert”
a vagueness about W. Chadic-Hausa frontier, Merriam- Maba Group-
which place)” k’asā pl. boundary, Webster- Aiki
Goldstein 174 k’asāce suburbs, Arabic 18 kàs‫כ‬
[Disyllabic “earth, soil, rural area” “countryside,
corresp.] ground” Gasparini desert”
ga-śed / śed “country, state” 253 Edgar 289
“the approximate Newman, P. 2007 kʌsiyʌt
direction, region, 128 “dust, sand,
or quarter” “earth, ground, earth”
Jaschke 561, 64 land ” Skinner 168 Edgar 292
B.3d.2 W. Chadic-
TB-Tibetan Hausa sāshìi /
(Central Tibet) sāshèe /
sa-chá sâssā pl.
“place, country, “district, region”
land” “section” “area”
Jaschke 569 Newman / Ma
Das 1257 1979 107 100
B.3d.3 C. Chadic-Gabin Egyptian Proto-N.
TB-Kiranti- xàxà “earth” qah̟ Khoisan
Bahing Stolbova, Olga “earth, *kxà
*kha-pi Central Chadic- ground” “earth”
-Lohorong Etymology 2006 Budge Khoisan-
ba-kha W. Chadic- Ngizim v.2 766 ǂHoan
TB-Kadu gagai kxa
ka “earth” “ earth” “earth”
TB-Jingpho Schuh 67 Starostin,
[Kachin] G.
gá / ʔəgá / ngá 2003 15101
“earth”
Benedict 1972 33
Sanskrit confirms the hypothesis of a more general relationship as proposed in the hypothesis of migration out of
Africa.
100
Note- B.3d.2 The contrast between the two B.3d.1-2 Hausa morphemes is based on the loss of the initial
ka- evidenced in the B.3d.2 Hausa and Tibetan forms. The Hausa variant morphemes have parallel forms in
Tibetan. See the discussion of this change in Chapter 10 Section 10.3.2-3. For similar parallel correspondences see
Note B.11a.1-2, C.22b.1-2, and C.23.2-3.
101
Note- B.3d.3 (Khoisan) The Khoisan form appears to be monosyllabic but is potentially disyllabic given the
fricative velar kx- initial. The root is explicitly disyllabic in C.Chadic-Gabin xàxà.
142

B.3d.1 TB-Tibetan kha̱sheè “a place”, ga-śed “the approximate direction, region, or quarter”
< W. Chadic- Gwandara kaša “earth” / E. Cushitic- Sidamo qaççe “border, frontier, rural area” /
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) gaac “land” / Maba Group- Masalit kasε, káas-è “countryside, desert”
B.3d.3 TB-Kiranti-Bahing kha- “earth” TB-Kadu ka “earth” /
< Proto-N. Khoisan *kxa “earth”, Egyptian qah̟ “earth, ground”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma *kašè / *kas- “land (in general), place” “area of land”
~ *kxa “earth”
B.3d.1 TB-Tibetan ga-çed “an approximate but uncertain direction, region or quarter” Das 206
B.3d.3 Proto-TB r-ka “earth” Benedict 1972 33, 201
B.3d.1
Proto-Afro-Asiatic (Orel / Stolbova 1995) q̇̇at’s’- “sand” Skinner 168
E. Cushitic-Haddiya k’ashar-bucca “red earth” Hudson 41
C. Chadic- Buduma kēsa “sand” Skinner 168
W. Chadic- Gwandara (Toni, Gitata, Koro) kəsa “sand” Matsushita 1974 #201 62
W. Chadic-Hausa k’asà “on the ground,. below” Newman, P. 2007 128 k’asà, k’as adv. “on the
ground, below” ta yar da kobo a k’as “She threw a kobo on the ground” Newman / Ma 1979 75
Proto-N. Omotic *khats “sand, earth” Skinner 168
C. Chadic- Bacama gašey “farm” Skinner 168
E. Cushitic-Rendille kách “side (used for direction) Pillinger 172
C. Chadic- Mandara *kəs- “town, country” Skinner 168
NS-Maba Group-Aiki kase “village” Edgar 289
W. Chadic–Gwandara kásàshe “country” Matsushita 1972 62
Egyptian khast “district, a kind of land” khas-t “territory (?), valley (?)” Budge v.1 533, 574
B.3d.3
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) gaa‫“ ع‬ground, earth, land” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 1 100 part 2 396
Asian non-ST languages with correspondences to African/AA ↔ ST roots:
B.3d.1
IE- Sanskrit SA “the earth, ground” kSa “a field”
kSamA “on the earth, on the floor”
kSetra “land, soil” “place, region, country” “a field” “landed property”
yavaksetra “a field of barley” yava “barley” (B.27.6) Cologne Lexicon.
kaccha “a bank or any ground bordering on water, shore”
kacchanta “the border of a lake or stream” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Old Indian �ë āh / �ë á mi “ground, earth” ��mya- “terrestrial” Nikolayev, Sergei
Indo-European Etymology 25
IE-Hindi ksetra “zone” m. Scudiere 223
IE-E. Iran-Avestan shoithra “district” Olmstead 23
See also Supplementary Table 2 B.3d.1
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian / Altaic-Mongolian-Khalkha *gaʒar “earth, land”
Altaic-Mongolian-Ordos *Gaʒar “earth, land”
Altaic-Mongolian-Kalmuck *ɣazr “earth” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
Proto-Altaic *kiaʒurV “sand, steppe, earth”
Proto-Turkic *Kajir “sand, steppe, earth”
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *kuʒir “sand, steppe, earth”
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *kuʒur “sand, steppe, earth” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
B.3d.3 Proto-IE *k(‘) ag(‘)hl- “gravel”
Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-Europen Etymology
143
↓↓
B.4 AA— AA-Cushitic, AA- NS NC
Chadic Proto-AA Semitic.
Swadesh W. Chadic– Proto-Afro-Asiatic *dakw- “clay” South
“earth” Hausa Militarev/ Stolbova (Ethiopian)
B.4.1 dak’o Afroasiatic Etymology 2007 Semitic-
TB-Tibetan “clay soil” *dak’-- “clay, sand” [Orel, Stolbova] Gurage
h’dág-pa Skinner 41 Skinner 41 (Selti)
“clay” C. Cushitic-Proto-Agaw *dakw- “clay” däč
Jaschke 274 C. Cushitic-Qwara ”earth”
“a mixture of *daɧwa- “clay” Militarev, A. (Wolane)
clay and water” C. Cushitic Etymology Leslau
Das 677 N. Omotic-Kaficho (Kafa) 1963 53
dágba dağo “ground, land”
“mud, mire” Omotic-Gonga-Gimojan
Goldstein 571 dačo “ground, land” Leslau 1963 53
B.4.1 TB-Tibetan ‘dág-pa “clay”
< W. Chadic–Hausa dak’o “clay soil” / Proto-Afro-Asiatic *dak’- “clay, sand”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *dak’ “clay, sand”
B.4.1 TB-Tibetan
mdag-pa “a sort of unburnt brick of mud or clay” Das 672 dagdam “mud, mire” Goldstein 571
[compound of this B.4.1 root and the B.21.1 root]
dagjar “plastering an opening” “sticking some things together with mud” Goldstein 571 [compound
of this B.4.1 root and B.32.2 Tibetan Extended below] ‘dág-gu “pap, pulp” Jaschke 274
B.4.1
N. Cushitic-Beja (Bedauye) dekwa “dust” Militarev, A. N. Cushitic Bedauye Etymology
Berber-Semlal i-dəqqi “clay” Militarev, A. Berber Etymology 2006
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Harari däči ”ground, land, floor, surface” Leslau 1963 53
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Gurage (Wolane) däčče ”ground, land” Leslau 1963 53
Cushitic- Oromo [Galla] däčči ”ground, land” Leslau 1963 53
Omotic-Gonga-Gimojan dačo “ground, land” Leslau 1963 53
W. Chadic–Hausa dàkàli “low mud platform outside compound” Newman / Ma 1979 24
dāk’unā “mess up or dirty something by handling” Newman, P. 2007 41
B.4.1 Kartvelian-Megrel dixa / dexa “clay, earth” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 18
↓↓
B.5a-c AA –Chadic AA –Cushitic AA –Sem. NS Niger-
Congo
Swadesh “stone” W. Chadic-
B.5a.1 Gwandara
N. Chinese-MSC (Karshi,
dūnzi “a block of Cancara, Koro)
stone or wood” dúnci “stone”
Wu, J. 171 Matsushita 1974
[Disyllabic corresp.] #197 61
144
B.5a.2 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Sidamo W. Semitic- NC-

TB-Written Tibetan, Gwandara dûna / dûno Ethiopian- Proto-W.
Tibetan (Ladakhi) dúnci “heap, lump of Amharic Nigritic
rduŋ “a small “rock, stone, earth, clod” dəngay *-tunda
mound, hillock” mountain”” Gasparini 82 “rock, stone” “hill”
Matisoff 2003 285 Skinner 52 “pile, stack” dängiya Skinner
Jaschke 285 W. Chadic- Hudson 61, 79, 113 “rock, stone” 259
N. Chinese-MSC Kirfi E. Cushitic-Hadiyya Leslau 1976
dūn / tūn ‘dúnkumu duuna “hill” 198, 489
“mound” “stone” Hudson 79
“a block of stone or Skinner 271 N. Omotic-
wood” Ometo *du:nn-
Wu, J. 171 “termite mound”
Mathews #6572 961 Ehret 1995 #942
449
B.5a.3 Old Chinese E. Cushitic-Rendille
ti̭uŋ “mound, d’und’umme
tumulus, peak” “anthill(s)”
Karlgren GSR Pillinger 105
1218h-i
Matisoff 2003 31
Base correspondences for positing etyma:1
B.5a.1 N. Chinese-MSC dūnzi “a block of stone or wood”
< W. Chadic-Gwandara dúnci “stone”
B.5a.2 TB-Tibetan (Ladakhi) rduŋ “a small mound, hillock”
< N. Omotic-Ometo du:nn- “termite mound” /
E. Cushitic- Sidamo duuna / duuno “heap, lump of earth, clod”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *dūn- “mound, heap, hill ”
B.5a.2
S. Chinese-Hakka (MacIver)
tun1 (Lau Chunfat) dun1 “heap, mound” “block of wood or stone” Hakka Dict.
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] nduŋ2 “top, summit” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Chin-Lushai duŋ “the top of a range of hills” Starostin, S. ST Etymology,
TB--S. Chin- Cho mtuŋ “mountain” Matisoff 2003 285
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *mdūŋ / *r-dūŋ “mountain, hillock” Matisoff 2003 285, 587
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dèun “a mound, a heap” Chik Ng 83
TB-Burmese tauŋ “hill, mountain” Matisoff 2003 285 Starostin, S. ST Etymology
B.5a.2
S.E. Mande-Samo Kwi tutuuni “mountain” Mukarovsky 262
E. Cushitic-Hadiyya, Libido, Kembata duuna “mountain” Mukarovsky 262
E. Cushitic–Kambata “pile, stack (of grain)” Hudson 113
Proto-Highland E. Cushitic *duuna “hill” Hudson 79 ; *dūna “hill” Skinner 271
E. Cushitic-Sidamo duuna to heap, to pile up” Gasparini 82
NS-Songhay (Gao) tóndì “pierre, caillou, montagne” [rock, stone, mountain] Ducroz 224
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic dəngayamma “stony” Leslau 1976 198, 489
S. Cushitic-Proto-Rift *dukwa “rubbish heap” Ehret 1995 #133 130
B.5a.2 IE-Old Indian tunga- m. “elevaton, height, mountain”
145
/
Swadesh “stone” W. Chadic – Hausa Maba Group-
B.5b.1 (Standard Hausa) Kibet
TB-Tibetan dūtsèe ‘stone” dusi / dúusì
dodzi (W.Hausa) “stone”
“limestone” dūci m. “stone, rock” Edgar 212
Goldstein 588 “flint” “mountain, Egyptian t’u
[Disyllabic corresp.] rocky hill” Newman, P. “hill, mountain”
2007 49, 2000 415 102 Budge v.2 869
B.5b.2 TB-Tibetan NS-Songhay NC.- S.E. Mande–Mano,
dodɔɔ “stone, rock” tōde / tōto Dan tòo / tò
do “stone, rock” “rock, stone”
“mountain”
Goldstein 586-7 Barth 169 Mukarovsky 262
B.5b.1 TB-Tibetan dodzi “limestone”
< W. Chadic–Hausa dūtsèe / dūci “rock, stone
B.5b.2 TB-Tibetan dodɔɔ “stone, rock”
< NS-Songhay tōde / tōto “rock, stone”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *dod- “stone, rock”
B.5b.1
W. Chadic-Sura d’ušu “hoher Vulkanhügel” [quite high volcanic hill] Skinner 52
C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur das, adas “caillou de divination” [divining stone] Skinner 52
NS-Maba Group-Aiki dùs-i “bottom millstone” Edgar 212
B.5b.2 W. Chadic-Hausa tudù n. m. “high ground, hill” Newman / Ma 1979 127 See also A.25.2.
/
B.5c.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) E. Chadic–Tumak
dèui / dēui “mound” dəə̄y
“mound of earth” Kwan 304 “pierre, rocher,
“pile, heap” Po-fei Huang 372103 colline”
N. Chinese-MSC dwēi (Y) “pile [stone, rock, hill]
(heap)” Chen 283 Skinner 52
duī meas. for “heaps, piles”
DeFrancis 1360 meas. “pile of”
Wang, F. 117
B.5c.2 N. Chinese-MSC Chadic- Hausa E. Cushitic-Sidamo
duî “heap, pile, stack” / tulìi n. m. tullite / tullo “hill, heap”
duī “pile up, heap up, stack” “heap” “crowd” Gasparini 320
“heap, pile” Wu, J. 169 tulàa vt. Proto-Afro-Asiatic
duī vt. “pile” Wang, F. 117 “heap up, pile up” *-tuul- ”to rise, to form
S. Chinese-Min tuî “a pile, a heap” Newman, P. 2007 a heap, mound”
Bodman 1987 v.1 27 211 Ehret 1995 #172 142
102
Note- B.5b.1 (TB-Tibetan, Hausa) “The ejective sibilant ts palatalizes to c’ (an ejective affricate) in West
Hausa dialects, but not in Standard Hausa, e.g. Standard Hausa dūtsèe = West Hausa dūci “stone”.
Newman, P. 2000 415. Tibetan gives evidence of having inherited the Standard Hausa form. See also Note-A.4.1
(Chadic-Hausa)
103
Note- B.5c.1 (Cantonese) dēui is also used as a measure (quantity) classifier in Cantonese and functions like
a collective noun in English.“dēui ‘heap, mound’ implies a conical shape” yāt dēui sānggwo
“a pile of fruit” yāt dēui laahpsahp “a heap of rubbish”. Matthews, S. 97. See also Chapter 10 section 10.4
Measure words.
146

B.5c.1-2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dēui “mound” / S. Chinese-Min tuî “a pile, a heap” /
N. Chinese-MSC duî “heap”
< E. Chadic–Tumak dəə̄y “pierre, rocher, colline” [stone, rock, hill]
Approximate Sinitic etymon *dēui “mound, heap, hill”
B.5c.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dèui “to heap up” “to pile” “a heap, a pile, a mass”
Chik / Ng Lam 80 “pile (heap)” Chen 283
B.5c.1 E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] dyōye “empiler” [pile up] Skinner 257
B.5c.2
Proto-E. Cushitic *tuul- ”to rise; hill, heap” Ehret 1995 #172 142
W. Chadic- Tangale diule v. “pile” Skinner 257. See also A.25.2 (Cushitic, Semitic)
E. Cushitic-Oromo tullu “hill” Skinner 257
W. Chadic-Hausa tulluwa f. “summit, dome” Newman, P. 2007 211
B.5c.2
Sanskrit dhUlikedara “a mound or rampart of earth” Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2 B.5c.1-2
↓↓
ST Languages African/AA languages - Close correspondences
B.6 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA- AA- NS Niger-
Cush. Sem. Congo
Swadesh “mountain” W. Chadic-Hausa
B.6.1 TB-Tibetan kān dūtsèe
gaŋ “a ridge” Goldstein 273 “ridge (of hill,
sgaŋ “a projecting hill or spur, or the mountain)”
side of a larger mountain” Newman, R. 1990 227
“a hill spur, the ridge or top of a hill” dūtsèe
Das 320 Jaschke 113 “rock, stone, mountain”
Proto-Lolo-Burmese gàngaràa f.
*kaŋ1 “slope” “slant (incline)”
“hill / high ground” “sloping ground,
Matisoff 2003 265, 595 depression in ground”
Chinese-MSC Newman, R. 1990
gāng 248, 249
“ridge (of a hill)” Wu, J. 221 gàngarèe
“mountain ridge” Huang 130 “bottom of a slope”
Old Chinese kâŋ “hill, ridge” Newman, 2007 69
Karlgren GSR 697a
Matisoff 2003 266, 303
B.6.2 W. Chadic-Hausa NC-
Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gangāma Swahili
ngàhn “the bank (of a stream)” “bank (of stream)” kando
Chik / Ng Lam 78 Skinner 77 “edge”
N. Chinese-MSC C. Chadic- Gude “river
ngàn “shore, bank, beach, coast” gandzəma bank”
Mathews #40 7 “crumbling edge of Awde
kàn “the bank of a river” river bank” 2000 83
Mathews #3211 483 Skinner 74
147
B.6.3 E. Chadic- Kera

S. Chinese-Yue koŋkoŋ
(Cantonese) “bank (of stream)”
gòng Skinner 77
“ridge (of a hill or mountain)”
Chik / Ng Lam 115
B.6.1 TB-Tibetan gaŋ “a ridge” “a projecting hill or spur, or the side of a larger mountain” /
N. Chinese–MSC gāng “ridge (of a hill)”
< W. Chadic-Hausa kān dūtsèe “ridge (of hill, mountain)”
B.6.2 Chinese-Cantonese ngàhn “the bank (of a stream)”
< W. Chadic–Hausa gangāma “bank (of stream)”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *gāŋ “ridge (of hill, mountain), bank (of stream)”
B.6.1
TB-Tibetan
gangsa “highland area, a plateau, a ridge” Goldstein 274
gangs-srul “an avalanche, a snow-slip” Das 212 ;
sgaŋ gshoŋ “elevations and depressions on a hillside” Jaschke 113
gaŋŋe goŋŋe “uneven, bumpy/undulating (for roads and terrains)” Goldstein 3
N. Chinese-MSC
kāng “ridge of a hill, a mound” Mathews #3269 490
gâng “hillock, mound” “ridge, welt, wale” Wu, J. 222
TB-Written Burmese kaŋ1 “roof, strip of high ground” Matisoff 2003 265
S. Chinese-Min kan1 “rock, cliff” Hakka Dict.
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *s-gaŋ “hill” “mountain” Matisoff 2003 303
B.6.2 S. Chinese-Min kan3 “bank (of a river)” Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC k’an “a dangerous bank, a ledge, a cliff” Mathews #3255 489
kân “bank, ridge” Wu, J. 383
TB-Chin-Lushai
kha.m “precipice”,
kam “bank, shore” Benedict 1972 71 Matisoff 2003 251, 300
TB- Written Burmese kâm “riverbank, seashore” Matisoff 2003 251
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] ǹ-gàm “precipice” Matisoff 2003 251 ; Benedict 1972 109
ngam “precipitous, precipice” Benedict 1972 71
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *r-kâm “edge, bank, precipice” Matisoff 2003 298
Old Chinese k’əm “cliff, bank, steep” Matisoff 2003 298
B.6.1
W. Chadic-Hausa gangàrà “descend down slope, roll down, flow down” Newman, P. 2007 69
Skinner 77 gāniyà “acme, peak, zenith” Newman, P. 2007 70 “peak (acme, apogee)”
Newman, R. 1990 196
B.6.2
E. Chadic-Tumak gəŋ “bank” Skinner 77
C. Chadic-Bura gagəm “steep bank of river” Skinner 77
B.6.1IE- Sanskrit
gandaka “a hill”
gandaUpa “the table land of a mountain”
Cologne Lexicon See also Supplementary Table 2 B.6.1
148
↓↓
B.7 AA – Chadic AA –Cushitic AA –Semitic NS NC
B.7.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Hausa Proto-S. S. (Ethiopian)
(Central Tibetan) tsāri Cushitic Semitic-Harari
tsà “herb, plant” “thatching grass” *tsar- “grass” sä’ar / sār
(Lahoul, Ladakhi) Skinner 270 Skinner 241 “grass”
sa “grass” W. Chadic- S. Cushitic- Leslau 1979
Jaschke 437 N. Bauci- Miya, Irakwe v.3 530
Goldstein 189 Kariya tsarami Egyptian
dza “grass” tsar “grass “thatching tchā /
Goldstein 866 species” grass” tchāā “straw,
Skinner 271 Skinner 271 weed”
Budge v.2 902
B.7.2 W. Chadic- E. Songhay
N. Chinese-MSC Bolewa Cushitic- (Koroboro)
ts’âo (WG) sáro “grass” Somali sarahu
“grass, straw, Stolbova, Olga caws “herb or
herbs, weeds” W. Chadic “straw, grass” grass
Mathews #6739 Etymology Awde 1999 species of
989 W. Chadic-Hausa 26 rocky areas”
tsâu (Y) “grass” tsiaua “grass, Heath
Chen 143 herb” v. 3 271
S. Chinese-Min Barth v.2 170
chaù “grass,
straw” Bodman
1987 v.2 89, 131
Hakka Dict.
B.7.3 W. Chadic- NC-
Proto-Tibeto- Dera Common
Burman šwari Bantu
*tswa “grass” “grass” -cuwa
Matisoff 2003 Skinner 269 “grass”
617 Skinner
TB-Tibetan 37
(Balti, Purig
provinces)
rtswa
“grass, herb, small
plant”
Das 1007
Jaschke 437
149
B.7.4 W. Chadic- Proto-AA NS-Songhay

N. Chinese -MSC Hausa curiy- (Djenne)
ch’ú (WG) cɨrɨ ”grass” “grass, subu
“hay, fodder” Stolbova, Olga fodder” “grass,
“to cut grass” Proto W. Chadic Militarev / straw”
Mathews 196 *cuy- ”grass” Stolbova Heath
Stolbova, Olga AA-Etymology v.2 175
W.Chadic 2007
Etymology
B.7.1 TB-Tibetan tsà / dza “grass” “herb, plant” “grass”
< W. Chadic-Hausa tsāri “thatching grass” /
S. Cushitic- Irakwe tsarami “thatching grass”
B.7.2 N. Chinese-MSC ts’âo “grass, straw, herbs, weeds” / S. Chinese-Min chaù “grass, straw”
< W. Chadic-Hausa tsaure “a tall grass, used for making zana mats”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *tsā ~ *tsau “grass, herbs, straw”
B.7.1 TB-Tibetan caà “fodder” Goldstein 351
N. Chinese-MSC tsai (WG) “vegetables, greens, edible herbs” Mathews #6671 979
B.7.2
N. Chinese-MSC câo n. “grass, straw” Wu, J. 66 Wang, F. 52; tsâo (WG) “name of several kinds
of aquatic grasses” Mathews #6727 986
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chóu (Y) “grass” Chen 143
S. Chinese-Min chou1 “mow, cut grass” “hay, fodder” Hakka Dict.
TB-Kiranti-Limbu cawa “feed for livestock” Starostin, S. Limbu Dict.
B.7.1
E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] tyōro “grass species, Hyparrhenia species Skinner 181
C. Chadic-Bura Group *sar “grass” Skinner 241
W. Chadic- Karekare, Bole *šar- “grass” Skinner 241
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Tigre sa’ar Leslau 1979 v.3. 530
South (Ethiopian) Semitic -Gurage, Tigrinya sa’ri Leslau 1979 v.3 530
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic sār “grass, straw” sār qətāl “grass, straw” Leslau 1976 51, 518
Semitic-Arabic sha’aar “vegetation” Leslau 1979 v.3 530
E. Cushitic-Oromo sardoo “kind of green grass” Gragg 353 “erba sempre verde” [evergreens]
Borello 369
W. Chadic-Ron (Bokkos) shala “Futtergras (fur Pferde)” [fodder, forage grass (for horses]
Jungraithmayr 1970 148
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic kesa “straw, straw mat” Leslau 1976 160
W. Chadic-Hausa tsambiya “dog’s tooth grass” Skinner 268
C. Chadic-Gude tsab’a / dze’bwa “tall grass species” Skinner 268
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Gurage [found in 6 Northern dialects],
chäza “kind of grass used for thatching the house” Leslau 1979 v.3 192
B.7.2
NS-Kanuri jauralá “a kind of grass, broom made of this grass” Cyffer 1990 70
W. Chadic- Hausa tsaurē “a tall, course grass (used for making zana mats)” Newman, P. 2007 206
tsabre / tsaure “grass species” Skinner 271
B.7.3
W. Chadic-Hausa cìyāwàa n. f. “grass, weeds” Newman, P. 2007 35 Newman, R. 1990 112
E Cushitic-Oromo sutā “grass species for mats and basketry” Skinner 245
W. Chadic- Hausa shūcìi m. “dry thatching grass” Newman, P. 2007 186 “thatch” Skinner 245
150
NS-Kanuri shúwó n. “undigested grass etc. in the stomach of a slaughtered animal”

Cyffer 1990 162
B.7.1 IE-Sanskrit sAra “grass” zara “a sort of reed or grass (Saccharum Sara)”
zaradanda “a stalk of reed or grass”
zaradaka “a kind of Darbha grass” jaraDI “a kind of grass” Cologne Lexicon. See also
Supplementary Table 2 B.7.1.
↓↓
The following morphemes attesting zar- as “root” closely match several of those in those of set D.3b.1
which mean “seed”. This indicates a cultural association under the concept of “basis of generation and
growth.”

B.8 Afro-Asiatic- AA- AA-Semitic, Nilo- Khoisan
Chadic Cushitic Berber Saharan
Swadesh “root” W. Chadic-N. Proto- Semitic- Kanuri N. Khoisan-
B.8.1 TB-Tibetan Bauci-Pa’a Cushitic Amharic, Tigre, zâr Zu|’hoan
rtsá-ba “root” šarì “root” *sar- Harari “root” ‖àrì
Jaschke 437 104 Militarev / “root” sər- “root, “branches “root”
Proto-TB *r-sa Stolbova Ehret 1995 bottom, vein, of a root” N. Khoisan-
“vein, root” E. Chadic- #230 164 artery, nerve” Cyffer ‖Au‖en
Benedict 1972 109 Kabalai N. Cushitic- Leslau 1976 51 1990 ‖ari
rtsa “vein, artery” sa:rrá “vein” Beja Militarev / 195 “root fiber”
Das 1006 Jungraithmayr [Bedauye] Stolbova Skinner
dza “blood, vessel, 1994 v.2 337 sar See also F.18a.3 225 N. Khoisan-
vein, artery, nerve, E. Chadic- Lele “artery” Berber–Tuareg See also !’O!Kung
pulse” “root” sārā “vein” Greenberg [Tamasheq] F.21a.2 ‖are,
Goldstein 853 Jungraithmayr 1966 61 azar “nerve, Egyptian ‖ale
TB- Lepcha 1994 v.2 277 Ehret 1995 root” tshar-t “root fiber”
so < *sa Proto-Chadic #230 164 Greenberg “a twig, Starostin,
“veins, fibres of *sar- “root” 1966 61 a branch” G. 2003 29
wood” Newman, P. “nerf, tendon,
Benedict 1972 #442 1977 31 veine”
109, 207 Skinner 225
B.8.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- West Semitic-
rtsá-wa Gwandara Ethiopian-Ge’ez
“the root, both (Karshi) śərəw
actually of plants, šé’wa / “nerve, root”
and fig. [figuratively] šéwa Leslau 1979 v.3
of other things” Matsushita 558
Das 1006 1972 108 See also D.3b.1
[Disyllabic corresp.] W. Chadic-N.
rtsá (-ba) “root, Bauci-Miya
vein” “origin, šerwâ “root”
primary cause” Militarev /
Jaschke 437-438 Stolbova
104
Note- B.8.1-2 (Proto-Tibetan, Tibetan) In Tibetan, the r- initial appears to be the result of metathesis since
the African/AA correspondences contain final -r. The Chadic data indicates the basic root is *sar-. Since the
metathesis is a single sound change, the Tibetan and Proto-TB morpemes are considered to contrast minimally with
the Proto-Chadic and Proto-Cushititc roots.
151

B.8.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *r-sa “vein, root”
< Proto-Afro-Asiatic *sar- “root”
B.8.2 TB-Tibetan rtsa “vein, artery” / dza “blood, vessel, vein, artery, nerve, pulse” “root”
< E. Chadic-Lele sārā “vein” / N. Khoisan-Zu|’hoan ‖àrì “root”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma *sar- ~ ‖àrì “root” “root, vein”
B.8.1
TB- Jingpho ləsá “vein, sinew” Matissoff 203 129
TB- Naga-Ao teza “vein” Benedict 1972 109
B.8.2 TB-Tibetan dzāwa “root, basis, foundation” Goldstein 855
B.8.1
E. Chadic-Birgit cááro “root” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 277, “vein” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 337.
E. Chadic-Migama câ:rú “root” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 277 “vein” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 337
E. Chadic-Sumray sháwré “root” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 337 See also F.21a.3
Proto-E. Chadic *ča(h)ar- “vein” Militarev / Stolbova
NS-Kanuri zâr bube “vein, artery” Cyffer 1990 195
Berber-Tuareg [Tamasheq] az̟ar “nerf, tendon, veine” Skinner 225.
South (Ethiopian)-Semitic-Gurage (Gogot, Soddo, Selti etc) sər “root, bottom of a thing”
Leslau 1979 v.3 558
C. Cushitic-Qamant, Qwara sər “nerve, root” Leslau 1979 v.3 558
C. Cushitic-Agaw sər “root” Ehret 1995 #230 164 .
Semitic-Hebrew šoreš “root” Leslau 1979 v.3 558 Baltsan 404
šεrεš “root” Greenberg 1966 61
Proto-Semitic *srs (*sərs) “root” (stem + *s noun suffix)” Ehret 1995 #230 164
B.8.2
W. Chadic-Gwandara (Koro) asé’wa “root of the plant” “vine of the plant”
Matsushita 1974 #107 46
E. Chadic- Sumray sárbə “root” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 277
C. Chadic- Mandara šallwa “root” Greenberg 1966 61
W. Chadic-Hausa saywā “root” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 276
sáiwā f. “root” Newman, P. 2007 175
B.8.1 IE- Hindi jar̝ “root” n.f. Scudiere 139, 244
↓↓
B.9 Afro-Asiatic – AA-Cush. AA- Nilo-Sah. Niger-
Chadic Sem. Congo
B.9.1 Old Chinese C. Chadic- Tera Sudanic-
miər “rice” mere “late millet” Nubian-
Karlgren GSR 598a-c Skinner 193 Kənzi
Matisoff 2003 221, 486 E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Kənuzi]
N. Chinese-MSC [Dangla] marē
xiăomîr n. mériya “sorgho” “Durra”
“yellow millet” [sorghum] [sorghum]
Wang, F. 502105 Fédry 128 Skinner 193
105
Note- B.9.1-2 (Old Chinese)
If, following Karlgren, the Old Chinese root contains a final –r, there has been a sound change of B.9.1 mer >
B.9.2-3 mei / mai. It is then a case of P. Newman’s sound change rule for Hausa and some other Chadic
152
B.9.2 Proto-TB E. Chadic- Somrai Anywa NC-

*may ~ *mey mai “sorghum” [Anuak] Yoruba
“rice, paddy” Skinner 193 āmáyɛ‫ כ‬n. emeye /
Benedict 1972 203 W. Chadic- Hausa pl. mayi
Matisoff 2003 231, 486 màiwā “millet “roasted “millet
N. Chinese-MSC (planted late)“ grains” species”
mài / maiz Newman, R. 1990 Reh 6 Skinner
“a general term for wheat, 168 193
barley etc.” Wu, J. 455 Newman, P. NC-Nupe
DeFrancis 592 2007 146 mai
“wheat” Wang, F. 323106 Skinner 193 “millet”
TB-Proto-Karen “Pennisetum Skinner
*may “rice” glaucum” 193
Benedict 1972 128, 149 “black millet”
TB-Bodo-Garo-Dimasa Blench
*mey / *mai Hausa names for
“rice, paddy” plants 4, 8
Benedict 1972 65, 149 W. Chadic-
Matisoff 2003 511 Gwandara (Koro)
Starostin, S. ST Etymology mêywa “millet”
Blench 2010a Matsushita 1974
Table 3 7 #71 40
languages that non-initial *-r shifts to y / i. “This is clearly a very early change”. Newman 2000 227. See also
Notes A.16.1 (Hausa-Extended), A.30.1 (Hausa), A.34.2 (Hausa) and H.22.1-2 (Hausa ).
Hence the B.9.1 E. Chadic-Dangaleat mériya and C. Chadic- Tera mere forms give evidence of being the
oldest Chadic forms and the change identified by Newman as occurring within East Chadic, i.e. Dangaleat
mériya > Somrai mai. Here the phonetic shape and the Dangaleat / Somrai semantics of “sorghum” both
coincide with the archaeological data supporting the origins of sorghum in Chadic Northeast Africa.
Under this hypothesis even the E.Cushitic mainko form would be derived from these oldest Chadic forms, an
exceptional case in the general genetic and geographic relationship between these two language families. But it is
consistent with evidence suggesting a NE African origin of cultivated sorghum and millet with later spread of this
development to other regions of the continent. Ehret considers that speakers of Afroasiatic languages were the first
to collect wild grains for food. So the Chadic correspondences above give further support to an existing
hypothesis that Chadic peoples were among the first to be involved in this practice. See note B.22b.2 below and
Chapter 7 sections 7.2-7.3 for discussion of this development of grain agriculture in Northeast Africa.
106
Note-B.9.2 (TB, N. Chinese) Mai was one of the five cereals mentioned in the Chou Dynasty classics. It also
appears in the bone oracles of the Shang dynasty ruins dating from the second millennium BCE. (Chang 77).
4
Sagart comments that it is possible that mai is a loan-word from an Altaic language (as also suggested by
Starostin, S 1991 69, 168). He also notes an Altaic root mu:rki ’barley, wheat)” (Sagart 1999 183). Hence
scholars have opined that bread wheats (Triticum aestivum) came by way of Mongolia and Yunnan, hence from
the north and south west. (Chang 78). The present study indicates that they came into both Mongolia and China
from the nortwest. “The earliest phase of domesticated millet dated between 8,200 and 7000 years ago, appears
widely in the archaeplogical record, stretching acros north China from the Liao River Valley in the northeast to
to the upper Yelloe River in the northwest.* (Liu / Chen 83).
See Chapter 7 section 7.5.1 for discussion of the development of grain agriculture in China.
It is not clear whether the B.9.1 Proto-Chinese root miər “rice” (from Karlgren) is related to Sagart’s
proposed Old Chinese *m(-)rik. Sagart’s proposed Middle Chinese meak “wheat (or barley” (B.9.4)
corresponds more closely to the Chinese-Yue siumahk “wheat” or daaimahk “barley”
and these closely match the C. Chadic-Gisiga magaya and Proto-South Cushitic *magwale.
There may be two different but valid Sinitic Proto-roots based on the B.9.1-2 and B.9.4 African roots, one
coming from the north the other from the west.
153
B.9.3 N. Chinese-MSC W. Chadic- E. Cushitic-

mî “rice” Gwandara (Gitata) Gedeo
“shelled or husked seed” mîwâ mid’a
Wu, J. 468 “millet” “grain,
“rice (uncooked)” Matsushita 1974 cereal, crop”
Wang, F. 327 #71 40 Hudson 255
C. Chinese-Wu mi6 C. Chadic- Buduma
“hulled or uncooked rice” miau / miō
“a shelled or husked seed” “sorghum, Durra”
Hakka Dictionary Skinner 193
TB-Bodo/Garo-Garo
mi “hulled rice” “rice”
Sagart 1999 178
Matisoff 2003 486, 511107
B.9.4 S. Chinese-Yue C. Chadic-Gisiga Proto-South
(Cantonese) magaya Cushitic
siumahk “wheat” “Hirse” [millet] *magwale
[lit. small grain] Skinner 193 “sorghum”
Kwan 568 C. Chadic-Mofu- Skinner 193
daaimahk “barley” Gudur
[lit. big grain] Kwan 33 magaya
Chen 17 “petit mil”
Middle Chinese [small millet]
meak “wheat (or barley)” Skinner 181
Sagart 1999 183.
B.9.1 Old Chinese miər “rice”
< C. Chadic- Tera mere “late millet” / NS-Kənzi [Kənuzi] mare “Durra” [sorghum]
B.9.2 N. Chinese-MSC mài / maizi “a general term for wheat, barley etc.” “rice, paddy”
< W. Chadic- Gwandara mêywa “millet”
TB- Bodo-Garo *mey or *mai “rice, paddy” / TB-Proto-Karen may “rice”
< NC-Nupe mai “millet” / E. Chadic- Somrai mai “sorghum” / W. Chadic- Hausa màiwaa
“millet . (planted late)“ “Holcus cernuus”
B.9.4 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) siumahk “wheat” [lit. small grain] daaimahk “barley”
[lit. big grain]
< Proto-South Cushitic *magwale “sorghum”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *mare “millet species” “sorghum” > *mài / *mey- “millet,
sorghum” “grain, cereal, crop” ~ *magwale “sorghum”
B.9.1
TB-Bai me “hulled rice” Blench 2010a Table 3 7
TB-Bodo/Garo-Garo me “rice (in compounds)” Matisoff 2003 486, 511
TB-Loloish-Nusu me me “paddy rice” Sagart 1999 178 Blench 2010a Table 3 7
107
Note- B.9.3 (Chinese) The use of an African language root meaning “millet” to designate rice does not
necessarily imply that rice agriculture did not exist in China before the arrival of speakers of Afroasiatic languages.
It minimally implies, however, that the incoming speakers of AA-derived languages were adept at agriculture and
gave their names for grains to any locally existing ones. Blench proposes that the change of the names of rice to
the names for millet occurred when speakers of Proto-Sinitic moved southward and encountered Hmong-Mien
speakers who already cultivated rice. Blench 2010a 13 Evidence of another early name change for crops in
China is reported in Note B.33b.2.
154
TB-Karen–Pwo, Pho me “rice” Sagart 1999 178 Blench 2010a Table 3 7

TB-Jinuo mətsi “barley” Matisoff 2003 note c 190 [compound of this root and that of B.35.1]
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *may ~ *mey “rice, paddy” Benedict 1972 203 Matisoff 2003 216, 221,
231, 486
B.9.2 N. Chinese-MSC xiăo mài “wheat” xiăo “small” Wu, J. 760 ; dà mài “barley” dà “big”
Matisoff 2003 487 note e ; shumi “husked sorghum” Wu, J. 635 shu “sorghum”
On the śhu lexememe see Chapter 2F Note F.12c.5 (Chinese-MSC Extended)
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) máih “hulled rice” Kwan 437 “uncooked rice” Chik / Ng Lam 348
syu maî “millet grain” Chik / Ng Lam 508 Kwan 295 sūk maih “millet” Chik Ng / Lam 349
sūk “grains, millet”
TB-Naga-Tangkhul ma “paddy” Matisoff 2003 486 Blench 2010a Table 4 7
TB-Nungic-Trung-Dulong tś(h)ɯ-ma “rice” Matisoff 2003 486
TB-Tani-Sulong-Luoba a-mə “rice” Matisoff 2003 486
TB-Karenic-Palaychi mə “rice” Matisoff 2003 217
B.9.3
Old Chinese *miʔ “hulled rice” Blench 2010a Table 3 7 *mījʔ (W.H. Baxter) “rice”
Matisoff 2003 486
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver, Lau Chunfat) mi3 “hulled or husked uncooked rice”
“a shelled or husked seed” Hakka Dict.
TB-Bai (Dali) mi35zo21 “barley” Matisoff 2003 190 note c me5zo “barley” Blench 2009a 5
TB-Black Lahu mi “rice” Blench 2010a Table 4 7
B.9.1
W. Chadic-Cip mar “early millet” Skinner 193
W. Chadic-Kofyar mār “early millet” Skinner 193
W. Chadic-Ngizim màrd’u “millet (Pennisetum typhoideum)” Schuh 111, 209
C. Chadic-Mada mārda “late millet” Skinner 193
W. (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic azmara “crop, harvest” Leslau 1976 144
W. Chadic-Hausa moorii “Sorghum bicolor” “white guinea corn [sorghum] cultivar”
mùrmùrà “Sorghum bicolor” “soft guinea corn cultivar” Blench Hausa names for plants 50
E. Chadic-Migama māriyo “millet species” Skinner 193
NC-Swahili māwele “bulrush millet” Skinner 193
NS-Songhay (Djenne) m‫“ ככ‬rice plant, rice (as crop in paddy)” Heath v.2 148
m‫ככ‬-yje “uncooked, shelled rice (after chaff is removed by pounding) [lit. “son of rice] ”
The -yje suffix is an NS-Songhay diminutive.
See Chapter 2D D.3c.1 (Chinese)
B.9.2
E. Cushitic-Burji mainko “millet” Sasse 1982 140
E. Chadic- Somrai maja “Negerhirse” [millet] Skinner 193
NC-Gbari māwi “millet” Skinner 193
B.9.3
W. Chadic- Gwandara (Nimbia) mɨyòngo “millet” Matsushita 1974 #71 40
E. Cushitic- Oromo mid’an “grain (growing, harvested)” Gragg 285 “graniglia, cereali” [grain,
cereals] Borello 303
C. Chadic-Bura mili “small grain used in sukwar” Dictionary of Bura
B.9.4
C. Chadic-Mesme magə̀yə̀ “millet” Stolbova, Olga C.Chadic-Etymology 2006
C. Chadic-Fali Bwagira muxurin “millet” Skinner 193
E. Cushitic- Oromo migíra “graminacea (Pennisetum adoense)” Borello 303
Asian non-ST languages with correspondences to African/AA ↔ ST roots:
B.9.1 IE-Bengali mụri “parched rice” n. Thompson73
155
B.9.2
Hmong-Mien-Mien mai3 “hulled rice” Blench 2010a Table 3 7
Hmong-Mien-Proto-Mienic *hmei “millet” Blench 2010a Table 3 7
Hmong-Mien-Mun of Hainan / Hmong-Mien -Mun of Funing mei / mei pe “hulled rice”
Blench 2010a Table 3 7
Hmong-Mien-Proto-Miao-Yao *maiB “shelled rice” Sagart 1999 178
Austro-Asiatic-Vietic ma “young rice plant” Blench 2010a Table 3 7
Austro-Asiatic-Bahnaricʔma “field rice” Blench 2010a Table 3 7
B.9.3
IE-Sanskrit medhya “barley” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Bengali mɔyda “flour’ n. Thompson 71
Daic-Kra-Biao mii “cooked rice” Blench 2010a Table 3 8
South Daic-Lao me:t2 “grain” Marcus 95
B.9.4 IE-Sanskrit syāmaka “Panicum Frumentaceum “a kind of cultivated millet”
magha “a species of grain” mahabuza “a sort of rice” “barley”
mahayava “a kind of large barley” mahadusaka “a species of grain” Cologne lexicon
Kartvelian-Georgian maxa “a kind of wheat” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 35
Kartvelian-Laz moxa “a kind of wheat” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 35
Proto-Altaic *miurgu “wheat”
Altaic-Mongolian mu:rki “barley, wheat” Starostin, S. 1991 69, 168 , Sagart 1999 183
Altaic-Proto-Tungus Manchu *murgi “wheat” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
This table was included in the summary of African agricultural terminology in Chapter 7
Section 7.1a.
↓↓
B.10 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA— AA- Nilo-Saharan Niger Congo
Cush. Sem.
B.10.1 W. Chadic-Bura Kanuri NC-Mande
TB-Kuki-Chin-Mikir fun / vun fungîn fun / hun
phun “blow” “harmattan”108 “to blow” “cold, dry, wind”
Walker 208 [wind] Cyffer 1990 52 “harmattan”
S. Chinese-Kejia Mukarovsky 409 Hutchison 142
[Hakka] (Meixian) fuun “sandy fog” NS- Songhay
(Lau Chunfat) Mukarovsky 410 (Koroboro) NC-Proto-W.
fung1 / fung3 W. Chadic- funsu “blow Nigritic
“wind, gust, breeze, Karekare on *-phun
gale” Hakka Dict. funtu v. “ blow” (e.g. fire)” “wind”
Mukarovsky 103 Heath v. 3 116 Skinner 113
B.10.2 W. Chadic- Hausa NC-Mande
S. Chinese-Min hùnturù fun / hun
hông “wind” “harmattan (wind)” “cold, dry, wind”
Bodman 1987 Newman, R. 1990 “harmattan”
v.1 16, v.2 139 118 Skinner 113 109 Skinner 113
108
Note- B.10.1-2 (Chadic, NC) The harmattan is a cold, dry, dust-laden wind which blows from the Sahara
south into the sub-Saharan savannah (Sahel) region of Africa during the cold months of December, January and
February. It is usually accompanied by a sandy haze which obscures the sun. Smethurst 426-427, Azevedo 354.
See also B.37.1 (Chadic) below and Chapter 6 section 6.11. The inclusion of the lexemes hūn “dark, dim,
and húnzhuó “murky” in set B.10.2 (Extended) implies a hypothesis that the Hausa hùnturù / Mande hun
“harmattan” are their sources along with those whose semantics are “wind”, “blow” and “sandy fog”.
156

B.10.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) fùng “wind, gust, breeze” / Chinese- Hakka fung1 / fung3
“wind, gust, breeze, gale”
< W. Chadic- Sura fun / vun “harmattan” [wind] / NC-Mande fun / hun “cold, dry, wind”
“harmattan”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *fung ~ *hong “wind”
B.10.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) fùng “wind, gust, breeze” Chik / Ng Lam 492 Kwan 571
Middle Chinese pi̭ûng “wind” Karlgren GSR #625h Matisoff 2003 531 See also C.45.1-2
C. Chinese-Wu foŋ “wind, gust, breeze, gale” Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC fēng “wind” Wu, J. 202 “wind, breath” Keightley 2000 3, 125-129
TB-Tibetan phung-pa “blown out, destroyed” Das 824
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] məbuŋ ~ ŋbūŋ “wind” < būŋ “blow” Benedict/Matisoff 118 note 327
buŋ-li “breeze” Benedict 1972 114 məbuŋ ~ m̀-būŋ “wind” Matisoff 2003 121, 531
TB-Bodo/Garo-Kokborok kəbəŋ “be blown away” Matisoff 2003 137
B.10.2 S. Chinese-Min hông hông-thai “typhoon” Bodman 1983 104, 163
hún “cloud” Bodman 1987 v.2 141 hún “smoke” Bodman 1983 v.2 141
N. Chinese-MSC hūn “dark, dim, dusk” húnzhuó “murky” Merriam Webster Chinese 61
hūn “dark, dim, hūn’an “dim, dusky” hūnchén “murky” chén “dust, dirt” (B.20a.4)
hūnhēi “dusky, dark” hūnhuáng “pale yellow, faint, dim” Wu, J. 301 huánghūn “dusk”
huáng "yellow” (Wu, J. 295)
B.10.1
W. Chadic-S. Bauci Group *b’w-(n)d- “fog, harmattan” Skinner 24
NS-Nuer wun “dark clouds, cloudy” Huffman 51
NC- N. Mande- Malinke fónyo “wind” ; -Jula fónyε “wind” Mukarovsky 1989 409
B.10.2 Semitic-Mehri manhūn “smoke” Skinner 110 See also B.20b.1 Extended
E. Cushitic-Sidamo gūnjo “haze, mist” Skinner 111
↓↓
B.11a-f AA-Chadic AA –Cush. AA -Semitic NS NC, Khoisan
Swadesh “to burn” W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- W. (Ethiopian) Maba NC-SE Mande-
B.11a.1 TB-Tibetan Hausa Rendille Semitic- Group- Mano
h’bár-ba / gòobařā guba vt. Amharic Masalit gbà
h’bár-wa “to burn” “fire, “to burn” abärra vi. gubra “fire”
“to catch fire, to be conflagration” Pillinger “be aglow, “flame” Mukarovsky
ignited, to blaze” Skinner 86 128, 317 shine Edgar 248 172
Jaschke 392 Newman, P. (of eyes, sun),
Das 918110 2007 75 light up” vt.
109
Note- B.10.2 ( Hausa) The phoneme written as / h- / in Hausa is a pseudo-allophone of the phoneme written as
/ f /. “The phoneme indicated as / f / is pronounced variably as / ɸ / (the norm), / f /, / p /, or / h /, depending on
dialect / idiolect and phonological environment.” Newman, P. 2000 393. For further examples of the condition
under which the / f / changes to / h / see the African-AA extended lexemes in B.14a.1, and Note H.3a.2
(Hausa). Hence the B.10.2 W. Chadic forms do not contrast in their / f / ~ / h / phonemes. From this a single
(hence minimal) sound change (the vowel o / u contrast) can be inferred to have existed between the proximate
proto-forms of the B.10.1-2 Chinese morphemes in Proto-Sinitic. Note that the B.10.1-2 NC-Mande morphemes
also contain initial f- and h- variants corresponding to the variant Sinitic and W. Chadic morphemes. See also
Note B.14d.1.
110
Note- B.11a.1-2 (Tibetan, Proto-TB) The B.11a.1 Tibetan h‘bár-ba and C. Chadic-Gude ‘bərə are the
result of change of initial velars to initial glottal stops or uvular fricatives. The B11a.2 forms which lack any initial
157
[Disyllabic corresp.] C. Chadic- E. Cushitic- “turn on the NC-Fulfulde-

(v.n. of sbár-ba) Gude Oromo light, burn [Fulani]
TB-Karen ‘bərə “shine” guba (a candle)” hubba
gəbɔ ‘bərən “burn” Leslau 1976 “blow up a
“bright” “light” Gragg 184 89, 397 fire,
Matisoff Skinner 14 E. Cushitic- make a fire,
2003 430 Somali inflame”
Note b gubo hubbira
“burn” “light” [v.]
Awde 1999 Taylor 87
55
B.11a.2 C. Chadic- W. (Ethiopian)
TB-Kanauri Musgu Semitic-
bar vi. “burn” / bára Amharic
par vt. “burn” “shine” bärra
Benedict 1972 50 Stolbova, “burn”
TB-Tibetan Olga C. “(of light)
bār “to light, to turn Chadic light up”
on a light” Etymology bärräqä
“to burn, 2006 “lighten,
to catch fire, to shine”
explode” Leslau 1976
Goldstein 656, 762 89
Swadesh W. Chadic- Proto-Afro- Kanuri Khoisan-
“fire” Hausa Asiatic kwára ǂHoan
“burn” (Daura dial.) *(ʔa-)ɧwar- “bush- ɵgoa
B.11a.3 kuwārà “burn” fire” “fire”
TB- Nung “a big bush Militarev/ Cyffer Starostin, G.
hwar fire” Stolbova 1990 106 2003 16
“burn, kindle” Matsushita 2007 war NC-N. Mande-
Benedict 1972 50, 172 1993 41 “burn, Jula gwa
Old Chinese W. Chadic- roast” “fire” -
Xwâr “burn, Goemai Hutchison Bambara guā
fire” Karlgren GSR khw̄:r 1981 334 “fire of
353a-c “burn” Greenberg household”
Benedict 1972 172 Jungraithmayr 136 Mukarovsky
Matisoff 2003 1994 . 172
402 , 305 note 2111 v.2 54
stop also represent a loss of the glottal stop.It may be the case however that the glottal stop is not phonemic in the
language and hence not notated by linguists. See also Note B.14c.1-2 below.
With respect to the B.11a.2 forms Benedict states “Both of these roots [TB #220 *bar ~ *par = *bwár ~
*pwár] probably represent loss of initial stop, ---although the latter might be prefixed.” Benedict 50
For more examples of loss or reduction of an initial stop see discussion in Chapter 10 section 10.3.2.
111
Note- B.11a.3 (Old Chinese, TB Nung, Proto-TB) “Archaic Chinese Xwâr ‘fire’ might be compared with
Nung hwarr ‘burn, kindle’, Kachin [Jingpho] wan, Moshang varr, Garo waʔl ‘fire’, but these three forms
appear to belong with the TB *bar~ *par ‘burn’ ” Benedict / Matisoff 1972 172 note 459. Matisoff [author of
note 459] recognizes that two different roots are involved here. The present study shows that these correspond to
the variant forms in (B.11a.3) W. Chadic-Hausa, Goemai / Proto-AA/Kanuri kuwar / qawar- / kwar- and
*(ʔa-)ɧwar- whereas the B.11a.2 TB *bar ~ *par variants most closely match the Central Chadic Musgu and
Semitic- Amharic bärra forms.
158
B.11a.4 W. Chadic- N. Proto-Afro- Egyptian

Middle Chinese Bauci- Warji Asiatic ua
xwaX ħwa- *-waʔ-/ “to burn,
“fire” “burn” *-wâa- to be hot”
Sagart 1999 158 Jungraith- “to glow, Budge
TB-W. Kiranti- mayr burn v.1 14
Bahing 1994 (of fire)”
hwa “light” v. 2 55 Ehret 1995
Benedict 1972 #221 #986 468
50
Matisoff 2003 463
B.11a.5 Proto-W. E. Cushitic- Semitic-
N. Chinese-MSC Chadic Oromo, Arabic
ħwà “burn up, *ʔagwar Dera waʔr
incinerate” “fire” “burnt bits” awāra “to make the
DeFrancis 374 Stolbova, “polvere” fire to flare”
See also Note- Olga “dust” Ehret 1995
B.11b.1 MSC W. Chadic Borello 32 #986 468
following Etymology. Skinner 177
2006
B.11a.1 TB-Tibetan ‘bár-ba / ‘bár-wa “to burn” “to catch fire, to be ignited, to blaze”
< NC-S.E-Mande-Mano gbà “fire” / E. Cushitic-Rendille guba / W. Chadic- Hausa gòobařā
“fire, conflagration”
B.11a.3 Old Chinese *Xwâr “burn, fire” / TB- Nung hwar “burn, kindle”
< W. Chadic-Goemai khw̄:r “burn” / Proto-Afro-Asiatic *(ʔa-)ɧwar- “burn” / W. Chadic- N.
Bauci- Warji ħwa- “burn” / NC-Mande- Bambara guā / gwà “fire of household” /
Khoisan-ǂHoan ɵgoa “fire”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *gbà- “to burn” “blazing fire” ~
Approximate Sinitic etymon *kwar- “burn brightly, blazing fire”
B.11a.1
TB-Tibetan sbár-ba “to light, to kindle” Jaschke 392, 403, 405 Matisoff 2003 100
‘bar “blaze, burn” Hodge 120
B.11a.2
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *bar ~ *par = *bwár ~ *pwár “burn, fire” Benedict 1972 #220 50, 172, 199
TB-Tibetan h̟khyog-bar “blaze or flame” h̟khyog “crooked, bent” Das 197
TB-Tani-Miri par “burn, kindle” par “light (as a fire), ignite” Benedict 1972 50
TB-Written Burmese pa’ “shine” Matisoff 2003 123
TB-Chairel phal “fire Matisoff 2003 428
TB-Lahu ba “shine” Matisoff 2003 123
B.11a.3
TB-Chin-Maring war “bright light” Matisoff 2003 429 Starostin, S. ST Etymology
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *hwa:r “fire” Matisoff 2003 402, 429
TB- Moshang, var “fire” Benedict 1972 172
TB- Chin-Lushai var “shine” Matisoff 2003 385
TB-Tangsa (Yogli) wal “fire” Matisoff 2003 429
TB-Garo wa’al “fire” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-W. Kiranti hwa “light” Matisoff . 2003 463
159
B.11a.4
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *hwa(:)l “heat up, kindle, cook” *hwa “shine, light” Matisoff 2003 429
TB-Chin-Thado wat “shine” Matisoff 463
B.11a.1
E. Cushitic- Burji, Gedeo guba vt. “burn” Hudson 34
E. Cushitic-Somali gub “burn” Awde 1999 33
Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova 1995) *gub- “burn” Skinner 86
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] jab̟a “to blaze” jamna (for jab̟na) “to make to blaze, to set fire to, to light”
Taylor 93
E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] kòbìre / kobre “allumer un grand feu” [light a big fire] Fédry 295
NS- Songhay (Gao) gòobéré “provoquer un incendie de case” [put a hut on fire] Ducroz 104
B.11a.2
W. Chadic-Guruntum bàʔa “heat” Militarev / Stolbova
Semitic-Hebrew ba’ar “burned” Baltsan 30 barak n. m. “lightning” “glitter” Baltsan 32
“lightning” Oxford English-Hebrew Dict. 520
Egyptian barga “to give light” Budge v.1 204
C. Chadic- Bura mbà vt. “to burn” “to be burned” “to make a fire burn” mbàu’u “to light a fire”
Dict. of Bura
Central Chadic-Mandara (Wandala) paraka “light” Stolbova, Olga Central Chadic Etymology
2006
W. Chadic-Hausa bàlbàlniyā f. “burning brightly” balbàlā “fuel a bright fire”
Newman, P. 2007 15 Skinner 14
Egyptian bā “to shine, be bright bābā “to shine, to give light, splendour” Budge v.1 212
pāpā “to shine, to illumine” pā “flame, fire, spark” Budge v.1 234
W. Chadic-Hausa bal ideo. “flaming brightly” Skinner 17
E. Cushitic-Oromo barbada “what is left over after a fire” Skinner 17
NS-Anywa [Anuak] bur n. “ashes” Reh 12, 86
B.11a.3
Proto- Chadic *akwa “fire” Newman, P. 1977 #48 26 Ehret 1995 #717 361
S. Cushitic-Alagwa hwere-ʔes “hot” Militarev, A. S. Cushitic-Etymology
Niger- Congo-Benue-Congo- Birom (Plateau 3 group) hwalaŋ “charcoal”
Williamson / Shimizu v.1 65
C. Chadic- Higi Ghye -ngw-r- “charcoal” Skinner 81
E. Cushitic- Sidamo giwâra “to warm oneself at the fire” Gasparini 123
N. Cushitic- Bedauye [Bedawi] kwarar “to emit smoke” Skinner 110
B.11a.4
S. Cushitic-Iraqw warʔes “to flash (of lightning)” Ehret 1995 #973 462
Semitic-Arabic wary- “to burn, blaze (stem + y denominative)” Ehret #973 462
NS-Kanuri wardangin “roast”, “burn singe” “destroy by fire” Cyffer 1990 182
NS-Tubu [Teda] wár vt. “verbrennen” [to burn, to scorch] Lukas 1953 203
W. Chadic- Ngizim wə́rnàk “burnt remains of mush in pot” Schuh 170
NS-Barea wor “to burn” Greenberg 97
B.11a.5
W. Chadic-Hausa gawāro “anything burnt black” gawāyi “charcoal” Skinner 81
S. Khoisan-Masarwa ‖gwa “ashes” Starostin, G. 2003 8
S. Khoisan-|Gwi ǂgúà “ashes” Starostin, G. 2003 16
S. Khoisan-S. Khoisan-!Xóő ‖gòa “ashes” Starostin, G. 2003 8
C. Chadic- Glavda ghúvra “charcoal” Rapp / Benzing 44
Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2. 67
South (Ethiopian) Semitic- Amharic gwäränna “taste burnt” Leslau 1976 208
160
Semitic-Harsusi ɣebār “dust” Skinner 177

E. Cushitic-Somali guban “burnt” Awde 1999 33
B.11a.1 IE-Sanskrit AbhA “to shine or blaze towards” “to irradiate, outshine, illumine” Cologne
lexicon
B.11a.2 IE-Sanskrit bhA “to shine” “be bright or luminous” bharaNyu “fire” barata / bharatha
“fire", “name of Agni” [the god of fire] barhis “fire, light, splendor” bhaIh “to shine”
bhasvat “luminous, shining” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Pashto
bar kunal “fire” Raverty 99 barrāndda’h “a blaze of fire with much smoke ,
a flame.” Raverty 104 bal adj. “burnt, lighted, inflamed, set on fire” baledal vt. “to burn, to
kindle, to ignite, to take or catch fire” balawul vt. “to light, burn, set on fire, kindle, ignite”
Raverty 111
Proto-IE *bhā- “to shine”
IE-Old Indian *bhāti “to shine, be bright, be luminous” bhāla- n. “splendour, lustre” bhárga- m.
“radiance, splendour” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 14-16. See also Supplementary
Table 2 B.11a.1-2
Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh, Bashkir, Karakalpak, Kumyk, Tatar balqi “to shine, glitter”
Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology 7
IE-Tokharian por “fire"
IE-Hittite pahhur “fire" Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology
B.11a.3
IE-E. Iran-Avestan hvar “sun, glow” Peterson, J. 1995
Proto-IE *g’werə- “to burn, to flame” / *g’wher[e] “to heat, to burn”
Proto-Kartvelian warwar- “to burn, glitter” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 58
Kartvelian-Svan warwāl- “to burn, glitter” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 58
Kartvelian-Georgian varvār- “to burn, glitter” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 58
IE-Hittite war- “brennen, verbrennen” [burn, scorch] Nikolayev, Sergei IE Etymology 154
B.11a.4 IE-Old Indian svarati “to shine” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 139
/
Swadesh W. Chadic-Ron (Sha) NS-Maba
“fire” hwoh “brennen” [burn] Group--
“burn” v. Skinner 141 Maba
B.11b.1 E. Chadic-Mokulu uosi(k)
N. Chinese-MSC ’uwwo “fire”
huô “fire” si(k) “fire”
“fire” Skinner 287 (B.25.1)
Wu, J. 303 112 W. Chadic- Warji Greenberg
kúwe / kə̀wai / 1966 139
kuwol “fire”
Jungraithmayr
1994 v.2 138
112
Note- B.11b.1 (MSC) In most Chinese languages initial glottals are not phonemic. However in MSC a majority
of speakers employ a very weak voiced uvular fricative [ʁ], classified by Norman along with the zero initial as a
voiced continuant. Norman 139, 140. The initial h- employed in Pinyin transcription appears to reflect this
pronunciation which, though not a glottal closure, is phonetically close to it. Hence the E. Chadic-Mokulu ’uwwo
“fire”> N. Chinese-MSC huô “fire” words form a close correspondence (i.e. mimimal contrast). See also sets
B.11a.5 and B.11b.3.
161
Proto-C. Chadic
*hwu “fire” “fry”
Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic
Etymology 2006
Swadesh “fire” C. Chadic- Affade Proto-AA N. Khoisan-
B.11b.2 hu: “fire” (Orel / !Kung (Doke)
Chinese- Wu C. Chadic-Kilba Stolbova kuʔu “burn”
hu5 “fire, flame, húʔù “fire 1995) -Žu|’oan
burn with fire” C. Chadic-Klesem *xu’- fire” kùʔú
Hakka Dict. ahu: “fire” Skinner 7 Proto-N.
N. Chinese-MSC Greenberg 1966 *-hooʔ- Khoisan
hu “(of food) #30 56 “to burn, *kùʔú “burn”
burnt” become hot” Starostin, G.
Wu, J. 284 Ehret 1995 2003 111
#801 388
B.11b.3 E. Chadic-Mubi C. Cushitic- NS- Mahas S. Khoisan–
Swadesh “ashes” kēwi Afar urre Proto-!Wi
Swadesh “fire” “Feuer” [fire] ure “to burn” *!ui
N. Chinese-MSC Skinner 141 “be ignited” Greenberg 97 S. Khoisan–
hwēi (Y) / W. Chadic-Warji Skinner 153 |Xam,
huī kúwe / kə̀wai / kuwol S. Khoisan-
“ash” “dust” “fire” ǂKhomani
Wu, J. 296 Jungraithmayr 1994 !ui “ashes”
Chen 12 v. 2 138 Starostin, G.
C. Chinese-Wu C. Chadic- Dgwede 2003 8
huE1 “ashes” gẁvre “charcoal” See also
S. Chinese-Min Jungraithmayr 1994 Chapter 2C
hoe1 “fire, v.2 67 note C.38a.2-3
flame, burn with (Khoisan)
fire” Hakka Dict.
B.11b.1 N. Chinese –MSC huô “fire”
< E. Chadic-Mokulu ’uwwo “fire” / NS-Coman – Koma woti “fire”
B.11b.2 Chinese- Wu hu5 “fire, flame, burn with fire”
< C. Chadic- Affade hu: “fire” / N. Khoisan-!Kung (Doke) kuʔu “burn” -Žu|’oan kùʔú
Proto-N. Khoisan *kùʔú “burn”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *hu / *’uwwo “fire” ~ kuʔu “burn”
B.11b.1 Middle Chinese xwoj “ashes, charcoal” Sagart 1999 98
B.11b.1
W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Pa’a h’wub’u “burn” Skinner 86
E. Cushitic-Oromo
(h)o’a “be hot” Skinner 141
hohu “riscaldarsi” [to get warm, get hot”] Borello 213
W. Chadic- Bura u’u “fire” Dictionary of Bura
Proto-S. Cushitic *’oh- “burn” Skinner 141
C. Chadic- Higi ‘-xw- “fire” Skinner 287
W. Chadic- S. Bauci-Tala kuwo:m “burn” Jungraithmayr 1994 v. 2 54
C. Chadic-Hina koho “fire” Greenberg 1966 56
W. Chadic-Hausa wutā “fire” Newman, P. 2007 21
162
NS-Coman–Koma (Madin) woti (Buldit) wutti “fire” Greenberg 1966 139

W. Chadic- Dyarim wutə́ “fire” Blench 2007 49
W. Chadic-Gwandara (Nimbia) ka wuto (Cancara íwuta “hot (as fire)” Matsushita #429 101
Egyptian uaa-t “flame, fire” Budge v.1 145-6
B.11b.2
C. Chadic- Hiji uhu “fire”
C. Chadic-Bura ʔuʔu “fire”
C. Chadic-Logone ʔu “fire”
Proto-Central Chadic ʔahu “fire” Stolbova, Olga Central Chadic Etymology 2006
W. Chadic-Ankwe kur “burn” Skinner 169
Egyptian khu “fire” Skinner 287
Semitic-Arabic ħuriqa (IPA) “burn” Merriam-Webster Arabic 21
B.11b.3
E. Chadic-Higi-Futu ɣwɨ “fire” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology
Berber-Tuareg əkwəy “griller, bruler” [to grill, to burn] Skinner 141
B.11b.2 IE-Armenian hur “Feuer” (Ger.) “fire” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology
/
B.11c.1 Proto-W. E. Cushitic- Oromo Semitic- S. Khoisan-
S. Chinese-Kejia Chadic akawu Akkadian |’Auni
(Hakka) *kaw “grill, “arrostire, tostare, kawuˆ !xa(u)
(Meixian) roast” torrefare” “burn, kindle “burn”
k’au3 W. Chadic- [to roast, fire” Ruhlen 1994
(Lau Chunfat) Hausa to scorch, Starostin, S. #185 49
kau3 kawa / k’awa toast] Semitic S. Khoisan-
“bake, roast, toast” “grill, roast” Borello 12 Etymology !Kwi-Nǀuu
Hakka Dict. Skinner 141 Proto-AA !xao
N. Chinese-Beijng W. Chadic- (Orel/Stolbova “burn” vt.
kâo Ngizim kàuyú 1995) *kaw- Starostin, G.
“to roast, to bake, vn. kauyà, “set fire” / 2012 14
to toast” kawai *qawar
“scorching” “fry “burn”
Wu, J. 386 (usually in oil)” Skinner 141
Schuh 95, 201
B.11c.2 E. Chadic-
S. Chinese-Yue Masa group-
(Cantonese) Lame hao
háau / hàau “griller” (dans
“to roast, to bake, un récipient)”
to toast” [grill in a
“to warm by a fire” container]
163
B.11c.3 W. Chadic- Semitic-Arabic N.Khoisan-

N. Chinese-MSC Hausa (Iraqi) čawwa !’O-!Kung
châo “stir fry, fry” k’aurara “to burn, sear, šau
Wu, J. 80 “fry without oil scald” “roast”
shâo “burn” or grease” Dict. of Iraqi Ruhlen 1994
“cook, bake” Newman, 2007 Arabic #468 61
Wu, J. 600 129 part 2 88 šau ~ sau
S. Chinese-Yue E. Chadic- Egyptian “bake”
(Cantonese) Banana shau “to Ruhlen 1994
cháau “to fry, to hawwam be hot, to #145 48
roast, to cook, to “fry” burn, fire”
broil” Skinner 141 Budge v.2
Chik / Ng Lam 280 724
B.11c.4 C. Chadic-Fali- E. Cushitic-Oromo Semitic-Arabic C.Khoisan-
N. Chinese-MSC Kiria cilawu vi. (Iraqi) Nama
shāozhuó k’alo “ashes” “carbonizzarsi, šawwat tsao-b
“burn, scorch, Skinner 177 coprirsi di fuliggine” “to burn, “ashes”
singe” [to be charred, to be scorch” Starostin, G.
Wu, J. 601 covered with soot] Dict. of Iraqi 2003 8
Borello 78 Arabic
S. Cushitic-Irakwe part 2 88, 252
xawo “charcoal”
Skinner 81
B.11c.5 W. Chadic- C. Khoisan-
S. Chinese-Yue Hausa Danisi djua
(Cantonese) zewre “ashes”
jiu “scorched or “brȗler Starostin, G.
burned” superficielle- 2003 8
jiutaan “coke” ment” C. Khoisan-Tsua
Chik / Ng Lam [burn Ʒua “ashes”
282, 283 superficially] Starostin, G.
Skinner 198 2003 8
B.11c.1 N. Chinese-MSC kâo “to roast, to bake, to toast” “scorching” / Chinese- Kejia [Hakka]
k’au3 / kau3 “bake, roast, toast”
< W. Chadic- Hausa kawa / k’awa “grill, roast” / E. Cushitic- Oromo akawu “arrostire, tostare,
torrefare, abbrustolire, (caffé, granaglie)” [to roast, to toast etc,.] / N. Khoisan-|’Auni !xa(u) “burn”
B.11c.3
TB-Bodo/Garo-Dimasa sau “burn” / N. Chinese-MSC châo “stir fry, fry” /
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) cháau “to fry, to roast, to cook, to broil”
< Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) šawa “to broil, to grill” / N.Khoisan-!’O-!Kung šau “roast”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *šaw- / *kaw- “to roast, broil, grill”
B.11c.3
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] tsiau1 / qiau2 “burn” Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC (Beijng)[ shāo “burn” Wu, J. 600
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) cháaufaahn “fried rice” Kwan 198
TB-Bodo/Garo-Dimasa sau “burn” Benedict 1972 63 Kwan 79
S. Chinese--Yue (Cantonese) sìu “to burn, to roast, to boil, to heat” Chik / Ng Lam 287
siuhàau v. “grill” Kwan 209
164

B.11c.1
C. Cushitic-Bilin kaû “warm sein” [be warm] Skinner 141
NS-Kanuri kâusu “heat of the sun” kâusua “sunny, hot out” Cyffer 1990 84 Hutchison 1981 110
S. Khoisan-|Xam káo “warm” Starostin, G. 2012 51
Khoisan- Hadza ‖ko”a “to cook” Greenberg 1966 #24 76
W. Chadic- Hausa gawàyī n. m. “charcoal, carbon” Newman, P. 2007 72 Skinner 81
Semitic- N. Assyrian gabbubu “roasted” Skinner 86
W. Chadic-Hausa gawāro “anything burnt black” Skinner 81
W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Diri gáwàyú “charcoal” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 67
B.11c.2 E. Chadic- Banana hawam- “fry” Skinner 141
B.11c.3 Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) šawa “to broil, to grill” Qafisheh 357
Egyptian tchaab “to be hot, to roast, to cook” Budge v. 2 896
S. Cushitic- Burunge, Alaba xabo “charcoal” Skinner 81
Proto-AA (Orel / Stolbova 1995) *xab- “charcoal” Skinner 8
Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 253 See also A.34.2.
B.11c.5
Egyptian ashu “roast (meat)” Budge v.1 10
C..Chadic-Mgama gyu “burn” Skinner 141
/
B.11d.1 TB-Lolo E. Chadic- C. Khoisan-
*tsha “hot” Masa Naro
Benedict 1972 27 Group ša
TB-Tibetan sala “hot”
tsha “hot, illness” “heat, Ehret
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu sweat” 1982 [173]
ca “hot” Skinner
Matisoff 2003 462 198
B.11d.2 Omotic-N. Egyptian
Swadesh “warm” Branch- sar “to make a
TB-Tibetan Sheko fire to burn”
tsareg *s’ärab Budge v.2 645
“feeling of warmth, “warm” tchar “to
heat” “(stem + *b burn, to boil
Goldstein 871 extendative away”
B.11d.2 > stative)” Budge v.2 899
Proto-Tibeto-Burman Semitic-Arabic
*tsyar or *tśar jaħriqu “burn”
“sunshine” Merriam-
Matisoff 2003 391 Webster
Arabic 21
Swadesh “hot, warm” C. Chadic- Egyptian NC-Fulfulde
B.11d.3 TB-Tibetan Gude tchabaa-t [Fulani]
tsha-wa v. “to be iza’u “hot” “very hot jau “very hot”
hot” n. “heat” W. Chadic- embers, fire” (strengthener,
adj. “warm, hot” Gwandara Budge v.2 897 i.e. special
Das 1018 jawu “very [See also adverb)
[Disyllabic corresp.] hot” E.17.4 ] Taylor 98
tsha-ba “to be hot Skinner 298
(of day)”
Jaschke 443
165
Chinese-Kejia
[Hakka]
sau1 “warm”
Ramsey 113
B.11d.4 W. Chadic- NS- N. Khoisan-
TB-Tibetan Hausa Kanuri Auen
tsha-tsha “illness, zàzzàb’i zâu cã, ca
complaint” n. m. “painful, “illness,
Jaschke 442 “fever, difficult” be ill”
tsā vi. high Cyffer C. Khoisan-
“to get a sharp, painful temperatur 1990 19 Naron
sensation” e” cã
Goldstein 868-869 Newman / “to be ill”
tsha-gdung Ma 1979 Khoisan-
“afflictions from 140, Hatsa ca
disease, suffering, Newman, “illness,
from fever” R. 1990 be ill”
Das 1017 95 Greenberg
gdung “pain” 1967 75
B.11d.5 W. NS-
TB-Tibetan tsawa Chadic- Kanuri
“hot food, drinks” Hausa zâu
Goldstein 870 zau ideo. “hot (of
N. Chinese -MSC “hot (and pepper
jiāo tasty)” etc.)”
“any of several hot “very hot” Cyffer
spice plants” “very 1990 19
Wu J. 340 sweet”
TB- Bodo/Garo- Skinner
Dimasa sa-ba 298
“heat (used of the Newman, P.
heat of chillies, 2007 231
peppers)”
Benedict 1972 27
B.11d.6 Proto-AA Egyptian S. Khoisan-
TB-Central Loloish- *-šah̟- sa !Kwi-|Xam
Lahu “to burn” “to burn” ‖a ~ ‖a:
cá “boil, Ehret 1995 Budge v.2 635 “burn” vt.
cook” vt. #510 276 Starostin,
Matisoff 2003 63 G. 2012 14
B.11d.1
Khoisan-Hoan čhá “sun” Starostin, G. 2003 32
TB-Chin-Lushai śa ~ śat “hot” Benedict 1972 27 Matisoff 2003 9
TB-Meithei əsau “heat” Benedict 1972 63
N. Chinese-MSC shû “heat, hot weather” Wu, J. 636
B.11d.4
TB-Burmese tsha “pain” Benedict 1972 151
TB-Karenic-Sgaw sha “disease, pain, painful, hot”
TB-Karenic-Pwo sha “pain” Benedict 1972 136
TB-Bodo / Garo-Garo sa “ache, sick” Benedict 1972 27 Matisoff 2003 177 note d
166
sa-ani “pain” sa-gipa “pepper” Benedict 1972 27

TB--Dimasa sa ”ache, pain” Benedict 1972 27, 151
tsawa “heat” “fever” tsaro “a dormant fever/infection” Goldstein 870-871
N. Chinese-MSC fāshāo “have a fever” Wang, F. 141
B.11d.5
TB-Bodo/Garo-Garo sa-gipa “pepper” Benedict 1972 27
TB-Tibetan tsha-po “heat, spice, condiment” Jaschke 443
ka tsābo “hot (spicy)” Goldstein 105
Middle Chinese tsew / tsjew “pepper plant” Sagart 1999 63
B.11d.1
Proto-E. Cushitic *c’aab- “to be afire” Ehret 1995 #546 290
Egyptian tchafu “flames, fire” shaf “to burn up” tchaff / tchafi “to be hot” Budge v.2 726, 897
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) h’awaij “miscellaneous spices” h’awwaij sawda “black pepper, cardamon
and cumin” Qafisheh 148
B.11d.2
E. Cushittc-Yaaku -sar- “to burn” Ehret 1995 #486 520
Proto-AA *tsar- “to burn low” Ehret 1995 #486 267, 520
Proto-Cushitic *tsar- “to burn low” Ehret 1995 #486 267
NS-Songhay (Gao) zárga “bouillir en faisant du bruit, boullir de colère” [boil noisily, boil with
anger] Ducroz 243 záaringo “midi” [midday, noon] Ducroz 241
džari masu “midday, noon” Barth 153
Semitic-Hebrew tsalah “to roast” Baltsan 724 saraf “burned, set fire to” Baltsan 367
sharav “heat wave” Baltsan 386
B.11d.3
Proto-Cushitic *ts’aʕ- “to burn” Ehret 1995 #543 288
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) tša‫ح‬waṭ “to overheat, burn” “to be burned” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
part 2 243
W. Chadic-Hausa zāfāfā vt. “heat, warm up” vi. “be warmed up” “Newman, P. 2007 228
E. Cushitic-Oromo sāfa / sāfaa n. “hot time of day” Gragg 347 Skinner 224
“canicola, calore, caldura” [dog days, heat wave, heat] Borello 363
W. Chadic-Gwandara
japi / zapi “hotness (as of things and weather)” “hot taste” “smarting pain” Matsushita 1972 54, 126
jàjàbi “fever” Matsushita 1972 53
C. Chadic Gude tsəfa “heat” Skinner 294
E. Cushitic-Bilin kaȗ “warm sein” [be warm] Skinner 141
B.11d.5 W. Chadic-Hausa zāfi “heat, speed, intensity (esp. of pain)” “heat, intensity” (esp. of
illness)” Skinner 198
Proto-W. Chadic šaʔaf “pain, heat” Militarev / Stolbova
B.11d. 6 S. Khoisan-!Kwi-‖Ng|Ke ‖a “burn” vt. Bleek 1956 544, 566 Starostin, G. 2012 14
B.11d.1 TB-Tibetan tsha-wa “to be hot”
< Egyptian tchabaa-t “very hot embers, fire”
B.11d.6 N. Chinese -MSC zào “hurriedly, hastily” “rash, impetuous, restless” “hurried, hasty”
< W. Chadic-Hausa saurī “haste” “hurry” “speed”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon tša’u to be hot” “hurry n., haste”
/
B.11e.1TB-Tibetan Proto-Cushitic Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi)
tsab-tsúb (Ehret) *zaf- v. šarbat “to do hurriedly,
“hurry, haste” “hurry ” carelessly” Dict. of Iraqi
Jaschke 430 Skinner 294 Arabic pt. 2 238
167
B.11e.2 E. Chadic- Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) Songhay

TB-Tibetan Dangaleat sarra ‫ح‬ (Koroboro
tshatsha sàadyilè “to speed up, expedite” čahā
(Balti prov.) “se hater tsarra‫ح‬ “hurry,
“hastily, quickly” exagérément, “to be rash, hasty” do fast,
Jaschke 443 perdre Dict. of Iraqi Arabic be in a hurry”
tsadraà / patience” part 2 217 Heath
dzadraà [be overhasty, v.3 62
“urgent, critical” lose patience]
Goldstein Fédry 362
870, 903
B.11e.3 W. Chadic- E.Cushitic-
N. Chinese – Hausa Oromo
MSC zào saurī m. siyawu vi.
“hurriedly, “haste” “aver fretta,
hastily” hurry, accellerarsi “
Wu, J..868 speed” [be hasty, be
TB-Tibetan Newman, in a hurry]
ka tsawa R. 1990 Borello 377
“urgent, vital” 118, 127
Goldstein
2001 105
B.11e.1
TB-Tibetan tshatsha “hastily, quickly”
< “to hurry, to be urgent, to dash away, fast, hurried] Borello 263
B.11e.2 TB-Tibetan tsha “hot, illness” / TB-C. Loloish-Lahu ca “hot” /
TB-Chin-Lushai śa “hot”
< C. Khoisan-Naro ša “hot” / Khoisan-Naro ša “hot”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma *s’är ~ ša “be warm, be hot”
B.11e.2 TB-Tibetan
dzagεὲ “urgent and important, urgency and importance” Goldstein 903
tsha-sna “anxiety, solicitude” Das 1017 tsajöö wojöö “all at once, hurriedly” Goldstein 869
dzalaŋ “rash, impudent, rude, reckless” Goldstein 903
‘tshab-‘tshub “hurry, confusion, perplexity, fear” Jaschke 458
B.11e.3 E. Cushitic-Oromo jarjaru vi. “affrettarsi, aver premura, spicciarsi, affrettato” Borello 263
B.11e.2 Sanskrit saranya “to run, hasten, speed” RV saranyu “quick, fleet, nimble” RV
/
Swadesh “hot, warm” W. Chadic-Ron (Daffo) E. Cushitic- South NS-Songhay
B.11f.1 TB-Tibetan sân “warm-machen” Rendille (Ethiopian) (Gao)
tshan-mo “hot, [make warm] sankulláy Semitic- cáàn
warm” Das 1023 Jungraithmayr 1970 “hot air, Amharic “se chauffer
tshán-te (W. Tibet) 220 hot wind sänäffätä au feu”
“hot, warm” -Ron (Bokkos) (that is felt in “be hot Ducroz 53
“sharp, biting, pungent “wärmen, heiss the heat of (mustard)” čankam
(of spices)” machen” [to warm, to the day)” Leslau 1976 “warm up at
Jaschke 443 heat] Jungraithmayr Pillinger 256 57 fire”
1970 145 Heath v.3 62
168

B.11f.1
TB-Chin-Lushai tshwàn “cook” Matisoff 2003 472
N. Chinese-MSC tsân (WG) “to hasten, to urge, to hurry” Mathews #6682 980
zân “hurry (rush) through” “urge, hasten” W u, J. 864
NS-Anywa (Anuak] cʌ‫כ‬ŋ “fire (of king)” “sun” Reh 13
W. Chadic-Sura ĉaan “burn” Militarev / Stolbova. See also Note C.47a.2.
↓↓
Sino-Tibetan languages African/AA languages – Close correspondences
B.12a-c AA-Chadic AA –Cush. AA -Semitic Nilo-Sah. NC
B.12a.1 Swadesh W. Chadic-Hausa E. NS-Kanuri
“dry (substance)” ‘kandàarē vi. Cushitic- kannua
TB-Kiranti-Limbu “become rigid or Rendille “hot”
kāŋma vi. dry” Newman / khandiid kannuajin
“dry or warm up at the Ma 1979 74 “state of “become
edge of a fire” ‘kandas ideo. wilting hot, get
van Driem 1987 431 “lacking in oil, vegetation” hot”
Old Chinese dried out” Pillinger Cyffer
g’ân Newman / Ma 189 1990 79
“to dry, dry” 1979 740il”
Karlgren GSR 139s Newman, P.
Matisoff 2003 259, 301 2007 126
B.12a.2 W. Chadic- Semitic- Kanuri S. Khoisan-
TB-Tibetan Hausa ‘kamee Hebrew ngâmde !Kwi-
skam-po “dry” “dry out and kamal “dry” |‘Auni
Jaschke 20 become stiff, “withered” Cyffer ‖khom
gamdraà “dry” caked” v. past 1990 134 “dry”
Goldstein 51 Newman, P. tense Bleek 1956
2007 126 Baltsan 163 607
B.12a.3 S. Chinese-Yue W. Chadic-
(Cantonese) chàahn Hausa shanye
“wither (of flower)” “dry up”
Kwan 573 Skinner 241
B.12a.1 N. Chinese-MSC kān “dry, dried as opposed to fresh” / Proto-Tibeto-Burman *kan “dry up”
< W. Chadic – Hausa k’andas “to be dried out”
B.12a.2 TB-Tibetan gāmdraà “dry” < NS-Kanuri gāmde “dry”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *’kan- “to be dried out” / *gām- “dry”
B.12a.1
TB-Burmese khàn “dry up” Benedict 1972 166 note 444, 191
N. Chinese-MSC k’àng (WG) “to dry” Mathews #3273 491 kān (WG) “dry, dried as opposed to
fresh” Mathews #3233 486 gān “dry (desiccated) Wang, F. 160 “dry, clean, exhausted” Huang 128
gānba “dried up, shriveled up” Wu, J. 217
TB-Chin-Lushai ka:ŋ “burn” kaŋ “evaporate, dry up, fry” Benedict 1972 #330, 331 72,
Matisoff 2003 268
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] kàŋ “ be hot” kāŋ “ be dry” Benedict 1972 331 72 Matisoff 2003 258, 268
TB-Chin-Tiddim kâŋ “dry up” kā:ŋ “burn” Matisoff 2003 268
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ʔgaŋ “roast, toast, burn, be dry” *kan “dry up” Matisoff 2003 166 258,
259, 595 Benedict 1972
169
B.12a.2
TB-Tibetan gambo “dry” Goldstein 52 kam “dried” Goldstein 116 gro-skam “dry wheat”
Das 249 [compound of this root and that of B.27.1]
TB-Kulung gɔ:ma “be dried at the fire” “dry at the fire” Starostin, S. Kulung Dictionary
B.12a.1
C. Cushitic-Bilin kwan “backen” [bake] Skinner 141
C. Chadic-Mokulu kuŋgiraŋ ideo. “sec, rigide” [dry, stiff] Skinner 135. See also B.12c.1
B.12a.2
NC-Swahili ikame “barren, arid” Awde 2000 82
Egyptian khemm “to be hot, to be dry, to burn” Budge v.1 547 skhamm causative “to make hot”
Budge v.2 688
B.12a.3 Egyptian tchamā “dry land, parched ground” Budge v.2 898
B.12a.1 S. Daic-Lao haang5 adj. “dry” Marcus 68 kaang4 adj. “stiff” Marcus 216
B.12a.2 Proto-Kartvelian *qam- “to be dry” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 43
/
Swadesh “burn” N. Omotic- Semitic- Kanuri NC- Benue-
B.12b.1 N. Mao Hebrew kángin Congo- Ekoid
TB-Chin-Lushai k’än- kham “deep fry Bantu
kaŋ “burn” vt. “to burn” “warm (e.g. bean cakes kaŋ- “fry, bake”
TB- Jingpho Ehret 1995 (tempera- in oil)” Williamson /
[Kachin] #419 236 ture)” Cyffer 1990 79 Shimizu
kaŋ “to be hot, Baltsan 1968 v.1 174
emit heat, as the sun 814 kánnu n. C. Khoisan-Naro
or a flame” “fire” ‖xām
Benedict 1972 71 Lukas 1937 “cook”
kekāŋ 26, 209 Ruhlen 1994
roast, toast” Cyffer 1990 79 # 220 51
Matisoff 2003 136 kange n.
Proto-Tibeto- “fever, malarial
Burman *kaŋ fever”
“roast, toast, burn” Cyffer 1990 79
Benedict 1972
#330 71, 201
Matisoff 2003
268, 595
Swadesh W. NS-Songhay S. Khoisan-
“warm” Chadic- (Gao) ‖Ng!Ke
B.12b.2 Hausa kónnù ‖kwonna
TB-Kiranti-Kaling k’ona “ětre chaud, “be warm”
ghona “burn” ětre fièvreux” Greenberg 1966
“to heat, Newman, [be warm, be 76
to warm” R. feverish]
Starostin, S. 1990 31 Ducroz 155
Kiranti Etymology W. Chadic-
[Disyllabic corresp.] Buli konu
“burn,
dry up”
Skinner
174
170

B.12.b.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *kaŋ “roast, toast, burn” / N. Chinese-MSC kàng “bake or dry by
the heat of a fire”
< NC- Benue-Congo-Ekoid Bantu kaŋ- “fry, bake” / NS-Kanuri kángin “deep fry, e.g. bean cakes
in oil)”
B.12.b.2 TB-Kiranti-Kaling ghona “to heat, to warm”
< W. Chadic-Hausa k’ona / S. Khoisan-!Ke ‖kwona “be warm”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *kaŋ- “fry, bake” ~ ‖kwona “be warm”
B.12b.1 N. Chinese-MSC
kàng “bake or dry by the heat of a fire” Wu, J. 385
k’àng (WG) “a brick bed warmed by a fire” Mathews #3723 491
kàng “a heatable brick bed” Wu, J. 385
TB- Chin-Mikir kangdak “burn (by touching a hot thing)” Walker 75
TB-Chin-Lai kaaŋ “be burning” khaaŋʔ “burn something” Matisoff 2003 90
TB- Burmese kaŋ “broil, roast, toast” Benedict 1972 71
TB-Proto-Kiranti *kaŋ “fry, roast” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] kəŋau “fry” Benedict 1972 63
TB-Tangkhul kəŋui “fry” Benedict 1972 63
S. Chinese-Min hâng “to toast” Bodman 1987 v. 2 136
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chàang “a heat, a pan for frying” Chik / Ng Lam 472
B.12b.2 Proto-TB-Kiranti *ghoŋ “to warm” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
B.12b.1
NC-Swahili kaanga “to fry” kangwa “to be fried” “fried” Awde 2000 80, 83
W. Chadic- Sura caan “burn” Jungraithmayr 1994 v. 2 54
W. Chadic- S. Bauci- Kir kwaŋa “burn” Jungraithmayr 19945 v. 2 54
NS-Anywa cʌ̀ŋ “fire” Reh100
NS- Nuer caŋ “sun” Huffman 8
S. Khoisan-Nu‖en |aŋ “fire” Starostin, G. 2003 16
NS-Kanuri kəngâl “sun” Cyffer 1990 92 kange “fever, malarial fever”
kangea “having a fever, feverish” Cyffer 1990 78
NS-Saharan Songhay (Koroboro) čaŋkam “warm up at fire” Heath v. 3 62
E. Cushitic- Oromo qam-accu “riscaldarsi al sole o al fuoco, prendere sole, abbronzarsi al sole”
[to warm oneself at the fire, take some sun, get a tan from the sun] Borello 335
Khoisan-Sandawe *kama “to burn” Starostin, G. 2006-2008.
C. Khoisan-Naro, Hietsho kam “sun” Ehret 1982 [175]
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) h̟ammar “to roast” Qafisheh 140;
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) ‫ح‬ammas “to roast” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 118
N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au‖’e ǂxame “cook” Ruhlen 1994 # 220 51
Egyptian kham “burning hot” khamm “heat, fire, hot, fever” “to be hot, to blaze”
Budge v.1 531, 572 ta khamm “to inflame” Budge v.2 866
B.12b.2.
C. Chadic-Bata Group konu “burn, dry up” Skinner 174
W. Chadic-Hausa k’one “burn, dry up” k’ūna “searing, burning heat” vn. m. Skinner 174
Newman, P. 2000 715, 2007 132
E. Chadic-Lele kuny “cuire sans eau” [cook without water] Skinner174
S. Khoisan-‖Ng!K ‖ona “warm (hot)” Starostin, G. 2012 51
W. Chadic-East Hausa ‘ona = Standard Hausa k’ona “burn” Matsushita 1993 86.
See Chapter 10 Section 10.3. 2. for other variants of this kind.
C. Chadic-Fali Mucella, Fali Bwagira xun- “burn” Skinner 174
171

B.12b.1
IE-Sanskrit
kandupakva “parched or roasted (as grain) or fried in a pan”
kandukaghRha “a place for cooking”
kandava “roasted or baked in an iron pan or oven”
kandu “an oven or vessel serving as one” Cologne Lexicon.. See also Supplementary Table 2
IE-Hindi qhānsama n. “cook” Scudiere 225
Proto-Altaic *k’eŋV “to be burnt”
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *keŋsi “to be burnt”
Alaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *xeŋ(-gu-) “to be burnt” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
B.12b.2
IE-Bengali agun “fire” n. Thompson 36
Proto-Altaic *kéma “stove, cauldron” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Proto-Turkic *kémeke “stove, cauldron” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology http://starling.rinet.ru./c
IE-Old Indian ukhá-m, ukhā “boiler, cauldron” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology
/
Sino-Tibetan languages African/AA languages – Close correspondences
B.12.c Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA – AA- Nilo-Saharan NC
Cush. Sem.
B.12c.1 W. Chadic- Hausa Kanuri
TB- Chin-Mikir kàngàrē “be stiff gangâu adj
kang “to stiffen” (from cold)” “very dry and
kangtang / kangsak Newman, R. 1990 260 hard”
“enured, hardened” “stiffen” Cyffer 1990 56
Walker 75 Skinner 135 káng ideo.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) C. Chadic- Bura “describes the
ngaahng “hard (firm)” ganggang adj. stiffness or
Kwan 215 “rigid, stiff” “hard, tight, firm” erectness of
Chen 336, 383 ganggirang something”
N. Chinese-MSC “hard, not pliant (of skins)” Cyffer 1990 78
kāng (WG) “hard, strong, Dictionary of Bura
tough” Mathews #3272 491 See also G.1a.1
B.12c.2 W. Chadic- Hausa
N. Chinese-MSC k’andàrē vi.
jiāng “stiff, numb” [pronounced kyandàrē
Wu, J. 335 See note A.33.1]
jiān “hard, solid, firm, “harden, stiffen”
strong” Newman, R. 1990 118
Wu, J. 327 “become rigid”
Newman, P. 2007 126
B.12c.1 N. Chinese-MSC gāng “firm, strong” “rigid”, kāng “hard, strong, tough” / TB- Chin-
Mikir kang “to stiffen”
< W. Chadic – Hausa kàngàrē “be stiff (from cold)” “stiffen” / NS- Kanuri gangâu adj. “very dry
and hard” “dried, hard, untanned, animal skin”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *kàng- “be hard” “to stiffen” ~ gang- “dry and hard”
B.12c.1 TB-Chin-Lushai khaŋ “congealed, solidified, set” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-S. Loloish-Bisu ʔaŋ-kɛn “stiff” Matisoff 2003 109
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] ŋaŋ2 “be firm, stong” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
172
N. Chinese-MSC gāng “firm, strong” “rigid” gāngxing “rigidity” Wu, J. 221 Huang 130
Proto-Chinese *kāng “hard, strong” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
NS-Kanuri gangâu “dried, hard, untanned animal skin” Cyffer 1990 56
B.12c.1 South Daic-Lao kaang4 adv. “hard” Marcus 100 adj. “stiff” Marcus 186
adj. “tough, strong” Marcus 234
↓↓
ST Languages African /ME languages - Close correspondences
B.13 AA –Chadic AA-Cushitic, AA- Nilo-Saharan Niger-Congo
Omotic Sem.
B.13.1 Nuer NC-S.W.
TB-Tibetan tuəl Mande-
rdul “dust as “smoke” Mende
particles floating in Huffman 46 ndùlú
the air” “smoke,
Jaschke 286 vapour”
“dust, motes” Mukarovsky
Das 700 127
TB-Pattani
dhul “dust”
Matisoff 2003 415
Swadesh “smoke” C. Chadic- N. Omotic- Songhay (Gao) NC-E. Mande-
B.13.2 Gude Janjero dùllù “vapeur, Bobo
TB-Tibetan tùl tuloo fumée” túlú
tuluŋ “smoke” “dusty” “dust” [steam, smoke] “dust”
Goldstein 530 Skinner 263 Skinner 263 Ducroz 264 Mukarovsky 151
[Disyllabic corresp.] N. Omotic- dullu
TB-E. Kiranti- Gimira “smoke”
Bantawa tulloo “dust” Greenberg
dhu-mi-lo Mukarovsky 1966 145
“dusty, misty” 151 Mukarovsky
Matisoff 2003 415 127
B.13.3 W. Chadic- Nile Nubian
TB-N. Loloish- Hausa [Kenuzi-
Nusu tùrùrī “steam, Dongola]
dhui “dust” vapor” tulli
TB-Kokborok Skinner 264 “smoke”
ha-druy “dust” Newman, P. Greenberg
Matisoff 2003 415 2007 213 1966 105
B.13.1 TB-Tibetan rdul “dust, as particles floating in the air” “dust, motes”
< Omotic-Janjero tuloo “dust” / tulloo “dust” / NS- Songhay dùllù “vapeur, fumée” [steam, smoke]
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *tul- / dul- “dust, smoke”
B.13.1
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *dul ~ *tul “dust” Matisoff 2003 587
TB-Tibetan tüü “smoke” Goldstein 532 düü “to make smoke (usually by burning incense)”
Goldstein 452 tushaà, tuwə, “smoke” tudreg “smoke, dirt, soot” Goldstein 530
dú-ba / dúd-pa “smoke” dú-z̀ag “the smoke or vapor hanging over towns and villages in the
morning” Jaschke 252, 253
173

B.13.1 NS-Songhay (Gao) dùlúulù “brume, brouillard” [mist, fog] Ducroz 76
N. Omotic-Gimira, Shako duldul “cloud” Mukarovsky 127
NS-Dinka tol “smoke” Greenberg 1966 #97 105
NS-Nuer tur “sandstorm, dust” Huffman 46
B.13.2 NC-N. Mande- Bozo-Dia xumun-dulu “dust” Mukarovsky 151
B.13.3 W. Chadic-Hausa tùrùrī “steam, vapor” Ma Newman, R.1990 198, 259, 294
tùràaren wuta “incense” Newman, P. 2007 212 tùrbāyā “dust” Ma Newman, R. 1990 77
NS-Anywa n.f. tɔ̀r pl. tɔ‫כ‬rɔ‫“ כ‬dust” Mukarovsky 127
B.13.1 IE-Sanskrit dhūli “dust, powder” dhūlika “fog, mist” dhuli “dust (also the dusty soil),
powder, pollen” dhulaya “to sprinkle with dust or powder” dhUlana “covering with dust” dhuli-
dhumra “dark wih dust” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Hindi dhula “dust” Kobayashi Table 1 #148 4 Scudiere 58 dhūl “dust” Scudiere 50
IE-Bengali dhula “dust” / dhu:m “smoke, fume, steam” Thompson 58, 195
IE-Pashto durra’h “fine dust, dust in general” Raverty 471
Proto-IE *dhuw- “to smoke, to raise dust” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 29
IE-Hittite tuhhuwai “Qualm?” (Ger.) [smoke, vapor] “Dunst?” (Ger.) [vapor, mist, haze]
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho du’lid’ “dust” Kobayashi Table 1 #148 4
IE-Old Indian dhūli f. “dust, powder” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 29
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari dhu’ri / du’rǝ “dust” Kobayashi Table 2 #148 10
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali dhu’ri “dust” Kobayashi Table 3 #148 16
IE-Tokharian twe f. “dust, ashes” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 29
B.13.2 IE-Sanskrit dhūlma “smoke, vapor, mist, incense” dhūlmravarNa “smoke-coloured,
smoky” “incense” RV dhūmita “obscured with smoke, mist, darkened” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Hindi dhumdhuata “smoky” dhum-kohara “smog” Scudiere 153 dhumdh “haze”
dhumdhlā “hazy” Scudiere 73
IE-Bengali dhu:m “smoke, fumes, steam” Thompson 58, 126
IE-Pashto dam “steam from a pot or kettle” Raverty 470
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish duman “smoke, haze” dumanli “smoky” Tureng 223, 437
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur tuman “fog, mist” Uyghur Dictionary
The following group of tables B.14a-c contains morphemes representing the general meaning of
“swell, swelling,” “grow big”. All contain the main vowel as back *-u- / *-o-. The B.14a.1-5 variants
represent its specialized meaning “to bud, to blossom, flower”. B.14a.6-9 include the general meaning
“swelling”as well as protuberances on the body and the bubbling of water.
The B.14b variants contain an *-a- vowel for the most part with meaning of “flower, blossom”.

B.14a-b Afro-Asiatic – AA-Omotic AA – Nilo- Niger-Congo
B.14a.1 W. Chadic- N. Omotic- Semitic- Songhay NC-S.E.
TB-Burmese Hausa Janjero Arabic (Koyra) Mande- Lebir
phù “to bud, fùrē “flower, fūd’aa / fūraa full coll. fuuru pu “blossom,
swell” blossom” “blossom, “roses, “swell up” flower”
aphu “bud, Newman, P. flower” flowers” Heath NC-N.
swelling” 2007 64 Mukarovsky Qafisheh v.1 95 Mande-
TB-Nepali Jungraith-mayr 102 474 Vai
hulnu 1994 v.2 146 fūraa “flower” fu “blossom,
“to blossom, Greenberg Greenberg flower”
to flower” 1966 57 1966 57
174
phul “flower” See also Note Proto-Afro- NC-S.E.

Starostin, S. B.14c.1 Asiatic Mande- Bisa
ST Etymology 113 (Orel /Stolbova púu
N. Chinese-MSC 1995) “blossom,
fū (W) *pur- flower”
“to open, “flower, grass” Mukarovsky
as a flower” Skinner 71 102
Mathews #1950
288
fuā “flower,
blossom, bloom”
Wu, J. 286
B.14a.2 W. Chadic-Ron E. Cushitic-Afar W. Semitic- Songhay
Proto-TB (Kulere) botoke / botke Ethiopian- (Gao)
*bu ~ *pu bu “open” vi. “split open, Amharic búbúzù
“open, bud” Jungraith-mayr burst open buqayya “bour-
Benedict 1972 1994 v.2 264 (of lower)” “sprouting geonner”
#260 62, 199 E. Chadic- Parker / grain [to bud]
TB-Tibetan Migama Hayward 77 seedling, Ducroz 50
büǜ “to sprout, búyùmú boroy bud, shoot” NS-Tubu
blossom “blossom, “blossom, Leslau [Teda]
(for plants, flower” flower” 1976 93 boo /
flowers)” Mukarovsky Parker/ koobu
Goldstein 764 102 Hayward 73 “flower”
‘bó ba Edgar 246
“to sprout, shoot
forth (of wild-
growing plants)”
Jaschke 394
B.14a.3 Kanuri
TB-Proto-Kiranti fúngin,
*phun “flower” fújin
TB-Vayu phung “swell,
“flower” become
Starostin, S. swollen”
ST Etymology Cyffer
1990 52
B.14a.1 N. Chinese-MSC fū “to open, as a flower”
< W. Chadic- Hausa fùréé “flower, blossom” / N. Omotic-Janjero fūd’aa, fūraa “blossom,
flower” / NS-Tubu fur “offnen” [to open] / NC-N. Mande- Vai fu “blossom, flower”
B.14a.2 TB-Tibetan büǜ “to sprout, blossom (for plants, flowers)” /
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] pu2 “to bloom, bud”
< W. Chadic-Ron-Kulere bu “open” / Songhay búbúzù “bourgeonner” [to bud]
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *fu ~ *bu “to open, to bud, to sprout” “flower”
113
Note- B.14a.1 (Nepali, Sanskrit Extended) Nepali contains both an IE-Sanskrit and a TB-based lexicon. It’s
phul- form of the root corresponds most closely to the Arabic- full and Sanskrit phul-. These in turn correspond
2
more closely to the Proto-Afro-Asiatic *pur- “flower, grass” than do the Tibetan büǜ and the Jingpho pu which
correspond more closely to the B.14a.2 Chadic/Cushitic forms. Hence the proximate root of the Sanskrit form is
most likely to be the Semitic-Arabic full.
175

B.14a.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *bu~ *pu “open, bud” Benedict 1972 #260 62, 199
TB-Nung phu “open” nam-phu “blossom, bud” Benedict 1972 62
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) pu’i5 “flower bud, bud” (Lau Chunfat) pu’i1 “flower bud”
Hakka Dict.
TB-Kuki-Chin-Mikir phù “bud” Walker 214
TB-Kham phu “to burst open” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Karenic-Sgaw phə “flower”
TB-Karenic-Pwo phau “flower” Benedict 1972 147
B.14a.2 TB-Written Tibetan
h’bu-ba “to open, to unfold (of flowers)” Jaschke 393 ; h’bu-wa “to open, to unfold (of flowers)”
Das 919 ; kā büǜ “to bloom, to open into a flower” “a flower just about to bloom” Goldstein 103
kā “on the verge of, just as was about to happen”
h’bó-ba “to swell up, to rise” “to sprout, shoot forth, of plants” Jaschke 394 Das 922
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] pù “bloom, bud” Matisoff 2003 178 pu2 “to bloom, bud”
Benedict 1972 62
B.14a.3 TB-Bahing pung “flower” ST Etymology
B.14a.1
W. Chadic- Gwandara (Koro, Nimbia) fùré / pùri “flower” Matsushita 1974 #45 45
NS-Tubu [Teda] fù “anschwellen” [to swell] fur “offnen” [to open] Lukas 1953 72, 184, 197
E. Cushitic- Somali fuur- “swell” Sasse 1982 71
NS-Songhay (Gao) féw “éclater, germer” [to break out, to sprout] Ducroz 86
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *-fūʔ “to grow, become large” Ehret 1995 #97 111
E. Cushitic-Dullay fuʔ- “to grow (of plants)” Ehret 1995 #97 111
N. Omotic- Yem fūʔrā “flower” (stem + *r noun suffix) Ehret 1995 #97 111
W. Chadic- Pa’a pure’ “flower” Mukarovsky 102
NC-S.E. Mande- Bisa púu “blossom, flower” Mukarovsky 102
N. Omotic- Gemira fudaa / furaa “blossom, flower” Mukarovsky 102
W. Chadic- Hausa hùuda vg.3 vi. “come to bud, blossom” Newman, P. 2007 90 Bargery 2002
E. Cushitic- Oromo hud’a “grow (flower, fruit)” Skinner 112
N. Omotic- Wolamo fūdee “flower” Mukarovsky 102
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] fudu “shoot, germinate, put out, spring up” Taylor 58
W. Chadic- Ngizim və̀rú “sprout, grow (of plants”) Schuh 166
W. Chadic- Ron (Sha) ‘abúf “Blume” [flower, blossom] Jungraithmayr 1970 282
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Gurage (Ĉaha, Eža, Ennemor, Gogot) fəre “fruit”.
Other Gurage dialect forms are: fəri, fre, frəya, frəəyya. Leslau 1979 v. 3 240
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic fəre “fruit, kernel, seed” Leslau 1976 245
B.14a.2
W. Chadic-Gwandara (all dialects) búre “to open” Matsushita 1974 #686 143
W. Chadic-Hausa būd’àa vt. “open slightly” būd’èe vg.4 (completive) “open”
Newman, P. 2007 23
On the completive Hausa verb aspect see Chapter 10 section 10.2.1.2 grade 4.
NS-Maba Group-Masalit buraga “flower” Edgar 180
E. Chadic-Dangaleat kòò bùùriye “le mil a formé l’épi” Fédry 294 kòò “millet”
bùriye “fructifier (mil)” Fédry 100 bóòye “fleur” [flower] Fédry 94
NS-Maba Group- Maba kubu-k / kob-uu / kob-uk “flower” Edgar 246
Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi) bur‫ع‬um “bud” (bot.) Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 32
W. Semitic- Ethiopian-Amharic əmbut n. “bud, bloom” Leslau 1976 124
C. Chadic-Bura mbura “to open up an enclosed area” Dictionary of Bura
B.14a.3 NS-Songhay (Gao) fómba “éclore” [to open out (of flowers)” Ducroz 90
176

B.14a.1
IE-Hindi phul “flower” Scudiere 63
IE-Sanskrit phullana “puffing up, inflating” phulla “split or cleft open, a full-blown flower”
Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Bengali phul “flower” Thompson 99
IE-Hindi phulnā “bloom” vi. Scudiere 21
Proto-Altaic *púre “leaf, bud” / Proto-Turkic *bür “leaf, bud”
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *bor- leaf, bud” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
B.14a.3 IE- Hindi phunsī “pimple” f. Scudiere 288 See also Supplementary Table 2 B.14a.1.
/
B.14b.1 N. Cushitic- Beja Semitic-Hebrew poreakh v.
TB-Chin-Lushai [Bedawi] present tense parakh v.
pa.r “flower, to blossom” far “flower” past tense “blossomed, bloomed”
Benedict 1972 15 Greenberg Baltsan 335, 493
Matisoff 2003 392 páar “flower” 1966 57 perakh “flower” Baltsan 341
Matisoff 2003 386, 392 Semitic-Ge’ez bar m. “field flower” Baltsan 32
TB- Chin-Mikir phù “bud” färya, färäyä Semitic-Ge’ez färya, färäyä
Walker 214 aŋ-phar “flower” “to blossom” “to blossom”
Matisoff 2003 392 Greenberg 1966 Greenberg 1966 57
S. Chinese-Yue Cantonese) 57 South (Ethiopian) Semitic- Gurage
fā n. “flower” Kwan 192 (Masqan, Gogot, Soddo)
TB-Bodo/Garo- Dimasa (a)färra-m “bear fruit”
bār “flower” Starostin, S. Leslau 1979 v.2 49, v.3 240
ST Etymology
B.14b.2 Proto-Low E. Semitic-Written Arabic
TB-Dhimal bar “to flower” Cushitic bar’ama “to bud, sprout”
Benedict 1972 15 *abab- blossom, flower” Wehr 66
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) “kind of flower” Semtic-Hebrew bar “a field
bà / pà “flowers, blossoms in full Militarev, A. flower” Baltsan 32
bloom” Chik / Ng Lam 392 Low E. Cushitic Egyptian bȧ “flower, grain”
TB-Naxi bɑ “flower” Etymology 2005 baba “plant, plants, herbs”
Matisoff 2003 392 Budge v.1 202, 209
N. Chinese-MSC pā “flower” South (Ethiopian) Semitic-
Wu, J. 505 Amharic abä-bä “flower, bloom,
blossom” Leslau 1976 134
B.14b.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) fā n. “flower” / S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] fa1 “flower”
< N. Cushitic- Beja] far “flower” / Semitic- Ge’ez färya, färäyä “to blossom”
B.14b.2 TB-Tibetan ‘bār-ba “begin to bloom, blossom” / TB- Dhimal bar “to flower”
< Arabic bar’ama “to bud, burgeon, sprout”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *pār v. “to bloom, to blossom” ~ *far n. “flower”
B.14b.1
TB-Kuki-Chin-Mikir angphar “inflorescence, head of flowers, flower (inconspicuous)” Walker 5
TB-Karenic-Pwo phau “flower” Benedict 1972 147 aŋ-phar “flower” Matisoff 2003 392
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) p’au5 (Lau Chunfat) pau1 / pau4 n.
“bubbles, suds, froth” “foam, blister” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver, Meixian) fa1 “flower” Hakka Dict.
B.14b.2
TB-Bodo/Garo-Bodo bar “blossom” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
177
TB -Dimasa bar-guru “to blossom” Matisoff 2003 392

Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ba.r “bloom, flower” Benedict 1972 #1 15, 199
B.14b.1 Proto- Semitic *pary “fruit” Skinner 71
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic afärra “fructify, [produce fruit, yield (fruit, crops), bear fruit,
be fertile, win friends, enemies)” Leslau 1976 246. See also H.27.1 Extended.
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) fatta‫(“ ح‬of flowers) to open, to bloom” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 343
Egyptian perkh “flower, bloom” Budge v.1 243 per-t, perr-t “sprout, plant” ” vegetable”
“grain, wheat, fruit of any kind” Budge v.1 242
Semitic-Hebrew pərii “fruit” Leslau 1979 v.3 240 Greenberg 1966 57
B.14b.2 West (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic abbätä “swell, be swollen, swell up” Leslau 1976 13
Asian non-ST languages with correspondences to the African/AA ↔ ST ↔ ST roots:
B.14b.1 IE-Sanskrit phalya “a flower, bud” phála “fruit” Kuiper 1955 157
phal “fruit, esp. of trees” phalahrt “fruit-bearing, fruitful” phal-ini “having fruit” phal “to burst,
cleave open or asunder” “to bear or produce fruit, be fruitful” phalahrt “fruit-bearing, fruitful”
pallava “a sprout, shoot, spray, bud, blossom” “spreading, expansion” pallavita “sprouted, having
young shoots” “spread, extended” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Hindi phal “blade, fruit” m. phalodyān “orchard” m. phali “pod” f. phalna-phulna
“thrive” Scudiere 288 “flower” See also Supplementary Table 2 B.14d.1
Austro-Asiatic-Munda palha “leaf” palhao v. “sprouting of new leaves after the branch of a tree
has been cut” Kuiper 144. Kuiper considers these words to be loans from Munda into Sanskrit.
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari phal “fruit” Kobayashi Table 2 #126 9
B.14b.2 Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho ba: “flower” Kobayashi Table 1 #125 3
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari ba: / ba’ha “flower” Kobayashi Table 3 #125 9, 15
/
B.14c.1 TB- W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- South Anywa NC-Fulfulde
Tibetan Hausa Rendille (Ethiopian) bʊ‫כ‬ʊr n. [Fulani]
bu̱r “any burdundum buuraada Semitic-Harari b‫ככ‬rí pl. b’ūle /
protuberance” ideo. “become or bursi “abscess” b’ūde
“to bulge out, “emphasizes get big, “furuncle” Reh 13 “a swelling”
to swell up” swellings grow big, Leslau 1963 46 Kanuri b’ūle gigal
Goldstein 763 (e.g. insect enlarge” -Gurage bə‫כ‬rdi / “a bubo”
sha-bur “abscess, bites, whip buúr (Selti, Wolane) bə‫כ‬rti n. Taylor 23
ulcer” sha “flesh” marks etc.) “big, large” bur “furuncle” “weal, welt”
Jaschke 559 Newman, P. Pillinger 82 Leslau 1979 Cyffer
Das 1227 2000 246 v.2 265 1990 18
B.14c.2 W. Chadic- Semitic- Arabic S. Khoisan-
TB-Tibetan Hausa (Yemeni) Proto-Taa
h’bur-wa “to rise, kumbùrà kubur ‖úʔhbu
to swell up” “become “grow up, “to swell”
h’bur “swelling, swollen” become large Proto-North
boil” h’bur-po Newman, P. and big” Khoisan
“protuberance, 2007 117 Qafisheh 507 *!gùʔúbú
tumor” Das 920 114 “to swell”
Starostin, G.
2003 11
114
Note- B.14c.2 (Tibetan) This is another case in which Classical (Written) Tibetan attests a change from the
initial ku- element found here in Hausa and Arabic to a Tibetan initial glottal stop or fricative. (See Note B.11a.1-2
above and Chapter 10 section 10.3.2.2). In this case the change is a reduction of a Khoisan lateral click to an
h- laryngeal fricative. See also sets A.7b.1 and A.20a.2 .
178
B.14c.3 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic-

TB-Tibetan Hausa Sidamo
chu-bor bòorōròo m. boro’de
“bubble” “blister” “tumour,
“blister, vesicle” Newman, R. wart”
“boil, abscess” 1990 26 Gasparini
Jaschke 158 45
B.14c.4 C. Chadic- Nuer
TB-Tibetan Bura pwar
dbuwa / buwə mbwà “to swell up,
“bubble, foam, vi. “to boil, to boil,
froth” to foam, to ferment”
Das 911 to bubble” Huffman 40
Goldstein 775 Dict. of Bura
B.14c2 TB-Tibetan ‘bur-wa “to rise, to swell up, become prominent”
< W. Chadic-Hausa kùmburaa “to swell” / Semitic- Arabic (Yemeni) kubur “grow up, become
large and big” / Proto-North Khoisan *!gùʔúbú “to swell”
Approximate Tibetan etyma *‘bur ~ *!gùʔúbú “to swell, to become large” “abcess, swelling”
B.14c.1
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] bɯ̀r “big, fat, corpulent” Sagart 195
TB-Tibetan
sāmbur “a mound” Goldstein 1117 sā “earth, soil”
nyembur “the protruding stomach of a pregnant woman” Goldstein 315
burbur “protuberant, bulging” bu̱r gye “to have a pimple grow” Goldstein 764
B.14c.2 TB-Tibetan ‘bur-pa “protuberance, e.g. a boil, pustule etc.” Jaschke 394 ;
h̟bu-wa “to open, to unfold (of flowers)” Das 919
‘brú-ma “tumour, swelling, weal” Jaschke 401
B.14c.4
TB-Tibetan sbo-wa “to swell up, to distend” Das 938
S. Chinese-Min phoeh “tiny bubbles on the surface of the water; froth, suds, foam”
Amoy-English Dict. 626 p’u8 “boil” Ramsey 109
TB-Tibetan lbu-ba / dbu-ba “bubble, foam, froth, slaver” Jaschke 403
cūbur “water bubbles” “blister, boil” Goldstein 365 cū burbur “bubbling water”
Goldstein 366 cū “water”
B. 14c.1
E. Chadic-Dangaleat bur’dyul “goiter” Fédry 101;
E. Chadic--Masa Group *mb-r “ulcer, pimple” Skinner 98
C. Chadic- Higi, F. Gili *mbulu- “pimple, ulcer” Skinner 98
W. Chadic-Ngizim gábə‫כ‬rzai “a boil” Schuh 62
South (Ethiopian) Semitic- Gurage (Čaha) burbur “big” Mukarovsky 91
NS-Songhay (Koyra)
fuuru “swell up” Heath v.1 95 ;
fururu “have one’s skin break out in white pimples” Heath v.1 95 ;
NS-Songhay (Djenne) fumbuni “open sore, abscess” Heath v.2 69
Niger-Congo - Fulfulde [Fulani] fūra vi. “to blister either from a burn or a blow” Taylor 59
South (Ethiopian) Semitic- Amharic bugur “pimple” Leslau 1976 98, 435
E. Cushitic- Rendille fur’dáran “a boil” Pillinger 117
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) furgaas “inflamation, infection, swelling” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 351
179
B.14.c.2 W. Chadic–Hausa kùmburii n. “swelling, swollen area (esp. from bite, sting)”
Newman , R. 1990 268
E. Cushitic-Rendille kábuúr n. “bigger than, greater than” Pillinger 172
Semitic-Hebrew kabeer n. “great, tremendous” Baltsan 159 “huge” Baltsan 613
NC-Bantu-Swahili kufura “to swell” Swahili-English dictionary
B.14c.3 E. Chadic–Dangaleat bòoyò “swell” Mukarovsky 102
E. Cushitic-Oromo borollé “ulcera, piaga” [ulcer, wound] Borello 62
B.14c.4
C. Chadic-Mandara (Wandala) mbur “boil” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic-Etymology
E. Cushitic-Rendille fùur “state of boiling (of liquids)” “bloatedness (refers to bloating in animals
after eating certain types of grass)” Pillinger 118
C. Chadic-Bura mbwur nfwa “foaming of the sap in firewood”
mbwur shabul “soapsuds” Dict. of Bura.
NS-Anywa [Anuak] bʌ̀k vt. bʌ‫כ‬ʌò detransitivized “to boil something” Reh 9, 89
bòoyó “foam” Reh 11
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) foora / fawra “a boiling”
fawwar “to boil furiously”
fawwam “to soap, suds, lather” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 362-363
B.14c.1
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *bul- “swelling, lump” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
-Mongolian-Khalka *bulū “swelling, lump” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
-Mongolian-Kalmuck *bulə “swelling, lump” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
IE-Bengali bɔro “big, large” bara “grow, increase, develop” Thompson 65-66, 87
B.14c.2 IE-Pashto ghumb’ah “a hard swelling, a protuberance , a tumour” Raverty 732
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish
kabarmak “to swell” kabarma “rising, swelling, puffing, bulging”
kabarcik “bubble” Tureng 700
B.14c.3 IE-Hindi phorā “boil” n. Scudiere 21
B.14c.4 IE-Hindi bulbulā n. “bubble” Scudiere 23
IE-Pashto bawra “a gal, a corn, a bunion” Raverty 121
B.14c.3-4 Proto-Indo-European *bherw- “to boil, to seethe” Nikolayev, Sergei IE Etymology
/
B.14d.1 W. Chadic- Gwandara
S. Chinese-Min hure
huê “flower” “flower”
Bodman hure bure
1987 v.2 141 “the flower opened”
1983 70, 165 115 Matsushita 1972 50
B.14d.2 Egyptian
N. Chinese -MSC uab “a plant, flower, blossom”
huā “flower, blossom, uaárekh “to blossom”
bloom” Wu, J. 286 Budge v.1 146
huār “flower, Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi)
flower bush” warraq “to leaf, put forth
Wang F. 210116 leaves”
115
Note- B.14d.1 (Chinese-Min, MSC-Gwandara/Hausa) The variant Hausa and Gwandara f / h initials represent
a dialectal alternation, so the B.14d.1 Gwandara hure does not contrast with the B.14a.1 Hausa/Gwandara fùrē.
See Notes B.10.2 (Hausa) and H.3a.2 (Hausa.)
180
huācóng waraq
“flowering shrubs, “foliage, leafage, leaves” ;
flowers in clusters” wuram / warram
Wu, J. 286 “to swell up, become swollen”
cóng warrad
“clump, thicket, grove” “to blossom,
(B.2b.4 ) be in bloom”
warid
“flower(s)”
Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
part 2 491-2
B.14d.2 N. Chinese-MSC huā “flower, blossom, bloom”
< Egyptian uaárekh “to blossom” Budge v.1 146 / Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) warraq “to leaf, put
forth leaves” warid “flower(s)”
Approximate Sinitic etymon war- “to bloom, to blossom” “flower”
B.14d.1 S. Chinese-Min hue-khuán “a wreath of flowers” Bodman 1987 v.2 154
khuán “circle” (F.7a.3)
B.14d.2 S. Chinese-Min hoa1 “flower” Hakka Dict.
↓↓
In Afro-Asiatic and ST languages the following word families representing water and its states
contain a great many variant forms having the initial syllables khu / kho or su / chu / cho.
NC-Mande and especially Khoisan languages attest similar morphemes, so the ultimate source
probably lies outside of AA.
ST languages African/AA languages-Close correspondences
B.15a-f Afro-Asiatic AA-Cush., Afro-Asiatic NS NC,
– Chadic Proto-AA -Semitic Khoisan
Swadesh W. Chadic– C. Cushitic- W. For [Fur] S. Khoisan-Nu‖en
“rain” Bachama Bilin (Ethiopic) kɔwí !kwe
B.15a.1 gùrɛ‫כ‬y kurā / kuri Semitic- “rain” “rain”
TB-Qiangic-Pumi “lake” “Fluss” Gurage Berta Starostin, G.
Dayang Mukarovsky [river] kure kɔ̃ì “rain, 2003 28117
gwí “rain” 299 Skinner 161 “pond, flood cloud” C. Khoisan-Tati
Matisoff of water” Nyimang xwere
2003 171 Leslau 1979 kwe water” “waterhole”
S. Chinese-Min v.3 348 Ruhlen Ruhlen 1994
khué “stream” 1994 327 #615 67
Bodman 1987
v.2 111, 155
116
Note- B.14d.2 (MSC) The Arabic and Egyptian forms with final -r give evidence that the MSC huār form is
probably derived from an AA root stem ending in -r, rather than being a case of erisation, i.e. the nominalizing
function of the Beijing -r “rhotacized” (ér-huà) finals. See Yip Po-Ching 2000 30, Norman 144-145,
notes D.3c.1, E.33.1 (MSC) gēr) and sets F.18b.1 (MSC), H.8a.2 (MSC).
117
Note- B.15a.1 (Khoisan) In this case the Khoisan form corresponds closely to all the AA subfamilies plus,
NC-Mande, and Nilo-Saharan and these show a close correspondence with the ST forms. Semantics are those of
“stream”, “rain”. “river” “water”. These multiple correspondences in four different AA languages suggest a
proximate origin in Cushitic or Semitic. Mande and NS are older than any of the AA languages but the ultimate
origin is probably Khoisan which, as well as corresponding closely in its B.15a.1,3 phonetic forms in the B.15a.1
morpheme attests the probably original meaning of all forms, i.e.”rain” or “water” as in TB.
181
Swadesh “rain” C. Chadic- Proto-AA Egyptian

B.15a.2 Fali (Gude- (Orel / qerá
TB-Bodo/Garo- Mubi) Stolbova “rainstorm,
Digaro kəra kurabi 1995) tempest,
“rain” “rainstorm” *kur- “river” thunder-
Benedict 1972 C. Chadic- C. Cushitic- storm”
109 Margi Bilin Budge v.2
[Disyllabic kula “rain” kurā / kuri 775
corresp.] Mukarovsky “Fluss”
290 [river]
Skinner 161
Swadesh W. Chadic – E. Cushitic- South S. Khoisan-
“water” Hausa Rendille (Ethiopian) Proto-!Wi
B.15a.3 kwàràarā kowwa / Semitic- !kh(o)a “rain”
TB-Khambu vi. “flow kawwa Amharic S. Khoisan
kəwa “water” down “(to) leak” gwärräfa -|Xam
Benedict heavily” Pillinger “flow by”, !khwa “rain”
1972 109 Newman, R. 183, 203 stream down Starostin, G.
TB-Chin-Tiddim 1990 99 (of torrent, 2003 28
guā “rain” “flow, flood” rain).” !wa: ~ !hwa:
Matisoff 2003 Newman / Leslau 1976 “rain”
387 Ma 1979 73 209 Starostin, G.
kwàrànya gwärf 2012 38
“flow" “flood, !wa ~ !wã
aukawa torrential “water”
“valley” rain” Starostin, G.
Bargery 2002 Leslau 1976 2003 36
209
B.15a.1 S. Chinese-Min khué “stream” / Chinese- Kejia [Hakka] kui5 “a river overflowing its
banks, flooding river”
< NS- Nyimang kwe “water” / C. Cushitic-Bilin kuri “Fluss” [river] /
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Gurage / kure “pond, flood of water after a rain” / NC- N. Mande- Susu
xurɛ “fresh- water course” / S. Khoisan-Nu‖en !kwe “rain”, S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa, !Xoo, S.
Khoisan-Proto-Taa, !Xoo *!kxôe “rain”
B.15a.3 TB- Khambu kəwa “water” / TB-Siyin ŋua “rain”
< S. Khoisan-Proto-!Wi !kh(o)a “rain”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *kwe / *kɔwí “water, rain” ~ khoa “rain”
B.15a.1 Chinese-Hakka (MacIver) k’wui5 (Lau Chunfat) kui5 “a river overflowing its banks,
flooding river” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) kúi “a river overflowing its banks” Chik / Ng Lam 272
N. Chinese-MSC kuì “(of a dike or dam) burst” Wu, J. 400
TB-Tamang kjui “water” Sagart 1999 158
Middle Chinese kwik “water channel” Sagart 1999 51
TB-Tibetan cūlɔɔ‫“ כ‬flood” cūlεὲ “irrigation work” Goldstein 368
B.15.a.3
TB-Kiranti-Limbu kuwa “little semi-artificial water reservoir,---fed by a natural source”
van Driem 439, 539
TB-Chin-Siyin ŋua “rain” Matisoff 2003 44
TB-Newari kwa “river” Witzel 1999b 43
182
N. Chinese-MSC kou4 (WG) “a water-course, a drain, an aqueduct”

Mathews #3427 510
TB-Tibetan
khu-wa “fluid, liquid” Das 144
kōwə “the juice / liquid of anything” Goldstein 119
khu-ba “fluid, liquid” Jaschke 40
B.15a.1
S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa, !Xoo *!kxôe “rain” Starostin, G. 2003 28
E. Cushitic-Oromo kuri n. “caterrata, stagno, bacino” [water-course, pond, basin] Borello 243
NC- N. Mande- Susu xurɛ “fresh-water course” Mukarovsky 299 Greenberg 1966 80
E. Cushitic-Burji kulee “small pond in a brook” Sasse 1982 119
kul-ee “pond, pool” Hudson 205
C. Chadic–Padoko kúre “urine” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 335
C. Chadic–Higi (Kamale) xuli “river” Mukarovsky 299
E. Cushitic- Oromo kurre n. “laghetto, stagno” [pond, pool] Borello 243
“pond, pool” Foot 39
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic kure “pond, pool” Leslau 1976 157, 438
NS-Anywa [Anuak] cwìir “rainy season” Reh 19
S. Khoisan-|Xam kui “to pour” Greenberg 1966 80
Khoisan-Sandawe kwi “spill” Ruhlen 1994 327
C. Chadic- Margi kuray “river” Mukarovsky 299
C. Chadic-Mafa group-Matakam kùrày “urine” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 335 Mukarovsky 384
C. Chadic-Dghwede kúrè “urine”; -Glavda kuriyà “urine”Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 335
C. Chadic– Mandara kùrè “urine” Mukarovsky 384
NS-Songhay-Saharan (Gao) gùrèy-gùrèy “onduler (eau)” (Fr.) [to have waves] Ducroz 109
Khoisan-Sandawe !kwe “hole” Greenberg 1967 #49 78 See also B.16b.2
E. Cushitic- Rendille khuba “pour away, spill (a liquid or free-flowing substance)”
Pillinger 194, 376
B.15a.2
Egyptian kharkhar thunderstorm, hurricane, tempest” Budge v.1 573
W. Chadic–Angas kuram “lake” Mukarovsky 299 Skinner 174
E. Chadic–Dangaleat, Bidiya, Lele etc. kw-r-y- “fleuve, marigot, etang” Skinner 161
NS-Dagu of Darfur ko:rei “rain” Greenberg 1966 103
NS-Maba Group-Masalit karrin’go / karin’ga “rain” Edgar 275
NC-Bantu-Swahili gharika “flood” Swahili-English dictionary
NS-Bari kare “river” Greenberg 1966 103
C. Chadic-Yedina (Buduma) kɔrá “urine” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 335
W. Chadic–Hausa k’úra “urine” also “water not mixed with anything” Skinner 177
C. Chadic–Mofu-Gudur, Mandara group, Buduma kuray “urine” Barreteau 456 Skinner 177
C. Chadic-Lamang kuro “rain” Mukarovsky 290
W. Chadic–Dera gúrúwâ “rain” Mukarovsky 290
Niger-Congo-E. Mande- Bobo kùlù “waterhole” Mukarovsky 401
NS-Kanuri kulúwu “lake, pond” Hutchison 1981 57 “pool, pond” “lake, sea” Cyffer 1990 101
W. Chadic-Hausa gulbi pl. gulabe “river” Newman / Ma 1979 46 Skinner 91
NS-Bari kʊla “urine” Greenberg 1966 107
NS-Didinga xula “urine” Greenberg 1966 107
B.15a.3
C.Khoisan-Nama Hottentot !xowi “valley” Greenberg 1966 83
W. Chadic-Hausa Kwārà “Niger (river)” Newman, P. 2007 122 Skinner 174
183
NC-N. Mande-Bambara ko “ruisseau, marigot” [brook, side channel of river] Skinner 147
NC-N. Mande-Xassonke xo “(small) river” Mukarovsky 299
NC-Bantu-Swahili mkojo “urine” Swahili-English Dictionary
N. Khoisan-!O!Kung kau “water” Ruhlen 1994 327
Semitic-Arabic xawr “gulf, mouth of river” Skinner 161
C. Chadic-Yedina (Buduma) kwara “urine” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2
B.15a.1
IE-Sanskrit kuhi- / kuha- ”fog, mist” Kuiper 1955 143
kuhedi / kuhedika / kuhelika ”fog, mist” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Hindi kuhāsā ”mist” Scudiere 100
See also Supplementary Table 2 B.15a.1-3 and B.34.1.
Proto-Altaic *k’oli “lake, basin”
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *xule “lake, basin” Starostin. Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *ügüŕ “river, small river”
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho pu’kuri “pond” Kobayashi Table 1 #139 3
puku’ri “lake” Kobayashi Table 1 #139 Table 3 #10 3
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho‘kū:ɛ “well” Kobayashi Table 1 #115 3
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali kū:i “well” Kobayashi Table 3 #115 15
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali ’kuh’ra / ‘kuh’rǝ “fog”
Kobayashi Table 3 #154 16
B.15a.2
Proto-Altaic *kūre / *kūri “rain, storm” Starostin. Sergei Altaic Etymology
IE-Hindi kār̝ī n.f. “gulf, bay” Scudiere 18, 71, 225
IE-Sanskrit aGkura “water” aG “water” (B.34.1)
Kartvelian-Georgian tkor- “tide” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 54
Proto-Kartvelian tkor- “to flow, splash” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 54
IE-Pashto karrob “watered, irrigated, wetted with water” Raverty 415
IE-Bengali pukur “lake, pond” Thompson 108, 118
IE-Hindi pokhara “pond” Kobayashi Table 1 #139 3 Table 2 #139 9 Table 3 #139 16
IE-Hittite karitt “Flut, Ueberschwemmung” (Ger.) [flood, waters, high tide”
Proto-Altaic *k’ara “tide, ebb-tide, flood”
Altaic-Proto Turkic *k’ar- “tide, ebb-tide, flood”
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur aqar su “running water” “stream, river” Uyghur Dictionary
Altaic-Proto Tunygus-Manchu *ügē(r)- “river, small river” /
*xarba- “tide, ebb-tide, flood” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *k’argi- “tide, ebb-tide, flood” /
*kura “rain, storm” http://starling.rinet.ru./c
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho ‘gara / ga’ra “river” Kobayashi Table 1 #135 3
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari ga’ra / gar’ha “river” Kobayashi Table 2 #135 9
B.15a.3
IE-Pashto khwarr “a watercourse, a ravine, the dry bed of a river”
khwarrah “the sandy bottom of a ravine or watercourse” Raverty 414-415
IE-Sanskrit kuha- ”fog” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Hindi kuhāsā “mist” m. Scudiere 100, 221
Kobayashi Tables 1-3 #154 4, 10, 16
IE-Bengali kuwasha ”fog, mist” Thompson 44, 100, 195
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari kuă’si / kua’si / kuăsa “fog” Kobayashi Table 2
#154 10
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali ‘ku’wǝ:s “fog” Kobayashi Table 3 #154 16
184
/
Swadesh “water” W. Chadic -.N. Cushitic- Egyptian Kanuri Khoisan-
B.15b.1 Proto-TB Bauci- Diri Dembya, sáu kasuwa ǂHoan
*sywar ~ *śwar tsúwáru / súwárú Quara “pool, lake, n. current čoʔaŋ
”flow” “flow, pour” ”water” suwā drinking (of a river “rain”
Benedict 1972 W. Chadic - ”pluie” trough” etc.)” Starostin,
#241207 N. Bauci-Warji [rain] Budge v.2 súwú G. 2003
Matisoff 2003 suwára / tsuwárá / Jungraith- 642 “rainfall 28
66, 84, 394, 427 suwárá ”water” mayr 1994 with very
[Disyllabic corresp.] Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 176 little
Old Chinese v.2 340 Cushitic- clouding
śi̭wər ”water” Proto-W. Chadic Chamir over”
Karlgren GSR 576a-e *s̟wr “water” zōwā Cyffer
Matisoff 2003 37, 451 Jungraithmayr “pluie” 1990
TB-E. Kiranti- 1994 v.1 176 118 [rain] 83, 16
Waling tśəwa W. Chadic-Hausa Jungraith-
“water” zúbā “pour” vg.1 mayr
Benedict 1972 109 Newman, R. 1994
S. Chinese-Min 1990 205 v.1 176
suā “mountain stream, zúraàraa
brook” Bodman 1987 “pour in, draw
v.2 111, 417 water”
“river” 1983 74 Stolbova, Olga
W. Chadic-Etymology
B.15b.2 Proto-W. Chadic Proto-Afro- Semitic-
N. Chinese-MSC (Jungraithmayr) Asiatic Arabic
shào (WG) *s’awr- *-s’aw- saub
“driving rain, “water” “to flow” “to pour
to sprinkle, Ehret 1995 Ehret 1995 out, heavy
to dash water” #540 287 #540 287 shower”
Mathews #5681 785 Ehret 1995
“(of rain) slant in” 287, 515
“sprinkle”
Wu, J. 602
B.15b.3 Semitic-
S. Chinese-Min Arabic
chiao2 mijjahu
“lake, pond, pool, (IPA)
marsh, swamp” “water” n.
Hakka Dict. Merriam-
Webster
Arabic 176
B.15b.1 Old Chinese śi̭wər ”water” / TB-E. Kiranti-Waling tśəwa “water” / S. Chinese-Min
suā / cuā “mountain stream, brook” “a spring, a small stream” “river”
< W. Chadic -N. Bauci- Warji suwára / tsuwárá / suwárá ”water” / Cushitic-Dembya, Quara
suwā ”pluie” [rain]
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *suwára ~ suwā ”pluie” [rain]
118
Note- B.15b.1 (Proto-W. Chadic) The *swr “B grade” root is found only in W. Chadic. It is the root for 7 out
of 77 reflexes in Chadic languages reviewed by Jungraithmayr. Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 176, v.2 340-341.
185

B.15b.1
S. Chinese-Min cuá “a spring, a small stream” Bodman 1987 v.2 129
TB-Kiranti-Limbu n. cwaʔl “water” van Driem 1987 415
TB-Tibetan gsho-wa / bsho-wa “to pour away” “to pour out water” Das 1251, 1254
shu-wa “to melt” Das 1072 bshu-wa “to melt, digest” Das 1085
See also B.15e.3
shwa “high water, flood, inundation” Jaschke 555
cū-wo “river” Das 417 Goldstein 365
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *g-sywa ~ *b-sywa “flow, pour” Matisoff 2003 427
C. Chinese-Wu tsu5 “pour (liquid)” Hakka Dict.
TB-Tibetan tsēwu “small lake, pond” Goldstein 895
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) siu siu “rushing rain and wind” Chik / Ng Lam 278
B.15b.2 TB-Tibetan tsō “lake” Goldstein 896 mtsho “lake” mtsho-chu “water” Jaschke 456
Das 1041
B.15b.2
Semitic-Arabic saut “pattering of drops” Ehret 1995 515
Omotic- N. Branch *s’aw- “to exude fluid” Ehret 1995 #540 287
642W. Chadic-Angas shwē / shwa “drink” Foulkes 130
NS-Anywa jàwɪ̀ “to ripple (water)” Reh 30
B.15b.3 Egyptian sharhu “irrigation channels” Budge v.2 727
B.15b.1 IE- Sanskrit suvarNamukharI “river” suvarNarekha “river” Cologne Lexicon
svar “water” svaraSu “name of a river” svardra “very wet or moist”
suvarsa “raining well” “a good rain” See also Supplementary Table 2 B.15b.1
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur su n. sugharmak v. “water” Uyghur Dictionary
Kartvelian-Megrel čvaṛčval “to splash, flow” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 14
Kartvelian-Georgian cwar “dew, drop of dew” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 8
Kartvelian-Megrel cwar “dew, drop of dew” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 8
Proto-Kartvelian *cwar “dew, drop of dew” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 8
Altaic-Turkic-Noghai suw “water” / Altaic-Turkic-Halaj suw “water”
Altaic-Turkic-Karakalpak suw “water” / Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh su “water”
/
B.15c.1 Chinese-Min ( Xiamen) W. Chadic-Ron (Daffo) NS-Ik
tsui3 “water” Sagart 1999 157 swéy čuε
Bodman 1987 v.2 130 “Loch [lake], “water”
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) s’ui3 Brunnen Ruhlen
(Lau Chunfat) sui3 “water” Hakka Dict. [spring, well]” 1994 327
N. Chinese-MSC shui3 “water, fluid, Jungraithmayr 1970 220
liquids” Mathews #5922 839 suī “urine” W. Chadic-Ron (Bokkos)
Wu, J. 656 Wang, F. 444 swey
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian) “Loch” [lake]
shui3 “water” “a general term for seas” Jungraithmayr 1970 146
“flood, flood disaster” Hakka Dict.
B.15c.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) séui ”water” / N. Chinese-MSC shuî “water” “river”
“a general term for rivers, lakes, seas etc.” shwei “water”
< W. Chadic-Ron (Daffo) swéy “Loch [lake], Brunnen [spring, well]” /
W. Chadic-Ron (Bokkos) swey “Loch” [lake]
Approximate Sinitic etymon *swey “water, lake”
186

B.15c.1
S. Chinese-Min cuì “water” Bodman 1987 116, 130 cuì-gú “water buffalo”
Bodman 1983 91, 159 S. hoū-cuì “river water” Bodman 187 v.2 129
Middle Chinese sywijX (early Zhou dynasty, 1100 to 771 BCE)) “water” “river, flowing water”
Sagart 1999 157
TB-Chin-Lushai twi “water” Matisoff 2003 195, 451
TB-Written Burmese thwê “spit” tam- thwê “saliva” Matisoff 2003 195, 451
B.15c.1 W. Chadic-Angas shwē / shwa “drink” Foulkes 130
B.15c.1 Proto-IE *sūwe- “to rain” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 138
Kartvelian-Georgian cwi- “to spill” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005
/
Swadesh “water” W.Chadic- E. Cushitic- Pre-Proto- Kanuri N. Khoisan-
B.15d.1 N. Chinese- Ron-Sha Sidamo Semitic cú(u) ‖Kh’au-‖’e
MSC chù šuh “pour” shuma *s’w ideo. “rain čū “flow”
water flowing” Stolbova, “urine” “to flow” coming Ruhlen 1994
Mathews #1340 189 Olga shumaara Ehret 1995 down in #277 53
zhū “pool, puddle, W. Chadic “to urinate” 287, 515 buckets” NC-N. Mande-
place where water Etymology Gasparini South Hutchison Bozo Kel.
collects” W. Chadic- 397 (Ethiopian) 1981 348 dyu “water”
DeFrancis 1290 Ngizim Cushitic- Semitic- Mukarovsky
TB-Tibetan chu zhùutú Alaba Gurage 394
water, brook, river” “filter a shuma’-o šumātä C. Khoisan-
“water in the body liquid off, “urinate” “urinate” Tati
“also chu-sér pour off” Leslau 1979 Leslau 1979 �oo “flow”
euphemistic term for Schuh 184 v. 3 579 v. 3 581 Ruhlen 1994
urine” Jaschke 157 #277 53
B.15d.2 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic- Anywa
gyuù “to flow, Bura jwìyò
to run (water, blood)” gyu “flood”
gyugju “fast running “water in a Reh 33
stream” pond or
Goldstein 269 stream”
S. Chinese-Yue Dict. of
(Cantonese) Bura
jíu / jyù “a lake,
a pond, a pool”
Chik / Ng Lam
252, 277
B.15d.3 W. Chadic- Proto-AA Proto-N.
TB-Kiranti-Lulung Ngizim (Orel / Khoisan
ku “water, spring” ánkû Stolbova *!gú
Starostin, S. “river” 1995) “water”
Kiranti Etymology Schuh 10, *xüdad- Starostin, G.
TB-Newari 216 “stream, 2003 28
(Medieval) river” N. Khoisan -
kho / khu / ko Skinner 90 ‖Au‖en
“river” !gu / ‖gu
Witzel 1999b 43
187
TB-Jingpho -!O!Kung
[Kachin] ‖gu
ku “water” “water”
Ruhlen 1994 327 Starostin, G.
2003 7
B.15d.1 TB-Tibetan chu “water, brook, river” / N. Chinese-MSC chù “water flowing”
< C. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e [Khoi] čū “flow”
B.15d.3 TB-Kiranti-Lulung ku “water, spring” / TB-Newari (Medieval) khu “river”
< N. Khoisan N. Khoisan -‖Au‖en ‖gu “water”, -!O!Kung ‖gu “water”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *chu “water” “stream, flow, pour” ~ ‖gu “water”
B.15d.1
TB-Tibetan shüǜju “fast flowing stream” Goldstein 951 [compound of B.15d.1 and B.15d.2
variants of this root.] chu “water, the universal and common term in all senses” Das 413
mi-chu “urine of men” Jaschke 157 mi “man, person” cūmo “river” Goldstein 366
TB-Tibetan gūju “a standing pool of water” Goldstein 7
cārju “rain water” “rainfall, rain” Goldstein 358 [compound of this B.15d.1 root and that of
B.15d.2 S. Chinese-Min chù “to pour (liquid)” Amoy-English Dict. 167 Hakka Dict cû-lai ī –chui
“running water” Bodman 1987 v.2 129
N. Chinese-MSC chu (WG) “a pool or small lake” Mathews #1358 191
TB-Burmese ćəw “be wet, moist” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) syuh “seasonal rains, timely rain” “(plants etc.) saturated with rain
water” Chik / Ng Lam 274 chìuh “the tide” “damp, moist, wet” Chik / Ng Lam 272
TB-Tibetan mtsho-la-hbab “streams descending from mountains and flowing into a lake,
also rivers that flow into the sea” Das 1041
B.15d.2
Old Chinese giwo “rain” Karlgren GSR 100a-c
TB-Garo sol-aŋ “flow” sol-agip “current” Matisoff 2003 394
B.15d.1 C. Chadic–Zime-Batna cubur “urine” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 335
Cushitic- Kambata shuma-t “urine” Hudson 161, 338
Cushitic- Hadiyya shume’ á-kko’ “urinate” Leslau 1979 v.3 579
C. Chadic-Gude cəlaʔ “to rain, dripping” Militarev / Stolbova
C. Chadic- Bura xula “water” Mukarovsky 290
B.15d.3
Khoisan-‖Ŋ!ke ku ”to pour” Greenberg 1966 80
NS-Kanuri kúu ideo. “emphasizes constant falling of rain” Cyffer 1990 105
B.15d.1 IE-Sanskrit
cyu “to come forth from, come out of, stream forth from” “to cause to stream forth”
ācyu “to cause to flow over, pour out”
cyut “to flow, trickle, ooze”
cyuti “coming forth” [Disyllabic correspondence]
Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 B.15d.1
Kartvelian-Georgian ̣cuṛcul “to gurgle, flow”
Altaic-Turkic-Tuvan suh “water”
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur su / suu “water”
Altaic-Turkic-Azeri su / suu “water”
Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz su / suu “water” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
188
/
B.15e.1 W. Chadic–Ron
S. Chinese-Kejia (Bokkos) shu
[Hakka] “giessen” [pour]
chu5 / tsu4 Jungraithmayr 1970
“pour (liquid)” 149
Hakka Dict. W. Chadic– Hausa
N. Chinese-MSC tsūgàa vt.
zhù “pour” “to pour out in great
Wu, J. 918 quantity”
Newman, P. 2007
209
B.15e.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Hausa N. Cushitic- NS-Songhay (Koyra)
btso “to dye” tsōmàa vt. Beja soo
btso-wa “to dye” “dip into liquid” [Bedauye] “pour out (liquid),
Das 1005 Newman, 2007 209 shō drain (e.g. boiler, rice)
tsöö “to be steeped, “dip, dip into” “farben” Heath v.1 222
permeated with Newman, R. 1990 69 [to dye] (Djenne)
something” “dip into water” Skinner 246 sɔɔ
“dye, paint” Skinner 272 “pour (liquid) out, drain
Goldstein 891 (e.g. boiler, rice)”
Chinese-MSC Heath v.2 171
tzû (WG) (Gao) sóogó “décanter en
“to soak, passant dans un linge,
to steep” “sodden” fondre un métal”
Mathews #6960 1027 Ducroz 207
B.15e.3 W. Chadic – Hausa E. Cushitic- Semitic-Arabic
TB-Tibetan zubàa vg.1 vt. Somali saub
shó-ba / bsho-ba “pour into” shub “to pour out, heavy shower”
(Central Tibet) zubař vt. vg.5 “to pour” Ehret 1995 #913 515
“to pour out, to pour (efferential) Awde 1999 zubaġ “to slip out, slip
away” “pour out, spill out” 47, 71 away”
Jaschke 566, 568 119 Newman, P. 2000 655 Proto-Afro- Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
[Disyllabic corresp.] “pour out, away” Asiatic part 2 201 257
btso-ba “throw away quantity (Orel / Egyptian
“to dye, of something” Stolbova tchabagi
to colour” zùbèe vg.4 vt. 1995) “to dip,
Jaschke 435 (completive) *zub- / to immerse,
“pour away all” *dzub- to submerge”
“leak or flow out” “flow, pour” Budge v.2 89
Newman, P. 2007 Skinner 299
232-233
See also Chapter 10
section 10.2.1.2 on
completives
119
Note- B.15e.3 (Tibetan, Hausa) The Tibetan shó-ba appears to have the closest phonetic correspondence to
the Hausa grade 1 transitive verb form zubàa “pour into”. However the Tibetan semantics of “pour out” indicate
a closer correspondence with the Hausa grade 5 transitive zubař “pour out”. Newman calls the grade 5 of the
Hausa verb the “efferential” aspect. Hence the zubař “pour out” reverses the action “pour in or into” expressed
by the grade 1 basic form zubàa. See Newman, P. 2000 655 and Chapter 10 Section 10.2.1.2 efferentials.
189

B.15e.1
S. Chinese-Min chù “to pour (liquid)” / N. Chinese-MSC zhù “pour”
< W. Chadic – Ron (Bokkos) shu “giessen” [pour] / W. Chadic-Ngizim zhùutú “filter a liquid off,
pour off”
B.15e.3
TB-Tibetan shó-ba / bsho-ba “to pour out, to pour away” btso-ba “to dye, to colour”
< W. Chadic–Hausa zùba vi. “spill”, zùbèe “pour away all” /
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *-tsûb- / *-chûb- “to spill”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *-tsûb- / *-chûb- “to spill” “to pour away”
B.15e.1 Written Burmese chu “boil/bake” Matisoff 2003 224 tshu “boil, bubble”
Benedict 1972 63
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jyu “to pour (liquid) ” Chik / Ng Lam 254 jyu “to cook, to boil”
Chik / Ng Lam 283 “cast (form in a mold)” Kwan 61
gìu “to water (plants, flowers, etc.)” “to splash with water, to sprinkle” Chik / Ng Lam 273
N. Chinese-MSC zhù “pour, put (a liquid) into” zhū v. “boil” DeFrancis 1290
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sìu “melt” Chik / Ng Lam 468
TB- Jingpho [Kachin] džó ~ tšhó “pour out, cast, enamel, dye” Benedict 1972 56
Matisoff 2003 427
N. Chinese-MSC ch’ó / ch’uó (WG) “to soak, to steep in water” Mathews #1286 181
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *(g-)tśo “pour out” Benedict 1972 209
N. Chinese-MSC ts’uì (WG) “to dip into water” “to temper” Mathews #6874 1012
C. Chinese-Wu tshø1 “boil with water” Hakka Dict.
TB-Garo so “boil/bake” Matisoff 2003 224
TB-Chin-Lushai śou “boil/bake” Benedict 1972 63 Matisoff 2003 224
B.15e.2
TB-Tibetan shugu “liquid resulting from melting something” Goldstein 933
dbtso / “distilling, also refining” Das 1003 tshos “paint, dye, coloring matter” “to dye, to color”
Jaschke 452 ; btshos “dyed, colored” Das 1005 ; ‘tshod-pa “to dress (in boiling water), to bake,
to dye” (provincial) Jaschke 460 ram-tshos “indigo plant, indigo dye” Das 1170
TB-Bodo/Garo-Dimasa di-sor “flow” Matisoff 2003 394
TB-Lepcha tshor “the pouring of water” Benedict 1972 56
TB-Bodo\Gasro-Dimasa di-sor “flow” Matisoff 2003 394
B.15e.3 TB-Tibetan zhù-ba vt. and vi. “to melt” Jaschke 476 ‘ju-ba̱ “to melt, to digest” Jaschke
177 btso-wa “to dye” shu “to melt (unintentionally, spontaneously) ;
B.15e.1
Ron (Daffo-Butura) shuh “(ein)giessen” [pour in] Jungraithmayr 1970 221
W. Chadic-Ron (Bo kkos) shu yá “wegschutten” [pour out] Jungraithmayr 1970 146
W. Chadic–Hausa zùrārà “trickle or slide down (of water)” Newman, P. 2007 234
E. Cushitic- Sidamo çûa “to immerse, dip in water” Gasparini 61
NS-Tubu (Teda) zuk “eingiessen” [to pour in, to pour out] Lukas 1953 187
B.15e.2 NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] sora “pour into, (esp. something into milk)” Taylor 179
B.15e.3
W. Chadic–Hausa zuba vg. 1 vt. “flow out” Bargery 2002
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *-šob- “to immerse, apply water to” Ehret 1995 #507 275
*-tsûb- or *-chûb- “to spill” Ehret 1995 #496 270
Proto-Cushitic *šōb- “to be immersed” Ehret 1995 #507 275
Proto-E. Cushitic *cûb- / *cûb’- “to spill” Ehret 1995 #496 270
Semitic-Hebrew shofehk “pour, spill” Baltsan 383, 698
190
C. Chadic–Bura dzubu “to empty out, dump out a receptacle” Dict. of Bura
E. Cushitic-Oromo c̟obu vi. “gocciolare, stillare, grondare, colare” [to drip, to ooze, to run off,
to filter] Borello 80-81, 83
Berber (Tuareg) zəbənzəbət “laisser couler par goutelettes” [let flow in droplets] Skinner 299
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) cabb “to pour out” “to spill” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 83
subuġ “paint, dye, coloring” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 257
West Chadic-Hausa zubìi vn. “casting in metal, preparing indigo infusion in a dye pit”
Newman, P. 2007 233
Semitic-Written Arabic sabaka “to pour, to pour out (a liquid)” Wehr 486
/
B.15f.1 W. Chadic- Hausa
TB-Tibetan dzishun shūnī “indigo dye”
“varnish, shellac, lacquer” “indigo colored”
Goldstein 859 dzi “thick liquid” “prepared indigo” Skinner 246
tshon “color, paint” Jaschke 453 shùunayyàa adj. “deep indigo blue”
“color, coloring matter” Das 1035-1036 Newman, P. 2007 187 120
B.15f.1 TB-Tibetan tshon “color, paint” “color, coloring matter”
< W. Chadic-Hausa shuni “prepared indigo”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *shuni “prepared indigo”
B.15f.1 TB-Tibetan tshúr-mo / mtshúro-mo “colouring matter, pigment” Jaschke 449
tshur-mo “paint, pigment” Das 1028
B.15f.1 W. Chadic-Hausa shūd’i “dyeing blue” Newman / Ma 1979 111 Skinner 246
↓↓
Sino-Tibetan African/AA languages-Close correspondences
languages
B.16a-c Afro-Asiatic AA-Cushitic, AA-Semitic NS Khoisan
– Chadic Proto-AA Egyptian
Swadesh “rain” W. Chadic -. Proto-Afro- Egyptian NS-Maba C. Khoisan-
B.16a.1 S. Bauci- Asiatic *-cār- sha Group- Hiešware
TB-Tibetan Wangday “to abound in ”lake, pool, Masalit tsaa “water”
chár / shar / shà water, be very cistern, sàa N. Khoisan-
char-pa ”water” wet” Ehret tank” “water, !Kung
“rain” Jungraith- 1995 #493 269 Budge rain” ša / ca “water”
Jaschke 156 mayr (Orel/Stolbova v.2 720 Edgar Greenberg
Das 410 1994 v.2 340 1995) Written 358 1966 83
cār / cārba *xar “river” Arabic N. Khoisan-
“rain” Skinner 161 jarā Proto-Non-
Goldstein 358 E. Cushitic- “to flow, Khoikhoi
Burji k’áraari stream” *châ “water”
“rainy season” Wehr 144-5 Starostin, G.
Sasse 1982 124 2003 36
120
Note- B.15f.1 (Chadic-Hausa) The preparation of indigo to dye fabrics was probably the first use of boiling
as a dying process in Africa. Blue dye processed from indigo was the main traditional coloring for clothes in some
parts of the African Sahel and is still widely used.
The Tibetan shun / tshon root variants are related to the B.15e.2 Chadic-Hausa tsōmàa vt. “dip into liquid”
or B.15e.3 Hausa zubìi vn. “casting in metal, preparing indigo infusion in a dye pit” or Arabic Semitic-Arabic
subaġ “to paint, dye, stain”. These latter two correspond to B.15e.3 TB-Tibetan btso-ba “to dye, to color”.
191
B.16a.2 W. Chadic – Omotic-Mocha Semitic-

TB-Tibetan Hausa āč’o Gurage,
‘čor-ba “to flow ‘kooramaa “water” Ge’ez
out, to run” “river” Omotic-Kaffa qor(i)ro(n)
Jaschke 170 “large ačõ “water” “river”
gçor “passage for stream” Ruhlen Skinner 1
water, a water Newman, P. 1994 327
channel” 2007 131 E. Cushitic-
Das 1251 Skinner 174 Oromo
121
See also B.16b.2 choroga “pool”
Foot 11
B.16a.1 TB-Tibetan chár “rain”
< W. Chadic -.S. Bauci- Wangday shar ”water” / Proto-Afro-Asiatic
*-cār- “to abound in water, be very wet” / C. Khoisan-Hiešware tsaa “water” / N. Khoisan-Proto-
Non-Khoikhoi *châ “water”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma *shar / *qor “water” “river”
B.16a.1 Tibetan cə̄rdig “a raindrop” Goldstein 171, 358 dig “drop”
[compound of this root and B.28.1 Extended]
cārju “rain water” “rainfall, rain” Goldstein 358 [compound of this B.16a root and B.15d.1]
B.16a.2
TB- Kiranti-Kaling ‘jo “river” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
TB-Tibetan ɣshor “a basin or reservoir of water” Jaschke 566
shöö “rainfall” Goldstein 938
C. Chinese-Wu tshø1 “stream, river” Hakka Dict.
B.16a.1
N. Khoisan-!O!Kung, Naron ca “rain” Starostin, G. 2003 36
Semitic-Written Arabic jarayān “flow, flux, course, stream” Wehr 144-5
Semitic-Arabic ʘar “to abound in water” Ehret 1995 #493 505
Semitic-Hebrew zaram v. past “flowed” v. present zorem Baltsan 460
C.Khoisan-|Ganda, Naro chà “water” Starostin, G. 2003 36 -Hietsho tsa “water”
Ehret 1982 [175]
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) jaari “flowing, running, circulating” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 71
North Branch of Omotic *šʒa:r- ”cloud” Ehret 1995 #493 269
W. Chadic–Hausa tsatsafi m. “light rain, drizzle” Newman / Ma 1979 124
Khoisan-Sandawe tsʔa ”water” Greenberg 1966 83
NS-Maba Group- Mimi saar “urinate” Edgar 358 sa:r ”urine” Greenberg 1963 146
W. Chadic-Ron Daffo sâr ”urinate” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 334 “urinieren” [urinate]
W. Chadic-S. Bauci- Tule zhâ “water” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 340
W. Chadic-N. Bauci- Tsague zááwe ”water” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 340
E. Cushitic-Somali haro “pond, lake” Awde 1999 34
NS-Songhay [Koroboro , Koyra) hári “rain” Greenberg 1966 #109 143 “water” Heath v.1 119
E. Cushitic- Gedeo haarso “rainy season” Sasse 1982 91
Proto-E. Cushitic *har- “pond, stream” Ehret 1995 #786 384 Sasse 1982 91
B.16a.2 S.E. Mande- Samo-Kwi zóró “water” Mukarovsky 393
121 w
Note- B.16a.2 (Hausa) Skinner interprets this form as a compound < K -r + ma. The ma element is from
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *ma / *am “water”. Skinner 174
192

B.16a.1 IE-E. Iranian-Avestan ɣžáraiti “stromt, wallt auf” [streamed, flowed on]
IE-Old Indian ḳsárati “to flow, to stream” sáras “lake, pond, pool” sárit “river, stream”
sára “fluid, liquid” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 25, 118-119
IE-Pashto charr “a cascade, a waterfall” Raverty 362
járra’i “continual downpouring rain, or cloudy weather” Raverty 332
IE-Bengai jhɔr̝ “storm, tempest” jhɔr̝na “fountain” Thompson 52, 127
IE-Hindi jharnā “waterfall” Scudieri 249
IE-Sanskrit car, carati “flow, pass”
sarat “going or flowing” sarapas “flowing water”
sarit “a river, stream”
sara “fluid, liquid” “a waterfall” “a brook” “a lake, pool”
saras “anything flowing or fluid”
sarasvat “a river” sarasvati “name of a river” “lake”
aksara “water” ak, “water” (B.34.1)
kSar “to flow, stream, glide” “to cause to flow, pour out” “to give forth a stream” “to urine [urinate]”
Cologne Lexicon . See also Supplementary Table 2 B.16a.1
Altaic-Proto-Turkic čar- “snow dust” “fog” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Balkar, Kumyk, Turkish (dialectal) čars- “fog” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali ‘dzharna / ‘dzharna “lake” Kobayashi Table 3 #140 16
/
B.16b.1 E. Semitic- NS-Songhay N.
TB-Bodo/Garo- Cushitic- Hebrew (Gao) Khoisan-
Bodo, Dimasa Rendille khor “hole” gooru ‖Kh’au-‖’e
ha-kor ankhar Baltsan “riviere, !kuru /
“hole, valley” “gorge, 213, 609 ravine” !koro
TB-Chin-Lushai ravine” Egyptian [river, ravine] “hole,
kor Pillinger qar “hole, Ducroz 104 grave”
“small valley, 66, 344, hollow” Ruhlen
ravine” 379 Budge v.2 #325 55
Matisoff 2003 395 763
B.16b.2 W. Chadic– S. Khoisan -
Proto-Lolo- Hausa |Xam
Burmese kwarìi m. xwara
*kwar ~ *kor “valley” “waterhole”
“hole, valley” Newman, P. Ruhlen
2007 122 #615 67
TB-Chin-Lushai “valley,
khuar ~ khur furrow”
“hole, cavity” “pit” Skinner 161
Benedict 1972 74 kwarga
Matisoff 2003 395 “hole, cavity”
Skinner 147
B.16b.3 C. Chadic– NS-Kanuri
S. Chinese-Yue Chibak kawar
(Cantonese) kaw “hole” “grave”
gaau “a cellar, Stolbova, Cyffer 85
a pit” Chik / Ng Olga 2006
Lam 338 C. Chadic
Etymology
193
B.16b.4 W. Chadic– Proto-AA Semitic- N. Khoisan

TB-Chin-Lushai Hausa *gur- Akkadian ‖Kh’au-‖’e
khuar ~ khur gurbi “hole” xurr- !kuru /
“hole, cavity” “hole” Militarev / “hole, mine” !koro “hole,
“pit” Skinner 92 Stolbova. Skinner 161 grave”
Benedict 1972 74 W. Chadic– AA- Semitic-Arabic Ruhlen
Matisoff 2003 395 Tangale Etymology xurr #325 55
kurgo 2007 “hole in the NC-S.E.
“den, hole, millstone to put Mande-Yaure
cave” the corn in” kuru “hole
Skinner 147 Ehret 1995 (waterhole)”
#402 504 Mukarovsky
211
B.16b.5 E. Semitic-Old
TB-Tibetan Cushitic- Aramaic
khul “ravine” Afar rgūl, rgūlā
Jaschke 42 golo “narrow
“gorge, valley, ravine”
valley” Comprehen-
Skinner sive Aramaic
161 Lexicon
B.16b.6 Proto-C. C. Khoisan-
N. Chinese-MSC Chadic Naron
gû “valley, gorge” *gub- !xubi
Manser part 2 153 “hole” “well” “valley”
S. Chinese-Min Stolbova, Greenberg
kho1 “hole, den” Olga 1966 106
Hakka Dict. C. Chadic
See also C.1b.1 Etymology
B.16b.1 TB-Bodo\Garo-Dimasa ha-kor “hole, valley” / Proto-TB,
< Semitic-Hebrew khor “hole” / C. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e !koro “hole, grave”
B.16b.2 Proto-Lolo-Burmese *kwar ~ *kor “hole, valley”
< S. Khoisan -|Xam xwara “waterhole”,
B.16b.4 TB-Chin-Lushai khuar ~ khur “hole, cavity” “pit”
< C. Khoisan ‖Kh’au-‖’e !kuru / !koro “hole, grave”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *kwar / *kor “hole, valley” ~
C. Khoisan ‖Kh’au-‖’e *!kuru / *!koro “hole, grave”
B.16b.1
Proto-TB *kwar ~ *kor ”hole, pit, valley” Matisoff 2003 395, 673
TB-West Tibetan kor “a hollow in the ground, pit” Jaschke 6 Matisoff 2003 395
B.16b.3
S. Chinese-S. Min kaǔ “ditch (for irrigation), gutter, drain” Bodman 1987 v.2 145
Chinese-MSC gōu “ditch” n. Merriam-Webster Chinese 50
B.16b.4 Proto-TB *kwar ~ *kor ”hole, pit, valley” Matisoff 2003 395, 673
B.16b.6 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ko1 “hole, den” Hakka Dictionary
B.16b.1
S. Khoisan-|Xam !kɔrro “to be hollow” Ruhlen #615 67
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Gurage qor(i)ron “river” Skinner 174
194
Egyptian qar ”hole, hollow” qarr “cellar” Budge v.2 763 khar-t “ravine, canal” Budge v.1 533
B.16b.2 C. Chadic-Hwona kwarà “hole” Stolbova, Olga C.Chadic Etymology
B.16b.3
W. Chadic–Hausa aukawa “valley” Bargery 2002
C.Khoisan-Nama Hottentot !kxowi “valley” Greenberg 1966 83
C. Chadic–Margi kaʔo “hole” Stolbova, Olga 2006 C. Chadic Etymology
B.16b.4
Semitic-Written Arabic kurba “hole, eye of a needle, anus” Wehr 269
E. Chadic-Dangaleat kurka “creux” [hollow] Skinner 147
B.16b.6 Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) gabur “grave, tomb” gabar “to bury (a dead person)”
Qafisheh 481
B.16b.2
IE-Sanskrit kuhara “a cavity, hollow, hole” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Bengali guha “cave” “mountain cave” Thompson 47, 90
IE-Sanskrit kévata “cave, pit” RV (“hapax”)
B.16b.3 Kartvelian-Megrel xabo “ravine” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 43
Proto-Indo-European skur- “hole” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-Europan Etymology 125
IE-Bengali gɔrto “hole, cavity, ditch” Thompson 46, 104
B.16b.5
IE-Hindi khulī “quarry” m. Scudiere 129, 226
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *kōl “valley” / Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz kol- “valley”
Altaic-Turkic-Tuvan xol- “valley” / Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur qol- “valley”
Altaic-Mongolian qol- “river”
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *gola “valley” / gowl “valley” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
See also C.1b.3
B.16b.6
IE-Old Indian kūpa- m. “pit, hole” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology
IE-Hindi qabr / kabr n. “grave” “tomb” Scudiere 70, 173 gufā m. “cave” Scudiere 26, 231
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish kabir “grave” Tureng 700
/
B.16c.1 TB-Mikir angkok “cavity, W. Chadic- E. NS-Anywa Khoisan-
opening, hole, crevice” Walker 5 Hausa Cushitic- kùgù Sandawe
TB-Tibetan khogbub “cavity (of kòogō Sidamo “decayed, goʔa
abdomen, mouth, tooth)” Das 152 “hole, gōggōla hollow trunk “valley”
S. Chinese-Min kok1 “valley, ravine, cavity, “hollow of a tree” Greenberg
waterway between two mountains” cave” in tree” Reh 38, 130 1966 83
Chinese-Hakka kok7 “a gully, a Skinner 147 Skinner NS-Nuer
channel for water, a narrow ravine” Newman, P. 147 kuk “hole,
Hakka Dict. 2007 115 as hole in
Old Chinese kok7 / giuk “valley” tree”
Karlgren GSR #1202a-c Huffman 25
Matisoff 2003 524
Middle Chinese kuwk “mountain
valley” Sagart 1999 98, 106-107
B.16c.1 Chinese- Hakka kok7 “a gully, a channel for water, a narrow ravine at the floor of a hill”
< Chadic- Hausa kògī “river” / Khoisan-Sandawe goʔa “valley”
B.16c.1 TB- Chin-Mikir angkok “cavity, opening, hole, crevice”
< W. Chadic- Hausa kogo “hole, cavity”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *kògī “river” ~ kogo “hole, cavity”
195

B.16c.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) guk / yuhk “a valley, a waterway between mountains”
Chik / Ng Lam 430
Written Burmese khyauk “chasm, gulf, abyss” Matisoff 2003 524
B.16c.1
W. Chadic- Hausa kogon dutse “cave” Newman / Ma 1979 69
W. Chadic- Sura goɣot “Grube, Höhle” (Ger.) [pit, mine] Skinner 147
B.16c.1
IE-Sanskrit
kukSi “a valley” “a bay, a gulf”
kukSa “the belly” Cologne Lexicon.
SkukSi “the interior of anything” “the womb” “a cavity in general” “the belly, the cavity of the abdomen
(in the earlier language)” RV AV “belly” Kuiper 1955 147-148
IE-Hindi khokhalā “hollow” adj. Scudiere 76, 227
↓↓
ST-Languages African/AA languages -Close correspondences
B.17 Afro-Asiatic – AA–Cush., AA— Nilo- Niger-Congo
B.17.1 W. Chadic – Semitic-
Swadesh “rain” Hausa Arabic
TB-Chin-Lushai ruwā “water” riwā
rwàʔ n. “rain” “rain” “abundant
Matisoff 2003 Skinner 222 water”
44, 433 Newman, P. 2007 Skinner
Proto-TB 172 222
*rwa “rain” W. Chadic –
Matisoff 2003 Galambu
127, 433 122 rwa “river”
Skinner 222
B.17.2 E. Semitic- Nubian- NC-S.E.
TB-Sunwar Cushitic- Arabic Kənzi Mande-
rew Afar (Iraqi) [Kenuzi], Dan
“rain” aruc ruwa Dongola lu “cloud”
Starostin, S. “dew” “to water aru “rain” S.E. Mande-
ST Etymology Skinner 212 irrigate” -Bari Gban
Dict. of ru lò “cloud”
Iraqi Arabic “to water” Mukarovsky
Part 2 198 Greenberg 127 123
1966 103
122
Note- B.17.1 (Proto-TB) Benedict considers the r- initial to be a prefix and reconstructs the Proto-TB root as
*r-wa. Matisoff does not annotate the initial *r of the proto-TB root as a prefix, apparently preferring *rwa as
the basic form, but he proposes *wa as an alternative proto-form.. Matisoff 2003 663. The B.17.1 set of this table
supports the integral *ruwa form as the TB-proto-form since it shows that the r- initial of the TB *rwa
morphemes is a contracted form of the initial ru- first radical of its AA correspondences.
123
Note- B.17.2-3 (NC) Mande shows parallel cognates between its lug-, lo-, lu- initials and the Chadic rux-,
lw-, ruw– variants. A Chadic variant is the probable proximate etymon and either an NS or NC variant the
probable ultimate one.
196
B.17.3 Chadic root Proto-AA / NC-Swahili

S. Chinese-Yue (Jungraithmayr) Proto- -lowa
(Cantonese) *lw “rain, sky” Cushitic “to be wet”
lóuh “to flood” Ehret 1995 *tloh- “to be soaked”
“a puddle” #804 396 “to flow” Awde 2000
Chik / Ng Lam Ehret 1995 125
272 #913 437
B.17.4 S. C. Chadic– South NS-Anywa Niger-Congo.-
Chinese-Yue Dghwede (Ethiopian) rūugʌ̄ W. Mande-
(Cantonese) ruxwà Semitic- “heavy Kpelle
luhk luhk “dew” Gurage long rain” lúgú
“damp and wet” Mukarovsky 127 (Masqan) Reh 72 “dew”
luhk “clear loğa Mukarovsky
water” “name of a “dew” 127
tributary of the Leslau 1979
Hsiang River in v.3 377
Hunan province”
Chik / Ng Lam
261, 273
B.17.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman rwa “rain” / TB-Written Burmese rwa “to rain ”
< W. Chadic – Hausa ruwā “water” ”rain”
B.17.2 N. Chinese-MSC lù “dew” rù “humid, damp”
< Chadic root *lw “rain, sky” /
E. Cushitic- Afar aruc “dew” / NS-Kənzi , Dongola aru “rain”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *lu- “dew” “be damp” “be wet” “rain” ~ *ruwa “rain”
B.17.1
TB- Bahing rya-wa “rain” Benedict 1972 109
TB- Rodong wa “water” Benedict 1972 109.
B.17.2
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] ru1 “to pour, to fall in torrents, as rain” Starostin, S. Yamphu Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC lù “dew” (WG) Mathews #4186 597 rù “humid, damp” Wu, J. 581
Chinese-Hakka (MacIver, Meixian) lu5 “dew” Norman 240
(Lau Chunfat) lu4 “dew” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Min lou7 “dew” Hakka Dict. ; (Fuzhou) lou5 “dew” Norman 240
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) louh “dew” Kwan 133 Chik / Ng Lam 485
liù / liú “to steam, distilled (water)” Chik / Ng Lam 495
Old Chinese *hlur “water” Sagart 158
B.17.3 C. Chinese-Wu lou6 “dew” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) louh “name of several rivers in northern China” Chik / Ng Lam 273
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) làuh v. “flow” Kwan 192
N. Chinese–MSC lào “waterlogging” Wu, J. 411
B.17.1
W. Chadic–Gwandara (5 dialects of 6) ruwā “water” Matsushita 1974 #56 38
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) ruwa “to water, to irrigate”
Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 1 95, 144 part 2 198
B.17.2
Old Nubian aru “to water” Greenberg 1966 103
Proto-Afro-Asiatic (Orel / Stolbova 1995) lubah̟-/ hulub “be wet”
197
S. Cushitic-Dahalo lub- “rain” Militarev, A. Dahalo Etymology 2006

W. Chadic- Sura ‘llúu “cloud” Mukarovsky 127
C. Chadic–Daba lùb “moisten” Skinner 212 lùv “cloud” Mukarovsky 127
Proto-W. Chadic rub’- “wet” Skinner 212
W. Chadic-Hausa lu’bulu’bu “sogginess” Skinner 213
E. Cushitic-Oromo
rooba “to rain” vi. Hudson 120 ;
rob-u vi. “piovere” [to rain]
rob-a n. “pioggia“ [rain] Borello 359-360
E. Cushitic-Afar rob “rain” Parker / Hayward 182
E. Cushitic-Somali roob “rain” Awde 1999 72 rooble lit. “rain-possessor”, i.e. “bringer of rain”
[word for a clan head] Ehret 2002 304.
B.17.3
W. Chadic- Goemai lowin “cloud” Mukarovsky 127
NS-Kanuri kəlíwù “moisture, dampness” “mildew” Cyffer 1990 89
Niger-Congo-W. Mande-Kpelle lúwú “dew” Mukarovsky 127
NC-Guro lólú “fog, mist” Mukarovsky 127
Cushitic- Sidamo, Kambata loja “dew” Hudson 49 “dew, to be wet with dew” Gasparini 211
B.17.4 Semitic-Hebrew lakh adj. “damp, moist” lakhoot f. “dampness” Baltsan 216
↓↓
B.18a-b Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA – AA- Nilo-Saharan NC
Cushitic Sem.
B.18a.1 W. Chadic – Hausa
S. Chinese-Min làmbū m.
lâm “muddy” “irrigated land”
làm-pâ “swamp” Newman / Ma 1979
Bodman 1987 80 laimàa
v.2 111, 155 “dampness”
S. Chinese-Yue Skinner 184
(Cantonese) “dampness (of ground,
làhm v. “water” in house)”
Kwan 566 “moisture, dew”
“to soak with water” Newman, R.
Chik / Ng Lam 259 1990 60 , 127, 171
TB-Tibetan rlan C. Chadic- Gude
“moisture, humidity” yilam “soak”
“a liquid” Jaschke 537 Skinner 184
B.18a.2 C. Chadic – Buduma Proto-S.
Chinese- Hakka lamgo “Tau” [dew] Cushitic
(MacIver, Lau Chunfat) Skinner 184 *lem-
lam2 “mountain mist, C. Chadic – Bura “be damp”
mountain haze” dlamà “damp” Skinner 184
Hakka Dict. Mukarovsky 126
198
B.18a.3 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Siri

lāŋ “steam, vapor” lankwa
Goldstein 1051 “cloud”
N. Chinese-MSC Mukarovsky 127
lán “haze, vapour,
mist”
Wu, J. 406
B.18a.4 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic- Bura, Kanuri
kūlaŋ “steam Ngwaxi kelango “dew” 124
(usually from kɨlaŋku “dew” Skinner 184
cooking food)” Skinner 184
Goldstein 120
B.18a.5 TB-Tibetan E. Chadic- Lele
rlóŋ-pa “wet, damp, londi “être mouillé”
moist” Jaschke 538 [be wet] Skinner 184
B.18a.6 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Angas Songhay lombu
lömba .“wet, damp, lom “soak” lombu “imprégné
moist” Goldstein 1055 Skinner 184 d’eau, [soaked with
water] Skinner 185
B.18a.1 S. Chinese-Min lâm “muddy” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) làhm “water” v. “to soak with
water, to drip”
< W. Chadic–Hausa làmbū n. m. “irrigated land” / C. Chadic – Bura dlamà “damp” /
B.18a.4 TB-Tibetan kūlaŋ “steam (usually from cooking food)”
< C. Chadic- Bura, Ngwaxi kɨlaŋku “dew” / NS-Kanuri kelango, kulóngu “dew, humidity”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *kulong- “dew, humidity” ~ *làm- “muddy” “soaked with
water”
B.18a.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) làhm yuhk “shower”
làahm “to overflow, to flood” “copious rain falling continuously” Chik / Ng Lam 260, 276, 485
S. Chinese-Min lām’ “to overflow, to flood” Amoy-English Dict. 491
N. Chinese-MSC lanní “mud, slush” Wu, J. 407 Manser 268
B.18a.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) láahm “mountain mist, mountain vapor”
Chik / Ng Lam 118
B.18a.3
TB-Tibetan rláŋs-pa “vapour, steam” kha-rláŋs “breath, exhalation rlan-chan “moist, wet, humid”
Jaschke 537 gāng-láŋ “cloud-like snowdrifts on high hills” gāng “ridge (of a hill)”
B.18a.5 TB-Tibetan lön / löŋ shigshii “wet, damp, moist” Goldstein 1055
B.18a.2 C. Chadic–Wandiu dlàmà “damp” Mukarovsky 126
B.18a.4 NS-Kanuri kulóngu “dew, humidity” Cyffer 1990 101
koloŋku / koluŋku “Tau [dew]” Lukas 1953199
B.18a.5 W. Chadic- Goemai low + n “cloud” Mukarovsky 127
124
Note- B.18a.3-4 (Tibetan) The B.18a.4 Tibetan kūlaŋ / lāŋ exhibits a Nilo-Saharan *ke- optional “prefix”
which contrasts only in this respect with the B.18a.3 TB-Tibetan form. The contrast also exists within NS between
the NS-Kanuri and NS-Songhay sets (B.18a.4,6) both of which match a Tibetan form.
See also Greenberg 1966 132 note 36 “movable ” k-” and other examples in sets A.20a.1-2 and Chapter 10
section 10.3.2
This word family also exhibits the parallel ST ↔ AA final -m and -n contrast. See Note D.1-2, 3-4.
199
S. Cushitic-Kw’adza tlungwa “cloud” Mukarovsky 127

B.18a.6 W. Chadic-Hausa lùmshī “overcast sky, cloudiness” Newman, P. 2007 141
B.18a.1 Kartvelian-Georgian lam- “silt, dampness” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology
B.18a.4 Proto-Indo-European sk’lak- “drop, moisture” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European
Etymology
/
B.18b.1 W. Chadic-Hausa Proto-AA NS-Kanuri
N. Chinese-MSC làngàb’ē vi. (Orel- kelâm
làn “(of foods) “become soft or mushy Stolbova adj.
sodden, mashed, from overcooking or 1995) “tasteless”
soggy” lànhu “(of food) overripeness” *lam- “weak”
mashed, pulpy” “droop, flop” “be soft” kelâmjin vi.
Wu, J. 407 Newman, P. Skinner “become tasteless,
S. Chinese-Min (Jianyang) 2007 139 186 become bland”
liaŋ3 “tasteless, insipid, làngà’b’ab’b’ē Cyffer 1990 88
lacking salt” “soggy
Norman 1988a 232 (esp. of food)”
S. Chinese-Yue Newman, R. 1990 252 125
(Cantonese) lamī
laahn “tastelessness,
“cooked soft, esp. inadequate
well-cooked” meat flavor”
“overripe, rotten” Newman, P. 2007 139
Chik / Ng Lam 289
B.18b.1 N. Chinese-MSC lan “(of foods) sodden, mashed, soggy” / S. Chinese-Yue
(Cantonese) laahn “cooked soft, well-cooked” “overripe, rotten”
< W. Chadic- Hausa langabee “become soft or mushy from overcooking or overripeness”
Approximate Sinitic etymon: *lang- “sodden, mushy, soggy (esp. of food)”
B.18b.1
N. Chinese –MSC làn (WG) “rotten, overripe” “broken, smashed” Mathews #3794 557
laahn “overflowing, dripping wet, vast expanse of water” Chik / Ng Lam 278 ;
laahn naih “soft mud, mire” Chik / Ng Lam 289
làhm “to soak with water” Chik / Ng Lam 259
125
Note- B.18b.1 (N. Chinese (Beijing) Many scholars consider that final -m merged with final - n in northern
Chinese sometime after the composition of the Zhongyuan yinyun [Rhymes of the central plain] in the early
fourteenth century CE. Norman 49 Ramsey 142. However the lexeme *làn- “soggy (of food)” gives evidence of
being a variant of the PAA *làm- root in both Hausa and Beijing/Cantonese. The normal form in Cantonese would
be B.18a.2 lahm, with B.18a.3 làn- being a variant form. This could be interpreted as indicating that both Hausa
forms were inherited by Chinese languages and that the Beijing -làn form had also been inherited directly from
Hausa into a northern vernacular , but was not attested in the Zhongyuan yinyun. Given that both variants appear
in Cantonese (B.18a.1, B18b.1 both with Hausa correspondences ) the contrast need not necessarily be the result
of a regular sound change -m > n- found within northern Chinese. The sound change to làn- is the result of
regressive (anticipatory) assimilation: m to n before the velar in Hausa làngàb’ee and such a shift in Hausa
may have been inherited independently in Beijing while both forms were plausibly retained in Cantonese. Thus
the shift could have occurred independently in north Chinese without any inheritance from AA, but the parallel
with Hausa is noteworthy. See also Chapter 2D note D.1.3-4 where sets D.1.1.and D.1.4 similarly attest Chinese-
MSC and asin this case match Proto-Afro-Asiatic root – m and –n finals.
200
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver, Lau Chunfat) lan5 / lan3 / lan6 “overripe; rotten; spoiled;
decayed” “rot; fester” “cooked; soft; well cooked”. Hakka Dict.
B.18b.1
C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur lab’ab’a “mou (comme de la bouillie)”
[soft like stewed food] Barreteau 388
NS-Kanuri lâmlâm n. “insufficent flavor or taste” Cyffer 1990 109
W. Chadic-Ngizim
dləmatu “become spoiled, become ruined”
dləmtú “ruin, spoil” Schuh 46
South-(Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic lâmä “be pulverized, be powdery, be tender” Leslau 1976 7
↓↓
B.19 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA –Cushitic, AA- Nilo- NC
Proto-AA Sem. Saharan
B.19.1 Proto-Afro-Asiatic
Chinese- Hakka *-yam-
(MacIver) “to submerge,
4 5
jam / jam go under water”
“drown, cover with Ehret 1995
liquid, submerge” . #1002 475
Hakka Dict. N. Cushitic-Beja
S. Chinese-Yue [Bedawi]
(Cantonese) yam “water”
jam “submerge, Reinisch 242
cover with water” Ehret 1995
Kwan 512, 150 126 #1002 475
B.19.2 W. Chadic- Ngizim
TB-Tibetan ’yamú vi.
h̟’byam-pa “to submerge,
“to flow over, go under water”
to be diffused” Schuh 178
Jaschke 396 Ehret 1995
Das 923 #1002 475
126
Note-B.19.1-3 (Chinese, Tibetan)
The initial j- of the Chinese forms and the initial h̟- of the Tibetan form both contrast minimally with the
Chadic-Ngizim initial ‘y- form. The Chinese notation incorporates the initial glottal/pharyngeal into the j-
notation. Phonetically the Tibetan h̟byam-pa corresponds most closely to the Chadic-Ngizim ’yamú and the
Tibetan h̟kyam-pa most closely to the Proto-E.Cushitic *cam-.
The B.19.1 TB-Burmese Extended) hijàm / hijàmh is probably an example of a different transcription of initial
glottals. See B.20a.3 where Old Chinese xiwən corresponds with the hi- of the B.20b.3 C.Chadic-Hurza hiyeŋ.
For Tibetan Das used an inital pharyngeal spirant h̟- symbol, while Jaschke used the symbol [o ] [subscript circle]
which is equivalent to the later /’/ and ʔ (IPA) notations to express the glottal initial. See also Note B.20a.2
following.
201
B.19.3 Proto-E.
TB-Tibetan Cushitic
chu h̟’kyam-pa *cam-
“inundation, flood” “to get wet”
Das 194 Ehret 1995
chu “water” #459 256
B.19.4 C. Chadic- Maba E. Nuer
N. Chinese-MSC jaŋ “faire courir, courir”Cushitic-Rendille nyaŋ
yān “s’ecouler, khuyyánahe “to be
“flood, submerge, se repandre “be wet (of many saturated,
inundate” (un liquide)” things or places)” soaked”
yānsî [to run, to flow (out), “be wet all over” Huffman
“drown ” to spill, to spread out Pillinger 196, 411 35
Wu, J. 792 (of a liquid)]
Caitucoli 92
B.19.1-2 Chinese- Hakka jam4 / jam5 “drown, cover with liquid, submerge”
< Proto-Afro-Asiatic *-yam- “to submerge, go under water”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *’yam- vi. “to submerge, go under water”
B.19.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jàm “pour (gently) Kwan 363 ; to fill a cup with (beverage)”
Chik / Ng Lam 199 “to dip, to immerse, to soak” Chik / Ng Lam 257
“soak (put in water)”
Kwan 489 jamsei “drown (drown in water)” sei “die”
TB-Burmese
hiàm “to run over, as water”
hijàmh “to be brimming full” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
B.19.4 N. Chinese-MSC zhān “moisten, soak” yàng “brim over, overflow” Wu, J. 80, 873
B.19.1
C. Chadic- Sukur yiam “water” Greenberg 1966 63
C. Chadic- Mofu-Gudur yam “eau” Barreteau 321
Semitic- Hebrew yam “sea” Baltsan 449
Semitic -Arabic yamm “sea” Greenberg 1966 63
Proto-Semitic *ym (*yam) “sea” Ehret 1995 #1002 475
Egyptian ym “river, sea” Ehret 1995 #1002 475
E. Cushitic-Somali yumbo “to immerge” Ehret 1995 #1002 475
B.19.2 NS-Kanuri nyamnyam “very light rain or mist, drizzling rain” Cyffer 1990 143
nyamnyami “shower of rain” Skinner 289
B.19.4 W. Chadic-Hausa ’yan’kayi “swimming” Skinner 289
↓↓
B.20a-b AA –Chadic AA –Cush. AA-Sem. NS NC
Swadesh “smoke” Proto-Chadic C. Khoisan- Non-
B.20a.1 (Jungraithmayr) Khoekhoe-Gana,
TB-Newar *ky ’-n “smoke” ǂHaba, Tsike,
kɨn “smoke” Ehret 1995 #419 Danisi,Tsua
Benedict 1972 159 236 cʔínì “smoke”
2003 31
202
B.20a.2 Swadesh “smoke” Proto-Chadic Semitic- C. Khoisan-

S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] *‘jan Hebrew Proto-Non-
jen1 / jan1 “smoke, fumes, “smoke” ‘ashan Khoekhoe
mist, vapor” Newman, P. “smoke” *cʔán(i)
Hakka Dict.127 1977 #118 Baltsan “smoke”
TB-Proto-Karen W. Chadic-Seya 20, 750
*jan “haze, fog” yaŋ / yaki
TB-Proto-Lolo-Burmese “smoke” S. C. Khoisan-
*džan “haze, fog Skinner 110 (Ethiopian) |Ganda
Matisoff 2003 260 W.Chadic- Semitic- cʔánì
N. Chinese-MSC Hausa Amharic “smoke”
yān smoke” Chen 366 yanyami vt. C. Khoisan-|Gwi
“smoke, mist, vapor” “drizzle, light at’t’änä cʔɛnɛ
xiāngyān “incense smoke” rain” “fumigate, “smoke”
Wu, J. 754, 792 Skinner 289 smoke a Starostin, G.
xiāng “fragrant, aromatic, W. Chadic- beehive” 2003 31
scented” (also C.5a.4) Gwandara Leslau
yēn (WG) “mist, vapour, ayaŋkyi 1976 153
smoke” Mathews #739 1104 “smoke”
Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) Skinner 110
yàn “misty, foggy”
Chik / Ng Lam 354
N. Chinese-MSC yānxia
“mist and clouds in the
twilight” Wu, J. 792
B.20a.3 C. Chadic- C. Khoisan-Deti,
N. Chinese-MSC Hurza Cara
xīyān “smoke” hiyeŋ cʔání
Manser 413, 479 “smoke” “smoke”
Wu, J. 736 Skinner 110 Starostin, G.
2003 31
B.20a.4 Cushitic C. Khoisan-
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) -Afar Hiechware
c
chàHn “dust (of earth)” āna ceʔne
Chen 85 yinchàHn “dust , “smoke”
“dust (of earth)” Kwan 152 storm, Starostin, G.
N. Chinese-MSC huīchén sand 2003 31
“dust, dirt” Wu, J. 296 storm”
huī “dust” “ash” Skinner
(B. 11b.3) 177
chéntū, chén’āi
“dust, dirt”
Manser pt. 2 62, 136
Wu, J. 82
āi “dust”
Wu J. 2
127 1
B.20a.2 (S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] jan ) Since the initial glottal stop is not presently phonemic in Beijing or Hakka
1
Chinese, it is not recorded in the current notation by lexicographers. The B.20a.2 Hakka jan morpheme contains it
implicitly in the j- initial, but this notation essentially masks it. The above B.20a.2 Khoisan cʔan root shows it
explicitly. See also Note C.5a.4.
203

B.20a.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] jen1 / jan1 “smoke” / TB-Proto-Karen *jan “haze, fog”
< Proto-Chadic *’jan “smoke” / Semitic-Hebrew ‘ashan “smoke” / C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-
Khoekhoe *cʔan[i] “smoke”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *cʔán ~ *cʔen “smoke” “dust”
B.20a.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) yīn “smoke” Kwan 487 “smoke, fumes, mist”
Chik / Ng Lam 285
B.20a.3 S. Chinese-Min iān1 “smoke, fumes” “mist, vapor” Hakka Dic
Old Chinese xiwən vi. “to smoke, to steam” Karlgren GSR 461a-c Matisoff 2003 199, 451, 595
B.20a.4
C. Khoisan-!Ora |kxàn “smoke” Starostin, G. 2003 31
NS-Kanuri kànjê “smoke” Cyffer 1990 79
W. Chadic-Seya yāŋ / yaki “smoke” Skinner 110
Chadic root (Jungraithmayr) *wk’y / *yk’y “smoke” Ehret 1995 #967 460 (stem + *y deverbative)
W. Chadic-Hausa hayaak’i “smoke” Skinner 110 See also B.20c.1
B.20a.4 C. Khoisan-|Gwi cʔɛnɛ “smoke” Starostin, G. 2003 31
B.20a.2 IE-Sanskrit cancalakya “incense” candana “sandalwood” “sandal (Sirium myrtifolium),
either the tree, the wood or the unctious preparation of the wood held in high estimation as a perfume”
cAndana “consisting of sandalwood” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Hindi candan ki lakari “sandalwood” Scudiere 142
B.20a.2 Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur chang n. “dust” Uyghur Dictionary
/
B.20b.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] W. Chadic- Hausa S. Khoisan-Masarwa
(MacIver, Meixian) hayāk’ī m. cxai “flair up, smoke”
hai5 “mist, vapor” Hakka Dict. “smoke” Greenberg 1966 81
Chinese- Cantonese haaih “mist, vapor” Newman, P. C. Khoisan-!Xóō
Chik / Ng Lam 278 2007 88 ckxãje “smoke”
N. Chinese-MSC, Beijing Starostin, G.
ãi mist, haze” āi “dust” Wu J. 2-3 2003 31
B.20b.1
C. Khoisan-Proto-Taa *ckajV “smoke” Starostin, G. 2003 31
Semitic-Mehre mənh’ayn, mənh’un “smoke” Skinner 110. hún “smoke” (B.10.2 Extended).
↓↓
B.21 AA-Chadic AA-Cushitic AA –Sem. NS NC
B.21.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – NS-Kanuri
‘dam-pag “muddy Hausa kádám- “water
plash, slough” ‘dàmbā f. from spring or
Jaschke 274 “swamp” well source”
h’dam “mud, mire, Newman, R. (k-prefixed
swamp” 1990 27 nominal)
128
Das 679 Hutchison 78129
128
Note- B.21.1 (TB-Tibetan, Kanuri, Hausa) In NS-Kanuri a ka- prefix has been used to form a noun from a
verb root. The alternative Kanuri verbal form dámjin lacks the initial ka-, so Hutchison considers the noun form
204
ka-dam-pa can W. Chadic–Ron dámjin

“cloud” (Kulere) “seep,
Das 4 daàm ooze out,
[Disyllabic corresp.] “Wasserstelle” trickle
damba / [place containing (of water from a
dam water] ground source)
“mud, sludge” Skinner 42 Cyffer 1990 31
“swamp, marsh, bog” damshí
Goldstein 571-572 “moisture”
Skinner 44
Swadesh W. Chadic –Hausa
Proto- W. Nuer
“cloud” dàaminā / Omotic (Ethiopian) ci nhial
B.21.2 dàamunā / daman- Semitic- dʌm
S. Chinese-Yue dàamānā f. “cloud” Amharic “to rain”
(Cantonese) “the rainy season”
Omotic- dämmänä Huffman 34
tàahm Newman, P. 2007
Ometo “be cloudy” nhial “heaven”
“cloudy, overcast” 41-42 dāmmānaa “cloud”
Chik / Ng Lam 209 Skinner 42 “cloud” Leslau
N. Chinese-MSC Greenberg 1966Militarev, 1976 91
t’án (WG) 61 A. Omotic
“dark clouds” Etymology
Mathews #6068 870 2005
B.21.3 W. Chadic–Hausa
N. Chinese –MSC danshī
dàng “a shallow lake, “moisture”
marsh” Wu, J. 137 Newman, P.
TB-Tibetan 2007 43
daŋ-la “a tank, Skinner 44
a pond” Das 616
S Chinese–Yue
dahng
“clear and still (water)”
Chik / Ng Lam 273
B.21.1 TB-Tibetan ‘dam-pag “muddy plash, slough”
< W. Chadic – Hausa ‘dàmbā “swamp” “bog”
with the ka- to be nominalizing. See Chapter 10 section 10.3.2.3 The B.21.1 Tibetan and Hausa forms also give
evidence of a shift of the Kanuri initial ka- to an initial glottal or pharyngeal stop . However in sets A.20a.1-2
both the k- prefixed and non-prefixed forms are nouns, adjectives or verbs.. So the question seems to be more
complex both inside and outside of the NS family.
The match with Tibetan suggests that the Hausa ‘d- represents a pre-glotallized or laryngealized d-. This can be
ejective or implosive. See Newman, P. 2000 393. Here it has been represented as an ejective in Das’ notation of
Tibetan, i.e.initial h’d-. This could also be explained eymologically as derived from the NS ka- prefix. See also
note C.4.2 and sets B.28.1 and H.12.2 (Semitic-Amharic, Arabic)
129
Note- B.21.1-2 (Tibetan, Kanuri, Sanskrit Extended, ) The Kanuri kádám-form also partially matches both the
Tibetan B.21.2 Tibetan ka-dam-pa can “cloud” and Sanskrit Extended gaDAmbara “cloud” though its
semantics of “water from a spring, well”do not match those of ka-dam-pa “cloud” as closely. However, the table
as a whole contains semantics of “ground water” “damp ground”, “rainy, [cloudy] weather” and “moisture”. All
three of these denotations are present in Chadic-Hausa which therefore can be reasonably posited to be the
proximate source language of all three of the B.21.1-3 TB and Sinitic morphemes.
205
B.21.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) tàahm / tàahm tàahm “cloudy, overcast”

< Chadic-Hausa damshí “moisture” / E. Cushitic-Oromo dammacá “ombroso” [cloudy] /
Proto-South (Ethiopian) Semitic *dämän “cloud”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *däm- “cloud, cloudy, rainy” “dampness, moisture” ~
*‘dàm- “swamp, bog”
B.21.2
S. Chinese-Min âq-tám “get wet (from rain etc.)” Bodman 1987 v. 2 117, 176
âq- “get wet” v.1 252 v.2 117 (B. 34.1)
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) tàahm “deep water, deep pool” Chik / Ng Lam 272
B.21.3 N. Chinese-MSC táng “pond” Chen 291 “a pool or lake” Mathews #6063 870
tán “deep pool, pond” Wu, J. 664 Manser 92 Hsiung 200
dàng n. “puddle, pool, waterhole” DeFrancis 166
zăotàng “common bathing pool” zăo “bathe” (H.24d.1)
táng’ào “damp, low-lying grounds” DeFrancis 213
tān meas. for liquids” e.g. yi tān shui “a pool of water” DeFrancis 1362
TB-Tibetan daŋ-la “a tract of land abounding in springs” Jaschke 249 Das 616
B.21.2
N. Cushitic-Beja [Bedawi] daman “weather, season, climate” Skinner 42
W. Chadic–Ngizim də̀mán “rainy season” Schuh 35
C. Chadic–Logone
deman “rain” Greenberg 1966 61
deéman “rainy season” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006
Omotic-Gonga dɛmɛna “cloud” Greenberg 1966 61
Omotic-Dacho damäna “cloud” “E. Chadic loan” Ehret 1995 #143 133
West (Ethiopian) Semitic-Ge’ez, Gurage, Tigre dämäna “cloud” Mukarovsky 126, 127
Greenberg 1966 #58 61
W. Chadic-Hausa dāwàr damina “Sorghum series spontanea” “wet season sorghum”
Blench Hausa names for plants 13 dāwà “sorghum” (B.33a.1)
Proto-Cushitic *d-m-n “clouds, cloudy weather” Skinner 42
B.21.3 W. Chadic-Hausa dansàsā “moisten (esp. ground)”
Newman , R. 1990 171 Skinner 44
B.21.1
IE-Sanskrit
gaDAmbara “cloud”
KAdambinI “a long line or bank of clouds”
Cologne Leixcon.
See also Sanskrit table B.21.1-2
IE-Pashto dandukar “mist, smoke, haze” Raverty 472
B.21.3
Proto-IE *dhAngw- “bog, marsh”
IE-Pashto ddandda’h “a small pond, a cistern, a pool of water, a small well” Raverty 488
↓↓
The following table illustrates a case in which two separate semantic fields are generated in ST by the
dual Chadic semantics of “flat” and “rock” as exemplified in Hausa B.22a.1-2. Hausa contains two
morphemes faa / paa and falala / falami both meaning “flat rock”. However B.22a.2 TB-Bodo/Garo-
Dimasa per “flat”and -palaŋ ~ phalaŋ, though they match on the two variant forms of Hausa, both
206
have only the semantics of “flat”. Also TB-Tibetan (B.22a.1, B.22b.3) attests only the meaning of
“rock” for the faa / paa morpheme and TB-Chin-Lushai pèer only the meaning of “flat”.
Cantonese and Modern Standard Chinese correspond for the most part with various morphemes meaning
“flat object” e.g.“tray, plate, plank”. The meaning “flat object” is the only one attested in NS-Kanuri and
“rock” is the only one in the Mande correspondence.
In B.22b the variant roots Sinitic pán and Chadic pán / fan exhibit the same dual semantics of
“rock” and “flat object”. The flat objects in this case are “level ground” in B.22b.1 and “grindstone” in
B.22b.2. This latter is an early African flat stone artefact (See Ehret 2002 36, 62) and may have
generated the names of various flat objects in the Chinese and TB forms of B.22a and B.22b.2.
The Sanskrit attestations of this root cited below in the Extended section consist of similar morphemes
meaning “stone” and “flat”.
ST Languages African/ME languages-Close correspondences
B.22a-b Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA – AA-Semitic NS Niger-Congo
Cush.
Swadesh “stone” W. Chadic– E. South NC-S.W.
B.22a.1 TB-Tibetan Gwandara pà’ Cushitic- (Ethiopian) Mande–
pha-bong “rock mountain” Sidamo Semitic- Mende
“a large rock or “flat outcrop of rock” fâ Amharic fai / fa
block, above ground” Matsushita 1972 94 “to make amba “stone, rock”
Jaschke 339 W. Chadic – Hausa flat, “a flat- Mukarovsky
“a large boulder or fā m. fànnai pl. smooth, topped 1987 358
block of rock, “flat rock” even” mountain”
a boulder-like mass” Newman, P. 2007 56 Gasparini Leslau
Das 816 “rock (large and 93 1976 123
Jaschke 339 flat)” Skinner 62
B.22a.2 C. Chadic-Mofu- Kanuri NC-N.
TB-Chin-Lushai Gudur pərad fəlaifəlai Mande–
pèer “flat” “roche plat” (Fr.) “platelike, Malinke,
“flat and thin” [flat rock] traylike” Samo Kwi
Matisoff 2003 386, E. Chadic-Bidiya Skinner párá
400 pēra (Fr.) “roche 63 “stone, rock”
TB-Bodo/Garo- lisse, terrasse” fəlai Mukarovsky
Dimasa per “flat” [smooth rock; “flat 1987 358
Starostin, S. terrace], woven
TB Etymology Skinner [61] mat made
gephər “flat” W. Chadic- Hausa of grass”
Benedict 1972 97 fàlali / falami n. Cyffer
Starostin, S. ST m. “rock (large and 1990 46
Etymology flat)” fàřantìi /
bo(ŋ) palaŋ babban fàřantìi n.
“flat surface, plank” m. “plate” “big tray”
Matisoff 2003 292 Skinner [61]
B.22a.3 W. Chadic-Hausa
S. Chinese-Yue faai “small round
(Cantonese) mat used for covering
jinfai “a mat” vessels” [etc.]”
jin “mat” “phonograph record”
faai “piece of “any disc-like thing”
(land, bread etc.)” Newman / Ma
Chik / Ng Lam 8 1 1979 34
207
paaih “bulletin faifai

board”, “tablet” “round mat”
“card” Chik / Ng “disc” “record”
Lam 290-291130 Awde 1996 40
B.22a.1
TB-Tibetan pha-bong, pāboŋ “a large rock or block, above ground” “boulder”
< W. Chadic–Hausa fā / pā n. m. “flat rock” “rock (large and flat)”,
W. Chadic–Gwandara pà’ “rock mountain” “flat outcrop of rock” / Niger-Congo -S.W. Mande –
Mende fa “stone, rock”
B.22a.2 TB-Chin-Lushai pèer “flat” “flat and thin”
< C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur pərad “roche plat” [flat rock]
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma *fā / pā n.m. ~ *pər “flat rock”
B.22a.1 TB-Kiranti-Yamphu phäk “flat, thin” Starostin, S. Yamphu Dict.
B.22a.2 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *per “flat, thin” Benedict 1972 #340 73, 205
B.22a.3 N. Chinese-MSC páizi “plate, sign” páiwei “memorial tablet” “páibian “board
(fixed to a wall)” Wu, J. 506
S. Chinese-Min fi “flat, level” sv. Bodman 1987 v.2 87
B.22a.1
Egyptian āba “a slab of stone on which offerings were placed” Budge v.1117
E. Chadic–Dangaleat pàtyìrtyàn “de forme aplatie (pour quelque chose d’ àllongé)” (Fr.) [having a
flattened form (of something long)] ;
pàtìrtàr “plat (sol)” [flat (ground)] Fédry 52
B.22a.2
C. Chadic–Gude fāra “rock, stone” / paɬa “large, flat, exposed rock” Skinner [61]
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) mfalta ‫“ح‬flat, flattened” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic pt. 2 360
NS-Anywa pʌ̄ʌr “to level something” Reh 64
E., W., C., Chadic*pər- “stone, mountain” Skinner [61]
NS-Nuer pil “stone used to grind dura on” Huffman 39 [dura “sorghum”]
B.22a.1 Sanskrit paTTa “flat or level surface of anything” “a slab or tablet for painting or writing on”
paSanazila “a flat stone” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Hindi patthār “stone” Scudiere 160
patthāra “stone” Kobayashi Table 1-3 #145 4, 9, 16
IE-Bengali pathor “stone, rock” Thompson 62, 112, 122, 196
B.22a.2
IE-Sanskrit
parAruka n.m.. “a stone or rock” paraTiTa “a stone, a rock”
parvati / parvata f. “a rock, stone”
phalaka “any flat surface” “a board, lath, plank” “a slab or tablet (for writing or painting on)”
“a slab at the base of a pedestal”
parvateya “the smaller or upper millstone”
Cologne Lexicon
130
Note- B.22a.3 (Cantonese) faai is the classifier for the following terms for flat objects and their compounds:
áan “plank, board” Kwan 354, 43 (B.22b.1) ngàupá “steak” Kwan 504 tin “field (cultivated)” Kwan 187
Examples: yāt faai ngàupá “a steak” yāt faai mihnbāu “a slice of bread” gó faai bōlēi “that window pane”.
Matthews, S. 102.
208
IE-Pashto
par-śa’h “a rock, a ledge of rock” Raverty 1103.
pal “a millstone” Raverty 182
IE-Hindi pahāra “mountain” Kobayashi Table 1 #136 3, Table 2 #136 9, Table 3 #136 16.
IE-Bengali pahār “mountain, hill, rock” Thompson 62
See also Supplementary Table 2 B.22a.2.
Proto-Altaic *p’ālà “field, level ground”
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *pāla-n “field, level ground” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Proto-IE *bhAr- “log, board” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology
/
Swadesh “stone” W. Chadic – Hausa Egyptian NC-N. Mande-
B.22b.1 N. Chinese-MSC fā m. pl. fànnai bnbn Susu
pán “large stone” “flat rock” “sacred fándie /
DeFrancis 672 Newman, P. stone” fanyie
p’án “a rock” (WG) 2007 56 Ehret 1995 “rock, large
Mathews #6648 679 Skinner [61] #32 89 stone”
pán meas. W. Chadic – Mukarovsky
“measure word for flat Gwandara 358
things” Boping 161 (Nimbia) NC-Benue-
mòpán “millstone” páŋ̀ “stone” Congo-
Wu, J. 507 Matsushita 1974 Proto-
mò “grind, mill” #197 61 Plateau
S. Chinese-Yue W. Chadic- N. *fan
(Cantonese) Bauci Gp.-Pa’a “stone”
pán “massive rock” vánk’a “mountain”
Chik / Ng Lam 327 “grinding stone” Williamson /
baan “a plank a slab” Jungraithmayr Shimizu
Chik / Ng Lam 216, 327 1994 v.2 356
B.22b.2 TB-Tibetan Proto-Chadic Proto-AA Egyptian
angbɛn “chopping board” (Newman) *bāayn- benuit
Goldstein 979 *bəna “grind- “corn grinder
TB–Burmese kyauk- “grinding stone” stone querns”
pyáng “flat level stone, Ehret 1995 Ehret Budge
plank” Benedict 1972 40 #32 89 1995 v.1 218
Chinese- Hakka W. Chadic- Ngizim #32 89132 bnwt
(MacIver, Meixian) və̀nyi “grinding
piang3 (Lau Chunfat) “grinding stone” stone”
biang3 / ben3 “anything Schuh 166 Ehret 1995
round and flat as a disc” Ehret 1995 #32 89
Hakka Dict. #32 89 131
131
Note B.22b.2 (Chadic)
Flat hand grinding stones have been found at many archaeological sites throughout northern China. They are
called “pan stones” i.e. a word closely corresponding to the B.22b.1 N. Bauci Group-Pa’a vánk’a and B.22b.2
Proto-Chadic *bəna “grinding stone” as well as the W. Chadic pan- / pyang- roots meaning “flat rock”
Hand grinding in the Peiligang culture (8000-7000 BP) of Henan province, NW China, was done using a large
flat and relatively thin stone as a base with a smaller rounded one to pound the grain. These stones show up in
other Chinese material cultures. (See illustrations in Liu / Chen Figures 5.6 #1, 5.9 #24, 5.12 #3 and 6.8 #16-17.
In the Beixin culture these artefacts are called “mopan-mobang grinding stones”. Fig. 6.8 #5 also shows a
“pan plate.” (Liu / Chen 184). Statistics on the number of grinding stones discovered at the major Peiligang
culture sites in Henan are in Liu/Chen Fig. 5.3 143. See also Chapter 6 Section 6.12.
209
pyan “to be reduced to a

level, flat surface”
Benedict 1972 40
B.22.b.1 Chinese-Hakka p’an2 “large stone, massive rock” / Chinese- Hakka p’iang1 / p’iang2
“level ground, level piece of ground” / TB-Burmese pjang “plane, flat surface”
< W. Chadic–Gwandara páŋ̀ “stone” / W. Chadic-Tangale pándi “stone, hill, mountain, rock” /
NC-Benue-Congo-Proto-Plateau *fan “stone” “mountain” / W. Chadic – Hausa fā / pā fànni pl.
“flat rock”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *pán n. m. “flat stone, flat surface”
B.22b.2
TB-Jingpho phjen2 “be spread out and thus flat” bjen “be flat and wide” Starostin, S. ST
Etymology
TB-S. Loloish-Bisu ʔaŋ-phlɛn “flat, even” Matisoff 2003 109
S. Chinese-Min peN5 “flat, level, even” peng2 “anything round and flat as a disc” Hakka Dict.
TB–Tibetan aŋbɛn “chopping board” Goldstein 979
Proto-Chinese *phēns “board, flat surface” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
N. Chinese-MSC pán “tray” “tray-shaped things, Wu, J. 507 “tray, plate (for things wound flat or
for things shaped like a plate” Manser pt. 2 334 “ tray, plate, dish” meas. for “dishes” DeFrancis 672
piàn / piànr meas. “something thin and flat, such as card, record, disc, film” Wang, F. 365
biân “flat” Merriam-Webster Chinese 8 píng “level, flat, smooth” Wang, F. 367
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) bin(ge) flat (of an object)”ping(ge) “even” Kwan 191
TB-Tibetan spaŋ-leb “board, plank” Jaschke 329 leb “flat” (See G.3.1) The two roots are attested
in both Hausa and Tibetan.
Chinese-Hakka (Dongguan, Bao’an) ben3 “flat” “tablet, signboard” Hakka Dict.
B.22b.1
W. Chadic-Tangale pándi “stone, hill, mountain, rock” Jungraithmayr 1991 129
W. Chadic-Hausa fankamēmèe “very broad and flat” Newman, P. 2007 58
W. Chadic- Angas pām / pāmpām “a flat surface, flat, even” Foulkes 259
NS- Nuer pam, pamni “stone, rock, mountain” Huffman 38
NC-Proto-Jukun *peŋ “stone, boulder” Skinner 61
B.22b.2 E. Cushitic-Somali banaan “plain”banaan fatah “flood plain”
banaan zeebed “coastal plain” Awde 1999 22-23
B.22b.1
South Daic-Lao paan2 ga3 dan1 “board (wood)” Marcus 33 bpaan5 “plank” Marcus 164
het bpaan5 “map” Marcus 130 het2 bpaan4 “map” Marcus 130
paan2 bang1 bang1 “slice” Marcus 204
B.22b.2 South Daic-Lao piang3 adj. “flat”; he:t2 hay6 piang3 v. “flatten“ Marcus 83
pu3 piang3 n. “plateau” Marcus 164
132
Note- B.22b.2 (Proto-AA,) Archaeological data indicates that sometime before 11,000 BCE peoples living in
the area of the cataracts of the Nile began harvesting wild grains and making flour out of them using grindstones.
Ehret considers that these people spoke Afro-Asiatic languages. Ehret 2002 36. The Proto-Chadic *bəna “grinding
stone” indicates that speakers of Chadic were involved in this activity at or near its place of inception.
Ehret’s reconstruction of the Proto-AA root from the Chadic and Egyptian forms is relevant to this archaeological
data. He does not cite a Cushitic form, and no Cushitic match has thus far been discovered for this word family.
Ehret’s Omotic-Mocha má:no “upper stone of a mill” is not as closely related to the ST morphemes as are the
Chadic and Egyptian ones. See also Chapter 7 section 7.2.2.
210
↓↓
B.23 Afro-Asiatic – AA- AA- Nilo- Niger-Congo
Chadic Cush. Sem. Saharan
Swadesh “warm” C. Chadic- Dinka NC-N. Mande-
B.23.1 Dghwede túc Bambara
TB-Tibetan dùgaya “heat” tùgú. “kindle”
dúgs-pa “to make warm, “kindle” Greenberg NC-N. Mande-
to warm” “ to light, to kindle” 1966 140 Jula
Jaschke 253 C. Chadic-Glavda tugu “kindle”
dúgs “gentle warmth” tùgkù “kindle” Mukarovsky 228
Das 627 C. Chadic-Guduf
TB-Kiranti-Limbu (Gava)
-tukt- ~ -tuk- ndùgànɔŋa
“light, ignite” “kindle”
van Driem 480 Mukarovsky 228
B.23.1 TB -Tibetan dúgs-pa “ to light, to kindle” / TB-Kiranti-Limbu -tuk- “light, ignite”
< C. Chadic-Dghwede dùgaya “kindle” / NK-N. Mande-Bambara tùgú “kindle”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma *dug- / *tug- “to light, to kindle”
B.23.1
TB-Proto-Lolo-Burmese *ʔduk “light, ignite” Matisoff 2003 587, 315
TB-Proto-Kiranti *dukt- ~ *duk “light, ignite” Van Driem 480
Proto-TB *duk “burn, kindle” Matisoff 2003 587, 362
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu tòʔ “burn, be on fire” tú “set on fire” Matisoff 2003 90, 362
TB-Naga-Angami tū “be burning” pətū “set on fire” Matisoff 2003 132
B.23.1
NS- Songhay (Gao)
dùŋu “être tiède” [be warm] dùŋéndi “chauffer, réchauffer” [to heat, heat up] Ducroz 77 ;
dùnga “warm” Greenberg 1966 140
NS-Barea tok / dok / dog “hot” Greenberg 1966 140
B.23.1 IE-Sanskrit dhukS “to kindle” dhu “to fan, kindle (a fire)” Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2 B.23.1
↓↓
B.24 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA – Sem. NS Niger-Congo
Cush.
B.24.1 W. Chadic–N. Bauci- NC- S.E. Mande-
TB-Tibetan Tsagu fiyè “flour” Gban
phye “flour, meal” W. Chadic – N. Bauci- viε “flour”
phye-ma Mburku Mukarovsky 175
“powder, dust” fíyí “flour” NS-S.E. Mande-
Jaschke 351 Jungraithmayr 1994 Tura bii “flour”
Das 839 v.2 144133 Mukarovsky 175
133
Note- B.24.1 (Chadic) *pt is the primary root defined by Jungraithmayr for the morpheme meaning “flour” in
Chadic languages. It is found in all branches of Chadic (31 of 77 languages attest it). However the Tibetan forms
211
B.24.2 Chinese–Min W. Chadic-Bole NC- S.E. Mande-

bî–hun “rice flour vermicelli” bîdik’i “flour” Mano
bì “husked grain” Skinner 100 bî “flour”
“uncooked rice (already W. Chadic – Hausa Mukarovsky 175
husked)” ribid’i “fine ash, flour”
Bodman 1987 v. 2 106, 121 Skinner 100, 218
B.24.1 TB-Tibetan phye “flour, meal”
< W. Chadic–N. Bauci- Tsagu fiyè “flour” / NC- S.E. Mande-Gban viε “flour”
B.24.2 Chinese–Min bî–hun “rice flour vermicelli” bì “husked grain”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *fiyè ~ *bi “flour”
B.24.1
W. Tibet and Sikkim phe “powder, anything pulverized” Das 826 ; phye-ma / phye “dust,
powder” Jaschke 351 phye-mar hthag-pa “to make flour of roasted corn, barley, etc.” Das 605
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu cà-phî “paddy-chaff” vàʔ-phî “powdery chaff fed to pigs” Matisoff 2003 213
TB-Kiranti-Limbu phēʔrum n. “meal, flour” van Driem 1987 496
TB-Karenic phe “chaff” Matisoff 2003 217
TB-Written Burmese phwâi “chaff” Matisoff 2003 213
TB-Chin-Lushai phuai “chaff” Matisoff 2003 213
B.24.2 Chinese–Min bé “porridge, congee, gruel (of rice) Bodman 1987 v.2 103, 121
B.24.1
W. Chadic–N. Bauci-Siri fíyí “flour” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2, 144.
W. Chadic–N. Bauci-Warji fíyái “flour” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2, 144
South (Ethiopian)-Semitic-Harari fiča “flour” Leslau 1963 61
E. Cushitic-Oromo fica “farina” [flour] < Semitic-Harari Borello 146
W. Chadic–N. Bauci-Miya, Kariya fíì “flour” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 144.
↓↓
B.25 Afro-Asiatic – AA-Cushitic, Afro-Asiatic- Nilo-Saharan NC
Chadic Proto-AA Semitic
Swadesh Proto- Semitic-Arabic Maba
“to burn” Cushitic ši‫ع‬al “to ignite, Group--
B.25.1 *ts’aʕ / *- light, Maba
TB-Tibetan ts’iʕ- vi. set fire to” uosi(k) “fire”
tshig-pa “to burn” Dict. of Iraqi Greenberg
“to burn” Ehret 1995 Arabic part 2 243 1966 139
Jaschke 459 #543 288, ‫ = ع‬voiced uo “fire”
Das 1026 520 pharyngeal spirant (B.11b.1)
lack the final -t and hence correspond most closely to the N. Bauci forms. “In most N. Bauci languages R2 -t has
been weakened to y, e.g. Tsagu fiyè, Kariya fíì = fiy” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 69. The 7 W. Chadic-N. Bauci
language morphemes almost exactly match the Tibetan form phye. As the table shows, they also correspond to an
NC-Mande form as is often the case in W. Chadic languages.
The B.24.2 (Extended) attestations of this root in Chadic and Cushitic meaning “fine ash” “fine sand” are also
found in Tibetan as phye-ma “powder, dust”. However neither the Tibetan phye “flour” nor phye-ma
“powder” contain the` -t- /-d- found in many Chadic and Cushitic forms. It is not possible to determine from this
table whether the phye form is inherited from a Chadic dialect or the phye / bî- forms in TB were directly
inherited from NC. However, the data of Note- B.22b.2 above may be relevant since the Chadic proto-root for
grindstone indicates that Chadic speakers were early involved in the grinding of flour.
212
S. Chinese-Yue
(Cantonese) jek / jīk
“to burn, to roast,
to broil, to heat”
TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-
tsiì North Bauci
“to get burned” group- Kariya
“to burn” ʔsíí- “burn”
Goldstein 899 Jungraith-
N. Chinese-MSC mayr
zhì “broil, roast” 1994 v.2 54
Wu, J. 903 tsiy- “burn”
Skinner 259
B.25.3 C. Chadic- Proto-
Old Chinese Zəgvana Cushitic
tsyak mtsək- *ts’aʕ / *ts’iʕ
“burn, “roast” vi. “to burn”
brilliant, illuminate” C. Chadic- Ehret 1995
Sagart 93 Hildi #543 288,
mtsak- 520
“roast, cook” Proto-AA
Skinner 259 *jak vi.
“to burn”
Ehret 1995
#1019 525
B.25.1 TB-Tibetan tshig-pa “to burn” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jīk “to burn, to roast”
< Proto-Cushitic *ts’iʕ- vi. “to burn ”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *ts’iʕ- vi. “to burn”
B.25.1
TB-Tibetan h’tshig-pa “to burn, to destroy by fire” Das 1043 tsigro “be burnt, charred”
Goldstein 899 tsigmə “burnt (food)” Goldstein 879
Proto-TB *m-(t)sik “burn, angry” Matisoff 2003 344, 348
B.25.3 TB-Tibetan sēg “to burn” “to roast/grill/broil” sēgma “anything burnt/ roasted/broiled”
Goldstein 1143
B.25.1 Semitic-Arabic sigaf “to roast (fish) over an open fire” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 220
B.25.2 W. Chadic-N. Bauci group- Miya ʔsiy- “burn” Jungraithmayr v.2 54
W. Chadic-S. Bauci group- Guruntum shi “burn” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 54
W. Chadic-S. Bauci group-Buli ci “burn” Jungraithmayr v.2 54
C. Chadic-Gude ətsə “burn” Skinner 259
134
Note- B.25.1-2 (Tibetan, Chinese, AA) In W.Tibetan the traditional root is tsig-. The AA correspondences give
evidence that the etymon is *tsig or *ts’iʕ-. This implies that the B.25.2 Central Tibetan form has through apocope
reduced the final -g / ʕ to *ø- in the basic form. The same change is regular between southern and northern
Chinese languages. See note A.14a.3 (MSC) and sets C.1a.1-2, C.8a.1-2, C.16.2-3 and C.40.1, 45 for examples of
this variance between AA roots. Hence the change is present between AA languages and constitutes a regular parallel
sound change. Loss of final sounds “is so frequent that linguists have given the phenomenon a name of its own,
apocope (chopping off)”. Antilla 72.
213

B.25.1
Kartvelian-Svan šix “to burn” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 8
IE-Sanskrit zikhavat “flaming, burning” “fire” “a lamp” Cologne Lexicon
B.25.3
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *č(i)ak “to strike fire” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 15
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *čaki “to strike fire” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 15
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *či(K)u / *či(K)e “to strike fire” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 15
Altaic-Mongolian-Ordos ʒakil “to scintillate, glare, lighten”
Altaic-Mongolian-Kalmuck cak “to strike fire”
Altaic-Mongolian-Dagur čakil- “to strike fire” čakilgān “lightning” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian
Etymology
IE-Tocharian tsäk- “burn up” / tsāk- “illuminate” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 26
Proto-IE *dhegwh- “to burn” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 26
↓↓
ST Languages African/AA languages- close correspondences
B.26 AA – Chadic AA -Cush. AA-Semitic NS NC
Swadesh C. Chadic–Mafa, South (Ethiopian)
“mountain” Padoko, Semitic-Amharic
B.26.1 Matakan šäntärär
TB-Tibetan-Ladakhi dza(ŋ) “mountain
gtsang-gtsong “mountain” chain, mountain
“steep, rugged mountains” Skinner 271 range”
Jaschke 433 C. Chadic- Bura Leslau 1976 64, 413
Das 1001 shantarang
Chinese-Hakka “sloping”
sān1sən2 “mountain” Dict. of Bura
Ramsey 114
N. Chinese-MSC
shān “hill, mountain”
Wu, J. 592
“a mountain, a hill,
a range of mountains”
Mathews #5630 774
B.26.2 W. Chadic-Hausa
Chinese- Hakka tsaunìi
(Meixian, MacIver) “hill, pile”
san1 Skinner 271
“hill, mountain” “hill”
Hakka Dict. Newman, P.
2007 206
B.26.3 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – E.
seŋ Gwandara Cushitic-
“height, elevation” (Newman 1977) Kwa’adza
Goldstein 972 tsenə tsēm
Wu, J. 67 “mountain” “hill”
Skinner 271 Skinner
271
214

B.26.2 N. Chinese-MSC shān “hill, mountain” / TB-Tibetan-Ladakhi gtsang-gtsong
“steep, rugged mountains”
< South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic šäntärär “mountain chain, mountain range” /
C. Chadic– Mafa, Padoko, Matakan dza(ŋ) “mountain”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *šän- “mountain”
B.26.1 TB-Tibetan çoŋ “the ridge of a mountain” Das 1246 ; shoŋ(s) / ɣsoŋ(s) “elevated plain,
ridge of a mountain” Jaschke 563
B.26.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sàan “hill, mountain, peak” Kwan 304 Chik / Ng Lam 114
sàhm “a relatively high pointed hill” Chik / Ng Lam 115
B.26.3 N. Chinese-MSC cén “high hill” Wu, J. 67
B.26.2 Proto-Afro-Asiatic (Orel / Stolbova 1995) *t’s’awan- “flint, stone” Skinner 271
Asian non-ST languages with correspondences to the ST ↔ African/AA ↔ ST roots:
B.26.2
IE-Sanskrit sAnu “a summit, ridge, top of a mountain” “(in later language generally) mountain ridge,
table land” sanumat “having a summit or ridge” “a mountain, hill”
Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 B.26.2
S. Daic-Lao sa:n4 pu3 “ridge” Marcus 186
↓↓
B.27 AA–Chadic AA-Cush. AA-Semitic NS Niger-Congo
B.27.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- NS-Songhay NC- Fulfulde
gro “wheat” Hausa (Gao) (Fulani)
Jaschke 78, 667 gērō m. gèrò gērō
Das 249 135 “Pennisetum “alestes “negro millet”
gro-yós “parched glaucam” imberi” “not the
grains of wheat” Blench Hausa “alestes original
gro-sóg names for nurse” Fulfulde term,
”stalk of wheat” plants” “alestes but the only
Jaschke 78 “bulrush millet” leucuscus” one used by the
Das 249 Newman, P. “alestes Fulfulde settled
gro-skam 2007 73 macro- in the
“dry wheat” Das 24 “millet” lopidotus” provinces of
TB-Lepcha Kraft 385 44 Ducroz 102 the former
kho-gro “a species Skinner 83 Hausa empire”
of grain” “negro millet Barth 173
Starostin, S. “Pennisetum
ST Etymology typhoideum”
Barth 172
B.27.2 TB-Tibetan E. Chadic- Masa Kanuri
khrá-ma “a kind of Group- Lame tə́gə́ra n.
barley growing and gəraŋ “millet” dumplings of
ripening within 60 Skinner 83 millet or
days” Jaschke 49 guinea corn,
135
Note- B.27.1 (Tibetan) Chinese observers of Tibet under the T’ang dynasty around 756-757 CE reported that
the Tibetans cultivated oats, barley, wheat and buckwheat. Pelliot 2. Barley is the staple grain now consumed in
Tibet. Rice and millet were the earliest grains cultivated in China, and millet is still widely grown in northwest
China near Tibet. See also Notes B.9.1-4, B.33b.1-2, set B.35.1 and Chapter 7 Section 7.6.2.
215
TB-Proto-Lolo- flour mixed

Burmese with liquid”
*g-ra “buckwheat Cyffer
(Fagopyrum 1990 172
esculentum)”
Matisoff 2003 163
B.27.3 C. Chadic-Gudu NC-Galambu
TB-C. Loloish- gəwā gbaa
Lisu gua “sorghum” “noyau, pepin,
“buckwheat” E. Chadic- grain”
Matisoff 2003 163, Masa group- [kernel, seed,
168 Peve ikwa single grain]
Blench 2010a Skinner 181 Skinner 181
Table 5 9 C.Chadic-Higi
Middle Chinese Futu gərwa
hwa “a millet” “millet”
Sagart 177 Skinner 83
B.27.4 W. Chadic-Dera E. Semitic- NS-Anywa C. Khoisan-
TB-Tibetan kure “millet” Cushitic- Hebrew [Anuak] Proto-Non-
gorii Skinner 83 Rendille gar’een ogòollí Khoekhoe
“a type of round W. Chadic- khúrri “seed “sorghum *|xúrí
barley” Hausa m. “ear (grain)” cultivated C. Khoisan-
Goldstein 240 kuri “a kind of (of grain)” Baltsan along the Hiechware
khre “millet” short bulrush Pillinger 734 river” |khúrí
Jaschke 52 millet with long 195 333 Reh 60 “seed”
thick heads” Starostin, G.
Bargery 2002 2003 30
B.27.5 W. Chadic- Semitic-Old NS-Kanuri NC-Fulfulde
N. Chinese-MSC Ngizim Aramaic ngawuli [Fulani]
gāoliang n. áagâw gawarws “guinea gawe “grain”
“sorghum” “pounded, m. corn” gau / gauri /
Wang, F. 164 cooked grain” “millet” [sorghum] gauriwa
liangshi “grain” Schuh 6 Compre- Cyffer “corn, esp.
Wang, F. 305 hensive 1990 135 guinea corn”
Aramaic Taylor 64, 210
Lexicon
B.27.6 W. Chadic- Semitic-
S. Chinese-Kejia Bauci Gp. Written
[Hakka] *gyàurō Arabic
k’iau2 / “millet” jawwar
kiau1 “buckwheat” Skinner 83 “rye”
Hakka Dict W. Chadic- Wehr 132
N. Chinese-MSC Hausa Egyptian
ch’iáo “buckwheat” k’auràa tchaāu
Mathews #748 102 “Sorghum “a kind of
TB-Tujia bicolor” seed or
khu tɕiàu “red guinea corn grain”
“bitter buckwheat” cultivar” Budge
Blench 2010-2011 8 Blench Hausa v.2 896
names for
plants 43
216
S.W. Chinese “type of red

tɕiau “buckwheat” guinea corn”
Blench 2009b 9 Newman, P.
2007 129
B.27.7 S. Chinese- W. Chadic- N. Proto-AA
Yue (Cantonese) Bauci-Diri, (Orel /
kìuh “the Pa’a, Siri Stolbova
buckwheat” *gyura 1995)
Chik / Ng Lam 396 “millet” *gir /
N. Chinese-MSC Proto-W. *giur
ch’iu “parched Chadic *giwro “corn”
wheat or rice” / *gyro “millet” Skinner
Mathews #1225 175 Skinner 83 83
B.27.1 TB-Tibetan gro “wheat” / TB-Lepcha kho-gro “a species of grain”
< W. Chadic-Hausa gērō “millet (planted early)” / NS-Songhay gèrò “alestes imberi” “alestes
nurse”
B.27.4 TB-Tibetan gorii “a type of round barley”
< C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe *ǀxúrí, C. Khoisan-Hiechware ǀkhúrí “seed” /
E. Cushitic-Rendille khúrri m. “ear (of grain)” /
B.27.5 N. Chinese-MSC gāoliang n. “sorghum”
< NC-Poular gauri “mil” [millet
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *gērō “millet” ~ *gauri “millet” / ǀxúrí “seed”
B.27. 3 TB-Loloish-Nosu ŋgɯ “buckwheat” Blench 2010a Table 5 9
B.27.6
N. Chinese-MSC qiáo “buckwheat” Wu, J. 547.
jiāo bf. “wild rice, water oats” DeFrancis 424
TB-Burmish-Bola (Luxi), -Atsi (Zaiwa) khjau “buckwheat Blench 2010-2011 8
SW Chinese tɕiau “buckwheat” Blench 2010a Table 5 8.
TB-Loloish-Akha ɕadó “foxtail millet” Blench 2009b 8
B.27.1
W. Chadic-Dera (Kanakuru) gerò “millet” Stolbova, Olga W. Chadic Etymology
E. Chadic- Masa togoro “sorghum” Skinner 83
W. Chadic-Tangale kọọrọk “mixed grains” Skinner 83
E. Cushitic-Oromo gerbo “barley” Foot 23
Proto-W. Chadic *giwro / *gyro “millet” Skinner 83
W. (Ethiopian) Semitic ǝnkuro “dish made of flour of parched barley and sorghum which has been
mixed with water” Leslau 1976 138
B.27.2 C. Chadic-Mafa = Matakam gagar “millet” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology
W. Chadic-Ngizim garəfka “sorghum” Schuh 71
Semitic-Hebrew gargeer “grain, berry”
B.27.4 NS-Songhay (Gao) gùurì “noyau, amande, grain” [kernel, seed, grain] gùrì “semoule de mil”
[millet flour] Ducroz 109-110 màam-gùurì “testicle” maam “scrotum”
[lit. scrotum kernel/seed] Ducroz 172
W Chadic-Hausa ku’ri “locust bean seeds in course of manufacture into daddawa”
daddawa” “locust bean cakes” Bargery 2002 (B.33b.1)
C. Chadic-Guduf ŋə‫כ‬rɛ “bean” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006
B.27.6 W. Chadic- Gwandara (Newman, P.) gyoro “millet” Skinner 83
W. Chadic-Ngizim áyâawá “grains of millet, sorghum, peanuts etc” Schuh 14
217
gyero “bullrush millet” Matsushita 1972 47

NS-Nuer yio “certain kind of red dura” Huffman 52
E. Chadic-Misme/Mesme gwirany “sorghum” Skinner 83
B.27.7
W. Chadic-Hausa k’urk’uráá “Sorghum bicolor” Blench Hausa names for plants 43
Proto-Central-Chadic ʔuru “millet” Stolbova, Olga Central Chadic-Etymology
B.27.2
IE-Hittite karas “eine Getreideart deren Mehl nicht zur Brotbereitung verwendet wird” (Ger.)
[a type of grain whose flour is not useful for making bread” [this is typical of barley]
B.27.4 IE-Sanskrit kuruvindu “a kind of barley” Cologne Lexicon
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *guril “flour” / -Mongolian-Khalka *guril “flour” /
-Mongolian-Buriat guril “flour” / -Mongolian-Dagur goli(l), goli “flour” /
-Mongolian-Ordos gulir, guril “flour” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
IE- Sanskrit gāritra “rice, corn, grain” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Hindi garī “kernel” f. Scudiere 87, 228
Proto-IE *g’herə- / *g’herəzdh- “barley”
B.27.5 IE-Sanskrit gaura “a species of rice” gauraka “a kind of rice”
gauduma “made of wheat” Cologne Lexicon
B.27.6
SE-Iranian-Baluchi ʒ� �
aw “ barley”
N.Iranian-Ossetian jaw “millet”
Central Iranian-Yagn yaw “barley” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 159
IE-Persian �av “Gerste” [barley] Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 159
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan yava “crop” yəvīn “Getreidefeld” [field of barley]
IE-Pashto jau “barley” j’war sing. / j’wari pl. “the name of a grain (Holcus sorghum)”
jawānwān “a kind of grain like mustard seed, from which a bitter oil is expressed” Raverty 342-343
IE-Hindi jau “barley” Scudiere 17 cāval “rice” Scudieri 237
IE-Sanskrit m. yáva “barley (in the earliest times, probably any grain or corn yielding flour meal”
avaksetra “a field of barley” yavana “wheat” yavanala “Andropogon Bicolor, Sorghum Sier”
yavāgodhū “wheat” yavāgū “rice gruel” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Old Indian yáva-̣h m. “barley, corn” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology
IE-Hindi, Urdu jowar “sorghum” Possehl 64 -Hindi caval “rice” Scudiere 138
IE-Bengali caul “rice, (uncooked)” Thompson 122
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho,Mundari tʃaʊ’li / tʃau’li “rice”
Kobayashi Tables 1-2 #51 2, 8 -Santali tʃaʊ’le “rice” Kobayashi Table 3 #51 14
Hmong-Mien-Proto-Mienic *jæu “buckwheat” Blench 2010a Table 5
Daic-Tai-Dehong ɕiau “buckwheat” Blench 2010a Table 5
27.7 Proto-IE, IE-Sanskrit gur- “barley”, “rice” and “wheat” kuruvinda “a kind of barley”
laGgura “millet”136 goraksa “wheat” Cologne Lexicon
This table has been included in the review of data on agriculture in Chapter 7 Table 7.1b
136
Note- B.27.4-7 (Sanskrit) Much archaeolological evidence has been accumulated on the spread of sorghum,
pearl millet and finger millet out of sub-Saharan Africa into South Central Asia. Sorghum “Sorghum bicolor” was
imported into Pakistan at the latest by the early third millenium BCE. Millet dating from the second and third
millenia BCE has been identified at a number of northwest Indian and Pakistani sites. Under one hypothesis these
grains entered Asia through the maritime trade which the Indus civilization developed with Southern Arabia and
East Africa in the third millenium BCE Possehl 2002 218 (See further discussion in Chapter 7 Section 7.4 )
218
/
ST Languages African/AA languages – Close correspondences
B.28 Afro-Asiatic – AA –Cushitic AA –Sem. NS NC
Chadic
B.28.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Hausa E. Cushitic-
h’thig-pa / bthig-pa / ’dìgàa “to pour Rendille
gtigs-pa out in drops” í’dìicha
“to drop, fall in drops” “filter” v. “(to) drop
Das 522, 529, 606 ’diga “drip, something on
Jaschke 207, 244 be filtered” something else”
dīgbə “a drop” ’dìgō n. m. “drop, Pillinger 149
Goldstein 450 drip”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) Newman, P. 2007
dihk “a drop of liquid” 54 Skinner 57
Kwan 150
“water drop” “to drip” 137
Chik / Ng Lam 269
B.28.2 Old Chinese W. Chadic-Tangale
tiek dẹkẹ “to drip
“a drop, to drop, drip” [any liquid] out of a
Benedict 1972 180 vessel through a
Matisoff 2003 327 hole”
Jungraithmayr
1991 78
B.28.3 N. Chinese-MSC E. Cushitic- Oromo E. Cushitic-
dī vi. “drip” “drop” ‘dim’uu n. Rendille vi.
Wu, J. 145 “leak” dibha ”drip”
meas. ”drop of liquid” ‘dim’-isa vi. “leak” dibih ”drip”
Wang, F. 103 Gragg 126 Pillinger 94
B.28.4 N. Cushitic-Beja S. Ethiopian)
TB-Tibetan [Bedauye] Semitic-
h’dzag-pa pf. (ɣ)zags t’akw Gurage
“to drop, drip, trickle” ”let fall drops” täk(k) n.
Jaschke 463 E. Cushitic- “leak”
Written Burmese Kembata Skinner 57
cak “drip, drop” täkki n. “leak”
Matisoff 2003 506 Skinner 57
TB- Qiangic-Pumi-Dayang-
rGyalrong
nthɐk “drip, drop”
Matisoff 2003 506
See also H.17c.1
B.28.1-2 TB-Tibetan ‘thig-pa “to drop, fall in drops, to drip from” / B.28.2 Old Chinese
tiek “a drop, to drop, drip”
< W. Chadic- Hausa ‘dìga “to pour out (by drops)” / ‘dìgō n. m. “drop, drip” [of liquid]
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *’dìg- “to pour out (by drops)”
137
Note- B.28.1 (Cantonese) dihk is also used as a measure (quantity) classifier in Cantonese and functions like
a collective noun in English.“dihk ‘drop’ applies to liquids”, e.g. yāt dihk hyut “a drop of blood” gei dihk yúh
‘a few drops of rain’” Matthews, S. 98. See also Chapter 10 Section 10.4.
219

B.28.1
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] dik1 / dik6 v. drip” “drop of water, water drops” Hakka Dict.
C. Chinese-Wu tiʔ7 v. “drip” “drop of water, water drops” Hakka Dict.
TB-Tibetan cerdig “a raindrop” Goldstein, 71, 358 cer / char “water”. (B.16a.1)
digdig “sound of dripping” Goldstein 445
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *g-tyik “drip, drop” Matisoff 2003 506
Proto-Chinese *tek “drop” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
B.28.2 S. Chinese-Min tih7 v. “drip” “drop of water, water drops” Hakka Dict.
B.28.3 TB-Tamang syak-pa “drip, drop” Matisoff 2003 506
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu jâʔ “drip, drop” Matisoff 2003 506 See also H.17c.1
B.28.1 E. Cushitic- Rendille dìhk “be in milk, have breast milk” “lactate” Pillinger 95
B.28.2 Berber-Tuareg setekket ”laisser tomber goutte a goutte” [let fall drop by drop] Skinner 57
C. Cushitic–Rendille diha “fall, fall off” “drop (from a higher to a lower level) Pillinger 95
C. Cushitic–Bilin t’ibb “tropfen-weise fallen” [fall drop by drop] Skinner 57
E. Cushitic-Oromo d’imm-isu “gocciolare, filtrare, stillare, far acqua dal tetto, perdere (di recipienti)”
[to drip, fall in drops, to ooze, trickle] Borello 114
B.28.3 E. Cushitic-Rendille í’dì’da vi. “(to) sweat” Pillinger 149
↓↓
B.29 Afro-Asiatic AA – AA-Semitic NS Khoisan
Chadic Cushitic
Swadesh “moon” W. Chadic- Seya S. (Ethiopian) Khoisan-
B.29.1 TB-Tibetan car “star” Semitic-Geʔez Western
sa̱ “planet” Skinner 255 šahr “new moon” Cape
Goldstein 967 W. Chadic- Zaar Semitic-Arabic tchâ
TB-Karen-Pwo šâ “star” caàr “star” šahr “new moon” “moon”
TB-Karen-Pao Mukarovsky 351 Militarev/Stolbova Ehret
chá “star” 1982
Matisoff 2003 168 [175]
B.29.2 TB-Lepcha Proto-W. Chadic Proto-AA Semitic-Hebrew
săhor *ĉahar “star” *ĉahar sahar n. m.
“planet” Stolbova, Olga “star, moon” “moon” (poetic)
Matisoff 2003 391 W. Chadic- Militarev / Baltsan 365
[Disyllabic corresp.] Etymology 2005 Stolbova Semitic-Aramaic
2007 sahar “new
moon” Militarev /
Stolbova
B.29.3 TB-Nung C. Chadic-
səla “moon” Musgu
Benedict 1972 42 salagə
[Disyllabic corresp.] “star”
TB-Tibetan C. Chadic-
zlá-ba / zla Kotoko (Afade)
“moon” sɔlɔgo
Jaschke 490 Hodge 16 “star”
zlá-wa “the moon” Mukarovsky
Das 109 [also used in 351
compounds for planets and
constellations]
220
B.29.4 W. Chadic- S.(Ethiopian) S. E.

TB-W. Kiranti- Vayu Hausa zàařa Semitic-Amharic Mande-
tsholo < *tshala “planet ĉäräqa Busa
“moon” (especially “moon” sɔra
Benedict 1972 42 bright, Leslau 1976 238 “star”
e.g. Venus)” Muka-
Newman, R. rovsky
1990 201 351
W. Chadic-
Dyarim
càrà “star”
Blench 2007 43
B.29.5 W. Chadic-
TB-Tibetan Ngizim
ɣzah “a planet” gə‫כ‬zhâw /
Jaschke 492 gə́shâw “star’
Das 1102 Schuh 61-62
B.29.1 TB-Tibetan sa̱ “planet” / TB-Lepcha săhor “planet”
< W. Chadic- Hausa zàařa “planet (especially bright, e.g. Venus)” /
Khoisan-Western Cape tchâ “moon”
B.29.4 TB-W. Kiranti- Vayu tsholo < *tshala “moon”
< W. Chadic- Hausa zàařa “planet / S.(Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic ĉäräqa “moon” /
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma *sɔra “star” ~ tchâ “moon”
B.29.1 TB-Chin-Tiddim xaa “moon” Matisoff 2003 75
B.29.4 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *s-la ~ *g-la = s-gla “moon” Benedict 1972 42, 106, 202
B.29.1 W. Chadic-Guruntun saar “star” Militarev / Stolbova
Semitic-Arabic ʃahr (IPA) “month” Merriam-Webster Arabic 98
C. Chadic- Bura dzardzar “morning star” Dict. of Bura
W. Chadic-Guruntum saarù “star” Mukarovsky 351
B.29.2 W. Chadic-Hausa zàahàřatù “Venus” Newman 2007 229-231
Semitic-Hebrew shakar “mornng star”
Semitic-Jibbali šehar / šeher “new moon” Militarev / Stolbova Dict. of Bura
B.29.3 C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur wurzla “ètoile” [star] Barreteau 25
B.29.4 IE-Sanskrit sArasa “moon” zara “a particular constellation of stars” Cologne Lexicon
See also Supplementary Table 2 B.29.3-4.
B.29.5 IE-Pashto sawābit “the fixed stars” Raverty 301
↓↓
B.30 Afro-Asiatic AA-Cushitic. AA- NS NC,
Chadic Sem. Khoisan
Swadesh “moon” N. Omotic- Gofa,
B.30.1 TB-W. Kiranti- Dache tsolinte
Vayu tsholo < “star”
*tshala “moon” N. Omotic- Dorze
Benedict 1972 42 c’olinte “star”
Mukarovsky 351
221
B.30.2 S. Khoisan-‖Khegwi
TB-Bodo/Garo- klolo “moon”
Digaro Ruhlen 1994 #402 59
həla ~ hlo C. Khoisan-Batae
“moon” ʎolo “moon”
Benedict 1972 42 Starostin, G. 2003 25
B.30.3 W. Chadic- S. Khoisan-‖Ku‖e
TB- Chin-Lai Boto tʔɔlo
tlaa “moon” tlaàr “star” “moon”
Matisoff 2003 34 Mukarovsky Starostin, G.
TB-Chin-Lushai 351 2003 25
[Mizo] Proto-Chadic
thla / thlaa (Newman, P.)
“moon” *tǝra
Matisoff 2003 52, 75 “moon”
TB- C. Loloish-Nyi Skinner 255
(Sani) shlà-bà
“moon”
Benedict 1972 88
B.30.4 C. Chadic- C. Khoisan-Hietsho
TB-Bodo/Garo- Glavda ‖kala
Digaro kyíla “star”
həla ~ hlo “moon” “moon” Ehret 1982 [175]
TB- Burmese -Lolo Rapp / S. Khoisan-ǂKhomani
*hla “moon” Benzing 57 ǂʔɔrɔ
Benedict 1972 42 “moon”
Proto-Lolo-Burmese Starostin, G.
*la / *ʔ-la “moon” 2003 25
Matisoff 2003 28
Proto-Tibeto-
Burman *g-la
“moon” Matisoff
2003 165, 172
B.30.1 TB-W. Kiranti-Vayu tsholo < *tshala / N. Omotic- Gofa, Dache tsolinte “star”
< S. Khoisan-‖Ku‖e tʔɔlo “moon”
B.30.4 Proto-Lolo-Burmese *la / *ʔ-la “moon” / TB- Burmese –Lolo *hla “moon” /
TB-Bodo/Garo- Digaro həla ~ hlo “moon”
< C. Khoisan-Hietsho ‖kala “star”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *sɔlɔ “star” ~ ‖kala “star”
B.30.4 TB-Karen- Pwo lá ”moon” Benedict 1972 151
B.30.1
N. Omotic- Oyda, Malo s’olinto “star” Mukarovsky 351
N. Omotic-Chara ts’olin-ta “star” Mukarovsky 351
B.30.2 S. Khoisan-!Kwi-‖Ng!ke !kɔro “moon” Ruhlen 1994 59
B.30.3
C.Chadic-Tera təra “moon” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic-Etymology
S. Khoisan-!Kwi-‖Ng!ke turro ~ !urru “moon” Bleek 1954 454
W. Chadic-Hausa taurāro “star” Skinner 255
222
S. Khoisan-!Kwi-ǀXam !árro Ruhlen 1994 #402 59

NS-Anywa [Anuak] cèerò “star” Reh 14
B.30.3
IE-Hindi tārā m. “star” Scudiere 257 Kobayashi Tables 1- 3 #162 4, 16
IE-Bengali tara “star” n. Thompson 55, 127
B.30.4 Hmong-Mien-Proto-Miao-Yao *hlac “moon” Sagart 1999 160
↓↓
B.31 AA- Chadic AA – AA – Nilo- Niger-Congo.,
Cush. Semitic Saharan Khoisan
B.31.1 W. Chadic- Semitic- Kanuri C. Khoisan-Hietsho
TB-Tibetan Hausa Arabic kə́mbal |kamiro-p
shing’gam gàmzākìi qamar n. “star”
“planet” “morning star” “moon” “moon, C. Khoisan-Naro
Goldstein 928 Newman, P. Merriam- full moon” |amoro-b
gāmzibə 2007 69 Webster Cyffer 90 “star”
“astrologer” Skinner 76 Arabic 98 Ehret 1982 [175]
shing’ “star” W. Chadic- Egyptian
(See E.12.3 Njanye khemiu-
Extended gə̄mlekii “star” urtu
“star, good fortune) Skinner 76 “the stars
C. Chadic- that rest
Padoko not”
gəməɬa “star” Budge
Skinner 76 v.1 546
B.31.2 S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa,
TB-Jingpho !Xóő
[Kachin] *!qhàn
šəgān “moon”
“star” S. Khoisan-ǀNu‖’en
Matisoff 2003 391 !xan “moon”
Benedict 1972 25 Starostin, G. 2003 25
TB-Kuki Chin- S. Khoisan-Khakhea
Naga-Khoirao !xʌ̀n
səgān “moon”
“star” Ruhlen 1994
Matisoff 2003 391 #402 59
Swadesh “star” E.Chadic- Maba S.Khoisan-
B.31.3 Dangaleat Group- !Kwi-‖Ng-!‘e
TB-Tani-Mising- káálo Masalit !kɔro
Miri tekar “star” “étoile” [star] kara “moon”
Benedict 1972 25 Fédry 276 “stars” S. Khoisan-
See also Note káalò “moon” Edgar 276 !Kwi-ǀXam
C.29b.2 on t- initial. Mukarovsky !ka!karo
TB-Tibetan 260 “moon”
skár-ma Ruhlen 1994
“star, fixed star” #402 59
Jaschke 20
Matisoff 2003 391
223
TB-Kanauri NC- N. Mande-

kar Mandinka
“star” kári / káru
Benedict 1972 25 “moon”
Mukarovsky 260
N. Khoisan-!’O-!Kung
!ka!karī
“moon”
Ruhlen 1994
#402 59
B.31.1
TB-Tibetan shing’gam “planet”
< W. Chadic-Hausa gamzāki “morning star” / W.Chadic-Njanye gə̄mlekii “star” /
C. Khoisan-Hietsho |kamiro-p “star”, C. Khoisan-Naro |amoro-b “star”
B.31.3 TB-Kanauri kar “star” / TB-Tibetan skár-ma “star, fixed star” /
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *s-kar “star”
< NS-Maba Group-Masalit kara “stars” / NC- N. Mande- Mandinka kári “moon” /
S. Khoisan-‖Ng-!‘e !kɔro “moon”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma: *gam- “star, morning star” ~ *kar- “star”
B.31.1
(See also E. 12a.3 Extended) gə̄mdzii shibdekaŋ “observatory, planetarium”
Goldstein 54 shibde “research, investigation” kaŋ “building” See F.15b.2
B.31.3
TB-Tibetan gār / gārma “star” Goldstein 53
nyingar “stars that are visible during the day” Goldstein 415
gargong’ “constellation of stars”
Goldstein 2001 52 gong’ “group” (D.32.3)
B.31.1
NS-Kanuri kəntágə n. “month” kəntágedə́ falángə́na n. “new moon” Cyffer 92
Egyptian genkha “star, luminary” Budge v.2 809
Egyptian khemiu-seku “the stars that are always above the horizon”
[basic word for star in compounds] Budge v.1 546
B.31.2
C. Khoisan-Tati ǂkxaine “star” Ruhlen 1994 #535 64
C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe, Danisi, Kua *ǂxánì “star” Starostin, G. 2003 31-32
C. Khoisan-Nama ǂkani “star” Ruhlen 1994 #535 64
NS-Songhay (Gao) hàndù “lune, mois” [moon, month] Ducroz 113
B.31.3
N. Mande-Bambara, Jula káló “moon” Mukarovsky 260
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *s-kar “star” Matisoff 2003 391
N. Mande-Kono kálu “moon” Mukarovsky 260
W. Mande-Mende ngálú “moon” Mukarovsky 260
W. Mande-Kpelle ŋálón “moon” Mukarovsky 260
E. Cushitic-Rendille bakkáal “star” Pillinger 74
E. Chadic-Migama kàalú “étoile” [star] Jungraithmayr / Adams 96
B.31.1 Altaic-Turkic-Turkish kamer “moon” n. English-Turkish Online Dictionary
↓↓
224

B.32 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA–Cush. AA- NS Khoisan
Sem.
B.32.1 W. Chadic- Hausa NS-Kanuri C. Khoisan-
S. Chinese-Kejia gàawo m. káragə’ / Proto-Khoe
[Hakka] (MacIver) “large acacia tree” káráwú *ǂkxaro
kau1 Newman / Ma “the tree “a kind of
(Lau Chunfat) 1979 43 Acacia thorn tree”
gau1 “glue, gum” “Acacia albida” albida”
“resin, sap, anything Newman, R. 1990 2 Cyffer 80
sticky” “stick on, stick Skinner 82
together, adhere” karo “Acacia
Hakka Dict. polyacantha species”
S. Chinese-Yue Blench, R.
(Cantonese) Hausa names for
gàau “glue, gum” plants 37
“anything sticky” bàgàruwa “acacia
“to stick on” (Acacia arabica)”
Chik / Ng Lam 377138 Newman, R. 1990 2
“glue (paste) Kwan 205
B.32.2 Old Chinese E. Cushitic-
*k-làu “glue” Somali
Maspero koolo
[cited by Sagart “glue”
1999 2] Awde
1999 38
B.32.3 N. Chinese-MSC W. Chadic- Hausa Proto-
shujiāu “gum (of tree)” k’ārō n. m. Khoisan
Chen 146 “gum, resin” *g!au
jiāo “glue” ”rubber” Newman / Ma “acacia”
Merriam-Webster 1979 75 Starostin, G.
Chinese 68 “gum arabic” 2006-2008
jiāoshuir n. Newman, P. 2007 128
“liquid glue” [pronounced
Wang, F. 237139 ky’ārō]
138
Note- B.32.1 (Cantonese, Hausa) The widely-used adhesive, gum arabic, is a product of the sticky sap of the
acacia tree. The Hakka and Beijing semantics (B.32.1,3) show an explicit connection between the tree and the glue
made from it by maintaining the two meanings of “resin, sap” and the derived forms “glue, gum” “sticky, adhere”.
The Sanskrit correspondences refer to both the Acacia arabica and the widely used resin of another tree which
grows in southern Asia called the Sal. This resin is used as incense and for caulking boats. For further information
on the acacia and gum arabic see Chapter 6 section 6.10.
139
Note- B.32.1,3 (Chinese-Hausa-Khoisan) The B.32.1,3 sets show parallel correspondences between the South
and North Chinese morphemes and the variant Hausa and Khoisan sets. Of particular interest in this case are the
Hausa variants which attest both non-palatalized and palatalized initial velars each of which corresponds to a
Chinese form. See note A.33.1.
Palatalization of velars is a feature which distinguishes Southern and Northern Chinese dialects. A standard
theory holds that palatalization occurred in Chinese between the periods of Old and Middle Chinese, but the
Southern dialects Min and Kejia dialects preserved their original g- / k- velars. Norman 211. The migration from
Africa hypothesis is consistent with a position that this northern and southern Chinese morphological variance is
225
TB-Tibetan See Note A.33.1]

h̟jar-wa / jaawal
h̟jar-ba / “Commifera africana”
h̟byar-ba “gum”
“to stick together” Blench, R.
“to cohere” Hausa names for
Jaschke 175 plants 31
Das 454
B.32.4 W. Chadic- Hausa
TB-Tibetan k’àrgame
h̟khar-wa v. “stick in throat”
“to adhere to, to stick” Bargery 2002
Das 186 [vn. kākàrēwa]
kār dõõ vi. kākàrē vg.4
“to be stuck” (completive)
Goldstein 158 Newman, R.
1990 260
B.32.5 E. Cushitic-
S. Chinese-Min Afar
ka1 “glue, gum” “resin, gara “glue”
sap” “anything sticky, Parker /
rubber” Hayward
Hakka Dict. 110
B.32.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] gau1 “glue, gum” “resin, sap, anything sticky”
< W. Chadic- Hausa
gàwo n. m. “large acacia tree” / C. Khoisan-Proto-Khoe *ǂkxaro “a kind of thorn tree”
B.32.3 N. Chinese-MSC shujiāu “gum (of tree)”
< W. Chadic- Hausa k’ārō n.m. “gum, resin” / Khoisan-Proto-Khoisan *g!au “acacia”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *gàwo “gum, resin” “sap of the acacia tree”~ k’aro “acacia
tree” “gum of acacia tree”
B.32.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gàauséui n. “glue” Po-fei Huang 384 gàaujeung “latex” gàaujeung
/ gàaujāp “rubber latex ” Kwan 266
B.32.3 N. Chinese-MSC jiāushwĕi (Y) “glue” Chen 141 xiàngjiao “rubber” xiàng “rubber tree”
(B.2b.2 Extended) Merriam-Webster Chinese 145, 342
TB-Tibetan ja̱r “to be stuck on, to be glued, pasted” Goldstein 766 ja̱rdüǜ “sticking together”
ja̱rma “joined, connected, stuck together” Goldstein 780
dagjar “plastering an opening” “sticking some things together with mud” Goldstein 571
[compound of this B.32.2 root and B.4.1 (Tibetan Extended) above]
B.32.1
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Gurage (Čaha, Muher, Masqan etc.) gərar “acacia”
Leslau 1979 v.2 4-5
C. Cushitic- Bilin gwārā “Acacia species” Skinner 82
E. Chadic–Dangaleat [Dangla] gāro “Acacia nilotica” Skinner 82
NS-Kanuri kárámgá “the tree Acacia seya” Cyffer 80
the result of different migrations of Chadic speakers into E. Asia during the Holocene, one possibly several millennia
earlier than the other. See also Notes A.18a.2, Chapter 9 Section 9.8 and Note C.10.2-3.
226
W. Chadic-Hausa karaki / karki “Acacia polyacantha”

Blench Hausa names for plants 36
NS-Kanuri káragə’ / káráwú “the tree Acacia albida”
kárámgá “the tree Acacia seya” Cyffer 80
C. Chadic- Gude kaya “acacia” Skinner 82
W. Chadic- Ngizim gwàyú “Acacia albida” or “Acacia dudgeoni”
gùvàrú “Egyptian mimosa, Acacia nilotica” Schuh 76-77, 187
Proto-N. Khoisan *|arì “Acacia tortilis” Starostin. G. 2003 14
C. Chadic- Mofu-Gudur gwalam “Acacia polyacantha” Skinner 82
B.32.4
W. Chadic- Hausa dank’àrē “adhere” Bargery 2002 mak’au “being closely stuck to someone or
something” Newman, P. 2007 148
mak’àla “lodge in” mak’àlē “become lodged, fixed, stuck” (vg.4 completive)
Newman, P. 2007 148 See Chapter 10 section 10.2.1.2 on verb grade 4 completives
“stick (become lodged, fixed in a place)”
B.32.1 IE-Sanskrit
kavara “Acacia Arabica” or another plant” karNamotā f. “Acacia Arabica” kkarala “a mixture of
oil and the resin of the Shorea robusta. [Sal tree] karNapura f. “Acacia Sirissa” Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2 B.32.1-2
Altaic-ProtoTurkic *karakan “acacia” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology http://starling.rinet.ru./c
B.32.3
Altaic-Mongolian-Ordos čawu “glue, fish glue” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
Altaic-Mongolian-Kalmuck caweg “glue, fish glue” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
Altaic-Mongolian-Khalka cavči “glue, fish glue” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
Proto-Altaic giǎru “acacia” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
↓↓
B.33a-b AA – Chadic AA –Cush. AA-Sem. NS NC
B.33a.1 N. Chinese- C. Chadic-Gisiga, E. Cushitic-
MSC dào “rice, Zəlgwa daw “millet” Afar
paddy” Wu, J. 140 C. Chadic -Mofu-Gudur daro
dàu (Y) “rice daw “grain,
(growing)” Chen 335 “millet, sorghum” sorghum”
Middle Chinese W. Chadic-Hausa Skinner 46
dawX “rice plant” dāwàa f. “sorghum
Sagart 181140 (guinea corn)”
TB-Qiangic-Pumi Skinner 46 Kraft 339
Dayang-Jinghua “Sorghum bicolor”
tâu-tʃə “buckwheat” Blench Hausa names
Matisoff 2003 168 for plants 13
140
Note- B.33a.1 (Chinese) It is not clear that the rice grown in north China in the pre-historic period was called
dào. It may have been called suk or su, generic terms for “crops” or “food plants”. See Notes B.33b.2
following and F.12c.3. Note in this set that a variant form of the dao root means “buckwheat” in Qiangic
languages suggesting that the original referent of the term was not necessarily to rice. The following table shows
that the Hausa word for “bean” is also present in Chinese with the same morpheme. In English the word “grain”
does not apply to beans as such, although the usually-eaten part of the bean or pea plant is a seed as is the edible
part of the rice, wheat and barley etc. plants. For further discussion of rice agriculture in China see Chapter 7
section 7.5.3.
227
N. Chinese dàurō “type of thick, Semitic-

xiandào “rice” “Oryza hard millet” Hebrew
sativa variety indica” Newman, P. 2007 44 dorah
jingdào “rice” “Pennisetum glaucum” “sorghum
“Oryza sativa “millet” Blench Hausa Baltsan 754
variety japonica” names for plants 15
Wu, Y. 224
B.33a.2 Semitic- Mande
S. Chinese-Yue Old Aramaic doro
(Cantonese) doh̝an “millet
douh “paddy or rice” “millet” species”
Chik / Ng 336 Comprehensive Skinner
Aramaic 46
Lexicon
B.33a.1 N. Chinese-MSC dào “rice, paddy”
< E. Cushitic-Afar daro “grain, sorghum” / W. Chadic-Hausa dauro “millet species” /
C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur daw “millet, sorghum”
Approximate ST etymon *dauro “sorghum, millet”
B.33a.1 N. Chinese-MSC dàozi n. “rice, (plant) Wang, F. 95
B.33a.2 TB-Qiangic-Pumi Dayang-Taoba tō tɕi “buckwheat” Matisoff 2003 168
B.33a.1 W. Chadic-Hausa dāwàr damina “Sorghum series spontanea” “wet season sorghum”
Blench Hausa names for plants 13 damina “the rainy season” (B.21.2) ;
dàwòo “ball(s) of fura without milk” fura “balls of millet in cultured milk” Newman, P. 2007 44
C. Chadic-Mafa = Matakam dawn “corn”
W. Chadic-Dira/Zul dəwro “millet” Skinner 46
C. Chadic-Logone dōrio “sorghum species” Skinner 46
B.33a.1
Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz tarū “millet” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology 23
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish dari “millet” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology 23
Altaic-Turkic-Balkassar tari “millet” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology 23
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek tariq “millet” English Uzbek Dictonary
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur tériq n. “millet” Uyghur Dictonary
/
B.33b.1 S. Chinese-Yue W. Chadic- Hausa NS-Kanuri
(Cantonese) dàddawa = dàudawā daudá
dáu / dauh “bean” < *dàw-dàwā “condiment for sauce
Chik / Ng Lam 430 “locust bean cake” or soup made from
Kwan 35 “beans, peas” Newman, P. 2000 234 the fermented seeds
S. Chinese-Min daddawā of the locust bean
(Fuzhou, Xiamen) tāu “beans, “dried cakes made from tree and shaped into
peas, soybeans” Norman 229 fermented locustbean seeds small cakes for sale”
tāu-kho (used as a seasoning in < Hausa”
“large round bean cake” sauces)” Cyffer 32
Amoy-English Dict. 787-8 Newman, P. 2007 38
taū “bean” Skinner 45
Bodman 1987 v.2 177
228
B.33b.2 N. Chinese-MSC W. Chadic- Hausa

dòu “legumes, pulses, beans” ‘dòorāwàa
Wu, J. 164 tòu “beans, peas” “locust bean tree”
Mathews #6478 939 Newman, R. 1990 157
huángdòu n. “soybean” “locust bean” Skinner 45
[lit. yellow bean] “Parkia biglobasa”
Wang, F. 208141 “locust tree” Blench
S. Chinese hsiaotou’ Hausa names for plants 18
”adzuki bean” Chang 81142
B.33b.3 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Ngizim
ldeu “a kind of pease” árdùwà /
Jaschke 291 ríidùwà “beans”
Middle Chinese deu- “bean” (Vigna sinensis)
Norman 192, 229 Schuh 12, 139, 189
141
Note- B.33b.2 (N. Chinese (Beijing)) Beans, especially the soybean, were domesticated in early historical times (in
the late second millennium BCE) in northern China. (See Chang 67 map of locations of archaeological sites in northwest
China along the Wei and Yellow rivers near Xian the ancient capital of the Shang and Zhou dynasties. “A reliable clue
to the antiquity of the soybean can be drawn from the archaic character for it, shu, which appeared in both the odes of the
Shi-ching and on bronze inscriptions of the Western Chou. The shu pictograph can be traced back to approximately the
eleventh century B.C.” (Chang 80).
Dou4 “beans” has replaced shu2 to designate beans in all Chinese dialects. One of its earliest occurrences is in the Zhan
Guo Ce, a work compiled between 26 and 8 BCE [i.e. under the Western Han dynasty, 206 BCE to 24 CE]. “It’s
etymology is unclear” Sagart 1999 185. See also discussion in Chapter 7 section 7.7.
In Old Chinese the reduplicated form (shushu) meant sorghum. (Chang 79). In contemporary MSC/Beijing
Chinese the tone 3 form shŭ means “sorghum” or “common millet” The shū tone 1 variant means “vegetables”,
“broomcorn millet” and “a tree, a plant”. Wu, J. 635, Mathews #6926 1022. The tone 3 shû morpheme besides
5
meaning “millet”also means “potato, yam” DeFrancis 863. The Cantonese and Hakka sūk / sug “grains, millet”
morphemes correspond most closely to the Hausa root shūkàa n. “plant(s), “crop(s)”. These noun forms are
probably derived from verbs meaning “piercing, planting” (See Chapter 2F Sets F.12c.2.3-5) and Note F.12c.3
(Hausa)
Early Chinese agriculture included four crops, millet, soybeans, rice and potatoes, so it is plausible that the
generic term “plants, crops” was first used for all these and later the more specific Hausa root dao / dou4 was
introduced for “beans” “rice” and the type of millet designated by the B.33a.1 forms. It is significant that both dòu
1 2
and shù correspond closely to Hausa roots. There are more specific Chinese words for grains, i.e. tsi / chi
and he “millet”and mài “barley, wheat” which also correspond to Chadic forms.” See notes B.9.1-4. B.27.1and
B.35.6. “Millet and soybeans were cultivated in rotation beginning in the 4 tth century BCE ” (Sagart 1999 185).
It is probable that the B.33a.1 Cushitic-Afar daro “grain, sorghum” represents a very early African root for grains
since sorghum was the first grain cultivated in Africa. The corresponding B.33a.2 Mande root doro “millet
species” is probably also from the early African agricultural period i.e c.7000 BCE. As mentioned above, the similarity
between these roots and the Chadic-Hausa ‘dòorāwàa “locust bean” suggests that beans were considered to be a
type of grain since both they and sorghum/millet are seeds of their respective plants.
The evidence that daro / doro entered Chinese agricultural language later than the sūk-/shu root supports a
hypothesis that this root was introduced through a later migration. It is possible therefore that the name of the millet
species whose AA root is daro / doro also became the name of rice grain either directly through such a migration or
even later as northern Chinese forms for grains were brought to the south through the Han expansion. Under this scenario
the B.33a.1 morphemes meaning “rice” have derived semantics. See also Note B.35.2. With regard to this study the
important conclusion is that the names of the earliest grain crops in China all have close correspondences with Chadic
roots.
142
Note- B.33b.3 (S. Chinese) “The adzuki bean Phaseolus angalaris) has been called hsiaotou’ ever since the
Eastern Chou [770 BCE-207 BCE] mainly in South China” Chang 81 hsiao “small” (D.35.1).
229

B.33b.1
Chinese-Cantonese dáu / dauh “bean” “beans and peas”
< W. Chadic-Hausa daudawa “locust bean cakes”
B.33b.2 N. Chinese-MSC dòu “legumes, pulses, beans”
< W. Chadic-Hausa d‘ōrāwàa “locust bean”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *daudawa “locust bean cakes” ~ *dōw- “locust bean”
B.33b.1 Chinese-Cantonese daufuh “bean curd” Po-fei Huang 372
B.33b.2
N. Chinese-Mandarin-Xiān tou5 “bean”
N. Chinese-Lingbâo thou5 “bean” Norman 192
B.33b.1
Hmong-Mien-Miao ntao6 “beans” Sagart 1999 186
Dai-Siamese mak-tau6 “bean” Sagart 1999 186
B.33b.3
Proto-Tai *thue “beans” Sagart 1999 186
Northern Tai tuu “beans” Sagart 1999 186
↓↓
B.34 AA- AA –Cushitic AA –Egyptian Nilo- NC
Chadic Sah.
Swadesh “water” N.Omotic Egyptian
B.34.1 S. Chinese-Min *aq’ “wet, water” akh-t
ăk “to wet, to water” Cushitic-Agaw “watered, or irrigated
ăk huĕ “water flowers” *aqw’ land” Budge v.1 8
Bodman 1987 v. 2 119 “water” aakhi
huê “flower” (B.14c.1) Proto-Afro- “to flood, to irrigate, to
âq-tám “get wet (from rain Asiatic inundate”
etc.)” Bodman 1987 *akhw- “water” aakh-t “water plants”
v.2 117, 176 v.1 252 Ehret 1995 aakh “pond, lake, large
tám “wet” #438 243 canal”
(B. 21.2 Extended) Cavalli-Sforza 186 Budge v.1 22
Base corresponences for positing etyma:
B.34.1 S. Chinese-Min ăk “to wet, to water”
< N.Omotic *aq’ “wet, water”
Approximate S. Chinese-Min etymon *aakh “to water” “water”
Extended African/ AA language word family:
B. 34.1
Proto N. Omotic *ak’ “water” Ruhlen 1994 327
Omotic-Janjero *ak(k)a “water” Ruhlen 1994 327
Omotic-Agaw aqw “water” Ruhlen 1994 327
C. Cushitic-Bilin ‘aqw “water” Ruhlen 1994 327
NS-Turkana (aki)ru “river” Greenberg 1966 #86 103
B. 34.1 IE-Sanskrit aGkaGka “water” aGkapa “water” aksara “water” sara “water, flowing
water, river” aGkupaVs “water” aGkura “water” kura “rain, river” (B.15a.2). Cologne Lexicon.
See also B.16a.1 including extended forms and Supplementary Table 2 B. 34.1
Proto-IE *akw- “water (flowing)” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Tuvan aq- “to flow” / Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz aq- “to flow”
230
Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh aq- “to flow” / Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur aq- “to flow”

Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen akar / akmak “stream, flow” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Nostratic/Eurasiatic *aka “water” Cavalli-Sforza186
↓↓
B.35 Afro-Asiatic – AA - AA- NS NC
Chadic Cushitic Semitic
B.35.1 W. Chadic- Hausa E. Cushitic- South
Old Chinese hatsī / hacī Oromo (Ethiopian)
chi “millet” < *øatsi “grain”, ija / iji n. Semitic-
Chang 65-66 esp. guinea corn “frutto di Harari
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] and millet” albero, semi, ašīta
(Meixian) Newman, P. chicco di “young
jii5 / tsi5 2000 228 2007 87 grano” grain”
“pearl barley” “grain [fruit of a Skinner 108
1 5
tsi / tsi (only sorghum and tree, seeds,
“panicled millet” millet) ” grain of
N. Chinese (Beijng) Newman, R. cereal plant]
chi2 1990 38, 111 Borello 247
“panicled millet” “corn, cereal crop” See also
Mathews #504 66 Skinner 108 144 Note D.3c.1
jì “millet” W. Chadic-N.
the god of grains worshipped Bauci-Pa’a
by ancient emperors” acī “sorghum”
Wu, J. 321 Proto-W. Chadic
Sagart 1999 176 143 *haci “millet”
TB-Qiangic-Pumi-Dayang Skinner 108
dzí “cooked rice”
Matisoff 2003 168
TB-Tibetan
c̀i-tse / tsi-tsé
“millet”
Jaschke 140, 432
See also sets B.1a.1,
B.9.1-4 and B.27.1
TB-N. Loloish-Lalo
zi “barley”
Matisoff 2003 190
143
Note- B.35.2 (Chinese-Kejia and Beijing Extended) In the Chou dynasty the god who originally gave grain to
the people (through the royal clan) was the god of millet. His name was Hou Chi, the god of millet. He was
believed to be the founder of the Chou clans, and associated with the supreme God on high. In China the early
emperors offered sacrifice in the name of the people. “The chief ministrant at the great sacrifices was the ruler
himself”. Smith 17, 21 Sagart 176.
144
Note- B.35.1 (Chadic-Hausa) hatsī “grain < *øatsi. For the rule by which the initial /h/ was added to Hausa
words, see Newman, P. 2000 228-229 “In old Hausa neither initial / ’ / nor /h/ existed as phonemes” “Externally
they represent borrowed phonemes that were introduced in initial and medial positions along with Arabic
loanwords”. Newman, however, considers that Hausa could have had an a- prefix. Hence the B. 35.1 W. Chadic-
N. Bauci-Pa’a acī and the B. 35.5 Hausa acca n. “Digitaria exilis” probably represent older roots denoting
sorghum and millet respectively before Arabic influenced Chadic languages. See also Note C.2a.1-2.
231
B.35.2 B. 35.2 W. E. Cushitic- Semitic-

S. Chinese-S. Min Chadic-Hausa Somali Arabic
(Taiwanese) chiȇk, chiȇkà shek’a meseggo ši‫ع‬iir [IPA]
“unhusked rice, paddy” “Sorghum “grain” “barley”
Bodman 1983 151 bicolor” “guinea Skinner 198 Merriam-
TB-Deng-Kaman corn [sorghm] Proto- Webster
tɕika “bitter buckwheat” cultivar” Highland E. Arabic 13
Blench 2010a Blench Cushitic *̣hasik-at
TB-Qiangic-Pumi Dayang- Hausa names for *bašinka “barley”
Taoba to tɕi “buckwheat” plants 56 “sorghum” Militarev,
Matisoff 2003 168 Proto-AA Skinner 198 A.
Blench 2010a Table 3 9 ; *h̝asek- Semitic
-Jinghua tâu-tʃə “cereal species” Etymology
“buckwheat” Matisoff 2003 Skinner 108 2006
168 Blench 2010a C. Chadic-Tera
able 9 9 ; Group sek-t-
-Guiqiong dʒə-tsi “millet” “millet”
Blench 2010-2011
C. Chadic-Gude
TB-Qiangic-Ersu ndzi
səkunwa
“buckwheat”
“sorghum species”
Blench 2011 Table 4 8
C. Chadic-Mofu-
Old Chinese tsik
“millet, the sacred plant of the
Zhou people”
Sagart 1999 177, 179
S. Chinese-Yue
(Cantonese)
jīk “panicled millet”
Chik / Ng Lam 33
B.35.3 C. Chadic-Mofu- E. Cushitic- Egyptian NC-
TB-Nungish-Trung Gudur, Somali m’tchaá Common
tɕaʔ E. Chadic-Lele maseggo “grain” Bantu
“millet” masakuwa “grain” Budge *caka
TB-Burmic-Burmese “mil de la saison Skinner 198 v.1 292 “sorghum”
ʃaʔ sėche” Skinner 198
“millet” [dry season millet] S. Khoisan-
Blench 2010a Skinner 198 Proto-Taa
Table 4 8 West Chadic- *sâʔŋ
Hausa màcàkō “seed”
“type of red Starostin,
guinea corn” G. 2003 30
[sorghum]
Newman, P. 2007
142
232
B.35.4 E. Cushitic- Semitic-

Proto-Lolo-Burmese Kembata Hebrew
*zəy2 “barley” oze se’orah
Matisoff 2003 189, 621 “grain, “barley”
TB-Tibetan cereal, crop” Baltsan
tsé-tsé “millet” Skinner 108 375, 487
Jaschke 432 Egyptian
TB-Qiangic-Pumi-Dayang- ser / será
Jinghua “grain,
tau tʃə barley”
“buckwheat” Budge
Matisoff 2003 168 v.2 611
TB-Chin-Lushai, Lai
*dzəy “seed”
Matisoff 2003 31
B. 35.5 W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic- W.
TB-Lahu acca n. Orom ija / iji (Ethiopian)
ca1 “rice (uncooked)” “Digitaria exilis” “frutto di Semitic-
Matisoff 2003 30 [fonio millet, albero, semi, Amharic
Proto-Lolo-Burmese acha rice] chicco di ajja n.
*dža1 / *dza1 Skinner [1] grano” “oats, rye”
“rice / paddy” [fruit of a Skinner [1]
Matisoff 2003 19, 30, 163 tree, seeds,
TB-Sani tsā grain of
“rice” cereal plant]
Matisoff 200319 Borello 247
B. 35.6 W. Chadic Angas Egyptian
N. Chinese (Bejing) he “corn” hi
hé W. Chadic-Ron- “grain,
“standing grain Fyer wheat,
(esp. rice)” 145 hay barley etc.”
hémiao “kind of millet” Budge
“seedlings of cereal crops” Stolbova, Olga v.2 468
hézī West and Central
“zygote” Chadic Etymology
Wu, J. 272-273 W. Chadic-
Tangale
(h)ai
“millet”
C. Chadic-Gudu
xəy “seed”
Skinner 181
145
Note- B.35.6 (MSC) “He in ancient texts appears to have had both a narrow meaning (millet) and broad
meaning “(millet, type crops in general)” “From it’s old generic use as ‘cereal’ hé underwent semantic narrowing
to ‘rice plant’ replacing dao in that meaning in many Xiang, Gan, Hakka and Yue dialects.” Sagart 1999 78
“It is also probable that local groups gave different names to their own millets. Shu and he therefore may have
been adapted by Shang diviners as generic names for various millets, including S. italica and P.miliaceum. This is
all the more likely since it is hard to distinguish the threshed grain of S. italica from that of P.miliaceum. The
diviners,.moreover, were ritual technicians not farmers; their concerns were preumably with harvests as a
whole…rather than with particular crop varieties.” Keightley 200010 See also chapter 7 section 7.5.3.
233

B.35.1 TB-Tibetan tsi-tsé “millet” c̀i-tse “millet”
< W. Chadic- Hausa hatsī / hacī < *øatsi “grain”, esp. guinea corn and millet”
B.35.2 Old Chinese tsik “millet” / S. Chinese-S. Min (Taiwanese) chiȇk, chiȇkà “unhusked rice,
paddy”
< C. Chadic-Tera Group sek-t- “millet” / W. Chadic-Hausa shek’a “Sorghum bicolor”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *šeka “sorghum” ~ *øatsi “grain”, esp. guinea corn and
millet”
B.35.1
TB-Tibetan jìtser “a type of millet” Goldstein 331
See also D.3c.2 E. Cushitic-Oromo (Extended)
TB-Jinuo mətsi “barley” Matisoff 2003 note c 190 [compound of this root and that of B.9.1]
TB-N. Loloish-Lalo zi “barley” Matisoff 2003 190 note c ; -Yi Nanjian zɿ “barley” Matisoff 2003
190 note c
B. 35.1,3 TB-Tibetan tse-tsi “millet” Das 999 dzīdze “millet” Goldstein 846
B. 35.3
S. Chinese-Min chiek “unhusked grain, paddy, unhusked rice” Bodman 1987 v.2 132
TB-Tibetic-Lhokpu cək “foxtail millet” Blench 2009b 8 2010a Table 4 8
B. 35.4
.TB-Loloish-Nosu tʃi “foxtail millet” Blench 2010a Table 4 8
TB-Naxi-Lijang mɯdze “barley” Matisoff 2003 note c 190
TB-Written Burmese ce “seed” Matisoff 2003 190
TB-Chin-Lai tsi “seed” Matisoff 2003 190
TB-Chin -Lushai tsî / chi “seed” Matisoff 2003 190
B 35.1
C. Chadic-Mandara Group xiya “sorghum” Skinner 181
E. Cushitic-Oromo anciró “dura bianca (Sorghum Roxburgh-Hackl)”, sorgo, saggina” [sorghum]
Borello 22
W. Chadic-Ngizim gəzhí “poor quality millet heads” Schuh 62
W. Chadic-Geji ĉílihwo “millet” Militarev / Stolbova
N. Cushitic-Beja (Bedauye) asida “flour (esp. millet)” Skinner 108
B.35.2
C. Chadic-Gabin sèkɛ-te “millet” /
C. Chadic-Boka, Banana šèk-tàʔa “millet” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology
(Daura dial. kan zago “a variety of guinea corn” Matsushita 1993 36
B.35.3
NS-Kanuri masak-wa “dry season guinea corn” [sorghum] Skinner 198
Semitic-Arabic ʃaʕi:rr “barley” Merrriam-Webster Arabic 13
Semitic-Aramaic dšar n. “a wild-growing grain” Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon
B.35.6
C.Chadic-Gudu hi’wa “seed” Skinner 181
W. (Ethiopian) Semitic-Ge’ez xət’t’-, hət’t’- “grain, seed” Skinner 108
234

B.35.1 IE-Hindi jī “oat” n.f. Scudiere 247 / jī “barley”n.m. Scudiere 248
B.35.2
Kartvelian-Georgian ̣cka “rice grains in husk” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology
Kartvelian-Megrel cka “grain” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology
IE-Hindi jī kā daliyā “oatmeal” m. Scudiere 247
IE-Sanskrit cikkasa m. n. “barley meal” Cologne lexicon Witzel 1999b 30
saktuh “coarsely-ground meal , grit, groats, esp. of barley meal” RV sāktuka m.“barley
“a quantity of fried barley or barley-meal” dadisaktu m. pl. “barley meal with dadi”
saksata “containing uncrushed or whole grain (not deprived of husk), having grains of barley”
mahadusaka “a species of grain” Cologne lexicon
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek hashaki “pearl millet” www.cac-program.org
Proto-Indo-European *seg(’)- “seed(s)” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology
B.35.4
Hmong-Mien-Proto-Mienic tsyəi “millet” Blench 2010a Table 4 8
Hmong-Mien-Hmong-White Hmong cey “buckwheat” Blench 2010a Table 5 9
This table has been included in the review of data on agriculture in Chapter 7 Table 7.1c
B.35.6 IE-Sanskrit hāyana / hāyanaki “a sort of red rice” Cologne Lexicon.
↓↓
B.36 AA- Chadic AA – AA – Nilo- Niger-Congo
Cushitic Sem. Saharan
B.36.1 N. Chinese – C. Chadic - C. Cushitic- NS- Nuer NC-S.W. Mande-
MSC Margi Bilin teng’ Kpelle
tíng tindilá tint-aa ”crack of dinde n.
“thunderbolt” “thunder” “thunder” lightning” “thunder”
Wu, J. 685 Mukarovsky Mukarovsky Huffman 44 Mukarovsky 373
373 373
B.36.2 Chinese- Songhay NC- N. Mande-
Cantonese simdíhn dyindyin Bozo
“lightning” sim “thunder” dine v.
“flash of lightning” Mukarov- “thunder”
Kwan 191, 272 sky 373 Mukarovsky 373
B.36.1 N. Chinese-MSC tíng “thunderbolt”
< C. Chadic –Margi tindilá “thunder” / C. Cushitic- Bilin tint-aa “thunder”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *tin- “thunder”
B.36.1 S.W. Mande-Kpelle tíná “rain” Mukarovsky 373
↓↓
B.37 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA –Cush. AA-Sem. Nilo-Saharan NC
Swadesh “cloud” W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic- Maba Group-
B.37.1 būdàa n. f. “dry, Somali Zaghawa
TB-Tibetan windy harmattan haze” boodh burdu
bud “a cloud of dust, Newman, P. 2007 23 “dust” “cloud”
dust storm” “haze” Skinner 244 Awde 1999 Edgar 131
“any darkening of the See also Note B.10.1-2 59
air through dry matter” (Chadic) and chapter 6
Jaschke 369 section 6.11
Das 872
235
B.37.2 W. Chadic- Hausa Proto-S. NS-Songhay

S. Chinese-Min bururi “haze” Cushitic (Gao)
bū “fog, mist” “harmattan wind and (Ehret 1980) buru
“foggy” haze” Skinner 27 *bur “dust” “nuage” [cloud]
Bodman 1987 C. Chadic-Buduma Mukarovsky Ducroz 51
v.1 250 v.2 87, 123 bur-bur “dust” 151
S. Chinese-Yue Stolbova, Olga E. Cushitic-
bouhfung / Central-Chadic- Somali
fungbouh Etymology 2006 boor “dust”
“storm, wind storm” W. Chadic-Angas Awde 1999
Kwan 507, 571 ‘bur “sand, dust” 24, 59
Ruhlen 1994 295
B.37.3 TB-Tibetan Maba Group-
bu-yúg “snow-storm” Maba
Jaschke 369 abuyok /
[Disyllabic corresp.] òbùyɔ̀k
pu-yuù “snow-storm, pl. óbúyɔ‫כ‬ɔ
blizzard” “cloud”
Goldstein 722 Edgar 131
B.37.1 TB-Tibetan bud “a cloud of dust, dust storm” “any darkening of the air through dry matter”
< W. Chadic- Hausa būdàa n. f. “dry, windy harmattan haze”, W. Chadic- Gwandara budo.
“cloud”
B.37.2 S. Chinese-Min bū “fog”
< C. Chadic- Buduma buru “Nebel” [fog]
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *būd- “dry, windy haze” “cloud, fog”
B.37.2 N. Chinese-MSC bȯwù “mist, haze” Wu, J. 48 báo “hail” báobào “hailstorm” Wu, J. 21
bàufēng “storm” Chen 385
B.37.1
W. Chadic- Gwandara (Newman, P.) budo “cloud” Skinner 24
W. Chadic- S. Bauci Group *b’w-(n)d- “fog, harmattan” Skinner 24
E. Cushitic-Rendille imbootí “huge dust cloud (blown by wind high into the sky)” Pillinger 333
See also C.45.1-2
W. Chadic-Hausa būd’ud’d’ukē “be covered up with dust” Newman, P. 2007 23
C. Chadic- Mwulyen purduo “harmattan” Skinner 24 -Bura group purd’- “wind” Skinner 113
C..Chadic-Bacama bid’imato “fine sand” - Bilin bitā “Staub, feiner Sand” Skinner 100
B.37.2
C. Chadic- Buduma buru “Nebel” [fog] Skinner 27
C. Chadic-Mandara b’urb’urè “dust” Mukarovsky 151
S. Cushitic- Dahalo burune “dust” Mukarovsky 151
W. Chadic- Hausa bùujii m. “harmattan wind” Newman, R. 1990 118
C. Chadic-Logone búurā “sand” Stolbova, Olga Central Chadic Etymology
E. Chadic-Logone búurā “sand” Stolbova, Olga Central Chadic Etymology
E. Cushitic-Rendille ebeer “dust”(in the air)” “fine dust (found in certain places)” Pillinger 333
B.37.1
Proto-Altaic *biúdò “cold, fog” / Altaic-Proto-Turkic bud- “cold, fog” Mongolian Etymology 9
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian budaŋ “fog” / -Mongolian-Khalmuc budaŋ “fog” /
-Mongolian-Khalka, Buriat budan “fog” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology 9
236
IE-Pashto (Pushtu) bād “wind, air, breeze, gale” Raverty 79

B.37.2
IE-Bengali bɔrsha n. “rain, rainfall, monsoon” Thompson 66, 120, 196
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan bareňti “to be windy, to blow furiously” Peterson, J. 1995
Dravidian pūri n. “powder, dust” Ruhlen 1994 295
Kartvelian-Georgian, Megrel bol- “smoke (light)” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 4
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish bŏra(k) “Northwind” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology 13
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *bŏra “Northwind” “ to snow heavily” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology 13
Proto-Indo-European *bhAur- “storm” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology
Proto-Altaic *bŏru / *bŏra / *bŏro “dust, smoke, whirlwind” ~ *bǔlu / *bǔla / *bǔlo “cloud”
Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 10-11
Altaic-Turkic-Dolgan bürüj- / bürkük “cloudy” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Karakanid bürkɔk “cloudy” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Turkmen, Kazakh bŏra “ to snow heavily” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology 13
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *bur-uk “dust, smoke, whirlwind” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 10
Altaic-TurkicTurkish bulut “cloud” Tureng 594
Kartvelian-Svan burɣw “to make dusty” birɣw “dust, ash” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 5
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *bure-ki “dust, smoke, whirlwind” Starostin, S. Altaic Etymology 10
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *bür-gi “dust, smoke, whirlwind” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 10
*bŏruɣa “to snow, rain” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Tungus-Manchu *bol- “cloud” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology10 http://starling.rinet.ru./c
↓↓
B.38 AA – Chadic AA– AA– Nilo- NC
Cush. Sem. Saharan
B.38.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Hausa South Anywa [Anuak]
sbú̱ŋ -pa / spú̱ŋ-pa ‘buntùu m. (Ethiopian) bɔ‫כ‬ɔŋŋ āb� c
“chaff, husks” “husks of wheat or Semitic- “husk of maize
Jaschke 331, 404 rice” Newman, P. Amharic cob”
sbun-pa “bark of trees, 2007 30 əbbəq bɔ‫כ‬ɔ‫ כ‬pl.
pod or husk of grain” “chaff (of rice or “chaff” búunní
Das 937 wheat) ” Leslau 1976 “leaf of bean
bü̱nme / bü̱ŋɔɔ̀ “grain Newman, R. 134, 292 plant”
chaff” Goldstein 778 1990 38 Reh 11
B.38.1 TB-Tibetan sbún-pa “chaff, husks”
< W. Chadic- Hausa b’untùu “husks of rice or wheat”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *bun “chaff, husks”
B.38.1 TB-Tibetan bu̱rmə / bu̱rwə “chaff, husks” Goldstein 778 sbu̱rma “chaff, husks” Jaschke 404
↓↓
B.39 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA – AA– NS NC
Cush. Sem.
B. 39.1 TB-Tibetan jim / jimbə W. Chadic – Hausa
“clay, mud” Goldstein 397 jimb’u “clay” Skinner 125-126
[Disyllabic corresp.] yimb’ū / yumb’ū m.
‘jim-pa “mud, clay, loam” “red clay (used for making pots)”
Jaschke 177 Newman, P. 2007 226
h’jim-pa “mud, clay” Das 459 “clay” Skinner 125-126
237

B.39.1 TB-Tibetan jimbə “clay, mud”
< W. Chadic–Hausa jimb’u “clay”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *jimb’u “clay”
B. 39.1
TB-Tibetan jimmi “clay statue of a person” Goldstein 397
N. Chinese-MSC chîn “yellow loam, clay” Mathews #1065 148
S. Chinese-Cantonese jahng “earthenware for cooking” Chik / Ng Lam 304
B.39.1
W. Chadic–Gwandara (Koro ) yembu “mud”
(Gitata, Karshi, Cancara, Toni) yîbu “mud” Matsushita 1974 62
C. Chadic–Bura, Ngwaxi m’bu “mud” Skinner 126
B.39.1
IE-Sanskrit
jamba “mud, clay”
jambalini “muddy”
jambāla “mud, clay” Cologne Lexicon
238
Chapter 2C
Words representing the human body and body parts.
Semantic domain C word families
Introduction- Correspondences referring to the human body and its members are commonly
recognized to have probative force for positing a genetic relationship between languages. They are very
resistant to change in all languages and are rarely borrowed even between different language families
with longstanding close social contact. Beside the standard body words considered basic such as “mouth”
“tongue”, “foot” etc. the words “navel”, “kidney” “index finger”, “elbow”, “shoulder”, “hand” and “leg”
in the present study are considered basic vocabulary items since they are body parts, though they are not
flagged as such using “Swadesh” as an identifier.
Most of these words are found in large word families. This gives additional support to a position that
their variants represent reflexes of a root which existed in the African proto-language. Hence this section
is very important in the total research. Other words representing certain bodily states and positions, e.g.
“being tired”,“sitting”, “standing” are also included in this section. Some of these are found in the
Swadesh list, e.g. “to die”, “to sit”. Such verbs referring to bodily conditions/situations are typically
called stative verbs in African and Chinese languages. (See E.16b.1-2 Proto-E. Cushitic) and note
H.2b.1.)
2C Domain statistics
Tables and word Families
Individual word families = 91 The count is of individual word families including those within a
generic word family.
Large single independent word families = 8

“to lick, to taste” C.4.1-4
“breast, milk” C.6.1-5
“body, flesh, meat” C.8.1-5
“naval, fetus, embryo” C.13.1-4
“body hair, beard” C.23.1-4
“ear, hear” C.34.1-7
“to be tired, to tire”C.39.1-4
“spit” C.40.1-5
“mouth, throat, opening” “neck” C.1.a-b
“tongue, lick” C.2.a-c
“nose, to smell” “scent” C.5.a-b
“breast, milk, suckle” C.6.a-c
“the human body, skin” “leather bag” “someone, anyone” “spine, spinal column” C.8.a-d
“self” “a corpse” C.9a-b
“back (of body), behind” “outside” C.12a-b
“cavity” “stomach, belly, inside,” “hole, hollow” C.18a-c
“outer coverings” “skin, bark, shell” “animal hide, leather” C20a-b
“foot” “claw” “hand” “time(s) [instances]” C.21a-b
“upper, arm, shoulder, hand” “strike with hand, box” C.22a-c
“angle, knee” “bent, hook, curve” “lock” C.24a-c
“knee, kneel” “ elbow” “angle” C.26a-b
“palate, gums” “chin, jaw” C.28a-b
“jaw, chin” “molar teeth” C.29a-b
“bite” “eat, drink” “laugh, ridicule” “sarcasm” C30a-b
“eat, drink” “bite, chew” “ridicule, laugh at, mock” C31a-e
239
“foot, leg” “trunk, stem” “cylindrical object, drum” C.35a-d

“to sit” “buttocks” C.36a-b
“die” “be lost, disappear” C.37a-b
“hunger, hungry” “to fast” “tired, ill” C. 38a-c
“face, direction” “right, right side” C.41a-c
“rashes, measles” “illnesses due to fever” C.47a-b
“hair, tuft of hair” “top of head” C.51a-b
Basic-vocabulary- Swadesh list

In the whole section 40 word families contain one or more sets of ST ↔ African/AA language
correspondences which match an English gloss of the 100 word Swadesh list.
24 of these correspondences are found in the generic word families listed above.
Domain C has two characteristics which constitute evidence that its vocabulary is unlikely to have been
borrowed. As compared to the other domains:
It has the greatest number of large word families
It has the highest number of basic language words.

The 30 close correspondence sets in which a Sino-Tibetan morpheme corresponds closely to an Afro-
Asiatic proto-root are the highest number of all the semantic domains.
Polysyllabic correspondences: 36
(Only one polysyllabic correspondence per word family is counted)
Etymologies
Cantonese etymologies 1
MSC etymologies 1

C.1a-b Afro-Asiatic – AA -Cushitic AA- Nilo- Khoisan,
Chadic Proto-AA Semitic Saharan NC
C.1a.1 W. Chadic- Proto-Highland E. West Kanuri
TB-Tibetan Hausa m. Cushitic Semitic- ngogul
lkóg-ma màk’ōgwàrō *kokk- “throat” Ethiopian- “throat,
“gullet, “throat, < Omotic Gurage gullet”
esophagus” gullet” Ehret 1995 (Gogot, Skinner
“windpipe” Skinner 194 #355 211 Soddo etc.) 194
“throat, neck” “throat, Proto-AA kokke gogúltu
ʔóg-ma windpipe” *ɣooɣ- “gullet” “gullet, “throat”
“throat, neck” Newman, P. Ehret 1995 throat” Barth
Jaschke 18, 608 2007 148 # 355 211 Leslau 262
ko kó (Orel/Stolbova 1979
“throat, chin” 1995) v.3 340
Jaschke 5
240
TB-Kiranti-Dumi
ghokta “throat”
Starostin, S.
Kiranti Etymology
Swadesh “mouth” W. Chadic– Proto-AA Semitic – S. Khoisan-
C.1a.2 Hausa (Orel/Stolbova Jibbali |Xam
TB-S. Loloish-Mpi k’ōfàa / 1995) xoh !khou
khowo k’ohwa *ko’af “mouth” “neck”
“throat, gullet” “doorway, “door, gate” Skinner Starostin, G.
Matisoff 2003 421 gate” Skinner 173 173 2003 26
[Disyllabic corresp.] Skinner 173 NC-
n4ko4 “door” mak’oshi Adamawa
Matisoff 2003 125 “throat” Eastern-
N. Chinese-MSC Newman, P. Sande
k’ôu (WG) 2007 148 goro
“an opening, a mouth, E. Hausa “neck”
an aperture” (Gudduri) Greenberg
Mathews 1966 #3434 ‘ofàa = 1966 21
511 Wu, J. 393 Standard
TB-Tibetan Hausa
go “door, entrance” k’ofàa
Goldstein 277 “doorway”
sgo “door” Newman P.
Jaschke 114 Das 323 2000 228
C.1a.3 TB- Bodo- E. Chadic - S. Khoisan-
Garo Kera Proto-Taa
*k(h)u “mouth” ku “mouth” *ǂû
Benedict / Matisoff C. Chadic - “mouth”
1972 184 Bacama C. Khoisan-
C. Chinese-Wu kwa- ‖Ng
khɤw5 “mouth, open “mouth, !u “neck”
end; opening” doorway” Starostin, G.
“entrance; gate” Skinner 173 2003
Hakka Dict. 25-26146
C.1a.4 Proto-E. Cushitic Semitic- S. Khoisan-
S. Chinese-Min �~w- Arabic Proto-Wi
khaù “entrance, “hole” xawka *ǂʔau
opening, mouth” Skinner 173 “mouth” “neck”
Bodman 1987 Skinner Starostin, G.
v.2 152 173 2003 26
C.1a.5 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic-Saho Egyptian
TB-Tibetan Hausa (Danakil) khakha
kha “mouth, opening, kafā anqár “palate, “neck,
orifice” “small hole, gorge, throat” throat”
Jaschke 33-34 opening” Militarev, A. Budge
TB-Chin-S. Khami Newman, P. Saho-Afar v.1 573
əm-kha “door” 2007 103 Etymology
Matisoff 2003 125
146
Note- C.1a.3 (Khoisan) Concerning correspondences of the sole Khoisan click velar phoneme with ST velar
root initials see note C.38a.2-3 (Khoisan) and its references, also Supplementary Tables 3 section 1.1..
241

C.1a.2 TB-S. Loloish-Mpi khowo “throat, gullet” / N. Chinese-MSC k’ôu “an opening, a mouth, an
aperture”
< NS- Kanuri ngowoltó “throat” / S. Khoisan-|Xam !khou “neck”
C.1a.4 S. Chinese-Min khaù “entrance, opening, mouth”
< Semitic-Arabic xawka “mouth” / S. Khoisan-Proto-Wi *ǂʔau “neck”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: * !khou “neck” “throat, mouth” ~ *ǂʔau “neck”
C.1a.1
TB-Mikir ang-kok “hole” Matisoff 2003 110
TB-Tibetan kos ko “chin, throat” Jaschke 6 Das 37 g‫כ‬gn� “larynx, throat” Goldstein 45
C.1a.2
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ku(w) “mouth” Benedict / Matisoff 1972 184, 202
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] k’ieu3 / kiu3 “mouth, open end; opening” “entrance; gate” Hakka Dict.
Old Chinese g’o “door” “opening” Karlgren GSR #53a-b Matisoff 2003 173
C.1a.3
Old Chinese k’u “mouth” Karlgren GSR #110c Matisoff 2003 198
TB- Bodo khu-ga “mouth” Benedict 1972 121 ga “chin, jaw” (C.29a.3)
TB- Dimasa khu-sga “mouth” Benedict 1972 121 sga “chin, jaw” (C.29a.3)
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] khu “a hole, an opening” Starostin, S ST Etymology
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] keu3 / “mouth, open end; opening” “entrance; gate” Hakka Dict.
C.1a.5 Proto-Tibeto-Burman m-ka “open, opening” “mouth, door” Matisoff 2003 173
C.1a.1
Omotic-Mocha ko:kko “oral cavity” Ehret 1995 #355 211.
E. Cushitic- Sidamo kokke “throat” Gasparini 196 Sasse 1982 116
E. Cushitic- Burji kókke / kok-ée “throat”
Omotic–Koyra kokkee “throat” Sasse 1982 116
E. Cushitic- Rendille khookhaáni “gullet, windpipe” Pillinger 193
E. Cushitic- Oromo qokké “esofago” [esophagus] Borello 344 koké “pomo d’Adamo” [Adam’s
apple] Borello 235
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Ge’ez xoxət “mouth” Skinner 173
W. Chadic- Tangale kokorok “Adam’s apple” Jungraithmayr 1991 100
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Masqan) kokki “gullet” Leslau 1979.
Leslau considers this and the Gurage kokke cited above to be loans from the Cushitic-Qabenna,
Sidamo and Oromo kokk- root forms. Leslau 1979 v.3 340, v.2 293
Egyptian
khaāqe-t “neck, throat” Budge v.1 572
khekh “neck, throat” Budge v.1 563
NS-Nuer guɔk “Adam’s apple” Huffman 17
C.1a.2
NS- Kanuri ngowoltó “throat” Cyffer 1990 138
W. Chadic-Gwandara kopa “doorway” Skinner 173
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] kodondol “throat, gullet” Taylor 113
Semitic-South Arabic x/h̟-h “mouth, entrance” Skinner 173
NS-Nile-Nubian ko:s “throat”
NS-Barea koso “throat” Greenberg 1966 106
C.1a.3 C. Khoisan-|Nu‖en ǂûŋ “neck” Starostin, G. 2003 26
C.1a.4
C. Khoisan-Naro !kau “neck” Ehret 1982 [179]
C. Khoisan-Proto-Khoekhoe *!kxao “neck” Starostin, G. 2003 26
242
Proto-E. Cushitic �~ w - “hole” Skinner 173

C.1a.5 Semitic-Hebrew garon “throat” gargeret “windpipe, throat” Baltsan 106
C.1a.1 IE-Sanskrit kAkud “the hollow of the mouth” Cologne Lexicon.
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *Kogme “palate, jaw” / Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *kogemej “palate, jaw” /
*kekü- “palate, throat”
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek kekirdak “larynx” English-Uzbek Dictionary
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *xukte “palate, jaw” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
C.1a.5
IE-Sanskrit kha “a cavity, a hollow, cave, cavern, aperture” “an aperture of the human body, ---mouth,
nostril, ear etc.” Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 C.1a.4
Kartvelian-Old Georgian qaqa “pharynx” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 43
/
Swadesh W. Chadic- Proto-Afro- West
“mouth” Hausa Asiatic Semitic-
C.1b.1 makwarwa *gwarʕ- Ethiopian-
TB-Qiangic-Pumi “mouth, “throat, Gurage
(Dayang) W. Chadic- neck” (Čaha etc.)
kwá ră / Hausa Militarev / gwärärä
kwá̱ ră “mouth” makwarwa Stolbova. “throat,
Matisoff 2003 “mouth, Afroasiatic neck gullet”
243 doorway” Etymology Leslau 1979
[Disyllabic Skinner 173 2007 v.1 59
corresp.] “neck, v.3 295
TB-Tibetan throat” ngwärärä
mgur / mgu-war Skinner 180 “neck”
“throat, neck” Leslau 1979
Das 282 v.2 624-5
Swadesh “neck” C. Chadic- E. Cushitic- West Niger-Congo-
C.1b.2 Tera Rendille Semitic- Mayogo
TB-Tibetan gúra kúr pl. Ethiopian- guru “neck”
mgur / mgu-war “neck” kuró Amharic Greenberg
“throat, neck” Stolbova, “throat” gurorro / 1966 21
Das 282 Olga Pillinger gwərorro Kordofanian-
mgur “throat, C. Chadic 204 “throat” Masakin
neck” Jaschke 90 Etymology Leslau 1976 (g)uŋurru
TB-Naga-Lotha 2006. 207 “throat”
e-ŋu “neck” Greenberg
Matisoff 2003 1966 159
111
C.1b.3 Tubu [Teda] NC-Sango
TB-Tibetan gúləgulə golo, goro
gül “Adams-apfel” -Gbanziri,
“neck, throat” (Ger.) Barambo
(honorific) [Adam’s apple] golo
Goldstein 229 Lukas 1953 -Namshi
’ól-ma [183] kol(ko)
“throat, kólogo “neck”
windpipe” “Kehlkopf” Greenberg
Jaschke 608 [larynx] Lukas 1966 21
1953 193
243

C.1b.1 TB-Tibetan mgur / mgu-war “throat, neck”
< West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage ngwärärä “neck, gullet”
C.1b.3 TB-Tibetan mgur / mgu-war “throat, neck”
< W. Chadic- Ngizim ngúřdlád-líyá “throat”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma: *ngwär- / *ngúř- “throat, neck, gullet”
C.1b.1
TB-Proto-form *khua(H) “mouth, hole” Starostin, S. ST Etymology See also B.16b.2
Proto-TB ʔól “throat” Matisoff 2003 583
C.1b.2 TB-Tibetan güüjiŋ “neck” (honorific) Goldstein 229
C.1b.3 TB- Tibetan mgúl-(pa) “neck, throat” Das 283 Jaschke 90
C.1b.1
NS-Nuer ŋwák / ŋwàk “neck” Huffman 37
C. Chadic-Bacama kwa- “mouth, doorway” Skinner 173
W. Chadic-Hausa màk’wallatòo f. “Adam’s apple” Newman, P. 2007 148
W. Chadic-Bauci-Diri agwabu “doorway” Skinner 173
C.1b.2
W. Chadic-Bauci-Pa’a gurgwaɬa “throat, gullet” Skinner 194
N. Cushitic-Beja [Bedawi] gûrgùmáa “der halsknorpel, Adamsapfel” [the neck cartilage,
Adam’s apple] Reinisch 101
Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova 1995) *gorac “neck, throat” Skinner 194
W. Chadic- Ngizim ngúřdlád-líyá “throat” Schuh 127
E. Cushitic-Somali hunguri “throat” Awde 1999 35
Berber–Tuareg [Tamasheq] agoureh “larynx” igourhaien “gorge (gosier)” Cortade 236, 277
E. Cushitic-Rendille kurkújjo “Adam’s apple” Pillinger 204
C. Chadic-Pidlimdi gura “neck” Skinner 287
E. Chadic- Migama kòrkòrré ”gorge” [throat] Jungraithmayr / Adams 101
E. Chadic-Lele kor “cou” [neck] Skinner 287
E. Cushitic- Somali xoor “neck” Awde 1996 162
Semitic-Hebrew garon “throat” Baltsan 106, 786 Oxford English-Hebrew Dict. 987
C.1b.1
Proto-IE *gwerw- “throat, neck” Nikolayev, Sergei. Indo-European Etymology
IE-Sanskrit kuhara “the throat or larynx” Cologne Lexicon
C.1b.2
IE-Pashto gharra’h “the throat” “the windpipe” Raverty 712
IE-Bengali ghar “neck” “nape of the neck”. Thompson 48, 113
IE-Hindi ghardan “neck” n. Scudiere 105 See also Supplementary Table 2 C.1b.1
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan gar- “Kehle, Hals” (Ger.) “throat, neck”
Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek gardan “neck” English-Uzbek Dictionary
IE-Tokharian kor “throat” ( < *gworu-) Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
Proto-Altaic *gurgi “palate”
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *gürege “palate”
Altaic-Proto-Turkic*kürgak “palate”
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *gorgakta “palate” Starostin, S. Altaic Etymology
C.1b.3
IE-Iranian-N. Persian gulū- “Kehle” (Ger.) “throat”
IE-Tajik golw- “throat” mylanguages.org.tjk
244
IE-Pashto khula’h “the mouth, orifice, entrance” Raverty 425

IE-Old Indian gala- “throat, neck”
IE-Hindi galā “throat” Scudiere 228
IE-Bengali gɔla- “throat, neck, voice” Thompson 46, 130.
Kartvelian-Laz qal- / ‘al- / al- “neck” Starostin, S. Kartvelian Etymology 2005 45
Kartvelian-Megrel ‘al- “neck” Starostin, S. Kartvelian Etymology 2005 45
Kartvelian-Georgian kel- “neck” Starostin, S. Kartvelian Etymology 2005 45
↓↓
C.2a-c AA–Chadic AA -Cushitic, AA-Semitic Nilo- NC
Proto-AA Saharan
Swadesh “tongue” Proto-Chadic E Cushitic - Semitic-Hebrew Daza NC-S.E.
C.2a.1 *alse “tongue” Arbore lešon “tongue” teleši Mande-
TB-Tibetan Newman, P. leĉ’- Greenberg “langue” Samo
lce “tongue” 2000 229 “to lick” 1966 63 Skinner (Djurum)
Jaschke 150 W. Chadic – Proto-AA Baltsan 217, 791 108 lεsεrε
Das 400 Hausa haršèe *-lis’- Oxford English- “voice,
ltśe “tongue” “tongue” “to lick” Hebrew Dict. 977 tongue”
Matisoff 2003 50 Newman / Ma (Ehret 1995) Semitic- Muka-
TB-Kiranti- 1979 51148 #827 406 Aramaic rovsky
Limbu C. Chadic – Proto-AA liššan “tongue” 388
.
le-soʔ l Musgu álesi / (Orel / Comprehensive
”tongue” àlés “tongue” Stolbova 1995) Aramaic Lexicon
van Driem Jungraithmayr *les- “tongue”
1987 456 147 1994 v.2 329 Skinner 108
C.2a.2 C. Chadic-
S. Chinese-Min Zime-Dari
chih “the tongue” shilli “tongue”
Amoy-English C. Chadic-
Dict. 135 Zime-Batna
N. Chinese -MSC silé / sílī
shé “tongue of a “tongue”
human or animal” Jungraithmayr
Wu, J. 4 602 1994 v.2 328
C.2a.1 TB-Tibetan lce / ltśe “tongue”
< Proto-Chadic *alse /
W. Chadic–Hausa halšee “tongue”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *alse “tongue”
147
Note- C.2a.1 (TB) Based on the comparison, the Tibetan lce / ltśe and TB-Limbu le-sot forms are cases in
which the initial / l- / is not a prefix but a contracted first radical. This latter has been reduced to *ø- in Modern
Tibetan (Central Tibetan) je “tongue” (Goldstein 446), and in Chinese languages, e.g. Beijing shé, Min chih ,
Cantonese siht . However the table gives evidence that this loss of the initial / l- / also occurred in Central
Chadic: e.g. C.2a.2 C. Chadic- Zime-Dari shilli “tongue” ; C. Chadic- Zime-Batna silé / sílī “tongue” ;
C.Chadic- Masa Group- Masa si / sínná “tongue” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 328.
148
Note- C.2a.1-2 (Chadic-Hausa, Arabic) With reference to the ha- or a- initial in Hausa and Arabic words
see also Notes B.35.1 (Chadic-Hausa) , E.1b.2, set C.2b.1 and Newman, P. 2000 228-229.
245

C.2a.2
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) s’et8 (Meixian) shat8 “tongue” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) siht “tongue” Chik / Ng Lam 381
N. Chinese-MSC shìh (WG) “lick, lap” Mathews 1966 #5786 807
shê (WG) “the tongue” Mathews 1966 #5705 788
C.2a.1
E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] léésé “langue” Fédry 356 Skinner 218
Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi ) ʔalsina “tongue” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 421
E. Chadic- Mokulu ‘ilze “langue” Skinner 218
S. Omotic-Dime lits’- “to lick” Ehret 1995 #827 406
E. Chadic- Mubi lisi “tongue” Greenberg 1966 63
E. Chadic- Birgit lììsì “tongue” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 329
W. Chadic- Bole líshim / lisim “tongue” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 328
W. Chadic- S. Bauci group-Guruntum lashi “tongue” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 328
W. Chadic- Ron (Fyer) lés leèsi / lèsi pl. “Zunge” [tongue] Jungraithmayr 1970 87
W. Chadic- Gwandara
ríše “lick” Skinner 86 ;
lééseŋ - / léése “tongue” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 329
W. Chadic- Angas
lis or leus “the tongue” Foulkes 238 ;
lɨs “tongue” Skinner 218
Chadic-Sura líis “tongue” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 328
W. Chadic-Ron (Bokkos) ‘alis “Zunge”[tongue] Jungraithmayr 1970 139
W. Chadic-Ron (Sha) ’aləs “Zunge”Jungraithmayr 1970 282
NS- Songhay halassa “tongue” Skinner 186 “lick” Skinner 108
Proto-Berber *-ils- “tongue” Skinner 108
Berber- Tuareg îles “langue (organe, idiome)” [organ, language] Cortade 276, 254
Proto-Semitic *lišan “tongue” Skinner 108
Semitic-Arabic lisa:n (IPA) “tongue” Greenberg 1966 63
Merriam-Webster Arabic 163
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) lsaan “tongue” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 421
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic
lassȁ “lick” Skinner 186
lessanȁ negus “tongue” (lit. the language of the king) Leslau 1976 8
melas “tongue” Leslau 1976 16
Proto-Semitic *ls “to lick, lap” Ehret 1995 #827 406
S. Omotic- Dime lits’- “to lick” Ehret 1995 #827 406
W. Chadic-Gwandara (Karshi, Toni, Gitata, Koro) árišiya “tongue”
Matsushita 1974 #12 30.
E. Chadic–Migama līt “langue” Skinner 218
C.2a.2 C. Chadic-Masa Group-Masa si / sínná “tongue”
C.2a.1
IE-Iranian-N. Persian lištan “lecken” (Ger.) “to lick”
IE-Armenian lizum, lizem, lizanem “lecken” (Ger.) “to lick”
/
246
C.2b.1 NS- Songhay

TB-S. Loloish- halassa
Phunoi “tongue”
ʔã-hlá “tongue” “lick” Skinner
Matisoff 2003 109 108, 186
C.2b.2 Semitic-Arabic
TB-Written Burmese jalʕaqu
lyak “lick, tongue” (IPA)
Matisoff 2003 “lick” v.
153, 323 Merriam-Webster
TB-Chin-Lushai Arabic 86
liak “lick, tongue”
Matisoff 2003 323
C.2b.3 TB-Meithei C. Chadic- Semitic-Hebrew
lek “lick / tongue” Gaanda leekek v.
Matisoff 2003 48 lèk-tè “licked, licked up”
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu “lick” leeklek “licked”
lɛʔ “lick” C. Chadic- Baltsan 219
Matisoff 2003 92 Gabin Oxford English-
TB-Kiranti-Limbu lèk-te Hebrew Dict. 516
lakma vt. “lick” Semitic-Arabic
“root is -lag- / -lak- Stolbova, (Iraqi) lagg
‘lick’ ” Olga “to lick” Dict. of
van Driem 1987 451 C. Chadic- Iraqi Arabic
Etymology pt. 2 425
Swadesh “tongue” W. Chadic – N. Semitic-Arabic NS-Maba Khoisan-
C.2b.4 TB-Lepcha Gwandara Cushitic-
(Iraqi) Group-For !O-!Kung
âli “tongue” lihye Beja li‫ح‬as (Fur) (d)ali tali
Benedict 1972 64 “lick” [Bedawi]“to lick” “tongue” “tongue”
lí / a-lí “the tongue” Skinner 186 lihas, Dict. of Iraqi Coman- Koma Starostin,
Starostin, S ST- E Chadic- lehas Arabic (Kusgilo) G.
Etymology Dangaleat “lick” part 2 418 litta “tongue” 2003 34
[Disyllabic corresp.] [Dangla] Skinner Greenberg
TB- Naga-Yogli lele 186 1966 146
li “tongue” “goûter du Songhay
Matisoff 2003 511 bout de la (Gao) lélèm
TB-Qiangic-Pumi langue” “goûter du
Dayang ɬε�= [taste with the bout de la
“tongue” tip of the langue”
Matisoff 2003 171 tongue] Ducroz 169
TB-Bodo/Garo- Skinner 186 lelle “taste
Dimasa salai (on tip of
“tongue” tongue)”
Matisoff 2003 171 Heath v.3 228
C.2b.4 TB-Lepcha lí / a-lí / TB- Naga-Yogli li “tongue”
< NS-Maba Group-For (Fur) (d)ali
“tongue”, NS-Coman- Koma (Kusgilo) litta “tongue” / Khoisan-!O-!Kung tali “tongue” /
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) láai “lick”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *lih- / *tali “tongue”
247

C.2b.1
TB-Chin-Lushai lei “tongue” Benedict 1972 64
TB-Daai mlei “tongue” Matisoff 2003 118
TB-Chen-Lakher əlei “tongue” Benedict 1972 119
TB- Naga-Wancho le “tongue” Matisoff 2003 511
TB-Nung phəlε < TB *m-lay ”tongue” Benedict 1972 64
TB-Chin-Tedim lei “tongue” Matisoff 2003 511
TB-Meithei ləy “tongue” Matisoff 2003 48
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) láai “lick” Kwan 271
C.2b.4 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) leih “tongue” Kwan 533
C.2b.1
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) lit’a‫“ ح‬to lick, lap up” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 421
C.2b.3 W. Chadic-Ron (Daffo-Butura) lok “lecken” [lick] Jungraithmayr 1970 217
C.2b.4 NS-Songhay (Koyra) leele “taste” Heath v.1 184
C.2b.3
Kartvelian-Georgian ̣tlek- / ̣tlick- “to lick” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 56
Proto- Kartvelian ̣tlek- / ̣tlick- “to lick” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 56
IE-Indo-European- Armenian lakem “lick” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian- Ho leʔe / leʔ “tongue Kobayashi Table 1 #11 1
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari ‘leʔe / leʔ “tongue ” Kobayashi Table 1 #11 7
Kartvelian-Georgian, Megrel lok - “lick” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 34
C.2b.4
IE-Sanskrit Alih “to apply the tongue to” “to lick, lap” etc. lih “to lick, lap, lick at, taste, sip, take any food
by licking or lapping” Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 C.2b.1
South Daic-Lao lia3 n. “lick” Marcus123
↓↓
C.2c Chadic Cush. Sem. NS NC
Swadesh “tongue” W. Chadic– NS-Songhay Niger-Congo-
C.2c.1 TB-E. Kiranti- Bole-Tangale- (Gao) Mande-Gbaya
Khambu, Yakha *lem Geruma lélèm lembe “tongue”
“tongue” Benedict 1972 límshi “goûter du -Adele (ge)lema
48, 64 W. Chadic– bout de la -Yeskwa (u)lema
TB-Proto-Kiranti Bole-Tangale- langue” -Kam (a)lim
*le°m “tongue” Kirfi [taste with the -Mbum lima
Starostin, S. ílímshi tip of the -Mangbei
Kiranti Etymology “tongue” tongue] (na)lim(no)
S. Chinese-Yue Jungraithmayr Ducroz 169 “tongue”
(Cantonese) lím “lick” 1994 v.2 328 Greenberg
Kwan 271 1966 23
C.2c.2 TB-Lepcha C. Chadic– NC-Kordofanian-
lin-shet “tongue” Mafa El Amira
Benedict 1972 64 le’en liŋ “tongue”
[compound of this root “tongue” Greenberg
and that of C.2a.2 Skinner 186 1966 159
Chinese-Kejia Extended]
248
C.2c.3 Old Chinese NS-Kanuri C. Khoisan-

d’iam / liam “tongue” tə‫כ‬lam Proto-Khoekhoe
Karlgren GSR #288a “tongue” *dlamV-
Matisoff 2003 299 Cyffer 1990 “tongue”
TB-W. Kiranti-Bahing xiii, 173 C. Khoisan-
liam “tongue” NS-Kanembu Nama
Matisoff 2003 299, dələm lammi
300 note s “tongue” “tongue”
Starostin, S. ST Greenberg Starostin, G.
Etymology 1966 146 2003 34
C.2c.1 TB-Proto-Kiranti \*le°m “tongue”
< NC-Gbaya lembe “tongue”
C.2c.2 Old Chinese d’iam
< NS-Kanuri tə́lam “tongue” / C. Khoisan-Proto-Khoekhoe *dlam- “tongue”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *lem- ~ dlam- “tongue”
C.2c.1
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu, Kulung, Thulung *lem “tongue” Starostin, S. Yamphu Dict., Kiranti Etymology
TB-Kinauri, Thebor lem “lick” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Kiranti-Limbu limmaʔ “root is -limd- / -lim- “taste sweet” “taste salty” van Driem 457
kelimba “sweet” Matisoff 2003 300 note s
C.2c.1 NS-Nuer lim lim “delicious” Huffman 29
C.2c.2 Kordofanian-El Amira–Laro liŋala “tongue” Greenberg 1966 159
C.2c.3 C. Cushitic-Bilin lanš- , lanž- “lick” Skinner 186
NC-Swahili lamba “to lick” lambwa “to be licked” Awde 2000 12, 100
C.2c.2 South Daic-Lao li:n5 n. “tongue” Marcus 233 li:n3 v. lick” Marcus 123
C.2c.3 Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari ‘a’laŋ “tongue” Kobayashi Table 2 #25 7
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali ‘a’laŋ “tongue” Kobayashi Table 3 #11 13
↓↓
C.3 Afro-Asiatic – AA –Cush. AA- Nilo-Saharan NC
Chadic Omotic Berber
C.3.1 W. Chadic–Hausa Omotic- Berber – Songhay
TB-Tibetan sumbāta / Bencho Tuareg (Koroboro)
dzum “to kiss” sumbàce sum (Tamasheq) sūmmu
(archaic) “kiss someone” “kiss” suməm “kiss”
Goldstein 846 sumbā f. Skinner “sucer” “suck (fruits)”
N. Chinese – “a kiss” Newman, 237 [to suck] Heath v. 3 287
MSC shûn P. 2007 190 E. Cush.- səməllət súmmú
(WG) “to sumbáá Somali “faire donner “baiser,
suck, to lick” “kiss, embrace” shummi baiser” embrasser”
Mathews 1966 Jungraithmayr “kiss” [make [kiss, embrace]
#5925 842 1994 v.1 160 Awde to kiss]
Wu, J. 644 v.2 310149 1999 47 Skinner 237
149
Note- C.3.1 Chadic- Hausa, Tangale) For Chadic entries this is an A grade root (found in all three branches of
Chadic) Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 160. This usually signifies that the proximate ST etymon is of Afro-Asiatic
249
W. Chadic – Proto- (Gao) súnsùm

Tangale Highland “sucer” [suck]
sụmbẹ E. Cushitic Ducroz 210-211
“suck” *sunk’- súmbu “baiser”
Jungraithmayr “kiss” [kiss] Skinner 237
1991 148 Skinner Kanuri
237 səmb- “suck,
kiss” Skinner 237
súsunngîn,
súsúnnjin
“suck, suck on,
lick”
Cyffer 1990 166
C.3.2 W. Chadic-Kifri West Semitic- NC-
TB-Burmish- (Giwo) Ethiopian- Fulfulde
Atsi šùppú Amharic (Fulani)
suʔ-cʔup “suck” t’äbba sob̝a
“suck” W. Chadic- “suck the “suck at
TB-Burmish- Galambu breast, the breast”
Achang sùb- “suck” suckle” Taylor
tşop “suck” Stolbova, Olga Leslau 1976 176
Matisoff 2003 W. Chadic- 230, 493
500 Etymology
C.3.1 TB-Tibetan dzum “to kiss”
< W. Chadic – Hausa sumbáá “kiss, embrace” / Berber – Tuareg
suməm “to suck” / Songhay sūmmu “kiss” “suck (fruits)”
N. Chinese-MSC shûn “to suck, to lick”
< Proto-Highland E. Cushitic *sunk’- “kiss”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *sum- ~ *sun- “to kiss, to suck”
C.3.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) syúhn “to suck, to lick” Chik / Ng Lam 54
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian) ts’ion1
(Lau Chunfat) con1 / con3 / qion1 / q’on3 “suck, sip, lick” Hakka Dict.
C.3.2 TB-Dimasa dźop “suck, kiss” Benedict 28
TB-Tani-Bokar Luoba bjun-tɕop “suck” Matisoff 2003 500
TB-Qiangic-Pumi Dayang -rGyalrong sccup “suck” Matisoff 2003 500
C.3.1
E. Cushitic-Sidamo sunqa- “to kiss” Gasparini 296
NS-Songhay (Koyra) sumbu “kiss on cheek” Heath v.1 227
Berber-Qabyle (Ayt Mangellat) summ “suck”
Militarev, A. Berber Etymology 2006
W. Chadic–Bauci-Siri sənd’u vt. “suck” Jungraithmayr 1994 v. 2 310
NS-Nuer ciem “to kiss” Huffman 9
Daza ci chuŋ “embrasser (lit. “bouche sucer)” [lit. suck mouth] Skinner 237
E. Cushitic-Gedeo sunk- “kiss” Hudson 261
origin; this is consistent here with the presence of Omotic, Berber, Semitic and Proto-E. Cushitic correspondences.
However, the AA root may ultimately have been borrowed or inherited from NS .
250
E. Cushitic- Sidamo sunqo / sunqe f. “kiss” Gasparini 296

NS-Tubu [Teda] cúncú “aussaugen (Frucht)” [suck out (fruit)] Lukas 1953 185
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic säma “kiss v. give a kiss” Leslau 49
C.3.2
Proto-Chadic (Newman, P.) *səb’ə “suck” Skinner 237
E. Chadic-Dangla [Dangaleat] sope “couvrir, entourer (des bras)” [cover, put arms around]
Skinner 237
C.3.1
IE-Bengali cumu “kiss” m. Thompson 49, 107, 127
IE-Sanskrit ācumb “kiss” cumbanadana “kiss” paricumb “kiss” cumb “to kiss”
“to touch with the mouth”
cumba n. “kissing, kiss” cumbanadana “giving a kiss” Cologne Lexicon.
Hindi
cummā “kiss” m. Scudiere 87, 239 See also Supplementary Table 2 C.3.1
Altaic-Proto-Turkic sümü- “to suck, to swallow”
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish süm-, sümür- “to suck, to swallow”
Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen sümür- “to suck, to swallow”
Turkic-Uyghur sümür “to suck, to swallow”
Altaic-Turkic-Karakalpak simir- “to suck, to swallow” / Turkic-Kazakh simir “to suck, to swallow”
Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
C.3.2
Kartvelian-Laz cup v. “to suck” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 13
South Daic-Lao chup6 v. “kiss” gan1 chup6 n. “kiss” Marcus 118
Kartvelian-Svan ̣cōb v. “to suck” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 13
↓↓
C.4 AA– Chadic AA –Cushitic AA-Semitic etc. NS NC
C.4. W. Chadic – Proto-AA Semitic-Hebrew Kanuri
S. Chinese-Min Ngizim (Orel/Stolbova ta’am v. tambu
tâm “taste with tàmbáu 1995) “tasted” “taste” m. “to taste”
the tip of the “taste” *tacam Baltsan 407, 781 Greenberg
tongue” tàmbà vn. “taste, eat” Oxford English- 1966 146
Bodman 1987 Schuh 156 Skinner 55 Hebrew Dict. 952
v.2 208
C.4.2 W. Chadic – N. Cushitic- Beja West Semitic-
S. Chinese-Kejia Goemai [Ankwe] [Bedawi] Ethiopian-Amharic
[Hakka] (Meixian) tiyəm d’am “taste” t’ama
t’iam3 “taste” E. Cushitic- “be tasty, taste
(Lau Chunfat) Skinner 55 Oromo pleasant,
tiam3 d’amd’ama be of good taste”
“lick (with the “taste lightly” t’am n.
tongue), Skinner 55 “flavor, taste,
taste” Hakka Dict. savor”
Leslau 1976 224150
150
Note- C.4.2 (S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka], Old Chinese ↔ Semitic-Amharic) The Amharic morphemes are
notated using the subscript dot for the glottalized t’. Hence the Amharic form contrasts minimally with the
palatalized Chinese and Chadic forms. As with the Semitic form, the Cushitic d’ indicates glottalization. See
Notes C.5a.4.2-3, E.16b.2 and sets C.31a.8 and H.12.2 (Semitic-Amharic) for more ST ↔ AA examples.
251
C.4.3 W. Chadic – E. Cushitic-

N. Chinese -MSC Hausa Oromo
tíân d’and’anā n. d’andamu
“lick, lap” “taste, “degustare,
Wu, J. 679 experience” gustare”
Newman, P. [to taste]
2007 51 Borello 89
Skinner 55
C.4.4 W. Chadic –
S. Chinese-Yue Gwandara
(Cantonese) təmína
tím “taste”
“to lick, Skinner 55
to taste”
tím /
yat tím
“to taste by
licking”
Chik / Ng Lam
381
C.4.3 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] t’iam3 “lick (with the tongue), taste” / Old Chinese t’iam “lick,
taste”
< W. Chadic – Goemai [Ankwe] tiyəm “taste” / N. Cushitic- Beja ďam “taste” / West Semitic-
Ethiopian-Amharic t’ama “be tasty, taste pleasant, be of good taste” /
Approximate Sinitic etymon: *tiam- “lick, taste”
C.4.2
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) tíhm “lick” Chen 200
N. Chinese-MSC tíên (WG) “lick” Mathews #6371 925
Old Chinese t’iam “lick, taste” Matisoff 2003 299
C.4.1
Proto-N. Khoisan *dàm “tongue” Starostin, G. 2003 34
N. Khoisan-Deti, Cara etc. dàm Starostin, G. 2003 34
C.. Khoisan--Nama tammi “tongue” Starostin, G. 2003 34
Semitic-Arabic tʕaʕam (IPA) “taste” n. Merriam-Webster Arabic 158
E. Cushitic-Somali dhadamo “taste” Awde 1999 28
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic t’a’əm “flavor, taste, good taste, savor” Leslau 1976 233
E.Chadic –Masa Group təna “lécher (avec toute la langue)” Skinner 252
W. Chadic – N. Bauci Group- Diri təna’a “lick” Skinner 252
C.4.2
N. Cushitic-Beja [Bedawi] tāmi “schmackhaft” [tasty] Skinner 55
Semitic-Written Arabic t’a’ima “to eat (something)” “to taste, to relish” Wehr 655
W. Chadic- Ngizim tàmbáu “taste” “have taste of, try out” Schuh 156
NS- Kanuri támbukin, sə́támbin “taste” “try, test out” Cyffer 1990 169
Khoisan-Eastern Cape tamm “tongue” Ehret 1982 [178]
C.4.3
W. Chadic-Bole d’anduno “taste” Skinner 55
W. Chadic–Hausa d’and’anō m. “flavor, taste” Newman, P. 2007 51 Skinner 55
C.4.4 tànd’a “lick” Newman, 2007 197 Skinner 252
252

C.4.2
Proto-Altaic *t’ama “taste, munch”
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *tami “taste, munch”
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *tamsija “taste, munch” Starostin, Sergei AltaicEtymology
↓↓
The following tables C.5a.1,3- C.5b.1 show Sasse’s reconstructions of Proto-E. Cushitic roots *san- /
*sin- / *son- / *sun- “nose” (Sasse 1982 169). Of these the *san- / *sin- / *sun- root stems all are
attested in Tibeto-Burman languages with semantics of “nose” or “odor, smell”
The morphemes of these tables have denotations referring to both the physical nose of humans and animals
as well as the nose as an organ of perception. Given these dual semantics, many of the morphemes are repeated
in Chapter 2E under their semantics of “sensing”, “hearing” and “know, become aware of”. Thus parallels
exist between:
C5a.3 *-siiŋw- “smell” and E.1a.3 Proto-AA *siniH- “know”
C5a.2 *san- “smell” and E.1d.1 san- “hear, become aware of”. See also Note- E.1d.1 (Chadic,
Arabic)
C5b.2 *sun- “smell” and E.1d.2 sun- “hear, smell” *sunah “know, remember, recognize”.
C.5a-b AAc – Chadic AA –Cushitic, AA-Semitic, Nilo- NC
Proto-AA Egyptian Saharan
Swadesh W. Chadic- Proto-E. Cushitic Berti
“nose” Hausa *san- / *sun- sano
C.5a.1 TB-Tibetan k’arfin “nose” Sasse 1982 169 “nose”
sna “the nose” sànsanàa (Ehret) Ruhlen
Jaschke 316 n.f. *san- “nose, tip” 1994 296
TB-Kham “a good sense Ehret 1995 #223 161
sanī “nose” of smell” E. Cushitic- Afar
Starostin, S. ST Newman, R. san sàna pl.
Etymology 1990 250 “nose”
Proto-Tibeto- Parker / Hayward 188
Burman Greenberg 1966 60
*sna ~ *snar E. Cushitic –Sidamo
“nose” Benedict sano sanna pl.
1972 #101 35, 204 “nose”
Matisoff 103 151 Gasparini 285
C.5a.2 W. Chadic - Proto-AA Semitic-Arabic
TB-Burmese Hausa (Orel / Stolbova 1995) (Iraqi)
saŋ “emit a pleasant sansànā vt. *san + sun- v. šamma
odor” “smell, sniff” “smell” “a smell,
Benedict 1972 85 Newman, P. Skinner 228 a sniff”
Proto-TB 2007 178 “slight odor”
*suŋ ~ *saŋ Skinner 104 Dict. of Iraqi
“smell, scent, Arabic
fragrant” part 2 250
Matisoff 2003 513
151
Note- C.5a.1 (Tibetan) Benedict treats the initial s- as a prefix whereas the comparative data indicates that it
is probably a contracted first radical sa- of a Cushitic or NS root. Central Tibetan has reduced the initial s- to *ø-
i.e. na. Tibetan C.5a.1. On this Das comments “sna the nose, but in the colloquial the usual term seems to be
na-ku”.Das 764. See also Note- A.1a.1 (Tibetan) and Chapter 10 section 10.3.3.
253
C.5a.3 C. Chadic- Proto-AA Egyptian Nuer

TB-Jingpho [Kachin] Gude, Nyanje *-siiŋw- vt. sensen ciŋ
siŋ “smell, scent” *zin- “to smell” “to have a bad “bad as
TB-Trung “smell” v. Ehret 1995 #224 161 smell” when fish
ciŋ1 “to stink” C. Chadic- “to smell” “smell, odor” is rotten”
Starostin, S. Mafa, Mada *̣cin- “ smell” Budge Huffman 9
ST Etymology Group Militarev, A. “smell” v.2 675 Medob
N. Chinese-MSC W. Chadic- Afroasiatic Etymology s-sen i-siŋi
xīn b.f. “strong and Pero 2007 “to smell, to “nose”
pervasive fragrance” *žin- v. Cushitic-Saho breathe” Ruhlen
Wu, J. 769 “smell” sīn “to smell” Budge 1994 296
De Francis 1060, C. Chadic- Ruhlen 1994 296 v.2 697
1075 Mandara Omotic-Kefa sen / sena
C.5a.4 Group cin- “smell” “to smell,
xīng “having the *-cin- Skinner 123 to kiss”
smell of fish or raw “smell” v. Proto-E. Cushitic Budge v.2
meat” Wang, F.509 Skinner 123 *sin- / *son- 603, 675
Wu, J. 772 “nose”
Sasse 1982 169
C.5a.4 S. Ethiopian
N. Chinese-MSC Semitic-
xiāng Amharic
“perfume, spice” ət’t’änä vt.
sandalwood” “perfume with
Manser pt. 2 489 incense”
“fragrant, sweet- ət’an n.
smelling, aromatic, “incense,
scented” Wu, J. 753 perfume”
See also B.20a.1-3 Leslau 1976
hsiāng (WG) 153, 378152
“fragrant”
Mathews #2547 375
152
Note-C.5a.4 (Semitic-Amharic) The -t’- initial of the root for incense in Amharic represents a glotallized
dental t-, (Leslau 1976 xiii.) This phoneme, present also in Arabic, regularly corresponds to a glottalized then
palatalized t’i- or simple palatal chin Chinese or TB as in: F.13.1 Old Chinese ’i̭ək “weave” / S. Chinese-Min
chiaq “to knit” / Proto-Kiranti *ʔtək “weave” ↔ South –(Ethiopian) Semitic- Amharic t’äqqämä “darn, stitch
3 3
(make stitches in), mend, patch” ; C.4.2 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] t’iam / tiam “lick (with the tongue), taste” /
Old Chinese t’iam “lick, taste” ↔ South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic t’ama“be tasty, taste pleasant, be of good
1 5
taste”. E.2a.1 ; Chinese- Hakka t’am “hope for, wish for, search for”, tiam “remember, bear in mind, miss, be
concerned about” ↔ Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi) t’ammal “to hope, to expect” t’ammaqqu‫“ ع‬hope, expectation”,
(Yemeni) ta’ammal “to hope” ; H.12.2 TB-Tibetan ‘tham-pa ”to join together, enlock” ↔ South (Ethiopian)
Semitic-Amharic t’ämäda “yoke, join up (the oxen)” See also notes C.4.2-3 and sets E.2a.2, F.19.3.
In Chen’s Yale transcription the Chinese pinyin initial xi- is represented by a Latin alphabet syi- / sy-, as in
syīyan / syāng. So the correspondence is based on a sound change from the glottal initial t’- to a palatalized ty-
expressing a voiced or unvoiced spirant, i.e. sy- or palatalized chy- in Chinese languages (a case of assibilation.)
See Antilla 72. The Wade-Giles notation uses an initial hsy- as the equivalent of the Pinyin xi- initial as in C.5a.4
(Extended) N. Chinese (Beijing) hsiāng (WG) “fragrant” Mathews #2547 375 xiang “fragrant”.The Khoisan
correspondence also is palatalized.
The palatalization can also be voiced as an initial j-. In this form the morpheme also corresponds to the present
1
B.20a.2 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] jan smoke, fumes” and the proto-Chadic *‘jan / *k’an- “smoke”.
254
Base correspondences for positing etyma: C.5a.1 TB-Kham sanī “nose”

< Proto-E. Cushitic *san- “nose”
C.5a.2 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *saŋ “smell, scent, fragrant”
< Proto-AA *san v. “smell”
Approximate ST etyma *san- “nose” *-siiŋw- vt. “to smell (something)” vt. “to smell of sthg”
C.5a.1
TB- Magari hna “nose” Benedict 1972 35
TB- Burmese hna “nose” Benedict 1972 90
TB- Newar hna-sa “nose” Benedict 1972 35
TB- Dhimal hna-pu “nose” Benedict 1972 35
TB-Tibetan na “nose” Goldstein 632
TB-Chin-Lushai hnaar “nose” Matisoff 2003 386
C.5a.2 TB-Tibetan shangs / shangs-sna “the nose (respectful form)” shangs-khung “nostril”
Jaschke 556 çangs “nose” (respectful form)” Das 1230
C.5a.3 N. Chinese-MSC hsīng (WG) “measly flesh, rank, strong smelling” Mathews #2775 415
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sìng “offensive smell, especially of fish or blood” Chik Ng Lam 376
C.5a.4
N. Chinese-MSC syāng (Y) “incense” Chen 166 xiāng n. “incense” sv. “fragrant, aromatic,
good-smelling” Wang, F. 494
N. Chinese-MSC tánxiāng “white sandalwood” Wu J. 664 Manser part 2 436 489
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) tàahn “sandalwood” tàahn heung “incense made of sandalwood”
Chik / Ng Lam 234
TB-Tibetan tsan-dan “sandalwood” Hodge 190 saŋ “incense” Goldstein 1163
C.5a.1
E. Cushitic-Boni san “nose” Sasse 1982 169
E. Cushitic-Somali san “nose” Greenberg 1966 60
E. Cushitic-Gedeo sano “nose” Hudson 106
E. Cushitic-Kambata sanu-(ta) “nose” Hudson 106 ; sεnu-ta “nose” Mukarovsky 276
NS-Zagawa sina “nose” Ruhlen 1994 296
N. Cushitic- Beja [Bedawi] šin’(a) “nostril” Skinner 104
C.5a.2
W. Chadic-Hausa sànsanàa “smell” f. Newman, R. 1990 250
Proto-Central Chadic čin - / čan- “hear” “smell”
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šamm “to smell, sniff” šamšam “to sniff” šammam “to make or let smell”
šamm “smell” [as in sense of smell] Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 249-250
s̟annan “to smell of perspiration” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 163, 271
C.5a.3 C. Chadic-Gisiga can / čin “hear” “smell” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006153
Other examples of a sound shift to a palatalized frontal between the Semitic t’- and Chinese or TB ch-initial are
found in:
E.16b.2 TB-Tibetan cam “quietly, without any noise” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chàhmjing “quiet (of a
person) < Semitic-Written Arabic (Extended) t’amān “calm, quiet, repose, peace”, t’amāna “to calm, quiet,
pacify, appease, soothe”. The West Semitic form of this root is palatalized and corresponds even more closely
to the E.16b.2 TB and Chinese morphemes, i.e. West (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic č̟ammata “be calm,
tranquil”, č̟əmmət “quiet, taciturn, reserved” Hence: Arabic / t’ = t ʔ/ > ty > Tibetan / Cantonese tš <
č Amharic.
153
Note- C.5a.3 (Chadic-Gisiga) Extended ) Jungraithmayr reconstructs *ntn as the Proto-Chadic root primarily
from Chadic lexemes which do not have the shin- / tshin-/ sin- root stems cited in C.5a.3. Jungraithmayr 1994
255
C. Chadic-Gudu šin “hear” “smell” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006

Proto-Omotic *cin- “smell” Militarev / Stolbova Omotic Etymology 2005
E. Cushitic-Saho sin “odor” Militarev, A. Saho-Afar Etymology
Egyptian-Coptic snsn “to smell” Ehret 1995 #500 272
Egyptian asen, asenn, “to sniff, to smell, to kiss” Budge v.1 89
sen / sena “to smell, to kiss” Budge v.2 603, 675 sens “to smell” Budge v.2 608
sensen ““to breathe (air) Ehret 1995 #500 272 sn “to smell (perfume)” Budge v.2 747
shnem “to smell” “smell, odour” Budge v.2 747
Semitic-Akkadian esēnu “smell” Militarev / Stolbova
Berber – Tuareg [Tamasheq] sənsəg “flairer” Skinner 104
W. Chadic- Ron (Fyer) shín ”nose” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 258, “Nase” [nose] 1970 89
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) xašim pl. xšuum “nose” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 135
C. Chadic- Bacama shine / shiné “nose” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 259
E. Cushitic-Konso siina ~ soon-a “nose” Sasse 1982 169
Proto-AA (Orel /Stolbova 1995) *t’s’’ín “nose” Skinner 104
C. Chadic- Gude shina / tshiná / shina “nose” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 259
“nose, blow nose” Skinner 104
W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Warji tsín-na / tshíná / cìnna “nose” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 258
C. Chadic- Zime-Dari shin ”nose” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 258
E. Chadic-Lame tsīn ”nose” Skinner 104
Proto-E. Cushitic *siin- “to sniff” Ehret 1995 #224 161
C. Chadic- Sukur shin / shshin ”nose” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 259
E. Chadic- Sumray shèndé ”nose” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 259
C.5a.4 Semitic-Arabic sandal “sandalwood” Leslau 1976 196
C.5a.2
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *samsaɣa “nose, part of nose” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
IE-Sanskrit
samAghrA “to smell at, smell” “to kiss”
samupaghraH “to smell at, smell” “to kiss” Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2 C.5a.2.
C.5a.3
Kartvelian-Megrel čxind- “nose” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 8
Kartvelian-Laz čxind- “nose” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 8 http://starling.rinet.ru./c
C.5a.4
IE-Sanskrit
candana “sandalwood” Norman 19 “sandal (Sirium myrtifolium), either the tree, the wood or the
unctious preparation of the wood held in high estimation as a perfume”
cAndana “consisting of sandalwood”
cancalakya “incense”
Cologne Lexicon
IE-Hindi
candan ki lakar “sandalwood” Scudiere 235.
See also Supplementary Table 2 C.5a.4
/
v.1 129. However, the C.5a.1-3 Proto-Cushitic *san- “nose” and Chadic *zin- “smell” v. support a hypothesis
that the Chadic morphemes in these CC sets are reflexes of these proto-forms. These roots are found in both
northern and southern Sino-Tibetan languages. See also Note- E.1d.1 (Chadic, Arabic) and E.4d.1-2 which
further confrm the dual semantics of “hear, smell” in the related lexemes which denote sense perception.
256
Swadesh “nose” C. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Burji Shabo N. Khoisan-!O!Kung

C.5b.1 Logone súna šona “nose” cúŋ “nose”
TB-Nung *xsəni “nose” “nose” Ruhlen 1994 N. Khoisan-‖Au‖en
śəna ”nose” Skinner 104 Sasse 1982 169 296 čúŋ “nose”
TB- Kadu W. Chadic-Tala Hudson 106 Songhay Starostin, G.
səna “nose” əsən ”nose” Proto-E. Cushitic (Gao) 2003 26
Benedict 1972 35 Militarev / *san- / *sun- sùnnáara NC- Mumuye
[Disyllabic Stolbova *sin- / *son- “bonne odeur” sun “nose”
corresp.] “nose” [pleasant Skinner 104
Sasse 1982 169 smell]
Ducroz 210
C.5b.2 Proto-Chadic E. Cushitic - Nubian-Kənzi
Proto-Tibeto- *sunə Sidamo (Kenuzi)
Burman “to smell” su’na šumuum
*suŋ “smell, Newman, P. “to smell, give “Geruch”
scent” 1977 31 off an odour, [smell, scent]
Benedict 1972 85, Ehret 1995 a perfume” Hoffman 164
207 #500 272 Gasparini 295
TB-Tibetan C. Chadic- Higi E. Cushitic -
bsuŋ “smell, esp. (Ghye) Burji
sweet scent” sùŋwi “smell” suna “odor”
Jaschke 593 Mukarovsky Ruhlen 1994 296
“sweet smell” 341
Das 1319 (Kiria)
Benedict 1972 85 zùŋwi “smell”
See also Mukarovsky
Note- E.1d.1 341
C.5b.1 TB-Nung śəna ”nose” / TB- Kadu səna “nose”
< Proto-E. Cushitic *sun- “nose” / NC-N. Mande- Vai suŋ “nose” /
N. Khoisan-!O!Kung cúŋ “nose”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon: *suŋ n. / cúŋ “nose”
C.5b.2 TB-Jingpho [Kachin] suŋ “scent, odor, smell” Benedict 1972 85
C.5b.1
Proto-N. Khoisan *cʔúŋ “nose” Starostin, G. 2003 26
Khoisan-ǂHoan !qʔon “nose” Starostin, G. 2003 26
NC-N. Mande- Vai suŋ “nose” Mukarovsky 1987 276
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) xašim pl. xšuum “nose” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 135
N. Khoisan-!’O !Khung tsn ~ čn “nose” Ruhlen 1994 #4 19 60
C.5b.2
W. Chadic-Hausa sunsuna- “smell, sniff” v. Newman, 2007 190 Greenberg 1966 60
NS-Kanuri nzún ideo. “emphasizes a bad smell or odour” Cyffer 1990 145
Semitic-Arabic jaʃummu (IPA) “smell” vt. Meriam-Webster Arabic 145
C.5b.1
Altaic- Proto- Tungus-Manchu *soŋgi- “nose, part of nose” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *sum- “nose, part of nose” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Proto-Altaic *suma “nose, part of nose” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology http://starling.rinet.ru./c
↓↓
257

C.6a-c Afro-Asiatic-Chadic AA-Cush. AA-Sem. NS NC.
Swadesh “breast(s)” E. Chadic-Somrai N. Cushitic- Semitic- NC-
C.6a.1 nae / nii “milk” Beja Arabic S.W.Mande-
S. Chinese-Min náē / nii “udder” [Bedawi] (Iraqi) Gban
nî “milk” Stolbova, Olga nāy nahid nyini “milk”
Bodman 1987 E. Chadic Etymology “melken” “female NC-
v.2 97 2006 [to milk] breast” S.W.Mande-
N. Chinese-MSC W. Chadic- Pelu Reinisch Dict. of Mende,
nâi “breasts” “milk” nîî “milk” 187 Iraqi Kpelle
“suckle, breast feed” Mukarovsky 257 nāi(y) v. Arabic nyini ya
Wu, J. 487 W. Chadic- S. Bauci- “milk” part 2 472 ”breast”
S. Chinese-Kejia Bedde-Ngizim Group Skinner 209 Mukarovsky
[Hakka] (Meixian, *(a)ny- “breast, milk” 257
MacIver) nai1 Skinner 210
“milk” “woman’s W. Chadic- S. Bauci-Tala
breasts” “feed with nyi: “breast, milk”
milk, breast feed” Jungraithmayr 1994
Hakka Dict. v. 2 46
C.6a.2 C. Chinese- E. Cushitic-
Wu na6 “milk” Rendille
“woman’s breasts” nahsó
“feed with milk” “breasts”
“breast-feed, Pillinger
nurse” Hakka Dict. 231
C.6a.1 S. Chinese-Min nî “milk”
< W. Chadic-Pelu nîî “milk” / NC-S.W.Mande- Gban nyini “milk”
Approximate Sinitic etymon: *nîî “breasts, milk”
C.6a.1 Proto-form *ne “breast” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Lushai hne “to suck breasts” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
C.6a.2
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) náaih “the breasts of a woman” “milk, to feed with milk”
“breastfeeding” Chik / Ng Lam 91
C.6a.1
E. Chadic- Somrai nae “Euter” [udder] Skinner 210
E. Chadic- Lele ūny “sucer” [to suck] Skinner 209
W. Chadic- S. Bauci- Geji ni / ni: “breast, milk” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 46
W. Chadic-Zanwal, Tala, Jimi nyii “breast” Mukarovsky 257
W. Chadic- Ngizim anji / ányì / anyi “breast, milk” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 46 ;
ányî “milk, breast (of woman)” Schuh 11, 209 Ehret 1995 #687 350
NC-S.W. Mande-Menda nyìni ya (nyìni “breast ya) “milk” Mukarovsky 257
W. Chadic- S. Bauci- Wangday nyin “breast, milk” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 246
W. Chadic- S. Bauci- Tule nyi:ni “breast, milk” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 246
C.6a.2 NS-Nuer ŋaac “to milk” Huffman 36
/
258
C.6b.1 N. Cushitic-Beja [Bedauye]

Old Chinese nūg “die weibliche Brust”
njug [the female breast] Reinisch 181
“breast” N. Cushitic- Beja [Bedawi]
Middle Chinese nugw “nipple” Skinner 210
�źju “breast” Proto- S. Cushitic *nyox-
Norman 1988a 13 “to suckle”
Ehret 1995 #652 520
Proto-Cushitic *nuuk’
“to suck in”
Ehret 1995 #620 320
C.6b.2 Proto-S. Cushitic West Semitic-
TB- Kiranti-Limbu *nûʔ- / nûnuʔ- “to suck” Ethiopian-Gurage
nu “milk, breast” Proto-Afro-Asiatic (Endegeň)
Starostin, S. Kiranti *-nûʔ- “to suck in ” aňňu n.
Etymology Ehret 1995 #625 322 “milk”
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu E. Cushitic- Rendille Leslau 1979 v.3 79
nua “breast” nuuga “suck (something)” West Semitic-
Starostin, S. nuugsán “breast feeding” Ethiopian-Gurage
Yamphu Dict. “suckling” Pillinger 235 annäwä v.
TB-Tibetan “milk”Skinner 210
nu-wa “to suck”
Das 741
nú-ba “to suck”
Jaschke 305 Das 741
C.6b.1 Old Chinese njug “breast”
< N. Cushitic-Beja [Bedauye] nūg “die weibliche Brust” [the female breast]
C.6b.2 TB-Tibetan nú-ba, nu-wa “to suck”
< Proto-S. Cushitic *nûʔ- / nûnuʔ- “to suck”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *nûʔ- “breast” “suck, suckle”
C.6b.1
TB- Proto-Kiranti *n[u] “milk, breast” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
TB- Tibetan nu “to suckle on a nipple or pacifier” Goldstein 613
TB-Chin-Lushai hnu-te “breast, milk” Benedict 1972 100 Starostin, S. ST Etymology
C.6b.2
TB-Karenic-Pwo, Sgaw nu / nü “breasts” Benedict 1972 136, 152
Proto- Tibeto-Burman *nuw / *nəw “milk, breast” Benedict 1972 100, 198, 204
TB-Tsangla nu “milk” Benedict 1972 100
TB-Tibetan núd-pa “to suckle” Jaschke 305 Das 741 ; nu tūŋ “to suckle” tūŋ “drink”
Goldstein 613
TB-Tibetan nungo / nudɔɔ “nipple” ngo “head” ; nubur “nipple” bur “protuberance”
Goldstein 613
C.6b.1
Proto-E. Cushitic *nyox “to suck” Ehret 1995 #652 333 *nūg- “suck” Skinner 209
Proto- Cushitic (Dolgopolski) *n-gw-, *ŋ-gw- “nipple, breast, suckle” Skinner 209-210
Semitic-Arabic nehak “to suck out the breast” Ehret 1995 #615 508
C.6b.2
Semitic-Hebrew leenok “(to) suck (mother’s milk)” Baltsan 772
259

C.6b.1-2 Sanskrit anudhe “to cause to suck, to put to the breast” Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2 C.6b.1-2
/
C.6c.1 E. Cushitic- NS-Tubu NC-Swahili
TB-Tibetan Burji unúuns- [Teda] nyonya
snún-pa “nurse, suck” nuncú “to breast-feed”
“to suckle” Hudson 106 “saugen” ”to nurse
Jaschke 319 unun- v. “suck” [to suckle, (a baby)”
unúna “breast, nurse”] Awde 2000 184
nipple” Sasse Lukas 1953
1982 184 198
Swadesh “breast(s)” W. Chadic – Proto-Highland E. NS-Maba NC-N.Mande-
C.6c.2 TB-Trung Boghon Cushitic Group- Malinke
nuŋ1 nun “milk” *anūna “breast” Maba nono “milk”
“nipple, breast, milk” noòn “breast” Hudson 31 aŋun NC-S.E. Mande-
Starostin, S. Mukarovsky E. Cushitic- “breast” Samo Ba,
ST Etymology 257 Hadiyya, Kambata Greenberg NC-Mande-
Norman 1988a 13 W. Chadic – aʔnuuna 1966 135 Bambara
TB-Tibetan Hausa “breast” n‫́כ‬n‫́כ‬
nú-ma “mammary nōnòo “milk, Jungraithmayr “milk” (of
gland, female breast, woman’s 1994 v.1 20 animals)
bosom” Jaschke 305 breast” Hudson 31 NC-N. Mande-
“nipple, teat” Newman, 2007 Jula
Das 741 163 n‫כ‬n‫“ כ‬milk”
Benedict 1972 100 Skinner 209 Mukarovsky 257
C.6c.3 Chadic root E. Cushitic-
S. Chinese-Kejia *n-n Oromo
[Hakka] (Meixian) “breast” anėn “latte”
nen5 “breasts, nipple” Jungr 1994 n. [milk]
“milk” Hakka Dict. v.1 20 154 annėnitita
(Hailu, Meixian) “latte coagulato”
“milk” [sour milk]”
Norman 1988a 241 Borello 22-23
C.6c.4 W. Chadic- S. E. Cushitic-
TB-Lepcha Bauci-Buli Rendille
njen “milk” nyɛ̂n “breast, nyunda
Starostin, S. milk” “have breast milk”
ST Etymology Jungraithmayr Pillinger 348
1994 v.2 46
C.6c.5 S. Chinese- S. Khoisan-Xam
Min |noain-tu
(Jianyang) “breast”
naiŋ2 “milk” S. Khoisan-Proto-
(Fúzhou) !Wi *‖noŋ
neiŋ2 “breast”
“milk” Starostin, G.
Norman 1988a 241 2003 11
154
Note- C.6c.3 (Chadic) “The C root *n-n “breast”] often has --- the connotation of ‘milk’. The only certain
area of its distribution is S.Bauci and Hausa.” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 20.
260
C.6c.6 S. Khoisan-Proto-
Written Burmese !Wi
nui’ *‖no(e)ŋ
“breast” “breast”
Norman 1988a 13 Starostin, G.
200311
C.6c.1 TB-Tibetan snún-pa “to suckle”
< Tubu [Teda] nuncú “to suckle”
C.6c.2 TB-Trung nuŋ1 “nipple, breast, milk”
< NS-Maba Group-Maba aŋun “breast” / S. Khoisan-Proto-!Wi *‖noŋ “breast”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *nun “to suckle” ~ *nėn “milk”
C.6c.2 TB-Tibetan nu / numə “breasts” Goldstein 613 numu “breast” Norman 1988a 13
C.6c.1
E. Cushitic-Gedeo unún-s vt. “nurse” Hudson 106, 264
unún- “nurse” vi. Hudson 264
C. Chadic-Buduma, Logone num “melken” Skinner 209
N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e [Khoe] |num “suck” Ruhlen 1994 #549 64
NC-Swahili nyonyo “nipple” Awde 2000 185
NS-Songhay (Gao)) náan “téter” [to suck (at) the breast] Ducroz 184 ;
nan “suckle” Heath v.3 253
NS-Zarma nānu “teter” [suck] Skinner 209
Proto-S. Cushitic *nûʔ- / *nûnuʔ- “to suck” Ehret 1995 #625 322
C.6c.2
W. Chadic–S. Bauci- Boghom noón / nò:n “breast, milk” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 46 ;
nun “milk” Mukarovsky 257
NC- N. Mande-Mandara, Bambara nono “milk” Skinner 209
Proto-Afro-Asiatic (Orel/Stolbova 1995) *canon- “breast” Skinner 209
E. Cushitic- Sidamo, Gedeo unuuná “breast” Hudson 31
E. Cushitic- Burji ununá “breast” Militarev / Stolbova
W. Chadic- Gwandara (Karshi, Cancara, Koro, Nimbia) nóno “woman’s breast” Matsushita 1974 #18 31
“breast of woman, milk, esp. fermented milk” Matsushita 1972 90
Proto-Central Chadic *anúm “milk” “breast” “Euter” [ udder]
Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic-Etymology 2006
W. Chadic-S. Bauci-Kir noòn “breast, milk” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 46
Cushitic- Alaba onoona “breast” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 20
C.6c.3 E. Cushitic- Oromo anani / anaan-i “milk” Mukarovsky 257
C.6c.4 W. Chadic-Dyarim ɲini “female breast” Blench 2007 48
C.6c.5
S. Khoisan-‖Ng ‖nwoeŋ “breast” Starostin, G. 2003 11
C.6c.2
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho nu’nu “breast” Kobayashi Table 1 #25 1
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian- Mundari nu’nu “breast” Kobayashi Table 2 #25 7
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali ‘nunu / nu’nu “breast” Kobayashi Table 3 #25 13
South Daic-Lao no:m3 n. “breast” Marcus 36
na:m3 no:m3 n. “milk” Marcus 136
↓↓
261

C.7 AA- AA -Cushitic, AA-Semitic NS NC
Chad. Omotic
C.7.1 E. Cushitic – Oromo W. Semitic-(Ethiopian)-
TB-Chin-Tedim kal-ée Gurage
kal “rene, rognoni, fianco, kəlayo “kidney”
“kidney” lombo” [kidney, flank, Starostin, Sergei
Matisoff 2003 405 loin] Semitic Etymology
Proto-TB Borello 225 2006 7
*s-gál “back, loins, “kidney” Semitic- Hebrew
groin” Gragg 243 keelyah
Benedict 1972 18 Sasse 1982 113 “kidney”
note 66 200 qalé Oxford English-Hebrew
Matisoff 2003 405, 428 “fianco, reni” Dict. 490
[flank, kidney] Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi)
Borello 333 kilya
kalee “kidney” “kidney”
Hudson 86 Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
E. Cushitic-Burji part 1 243
kalatt-ée “kidney”
Sasse 1982 113
Hudson 249
E. Cushitic- Gedeo
kalatte “kidney”
Hudson 86
C.7.2 Omotic- S. Omotic- Ari
TB-Tibetan kɛla
kɛɛ / kɛɛma “kidney”
“kidney” Ehret 1995 #343 206
Goldstein 154, 155
C.7.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *m-kal “kidney”
< Proto-E. Cushitic- *kal- “kidney”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *kal “kidney”
C.7.1
Proto-TB *m-kal “kidney” Benedict 1972 18, 201
TB-Meithei nam-gál / nam-gán “kidney, small of the back” Matisoff 2003 405
Benedict 1972 18
TB-Tibetan sgál-pa “the small of the back” Jaschke 114
TB-Written Burmese khâ “back, loins” Matisoff 2003 405, 428 Benedict 1972 18
TB-Garo dzang-gál “back” Benedict 18 Matisoff 1972 2003 405
C.7.1
Proto-Cushitic *ankwal- or *inkwal- “kidney” Ehret 1995 #343 206
C.7.2
E. Cushitic-Somalii keli “kidney” Awde 65
West Semitic-Ethiopian--Amharic kulalit “kidney” Leslau 1976 156, 391
Semitic-Old Aramaic kōli, kōlitā “kidney”
↓↓
262

C.8a-d Afro-Asiatic – AA –Cushitic, AA-Semitic NS NC
Chadic Proto-AA
Swadesh W. Chadic- Proto-AA Semitic-
“ meat” Bole-Tangale- (Orel / Arabic
C.8a.1 Galembi Stolbova 1995) (Iraqi)
N. Chinese–MSC jìi “body” *dzi- / jisim
jī “muscle, flesh” W. Chadic- Bole- *dzik- “body, “body”
Wu, J. 309 Tangale- Geruma meat” Dict. of Iraqi
chī (WG) “the muscles jíí “body” Skinner 125 Arabic
or flesh, meat on the Jungraithmayr See also A.6c.2 part 1 21
bones” 1994 v.2 34 (Tibetan)
Mathews 1966 #405 53
C.8a.2 Proto-Chadic Proto-AA
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) *zk (Orel /
jek (A grade root) Stolbova 1995)
classifier used with “body” *dzi- / *dzik-
animals, body parts. Jungraithmayr “body,
Mathews 93, 95, 1994 v.1 16 156 meat”
103, 107155 Skinner 125
155
Note- C.8a.2 (Cantonese) The jek morpheme is widely used in Cantonese as a classifier for e.g:“animal: “pig”
“dog” etc., and human forms such as “ghost” “bogey (evil spirit)”. See Kwan under these terms.
Jek also has usages directly referring to the human body which suggest its origins as a noun used independently.
For example: bui-jek (bui,“back”) indicates an original literal meaning of “back of the body”. Stephen Matthews
refers to such usage in Cantonese: “The phrases sai lap and daai jek are used idiomatically to describe people’s
size or physique.” “Note the unusual use of these classifiers referring to people” “Ngoh gohgo hou daaih jek ge.
‘my brother very big classifier particle’. The regular English translation is ‘My [elder] brother’s pretty well-built’”.
Matthews, S.95 But the literal translation etymologically would be “my brother very big body” which indicates
that jek was originally used as an independent noun referring to humans. See also Chapter 2A Note A.1c.3.
Also in Cantonese “An important function of classifiers is to serve as a substitute for a noun like the English
pronoun ‘one’’”. Matthews, S 96. In this respect jek functions as a relative pronoun and can be considered cognate
to the Tibetan -jīg form described in C.8b.1 below.
156
Note- C.8a.2-3 (Proto-Chadic) The *zk root is found in all three branches (West, Central and East) of
Chadic. Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 16. Presence in all three branches of Chadic ranks it as an A grade root in
Jungraithmayr’s classification, so he proposes it as the Proto-Chadic root. P. Newman considered the */-k / final
to be a suffix and reconstructed the Proto-Chadic root as *zi “body”. (C.8a.3). Orel and Stolbova consider this to
be an alternative AA proto-root (C.8a.2). Ehret proposes it as a the proto-source for the indefinite pronoun, i.e. *ji
or *dzi “one, someone, somebody” (C.8b.1 following . Hence the Chadic proto-root, following the AA proto-root,
appears also to be an alternative protoroot zi / zik. As the table shows, both forms are attested in Sino-Tibetan.
Beijing has also retained both forms in i.e.C.8a.1 N. Chinese (Beijing) jī “muscle, flesh” and C.8a.5
N. Chinese (MSC, Beijing) tîgé “physique, build”. This form with the t- initial may be of Nilo-Saharan origin..
The *ji / *dzi forms are also attested in Chadic and Sino-Tibetan lexemes as the reflexive “body, self”. See C.9a
below.
The C.8c.1-2 Tibetan variants suù / sug-“form, figure, body” attest the same presence/absence of the final
*/-k /.This also indicates loss of the final velar in Tibetan. In modern Tibetan (Lhasa dialect) the base form of a
large number of roots lack the final */-k / but attest it in compounds, e.g C.8c.1 Tibetan su̱ù and C.8c.3 Tibetan
sugjɛn, sugbuŋ Goldstein 970-971, 1091. At least in Jaschke’s and Das’ time (1870-1920) the West Tibetan
forms contained the –k final. See Jaschke’s phonetic tables which compare variations by Tibetan province. Jaschke
xvi-xxi. This root is also the source of a number of reflexes meaning “skin” (C.8a.3) and “skin bag”, “wineskin
etc. For these latter with a root stem of jik- see C.8d.1 below.
263
TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Ron Proto-

shig “a body” (Kulere) Cushitic
Goldstein 1095 shiak “body” *j-q- “body,
shε̄g‫“ ̀ככ‬carcass” Jungraithmayr 1994 corpse, meat”
Goldstein 1094 v. 2 34 Proto-Cushitic
lüüshig “a body” W. Chadic- Hausa (Dolgopolski)
lüüs “body” jìkī m. *dz-q-
“shig “is the form of “body (of person “мясо, плоть
jig used after final -s” or animal)” etc.” [the body,
[of luus] Jungraithmayr the flesh]
Goldstein 1095 1994 v.2 34 Skinner 125
Newman, P.
2007 99
Swadesh “skin” Proto-Chadic E. Cushitic-
C.8a.3 (Newman) Somali
N. Chinese-MSC *zi- jidh / jidhka
jī fu “(human) skin” “body, skin” “body”
jī li “skin texture” Newman, P. 1977 Awde 1999
Manser 197 23 Skinner 120 55
See also C.8.d.1 below *zi “body” E. Cushitic-
TB-C. Loloish-Yi (Dafang) Newman / Ma 1977 Rendille
ndʑi “skin, outer 23 Ehret 1995 #470 jíd “flesh,
covering” 260 meat”
Matisoff 2003 190 note p Pillinger 166
C.8a.4 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Gwandara
gyī / gyīma kyiri
“outer layer of skin / hide” “ox-hide, rope made
gyībaa “skin, hide” of leather”
Goldstein 69 W. Chadic-Hausa
skyi “the outward side of ƙiri = k’yiri
a skin or hide” “hide rope”
Jaschke 26 ƙirgi
TB-Tibetan “untanned ox-hide”
gyidza “heat rash” Skinner 172
[lit. skin heat]
Goldstein 69
C.8a.5 W. Chadic-Ngizim E. Cushitic- NS-Kanuri
TB-Kiranti-Limbu tə̀kà “body” Oromo tígə̀ “body,
th‫כ‬k n. “body, Schuh 151, 190 d’aghna surface”
including the head and the See also Note C.8b.1 “corpo, kàttígə̀ “skin”
limbs” W. Chadic- N. corporatura” Hutchison 80
van Driem1987 534 Bauci-Warji [body, Cyffer 1990
N. Chinese-MSC (Beijing) ʔtə‫כ‬ɣai “body” physique] 176
tîgé “physique, build” W. Chadic-Sura Borello 91 See Chapter
Wu, J 674 Group-Yiwom 10 section
Chen 282157 tək “body” 10.3.2 on
[Disyllabic corresp.] Jungraithmayr “disappearing
1994 v.2 34 k-”.
157
Note- C.8a.5 N. Chinese (Beijing) There are five W. Chadic variants of this root. Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 16.
The three included in this set correspond to the N. Chinese (Beijing) tîgé on both syllables.
264
Proto-Chadic
*tk “body”
Jungraithmayr 1994
v.1 16
C.8a.6 W. Chadic-
N. Chinese -MSC N. Bauci- Karya
tî “body, tí “body”
part of the body” E. Chadic- Kera
Wu, J. 674 títí “body”
C. Chinese-Wu Jungraithmayr 1994
thi5 “body, shape, form” v.2 34
Hakka Dict.
C.8a.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jì tái “body” / N. Chinese-MSC jī “muscle, flesh”
< W. Chadic- Bole-Tangale-Galembi jìi “body” / Proto-AA *dzi- “body, meat” / Semitic-Arabic
jisim “body”
C.8a.2 TB-Tibetan shig “a body”
< Proto-AA *dzik- “body, meat” /
W. Chadic- Hausa jìkíí n. “body (of person or animal)”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *ji / *jik- “body, flesh”
C.8a.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jì tái “body” Chik / Ng Lam 372
N. Chinese-MSC jîtî “the human body” Wu, J. 309
[compound of this root and that of C.8a.5]
beijî “the back of the body” Wu, J.27 bei “back” ;
jî “spine, backbone” Wu, J. 317 ;
chi / tsi (WG) “the spine” Mathews 1966 #489 64.
TB-Qiangic-Xixia [Tangut] tshi / tśhji “flesh, meat” Matisoff 2003 171-172
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian) tsi3 “meat” Hakka Dict.
W. Chadic- Bole-Tangale-Kirfi jì “body” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 34
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) táigaak “physique” Kwan 350, Chen 282
C.8a.6 N. Chinese-MSC jîtî “the human body” Wu, J. 309
[compound of this root and that of C.8a.1]
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) tái “body” “shape” Chik / Ng Lam 500 ji tái “body” Chik / Ng Lam 372
sāntái “body” Kwan 44
N. Chinese-MSC qūtî “body” Wu, J. 561
S. Chinese-Min sīn-thè “body, health, constitution” Bodman 1987 169
TB-Chin-Lushai tei “self” Benedict 1972 65
C.8a.1
E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] , Birgit zì “body” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 35
E. Chadic- Migama zí “body” Junraithmayr 1994 v.2 35
NS-Nubian-Kənzi (Kenuzi) ğitta “Körper, Leichnam” [body] Hoffman 85
W. Chadic- Gwandara (Karshi, Koro, Nimbia) ŋkyi “body”
Gwandara (Cancara) ŋci “body” Matsushita 1974 #40 35
C.8a.2
W. Chadic-Ron (Sha) zə̀k “Körper” [body] Jungraithmayr 1970 289 See also A.6c.2-3
W. Chadic-Ron (Kulere) zîgy / zígy “Körper” [body] Jungraithmayr 1970 356
W. Chadic- Hausa žeki / tšeki “body” Barth 264 sīgàa “form, structure” Newman, P. 2007 187
W. Chadic- Goemai sek “body” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 34
W. Chadic-Angas kishek “all, every” ki [every] shek [body] Skinner 146
265
E. Chadic- Mubi jìc “body” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 35

E. Cushitic-Oromo sigá “carne, polpa” [flesh, pulp] Borello 373.
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) jiɵɵa “corpse, cadaver, body” jiɵman “body, remains, corpse”
Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 1 45, part 2 67
C.8a.3
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) jilid skin, hide, leather” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 74, 386
ʒilda (IPA) “skin” Merriam-Webster Arabic 144
Semitic- Written Arabic jilda “skin, hide, piece of leather” Wehr 154
C. Chadic-Buduma cirgu “Haut, Vorhaut” [skin, foreskin] Skinner 172
C.8a.1
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali dzi:l “flesh, meat” Kobayashi Table 3 #46, 60 14
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho ʤi’lu “flesh, meat” Kobayashi Table 1 #46, 60 1, 2
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari ʤii’lu “flesh, meat” Kobayashi Table 2 #46, 60 7, 8
*ɬəw- “meat, animal” (A.12a.1)
/
C.8b.1 W. Chadic-Ngizim Proto-AA
TB-Tibetan tìiké / tiiyé *ji / *dzi
jī + verb “whatever” “everyone, indefinite pronoun
jījijig “so and so, someone, somebody” whoever” “one, someone,
Goldstein 330 “anyone” somebody”
ɣchig “somebody, someone” indefinite Ehret 1995
ɣchig-chig pronoun #470 260
“a certain, someone” Schuh160, 188
Jaschke 144 See also Note
jig “one” G.17.1
“used as a number and also as a pronoun
referring to persons or any object already
referred to as in ‘I bought one’”
Goldstein 333158
C.8b.1 TB-Tibetan jījijig “so and so, someone, somebody”
< Proto-Afro-Asiatic *ji or *dzi “one, someone, somebody (indefinite pronoun)”
Approximate Tibetan etymon: *jī “one, someone, somebody (indefinite pronoun)”
C.8b.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jek “serves as a substitute for a noun.” e.g. go jek gei do chin a [lit.]
“that one how much money” i.e. “How much is that one” Matthews, S. 95-96
See also G.17.2
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jihgei “self” Chen 349 jigei “myself, yourself, himself etc.”
Kwan 465 “self, oneself” Po-fei Huang 406
158
Note- C.8b.1 (Tibetan) The usage of the word “body” as referring to something already mentioned and/or as a
reflexive occurs also in the usage of the C.8a.5 W. Chadic-Ngizim tə̀kà “body”. “a baren kuterci na taushi ii-ci
tluwai ii tə̀kà-w “Give me your tail and I’ll tie meat on it. (lit. ‘On the body of it’)” “áa kkəma tək-g əri ii təka
waka ‘he was hanging his body [i.e. himself] against the tree” Schuh 151 Schuh explains this function of tə̀kà as
serving “to render a concrete object into a location”. This is the generic function, but the examples indicate further
that when the location where the action terminates is the self (one’s own body) in Western language grammar it
would be called the reflexive pronoun. In these cases it functions grammatically like a pronoun but the noun itelf
meaning “body” is used to refer to something already mentioned, i.e. performs the reflexive reference function.
See also set and note C.9a.1 (Chadic, Cushitic) below.
266

C.8b.2
E. Cushitic-Somali cid “someone” Awde 1999 75
Egyptian z “man, someone, anyone” Ehret 1995 #470 260
/
C.8c.1 C. Chadic – Musgum Egyptian
TB-Tibetan su / zù su-t
su̱ù “form, figure, body” C. Chadic–Gidar “a joint of
“quarter of a carcass of meat” zu “body” meat”
Goldstein 970 Jungraithmayr 1994 Budge
shādzuù “shape of a body” v.2 35 v.2 648
shā “meat, flesh”
(A.6b.2) Goldstein 1091 W. Chadic- Bole-
N. Chinese-MSC Tangale Group- Karekare
ch’ū (WG) zù (ù) / zùu
“the human body, oneself” “body”
Mathews 1966 Jungraithmayr
228 #1601 1994 v.2 34
C.8c.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-N. Bauci-
zúg-po Tsagu cúke “body”
“body” Jungraithmayr 1994
Jaschke 494 v.2 34
tsûùgə W. Chadic- Angas
“shape, form” sheûk “body”
Goldstein 881 Foulkes 130
See also note A.6d.2 (Tibetan)
C.8c.3 W. Chadic-
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) Bole-Tangale-Dera
yuhk “flesh, physical” yək “body”
“meat” Chik / Ng Lam 371 Jungraithmayr 1994
yuhk tai “the body of blood and v.2 34
flesh” Chik Ng Lam 372
C.8c.1 TB-Tibetan su̱ù “form, figure, body” “quarter of a carcass of meat” / N. Chinese-MSC
ch’ū “the human body, oneself”
< C. Chadic – Musgum su “body”
C.8c.2 TB-Tibetan zúg-po “body”, sugbuŋ “human corpse, human body”
< W. Chadic-N. Bauci- Tsagu cúke “body”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *tsug- “body, flesh” “meat”
C.8c.1
TB-Tibetan zo “physical constitution” “figure, delineation” Jaschke 490
N. Chinese-MSC tzû “self, private, personal” Mathews 1966 #6960 1027
C.8c.2 TB-Tibetan sugbuŋ “human corpse, human body” Goldstein 971
[Compound of this root and that of C.11.1 below].
C.8c.2 W. Chadic- S. Bauci- Boghom shok / shoɣ- / shòk “body” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 34
/
The following table groups three sets of reflexes of the Proto-Cushitic *j-q- “body, corpse, meat” or the
Proto-Chadic *zk “body” (C.8a.2) under the derived meaning “skin” or “bag made of skin”. For example W.
267
Chadic–S. Bauci-Jimi zukko “skin” (Jungraithmayr 1994 v. 2 34) which Jungraithmayr determines to be a
reflex of the *zk “body” root.
The C.8d.1 lexemes correspond to the morphemes with *-i- meaning “body” and “skin” from the
C.8a.1-4 sets above The C.8d.2 lexemes correspond to the morphemes with medial *-a- meaning
“animal flesh, body” found in the A.6c.2 correspondence set.
The C.8d.3 morphemes correspond to the morphemes with medial *-u- / *-o- meaning “body” from
the C.8c.1-2 correspondence sets above. Hence it can be firmly posited that the following lexemes are
reflexes of these respectively corresponding roots meaning “body, skin”
C.8d.1 W. Chadic -. N. Semitic-Arabic Songhay NC-

TB-Tibetan Hausa Cushitic- (Iraqi) šikara Fulfulde
chi ka / jìkā Beja siga “sac en [Fulani]
chi ga “bag” (Bedauye) “milkskin, peau” njikāre
“wallet, Skinner 120 sekwa hide bag for milk, [leather “saddle
knapsack” cìkā-kà-yar “Wasser- yoghurt, etc.” bag] bag,
Jaschke 156 “small purse schlauch” Dict. of Iraqi Skinner leather
Das 412 for change” [leather Arabic 120 bag”
chiga Newman, R. bottle for part 2 220 Taylor 100
“wallet” 1990 18, 212 water]
gyεεgɔɔ Skinner
“a skin or leather 226
bag/pouch”
Goldstein 359
C.8d.2 W. Chadic - Proto-AA Berber- Tuareg Songhay Khoisan-
TB-Tibetan Ngizim (Orel / (Tamazight) (Koyra) Hadza
shagyεε jàká “bag” Stolbova aššakwa čaaku ašoko
“a leather/ skin Schuh 189 1995) “skin bag” “large “skin”
bag” W. Chadic– masak Skinner 120 sack for Greenberg
Goldstein 1089 Hausa “skin” “sac en peau” grain” 1966 81
cəguù jàkā f. Skinner [bag made of Heath
“purse, handbag” “bag, 120 skin] v.1 55
Goldstein 687 handbag, Skinner 226
sāgdaà scrotum” Egyptian
“quiver for arrows” Newman, P. sāq m.
Goldstein 1121 2007 96 159 “sack, bag”
S. Chinese-Kejia jàkař Budge v.2 647
[Hakka] k’wàalàatai Semitic-Hebrew
tsak7 “scrotum” sāk m.
“arrow bag” [lit. bag for “sack, bag”
ts’ak testicles] Baltsan 365
skin, hide, leather” Newman, R. Oxford English-
Hakka Dict. 237 2007 96 Hebrew Dict. 09
159
Note- C.8d.1-2 ( Chadic-Hausa, Sanskrit Extended) Herders of the African Sahel use cattle scrota as bags to
carry smaller items. [Personal observation]
The jàk- / zak-root also means “skin” independently of its usage in this word family to denote bags made of
skin. Similarly to the usage of the ji root for body in C.8a.3 above which also means “skin“, the jàk- / zak- root
means skin and “skin bag” as a derived form to designate the artefact. The root in the sense of “skin” also appears
in Sanskrit as zakala “skin, bark” “the scales of a fish”. See entry in Sanskrit Supplementary table 2 C.8d.2.
268
C.8d.3 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic –

tsugpε� Buduma suka
“a huge sack” “Beutel”
Goldstein 881 [bag, purse]
pε�“skin” Skinner 120
C.8.d.1 TB-Tibetan chi ka / chi ga “wallet, knapsack”, chiga “wallet”
< W. Chadic -Hausa jìkaa “bag” / NS-Songhay šikara “leather bag”
C.8.d.2 TB-Tibetan shagyεε “a leather/skin bag” / S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] tsak7 “arrow bag”
< W. Chadic–Hausa jàkā f. “bag, handbag” “scrotum”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *jika / *jàkā “bag (leather, skin)”
C.8d.1 TB-Tibetan gyigoò “leather clothing” Goldstein 69
C.8.d.2 TB-Tibetan
sh‫̄כ̄כ‬qhuù “paper bag” Goldstein 39
jako “a hide bag for packing tea” Das 447
cagəə “a leather / hide bag used to transport tea” Goldstein 388
C.8d.1 C. Chadic-Buduma jike “sack” Skinner 120
NS-Kanuri jigá “bag made of cloth” Lukas 1937 205 jiká “cloth bag” Cyffer 1990 70
W. Chadic–Kofyar jikəu “shoulder bag” Skinner 120
Semitic-Akkadian zikku “wineskin” Skinner 120
Semitic-Arabic ziqq- “waterskin” Skinner 120 ;
Semitic Arabic (Iraqi) šičwa “a small skin in which cream is shaken to make butter”
NS- Maba Group-Maba jekaal “scrotum” Edgar 371
šekal “scrotum, purse” ( < Arabic) Barth v.2 265
Semitic- Hebrew eshekh n.m sing. “testicle” Baltsan 20 mešek “skin bag” Skinner 120
Semitic-Jibbali sikt, sek “bag” Skinner 120
Berber–Tuareg [Tamasheq] echchekoua “sac en peau” [bag made of skin] Cortade 431
W. Chadic–Gwandara jìka “place for keeping money in the garment” Matsushita 1972 55
C.8d.2
Semitic-Assyrian shāk’k’u “sack, bag” Budge v.2 647
W. Chadic-Hausa majàk’war f. “scrotum” Newman, P. 2007 146
Semitic-Hebrew ashakheem“ m. pl. “testicles” Baltsan 20, 365
Proto-Cushitic (Dolgopolski) s-(k)kw-b “skin for liquids” Skinner 226
W. Chadic- Gwandara jàka “bag” Matsushita 1972 53
Egyptian m’sakh-t “wineskin, wine-jar” Budge v.1 287 shaqu “a leather object” Budge v.2 728
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Ge’ez zəq “skin bottle, leather bag” Skinner 120
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic sägäba “sheath (of sword)” Leslau 1976 59, 473
W. Chadic-Hausa sarkā “water bottle skin” Bargery 2002160
W. Chadic-Hausa (Daura dial.) sàrkā “a skin water bottle” Matsushita 1993 50
C.8d.3 W. Chadic–S. Bauci- Jimi zukko “skin” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 34
NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] joke “scrotum” Taylor 102
C.8d.1 IE-Pashto zik “a bag or bottle made of leather for holding water and other articles”
Raverty 2d ed. 539
160
Note- C.8d.2 (Hausa) The rock art of the central Sahara steppe dated from about 5000-3000 BCE depicts large
bags slung over the backs of pack cattle. Camps 576. People apparently used them to carry water with them as
they traveled while grazing their cattle..
269
C.8d.2 IE-Sanskrit mazaka “a leather water bag” Cologne Lexicon.

Altaic-Middle Turkic tašak “scrotum”
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish tašak “scrotum”
Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz tašak “scrotum”
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur (dial.) tašak “scrotum”
Altaic-Turkic-Balkar tašak “scrotum” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology http://starling.rinet.ru./c
C.8d.3 IE-Pashto tsugul “a kind of buskin made of the fresh skin of any animal, worn in the winter
when snow is on the ground” Raverty 611
↓↓
C.9a-b Afro-Asiatic – AA –Cushitic AA- Nilo- NC
Chadic Sem. Sah.
C.9a.1 Middle Chinese dzi C. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Boni NC-
reflexive pronoun Norman 102 Bura si (< *is-i ) Swahili
N. Chinese-MSC zì “self, oneself, dzi n. “self” ji-
one’s own” zìjî “oneself” “my body” E. Cushitic- Burji “self”
zìchēng “call oneself, claim to be” Dict. of Bura issi “self” Awde
Wu, J. 931 Sasse 1982 107 2000.
zì zhī “know oneself” Norman 102161 Hudson 130
161
Note- C.9a.1 (N. Chinese (Beijing), Middle Chinese , Chadic-Hausa, Cushitic) The ji / dzi root as a reflexive
pronoun referring to the self is found in both Sinitic and TB languages. In African languages it has been identified in
Chadic and NC:
Sinitic: In Beijing Chinese and Cantonese the C.9a.1 zi / jih variants of the C.8a.3 Proto-Chadic *zi root function as
both independent morphemes and as the reflexive pronoun. Both follow Middle Chinese in positioning it before the verb.
Examples in Bejing:
zìjìn lit. kill oneself “commit suicide, take one’s own life” jìn “kill”
zìdòng lit. self-moving “automatic” dòng “move” (H.9.1 Extended)
Examples in Cantonese:
jihsaaht lit. kill oneself “commit suicide” saaht “kill” (A.7b.2 Extended)
jihduhng lit. move self “automatic” duhng “move” (H.9.1) Yip, V. 2001 33
In some TB languages a similar form appears as a suffix with intransitive, reflexive, reciprocal or stative meanings.
Tibeto-Burman: In TB languages the si / śi reflexive is postpositioned to the verb:
TB-Kinauri, Nung, Bahing and Vayu contain a reflexive or “middle” function. “Suffixed -ś(i) ~ -so used to form a type
of ‘middle’ voice is found in several languages”. Examples are: -si
Kinauri tongśi ”strike oneself or one another” ; sarśi ”rise”, (sar ”raise”) , zaśi “be eaten”
Vayu sišto ”kill” siš(-tše) “kill thyself or for thyself” Benedict 1972 98
Nung itśi “laugh” khuŋśi “awaken” ŋimśi “stoop”
Bahing phi-so “dress oneself” ri-so “laugh” Matisoff 2003 472. [This corresponds phonetically more closely to the
C.8c.1-2 forms above.]
African languages:
Chadic and Proto-AA examples found in C.8b above show exact phonetic matching for the indefinite pronoun
referring to persons..
E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] uses the same morpheme to denote both “the body” and “the self”. Ng’áà déé zì -y
“il a tué son corps” (s’est suicidé)” [lit. “he killed his body” = he killed himself]
Nà átyá zi-r “je lave mon corps ( je me lave)” [lit. “I wash my body” = I wash myself”]
Ŋ’áà ityá zi-y “il porte son corps (se vante)” [lit. “he carries his body” = he is showing off some physical ability,
strength etc.] Examples are from Fédry 390.
In NC-Swahili ji “self” is not an independent morpheme. It functions as the reflexive pronoun or sometimes like a
middle voice of the verb, i.e.. the self as object of the verb’s action.
270
gèzi “each individual by or for himself” E. Chadic- E. Cushitic-

Wang F. 168 Dangaleat Konso
gè “each, various” Wang F. 164 [Dangla] isi “self”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) zì “corps, Sasse 1982 107
jih “self, personal” Chik / Ng Lam 380 personne”
jihgei “myself, yourself, himself” Fédry 390
Kwan 465
C.9a.1 N. Chinese-MSC zì “self, oneself, one’s own”
< C. Chadic- Bura dzi “my body” / E. Cushitic- Boni si (< *is-i ) “self”
Approximate Sinitic etymon: *zi “self”
C.9a.1
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) ts’ii ; (Lau Chunfat) ci2, ci4, qi4 “self, private, personal”
Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese -MSC chì (WG) “self, personal, private” Mathews 1966 64 #489 1966 57 #429;
Wu, J. 647 ; dz̀jī (Y) “self” Chen 349
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jiHsan (Y) “self” Chen 349
C.9a.1
E. Cushitic- Saho, Afar is-i “self” Sasse 1982 107
Egyptian tches “self” Budge v.2 911
/
C.9b.1 E. Chadic-Sumray
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sí “body”
sì “a corpse” E. Chadic- Kwan
Chik / Ng Lam 111, 113 sìī “body”
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] Jungraithmayr
(MacIver) s’i (Lau Chunfat) 1994 v.2 35
si1 “corpse, carcass” Hakka Dict.
C.9b.2 C. Chadic–Bura C.9b.2 NS- Egyptian
N. Chinese-MSC mshi Kanuri tche-t
shī “corpse, dead body, remains” “a corpse or carcass” shiti “side of “body, person,
Wu, J. 615 Dict. of Bura the body” bodily form”
shī “a corpse, carcass” Cyffer 1990 Budge v.2 893
Mathews 1966 #5756 #5759 801 162
C.9b.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] si1 “corpse, carcass”
< E. Chadic-Kwan sìī “body”
Approximate Sinitic etymon: *sìī ~ shī “body, corpse”
C.9b.1 N. Chinese-MSC shītî “corpse, remains” Wu, J. 615 [compound of this root and that of
C.8a.5]
C.9b.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sìtái “a corpse, remains” Chik / Ng Lam 113 ; Kwan 44
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian) she1 “corpse, carcass” Hakka Dict.
↓↓
jiainishi “to classify oneself as” ainishi, “classify” jiamini “to be confident [lit. to believe in oneself]” amini “to believe
trust” jijengea “to build for oneself” jengea “build” (F.15a.2) Awde 2000 75
271

C.10 AA-Chadic AA-Cush., AA-Semitic NS NC
Proto-AA
C.10.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Bole- Judaic Aramaic
gubuŋ / guduŋ Tangale- Karekare gūpā “body”
“dead body, corpse, gùbù “corpse” Aramaic
remains” Jungraithmayr 1994 gwp “corpse,
[Disyllabic corresp.] v.2 86 dead body”
gu W. Chadic- Ngizim Starostin, Sergei
“body” gùvù “corpse” Semitic-Etymology
Goldstein 55, 57 Schuh 77 Jungraithmayr 2006 6
1994 v.2 86
C.10.2 S. Chinese-Yue Semitic- Hebrew
(Cantonese) gəwiyy‫כ‬
kèui “body, trunk” “body, corpse”
Chik / Ng Lam 445 Greenberg
[Disyllabic corresp.] 1966 53
C.10.3 W. Chadic- Hausa Proto-AA Kanuri
S. Chinese-Yue gāwā f. “corpse, (Orel / kawîn
(Cantonese) carcass” Stolbova “dead
gauh / gau Greenberg 1966 53 1995) body,
“a coffin with a corpse Jungraithmayr 1994 *gaway- corpse”
in it” v.2 86 Newman P. “body” Cyffer
162
Chik / Ng Lam 220 2007 72 Skinner 81 1990 85
C.10.1 TB-Tibetan gubuŋ “dead body, corpse, remains”
< W. Chadic- Bole-Tangale- Karekare gùbù “corpse”
C.10.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gauh “a coffin with a corpse in it”
< W. Chadic- Hausa gāwā “corpse” / Proto-AA *gaway- “body”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *gəw- ~ *gāwā “corpse, body”
C.10.2 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *kəw “body, corpse” Matisoff 2003 595, 198
C.10.1
C. Chadic-Higi-Kamale, Mandara Group *gùv- “body” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 86 Skinner 81
C. Chadic-Mokulu gōbe “corpse” Skinner 81
Semitic- Hebrew goof-ah “corpse, dead body” Baltsan 113 Oxford English-Hebrew Dict. 191
C.10.2 Old Chinese k’i̭u “body, person” Karlgren GSR #122g Matisoff 2003 198
N. Chinese-MSC jiù “a coffin with a corpse in it” Wu, J. 367
Semitic- Hebrew gevee-yah f. “corpse, dead body” Baltsan 112
↓↓
162
Note- C.10.2-3 (S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)) This is a case of retention of a Hausa initial g- in South Chinese
which is palatalized in N. Chinese, i.e Hausa /Cantonese gaw- / gauh → MSC jiù . For discussion see Notes-
A.18a.2 , A.33.1, B.32.1,3 and Chapter 9 Section 9.8.
The C.10.3 Cantonese semantics of gaw- “coffin with a corpse” may represent a convergence of the gaw-
“corpse” root with a related but apparently different Afro-Asiatic root, for example:
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic qäbər “burial, funeral” ; qäbbära “bury, entomb” Leslau 1976 76.
mäqabər “grave, tomb, sepulcher” Leslau 1976 26 Semitic-Aramaic qəbar “tomb, grave” Comprehensive
Aramaic Lexicon Another Chadic variant of the root may be C. Chadic- Buduma gau “bury” Skinner 81.
272

C.11 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA - AA- NS NC
Cush. Sem.
C.11.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Ron NC-Benue
phuŋpu “corpse” (Bokkos, Daffo-Butura, Sha) Congo-Kwanka
Goldstein 90 fun “Leiche” [corpse] pun
puŋbo “mass, form, Jungraithmayr 1970 141, 214, “corpse”
substance, body” 284 “corpse” Jungraithmayr
“a heap, a pile” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 86 1994 v.1 40
a corpse” W. Chadic- N. Bauci-Tsagu
Goldstein 682 vúnė “corpse”
‘phuŋ-wa “the body – Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 86
the philosophical term” Chadic root *bn “corpse”
Das 848 Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 40163
C.11.1 TB-Tibetan phuŋpu “corpse”
< W. Chadic- Ron fun “corpse” NC-Benue Congo-Kwanka pun “corpse”
Approximate Tibetan etymon: *phun “corpse”
C.11.1
TB-Tibetan sugbuŋ “human corpse, human body” Goldstein 971 [Compound of this root and that
of C.8c.3 above] pur / spur “dead body, corpse” Jaschke 331 būr “corpse” Goldstein 645, 658.
C.11.1
W. Chadic-Dyarim vún “corpse” Blench 2007 49
NS-Nuer pwony “body” Huffman 40
NC-Benue Congo- Legbo ε-bono “corpse” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 40
W. Chadic- Bole-Tangale-Galambu bənà “corpse” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 86
↓↓
C.12a-b Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA- AA- NS NC
Cush. Egyptian
C.12a.1 TB- Mikir W. Chadic – Bole / Tangale
phi “back, backwards” pii “back, rear, behind, last”
Walker 135 Jungraithmayr 1991 131
TB-Tibetan phyir adv. W. Chadic – N. Bauci Group-
“back, towards the back, Mburke
behind” Jaschke 350 ʔpíí “back”
Das 837 phyi bkan du nyal-ba W. Chadic- Ron (Daffo)
“to lie on one’s back” fí pl. fiyái “back” [body part]
phyi / phi Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 6
“behind” “outside” Proto-Chadic *b-y “back”
Jaschke 348 Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 3164
163
Note- C.11.1 (Chadic, Etymon) Jungraithmayr. states that the Chadic fun / vun forms are ultimately reflexes
of an NC-Benue-Congo root *bn. Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 40. The W. Chadic reflexes are classified by
Jungraythmayr as belonging to his C root *bn. Jungraithmayr v.2 1994 86. These are the only Chadic reflexes of
this root. The W. Chadic Ron and N. Bauci languages may be the proximate source of this root, but since they share
a linguistic border with the Benue-Congo languages and have been extensively influenced by them (as documented
by Mukarovsky) an NC language may indeed be the ultimate source
273
C.12a.2 C. Chinese-Wu W. Chadic- Bole-Tangale-- Egyptian

pe5 “the back, the back side, Ngamo bèy “back” peh̟uiu
the reverse side” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 6 “back
Hakka Dict. W. Chadic- Gwandara (of a man)”
N. Chinese-MSC (Toni) bəy “back” “the end”
bèi “back of the body” (Nimbia) be’ “back” peh̟ui
Wu, J. 27 Matsushita 1974 #24 32 “the
pèi (WG) “the back, behind” [↑ W. Chadic ↔ C. Chadic buttocks,
Mathews 1966 #4989 692 sound variance↓ parallels the back
S. Chinese-Yue ←-MSC ↔ Yue generally”
(Cantonese) béi “buttock” sound variance] Budge
Chik / Ng Lam 500 Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova 1995) v.1 244
*bay- “back, hump”
Skinner 19
C.12a.3 C. Chadic- Higi-Nkafa
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) mbwi “back” [body part]
bui “the back” “behind” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 6
Chik / Ng Lam 373 W. Chadic- Angas
bui-jek bwin
“back (of the body)” “the small of the back”
Kwan 30 jek ”body” Foulkes 154
C.12a.1 N. Chinese-MSC bèi “back of the body” / TB- Mikir phi “back, backwards”
< W. Chadic- Bole-Tangale-Ngamo bèy “back” < Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova 1995)
*bay- “back, hump”
C.12a.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) bui “the back “ “behind”
< C. Chadic- Higi-Nkafa mbwi “back” [body part]
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *bay- “back ~ *mbwi “back of the body”
C.12a.1
TB-Tibetan phyi-yi-kog “exterior shell, bark” Das 36 kog “shell, bark” (C.20a.1)
C.12a.3 Middle Chinese puâi- “back” buâi- “to turn the back on” Norman 85
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) poi5 / p’oi5 (Lau Chunfat) ba2 boi4 p’oi4 “the back, the back
side, the reverse side” Hakka Dict.
C.12a.1
W. Chadic-Gwandara (Gitata) bíi “back” Matsushita 1974 #24 32
W. Chadic-Bole-Tangale-Dera, Nzangi bii “back” ; -Kirfi bì: / bí “back”
C.12a.2
W. Chadic-Gwandara (Karshi) báy “back” [body part] Matsushita 1974 #24 32
W. Chadic-Hausa bāyā “the back” bāyan “behind” bāya “backwards, towards the rear”
Kraft 336 baia “behind” Barth 26 bāya “back, outside” Skinner 19 ;
164
Note- C.12.a.1-2 (Beijing-TB, Chadic) The TB and Chinese references closely correspond to reflexes of
Jungraithmayr’s Proto-Chadic C root *b-y. This “is restricted to West Chadic and some Central Chadic
languages”. Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 3. All the C.12.a.1-2 ST forms of this table are proposed to be reflexes of this
Chadic root.
The C.12a.3 Cantonese variant closely matches only two of Jungraithmayr’s H root reflexes, the Chadic-Higi
and Angas roots cited. However the parallel correspondence of the C.12a.2 and C.12a.3 Chadic variants with
those of North and South Chinese forms gives solid evidence of a Chadic origin of these latter.
274
bāyā m. “back” “outside surface” bāya adv. “behind, backwards” daga bāya “afterwards, the
other day” Newman, P. 2007 19 baibaita “turn the back on” Bargery 2002;
(Gobir dial.) baibàitā / baibàyā “go round behind a house” Matsushita 1993 118
W. Chadic- Gwandara bay, babay “back, outside” Skinner 19
W. Chadic- Bole-Tangale-Karekare bái “back” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 6
N. Cushitic-Beja (Bedauye) biye “Seite, Seiten Knochen, Rippe” [side, side bones, ribs] Reinisch 54
C.12a.3
Proto-S. Cushitic *bu- “behind” Skinner 20
C. Chadic- “Fali” (Kiria) mbul “back” [body part] Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 6
E. .Chadic- Masa Group-Banana burwa “outside” Skinner 19-20
C. Chadic-“Fali”(Bwagira) bura “outside” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 6
/
C.12b.1 W. Chadic- Hausa West Semitic-Ethiopian-
N. Chinese-MSC wàjē m. “side, direction, Amharic wəĉ’ĉ’i / wəc̩c̩iw
wàijiè vicinity” “exterior, outside”
“the external world, wàje adv. “outside” Leslau 1976 178, 425
outside” Newman, P. 2000 206, Skinner 281
Wu, J. 706 165 2007 216 k’asàashen Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi)
[Disyllabic corresp.] wàje “abroad” waajiha “face, front” “outside”
k’asàashe “country” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
Newman, R. 1990 1 part 2 489
C.12b.2 N. Chinese-MSC W. Chadic- Ron Egyptian
wài “outer, outward, (Scha, Kulere) uai
outside” Wu, J. 705 way “to be away from a person or
“outside, beyond, foreign” “back, outside” place, to go away, be remote,
Huang 433 W. Chadic-Bedde afar off”
-wài- “out, a morpheme vayan Budge v.1 144
typically used to indicate “outside” Skinner 19
location, e.g.
wairén lit. “outside person”
i.e. “outsider, stranger,
foreigner” Packard 75
“outsider” Merriam Webster
Chinese 135
C.12b.3 S. Chinese-Min Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi)
guā “out, outside, wara
outside of” “behind, in the rear of”
guā-bīn “outside” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
Bodman 1987 part 2 492
v.2 122, 135
C.12b.1 N. Chinese-MSC wàijiè “the external world, outside”
< W. Chadic- Hausa wàje “side, place, direction” “outside” “foreign”
Approximate Sinitic etymon: *wàje “side, place, direction” “outside” “foreign”
165
Note- C.12b.1-2 N. Chinese (MSC) -wai- is classified as a bound root, because it can occur with either
independent words, other bound roots or with word-forming affixes. For example it can be used with verbs as in
waidiao “transfer (sb. / sth.) to another locality”. De Francis 968 [compound of this root and that of H.3b.2 Extended].
It is also used with nouns as in waibian “outside, exterior” De Francis 968 [compound of this root and the C.41c.1
bian which means “side”].
275

C.12b.2 N. Chinese-MSC wàibianr “outer surface of something”
“area outside something” Wang, F. 474
waibian “outside, exterior” De Francis 968 bian “side” (C.41c.1)
wàigwo [lit. outside country”] “foreign (alien) Chen 125
C.12b.1 W.Chadic-Hausa wàje “out (outdoors)” ya fita wàje “He has gone out” Newman, R. 1990 190
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) waajah “to be opposite, facing, across from”
C.12b.2 W. Chadic-Hausa bare “foreigner” Skinner 17 See also D.24.1
Semitic (Ethiopian)-Amharic hwala “behind, in the back, later, afterwards” Leslau 1976 1
C.12b.1 IE-Sanskrit bahi “out, forth, outwards, outside, outside (a house, village, city, kingdom)”
bahya “being outside (a door, house etc.)” “situated without” “outer, exterior”
“not belonging to the family or country, strange, foreign” “excluded from the caste or community,
an out-caste” vaidezika “belonging to another country, foreign” “a stranger, foreigner”
vaidezya “foreign” vaijatya “exclusion from caste, difference of caste” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Pashto bahar “to come out, outside or away”, bahar t’lal “to go out, outside” Raverty 126
See also D.34.1 Extended Pashto.
C.12b.2 IE-Bengali baire “out” adv. “outside, beyond” adv. prep. Thompson 66, 116 [Note close
corresp. with C.12b.2 Hausa Extended and Munda following] See also Supplementary Table 2
C.12b.1-2
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari bah’re “out” Kobayashi Table 2 #271 column 6
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali bah’re “out” Kobayashi Table 3 #271 columns 3-7
↓↓
C.13 Afro-Asiatic – AA-Cushitic AA- NS NC
Chadic Semitic
C.13.1 TB-Tibetan C. Cushitic- Bilin West Semitic- Tubu.
lté-ba “navel” etebā “navel” Ethiopian- [Teda]
Jaschke 218166 Skinner 35 Amharic. debo
[Disyllabic corresp.] N. Cushitic- Beja ətəbt “Nabel”
lte-wa / lte-pa [Bedawi] “umbilical [navel]
“navel, navel string, tefa “der Nabel” cord” Lukas
umbilical cord” [navel] Leslau 1953
Das 377 [Disyllabic Reinisch 1976 135 196
correspondence] 222-223
C.13.2 TB-Tibetan E. Chadic-
tεε “navel” Kabalai
Goldstein 289 dèy
TB-Chin-Lushai “navel”
tei “navel”
Matisoff 2003 208167
166
Note- C.13.1 (Tibetan) The TB-Tibetan lté-ba corresponds most closely to the disyllabic Cushitic root, which
is probably also the source of the Chadic and other TB morphemes.
167
Note- C.13.2 (TB-Jingpho, Chin-Lushai) In two TB languages, the root for “navel” also means “self”:
TB- Jingpho dai “self” Benedict #284 67, dai ~ sedai “navel” Benedict #299 68 ; TB-Chin-Lushai tei
“navel” ~ tei “I, me, self” Matisoff 2003 208. Matisoff considers that there should be a single proto-TB etymon
*s-tay “self / navel” Matisoff 2003 208 note a. These morphemes match most closely C.13.2 E. Chadic-
Kabalai dèy “navel” and C.13.3 Chadic-Hausa tàib’ā / tàib’àa f. “roll of fat around the belly”.
276
C. Chinese-Wu W. Chadic-
thE1 Bauci group-
“unborn child, embryo, Jimbin
fetus” təná “navel”
Hakka Dict. Jungr . 1994
v.2 250-251
C.13.3 N. Chinese-MSC W. Chadic –
tāiyii “(human) Hausa
afterbirth” d’an tàayī m.
tāi “foetus, embryo” “fetus, embryo”
“birth” Wu, J. 661 Newman, P.
t’āi (WG) “the pregnant 2007 201
womb” Mathews 1966 d’an
#6010 859 “son of,
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] product of”
dai ~ śədai “navel”
Benedict 1972 52, 65, 66
C.13.1 TB-Tibetan lté-ba “navel’
< C. Cushitic- Bilin etebā “navel”
C.13.3 N. Chinese -MSC tāi “foetus, embryo”
< C. Cushitic- Bilin. etebā “navel” / W. Chadic – Hausa tàayii
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *tăy- ~ *te- “navel, abdomen” “foetus”
C.13.2
TB- Garo ste “abdomen” Benedict 1972 66
TB–Karenic-Pwo, Sgaw de “umbilicus” Benedict 1972 150 “navel” Matisoff 2003 217
TB-Tibetan deguŋ “navel” Goldstein 466 guŋ “belly” (C.18a.1-2)
dedaa “umbilical cord” Goldstein 466 dewa “middle, center, core, main, central” Goldstein 466
C.13.3
S. Chinese-Min thai1 “unborn, child, fetus, embryo” Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC huáitai “be pregnant” Wu, J. 291 tāi meas. for “births” DeFrancis 1362
niángtai “mother’s womb” Wu, J. 497 niáng “mother, young woman” (D.9a.7)
tòiyi “fetus” Kwan 186 ; tòi “a fetus, an embryo” Chik / Ng Lam 373
Chinese-Kejia [Hakka]
(MacIver) t’oi1
(Lau Chunfat) toi1 “unborn child, embryo, fetus” Hakka Dict.
TB–Naga tāy “navel” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Chin-Lushai tai “belt, waist” Matisoff 2003 210
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *s-tăy “navel, abdomen” Benedict 1972 65, 66, 207
*s-tăy ~ m-ta:y “belt, zone, waist” Matisoff 2003 615
C.13.1 Berber- Tuareg [Tamashaq] təbutət “navel” Edgar 208
C. Cushitic- Bilin itibā “navel” Skinner 35
West Semitic-Ethiopian *-təbt- “navel” Skinner 35
In sub-Saharan E. Africa if you are talking to a group of children and then address a particular boy, he may ask
whether you are talking to him individually. His accompanying gesture is to point at his stomach. (Personal observation).
In European cultures a person in this situation would usually point to his/her chest. The Tibeto-Burman association of the
self with the stomach or navel expresses a cultural association similar to that existing in East Africa.
277
Semitic-Hebrew t’ibbur “navel” Skinner 35

Semitic-Old Aramaic ṭibwr “navel” “umbilical cord”
E. Chadic-Mokulu dibino “nombril” Skinner 35
Semitic-Hebrew taboor “navel, hub” Baltsan 408, 666
C.13.2
E. Cushitic- Rendille teyyán “first-born son” Pillinger 276
E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] d’ėwko “nombril” [navel] Fédry 206
C.13.3
W. Chadic–Hausa tàib’ā / tàib’àa f. “roll of fat around the midsection” Newman, P. 2007 194
“roll of fat around belly” Newman / Ma 1979 115
↓↓
ST Languages African/AA languages- Close
correspondences
C.14 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA- AA- NS NC
Cush. Sem.
C.14.1 W. Chadic- Hausa
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) cībīyā
chì “the navel, the umbilicus” “navel”
Chik Ng Lam 379 cībi “enlarged navel”
S. Chinese-Kejia Skinner 34
[Hakka] Newman, P. 2000 199
Meixian) ci1 / ci3 cībìyā
(MacIver) “swollen protruding navel
ts’i2 / (umbilical cord)”
(Lau Chunfat) Newman, P. 2007 33
qi2 “navel, umbilicus” cikī “belly, pregnancy”
Hakka Dict. Newman, P. 2007 34
N. Chinese-MSC cikìi “abdomen”
qí “navel, umbilicus” Newman, R. 1990 1
Wu, J. 533
chìdài “umbilical cord”
dai “cord”
touchi “navel”
Kwan 310
tou “belly” (C.16.3)
C.14.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chì “the navel, the umbilicus”
< W. Chadic- Hausa cībīyā “navel”
Approximate Sinitic etymon: *chì- “the navel”
C.14.1
N. Chinese-MSC dùqí “navel Manser 109 dù “stomach”
[Compound of this root and that of C.16.3]
C. Chinese-Wu zi6 “navel, umbilicus” Hakka Dict.
C.14.1 E. Chadic- Padoko žimba “navel” Skinner 35
Proto-AA *ti(m)b- “navel” Skinner 34
↓↓
278

C.15 AA – Chadic AA – AA- NS NC
Cush. Sem.
C.15.1 TB-Tibetan E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] NC-S. Central
’digs-msub dígínyò n. “index” Niger-Congo-
“index finger, [index finger, forefinger, Ewe
the forefinger of pointer] deka “finger”
the right hand, v. dígínye “montrer du doigt?” Ruhlen 1994 322
the pointing of [show with the finger]
which may be a Fédry 190
sign of a threat” C. Chadic- Zime-Batna
Das 715 diʔi / dèʔ “show”
Hodge183 C. Chadic-Masa
sdig(s)-pa d’ékna “show”
“to show, E.Chadic- Kera d’égé “show”
to point out” Jungraithmayr 1990
Jaschke 293 v.2 293168
Das 715 Chadic root d’k “show”
C.15.2 NC-W. Atlantic-
S. Chinese Fulup
(Cantonese) sik “finger”
sihkji NC-Bantu-Ba-
“index finger” Kiokwa,
Chen 117 Ki-Bira zigu / ziga
Kwan 239 “finger”
Ruhlen 1994 322
C.15.1 TB-Tibetan ‘digs-msub “index finger”
< E. Chadic- Dangaleat dígínyò “index” [index finger, forefinger, pointer]
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *dig- “index finger”
C.15.1 TB-Tibetan digdzub “a threatening sign made by extending the index finger and the pinky
fingers” Goldstein 592
TB-Kliranti-Limbu thikmaʔ root is -thikt- / -thik- vt. “accuse someone” van Driem 1987 533
TB-Tibetan digo “this one” di “this” Goldstein 573
C.15.1 IE- Hindi dikhānā “show” vt. dekhnā “behold" vi. Scudiere 19, 149, 263
IE-Bengali dekhano “show” v. Thompson 125
Proto-Indo-European *deik’e / *deig’e “to show” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-Eutopran Etymology 23
168
Note- C.15.1 (Chadic) These fairly clear correspondences seem to be loans into Chadic. Jungraithmayr has
identified only three occurrences of this, a C root, which appear above as E. and C.Chadic forms. There seems to
be no W. Chadic form.
A variant form in C. Chadic-Zime-Batna is tāk (Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 293), also found in West Semitic-
w
Ethiopian-Amharic tāqq ämä “point at, point out, tip off, inform about” Leslau 1976 229.
tāk / tek/ dik also mean “one” in Chadic, Cushitic, Semitic and Nilo-Saharan. The meanings of “show, point”
and “one” may well be derived from a root variant meaning “index finger” as in Chadic-Dangaleat above.
However, no *dig- root meaning “index finger” or “point at” has yet been identified elsewhere in AA or in
another African/AA superfamily, although the root is very probably related to the G.17.1-2 AA, NS and NC tek /
dik “one”.
279
IE-Hittite tekkussai “Zeigen, prasentieren” [to show, indicate]

↓↓
C.16 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA- AA- Nilo-Saharan NC
Cush. Sem.
Swadesh “heart” E. Chadic- Tumak Nuer
C.16.1 TB-Tibetan tūg “heart” Skinner 35 thuk “aorta”
thugs “heart, breast W. Chadic- Ron (Fyer) Huffman 49
(in a physical sense)” nduk “heart”
“heart (in a spiritual Skinner 299
sense)” C. Chadic- Tambas
Jaschke 232 Das 578 dûk “heart”
Mukarovsky 205169
Swadesh “belly” Chadic root F –
C.16.2 *tùk “belly”
TB-Magari Jungraithmayr 1994
tuk “belly” v.1 9
Starostin, S. W. Chadic- S. Bauci- Kir
ST Etymology tùk “stomach”
C.16.3 N. Chinese-MSC W. Chadic-S. Bauci- Nubian-
tû (WG) “the stomach, Wangday, Zaar Kənzi
the belly” tuù “belly” (Kenuzi)
Mathews 1966 Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 20 tuu
#6496 944 W. Chadic- Ron (Daffo) “Bauch”
dù “belly, abdomen, tù(h) “Bauch” [belly] [belly]
stomach” Wu, J. 166 Jungraithmayr 1970 222 ; Hoffman 173
S. Chinese-Kejia 1994 v.2 20 Nile Nubian
[Hakka] W. Chadic- Dwot tū
3
(MacIver, Meixian) tu tu “stomach” Skinner 35 Old Nubian
(Lau Chunfat) du3 E. Chadic- Kwang tu “belly”
“the stomach, the belly” tùdū “belly” Greenberg
Hakka Dict. Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 250 1966 96
Root B
C.16.1 TB-Tibetan thugs “heart, breast (in a physical sense)”
“heart (in a spiritual sense)”
< E. Chadic- Tumak tūg “heart”
C.16.2 TB-Magari tuk “belly”
< W. Chadic- S. Bauci-Kir tùk “stomach”
C.16.3 N. Chinese-MSC tû “the stomach, the belly”
< W. Chadic- S. Bauci- Wangday, Zaar tuù “belly”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *tuk “heart, belly ~ *tuù “belly”
C.16.1 TB-Kinauri stug “chest” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
169
Note- C.16.2-3 (Chadic) The following disyllabic lexemes have semantics of “heart” but lack the final *-k in
the first radical, so this is not only a case of apocope between TB and Sinitic but also between Chadic and NS
languages. See Notes A.14a.3 and B.25.1-2..
280
C.16.3 TB-Tibetan ltó-ba / ltó-wa “belly, stomach” Jaschke 219 Das 545
N. Chinese (Beijing) dùpí “belly” Wu, J. 166
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) tóuh “belly” Kwan 37 Po-fei Huang 447
C. Chinese-Wu tuw6 “the belly, abdomen, bowels” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese Min tóu7 “the belly, abdomen, bowels” Hakka Dict.
C.16.1
E. Chadic- Masa Group *duk- “liver, heart” Skinner 35
C. Chadic- Lame voin- dùk “heart” Mukarovsky 205
C. Chadic- Lame -dùk “liver” Mukarovsky 205
W. Chadic- S. Bauci Group *tuk- “stomach” Skinner 35
C.16.3
W. Chadic- Gera tùuşi / tùuzi “heart” Mukarovsky 205
E. Chadic- Sumrai dúsí “heart” Mukarovsky 205
NC- N. Mande – Malinke dùsu “heart” Mukarovsky 205
NC-N. Mande – Bambara dùsú “heart, soul, character” Mukarovsky 205
NS- Barea taua “belly” Greenberg 1966 96
↓↓
C.17 AA – Chadic Afro-Asiatic - AA- Nilo- NC
Cushitic Semitic Saharan
C.17.1 E. Cushitic-
TB-Tibetan Harso
phug = phugs = fukko
sbugs, phug-pa “urinary bladder”
“the bladder in reference S. Branch of
to its capaciousness” Omotic-Ari
Jaschke 343 pug
“urinary bladder”
Ehret 1995
#70 102170
Swadesh “belly” W. Chadic- N.
C.17.2 Bauci- Siri
TB- Kabui, Meitei bukùlí
puk “belly” “belly”
TB-Chin-Sho W. Chadic- N.
pük “belly” Bauci- Warji
Benedict 1972 77 bugəiná
Matisoff 360 “belly”
S. Chinese-Kejia Jungraithmayr
[Hakka] 1994 v.2 20
(Meixian, MacIver)
puk7 “belly”
(Lau Chunfat)
bug5 “stomach, belly”
Hakka Dict.
170
Note- C.17.1 (Omotic) “probable loan < Dullay (E. Cushitic)” Ehret 1995 #70 102
281
C.17.3 TB-Tibetan Proto-Chadic Proto-S. Cushitic Egyptian NS-Nubian-

bu-ga “hole, opening, *bək “hole” *box baka Kənzi
orifice, aperture” Newman, P. “hole, pit” “cleft in (Kenuzi)
“in compounds 1977 Skinner 13 rock, obog
Jaschke 368, 369 #69 28 171 gorge” “Loch im
Das 870 W. Chadic- Kirfi Budge Beetwall”
bú-gu “hole” bòɣo “hole” v.1 207 [hole in
Jaschke 369 Jungraithmayr enclosure
sbugu “hollow, cavity” 1994 v.2 188 wall]
Das 936 Skinner 14
C.17.4 Proto-S. Cushitic
TB-Tibetan *p’ug-
búg-pa / ‘bug-pa “to drill hole”
“to bore holes” Ehret 1995
sbug-pa = ’bug(s)- #117 119
pa “to perforate,
to pierce”
Jaschke 369, 404
h̟bugs-pa
phug perf.
“to hollow out, bore,
to pierce” Das 919
C.17.2 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] bug5 “stomach, belly” / Proto-Tibeto-Burman *buk “cave, belly”
< W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Siri bukùlí “belly” / W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Warji bugəiná “belly”
C.17.3 TB-Tibetan bu-ga “hole, opening, orifice, aperture”
< E. Chadic- Mokulu bùùgìmé “hole”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *buk / bug “stomach, belly” “hole, cavity”
C.17.2
TB-Tibetan bu-ga dgu “the nine orifices of the body (eyes, ears, nostrils, mouth, urethra, anus) and
‘cavity, vessel’ in anatomy” Jaschke 368
fūkbou “belly” Chen 18 ;
fūk “the belly” Chik / Ng Lam 377
TB-Chin-Lushai pu:k “cave, belly” Matisoff 2003 358
TB-Lepcha tafuk
< *-phu.k “belly” ~ tabak ~ tabok < *-buk “belly” Benedict 1972 77
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Satheu) fuk1 “belly” Hakka Dict.
171
Note- C.17.3 (Chadic) The Chadic root *bək “hole” also has reflexes meaning “mouth”.
Chadic correspondences meaning “mouth, opening” are:
W. Chadic- Bole/Tangale- Tangale pọk “mouth” Jungraithmayr v.2 244 ;
“mouth, door, language” Skinner 13
W. Chadic- Bole Tangale- Dera bw‫ככ‬k / bw‫ כ‬/ bo “mouth” Jungraithmayr v.2 244
h h
W. Chadic- Yiwom bp ak “mouth” Jungraithmayr v.2 244
W. Chadic- Hausa baka “mouth” Jungraithmayr v.2 244
E. Chadic- Ndam, Tumak beg “mouth” Jungraithmayr v.2 245
S. Chinese-Min attests bâk “eye”. Bodman 1983 79, 146 ; 1987 120. This may be another reflex of the
Chadic *bk root. It coincides in meaning with the C.17.2 TB-Tibetan (Extended) bu-ga dgu “the nine orifices of
the body (eyes etc.)”.
282
C. Chinese-Wu phoʔ7 n. “the front part, inside; inner, stomach; belly; abdomen; under the chest”
Hakka Dict.
Old Chinese pi̭ôk “belly” Karlgren GSR 1034h Matisoff 2003 362
TB-Chin-Mikir pok “belly” Matisoff 2003 359
TB-Naga-Lotha o-pok “belly” Matisoff 2003 111
TB-Naga-Ao tepok “belly” Benedict 1972 115 Matisoff 2003141
S. Chinese-Min pak “stomach” Bodman 1987 v.2 163
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *pu.k ~ *buk “cave, belly”
Benedict 1972 #358 77, 182, 205 Matisoff 2003 359, 362
TB-Kham phu “belly, abdomen” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Naga-Mao o-pu “belly” Matisoff 2003 111
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *pwu “intestine” Matisoff 2003 198
Old Chinese b’i̭u “intestines” Karlgren GSR #136o Matisoff 2003198
C.17.3 N. Chinese-MSC fùbù “belly” Chen 18 ;
fù “belly, abdomen, stomach” Wu, J. 214
C.17.4 TB-Burmese pauk “be pierced, have a hole” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
C.17.1 E. Cushitic-Oromo afuffe “vescica” [bladder]” Borello 10
C.17.3
E. Chadic-Mokulu bùùgìmé “hole” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 189
W. Chadic-Hausa baki “mouth” Skinner 13 Bargery 2011 baka “mouth” Bargery 2002
E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] bûngà “trou pour semer fait avec une longe hou”
[hole for planting made with a long hoe] Fédry 99
W. Chadic-Tangale pok “mouth, door” Skinner 13
W. Chadic-Bade [Bedde] vək-ən “pit, hole” Newman, P. 1977 28
C. Chadic-Mandara Group f-k- “hole” Skinner 13
C.17.4
W. Chadic-Hausa b’ula / b’ulle “pierce, knock hole in” Skinner 32
Cushitic-Oromo fulla’a “break through, pierce through” Gragg 149
Songhay (Djenne) fû / fun “pierce, puncture” Heath v.2 69
Egyptian (Faulkner) pgʒ “entrance of building, mouth of valley” Skinner 14
C.17.3
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari ‘buʔu “hole” Kobayashi Table 2 #133 9
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali bhu’gaʔ / bhu’’gǝ:(ʔ) / ‘phu’gǝk’ / / bhu’gǝk’ “hole”
Kobayashi Table 3 #133 16.
↓↓
C.18a-b Afro-Asiatic – AA – AA- Nilo-Saharan NC
Chadic Cush. Semitic
Swadesh “belly” C. Chadic- Egyptian Songhay (Koyra) NC-N.
C.18a.1 Yedina khenu guŋgu “belly” Mande-
S. Chinese-Yue ŋun / “the inner- Heath Bambara,
(Cantonese) ngùn “belly” most part v.1 111, Jula
gún C. Chadic- of the v.2 81 k‫ככ‬n‫ככ‬
“the inside of” Kotoko-Kuseri, body” (Djenne) “belly”
“stomach, Logone Budge “belly” Mukarovsky
the gastric ngun “belly” v.1 575 “inside, interior” 90
cavity” Jungraithmayr Heath v.2 81
Chik / Ng Lam 1994 v.2 21
375 Mukarovsky 90
283
C.18a.2 E.
TB-S. Loloish- Cushitic-
Sangkong Gedeo
aŋ-khoŋ k’onk’o
“throat” ”throat”
Matisoff Hudson
2003 109 251
C.18a.3 W. Chadic – Songhay (Koyra, NC-N.
TB-Tibetan Ngizim Djenne, Koroboro) Mande-
kuŋ kùnú kunn-aa “inside” Mandinka
“middle, center” “stomach” Heath v. 3 221 kóno
koŋ “inside “as locative kuna “in, at, on, “belly”
(the body)” word, ‘inside, about” Mukarovsky
Goldstein 128 into’ “within, Heath v. 2 134, 90
khong-pa among” v.3 177
“the interior of Schuh 98-99 “belly”
anything” kwùnú / kùnú Mukarovsky 90
Das 153 “belly” (Koroboro)
TB-Chin-Lushai Mukarovsky 90 kunε / kuna
khuŋ “in, inside” “inside, in the interior
Starostin, S. of”
ST Etymology Heath v.3 221
C.18a.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gún “the inside of stomach, the gastric cavity”
< C. Chadic- Yedina ŋun / ngùn “belly” / Songhay (Koyra) guŋgu “belly”
C.18a.2 TB-Tibetan *guŋ “the middle”
< W. Chadic–Ngizim kùnú “stomach” “as locative word, ‘inside, into’ ” “within, among”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *guŋ “stomach, belly” “inside, within”
C.18a.1
(MacIver) kwon3 “the internal cavity of the stomach, the inside of the stomach, gastric cavity”
(Meixian) k’iong1 “chest and belly cavity” Hakka Dict.
TB-Kiranti-Thulung gonu “within”, Proto-Kiranti *go(ŋ)? “within” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
C.18a.3
TB-Tibetan guŋ “the middle, central” Jaschke 69 Das 221 dguŋ “the middle” Jaschke 84
kuŋba “the one in the middle, the one in the center” Goldstein 183
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *koŋ “hole, hollow passage” Matisoff 2003 125 guŋ ~ kuŋ “hollow, hole,
empty” 2003 285 Das 221
C. Chinese-Wu khoŋ5 “opening; hole; orifice; great aperture” Hakka Dict.
C.18a.1
Maba Group-Masalit kunyo / kunyi “abdomen, bowels, belly” Edgar 269
W. Chadic–Bade kunu “belly / ventre/ Bauch” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 20
NS-Anywa g‫ככ‬ŋŋ‫“ ככ‬sternum” Reh 27
NS-Maba Group-Maba kunye “intestines” Edgar 269 aŋun “breast” Greenberg 1966 135
NS-Maba Group-Mimi akun “breast” Greenberg 1966 135
NS- Songhay (Koyra, Koroboro) gúndè “belly” Heath v.1 111, v.3 137
NS-Songhay (Dendi) kúnú “ventre” Zima 125 (Gao) gúndè “ventre, intérieur” Ducroz 107
C.18a.2 E. Cushitic-Oromo qonqo “gola, trachea, laringe” [gullet, trachea, larynx]
Borello 34
284

C.18a.3 Proto-Altaic *kúŋe “heart, middle”
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *kúŋ- “heart, middle” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
/
C.18b.1 TB-Tibetan E. Chadic- E. Cushitic- NS-Songhay
khong “concave, hollow” Dangaleat Oromo (Gao)
Jaschke 621 khong-mo [Dangla] gōngā koon-ey
“a cave or ditch” Das 37 k‫כ‬ŋ‫כ‬r‫כ‬m “hollow” “emptiness”
khung / kuŋ “vide (pour Cushitic- Heath v.3
“hole, pit, hollow, cavity” un Saho 208
Jaschke 41 Das 147 récipient)” gōngā kóòn
Goldstein 120 [empty “cave, pit” “être vide”
N. Chinese-MSC kōng (of a Skinner [be empty]
“empty, hollow, void” container)]” 147 Ducroz 156
Wu, J. 391 Fédry 290 (Dendi)
Mathews 1966 #3721 547 kongorom kóònù
TB-Garo koŋ “hole” “empty” “vide”
Starostin, S. ST Etymology Skinner 135 [empty]
Old Chinese k’uŋ See also Zima 121
“hollow, empty” “hole” F.27.2
Karlgren GSR 1172h
Matisoff 2003 310
C.18b.2 TB-Tibetan E. Anywa N. Khoisan-Auen,
khung / kuŋ Cushitic- [Anyuak] !O !Kung
“hole (made by human being Rendille kʊʊ‫כ‬ɲ vt. !kumma
or animal)” Jaschke 41 khunaan kʊʊ̀ɲo “to bury”
Das 147 Goldstein 120 “(a) detransitiv- S. Khoisan-|Auni
skung-ba / skung-wa digging” ized !kum “grave”
“to hide in the ground, “(a) hole “to bury” Khoisan-Hatsa
to bury, to inter” that has “to dig a ‖k”uma,
Jaschke 22 been dug” hole” ‖k”ume
Das 91 Pillinger Reh 39, 91 Greenberg
195 1966 76
C.18b.3 S. Chinese-Yue W. Chadic- NC-Fulfulde
(Cantonese) Gwandara [Fulani]
hèng “light (of weight)” hongkoro hongku
Kwan 272 “light” “vider, être épuisé”
“light, (not heavy)” Skinner 64 [to empty, to be used
Chen 201 up]
hùngge “empty” Skinner 63
Kwan 161
C.18b.1 TB-Tibetan khong “concave, hollow”. khung / kuŋ “hole, pit, hollow, cavity” /
Old Chinese k’uŋ “hollow, empty, hole”
< Cushitic-Oromo gōngā “hollow” / Cushitic- Saho gōngā “cave, pit” / E. Chadic- Dangaleat
[Dangla] kongorom “empty”
C.18b.2 TB-Tibetan khung / kuŋ “hole, pit, hollow, cavity”
< E. Cushitic- Rendille khunaan “(a) digging” “(a) hole that has been dug” / NS-Anywa [Anuak]
kʊʊ‫כ‬ɲ vt. “to bury” “to dig a hole” / N. Khoisan-Auen, !O !Kung, !kumma “to bury”,
S. Khoisan-|Auni !kum “grave”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *kuŋ- “hole” “to dig a hole” ~ ‖k”uma, ‖k”ume “to bury”
285

C.18b.1
TB-Kham kun “hole” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
N. Chinese-MSC kông “hole, opening, aperture “leave empty or blank” kòng “unoccupied, vacant”
“empty space” kòŋé “vacancy” “empty, hollow” Wu, J. 392
S. Chinese-Min không “air, empty” “mine” Bodman 1987 v.1 232 v.2 154
Proto-Chinese *khōng “hollow, empty” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) kwong “open, wide, broad, empty” Chik / Ng Lam 210 ;
TB-Burmese khauŋh “a cavity, empty space” Starostin, S. ST Etymology ;
TB-Written Burmese khauŋ “be hollow” ʔə-khauŋ “a hollow, cavity” Matisoff 2003 285
C.18b.2
N. Chinese-MSC k’ung (WG) “an opening, a hole” Mathews 1966 #3720, 3722 547
S. Chinese–Yue (Cantonese) kong / kwong “mine (pit)” Kwan 296
N. Chinese-MSC kuàng “ore, mine” kuàngjing “mine, pit” Wu, J. 399
C.18b.2 NS-Kanuri loskungin “bury, inter” “mine” kon- / koón “be empty” Cyffer 1990 114
C.18b.1 IE-Bengali khoni “quarry” Thompson 120
South Daic-Lao gon1 “hollow (concave)” “cavity” n. Marcus 42,105
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali kuɳ “well” Kobayashi Table 3 #115 15
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari ku’ɳa “well” Kobayashi Table 2 #115 9
IE-Pashto kān “a mine” Raverty 776 kundaey “a subterranean excavation” Raverty 1152
IE-Hindi khan “mine” khanan “mining” Scudieri 99, 225
C.18b.2
Proto-Altaic *kumi / kumo “hollow, cavity”
Proto-Tungus-Manchu *kum- “hollow, cavity” Starostin, S. Altaic Etymology
↓↓
C.19 AA – AA- AA-Egyptian NS NC
Chad. Cush.
Swadesh C.Chadic Egyptian Tubu [Teda] NC-Proto-
“skin (of person)” -Masa paqit “shell” bagera Benue-
“bark (of a tree)” bàk n. e.g. “Schale” Congo
C.19.1 “la peau” “turtle shell” [skin, peel, rind, *kpaga
TB-Tibetan págs-pa “skin, [the skin] Budge v.1 233 shell, husk] “bark,
hide” “skin or peel of fruit, Caitucoli peqit Lukas 1953 199 skin”
bark of trees” 48 172 “shell of an Anywa Williamson
Jaschke 322 Das 777 animal or of a āp̄‫כ‬gā / Shimizu
bagba “skin (of people, fish” “bark (of tree)” v.2 328
animals, as well as of foods, Budge v.1 252 Reh 7
fruits, etc.)
Goldstein 641, 655
172
Note- C.19.1 (Chadic, NC)
This root is not common in Chadic languages. In W. Chadic it is present in the Ron languages which are on the
linguistic border with the Niger-Congo-Benue Congo languages. Jungraithmayr grades it as G indicating that it is
not widespread in Chadic, and reconstructs it as *pkt following the Chadic-Ron forms. Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1
152 .However, the correspondences with Proto-AA and with NS and NC forms indicate that the root is *pak- and
probably from a non-Chadic language. It is not clear whether this root is related to the Sinitic pi / pei morphemes
meaning “skin” found in Chinese-Cantonese/ Chinese-Mandarin (Beijing). See Williamson / Shimizu v.2, 327a-
329b for additioonal reflexes of the pag- root in the NC-Ekoid Bantu subgroup.
286

C.19.1 TB-Tibetan págs-pa “skin, hide” “skin or peel of fruit, bark of trees”
< Proto-Afro-Asiatic *pak’-‘- “bark, skin”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *pak- “skin, hide, bark”
C.19.1 TB-Tibetan lpags-pa “the outer skin or fur of an animal, the bark of a tree” Das 794 ;
C.19.1
Proto-AA (Orel-Stolbova 1995) *pak’- “bark, skin” Skinner 31
W. Chadic-Ron (Daffo) fákût “skin (of man), bark” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 296 ;
“Haut” [skin] Jungraithmayr 1970 351
W. Chadic-Ron (Kulere) fákût / fakhw:th “skin (of man), bark” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 296
W. Chadic-Ron (Butura) fákût “Haut, Leder fur Frauen” [skin, leather for women] Jungraithmayr 1970
214
W. Chadic-Hausa fáataa < *fákûtaa “skin (of man), bark” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 296
NS- Kanuri baktar “leather bag” “leather book satchel” Cyffer 1990 11
NC- Proto-West Nigritic *-puak’- “bark” Skinner 31
Cushitic-Kwa’adza pa’uko “hide, skin” Skinner 31
C.19.1 Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali bak’lak‘ / bak’la:(ʔ) “bark” Kobayashi Table 3
#128 15
S. Daic-Lao bpeuak6 “skin” (plants) Marcus 203 bpeuak6 “crust” Marcus 58
bpeuak6 may5 “bark” Marcus 29
↓↓
C.20a-b AA – Chadic AA -Cushitic AA-Semitic NS NC
Swadesh “bark (of a C. Chadic – Proto-Cushitic West Tubu [Teda] NC-
tree)” “skin” Wandala *ɣoɣ- “husk, Semitic- kogo Benue-
C.20a.1 TB-Tibetan (Mandara) rind, crust” Ethiopian- “Schale” Congo-
kog-pa / ŋógwa Proto-AA Gurage [skin, peel, Proto-
skog-pa “shell, “skin (of *ɣoɣ - “crust” gogä rind, shell, Juku-
peel, rind” man)” Ehret 1995 “hide, skin” husk] noid
Jaschke 5 Jungraithmayr #354 211 goga Lukas 1953 *kok
[Disyllabic corresp.] 1994 v.2 297 Proto- E. “hide, raw 199 “skin,
TB-W. Kiranti- W. Chadic- Cushitic hide” Songhay hide”
Bahing siŋ-kok-te Gwandara *ɣoɣ - Leslau (Koroboro) Williamson
“bark of tree” (Nimbia) “hide, skin” 1979 v.2 kokoshi -Shimizu
Benedict 1972 74, akõkwârî Sasse 1982 82 306-307 “rind, skin 1973 v.2
201 “bark (of tree) E. Cushitic- “leather” of fruit” #82 328173
Matisoff 2003 596 Matsushita Oromo v.2 362-3 Heath
Old Chinese 1974 #106 46 gog-aa Egyptian- v.3 206
k’uk “hollow shell, E. Cushitic- Coptic
husk” Karlgren Burji, Kambata koɣke
GSR #1226a gogg- áa / “the bark
“hollow shell, góga “hide, of a tree”
husk” Matisoff skin” Budge
2003 379 Sasse 1982 82 v.2 814
173
Note- C.20a.1 (NC- Proto-Jukunoid) *kok “skin” “This root is apparently found in narrow Bantu and
perhaps in Plateau (Ura, Gure, Koro,)”. Williamson-Shimizu 1973 v.2 #82 326a-, 329b. See this reference for
additional Benue-Congo reflexes of the proto- root.
287

C.20a.1 Proto- Tibeto-Burman *kók “bark, rind, skin” / S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] k’ok7 “casing,
shell, husk, hull, skin”
< NC-Benue-Congo-Proto-Jukunoid *kok “skin, hide” / Proto- E. Cushitic *ɣoɣ - “hide, skin”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *kok- “skin, hide, bark”
C.20a.1
TB-W. Kiranti-Bahing kok-te “skin” Benedict 1972 74 Matisoff 2003 378
TB-Lepcha kok “the outer part of bamboo” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
Proto- Tibeto-Burman *kók = *(r)kwák “bark, rind, skin” Benedict 1972 74, 201
Matisoff 2003 596
S. Chinese-Min kăk “shell” Bodman 1987 v.2 152
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) hok “shell (hard outer covering)” Kwan 473 “husk” Kwan 227
TB-Tibetan phyi-kog “exterior shell, bark” Jaschke 5 Benedict 1972 74 phyi “outside”
TB-Burmese âkhauk “bark” Benedict 1972 74
Old Chinese k’wâk “leather” Karlgren GSR 774i Matisoff 2003 329, 379
C.20a.1
E. Cushitic-Konso, Gidole kok-a, kok-at “hide, skin” Sasse 1982 82
E. Cushitic- Sidamo gôgà “skin” “bark of trees” “peel (of orange” Gasparini 126
N. Omotic- Nao gogu “skin, bark”
N. Omotic- Boro gook’a(a) “skin” Mukarovsky 86
E. Cushitic- Gedeo, Kambata goga “hide, skin” Hudson 79, 242, 318
E. Cushitic- Rendille góg “fresh, untreated camel skin” Pillinger 126
E. Chadic-Dangaleat [Dangla] kork- “coquille d’oeuf, coque d’arachide” [egg shell, peanut shell”]
Fédry 297
C.20a.1
Proto-Altaic *kiaka / kiak’ “shell”
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *kiaK-ta “shell” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
/
Swadesh “skin” C. Khoisan-
C.20b.1 Nama, !Ora
TB-Tibetan khob “skin”
kó-ba Starostin, G.
“hide, skin, 200330
leather” NC-Common
Jaschke 5 Bantu *-kóbà
kó-wa “hide, “skin”
leather” Williamson/
Das 32 Shimizu
[Disyllabic 1973 v.2 328
corresp.]
C.20b.2 W. Semitic- NS-Songhay
TB-Kham Ethiopian- (Koroboro)
ol-kóta “skin” Amharic kowta
Matisoff 2003 qoda “skin of
501 “skin, fruit”
[Disyllabic leather” Heath
corresp.] Leslau v.3 214
1976 80
288
C.20b.3 TB-Naga- W. Chadic- Proto-AA NS-Lendu NC-Bulom

Tangkhul Boto (Orel/Stolbo kosa kor “skin”
kor “peel, husk” koore va 1995) Greenberg Greenberg
TB-Chin-Lushai “skin” *k’orip- 1966 1966 21
kóor “peel, Mukarovsky “bark” 13, 134 NC-E. Mande- Bobo
husk” Matisoff 330 Skinner 162 kõ “skin”
2003 385, 401 W. Chadic-N. E. Cushitic- Mukarovsky 330
TB-Jinuo Bauci-Tsagu Bussa Khoisan-Proto-
a-ko “outer k’orōpe k’óla Khoekhoe
covering , bark, “bark” “skin” *kho “skin”
skin” Matisoff Skinner 162 Mukarov- Starostin, G.
2003 378 sky 330 2003 30
C.20b.4 W. Chadic– S. Khoisan-
TB-N. Naga- Hausa ǂKhomani
Nocte k’wanso kxun
kowan / “shell, case, “bark”
a-khuon pod” Awde Starostin, G.
“skin” 1996 102 2003 8
TB-N. Naga- W. Chadic–
Chang Gude
khó(w)un kovun
“skin” “skin
Matisoff 2003 (of man)”
501 Jungraith-
[Disyllabic mayr
corresp.] 1994 296
C.20b.5 W. Chadic- Proto-AA West NS-Zarma S. Khoisan-Proto-
TB-Bodo / Garo- Dwot (Orel / Semitic- kūru Taa *gu
Dimasa kur Stolbova Ethiopian- “peau” “bark (of tree)”
bugur “skin” “skin” 1995) Amharic [skin] N. Khoisan-Proto-
saogur Skinner 162 *k’ur- qurbät Skinner Non-Khoekhoe
“human skin” “skin” “tanned hide 172 *gure
migur Skinner 172 used as a NS- “bark (of tree)”
“animal skin, Proto-Low sleeping Songhay- Starostin, G.
hide” E. Cushitic mat” (Gao) 2003 8
Matisoff *̣kur- Leslau kuuru NC-Fulfulde
2003 131 “skin” 1976 72 “peau, (Fulani)
TB-Atsi-Zaiwa Militarev, cuire” nguru
okuʔ A. [skin, “skin, hide”
“outer covering, Low East leather] Taylor 69
bark, skin” Cushitic Ducroz 165
Matisoff 2003 Etymology
378
C.20b.1 TB-Tibetan kó-wa “hide, leather” , kó-ba “hide, skin, leather”
< NC-Common Bantu *-kóbà “skin” / C. Khoisan-Nama khob “skin” /
C. Khoisan-!Ora khõb “skin”
C.20b.3 TB-Naga-Tangkhul kor / TB-Chin-Lushai kóor “peel, husk”/ TB-Jinuo a-ko
“outer covering , bark, skin”
< NK-N. Mande- Gola koro “skin” / N. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe *khŏ “skin”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma: *kóbà “skin, hide” ~ *kor “skin, peel, husk”
289

C.20b.3 TB-Burmese krwe “shell” Benedict 1972 67
C.20b.4 TB-Chin-Lushai, TB-Kuki-Chinbok, TB-Naga-Kom Rem vun
TB-Thado vún “skin”
Matisoff 2003 501
C.20b.5 TB-S. Loloish-Hani sagur “skin” Matisoff 2003 190 note p
TB-Yi (Nanjian) gɯ tsu “skin” Matisoff 2003190 note p
TB-Naxi ɣu “skin” Matisoff 2003 190 note p
TB-C. Loloish- Lahu ɔ-qú “outer covering, bark, skin” Matisoff 2003 378
C.20b.1 NS- Songhay (Gao) kopto “peau de vegetal, feuille” Ducroz 157
C.20b.2
NS-Anywa kùot, pl. kóóde “skin, hide” Reh 38 “skin (thick) Reh 124
Egyptian khaut “skins, hides” Budge v.1 571
C.20b.3
C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe *khŏ “skin” Starostin, G. 2003 30
S.. Khoisan-!Kwi-‖Ng-!Ke !o “bark” Starostin, G. 2012 10
S.. Khoisan-!Kwi-|Auni ‖ő “bark” Bleek 1956 582 Starostin, G. 2012 10
Semitic-Hebrew ‘or m. “skin, hide, leather” Baltsan 324, 746
E. Cushitic-Oromo korja “pelle di animale” [animal skins] Borello 238
NC-N. Mande-Gola koro “skin” Greenberg 1966 21
E. Cushitic- Afar onkoori “hull/skin (of grain or fruit” Parker/Hayward 176
Northern Omotic-Ometo k’o:l “skin” Ehret 1995 #444 245
E. Cushitic-Saho kolofo “bark” Militarev, A. Saho-Afar Etymology
Egyptian kār “skins, hide” Budge v.1 536
C.20b.5
Proto-E. Chadic *gVr- “skin” “egg shell, bark” Reinisch 145
N. Cushitic-Beja kurbe “die Haut” [the skin] Reinisch 145
S. Khoisan-!Xoo gule “bark (of tree)” Starostin, G. 2003 8
S. Khoisan-Masarwa gule “bark (of tree)” Starostin, G. 2006-2008
S. Khoisan-Proto-Wi *(!)go “bark (of tree)” Starostin, G.2003 8
Chadic root- West, East, Central Chadic *kw-r- “skin, body” Skinner 161-2
Proto-W. Chadic *k’warap “bark” Skinner 162
C.20b.1 Altaic-Proto-Turkic *köpe “film, covering” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
C.20b.2 Proto- IE *(s)kūt- “skin, cover”
C.20b.3
IE-Pashto karrwah “a bullock or buffalo hide” 2d ed. 1151
IE-Sanskrit go “skin, hide, strap (of leather)” Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian
*k’ǒlta-su / *kǒli “bark, scales, scab” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *kúl “bark, scales, scab” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
C.20b.4
Proto-Altaic *kúná “skin” / *koni “leather”
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *kúnák “skin”
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek k’on “leather” English-Uzbek Dictionary.
Proto-Altaic, Altaic-Proto-Turkic *gōn “leather”
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *kōn-ʒile “leather” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
C.20b.5 IE-Pashto khwar “skin, bark, crust, peel, rind” Raverty 435
290
↓↓
C.21a-b Afro-Asiatic – AA-Cush. AA-Semitic, NS NC
Chadic Proto-AA Berber
C.21a.1 E. Chadic- Sokoro Proto-AA Semitic- Nuer
Swadesh sugul *cuk̟ul- Akkadian cuk
“foot” “Oberschenkel” “leg, thigh, sạ̄ku “foot”
S. Chinese-Kejia [thigh] elbow” “Oberschenkel” Huffman 10
[Hakka] (Meixian) Skinner 228 Militarev / [thigh]
ziuk7 / zuk7 / C. Chadic- Stolbova Militarev, A.
(Bao’an, Lufeng) Dghwede AA Semitic
tsuk7 “the foot, leg” sùge Etymology Etymology
Hakka Dict. “foot, leg” N. Omotic- 2006 7
TB-Tibetan Mukarovsky 179 Kachama West (Ethiopian)
súg-gu Proto-Chadic sukule Semitic-Amharic
“the lower part of (Jungraithmayr) “foot, leg” säkwäna
the leg of animals” *skr Mukarovsky “animal’s foot”
[Disyllabic corresp.] “leg” 180 Leslau 1976 57
sugshi (stem + r noun
“four-legged animals” suffix)
shi “four” Ehret 1995
Jaschke 574 #213 157
C.21a.2 C. Chadic-
N. Chinese-MSC Buduma
zú “foot, leg” cu “Bein” [leg]
Wu, J. 938 Skinner 230
tsú (WG) “the foot”
Mathews 1966 #6824
1004 174
C.21a.3 Semitic- Hebrew E.Sudanic
C. Chinese-Wu šoq -Jur
7
tsoʔ “the foot, leg” “leg” čok “foot”
Hakka Dict. Greenberg -Nera
S. Chinese-Min 1966 57 šokna
chiôuq1 “foot, claw”
“foot, measure” Proto-Dinka-
Bodman 1987 Nuer tsok
v.1 226 “foot”
1
chiok “the foot, Ruhlen 1994
the leg” Hakka Dict. 325
C.21a.1 TB-Tibetan súg-gu “the lower part of the leg of animals” / S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka]
tsuk7 “the foot”
< Proto-AA *suk’ul- “foot, leg”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *suk’u- “foot, leg”
174
Note- C.21a.2 (N. Chinese -MSC)) “The classical word for “foot” zú is totally obsolete in the spoken
languages, but is still widely used in calques and other new lexical formations, zujī “footprint”, zùqiú “football,
soccer”, lizú “get a foothold” Norman 1988 109, 249. This illustrates Norman’s observation that while Modern
Standard Chinese is based on the spoken language of the capital, Beijing, it still employs a rather high proportion
of old literary vocabulary and grammatical constructions.
291

C.21a.1
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian) tsiuk9 “the foot”
(Lau Chunfat)
zug5 / jiug5 “the foot” Hakka Dict.
TB-Tibetan sugbə / sugbu / sug “hands and legs, limbs” Goldstein 1124-5 ;
sug-pa “the hand” Jaschke 574 175
TB-Tibetan sugdii “hoof” sugduŋ “small feet/hooves” duŋ “short” Goldstein 1125
C.21a.2
TB-Qiangic-Pumi Dayang-Taoba tsǔ55 tşhə53 “foot” Matisoff 2003 22
TB-Qiangic-Pumi Dayang-Jinghua tşhə53 “foot” Matisoff 2003 22
Proto-Karen *tsü “arm/hand” Benedict/Matisoff 1972 128 note 350
C.21a.1
N. Cushitic-Beja [Bedawi] sukenaa “foot, (sole, heel)” Mukarovsky 180
N. Omotic- Haruruo şukulu “foot, , leg” Mukarovsky 180
C. Cushitic-Quara sukanā “foot” Greenberg 1966 57
Berber (ta)zux(t) “foot” Greenberg 1966 57
Semitic-Written Arabic sāq pl. sūq “shank, thigh, leg” Wehr 516
W. Semitic- (Ethiopian)-Tigre šə̣kụka “forearm, lower part of the leg” Militarev, A.
Semitic Etymology 57
Proto-AA *-sûk- “to walk” Ehret 1995 #213 157
C. Chadic- Bata Zimi suka sido “foot, leg” Mukarovsky 179
W. Chadic- Bedde-Ngizim Group *zəgər “foot” Skinner 228
W. Chadic -Ngizim zə̀gə́r “foot, leg” Schuh 180
W. Chadic-Ron (Scha) səkaca “Fuss, Bein” [foot, leg]” Skinner 228
E. Cushitic-Somali cag “foot” Awde 1999 25
Semitic-Arabic saak / saaq “shank, leg” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 210, 229
Proto-W. Chadic *sAkA “leg” Ruhlen 1994 325
NS-E. Sudanic-Komo šawkh “foot” Ruhlen 1994 325
NC-Proto-Bantu *tsàkù “calf of the leg” Ruhlen 1994 325
W. Chadic-Ngizim zə̀gə́r “foot, leg” Schuh 180, 200
W. Chadic-Ron (Daffo) sakur “lower leg” Skinner 228
C.21a.3 NS-Proto-Dinka-Nuer tsok “foot” Ruhlen 1994 325
C.21a.1 Sanskrit
zAkHa “a limb of the body, arm or leg”
zAkhAGga “a limb of the body”
zAkHAsti “a bone of the arm or leg”
sakara “having hands” Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2 C.21a.1
/
175
Note- C.21a.1 (TB-Tibetan Extended) In most TB-Tibetan compounds the súg- morpheme means
“foot/hoof” and the African/AA correspondences found thus far for the above súg form only have semantics of
“foot, leg”. However Jaschke mentions only the meaning of “the hand” for súg-pa and Goldstein gives “hands
and legs, limbs” for the sūgbə / sūgbu forms. Jaschke’s and Goldstein’s entries indicate that in Tibetan the root
denoted the equivalent of “limb” in English [either legs/feet or arms/hands or both]. The Sanskrit C.21a.1 zAkHa
explicitly denotes “limb (arm or leg)”.
The following C.21.b lexemes give evidence of an alternation between the meanings “foot” and “hand” which is
reflected in the Chinese lexemes of the table.
292
Swadesh “foot” W. Chadic-Ron Semitic-

C.21b.1 (Kulere) Akkadian
N. Chinese-MSC siyáw “Bein, Fuss” aš(a)ru
jyâu (Y) “foot, leg” [leg, foot] “foot,
Chen 124, 197 Jungraithmayr foot-
jiâo “foot” 1960 355 print”
“leg” Wu, J. 341 W. Chadic—Bole- Skinner
S. Chinese-Yue Tangale 231
(Cantonese) *ša’u “foot”
sáu “hand” Skinner 230
Kwan 214
C.21b.2 Old Chinese C. Chadic-Fali Jilvu NS-Songhay C. Khoisan-
s̟i̭oc “foot” čìvù (Gao) Khoe
Karlgren GSR #90a “hand” cè / cìò čeu “hand”
Matisoff 2003 200 Stolbova, Olga “pied, Khoisan-
S. Chinese-Min C. Chadic jambe” ǂHoan
chiù “hand” Etymology [foot, leg] šiu “hand”
Bodman 1987 Ducroz 53 Starostin, G.
v.1 262 v.2 132 2003 19
Middle Chinese
syuwX “hand”
Sagart 1999 155
Swadesh “claw” W. Chadic-Hausa Proto-AA C. Khoisan-
C.21b.3 sau (Orel / Proto-Non-
S. Chinese-Min jiau “foot” Stolbova Khoekhoe
“claw, talon” Skinner 230-231 1995) *chàú
“animal feet” Newman, P. 2007 *k’aw- -Ani, Buga,
S. Chinese-Yue “nail, Cara,
(Cantonese) jáau claw” Danisi
“claw” Kwan 74 Skinner 3 chàú
“nail, claw” Chen 37 -Deti, Tsika,
Chik / Ng Lam 289 Kua, Tsua
N. Chinese-MSC càú
châo (WG) “claws “hand”
of birds or animals” Starostin, G.
“feet” 2003 19
Mathews #240 29
zhâo “claw, talon”
Wu, J. 880
C.21b.4 NS-Zilmamu Khoisan-
N. Chinese-MSC šowa Sandawe
shôu “hand” “foot” c’waʔa
Wu, J. 629 Ruhlen “claw
jwâ (Y) 1994 325 (fingernail)”
“claw” Starostin, G.
Chen 37 2003 11
zhuâ
“claw, talon”
“paw of a small
animal”
DeFrancis 1290
293
C.21b.5 W. Chadic-Hausa
N. Chinese-MSC sàu m.
zāo “multiplied by”
“time, turn” “times in
Wu, J. 866 multiplication”
S. Chinese-Kejia Newman / Ma
[Hakka] 1979 107
zau1 / zo1 W. Chadic-Hausa
“times of binding or sau d’aya
turning around with a “once”
rope” Newman, P. 2000
“time, turn” 387 d’aya
Hakka Dict. “one” (G.16.1)
sau / sāwu m.
footprint, trace”
“time”
Skinner 230-231
Bargery 2002 176
C.21b.1 N. Chinese-MSC jyâu “foot” / Old Chinese s̟i̭o “foot”
< W. Chadic-Bole-Tangale *ša’u “foot” / Semitic-Akkadian aš(a)ru “foot, sole, footprint”
C.21b.3 S. Chinese-Min jiau “claw, talon” “animal feet” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jáau “claw”
< C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe chàú -Ani, Buga, Cara, Danisi chàú -Deti, Tsika, Kua, Tsua
càú “hand” /
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *ša’u “foot” / *k’aw- “nail, claw” ~ *chàú m. “hand, claw”
C.21b.2
C. Chinese-Wu sɤw5 “hand” Hakka Dict..
TB-Naga-Tangkhul a-sho “claw” Matisoff 2003110
C.21b.3
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] zau3 “claw, talon, animal feet” Hakka Dict.
TB-Bodo/Garo-Dimasa yau “hand, arm” Matisoff 2003 65
N. Chinese-MSC zhâoya “cat’s paw” Manser 568
C.21b.4
N. Chinese-MSC shŏu “have in one’s hand, hold” Wu, J. 628
shŏu “receive” Merriam-Webster Chinese 120
TB-Qiangic-Pumi-Dayang tɕhwí “handspan” Matisoff 2003 64
C.21b.1
Khoisan-ǂHoan !gaʔu “foot” Starostin, G. 2003 17.
C. Chadic-Gisiga sar “foot, times” Skinner 231
Proto-N. Khoisan *gáú “hand” Starostin, G.2003 19
C.21b.2 NS-Songhay [Koroboro] čew-ize lit. “foot-child” [i. e. “toe”] ize “child” Heath v.3 68
C.21b.3 C. Khoisan-Naro ‖k’ɔro “nail (finger-)” Ruhlen 1994 59177
176
Note- C.21b.5(Hausa) “The word sàu [“times”] is etymologically the same as the word sau / sāwu
‘footprint’ ” Newman, P. 2000 387. The “times” gloss suggests that its empirical origin is found in the pacing off
of fields etc. in which the length of sole of the foot is repeated as the measure of the dimensions. See Skinner 231 for
other AA morphemes with the dual meanings of “foot” “times”or “sole of foot used as measure”.
294
C.21b.4
N.Khoisan-Naro čou “finger, toe” Ruhlen 1994 53
N. Khoisan-!Kung ču “five” Ruhlen 1994 53
Khoisan-Sandawe !ʔo “find, meet, receive” Greenberg 1967 79 178
/
C.21c.1 C.. Chadic-Mbara NS-Songhay
Swadesh “foot” nʒé “leg” (Gao)
TB-Lisu tshi / Stolbova, Olga cè / cìò
TB-Nyi tshə “foot” C. Chadic Etymology “pied, jambe”
Benedict 1972 22 W. Chadic-Ron Group [foot, leg]
TB-Qiangic-Jinghua, Taoba *s-y- “foot” Ducroz 53
tşhə “foot” Skinner 230 NS-Kanuri
Matisoff 2003 22 W. Chadic- Angas shi
N. Chinese-MSC šī “foot, times” “foot, leg”
shí “time, times in a general sense” Skinner 231 Cyffer 1990 61
Wu, J. 619 shi NS-Songhay
chi (WG) “a time or occasion” “with the ordinals forms the cè “fois”
“while, at the time when” adverbial numbers, e.g. [instance, time]
Mathews #467 61 shi bap Ducroz 54
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) “twice”
chi time, occasion” Foulkes 280179
Po-fei Huang 366 Kwan 531
C.21c.1 N. Chinese-MSC shí “time, times” in a general sense”
chi “a time or occasion” “while, at the time when” / TB-Lisu tshi /
TB-Nyi tshə “foot”
< W. Chadic-Angas shi “with the ordinals forms the adverbial numbers” shi bap “twice”
šī “foot, times” / NS-Songhay cè / cìò “pied, jambe” [foot, leg] cè “fois” [instance, time]
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *šī “foot, times”
C.21c.1 N. Chinese-MSC chí “a period, a date, a limit of time” Mathews 1966 #526 69
qī “a period of time, phase, stage” Wu, J. 531
C.21c.1 E. Cushitic-Oromo si’a adv. “time(s)” conj. “when, moment”
si’ana “this time” Gragg 356
C. Cushitic- Bilin šiba adv. “Mal” [(point of) time] Skinner 231
NS-Songhay (Koroboro, Djenne) ĉee “instance, time” Heath v.3 63, v.2 40
↓↓
177
Note- C.21b.3 Khoisan Extended C.Khoisan ‖k’ɔro is a variant form of the C.Khoisan *chàú and čeu
morphemes. This supports an interpretation of the lateral (‖) click as a regular source of a frontal palatal initial in
modern Chinese. See also Supplementary Tables 3 section 1.1.
178
Note- C.21b.4 Khoisan-Sandawe-Extended. The Khoisan semantics of “receive”constitute an additional
semantic link between the Khoisan and Chinese morphemes ; “meet” is plausibly derived from the process of
handing something over which includes meeting someone, and “find” from the process of acquiring an object, and
holding it with the hand. See set H.39a.3
179
Note- C.21c.1 (Chadic, NS-Songhay) The Chadic-Angas and NS-Songhay semantics of “foot, times” furnish an
explicit link to the “foot” semantics which are the origin of the shi “time, times”lexeme, i.e. the NS-Songhay cè /
cìò “foot””time” variant corresponds to the C.21b.2 Old Chinese s̟i̭o “foot”and thus indirectly shows the
connection between the “foot” semantics of the TB tşhə / shi morpheme and the Sinitic languages. The dual
meaning here is parallel to the C.21b.5 Hausa sàu “times” “foot” semantics.
295
ST Languages AfricanAA languages- Close correspondences

C.22a-c Afro-Asiatic – AA - AA- Nilo- NC
Chadic Proto-AA Sem. Saharan
C.22a.1 W. Chadic- Bagirmi NC-Proto-
S. Chinese-Kejia Tangale boko Bantu
[Hakka] (MacIver, bokbok “arm” -b‫ככ‬k‫ככ‬
Meixian) “wing” Ruhlen “arm”
bok7 / pok7 W. Chadic- Prio 1994 318 Greenberg
“the upper arm, b’əkb’ək 1966 33180
the shoulder” “wing” NC-Dagomba
Hakka Dict. Skinner 68 boɣo
TB-Kiranti-Dumi “arm”
bokto Ruhlen
“shoulder” 1994 318
Starostin, S.
Kiranti Etymology
Swadesh “hand” W. Chadic– Proto-AA Baka NC-Gbaya
C.22a.2 Tangale (Orel / baka baxa
TB-Proto-Kiranti paka “hand, arm, Stolbova “arm” “arm”
*bhák “shoulder” branch, (front) 1995) Ruhlen Ruhlen 1994
Starostin, S. paw” *pakuh̟- 1994 318 318
Kiranti Etymology Jungraithmayr “hand, arm” NC-Efik
TB-Tibetan 1991128 1994 Skinner 68 -b‫ככ‬k̀ “arm”
phyag “the hand” v.2 178 Greenberg
Jaschke 347 Das 830 1966 33
C.22a.3 E. Chadic-Masa Niger-Congo-
TB-Naga- Mao Group- Misme Gola gbã
o-ba “arm” ba “shoulder” / “shoulder,
‘ba “arm” arm”
-Peve ‘ba -Mano
“arm” gba “arm”
Skinner 23 Greenberg
1966 157
C.22a.4 Kordofanian-
N. Chinese-MSC Dagari
pángbó “arm” kpanka(ne)
Wu, J. 48 “arm”
bângbì “arm” Greenberg
Chen 11 1966 157 b
180
Note- C.22a.1-2 (Niger-Congo) This table gives evidence that the root is very widespread; it is present in three
different African language superfamilies. Only the variants which include a p-k- or b-k- stem are included in this
table.
Jungraithmayr comments that the Chadic forms of this root “may be a Nigritic loan.” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 87
He cites NC-Proto-West Nigritic *Buak Mukarovsky 33. Note also Proto-Plateau of Benue-Congo *bwaak
“arm, hand”. Williamson / Shimizu v.1 9
Niger Congo/Kordofanian is probably about 15000 years old. (Ehret 2002 58) This permits an inference that the
Kordofanian and Niger-Congo forms of the present table are at least as old as the proto-AA form. Candidates for being
the oldest NC form would be both the following C.22b.1 Kordofanian-Otero (g)əbo “shoulder” which attests an
optional g- initial and the C.22a.4 Kordofanian-Dagari kpank(ne) “arm” of the present table. This latter
morpheme also attests the g / k initial but is more similar in the rhyme to the bak- / pak- forms.
296

C.22a.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) bok “the shoulder, the upper arm”
< NC-Proto-Bantu -bɔ‫כ‬kɔ̀ “arm”
C.22a.2 TB-Proto-Kiranti *bhák “shoulder”
< Proto- W. Chadic *pak(k)a “wing, shoulder”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *bhák- “shoulder” ~ *bɔ‫כ‬k- “upper arm”
C.22a.1 S. Chinese-Yue [Cantonese] bok “the shoulder, the upper arm” Chik / Ng Lam 377
boktau “shoulder” “[lit. head of upper arm]” Chen 357
TB-Kiranti-Limbu phoktaŋ n. “shoulder” van Driem 475 Starostin, S. Limbu Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gyùnbóng “shoulder” Chen 357
N. Chinese-MSC bo “arm” Wu, J. 48
C.22a.2 TB-Mikir ri-pak “palm of hand” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
C.22a.1
NC-Proto-Bantu *-bókò “hand” “five” Williamson / Shimizu #107 v.2 248
C. Chadic- Bura bubuka “wing” Dict. of Bura
NC- Benue-Congo- Proto-Plateau *bwaak “arm hand” Williamson-Shimizu #2 v.1 9
NC-Benue-Congo- Cross River Group- Efik -b‫ככ‬k “arm” Williamson/Shimizu 1963 v.1 34́
C.22a.2
Proto-W. Chadic *pak(k)a “wing, shoulder” / *(ba) + baka “wing” Skinner 68
W. Chadic–N. Bauci Group-Karya pakə “arm” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 178
C. Chadic-Bura Group *BəBək- “wing” Skinner 68
W. Chadic-Pero b’əkb’ək “wing” Skinner 68
W. Chadic–Karekare baka(a) “arm” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 178
Chadic root paka “arm, hand” [E root found in W. and C. Chadic] Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 86
Proto-Chadic (Newman) *p-k “wing, shoulder” Skinner 68
C.22a.1
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *boɣ- “collar bone, shoulder bone”
-Mongolian-Buriat bogto- “collar bone, shoulder bone”
-Mongolian-Kalmuck boG, bokte “collar bone, shoulder bone”
-Mongolian-Khalka buɣalag “shoulder, shoulder bone” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
IE-Tokharian poke / poko “arm, limb” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 15
C.22a.2
IE-Sanskrit pakSa “a wing” “the shoulder” “a limb or member of the body”
pakSaka “a wing” pakSagama “moving with wing, flying” pakSadhara “having wings” Cologne
Lexicon. See also Chapter 8 Table 8.1.1.
IE-Old Indian paḳsa “wing, shoulder, flank, side”
Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 102
IE-Bengali paḳha “wing” Thompson 61
IE-Sanskrit bAhu “the arm, esp. the forearm” “the forefoot of an animal”
bAhubandhana “the shoulder blade” RV bAhuzikhara “the upper part of the arm”
“the shoulder” Cologne Lexicon bāhúh “arm” Ruhlen 1994 318 “the fore-arm, arm between the
elbow and the wrist” Nicolayev, Sergei 2012 Indo-European Etymology 14
IE-Hindi bāhu “ arm” Scudiere 12
IE-Bengali bahu “arm” Thompson 85 See also Supplementary Table 2 C.22a.1-2.
Proto-Mongolian *baɣul- / bugul “shoulder, shoulder bone”
Proto-IE *bhāg’h-u “arm, shoulder” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 15
IE-Pashto bāzū “the arm” Raverty 83.
297
C.22a.3 Proto-Tai *ʔba n. “shoulder” Benedict 1975 378

South Daic-Lao ba2 lai2 n. “shoulder” ow2 sa2 ba2 v. “shoulder” Marcus 199
/
C.22b.1 Egyptian NS-Daza Kordofanian-
N. Chinese -MSC geb / geba “arm” k‫כ‬bε Otoro (g)əbo
gēbei “arm” / Budge v.2 806 “arm” “shoulder”
gēbo “arm” qeb-t / keb Greenberg Niger-Congo-Mwa
Wu, J. 226 “arm, shoulder” 1966 133 gbe “arm”
[Disyllabic Budge v.2 Greenberg 1966
corresp.] 768, 793 157
NC-Benue-Congo-
Mano gbã “arm”
Greenberg 1966 157
C.22b.2 E. Chadic- NS-Maba Kordofanian- Eliri
S. Chinese-Yue Mokulu bi / abi (c)ebi
(Cantonese) bey “main, “shoulder” “shoulder”
bei “arms (of a bras” -Berti Greenberg 1966
human being)” [hand, arm] abi 157181
Chik / Ng Lam Skinner 23 “arm”
378 E. Chadic-Lame Greenberg
N. Chinese- bike “epaule ” 1966 133
MSC bì “arm” [shoulder (of
“the upper arm” animal)]
C.22b.1
N. Chinese-MSC gēbei “arm”
< Niger-Congo-Mwa gbe “arm”
Approximate Sinitic etymon: *gəbe “arm”
C.22b.1 N. Chinese-MSC bó “arm” Wu, J. 48 DeFrancis 58
C.22b.2 N. Chinese-MSC shŏubeì “arm” Wu, J. 629 [compound of this root and that of C.21b.5]
C.22b.1
Egyptian khepekh / khepesh “foreleg of a beast, arm and shoulder of a man” Budge v.1 544
NC-Mundu kpa “arm” Greenberg 1966 157
Egyptian gab “arm” Budge v. 2 802 khab-t “the neck, shoulder” Budge v.1 530
E. Cushitic-Rendille garbo ”shoulders” “upper back” Pillinger 121
NS-Kanuri kəmbə́láta “shoulder blade” “shoulder of an animal” Cyffer 1990 73
C.22b.2
Nilo-Saharan-Uduk ʌbi “arm” Greenberg 1966 133
W. Chadic-Hausa biyar “five” Newman, P. 2007 22
/
181
Note- C.22b.1-2 (Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Congo) This is a clear case of presence and absence of an intial syllable
k‫כ‬- in parallel Kordofanian and Nilo-Saharan morphemes. Since Kordfanian and Nilo-Saharan are the older
languages this word family suggests there may have been an earlier and later inheritance of their lexemes by Sinitic
languages through different Afro-Asiatic intermediaries in different migrations. Under this hypothesis the Chadic
attestations would be from the later one. See also Chapter 10 sections 10.3.2.3-4.
298
The following C.22c.1 table contains lexemes which are probably related to those of the previous
C.22a.2 set. It contains clearly similar morphemic p-k- / b-k- variants with basic semantics of
‘striking’ which in ST includes the added qualification “with the hand”.
C.22c.1 Proto-AA Berber –

TB-Kiranti- Yamphu (Orel/Stolbova Tuareg
phä:k-ma 1995) [Tamasheq]
“to strike with the hand, *bak- bakkatkat
to slap” Starostin, S. “squeeze, strike” “beat”
Yamphu Dict. Skinner 25 Skinner 25
S. Chinese-Yu N. Cushitic- Beja
(Cantonese) [Bedauye]
paak “to strike with the bag- “beat”
hand, to slap, to clap” Skinner 25
Chik / Ng Lam 170 [↑ PAA ↓Proto-
S. Chinese-Kejia Cushitic sound
[Hakka] variance
pag5 “strike with the hand, parallels
to clap” ← Cantonese /
Starostin, S. Hakka↓
Yamphu Dict. Min / Cantonese
Hakka Dict. sound variance]
C.22c.2 Proto-Cushitic
TB-Tibetan *poɣ- or
phóg-pa phog perf. *boɣ-
“to hit, strike, touch” “to hit”
Jaschke 357 Proto-Afro-Asiatic
S. Chinese-Min *-boɣ-
phok1 “to hit”
“strike, box”, Ehret 199 80 #4
“engage in hand-to-hand E. Cushitic- Somali
combat” bog- / bug-
Hakka Dict. “beat”
S. Chinese-Yue Skinner 25
(Cantonese)
bok “to strike, to box”
Chik / Ng Lam 184
C.22c.3 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Somali NC-
S. Chinese-Kejia Hausa bog- / N.Mande-
[Hakka] bugàa bug- Bambara
(MacIver, Hailu) hit, beat, “beat” bugo
p’uk7 strike sth.” Skinner 25 “beat”
“pound, beat, strike” Newman, P. N. Omotic- Zayse Skinner
“dash, smash” 2007 23 buk- 25
Hakka Dict. Skinner 25 “to thresh”
Ehret 1995 80 #4
C.22c.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) paak “to strike with the hand, to slap, to clap, to pat”
< Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova 1995) *bak- “squeeze, strike”
C.22c.2 S. Chinese-Min phok1 “strike, box, engage in hand-to-hand combat” /
299
TB-Tibetan phóg-pa phog perf. “to hit, strike, touch”

< Proto-AA *-boɣ- “to hit” / Proto-Cushitic *poɣ- or *boɣ- “to hit”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *bak- “strike, hit” ~ *poɣ- / *boɣ- “to hit ”
C.22c.1
S. Chinese-Min
phâq “to hit, strike, beat, fight” phàq ciù “to clap hands” Bodman 1987 v.2 167, 204
C. Chinese-Wu phaʔ7 “strike with the hand, clap, slap, pat, swat” Hakka Dict.
TB-Kiranti-Limbu pyak “slap” Starostin, S. Limbu Dict.
C.22c.2
ST-Proto-form *phōk “beat, hit” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) pok “to pat, to beat, to strike, to pound” Chik / Ng Lam 190
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian, MacIver) p’ok7 “to strike with the hand, clap, slap, pat, swat”
Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC bó “wrestle, fight, combat, struggle” “beat, throb” Wu, J.48
C.22c.3 W. Chadic-Angas bugo “beat” Skinner 25
↓↓
C.23 AA –Chadic AA – AA- Nilo-Saharan NC
Cush. Berber
Swadesh “hair” W. Chadic– N. Bauci- Proto- Maba Group-
C.23.1 Warji màrá “beard” Berber Masalit
TB-Tibetan W. Chadi – N. Bauci- *-mar- kàmári / kàmáli
smá-ra “beard” Kariya már “beard” “beard, “beard”
Jaschke 426 Das 989 W. Chadi – Ngizim chin” Jungraithmayr
mara “moustache, màrí “beard” Skinner 1994 v.1 6
beard” Goldstein 837 Jungraithmayr 1994 100 Edgar 266
[Disyllabic corresp.] v. 2 12 182 Schuh 111
C.23.2 W. Chadic–N. Bauci- Coman-Uduk
TB-Kiranti-Limbu Siri amur
murik múríí “hair”
“body hair” “beard” Greenberg
Starostin, S. Limbu Dict. Jungraithmayr 1994 1966 139
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu v. 2 12
mu “body hair”
Matisoff 2003 100
C.23.3 Maba Group-
TB- Moshang Maba kamur
mul ~ kəmul “beard”
“body hair, fur, feathers” Jungraithmayr
Benedict 1972 15 1994 v.1 6
TB-Qiangic-rGyalrong Edgar 266
kemul Greenberg 1966
“body hair” 139
Matisoff 2003 135
182
Note- C.23.1 (Chadic) Jungraithmayrs’ proposed Chadic root is *mr. (1994 v.1 6). The above Chadic entries
are the only reflexes of this root in the Chadic languages which he reviewed. All are in the West Chadic-N. Bauci
group or Ngizim. He considers the Chadic forms to be loans from Nilo-Saharan and cites the Masalit and Maba
forms above. Hence the TB-Tibetan morphemes are probably ultimately of Nilo-Saharan origin..
300
See Chapter 10 section

10.3.2 and sets
A.20a.1-2, B.11a.1-2
and C.22b.1-2
on “movable,
disappearing” /k/
C.23.4 Proto-TB W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Coman-Ganza
*(s)-mul ~ *(s-)mil Diri mul
“hair (body)” muldu “hair”
Matisoff 2003 “beard” Coman-Koma
496, 501 Jungraithmayr1994 muli “hair”
“beard” “body hair” v.2 12 Greenberg
Benedict 1972 196 139
15-16, 204
C.23.1 TB-Tibetan smá-ra “beard”
< W. Chadic – N. Bauci- Warji màrá “beard” / NS- Maba Group-Masalit kàmári “beard”
C.23.3 TB- Moshang mul / kəmul “body hair, fur, feathers”
< Maba Group- Maba kamur “beard”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *mar / *kamar ~ *kamur “beard, body hair”
C.23.2
Proto-Chinese *mur “hair (body)” Matisoff 2003 505
N. Chinese-MSC máo “hair, feather, down” “wool” Wu, J.459
Middle Chinese máu “body hair” Norman 240
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) mòuh “hair, fur, feather, down” Chik / Ng Lam 245
TB-C. Loloish-Lisu mü “hair (body)” Benedict 1972 90
TB-Proto-Lolo/Burmese *ʔ-mew “body hair” Matisoff 2003 40, 100
C.23.3
TB-Chin-Lushai hmul “body hair, fur” Matisoff 2003 501
TB-Garo kimil “hair (body)” Matisoff 2003 496
C.23.4
TB-Burmese mwe < *mui < *mùl “body hair” Benedict 1972 15
TB-Kham mùl “body, hair” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] mun ~ əmun, ningmun ~ nmun < *r-mul “beard” “body hair”
Benedict 1972 16, 121
C.23.2 IE-Armenian mauruk / mōrukh “Bart” (Ger.) [beard]
↓↓
C.24a-c AA –Chadic AA– AA-Sem. NS NC
Cush.
C.24a.1 Swadesh W. Chadic- Ron (Sha) Semitic-
“knee” kùkwàt Arabic
TB- Hakha (Lai) “Ellbogen” (Ger,) (Yemeni)
kuk “knee” [elbow] kuuc “elbow”
TB-Naga-Tangkhul Jungraithmayr 1970 286 Qafisheh 523
kuk-sau “knee” W. Chadic- Gwandara
TB-Thado kug-bu kùkunsurungwa “elbow”
“knee” Benedict 1972 120 Matsushita 1972 68
301

C.24a.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *(m)-kuk “angle, knee”
< W. Chadic- Ron (Sha) kùkwàt “Ellbogen” [elbow]
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon: *kuk- “angle, elbow”
C.24a.1
TB-Naga-Ao te-mo-kok “knee” Matisoff 2003 141
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *(m)-kuk “angle, knee” Benedict 1972 120, 202, 358 Matisoff 2003 141
C.24a.1 E. Chadic-Bidiya kucumpilo “coude” [elbow] Skinner 145
/
C.24b.1 Old Chinese k’iūk W. Chadic- Hausa Omotic - Mocha
“bend, bent, crooked” k’ūgì > k’ūgìyā f. k‘ukko
Karlgren GSR 1213a “hook” “anchor” “hunch-backed”
Matisoff 2003 362 Newman, P. Ehret 1995 #371 218
TB-Tibetan gyóg-pa 2000 214
“curved, crooked” Jaschke 74 ƙu- = k’yu-
C.24b.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Angas E. Cushitic- Hadiyya NC-Fulfulde
kug “crooked, a hook” gûk guug “be bent” [Fulani]
Jaschke 3 Das 20 “curled up, bent” Hudson 27 koga
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) Foulkes 190 Proto-Afro-Asiatic “be bent U-
kūk “bent, crooked, twisted, *-goxw- “to bend shaped”
winding” Chik / Ng Lam 210 round, form a curve” Taylor 112
Po-fei Huang 414 Ehret 1995
Old Chinese bkhok “to bend, #371 218, 519
bent” Sagart 1999 77
C.24b.3 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – Hausa
gugyaà “to hook k’ugi > k’ūgìyā f.
something” “hook” “anchor”
Goldstein 238 Newman, P.
ky‫כ‬ggy‫ כככ‬/ gyōggy‫כככ‬/ 2000 214
gy�Kggewa “crooked, twisted, 2007 132 183
bent” Goldstein 10, 167 [pronounced
[Disyllabic corresp.] ky’ūgìyā
‘kyōgge “crooked” See Note A.33.1]
Goldstein 167
C.24b.4 TB-Tibetan E. Cushitic-Oromo
guuguu “bent down, gugufa “gobbo,
hunched over” “hunched back curvo, piegato”
(person)” Goldstein 275 [hunch-backed, curved]
183
Note- C.24b.1,3 (Chadic-Hausa) The C.24b.1.3 Hausa k’ugiya variant was derived historically from its
C.24b.1 k’ugi base through a still active Rule [Rule 2] through which “If the suffix -a is added to a word ending
in a front vowel other than H(igh) tone –I, it appears as –(i)ya, that is, the suffix is added to the full masculine
stem including the vowel, rather than to the pre-affixal base minus the final vowel ). [This latter condition is the
case under which rule 1 operates]. Newman, P. 2000 210 Rule 2. See also Note F.5.1 and set F.18a.2 Extended.
In parallel fashion the Tibetan ky‫כ‬ggy‫ ̀ככ‬/ kyogge “crooked” and gugyaà “to hook something” correspond to
the later derived Hausa ky’ūgìyā form. Hence Tibetan morphemes correspond in parallel fashion to both the
earlier and later forms of the root. This could imply separate migrations into the TB linguistic area, the earlier
form being inherited from a Cushitic or old Chadic form. See also Chapter 9 sections 9.4-6.
302
ku̱gguù “bent, hooked, gugufu “curvarsi,

curved” Goldstein 183 piegarsi” [to bend
gug-gug “bend low” over, to bow, to stoop]
Das 220 Borello 187
C.24b.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *guk ~ *kuk “bend, crooked” / Old Chinese k’iūk “bend, bent,
crooked”
< W. Chadic- Angas gûk “curled up, bent” / E. Cushitic-.Oromo guguf- “to stoop, bend over” /
W. Chadic- Hausa k’ugi “hook” “anchor”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *kūk “bend, crooked” ~ *khyūk- “a hook”
C.24b.1
Old Chinese g’iūk “bent, curved” “curl, twist hair” “ bend the body” Karlgren GSR 1214a
gjowk “bent, curved, bend the body” khjowk “to bend, bent” Sagart 1999 77
C.24b.2
TB-West Kiranti-Bahing guk “to be bent” kuk “make bent” Benedict 125 Matisoff 2003 358
TB-C. Loloish- Lahu qɔʔ “be bent” ɔ‫כ‬qɔʔ “bent object, corner” Matisoff 2003 106, 357
TB-Tibetan ‘gug-pa “crooked, bent” khug “corner, concave angle” Jaschke 41; Das 20
gúg-ge-wa “bent, bent down” Das 220 kūguù “corner, nook” Goldstein 120
TB-Lepcha kûk “to bow, to bend down, to incline towards” Starostin, S. ST-Etymology
TB-Bodo/Garo-Dimasa gúgui “bent” Benedict 67
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) guhk “bent, contracted” Chik / Ng Lam 441 ; waankuk “bend vt.”
Chen 19 ; wātkuk “bend” Kwan 38
TB-Tibetan gug “bend, hook” Das 267, 268,302
gurgyoo “bunched over and crooked” Goldstein 279
gug-pa “bent as in reverence” Das 220 Jaschke 93 Goldstein 10 gug(s)-pa “to bend, to make
crooked” Jaschke 93 kuugur “bowing in a respectful manner” Goldstein 184
‘gug-pa “crooked, bent” Matisoff 2003 357
TB-Tibetan ‘yog-po “crooked, curved, bent” Das 165
Proto-TB *guk ~ *kuk “bend, crooked” Benedict 77, 159, 182, 200 Matisoff 2003 357, 362
C.24b.2
Proto-Cushitic *goxw- “to bend, form a curve” Ehret 1995 #371 218, 519
See also C.26b.3 gongoxi “elbow”
E. Cushitic-Rendille khokkhoodánahe “be curved, be arched” Pillinger 194
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] koga “be bent U-shaped” kogīngol “a curved line” kogīdo “old, bent person”
Taylor 112
Semitic-Arabic ʕuqda (IPA) “knot” n. Merriam-Webster Arabic 83
C.24b.4 E. Cushitic-Oromo guguf- “to stoop, bend over” Ehret 1995 #273 182
C.24b.1 IE-Sanskrit krukta “crooked, curved”
kruJc “to curve or make crooked” “crooked”
kukara “having a crooked or withered hand”
C.24b.2
Proto-Altaic *k’ōki “hinge, hook” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Mongolian-Khalkha göxij / gögi “fish-hook, angle” goxii “to bow, nod” “fish-hook”
Altaic-Mongolian-Buriat güxi “fish-hook, angle” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
Proto-IE *kog- “hook, claw” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
IE-Pashto adj. kog “crooked, bent, distorted, twisted, angular” Raverty 821
Proto-Turkic *kok, *koken “hinge, hook”
Proto-Altaic *guk’a “curve, hook”
303
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *gok- “curve, hook”

*kogene- “hinge, hook” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
-Mongolian-Kalmuck ɣoxa “hook”
-Mongolian-Khalkha gox “hook” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
Proto-Tungus-Manchu *guk- “curve, hook” / *kūkta “hinge, hook”
Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology http://starling.rinet.ru./c
Hmong-Mien-Proto-Miao-Yao *ŋkhok “curve(d)” Sagart 1999 7
C.24b.4 South Daic-Lao koh4goh: 3 n. “hook”, goh: 3 v. “hook”
ngoh: 3 adj. “crooked (things) Marcus 105, 57
/
C.24c.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- NS-
gyubo “curved” Hausa Oromo gobo Songhay
Jaschke 74 yi k’obobo sv. and adj. (Koyra)
[Disyllabic corresp.] “be bent “gibboso, gobbo, kuubi
gyū “used as the (of person)” arcuato” “bend,
second syllable of Newman, R. [humped, twist,
words to indicate 1990 23 humpback, curve”
something is arched] Heath
curved” Borello 177 v.1 174
Goldstein 10
C.24c.2 E. Cushitic- S. Khoisan-Proto-
TB-Naga-Lhota Rendille Taa
nkho khoonáan *‖gu /
“angle, knee” “curve, arc” *‖ɣú “knee”
Matisoff 2003 359 Pillinger 194 Starostin, G.
note a E. Cushitic-Somali 2003 22
C. Chinese-Wu godan Proto-N.
kɤw1 “hook” “curve” Khoisan
Hakka Dict. Awde 1999 33 *!ɣòà “knee”
S. Chinese-Min E. Cushitic- Starostin, G.
kau-a Oromo hokkō 2003 22
“a hook” “hook-like See also
Amoy-English instrument” C.26a.3
Dict. 360 Gragg 212 Khoisan variants.
C.24c.3 NC-Fulfulde
TB-Tibetan [Fulani]
gyōwa ngoha
“a hook” “bent in the shape
Goldstein 10 of a hook”
Taylor 112
C. Khoisan-Proto-
Khoekhoe
*‖oa
“knee” Starostin,
G. 2003 22
C.24c.1
TB-Tibetan dgu-wa “to bend, to make crooked” Das 267
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) kieu1 (Hailu, Bao’an) giu1 n. and v. “hook” Hakka Dict.
Old Chinese jiu < kjiw “down-curving” Sagart 105
TB-Tibetan ňa kyu “iron hook for catching fish” Das 472 ňa “fish” Das 95
304
C.24c.2
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian) k’eu5 (Lau Chunfat) keu4 “hook” v. and n. Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Min ku3 “hook” n. and v. Hakka Dict.
TB-Lakher pǝkhu “angle, knee” Matisoff 2003 359 note a
C.24c.3 N. Chinese-MSC gōu vt. “to hook” Huang 139 Wu, J. 239 Wang, F. 171
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ngàu “hook” Kwan 224 Chen 156 ngàu “to hook, to join, to connect”
“a hook” Chik / Ng Lam 467
N. Chinese-MSC kōu (WG) “a hook, a barb, a sickle” “to hook” Mathews #3408 508 #3417 509.
C.24c.1
Cushitic-Afar (Danakali) guub “be bent” Militarev, A. Saho-Afar Etymology 2005
E. Cushitic- Rendille gulguúbo “bending position” Pillinger 129
W. Chadic-Hausa (Gumel dial.) (Kano dial.) k’obare “be, become bent” Matsushita 1993 281
k’ōbōbō “being round-shouldered”; stoop (due to age, disease etc.)” Matsushita 1993 103
W. Semitic-Ethiopic-Amharic gwäbät’ä / gwäbbät’ä “curved, bent, hunched” ”hunch” mägwbät
“hunchback” gubbəta “hillock, mound, hill, bump (of road)” Leslau 1976 212, 373
E. Cushitic-Rendille khoodán “curved, arched” Pillinger 194
NS-Nuer ŋuɛt “fishhook and pole together” Huffman 37
C.24c.3 E.Cushitic-Somali guho “hump, curve of road, river, coast etc. Ehret 1995 #371 519
C.24c.1 IE-Sanskrit kubIra “a humped bull” Witzel 1999b [12] kubara “a hump-backed man”
kubhra “a hump-backed bull” kubja “hump-backed, crooked” “a curved sword” kubjita “crooked,
curved” kubjaka “hump-backed, crooked” kubjatA “the state of being humpbacked” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Old Indian kubhrá “a hump-backed bull” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
See also Supplementary Table 2 C.24c.1
Proto-IE *ghūbh- “to bend” / *kūbh- “hill, hump ; curved, to bend”
Starostin, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 42
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *köb- / *küb- “to bend, elevation, convexity”
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *kupe- “to bend, elevation, convexity”
Proto-Altaic *kop’é / *göp’é(ne) “to bend, elevation, convexity” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
↓↓
C.25 AA – Chadic AA-Cushitic AA- Nilo-Saharan NC
Sem.
C.25.1 W. Chadic- E. Anywa
N. Chinese-MSC Gwandara (Nimbia) Cushitic- gùúŋ “to stoop
gōng “bend forward, gun “bend” Burji deeply” Reh 28
bow” gông “hump up, Matsushita 1974 gungul’ Nuer
arch” Wu, J. 237 #616 13 “be bent guŋ “to stoop”
“bow, arch, arc, W. Chadic- (person)” Huffman 16
bend” Huang 135, 137 Gwandara Hudson Kanuri
S. Chinese-Yue (Gitata) 195 ngunggin
(Cantonese) gùngúyi bend” “bow down, bend
gùng “bow” “bent, Matsushita 1974 over, nod head
arching, arched” #616 13 forward”
Chen 22 W. Chadic- Karekare Cyffer 1990 139
“bow (weapon)” ŋgun bend” Songhay (Gao)
Chik / Ng Lam132 Stolbova, Olga guŋguma
TB-Tibetan koŋgoŋ W. Chadic Etymology “bend forward”
“round, arched” Heath v.3 137
Goldstein 188
305

C.25.1 N. Chinese-MSC gōng “bend forward, bow” / TB-Proto-Kiranti *ghuŋ “bend, crooked”
< NS-Nuer guŋ “to stoop” / E. Cushitic- Burji
gungul’ “be bent (person)”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *guŋ “to stoop, be bent (person)”
C.25.1 TB-Proto-Kiranti *ghuŋ “bend, crooked” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) kiung1 giung1 (Lau Chunfat) n. “bow” “curved, arched, bent”
Hakka Dict.
TB-Tibetan gum-pa “to bend, curve, to contract” Jaschke 94 koŋ / koŋkoŋ “crooked” Jaschke 5
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] kuŋ3 “bent, crooked” Starostin. S. ST Etymology. See also G.8b.1
TB-Burmese kunh “to bend down” Starostin. S. ST Etymology
TB-Chin-Lai kun “bend” Matisoff 2003 418
C.25.1
Omotic *gunB- “kneel” Skinner 9
Proto-AA *gVn- “bend” Militarev / Stolbova Afroasiatic Etymology 2007
NS-Songhay (Gao) guŋgum “se courber, se pencher, se baisser” Ducroz 108
NS- Tubu [Teda] gəni / gə́nete “krumm” [crooked, bent, curved] Lukas 1953 194
C.25.1
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish guŋ “to stoop” Tureng 16
Kartvelian-Georgian, Megrel ɣun “to bend” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 24
South Daic-Lao go:n5 v. “stoop” Marcus 216 kong5 n. “curve” kong5 bpay1 v. “curve”
Marcus 59 go:ng2 adj. “crooked (things)” Marcus 57
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali guɳ’thi / ‘guɳthi “knee” Kobayashi Table 3 #34 13
IE-Sanskrit kuncitum “to make crooked, to be crooked, to bend or curve” Cologne Lexikcon.
↓↓
ST Languages African/AA languages- Close corres7pondences
C.26a-b Afro-Asiatic – Afro-Asiatic - AA- NS Khoisan
Chadic Cushitic Sem.
Swadesh “knee” C. Chadic– Proto-Omotic
C.26a.1 TB-Tibetan Dghwede *giʒ
sgyid(-pa) gwídzè “knee”
“the hollow of the knee, “knee” Militarev, A.
knee-joint” Jaschke 118 C. Chadic–Guduf Omotic
gyìigyìi / gyiìguù / gwídzʌ “knee” Etymology
gyiiguŋ Jungraithmayr 2005
“the crook of the knee” v.2. 215184
Goldstein 281
C.26a.2 N. Chinese-MSC C. Chadic– Proto-AA C. Khoisan-Kua
guì v. “kneel” Wu, J. 256 Dghwede *gwîl- “knee, ‖ùì “knee”
DeFrancis 328 gwìjé hand” Militarev Starostin, G.
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] “knee” / Stolbova 2003 22
kuì3 / kui6 / k’wui3 Jungraithmayr Afroasiatic
“kneel” v.2. 215 Etymology 2007
184
The C.26a.1 The AA guì- root has been palatalized to gyi- in the C.26a.1 classical Tibetan morphemes, but
the C.26a.2-3 Chinese forms below have retained the AA labialized guì- form. Hence the Written (Classical)
Tibetan sgyid- form seems to have a different development from the gwí root found in Afro-Asiatic following.
The main difference is that C.26a.1 does not attest close Khoisan cognates, and C.26a.2-3 do.
306
S. Chinese-Min kuī W. Chadic –Hausa -Danisi , Tsua

“to kneel” gwīwàa f. ‖óé “knee”
Bodman 1987 v.2 206. “knee” -Deti ‖òé
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) Newman “knee”
gwaih “kneel” Chen 190 2007 80 185 Starostin, G.
Kwan 262 Po-fei Huang 392 2003 22 186
C.26a.3 W. Chadic – N. C. Khoisan-Tsixa
C. Chinese-Wu Bauci- Diri ‖ù�= “knee”
kuE6 “kneel” gwərìnɬá “knee” -Proto-Non-
Hakka Dict. Jungraithmayr Khoekhoe
N. Chinese-MSC 1994 v.2 214 *‖óé “knee”
gwèi [Y] “kneel” -Danisi , Tsua
Chen 19 ‖óé “knee”
kuèi (WG) “to kneel” -Deti ‖òé
Mathews 1966 #3627 53 “knee”
Starostin, G.
2003 22
C.26a.2 TB-Tibetan gyìigyìi / gyiìguù / gyiiguŋ “the crook of the knee”
< C. Chadic –Dghwede gwìjé “knee”
C.26a.3 N. Chinese-MSC guì v. “kneel”
< W. Chadic – Hausa gwīwàa “knee” f. / C. Khoisan-Tsixa ‖ùέ “knee”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *gwí- “knee” ~ ‖ù�“knee”
C.26a.3 TB-S. Loloish-Bisu ʔaŋ-kɔ‫כ‬y “crooked” Matisoff 2003 109.
C.26a.4 S. Chinese-Jin (Xinzhou) kəʔ-thi-khuei “knee-cap” Sagart 106
C.26a.1
W. (Ethiopian) Semitic-Harari gelib “knee” Leslau 1963 71
Chadic root B *gd “knee” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 106
W. Chadic – N. Bauci- Mburke wííriin “knee” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2. 214
C.26a.2 C. Khoisan-Tsixa ‖ù�= “knee” -Proto-Non-Khoekhoe *‖óé “knee”
W. Chadic – Gwandara (Nimbia) kyewûyã “knee” wûyã “neck” Matsushita 1974 #39 35
C.26a.3
Proto-Cushitic *gwîlb- “knee (stem + b animate deverbative)” Ehret 1995 #301 191
W. Chadic – Gwandara (Koro, Toni) gúyam / gúyàm “knee” Matsushita 1974 #39 35
W. Chadic-Hausa (Hadejiya) gwiwa “a bend in anything” Matsushita 1993 209
W. Chadic-Hausa gwiwar hannū “elbow” hannū “arm” Newman, P. 2007 80
Proto-Cushitic *gwîl- “to bend, turn” Ehret 1995 #301 191
C.26a.4 W. Chadic –N. Bauci-Kariya (ɣ)wárùm “knee” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 214
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Caha, Eža) gwərbät “knee” Leslau 1963 71 Leslau 1978 v.1 53
185
Note- C.26a.2(Hausa)
The Beijing morpheme matches Khoisan ‖ùì “knee”since the Khoisan alveolar lateral click (‖) can be lost, but
then completed as a simple velar ejective which approximates an ejective (plosive) g. In many AA word families
there are morphemes which show presence of an initial velar without any vestige of an otherwise matching
Khoisan morpheme’s click initial influx. Since the present Beijing morpheme closely resembles the Hausa gwi-
root stem, it was probably inherited from Chadic rather than directly from Khoisan. (For a review of Khoisan
initial click phoneme correspondences see Supplementary Tables 3 section 1)
186
Note- C. 26a.2-3 (Khoisan) See note C.38a.2-3 (Khoisan) concerning correspondences of theKhoisan click
velar phoneme with TB velar root initials and prefixes.
307
Proto-W. Chadic *gwal “elbow” Skinner 92

W. Chadic- Ron (Daffo-Butura) gwa “Knöchel” [knuckle, ankle joint] Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 215
C.26a.3
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho mu’kui “knee” Kobayashi Table 1 #34 1
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari mǔ’kǔ’ri / mǔk’ni “knee” Kobayashi Table 2 #34 7
/
C.26b.1 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- West Semitic- NS- C. Khoisan-
TB-Thebor Ron (Bokkos) Hadiyya Ethiopian-- Zaghawa Ganda
kru kurugwàl guru-bo Harari kurru kúru “knee”
“elbow” “Ellbogen” “knee” kuru’ “knee” C. Khoisan-
Starostin, S. [elbow] Sasse 1982 81 “cubit, arm Greenberg Cara, |Xaise
ST Etymology Jungraith- below the 1966 (kú)kúrù
mayr elbow” 141, 144 “knee”
1970 143 Leslau Starostin, G.
1963 93 2003 22
C.26b.2 W. Chadic- Ron Proto-S. NS-Kanuri Khoisan-
TB-Tibetan (Fyer) Cushitic ngurum- Hadza
grú-mo kurum *guruŋ- ngùrum gúruŋuri
“elbow” “knien” gu(n)d- “knee” “knee”
gru / gru-ma [knees] “knee” Cyffer Starostin, G.
“angle, corner” Jungraithmayr Militarev, A. 1990 139 2003 22
Jaschke 77 1970 87 S. Cushitic- Lukas 1937
Das 246 Etymology 235
2005
C.26b.3 W. Chadic- S.Cushitic- NS-Anywa N. Khoisan-
S. Chinese- Gwandara Iraqw [Anuak] !’O-!Kung
Yue (Nimbia) gongoxi cūŋ n. ǂguni
(Cantonese) kùŋkúrúwo / “elbow” “knee” “elbow”
gyùnbóng kùŋkúrúho Ehret 1995 Reh 17 Ruhlen 1994
“shoulder” “elbow” #371 519 #251 52
Chen 357 Matsushita 1974 gox- “bend”
#27 33 See C.24b.2
Extended
C.26b.4 C. Chadic-
TB-Tibetan Musgu
grva / grwa gurfa “kneel”
“angle, corner” Greenberg 1966
Jaschke 75 58
Das 238
C.26b.1 TB-Thebor kru “elbow” / TB-Tibetan grú-mo “elbow”
< C. Khoisan-Ganda kúru “ knee”
C.26b.5 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] jiu3
< NS-Tubu [Teda] curú “Elle, Ellenbogen” [cubit, ulna (anat.), elbow] /
C. Khoisan-ǂHaba !úrù “knee”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: kúru ~ !úrù “ knee”
C.26b.1
TB-Tibetan khru “cubit (from elbow to end of middle finger” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
grú-chod / grúb-zin “corner, angle” Das 246 sgur-po “hump-backed” dgur “crooked” Das 268
308
TB-Kinauri kru-ts “elbow” Starostin, S. ST Etymology

C.26b.2 TB-Trung kru1-mu1 “arm” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
C.26b.1
C. Khoisan-Naro !kúru “knee” Ehret 1982 [178]
NS- Nubian-Kənzi [Kenuzi] kurti “Gelenk, Knie” [joint, knee] Hoffman 119
NS-Tubu [Teda] curú “Elle, Ellenbogen” [cubit, ulna (anat.), elbow] Lukas 1953 188
NS-Kanuri njuro / juroma/i “elbow” Cyffer 139
C. Khoisan-ǂHaba !úrù “knee” Starostin, G. 2003 22
E. Cushitic- Saho gulu:b “knee” Greenberg 1966 58
E. Cushitic- Gedeo gulubo “knee” Hudson 243
E. Cushitic- Kambata, Qabenna gulubita “knee” Leslau 1963 71
NS- Kanembu ŋguru “shoulder” Greenberg 1966 141, 144
E. Cushitic- Kambata gulubita “knee” Sasse 1982 81
W. Chadic-Tangale kurgundum “elbow” Skinner 145
NS-Maban-Maba korkoru(k) “shoulder” Greenberg 1966 144
W. Chadic- Gwandara (Nimbia) kùŋkúrúwo / kùŋkúrúho “elbow” Matsushita 1974 #27 33.
NS- Songhay (Koyra) gurfu “kneel” Heath v.1 112
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic gulbat “knee” Leslau 1976 391
C.26b.2
C. Chadic-Matakam (Mafa) (ŋ)gúrúmbezh “knee” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 215
Chadic A1 Subroot *(ɣ)wárùm “knee” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 106 187
S. Cushitic- Iraqw guruŋgura “knee” Greenberg 1966 58
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Ennemor) gurmäd “knee” Leslau 1979 v.3 294
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari kurum bāy “elbow” Leslau 1963 93
NS-Tubu [Teda] ŋərúmŋərum “Kniescheibe” [kneepan, patella] Lukas 1953193
W. Chadic-Dyarim g‫ככ‬r‫ככ‬ŋ “knee” Blench 2007 52
C. Chadic- Yedina nóoŋguròm “knee” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 215
W. Chadic- Karekare gùmo “knee” Mukarovsky 228
N. Omotic- Shako k’umu “knee” Mukarovsky 229
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Masqan, Gogot, Sosse, Zway) gulbät “knee” Leslau 1979 v.2 351
C. Chadic-Tera kurumə ”kneel” Mukarovsky 229
W. Chadic-Angas kūrm “to kneel” Foulkes 223
Proto-Chadic (Newman) *k-r-m “knee” Mukarovsky 236, 54
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Gyeto) gwərmät “knee” Leslau 1979 v.3 294
C.26b.3
S.Khoisan-|Nu ‖en ‖guŋ|ni “knee” Starostin, G. 2003 22
N. Khoisan-!’O-!Kung ǂkuni “elbow” Ruhlen 1994 #251 52
S.Khoisan-|Xoo ‖ɣuŋ “knee” Starostin, G. 2003 22
C. Chadic- Glavda gùnja “knee” Rapp / Benzing 44
NS-Kanuri kenduwu n. “joint, bone joints” Cyffer 1990 92
C.26b.4 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Ĉaha, Eža) gwərbät ”knee” Leslau 1979 v.2 350
187
Note- C.26b.2 (Chadic Extended))
“As concerns [root grade] A1 (g)warum, etc. limited to W. Chadic and C.Chadic, it is difficult to determine
whether the initial velar in some reflexes should be given R1 status, or considered to be a prefix. It would seem to
represent R1 in N. Bauci-Warji gwùrmùná and in N. Bauci- Siri yerma, but in the Sura Group-Sura kefurum
it is well-known to be a prefix. A detailed study of the morphological processes within each individual language has
to solve this problem.” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1.
Comment: The TB, Chadic, Cushitic, Semitic and Khoisan correspondences of this set all attest the initial g- .
These support its status as the onset of Radical 1 rather than as a prefix.
309

C.26b.1
IE-Sanskrit kurpara “the elbow” kora “a moveable joint (as of the fingers, the elbow, the knee”
krukta “crooked, curved” kruJc “to curve or make crooked” Cologne Lexicon..
C.26b.3
IE- Hindi kuhnī “elbow” f. Scudiere 221 See also Supplementary Table 2 C.26b.1
IE-Hittite genu- “knee”
IE-Tocharian keni- “knee”
Proto-IE *g’enw- / *g’new- “knee” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
↓↓
C.27 Afro-Asiatic – Afro-Asiatic AA- Nilo- NC
Chadic -Cushitic Sem. Saharan
C.27.1 S. Chinese-Yue C. Chadic- Tera E. Kanuri
(Cantonese) cí mə́sì / Cushitic- məməsə-
mèihsiu “smile” məsə́ “laugh” Afar ngin
Chen 366 Chik Ng Lam 139 W. Chadic- N. musuyto n. v.
mēimēisiu v. “smile” Bauci- Diri “smile” “smile”
Kwan 487 mēs- “laugh” musuy exce Cyffer 1990
TB-Tibetan dzum meemee Jungraithmayr “[to] smile” 123
“a smiling face, all smiles” 1994 v.2 218 Parker /
Goldstein 911 Skinner 205188 Hayward 172
C.27.2 W. Chadic- E. West Songhay
TB-Kiranti-Limbu Hausa Cushitic- Semitic- (Gao)
museN “smile” mùrmùshī m. Sidamo Ethiopian- múmúsù
musok “a smile, mushi yâ Gurage “sourire”
“comedy, funniness, laughs” smiling” “to smile” mušəq n. [smile]
Starostin, S. Newman, P. Gasparini “smile” Ducroz 182
Limbu Dict. 2007 158 243 Skinner
[Disyllabic corresp.] Skinner 205 205
TB-Tibetan C. Chadic-Bura Proto- Songhay
188
Note- C.27.1 (Chadic) Jungraithmayr includes all the Chadic forms in this table under his A root *gms2.
“laugh / rire / lachen”. Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 108. Under this perspective the above forms would be a reduction of
a first radical *g- to *ø-. “The most conservative shapes have been preserved in the East [East Chadic] as Mubi
gemis perf. gàmàsé infin. and Birgit gèmsi, but are also attested in [W. Chadic] Ngizim gámse.” “In several
languages R1 has eventually gone to *ø-, so that the lexemes consist of R2, R3 only, e.g. [C. Chadic] Tera mə́sì,
Nzangi moshi, [C. Chadic] Daba mis.” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 218.
See Jungraithmayr for full evidence supporting his reconstruction. He also posits C.27.2 mùrmùshī “a smile,
smiling”as a reflex of the *gms2 proto-Chadic root. However the C.27.1-2 correspondence sets show that many
mesi- / mušik-based Chadic forms closely match Cushitic, Semitic and Nilo-Saharan forms and hence could be
directly inherited or borrowed from them. None attest the g- first syllable of the Chadic forms used to reconstruct
the *gms2. root. This might appear to be a case of the “moveable k-”, but initial k- is not found in any non-
Chadic correspondents. See Greenberg 1966 132 note 36, notes A.20a.1-2, B.18a.3-4 and Chapter 10 section
10..3.
An alternative explanation of the g- initial would posit a different AA root which has converged with the mesi- /
mušik- root which is the basis of the present word family. For example Skinner identified the morphemes gautsi
and gamtsi meaning “disrespectful speech” in Hausa, and lists a Proto-Chadic *hamts-“laugh” as a proposed
source. (Skinner 81). He also makes a reference to Hausa gatsa “bite” and gatse“ sarcasm” (Skinner 80) as
probable cognates. This gats- root is widely attested in AA languages. See Skinner 80-81 and sets C.30a.1 and
C.30b.1 below.
310
mǖǖ “to smile” musha Highland E. (Koyra,

dzu̱m müümüü “to smile, Cushitic Djenne)
“a smiling pleasant to begin to laugh” *mušik n. vi. “smile”
appearance” Bura Dict. “smile” Heath
Goldstein 833, 911 Skinner 205 v.1 200
v.2 152
C.27.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) meihsiu “smile”
< C. Chadic-Tera cí mə‫כ‬sì, məsə‫“ כ‬laugh” / E. Cushitic-Afar musuyto n. “smile”
C.27.2 TB-Kiranti-Limbu muse:N “smile”, musok “comedy, funniness, laughs”
< E. Cushitic- Sidamo mushi yâ “to smile” / Proto-Highland E. Cushitic *mušik n. “smile”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *mə́sì “smile” ~ *mušik n. “smile”
Extended Sino-Tibetan word family::
C.27.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) siu “laugh, smile” Kwan 267, 487
Chinese- Wu siɔ5 “smile, laugh, grin” Hakka Dict.
C.27.1
E. Chadic- Masa Group –Lame mas(a) “rire” Skinner 205
C. Chadic- Zime-Batna más / màsà “laugh” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 219
NC- Benue Congo-Proto-Plateau *mas “laugh” Skinner 205
C. Chadic-Bura misha “to smile, to begin to laugh” Dict. of Bura
C.27.2
W. Chadic-Hurza mused- “laugh” Skinner 205
E. Cushitic- Rendille musda “to smile” Pillinger 229
NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] mōsa “to smile” Taylor 141
C. Chadic-Nzangi moshi / mos “laugh” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 218
C.27.1
Proto-IE *smeyə “to laugh, be glad”
Old Indian *smayate, smayati “to smile”
IE-Tokharian ismi “smile” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
Proto-Altaic *miusu “to smile”*miosi Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
C.27.2
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *musim- “to smile” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *misije- “to smile” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
↓↓
C.28a-b AA –Chadic AA –Cushitic AA-Semitic NS NC
C.28a.1 W. Chadic – E. Cushitic- Sidamo Semitic- Kanuri
TB-Tibetan Hausa gângâna Hebrew kánkányi
rkan “the palate” gàn’dā / “the palatal vault, khanee- “palate,
Das 75 Jaschke 16 gàn’dàa gum (anat.)” khayeem roof of
Hodge 59 dkan “the “the hard palate” Gasparini 113 “gums mouth”
palate, the roof of the Newman, P. (of teeth)” Cyffer
mouth (archaic)” 2007 69 Baltsan 1990 79
Jaschke 9 Das 49 Skinner 76 196, 600 Lukas
S. Chinese-Yue 1937 209
311
(Cantonese)
ngahn
“gums of teeth”
Chik / Ng Lam 511
C.28a.2 W. Chadic– Proto-AA Semitic
S. Chinese-Yue Hausa *h̟ank(-ar) Written
(Cantonese) hàn’dā “palate, uvula” Arabic
hán “gums of teeth” “velum, soft Militarev/ h̟anak
Chik / Ng Lam 51 palate” Stolbova 2007 “palate”
TB-Mikir Newman, P. 2007 S. Cushitic-Dahalo Wehr 245
ang-hám “palate” 85 Skinner 76 *h̟ank̟ara “palate” Ehret 1995
Matisoff 2003 110 C. Chadic – Militarev, A. #753 511
Bura hankal S. Cushitic
“hard palate” Etymology 2005
Dict. of Bura
C.28a.1 TB-Tibetan rkan “the palate” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ngahn “the palate”
< W. Chadic–Hausa gàn’dā / gàn’dàa “the hard palate” / Semitic-Hebrew khanee- khayeem
“gums (of teeth)”
C.28a.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) hán “gums of teeth” < S. Cushitic-Dahalo h̟anak “palate”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *khan- “palate, gums of teeth” ~ *h̟an- “palate”
C.28a.1 TB-Kiranti-Limbu n. kamdak “hard palate” van Driem 1987 441
TB-Proto-Kiranti *kam “mouth, palate” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
TB-Tibetan gεn “palate (of mouth)” Goldstein 40
C.28a.1
W. Chadic–Ngizim gənád “gums (in mouth)” Schuh 60
E. Cushitic-Hadiyya gaangera “molar, molar teeth” - Kambata Hudson 100
C.28a.2
Proto-Cushitic *h̟ank’- “palate” (stem + *k’ intensive extension of effect) Ehret 1995 #753 373
North Cushitic-Beja [Bedauye] hanāk “palate, gorge, throat” Militarev, A. Bedauye (Beja) Etymology
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage ank̟a “inside of the mouth” Militarev / Stolbova
Berber anɣa “palais (de la bouche)” Militarev / Stolbova
C.28a.1 IE-Iranian-N.Persian kām “Gaumen” (Ger.) [palate] Starostin, S. Indo-European Etymology
/
C.28b.1 C. Chadic– Zime Proto-S. Egyptian Proto N.
TB-Jingpho Batna Cushitic kham’ráa Khoisan
[Kachin] gámdzēy “jaw” *gamíi “tooth” *!hàŋ
u-kam Jungraithmayr 1994 “chin” Budge “chin”
“molar tooth” v.2 209 Jungraithma v.2 789 Proto-
Benedict 25 W. Chadic – yr Semitic- Central-
S. Chinese-Kejia N. Bauci- Karya 1994 v.1 6 Arabic Khoisan
[Hakka] (MacIver) gâm “chin” E. Cushitic- (Yemeni) *!gàn(i)
gam3 / ham3 W. Chadic – N. Bauci- Haddiya h’anak “chin”
(Meixian, Lau Chunfat) Tsagu ŋg’àmʔcálen gangeera “jaw” Starostin, G.
ngam1 / “chin” “jaw” Qafisheh 2003 22
ngam3 “the chin, jaws” Jungraithmayr 1994 Hudson 85, 90
Hakka Dict. v.2 76 278
312

C.28b.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] gam3 / ham3 “the chin, jaws”
< C. Chadic – Zime Batna gámdzēy “jaw” / Proto-S. Cushitic *gamíi “chin” /
Proto N. Khoisan *!hàŋ “chin”, Proto-Central-Khoisan *!gàn(i) “chin”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *gaŋ “chin, jaw” ~ *!hàŋ “chin”
C.28b.1
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *gam = *gəm “jaw (molar teeth)” Benedict #50 25,200
TB- Garo wa-gam “tooth” Benedict 25
C. Chadic- Masa gàŋ “la machoire” [the jaw] Caitucoli 73
W. Chadic- N. Bauci-Warji ngàŋgənna “jaw” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 208
Old Chinese g’əm “jaw” Karlgren GSR #651n Matisoff 2003 299
C.28b.1
E. Chadic- Lele gàgàmà “jaw” Jungraithmayr 1994 v. 2 209
W. Chadic– N. Bauci- Siri ŋg’ámáŋg’ámá “jaw” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 208
W. Chadic-Dyarim ŋg‫̀כ‬m “cheek” Blench 2007 46
NS- Maba Group-Maba gàmbilinak “cheek” Edgar 249
NS- Bagirmi gale kamee “cheek” Edgar 293
C. Chadic- Mandara kama “beard” Mukarovsky 126
C. Chadic- Bura kumí “chin” Mukarovsky 126
NS- Kanuri ngumí “chin” Cyffer 1990 139
N. Khoisan-!Kung gaŋ “chin” Ruhlen 1994 50
Proto-Highland E. Cushitic *gaange “molar, molar teeth” Hudson 100
W. Chadic –N. Bauci- Diri ŋg’àŋg’ám “jaw” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 208
N. Khoisan-!Kung ‖gaŋ “chin” Starostin, G.2003 22
N. Khoisan -!O’!Kung !gãiŋ “chin” Starostin, G. 2003 22
NS- Tubu [Teda] gəgən / gəngəni “Kinn” [chin] Lukas 1953 193
C.28b.1 IE-Tokharian kam / keme “tooth” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
Proto-IE g’enau “ jaw” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
IE-Sanskrit hanu “a jaw, cheek” hanuka “a jaw” ganda “the cheek, whole side of the face”
Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 C.28b.2.
↓↓
C.29a-b AA –Chadic AA –Cushitic AA-Sem. NS NC
C.29a.1 TB-Tibetan E. Cushitic- W.Semitic- N.
maga “chin” Burji Ethiopian- Khoisan-
Goldstein 783 mangáagaa Amharic ‖Kh’au-|’e
ma-mgal “the lower “lower jaw” mängaga [Khoe]
jaw bone” Jaschke 90 Sasse 1982 140 “jawbone, molar |gà “chin”
mā- “to be low” Hudson 85, 211 teeth” Leslau Ruhlen 1994
Jaschke 421189 1976 31 #209 50
189
Note- C.29a.1,3 (Tibetan, Cantonese) The morphemes of this table are related, but their analysis is complex
because of the presence of variables in both their phonology and morphology. The morphemes of the C.29a.1 set
contain a fully syllabic ma- element which appears to be a prefix used to indicate “lower”as indicated by both the
Tibetan and the Cushitic-Burji/Oromo etc. matching phonology and semantics. All the lexemes of the word
family suggest reference to the lower part of the head or face (jaw, chin, molar teeth). Hence the Cushitic/Semitic
ma- initial may have been an innovation in Cushitic which passed into Ethiopian Semitic and ultimately
Tibetan.
313
C.29a.2 W. Songhay
S. Chinese-Yue Chadic- (Gao)
(Cantonese) N. Bauci- gàgààba
ngàgàau Zaar “lower
“jaw” Kwan 256 ŋàkŋa jaw”
[Disyllabic corresp.] “jaw” Heath
Jungraith- v.3 119
mayr 1994
v.2 208
C.29a.3 E. E. Cushitic-
TB-Chin-Lushai Chadic- Sidamo
kha “lower jaw” Migama gacc’o “chin”
TB-Chin-Thado, gácímó Gasparini 107
TB-Karenic-Sgaw “chin Hudson 85,
kha “chin” (beard)” 278
Benedict 121, 134 Mukarovsky “chin, jaw”
126 Mukarovsky
126
C.29a.4 W. Chadic-
N. Chinese -MSC Hausa
(Beijing) hàb’a
xiàba “chin” “chin”
Manser pt. 2 483 Skinner 100
C.29a.1 TB-Tibetan maga “chin” / TB-Nung məkha “chin, jaw”
< Khoisan-‖Kh’au-|’e !gà “chin”
C.29a.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ngàgàau “jaw”
< E. Cushitic- Burji mangáagaa “lower jaw” / NS-Songhay gàgààba “lower jaw”
C.29a.3 Proto-Tibeto Burman *(m)ka ~ *(s)ka “jaw, chin”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *mangà- “jaw, chin” / *ngagàa “lower jaw” ~ *|gà “chin”
C.29a.1
TB-Nung məkha “chin, jaw” Benedict 118, 327, 121
TB-Qiangic-Pumi Dayang mə̀gɐ “chin” Matisoff 2003 170
Proto-Tibeto Burman *(m)ka ~ *(s)ka “jaw, chin”
C.29a.2 TB-Jingpho [Kachin] nkha ~ niŋkha “chin, jaw” Benedict 118, 327, 121 Matisoff 2003 486
Benedict and Matisoff consider the C.29a.1-2 Jingpho and Nung initials to be prefixes.“Kachin prefixed n- ~
num- ning- appears to be a phonetic variant of *m- as well as of *r-, although the conditioning factors involved
are not clear. Interchange between m- and n- is fairly common.” Benedict 118 Note 327, 121, Matisoff 2003 486
The analysis in this table supports Benedict/Matisoffs’ proposal of the *m- variant as a prefix, but suggests that
most of the *n- variants are probably retentions of the initial nasalized velar *ŋ- of an NS or Chadic morpheme.
If this interpretation is correct, then the C.29a. ma- would be an AA innovation, since the C.29a.2 NS-Songhay
gàgààba also has semantics of “lower” jaw, and attests the same reduplication of the root but lacks the
nasalization of its C.29a.2 correspondents. However Songhay rarely attests a nasalized initial velar, although it
occurs in other NS languages. Both the Extended Kanuri and Maba group lexemes attest it but there is little to
suggest that it implies the notion of “low” as such..
Based on the above interpretation , the proximate source of the C.29a.1 morpheme is a Cushitic root, and those of the
C.29a.2, 4 sets probably an NS one. The C.29a.3 form could be directly or indirectly derived from Khoisan. The
C.29a.3 Proto-TB (Extended) s- initial reflects its common correspondence in ST to a Khoisan dental or alveolar
click. See Supplementary tables 3 Khoisan section 1.1.
314
C.29a.3
TB-Bodo/Garo-Dimasa khu-sga “jaw, chin” Matisoff 2003 486
TB-Tibetan mgal / mgal-wa “jaw, jawbone” Jaschke 90 Das 282
Proto-AA *ʕal- “jaw” Ehret 1995 #680 347
Proto-Cushitic *ʕal- “cheek” Ehret 1995 #680 347
C.29a.1 E. Cushitic-Oromo mangaaga “jaw” Gragg 277 Leslau 1963108
E. Cushitic- Kambata, Tibaro māngāga “jaw” Leslau 1963 108
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic mängaga “jawbone, molar teeth” Leslau 1976 31 Hudson 85, 100
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari māngāga “jaw” Leslau 1963 108
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Tigrinya mängāga, məngaga Leslau 1963 108
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Argobba, Zway mängaga “jaw” Leslau 1963 108
C.29a.2
E. Cushitic- Sidamo ergègga “gum (anat.) Gasparini 92
NS-Songhay gàgàabè “machoire” [jaw] Ducroz 97
NS-Kanuri ngáido “jaw” Hutchison 198170 Cyffer 1990 133 Lukas 1937 232
NS-Maba Group-Masalit ngaiyo “cheek” Edgar 293
W. Chadic–N. Bauci-Tsagu ngàrmáʔtlé “jaw” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 208
C.29a.3
NS- Suk ŋacam “chin” Greenberg 1966 101
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic ag’äĉ “chin, jaw” Leslau 1976 152
E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] gadumo “joue” “cheek” Fédry 311
E. Cushitic- Burji gacc’o “jaw” “molars” Hudson 85, 191
C.29a.4 NS- Songhay (Gao) kàabè / kàabò “barbe” [beard] Ducroz 140 Heath v.3 106
kāba “barbe” [beard] Skinner 100
C.29a.3 IE-Hindi gāl “cheek” Scudiere 28, 230
IE-Bengali gāl “cheek” Thompson 46
/
Swadesh “tooth” “bite” W. Chadic- S. E. Cushitic- Burji S. Khoisan-!Xoo
C.29b.1 Bauci- Wangday gacc’o / gacoo ‖qhaŋ
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) nga:si “bite” /gagoo “tooth”
ngàh “teeth” “to bite” Jungraithmayr “molars, molar Starostin, G.
Chik / Ng Lam 291 1994 v.2 24 teeth” 2003 35
“teeth” “tooth” Kwan 525, 533 C. Chadic- Hudson 100, 191 Khoisan-Sandawe
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] Daba Skinner 81 !ʔakhaŋ
(MacIver, Lau Chunfat, ngac “bite off” gágg-oo “molar” “tooth”
Meixian) Stolbova, Olga Sasse 1982 75 Starostin, G. 2003
nga2 “teeth, tooth” “bite” C. Chadic E. Cushitic-Rendille 35
Hakka Dict. Etymology 2006 khaninna vt.
Middle Chinese ŋa “tusk” “to bite”
“ivory” Karlgren GSR #37a-b Pillinger 189, 313
Norman 19 “tooth” Norman
30190
190
Note- C.29b.1 (Middle Chinese, Karen, Vietnamese Extended) “The ngàh “ivory” or “tusk” lexeme is
potentially related to such Southeast Asian words as Proto-Tai ŋa, Vietnamese ngà, Bahnar ngəla all meaning
“tusk, ivory”. Norman 1988a 19. Norman considers that this word and a word meaning “elephant” were taken into
Chinese very early, probably in prehistoric times.
Given the African language correspondences in this table, these and other ST cognates found in southeast Asian
languages may simply be the result of a relatively early migration from East Africa into southeast Asia which
315
Chinese- Wu ngà2
“tooth” Ramsey 91
C.29b.2 C. Khoisan-
TB-Karen-Pao- Taungthu *Proto-Non-Khoe-
tǝŋa “tooth” Khoe,
Benedict 137 !nai “bite”
Proto-Tibeto-Burman -Zul’hoan
*d-ŋa “tooth” !náí “bite”
Matisoff 2003 175191 Khoisan-#Hoan
!gai “bite”
Starostin, G.
2003 10
C.29b.3 Egyptian C. Khoisan-
S. Chinese-Min uga “to eat, Hietsho
kà “to gnaw, to bite” to chew and ka “bite”
Amoy-English Dict. swallow” Ehret 1982 [174]
kā v. “to bite” Budge v.1 187
Bodman 1987 v.2 78, 144, 338
C.29b.4 W. Chadic-
N. Chinese -MSC Ngizim
yá “tooth” yàanáu “tooth”
Wu, J. 790 Schuh 175
C.29b.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ngàh “teeth” “to bite”
< W. Chadic- S. Bauci- Wangday nga:si “bite” / Khoisan-Sandawe *!ʔakha “tooth”
Approximate Sinitic etymon: *nga- “to bite” “teeth”
C.29b.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) daingà “molar (tooth)” Kwan 533 dai “big, large”
jeung ngàh “ivory, elephant tusk” Chik / Ng Lam 431 ngàyuhk “gum (of the mouth” Kwan 212
Old Chinese ngà “tooth” Karlgren GSR 37a-b Matisoff 2003 175
TB-Naga-Lotha eŋg-kak “bite” Matisoff 2003 111
C.29b.4 N. Chinese-MSC yáchî “tooth” Wu, J.790 [compound of this root and that of C.31d.3 below]
C.29b.3 NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] gaggirre “canine tooth” Taylor 61
C.29b.1 South Daic-Lao nga3 sang5 “tusk (elephant)” Marcus 239 sang “elephant“ (A.19b.2)
Proto-Tai nga “tusk, ivory” Norman 1988a 19
branched to the south and southeast in northeastern India. (The Khoisan correspondences are relevant here) On
this theory, in China the lexicon of the migrants waa dominant but in areas south of China the lexicon of African /
AA origin survived only partially. In other terms the African lexicon became a dominant superstratum in what is
now China, but in the areas to the south of China it looks like a substratum, but was originally a superstratum which
did not become dominant, hence was a simple convergence. The other South Daic-Lao correspondences cited
throughout the study equally support a hypothesis of direct inheritance from Africa , e.g. C.30a.1 South Daic-Lao
3
ga:t “bite” in the following word family. See also Chapter 9 Section 9.4.
191
Note- C.29b.1-2 (TB- Karen-Pao) “This root [*d-ŋa] is very rare in TB, attested so far only by Pao Karen
teŋa.” Matisoff 2003 175 note f. In the present comparison the tǝ- initial syllable could be the remnant of a
Khoisan alveolar click (as found in this set) which was prefixed on the Karen ŋa main syllable (the shape inherited
by the Sinitic and Chadic lexemes.) See also sets A.26.5, B.31.3, C.51.2, chapter 10 section 10.2 and Supplementary
Tables 3 Table 1.1.1 for other indicators supporting this hypothesis.
316
Austro-Asiatic-Vietnamese ngà “tusk, ivory” Norman 1988a 19

IE-Hittite gaga “Zahn” (Ger.) [tooth] Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
↓↓
ST Languages African languages- Close correspondences
C.30a Afro-Asiatic Afro-Asiatic -Cushitic Afro-Asiatic- NS NC
– Chadic Semitic
Swadesh “bite” W. C. Cushitic-Bilin W. Semitic- NC-
C.30a. 1 Chadic- gatət “nagen, knuppern Ethiopian- Fulfulde
S. Chinese-Yue Hausa an einen harten Amharic [Fulani]
(Cantonese) gàatsā gegenstand” [to nibble / gat’ä “gnaw ngata
ngaht “to gnaw, “bite a piece crunch on a hard object] a bone, “bite”
to bite” off” nakat “beissen, browse Taylor
Chik / Ng Lam 511 Newman, R. stechen” [bite, sting] (of cattle), 64
S. Chinese-Kejia 1990 25 Skinner 81 nibble”
[Hakka] ngat7 Omotic- South Branch Leslau 1976
“bite, gnaw” *gaʔ “bite” 220, 358
Hakka Dict. Ehret 1995 #4 80 Semitic-Syriac
#306 193 nekat “bite”
Skinner 81
C.30a. 2 W.
S. Chinese-Kejia Chadic-
[Hakka] Ngizim
ngau1 (MacIver, gàadú
Meixian) “to bite”
“gnaw, bite” Schuh 64
Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue
(Cantonese)
ngáauh
“bite”
Kwan 41
Matthews / Yip 150
C.30a. 3 Proto-AA
Proto-TB kw’ădl-
*g-wat “to bite”
“bite, chew” Ehret 1995 #440 244
Matisoff 2003 460
C.30a. 1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ngaht “to gnaw, to bite”
< W. Chadic- Hausa gàatsáa “bite a piece off” / West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic gaṭä “gnaw a bone,
browse (of cattle), nibble, crop” / C. Cushitic- Bilin gatət “to nibble/ crunch on a hard object”
Approximate Sinitic etymon: *gàat- “to gnaw, to bite”
C.30a.1
Old Chinese aŋet > Middle Chinese nget “gnaw, crunch in the teeth” Sagart 1999 65
C.30a.2
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] gəwá ~ kəwá ~ wa “bite” Benedict 101
TB-C. Loloish-Lisu gua “chew” Matisoff 2003 26
TB-Burmese wa “chew” Benedict 101
TB-Bodo/Garo-Dimasa wai < wát “bite” Benedict 101
317

C.30a.1
C. Chadic-Musgoy ŋgats “bite” / gádá “bite” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 24-25 Skinner 81
Semitic-Arabic ‫ع‬add “to bite” ‫ع‬ad‫ع‬ad “to chew, to keep biting” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 312
E. Cushitic-Oromo gade “canine tooth of animals” Skinner 81
Proto-Cushitic *ŋgěd- “to bite” Ehret 1995 #630 324
Proto-Chadic *kəd’ə “bite, chew” Newman, P. 1977 22
E. Chadic-Tumak gəd “bite” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 25
Semitic-Hebrew negeesah “bite, biting” Baltsan 312, 491 nagas v. “bit” Baltsan 297
W. Chadic- Gwandara gátsa “to gnaw” Matsushita 1974 81
C. Chadic-Daba ŋgàtsh “bite” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 25 ngàts “mordre” Skinner 81
NS- Anywa [Anuak] kāc “to bite (somebody)” Reh 34
NS-Nuer, Dinka kac “bite” Greenberg 1966 135
C.30a.2 Proto-S. Cushitic *kwătlaaʕ “biting insect” Ehret 1995 #440 244
C.30a.1 IE-Sanskrit, Avestan khAd “to chew, bite, eat, devour, feed,” khAdya “eatable, edible”
“food, victuals” kad “to eat or consume” khAdana “a tooth” “chewing, eating” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Hindi kata “bite” n.m. Scudiere 20, 218 See also Supplementary Table 2 C.30a. 1
South Daic-Lao ga:t3 “bite” Marcus 32
C.30a.2 South Daic-Lao kaau3 “tooth” Marcus 233
/
C.30b.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – Semitic–Arabic NC-Fulfulde
kātsa / kā tsābo Hausa (Iraqi) ḍḍa‫ع‬ [Fulani]
“sharp-tongued” gàtsē m. “to bite” “to be ngatatte
192
Goldstein 105 “irony, sarcastic, biting” “cutting
[Disyllabic corresp.] sarcasm” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic remarks,
Newman, R. part 2 312 invective”
1990 140, 234 Taylor 64
C.30b.2 TB-Tibetan W. Semitic-Ethiopian- NC-Fulfulde
gád-mo Amharic kättalä [Fulani]
“laughing , laughter” “burst into laughter” ngad’a
Jaschke 66 Leslau 1976 161 “shake with
S. Chinese-Yue Semitic–Arabic laughter”
(Cantonese) kadkad “to laugh Taylor 61
kāt “sound of immoderately”
laughing” (reduplicated as
Chik / Ng Lam 238 intensive)”
Ehret 1995 #340 205
C.30b.3 TB-Tibetan E. Cushitic- Semitic- Arabic
ka-chags “jest, Rendille qašmar
joke” Das 136 kachaarda “to joke, banter,
ga-sha “laughter” vt. “mock poke fun”
Das 206 (always in an Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
kasha / ka sha offensive or part 2 373
“jeering, mocking, cruel manner)”
making fun of” Pillinger 172
Goldstein 174
192
Note- C.30b.1-3 The dual meanings“bite”and “derisive laughing”occur in Arabic (C.30b.1), Hausa and
Fulfulde [Fulani]. (C30a.1, C.30.b.1). TB-Tibetan appears to have inherited mainly the sense of “derisive
laughing”.
318
C.30b.4 E. Cushitic-
S. Chinese-Yue Oromo
(Cantonese) ga’isa
geisiu “spoken “mock”
ridicule” Chen 335 Gragg 154
C.30b.1 TB-Tibetan kasha / ka sha “jeering, mocking, making fun of”
< E. Cushitic-Sidamo qaço “contempt, scorn” qacifata “to laugh at, to mock”
C.30b.2 TB-Tibetan katsa / ka tsābo “sharp-tongued”
< W. Chadic–Hausa gàtsē n.m. “irony, sarcasm”
Approximate Tibetan etyma: *qash- / *gats- “to laugh at, mock”
C.30b.2 TB-Tibetan bgád pa “to laugh” Das 278 ; gád-mo “laughter, laughing” Das 212
gá-sha / gá-zha “jest, joke, humor, laughter” Jaschke 64 kaja “making fun of, humiliating”
Goldstein 101
C.30b.1 W. Chadic-Hausa gàtsìnē m. “sneering grimace, snigger” Newman, P. 2007 72
gautsì “disrespectful speech” Skinner 81
Semitic- Hebrew kashot “harshly adv. inf. levaker kashot “bitterly criticize” Baltsan 166
C.30b.2 Semitic- Amharic tankätäkkä “giggle, be convulsed with laughter” Leslau 1976 162
NS- Anywa [Anuak] geel vt. gèedò detransitivized “to backbite (person concerned is present)”
Reh 26 ŋεεth‫“ כ‬to laugh” Reh 57
C.30b.3 E. Cushitic-Sidamo qaço “contempt, scorn” qacifata “to laugh at, to mock” Gasparini 2
Egyptian ātcha “to joke, to jest” Budge v.1 141
C.30b.4 E. Cushitic-Oromo gayisu “beffiggiare, deridere, mettere in ridicolo” [to ridicule]
gayisa “beffa, derisione, disprezzo, frizzo, burla” [mockery] Borello 172
C.30b.1 IE- Sanskrit ghaT / ghaTT “to hurt with words, speak of malignantly”
kAt “a prefix implying contempt” KATubhasita “sarcastic speech” Cologne Lexicon.
C.30b.3 IE-Bengali hasha v. “laugh, smile” Thompson 82, 108
See also Supplementary Table 2 C.30b.1
↓↓
C.31a-e Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA-Cushitic, AA-Semitic etc. NS NC
Proto-AA
Swadesh W. Chadic- Tangale Berber Bagirmi
“eat” saa “eat” ca “eat” sā
C.31a.1 Jungraithmayr 1991 185 Greenberg 1966 “eat”
TB-Tibetan E. Chadic –Musgu 56 Barth
sa “to eat” sa “drink” v.2 37
Goldstein 953 Greenberg 1966 55
C.31a.2 W. Chadic – Hausa Proto-S. Egyptian
TB- Bodo shā vt. “drink” “eat Cushitic ushā
za “eat” (juicy fruits or sweets)” *c’a “to gnaw, to
TB- Garo Newman, P. 2007 182 “drink” chew,
tśha “eating” “drink” Greenberg Ehret 1995 to bite, to eat”
Benedict 126 1966 5 193 #542 288 Budge
193
Note- C.31a.2 (Chadic) In many Chadic languages the root sa ~ ša is used to mean drinking but also the
consumption of soft things such as fruit, porridge etc. Skinner 240 The ci- / shi root (C.31d.1) below is used for
the eating of hard things and also for drinking.
319
v.1 185
C.31a.3 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic- Bura Semitic-Arabic
za-ba / bza-ba zaba saʔb̟
“to eat” Jaschke 485 “to eat” “to quench thirst”
bcha-ba “drinking” Dict. of Bura Ehret 1995
Jaschke 146 #542 288
Swadesh drink” W. Chadic –Ngizim Proto-AA Egyptian
C.31a.4 S. Chinese- sáu “drink” (Orel / sáu “to drink”
Yue (Cantonese) sá vn. Stolbova Budge v.2 642
sàu “to eat” Schuh 144 1995) ta siáu
Chik / Ng Lam 495 *h’saw “to give to drink”
TB-N. Naga-Chang “drink” Budge v.2 866
śau “to eat” Skinner 240
Matisoff 2003 165
C.31a.5 W. Chadic–Hausa Proto-Afro-
N. Chinese-MSC shāwō “drink (for the Asiatic
hsiáo (WG) benefit of the speaker)” *-jaaw- or
“to eat” vg.6 ventive of < shā *-dzâaw-
Mathews #2586 383 “drink, eat, (juicy fruits “to sip”
TB-Tibetan or sweets”) Ehret 1995
bcah’-wa n. Newman, P. 2007 182 #478 263
“a drinking or drink” See also Chapter 10
Das 391 section 10.2 ventives
C.31a.6 S. Chinese- Egyptian
Yue (Cantonese) shaáu
jáu “alcoholic “wine, drink”
drink, wine, liquor” Budge v.2 723
Chik / Ng Lam 462
Swadesh “eat” C. Chadic-Higi Nkafa Proto-AA Semitic-Aramaic
C.31a.7 sekwi “drink” *-zaak’- šāqū, šāqūtā
S. Chinese-Min Stolbova, Olga “to eat up” “drink”
ciâk “eat, drink, C. Chadic Etymology Proto-Cushitic Comprehensive
consume” Bodman *zaak’- Aramaic Lexicon
1987 v.2 84, 126 “to eat up”
TB-Bodo/Garo- Ehret 1995
Garo caʔa “eat” #195 150
Matisoff 2003 480 *-s’aʔ-
TB-N. Naga-Nocte “to drink up”
tšaʔ “eat” “food” Ehret 1995
atisoff 2003 480 #542 288
C.31a.8 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Hausa W. Semitic-
dzagdzà zàk’ā Ethiopian-
“full, saturated” “eat too much of” Amharic
Goldstein 913 Newman, P. t’äggaba
S. Chinese-Min 2007 229 “be satiated,
ciâk-pà “to have be full
eaten (to one’s fill), (from food)”
be full” Bodman Leslau 1976 235
1987 v.2 84, 126
320

C.31a.2 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *dza “eat” / TB- Garo tśha “eat”
< C. Chadic–Mumuye shā “eat” /
C.31a.4,6 TB-Tibetan bcah̟-wa n. “a drinking or drink” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
jáu “alcoholic drink, wine, liquor”
< W. Chadic–Hausa shaàwu “drinking, for drinking, drinkable” / Egyptian shaáu “wine, drink”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *sha “to eat, to drink” / *shaáu “drinking, drinks” n.
C.31a.1
TB-Moshang sa “eat” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Kinauri, Bodo za “eat” Benedict 28, 126
TB-Proto-Lolo-Burmese *dža2 “eat” Matisoff 2003 19
TB-C. Loloish-Sani tsā “eat” Matisoff 2003 19
TB-Tibetan bza “to eat” Jaschke 496 Jaschke xvii
C.31a.2
Proto-TB *dza “eat” Benedict #66 28, 126, 200
TB-Written Burmese cà “eat” Matisoff 2003 480
Omotic-Janjero uša “drink” Skinner 240
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jaak / ja / jà “to bite, to gnaw” Chik / Ng Lam 56
N. Chinese-MSC zhà “bite” Wu, J. 872
TB-Jingpho, Proto-Tibeto-Burman *dza “eat” Benedict #66 28, 126, 200
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] šá “eat” Matisoff 2003 480
TB-Bahing dźa “eat, food” Benedict 28 Matisoff 2003480
TB-Namsangia ts’a “eat” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu câ “eat” Benedict 90 Matisoff 30
TB-C. Loloish-Lisu dzâ ; TB- Nyi dzá “eat” Benedict 90
TB-Kiranti-Limbu kudza “food” van Driem 1987 438
TB-Chang śau “to eat” Matisoff 2003 165
C.31a.6 S. Chinese-Yue sa-wa “to eat” jáujing “alcohol (liquor)“ Kwan 12
C.31a.7 TB- Kuki Chin-Naga- Kom Rem sàak “eat” Matisoff 2003 480
C.31a.1
Proto-Chadic (Newman) *sa- “drink” Newman 1977 25
C. Chadic- Tera za- “drink” Newman 1977 25
Semitic- Hebrew šatah “drink” Leslau 1963 175
Egyptian sha-t “wine, drink” Budge v.2 722
Proto-E. Cushitic *k’aniin- “bite” Sasse 1979 62
C.31a.2
C. Chadic –Mumuye shā “eat” Skinner 240
C. Chadic- Mandara shā “drink” Greenberg 1966 55
W. Chadic-Gwandara šá “to drink” Skinner 241
C.31a.3 Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šābba “to sate, satify, fill”
C.31a.4
C. Chadic–Mafa (Matakam) sáwa “be, make thirsty”
Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni, Iraqi) šārrab “to make or let drink” Qafisheh 337
(Iraqi) šārrab “wine” šārraab “heavy drinker, drunkard” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 238
E. Chadic-Mubi suwa “drink” Greenberg 1966 55
321
C.31a.5
Proto-Berber *sw “drink” Skinner 240
Berber su drink” Greenberg 1966 55
Egyptian zwr “to drink” (stem + *l finitive) ; semantics originally “to drink up”
Ehret 1995 #478 263 Greenberg 1966 55
C.31a.7
S. Cushitic-Proto-Rift *ĉ’aʔ- “to snuff, suck up” Ehret 1995 #542 288
W. (Ethiopian) Semitic-Gurage (Selti, Wolane) säĉe / säĉi “drink” Leslau 1979 v.3 534
C.31a.8 Semitic-Arabic saʔima (IPA) “fed up” Merriam-Webster Arabic 55
W. (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic -šäkkärä “become drunk” Leslau 1976 57
C.31a.1
IE-Sanskrit car “to consume, eat, graze”
IE-Pashto tsar m. “pasture, forage, pasturing, grazing” tsarawal “to graze, feed or supply cattle with
grass etc.” Raverty 307 tsarr vi. to graze, browse, crop” Raverty 1114
C.31a.2
IE-Sanskrit
saraka “spirituous liquor” “drinking spirituous liquor, distribution of spirituous liquor”
zarkarasava “spirituous liquor, distilled from sugar, rum”
C.31a.5 IE- Bengali khaowa vb. ”eat” vb. Thompson 45, 96
See also Supplementary Table 2 C.31a.1,4
C.31a.7
Kartvelian-Georgian čox “to masticate” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 7
Kartvelian-Megrel čix “to eat greedily” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 7
Kartvelian-Svan čex(w) / čx(w) “to masticate” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 7
/
C.31b.1 E. Cushitic-Oromo Kanuri C.
N. Chinese-MSC chufada v. njuwo Khoisan-
jû “masticate, chew” “bite” “chewing of |Xaise,
Wu J. 370 chuchufada v. the cud” Deti, Cara,
chǚ / tsǚ (WG) “nibble” juwulangîn v. Danisi,
“to suck, to chew” Foot 11 “chew Kua, Tsua
Mathews 1966 #1573 225 cuf-accu v. thoroughly, ʔjŭŋ “eat”
jûjué “masticate, chew, “mordere, addentare” masticate” Starostin,
ruminate, chew the cud” [to bite, to seize with Cyffer G. 2003 15
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) the teeth” 1990 141
jiu “to chew, to eat” Borello 81
Chik / Ng Lam 70
C.31b.2 TB-Tibetan Tubu [Teda] S. Khoisan-
skyug-ldad cugu Proto-Taa
“rumination, chewing ”wiederkauen” |gxùʔrV
the cud” Jaschke 27 [to ruminate, to “to gnaw”
dzūgdzuù chew the cud] Starostin,
“the sound of chewing” Lukas 1953 G. 2003 19
Goldstein 846 205
322
C.31b.3 NS-Kanuri C.
N. Chinese-MSC kíyáukíyáu Khoisan-
jiáo “masticate, chew” ideo. Proto-Non-
Wu, J. 340 “describes Khoekhoe
xìjiáomànyàn crunching *!gxárú
“chew carefully and swallow sound of “to gnaw”
slowly” DeFrancis 1059 chewing” Starostin,
[Disyllabic corresp.] Cyffer 1990 96 G. 2003 19
C.31b.2 Tibetan dzūgdzuù “the sound of chewing”
< Tubu [Teda] cugu ”to ruminate, to chew the cud” / S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa |gxuʔrV “gnaw”
C.31b.3 N. Chinese-MSC jiáo “masticate, chew”
< C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe *!gxaru “gnaw”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *cug- “chew the cud, chew thoroughly”
C.31b.1 N. Chinese-MSC chüeh (WG) “to chew, to ruminate” Mathews 1966 #1180 169
C.31b.2 TB-Naga-Yimchungru dzɯʔ “eat” Matisoff 2003 480
C.31b.3 N. Chinese-MSC jiào “masticate, chew, munch” Wu, J. 349 “chew, eat” DeFrancis 424
C.31b.1 C. Khoisan-Hiechware ŋjoo “eat” Starostin, G. 2003 15
Semitic-Arabic jam-dʕugu (IPA) “chew” Merriam-Webster Arabic 27
/
C.31c.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) W. Chadic – E. Cushitic- Afar
gau “to insult” “to shame” Hausa gaawise “mock”
“to berate, to abuse” Chik / Ng Lam 4 21 gautsī m. Parker / Hayward 106
jàausiu “ridicule, laugh at” “disrespectful also gawsise “make mock”
Chen 335 Kwan 267, 438 behavior or [“probably from gaw m.
jàau “to ridicule, to jeer, to sneer, to scoff, to speech” ‘imitation, mockery’]
mock, to deride” Chik / Ng Lam 70 Newman, P. Parker / Hayward 111
N. Chinese-MSC cháusyau (Y) / cháoxiào 2007 72 E. Cushitic-Oromo
“ridicule, laugh at” Chen 335 Skinner 81 ga’oo “mocking, joke”
“deride, jeer at, laugh at” Wu, J. 80 Gragg 154
C.31c.1 Cantonese jàau ridicule, laugh at” “to ridicule, to jeer, to sneer, to scoff, to mock, to deride
< E. Cushitic- Afar gaawise “to mock”
Approximate Sinitic etymon: *gaaw- “mock”
/
C.31d AA – Chadic AA-Cush. AA- Nilo-Sah. Khoisan
Sem.
Swadesh “to eat” “to drink” W. Chadic – N. Khoisan-
C.31d.1 N. Chinese-MSC Hausa ‖Au‖en
ch’īh (WG) “to eat, to cî vt. “eat, eat či “drink”
drink” away, consume” N. Khoisan-
Mathews 1966 #1047 144 “win, overcome” Žu|’hoan
shí “eat” “meal, food” Wu, Skinner 34 chì
J. 621 Manser 406 cî “eating” “drink”
TB-Qiangic-Pumi Dayang (vn. of ci) Starostin, G.
dzɨ́ “eat” -Xixia dzji “eat” Newman, P. 2003 14
Matisoff 2003 169, 172 2007 33
323
C.31d.2 W. Chadic- Hausa

S. Chinese-Min cīyar (dà)
chhi “to feed, to raise vg.5 efferential
(domesticated animals)” vt.
Amoy-English Dict. “to feed person or
chi “to raise, bring up, animal”
nourish (as family, “care for, provide
livestock)” for someone”
Bodman 1987 v. 2 131 Newman, P.
TB-Naga-Ao 2007 33
a-tšiʔ “eat”
Matisoff 2003 480
Swadesh “bite” W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cush. NS-Nubian- S.Khoisan-
C.31d.3 cìizā / cìije / Oromo Kənzi Proto-!Wi
S. Chinese-Kejia cìiji vt. “bite” cininu [Kənuzi] cʔi
[Hakka] “bite with front “mordere acci “to bite”
chi3 / chi1 / cih1 / ci3 teeth” Skinner 37 ” [bite] “beissen” Starostin, G.
“bite, gnaw, snap at” Newman, P. Borello [bite] 2006-2008
ch’i3 “teeth” 2007 35 2000 653 79 Skinner 37 S. Khoisan--
Hakka Dict. ‖Ng,
N. Chinese-MSC ǂKhomani
shìh (WG) ci-cʔi “bite”
“to bite, to gnaw” Starostin, G.
Mathews 1966 2003 10
#5764 802 chi3 “front S. Khoisan-
teeth” !Kwi- |Xam
Sagart 163-164 c’:i “bite”
TB-Qiangic-Xixia Bleek 1956
śjwi “tooth” 215-216
Matisoff 2003 172
C.31d.1 N. Chinese-MSC chī “eat, take” / TB-Qiangic-Pumi Dayang dzɨ‫“ כ‬eat”
< W. Chadic – Hausa ci vt. “eat, eat up, consume”
C.31d.3
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] chi3 / chi1 / cih1 / ci3 “bite, gnaw, snap at” (MacIver) ch’i3 “teeth”
/ NS-Nubian- Kənzi [Kənuzi] acci “beissen” [bite] / S. Khoisan-Proto-!Wi cʔi “to bite”,
S. Khoisan-|Xam, ‖Ng, ǂKhomani ci-cʔi “bite”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *ci- “eat” ~ cʔi “to bite”
C.31d.1 N. Chinese-MSC (WG) shíh “food, to eat, to drink” Mathews 1966 #5810 815
chī (dialectal) “drink” Wang, F. 65 chī “eat, take” “annihilate, wipe out, e.g. enemy division”
Wu, J. 89
S. Chinese–Cantonese sihk / jih “to eat” Chik / Ng Lam 493 Kwan 154 chí “teeth”
Chik / Ng Lam 511
TB- Garo antśhi “eat” Benedict 126
C.31d.2 Middle Chinese ziH “to feed” Sagart 1999 67
C.31d.3 N. Chinese-MSC ch’îh (WG) “the upper incisors” Mathews 1966 143 #1037
chî “tooth” Wu, J. 92 Huang 55 yáchî “tooth” Wu, J. 790 [compound of this root and that of
C.29b.3 above]
TB-C-Loloish-Lahu cì “tooth” Matisoff 2003 31, 212
TB- Tibetan mche “fang” Hodge 59
324

C.31d.1
W. Chadic–Ron (Sha, Kulere) ci “essen” [to eat] Jungraithmayr 1970 283, 351
W. Chadic–S. Bauci-Guruntum chi / shi “eat” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 120 Greenberg 1966 56
W. Chadic-Gwandara (Karshi, Cancara) cí “eat e.g. meat” Matsushita 1974 #458 105
W. Chadic-S. Bauci-Geji chíti / shi / ci “eat” -Tala shi “eat” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 120
W. Chadic–S. Bauci-Boghom shi / shiʔ “eat (soft things)” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 120
E. Cushitic-Oromo c’ir- “cut” [according to Sasse possible source of Burji form] Sasse 1982 49
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šiba ‫“ع‬to satisfy one’s appetite, to eat one’s fill, become sated, full”
Proto- Chadic *ti “to eat” Newman, 1977 #41 25 Ehret 1995 #159 138194
W. Chadic-Bole ti “eat” / E.Chadic-Mubi tiya “eat” Greenberg 1966 56
C.31d.2 W. Chadic- Hausa cīyar (da) = ci (da) before direct object cīda grade 5 verb “feed”
Newman, P. 2000 705
See also Chapter 10 section 10.2 on grade 5 Hausa verbs.
C.31d.3 E. Cushitic-Burji c’ir- “chop, gnaw” Sasse 1982 49 [ / c’/ = voiceless palatal glottal stop]
/
Swadesh “to eat” W. Chadic Ngizim
C.31e.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] kìid’ú kíida vn.
(Lau Chunfat) gid5 “eat something which requires chewing,
(Hailu) k’iet / such as meat, kola nuts etc.”
(Meixian) k’et “to eat” Hakka Dict. Schuh 96
C.31e.3 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Lau Chunfat) gid5
< W. Chadic Ngizim kìid’ú kíida vn. “eat something which requires chewing”
Approximate Sinitic etymon: kíid “eat something which requires chewing”
C.31e.1 S. Chinese-Min khì “tooth” Bodman 1987 v.2 114, 152 [Taiwanese] chuì-khì “tooth”
Bodman 1983 79, 153 chuì = “mouth”
C.31e.1
W. Chadic-N. Bauci- Warji, Miya, Mburke k’íy- “bite” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 24 Mukarovsky 95
C. Chadic- Hwona ki “to eat” Mukarovsky 95
Niger-Congo- Mande- Susu xī “bite” Mukarovsky 95
E. Cushitic- Arbore k’ine “bite” Mukarovsky 95
↓↓
C.32 AA - AA -Cushitic, Proto-AA AA- NS NC
Chadic Sem.
C.32.1 TB-Tibetan Proto-E. Cushitic *šóor- “to feed”
so “to feed, to rear, Proto-Afro-Asiatic
to nourish” Goldstein 1160 *-šóor- “to feed”
gso “nourish, rear” Ehret 1995 #524 281
Hodge 122 E. Cushitic-Sidamo
‘tshóba vt. “to feed, to graze” sôra “to feed somebody who has
“to nourish” Jaschke 460 nothing to eat” Gasparini 294
194
Note- C.31d.1 (Proto- Chadic Extended) *ti “to eat”. In Chadic-Hausa a regular palatalization occurs in which
/ t / > / c /. When followed by a front vowel, either i(i) or e(e), the alveolar -t palatalizes to c. At a historically
earlier period the palatalization was probably an automatic phonological rule.This still regularly happens in
contemporary Hausa although there are exceptions due to the heavy influx of loanwords from Arabic and English.
Newman, P. 2000 414 See also Notes A.4.1, B.5b.1 and E.16a.3-4.
325

C.32.1 TB-Tibetan so “to feed, to nourish”
< Proto-E. Cushitic *šóor- “to feed” / Proto-Afro-Asiatic *-šóor- “to feed”
Approximate Tibetan etymon: *soor- “to feed, nourish”
C.32.1 TB-Tibetan ɣsó-ba “to feed, nourish, bring up, nurse up, rear” Jaschke.590 ; gso-wa “to feed,
nourish, bring up, train” Das 1312 / söö “to take, to eat, to drink:” Goldstein 1162 ;
tsojüü “nutrition, nutriment, nourishment” Goldstein 895
C.32.1 E. Cushitic- Oromo sooraa vt. “nourish, feed, take care of” Gragg 363 soru vt. “sostenere,
alimentare” [maintain, feed] Borello 368
Semitic-Hebrew tsôrkey n.m. pl. “foodstuffs” tsôrekh v. pres. tense “consumes” Baltsan 442
↓↓
C.33 Afro-Asiatic – AA – AA- Nilo- NC,
Chadic Cushitic Sem. Saharan Khoisan
Swadesh “head” W. Chadic-Bole E. Cush.- Songhay N. Khoisan-
C.33.1 TB-Garo go “head” Sidamo (Dendi) ‖Kh’au-‖’e
sgo “head” Greenberg 57 kokki- góósì |khó
Benedict 149 W. Chadic- “skull, “front” N. Khoisan-!Kung
TB-Tibetan Maha, Yedina, vessel” (Fr.) |khó
go “head” Kotoko koo / Skinner [forehead] “forehead”
Goldstein 229 kòo “head” 173195 < Hausa Ruhlen 1994
mgo “head” Mukarovsky 203 Omotic- Zima 93 #286 53
Jaschke 90 E. Chadic- Gonga NC-S.W. Mande-Loko
ŋo “the face, Dangaleat *eŋgo ngo-koko
the front side” [Dangla] “brain” “head”
Goldstein 303 ùŋò “front, “what is Mukarovsky 202
TB-Karenic-Pwo, devant” contained
Sgaw kho “head” [forehead] in the top
Benedict 149 Fédry 48 of the
N. Chinese- E. Chadic- head”
Changsha lau kho Modgel gol Ehret 1995
“cranium, skull” “head” #689 351,
Sagart 1999 155 Greenberg 1966 348
57
C.33.2 C. Chadic-Sukur S. Khoisan-|‘Auni

TB-Naxi-Lijian khu-r “head” xú ~ xúu “head”
ku “head” C. Chadic-Margi Bleek 1956 261
Matisoff 2003 147 khə-r Starostin, G.
TB-Digaro “head” 2012 38
ku-ru ~ Stolbova, Olga C. Khoisan-Tati
mku-ra C. Chadic ǂkxhuu “forehead”
“head” Etymology Ruhlen 1994
Benedict 149 #286 53
195
Note- C.33.1 (Cushitic-Sidamo) The semantics of “vessel” do not necessarily mean that skulls were used as
vessels for drinking etc. It can simply denote a similarity in the shape. In Hausa k’ok’o or k’ok’uwa means
“small calabash”. Skinner includes the Sidamo and other morphemes denoting “skull” under this entry, e.g. Hausa
k’ok’wan kai “skull” [lit. “calabash of the head”] Cushitic- Sidamo qonqo “pumpkin, gourd, skull” Skinner 173
326
C.33.3 C. Khoisan-Naro
TB-C.Loloish- ǂu “head”
Lahu ʔú “head” Ehret 1982 [178]196
Matisoff Khoisan-Proto-non-
2003 147 Khoekhoe, Buga,
TB-Proto-Lolo- |Ganda
Burmese ǂú “head”
ʔu2 “head” Starostin, G. 2003 19
TB-Written NC-S.W. Mande-
Burmese Mende ngú “head”
ʔû “head” Mukarovsky 202
Matisoff 2003 477
C.33.1 TB-Tibetan go / mgo / sgo “head”
< E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] ùŋò “front, devant” [forehead, in front of] /
NC-S.W. Mande- Loko ngo-koko “head” /
C. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e ǀkhó, N. Khoisan-!Kung |khó “forehead”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma: *ngo “head , forehead” ~ |khó “forehead”
C.33.1 TB-Tibetan ŋo “face, countenance, air, look” “self” Jaschke 128
C.33.2 TB-Nung əg‫“ כ‬head” Matisoff 2003 147
C.33.1 W. Chadic-Hausa k’ok’wan kai “skull” Skinner 173 gòoshī “forehead”Newman, R. 2007 76
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] kō’e “head” Taylor 85
Semitic-Hebrew goolgolet “skull, head” Baltsan 113
C.33.3 C. Khoisan-Proto-Khoekhoe ǂú “head” Starostin, G. 2003 19
↓↓
This word family shows an exceptional pattern comparable to only 2 others in the study. The ST words
are all from TB languages. There are multiple Khoisan correspondences (6 of 7 sets ) 3 of which thus far
show no AA, NC or NS correspondent and there is no Semitic correspondence. Sets 4 and 7 show only a
TB ↔ Khoisan correspondence. This suggests a pre-Neothic Khoisan-dominated migration into East
Asia from E. Africa. A comparable pattern is found in word families A.10.a-b.
C.34 AA - Chadic AA-Cush. AA- NS NC, Kordofanian,
Sem. Khoisan
Swadesh “ear” W. Chadic- NS-Kunama NC-Mande-Atlantic-
C.34.1 Hausa uku(na) Bijogo
TB-Naga-Tanghul kûnnē “ear” “ear” k‫כ‬nn‫כ‬
khəna “ear”197 Newman, P. Greenberg “ear,
[Disyllabic corresp.] 2007 118 1966 122 to hear”
Skinner 153
196
Note- C.33.3 (Khoisan C. Khoisan-Naro ǂu “head”) See note C. 38a.2-3 (Khoisan) and Supplementary
Tables 3 Table 1.1.1 for other correspondences of the sole Khoisan click velar phoneme with TB prefixes.
197
Note C.34.1-3, 5-7 (TB) Based on the TB evidence , the initial /g/ ~ /k/ in the C.34.1-3 Tibeto-Burman
morphemes are not prefixes, but are simply derived from a Khoisan palatal click or NC initial k- morpheme.
In the C.34.1-2 Kordofanian variants several are plausibly transitional forms where the k- has become optional or
dialectal in the process of reduction of the initial khə- radical to an initial glottal. This stage is represented in the
C.34.4-7 TB forms in which initial glottals are expressed as ʔ, ʔɑ̃, s or e. The C.34.6 set r- initial below appears
to be rare in relations to the Khoisan clicks, but there is another example in D.19a.2
.
327
TB-Bhramu, (Daura dial.) Blench

TB-Kadu kûnyà Kordofanian and
kəna “ear” “ear” Niger-Congo 10
TB-Garo khna Matsushita Kordofanian-Tima
“ear” 1993 40. (k)‫כ‬n‫“ כ‬ear”
TB-Bodo/Garo- Greenberg 1966 155
Dimasa
khana “ear”
TB-Naga-Rengma
əkhəna “ear”
Benedict #453 113
C.34.2 W. Chadic- S. Khoisan-Proto-Wi
TB-Qiangic-Queyu Hausa ǂnu “ear”
kəɳu kunnuwàa Starostin, G. 2003 14
“listen” “ears” Kordofanian-Talodi
Matisoff pl. of kûnnē (k)enu “ear”
2003 137 Newman, P. NC-Mande-Atlantic-
2007 118 Gola
(ke)nu “ear
Greenberg 1966 155
Kordofanian-Talodi-
Asheron *g-enu/we
“ear, to hear”
Blench Kordofanian
and Niger-Congo 10
S. Khoisan-!Xóõ
ǂnùhaŋ “ear”
Starostin, G. 2003 14
Swadesh “hear” W. Chadic- C. Khoisan-
C.34.3 Proto-Kiranti Ngizim Proto-Non-Khoekhoe,
*khem- “hear, sense” kə‫כ‬máu Tsika, Danisi, Kua
TB- Kiranti-Yamphu “hear, *kúḿ
khemma understand” “hear”
“hear, listen” “experience C. Khoisan-Khoe,
Starostin, S. through any of Buga, Deti, Cara etc.
Kiranti Etymology, the senses other kóḿ
Yamphu Dictionary than sight” “hear”
TB-Kiranti-Limbu Schuh 87, 203 Starostin, G.2003 20
khemmaʔ W. Chadic- S.
“hear, smell, sense, Bauci-Kir
detect” kəm “ear”
van Driem 1987 445 Jungraithmayr
1994 v.2 114
C.34.4 C. Khoisan-Proto-
TB-Tibetan Khoekhoe
snyan *‖náuŋ
“the ear” “to hear”
Jaschke 196 C. Khoisan-!Ora
‖nauŋ
“to hear”
328
C.34.5 Proto-AA, Songhay N. Khoisan-!O! Khung

TB-S. Loloish-Phunoi Proto, (Gao) ‖nə “to hear”
ʔɑ̃-hna Cush. háŋá Greenberg 1966 78
“ear” *-ʔankw- “oreille” Khoisan-Hadza ‖náʔe
Matisoff 2003 109 “to listen, [ear] “to hear”
TB-Nung ear” Ehret Ducroz Starostin, G. 2003 20
əna 1995 115–116
“ear” #728 364
Benedict 113
TB-Trung
ă-nà “ear”
Norman 13
C.34.6 E. S. Khoisan-Masarwa
TB-Tibetan Cushitic- !nwa
rna-wa Rendille “ear”
“the ear” Das 755 nabáh Starostin, G. 200314
rna-ba “ear” “ear” Kordofanian-Grebo
Jaschke 312 Pillinger nuã
Norman 13 230, 333 “ear”
Greenberg 1966 155
C.34.7 S. Khoisan-|Xam
TB-Naga-Lotha ‖no-iŋtu
eno “ear “to hear”
TB-N. Naga-Chang Greenberg 1967 78
nou “ear C. Khoisan-Nama
TB-Mikir ‖náu
nò “ear” “to hear”
Matisoff 2003111, Starostin, G. 2003 20
165
C.34.1 TB- Tanghul khəna “ear” / TB- Bodo/Garo-Dimasa khana “ear”
< NS-Kunama uku(na) “ear” / NC-Mande-Atlantic-Bijogo k‫כ‬nn‫“ כ‬ear, to hear” /
N. Khoisan-!O! Khung ‖nə “to hear”, Khoisan-Hadza ‖náʔe “to hear”
C.34.2 TB-Qiangic-Queyu kəɳu “listen”
< S. Khoisan-Proto-Wi ǂnu “ear” / Kordofanian-Talodi (k)enu “ear” /
NC-Mande-Atlantic-Gola (ke)nu “ear”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma: *k‫כ‬nn ‫“ כ‬ear” ~ *ǂnu / kenu “ear”
C.34.1
TB- Bhramu, Anal kəna “ear” Benedict 149
TB-Garo khna “hear” Benedict 113
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *g-na “ear, hear ” Benedict #453 113 Matisoff 2003 168
C.34.5
Proto-Lolo-Burmese *ʔ-na “ear” Matisoff 2003 40, 100
TB-S. Loloish-Sangkong aŋ-na “ear” Matisoff 2003 109
TB-Kham ornä “ear” Matisoff 2003 128
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu nā “ear” Matisoff 2003 100
C.34.6
TB-Gyarung têrnä “the ear” Benedict 115
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *r-na “ear, hear ”
Benedict #453 113 Matisoff 2003 168
329

C.34.1
W. Chadic-S. Bauci- Geji keung / kîn / kə̂ŋ “ear” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 114
W. Chadic-Hausa ‘yan kûnnē “earrings” [lit. “ear children”] Newman, P. 2007 118
Kordofanian-Koalib (k)öni “ear” Greenberg 1966 155
Kordofanian--Otoro, Heiban (g)öni “ear” Greenberg 1966 155
NS-Kanuri kə́rə́nngin “listen, listen to” kə́rə́nta vn. Cyffer 1990 94
C.34.2
C. Khoisan-Nama ‖nau “ear” Starostin, G. 2003 14
C. Khoisan- !Kora ‖nau “to hear”, !nau-b “ear” Ehret 1982 [174, 178]
C.34.3
W. Chadic-S. Bauci-Tala kə́m “ear” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.114
W. Chadic-Dyarim kə̀m “ear” Blench 2007 47
C. Chadic-Lame humu- “ear” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology
C. Chadic-Masa hum- “hear” “ear” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology
C.34.5 E.-Cushtitc-Beja angwil “ear” Ehret 1995 #728 520
C.34.1
IE-Hindi kāna +“ear” Kobayashi Tables 1, 2, 3 #7 1, 7, 13 kān “ear” Scudiere 218
IE Bengali ka:n “ear”n. Thompsoni 43
IE-Sanskrit karəna “ear” go-karna m. “a cow’s ear” kaRNa “to give ear to” “listen to”
AkarNana “hearing” AkarNaya “to give ear to, listen to, hear” AkarNin “listening”
samAkarN “to give ear to, listen to, hear” samA “to listen to, hear”
[compound of this root and that of E.1d.1]
Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 C.34.1
IE-Old Indian káṛna “ear”
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan karəna “Ohr” (Ger.) [ear]
↓↓
Sino-Tibetan Languages African/AA languages- Close correspondences
C.35a-d Afro-Asiatic – AA –Cush. AA- Nilo- Niger-Congo
Chadic Sem. Saharan
Swadesh “foot” E. Chadic-Kera N. Omotic- NC-S.E.
C.35a.1 kampa Mocha Mande- Mwa
TB-Tibetan “Fuss, Bein” gano gãng
rkáŋ-pa “foot, leg, stem, [foot, leg] “foot, leg” “foot, leg”
stalk” Jaschke 15 Das 72 Skinner 165 Muka- NC-S.E.
[Disyllabic corresp.] rovsky Mande- Bê
gaŋ-ba / gaŋ “foot, leg” 180 gãng
Goldstein 36, 38 “foot, leg”
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] Mukarovsky
gang3 “the calf, the part of the 180
leg between the knee and the
ankle” Hakka Dict.
C.35a.2 C. Chadic- C. Khoisan-
N. Chinese-MSC / Beijing Musgu Proto-Non-
jìng “shin” sin “leg” Khoekhoe
Wu, J. 363 Stolbova, Olga *Ʒîŋ “foot”
C. Chadic Starostin, G.
Etymology 2003 17
2006
330

C.35a.1 TB-Tibetan rkáŋ-pa “foot, leg, stem, stalk”, gaŋ-ba / gaŋ “foot, leg” /
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] gang3 “the calf, the part of the leg between the knee and the ankle”
< NC-S.E. Mande- Mwa gãng “foot, leg”
C.35a.2 N. Chinese-MSC jìng “shin” / C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe *Ʒîŋ “foot, leg”
< C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe *Ʒîŋ “foot”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *gang ~ *Ʒîŋ “foot, leg”
C.35a.1
TB-Tibetan (TB-W. Tibetan- Lahoul Prov.) rkáng-pa “foot, leg” Jaschke xviii
TB-Tibetan (E. Tibetan- Khams Prov.). rkeŋ-pa “foot, leg” Jaschke xviii
N. Chinese-MSC kàn (WG) “the shin-bone” Mathews 1931, 1966 #3218 483
TB-Lepcha kâŋ “leg, foot” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
Proto-Tibeto-Burman
*(r)káŋ “leg, foot” Benedict 201
keŋ ~ r-kaŋ “leg, stalk” Benedict 142
Matisoff 2003 283, 293
TB-Karenic-Pa-O [Taungthu] kaŋ-ya “foot, leg” Benedict 142 Matisoff 2003 293
C.35a.2
Old Chinese g’ieŋ “leg, shank, shin” Karlgren GSR #831u Matisoff 2003 283, 311
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] gin1 / gin5 “the calf, the part of the leg between the knee and the ankle”
Hakka Dict.
TB- Thado keŋ “foot” Benedict 70 Matisoff 2003 283, 293
TB- Mikir keŋ / keŋri “foot” Walker 283 Matisoff 2003 283, 293
C.35a.1
S. Khoisan-Masarwa ǂno “foot” Starostin, G. 2003 17
[corresponds closely to N. Omotic-Mocha gano “foot, leg”]
C.35a.2 C. Khoisan-Cara Ʒíŋ -Danisi, Deti, Tsika Ʒîŋ “foot” Starostin, G. 2003 17
C.35a.1
South Daic-Lao bi1 kaáng2 n. “calf (lower leg)” Marcus 39 na6 kaáng2 n. “shin” Marcus 198
kaan4 ka4 n. “limb (person)” Marcus 124
/
C.35b.1 W. Chadic- Semitic- Hebrew Kanuri NC-
TB-Tibetan Hausa kaneh kàngálè / Swahili
*r-kaŋ-pa gàŋgā “stalk kàngə́le n. kanga
“foot, leg” “stem, stalk” “trunk of a (of a plant)” “stalk “cocoanut
“lower part, lower end” tree” kan (e.g. of stalk”
“base, foundation, pillar” “body of a “stand, base” millet, kangaja
Jaschke 15 person” Baltsan 164 guinea “reed”
N. Chinese-MSC Newman, corn)” Awde
gàn “trunk, main part” P. Cyffer 2000 83
Wu, J. 220 2007 69 1990 78
“stem, trunk”
Huang 128
kàn (WG)
“the trunk of a tree,
or of the body”
Mathews 1931, 1966
#3235 486
331
C.35b.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- W. Semitic-

gə̄ŋyu Hausa Burji Ethiopian-
“stalk/stem of plant” gungumèe gunda Amharic, Ge’ez
Goldstein 40 “log” “log, stump” gənd
N. Chinese-MSC Newman, P. gundáa “trunk, of a tree,
gēn n. “(of a plant or 2007 77 “trunk” log, stump,
tree) root” “(of a Sasse 1982 stem (of
structure, foot, basis, 86 flower)” Leslau
base” Boping, Y. 43 Hudson 195 1976 214
C.35b.1
N. Chinese-MSC gàn “trunk, main part” “stem, trunk”, kàn “the trunk of a tree, or of the body”
< W. Chadic- Hausa gaŋgar jikii “trunk of tree, body” “trunk of the body” /
NS-Kanuri kangále / kangə́le n. “stalk (e.g. of millet, guinea corn)”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *gaŋ- “trunk (of tree or body)” “stem, stalk”
C.35b.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gáng “the branch or stem of a plant” Chik / Ng Lam 224
N. Chinese-MSC kān (WG) “a pole, a staff, the stem of the bamboo, cane, a slender rod” Mathews
1931 #3216 ; gān “pole, staff” gân “stalk” Wu, J. 218-219 kân (WG) “the stalk of grain, straw”
Mathews 1966 #3220 483
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Lau Chunfat) gang1 “stalk, stem” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Min kan3 “trunk of a tree or of the human body” Hakka Dict.
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *keŋ ~ *r-kaŋ “leg, stalk” Matisoff 2003 283, 293
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gwang “stem (of plants)” Kwan 232 gan / gàn “root of a plant”
“a base, a foundation” Chik / Ng Lam 84, 221 “root (of plant, tooth etc.)” Kwan 443
C.35b.3 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ken1 / gen1 (Lau Chunfat) “the root of a plant, base,
foundation” Hakka Dict.
Old Chinese g’êŋ “stalk” Karlgren GSR 831u > Mandarin jìng Matisoff 2003 283
N. Chinese--MSC gêng “stalk, stem” Wu, J. 232
S. Chinese-Min keng1 “stalk, stem” Hakka Dict.
C.35b.1
N. Cushitic- Beja [Bedawi] gande “fundament” Skinner 84
Proto-E. Cushitic- *gund- ”trunk” Sasse 1982 86
C.35b.2 Proto-Highland E. Cushitic *ginde “log, stump” Hudson 195
C.35b.1
South Daic-Lao
kaán4 ka4 n. “limb (person) Marcus 124 [Disyllabic match with Hausa] ga:n2 n. “stem (plant)”
Marcus 215
IE-Sanskrit gaNDi “the trunk of a tree from the root to the beginning of its branches”
skandha “the stem or trunk of a tree” skandhin “having a big stem” “a tree”
kANDa “a stalk, stem, branch, switch” “part of the trunk of the tree whence the branches proceed”
Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 C.35b.1-2
/
C.35c.1 W. Chadic-Hausa
TB-Karenic-Pwo k’áfàa “foot”
khâ “leg, foot” “leg”
Matisoff 2003 293 Newman, P. 2007
124 Skinner 165
332
S. Chinese-Min
khâ “foot, leg, bottom”
Bodman 1987 v.2 152
Norman 243
C.35c.2 W. Chadic-Hausa
TB-Written Burmese k’(w)afa “hoof”
khwa “hoof” Skinner 165
Matisoff 2003 170
C.35c.3 W. Chadic-Hausa Cushitic- C. Khoisan-Buga, Tsua
TB-Lolo-Burmese k’ori Arbore kárè “foot”
khre “foot” “shinbone” kerker C. Khoisan-Ganda, Kua
Matisoff 2003 189 Skinner 181 “shin” kárì “foot”
Proto-Tibeto-Burman Skinner 181 C. Khoisan- Hietšware
krǝy “foot” karee “foot”
Matisoff 2003 189, 200 Starostin, G. 2003 17.
C.35c.1 TB-Karenic-Pwo khâ “leg, foot” Matisoff 2003 293 / S. Chinese-Min khâ “foot, leg, bottom”
< W. Chadic- Hausa k’áfàa “foot” “leg”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon * k’áfàa “foot” “leg”
C.35c.1
W. Chadic- Gwandara (Karshi) kápa “foot, leg” Matsushita 1972 61 ; 1974 #38 35
Proto-Chadic (Newman) *k-p- “hoof” Ehret 1995 #327 199
W. Chadic-Angas ka:p “shoe” Greenberg 62
C. Chadic-Logone ka:be “hoof” Greenberg 62
C. Khoisan-Tati ‖kabo “shoe”
S. Khoisan-|’Auni ‖abo “shoe” Ruhlen 1994 #502 63
Egyptian kap / kapu “sole of foot” Budge v. 2 786
Semitic-Hebrew kaf regel, kapot regel pl. “sole of foot” regel “foot” Baltsan 161
W. Chadic-Hausa kòofatòo “hoof” Newman, P. 2007 115
C.35c.2 W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Diri akwala “calf of leg” Skinner 181
C.35c.1 South Daic-Lao ka4 n. “leg” Marcus 121.
/
C.35d.1 C. Chadic- Bura Berber- Songhay Fulfulde
TB- Tibetan gēèŋga “a drum that is gangga Tuareg (Gao) [Fulani]
tied to the waist when played” “drum (generic ganga gàngà gàngà
Goldstein 62 [Disyllabic corresp.] term for any “drum” “petit “cask,
gāŋ “a unit for something long and drum)” Skinner tam-tam” drum”
cylindrical, e.g. a cigarette, Dict. of Bura 77 Ducroz 9 Taylor
a match” Goldstein 36 W. Chadic- Hausa Kanuri 62
N. Chinese -MSC gàngā f. gangá Yoruba
gân / gēn “cylindrical “drum” gangan
meas. for a long and thin cylindrical double-membrane Cyffer 1990 “drum”
object, e.g. a gun or a spear. drum” 56 Skinner
meas. for something long and narrow, “barrel, container” 77
e.g. yī gēn zhēn “a needle” Newman, P.
Yip, Po Ching 2004 33-34 2007 69 198
198
Note- C.35d.1 (Hausa.) The existence of the gàŋg- root with meanings of “trunk of tree” and “a long
cylindrical object” in both Beijing and Hausa (C.35b. 1, C.35b.2 and C.35d.1) shows a parallel semantic link
333

C.35d.1 TB-Tibetan gāŋ “a unit for something long and cylindrical”
< W. Chadic- Hausa gàngā n. f. “any cylindrical drum with membrane at both ends” “cylindrical or
barrel-shaped container”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *ganga “drum”
C.35d.1
C. Chadic- Glavda gánggà “talking drum” Rapp / Benzing 40
W. Chadic-Ngizim kanjau “large drum of variable pitch like hour-glass drum” Schuh 93
NS-Kanuri kungúlú “middle sized drum” Cyffer 1990 102
NC-Bagirmi ganga “drum” Skinner 77
C.35d.1 South Daic-Lao gohng1 n. “drum”, v. dti1 gohng1 “drum” Marcus 68
↓↓
C.36a-b AA-Chadic AA – AA- Nilo- Niger-
Cush. Sem. Saharan Congo
Swadesh W. Chadic-N. Bauci- Diri Kanuri NC-
“sit” ‘dùgwa “sit (down)” dəgákin- / N. Mande-
C.36a.1 Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 dəgâi Susu
TB-Tibetan 294 “remain, doxo
h̟dúg-pa W. Chadic-N. Bauci- live, stay” “sit”
“to sit, to sit down, Kariya ‘dəgwa “sit” Cyffer Muka-
to remain, to stay” “sit (down)” Jungraithmayr 1990 34 rovsky
Das 684 1994 v.2 294 327
Jaschke 277 Mukarovsky 327
[Disyllabic corresp.] Proto-W. Chadic, Proto-
East Chadic
(Jungraithmayr)
*’dəgw- “to sit down”
Ehret 1995 #189 148
Swadesh “sit” W. Chadic- Gwandara Anywa
C.36a.2 (Toni) dùŋkye / dúnce [Anuak]
Proto-TB duŋ / “squat down” dòoŋ
duk ~ tuŋ / tuk “sit” Matsushita 1974 #488 110 “to remain”
Matisoff 2003 W. Chadic-Geruma Reh 23
587, 616 túŋàá “sit (down)”
*tuŋ ~ *du.ŋ “sit” Jungraithmayr 1994
Benedict #361 78, 208 v.2 94
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] W. Chadic- Karekare
dūŋ “to sit” təŋg- / tungwu
Benedict 78 “sit (down)”
Matisoff 2003 523 Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 294
N. Chinese -MSC Chadic root
dūn “squat, stay” tɔŋ, té etc. “sit (down)”
Manser 112 Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 150
between the two concepts in both language families. These tables suggest a very old association of “tree trunk”
and “leg” One of the early uses of the drum in African cultures was in West Africa by the Niger Congo-Benue
Congo peoples. Their drums were and are long and cylindrical. Ehret 2002 48-49 (with illustration of a tension
drum). This suggests that the earliest drums in Africa were made from hollowed tree trunks.
334
“squat on the heels”

“stay” Wu, J. 171
“squat, sit on one’s
haunches” Wang, F. 119
C.36a.3 W. Chadic-Kirfi
TB- Written Burmese tìngú-wò
thuiŋ “sit” “sit (down)”
Benedict 78 Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 294
Matisoff 2003 523
C.36a.1 TB-Tibetan ‘dúg-pa “to sit., to sit down, to remain, to stay” /
< W. Chadic-N. Bauci- Diri ‘dùgwa “sit (down)”
C.36a.2 N. Chinese-MSC dūn “squat, stay” / Proto-Tibeto-Burman *tuŋ ~ *duŋ “sit”
< W. Chadic- Gwandara dùŋkye “squat down” / W. Chadic-Geruma túŋàá “sit (down)”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *tu.ŋ- ~ *’dugw- “sit, squat”
C.36a.1 TB-Tibetan h̟dug-staŋs “manner of sitting” Das 685 ;
dugdaŋ “manner/style/way of sitting” Goldstein 574
du̱gdeg “chair, stool, seat” Goldstein 574
du̱ù “existential verb (there is, there are)” “to stay, to live” Goldstein 574
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *m-dug “sit” Matisoff 2003 523
C.36a.2
TB-Bokar Adi dūŋ “sit” Matisoff 2003 523
TB- Namsang (Konyak Group) toŋ “sit” Benedict 78
[language name is Namsangia in Starostin, S.]
C.36a.1
Proto-W. Chadic *ď-gw- “sit” Skinner 59
C. Chadic–Ga’anda dukwe- “buttocks” Skinner 59
N. Cushitic- Beja [Bedawi] dūk “crupper” Skinner 59
W. Chadic- Dera d’uwoko “sit” Mukarovsky 327
All are reflexes of Jungraithmayr’s C root
NS-Kanuri dəgarám / kəndəgarám n. “dwelling place” Cyffer 34, 91
C.36a.2
W. Chadic- Angas təŋ / tòŋ “sit” Mukarovsky 327 tông “sit, remain” Foulkes 12
W. Chadic- Karekare təŋg / tungwu “sit (down)” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 294
W. Chadic-Montol th‫כ‬ŋ “sit” Mukarovsky 327
W. Chadic-Yiwom (Gerka) thəŋthəŋ / tuŋ “sit (down)” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 294
W. Chadic- Sura t‫כ‬ŋ “sit (down)” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 294
E. Mande- Bobo tàngà “sit” Mukarovsky 327
/
C.36b.1 NS-Songhay
TB-Meithei məthun “buttock” (Gao)
Matisoff 2003 500 túndè
TB-Tani-Padam-Mising [Abor-Miri] “fesse”
ko-dun “buttock, heel, rounded part” [buttock]
Matisoff 2003 452 Ducroz 226
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] tun3 “the buttocks,
the behind, the rump” Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC tùn “buttocks”
Manser pt.2 457 Wu, J. 700.
335
C.36b.2 C. Chadic- Daba

Old Chinese duwun
d’wən “buttocks” “dos” [back]
Karlgren GSR #429a,c Skinner 59
Matisoff 2003 504
C.36b.1 N. Chinese-MSC tún “buttocks”
< NS-Songhay túndè “buttock”
C.36b.2 Old Chinese d’wən “buttocks”
< C. Chadic- Daba duwun “back”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *tun- “buttocks” ~ *duwun “back”
C.36b.1
TB-Wancho chidun “heel” chi “foot” Matisoff 2003 500 [The comparison suggests that the dun
morpheme of this compound is derived from a root with an original meaning only of “buttock” or
“back” and the literal meaning of this morpheme is “buttock of the foot or back of the foot”].
S. Chinese-Min tun5 “the buttocks, the behind, the bottom, the rump” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) tyun “buttocks” Kwan 53
C.36b.2 NS-Kanuri dúwúlí n. “(vulgar) buttocks, bottom” Cyffer 1990 39 Hutchison 80
kúdúwúlí n. “bone at back above buttocks” Hutchison 80
W. Chadic-Hausa
‘duwai “buttock” Skinner 59
‘duwawu / ‘duwaiwai “buttocks” plural form of d’uwai Skinner 59 Newman P. 2007 55
dubura “anus” Skinner 50 Newman P. 2007 47
C. Chadic-Gidar dubo “back” Stolbova, Olga Central Chadic Etymology 2006
Semitic-Arabic dibir / dubur “anus” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 152
E. Cushitic-Rendille ‘dub “buttocks, backside” “behind” “tail” Pillinger 103
E. Cushitic-Somali dabo “tail” “behind” Awde 1999 27
C.36b.2 Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho du’bui “buttock” Kobayashi Table 1 #23 1
↓↓
C.37a-b Afro-Asiatic – Afro-Asiatic - Afro-Asiatic- Nilo- NC
Chadic Cushitic Semitic, Egyptian Saharan
Swadesh Proto-Chadic E. Cushitic- Egyptian Kanuri
“to die” *mwt Rendille mut / mwt mút
C.37a.1 “die” amuut “die “to die, death” ideo.
S. Chinese-Yue Jungraithmayr (used of animals Budge v.1 295 “of
(Cantonese) 1993 v.1 47 199 or humans)” Greenberg 1966 55 suddenly
muht W. Chadic- Pillinger 64, 32 Proto-Semitic dying”
“to die, death” Hausa, Proto-Afro- *mwt Hutchison
Chik / Ng Lam Gwandara Asiatic “to die” 1981 352
241 mutù “die” (Orel/Stolbova Ehret 1995 #600 312
Skinner 206 1995) West Semitic-
Matsushita *mawut “die” Ethiopian-Amharic
1972 84 Skinner 206 mut “dead”
Leslau 1976 28
199
Note- C.37a.1 (Chadic) *mwt is the root for ‘die’ in all Chadic languages and “is the most fundamental
Hamito-Semitic key word in Chadic since it occurs in all families”. Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 47
336
C.37a.2 Anywa
S. Chinese-Kejia [Anuak]
[Hakka] mùt vi.
(Meixian, Hailu) “to
mut8 “sink, drown”
submerge, die, Reh 50
dead” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue
(Cantonese)
mūht “to sink,
to drown, to be
submerged”
“to die, dead”
Chik Ng Lam 250
C.37a.3 W. Chadic- Ron E. Cushitic- Semitic-Ethiopian-
N. Chinese-MSC (Kulere) mot Rendille Geʔez
mò “die” “sterben” [to die] oomót “death mota
Wu, J. 480 Jungraithmayr (of humans or “to die”
1970 354 animals)” Greenberg 1966 55
Pillinger 240
C.37a.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) muht “to die, death”
< W. Chadic- Angas mūt “to die” / Egyptian mut “to die, death”
Approximate Sinitic etymon: *mut “to die, death”
C.37a.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) mut “to obliterate, blot out” Chik Ng 169
C.37a.1
Semitic-Akkadian mūtu “morte” [death] Skinner 206
W. Chadic-Angas mūt “to die” Foulkes 248
E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] mùùtu “mort” [death] alè mùùtu “pleurer la mort” Fêdry 137
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Zway) mūta “die” Leslau 1979 v.2 179
E. Chadic- Migama múutu “mort” [death] Jungraithmayr 1992 10
W. Chadic- Tangale mude “to die” Jungraithmayr 1991 121
Proto-Chadic *mətə (Newman) “die” Skinner 206
W. Chadic- Ngizim mə̀tú vi. “die” Schuh 106
Egyptian mwt, mt “to die” Ehret 1995 #600 312
Semitic-Arabic (Sabaean) mwt “die” Biella 269
Proto-Semitic *mawt “morte” [death] Skinner 206
C.37a.3 Semitic-Hebrew v. inf. lamoot past and pres. met fut. yamoot “(to) die”
Baltsan 544
C.37a.3
IE-Hindi murda “dead” mrtyū “death” Scudiere 41
IE-Bengali mɔra / mor jaowa / mara jaowa “die, pass away” Thompson 71, 73, 94
/
Swadesh “to die” W. Chadic- North Semitic-
C.37b.1 TB-Proto-Kiranti Bauci- Diri Arabic
mat “die, disappear” matu “die” (Iraqi)
Starostin, S. Skinner 190 maat
Kiranti Etymology “to die,
337
Proto-Tibeto-Burman E. Chadic- become dead”

*ma-t “lose, disappear” Dangaleat Dict. of Iraqi
Benedict #425 101, 203 màtè “mourir, être Arabic
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] âchevé” pt.1 53
mat “to be lost, [die, be finished] pt.2 447
to have disappeared” Fédry 110 West Semitic-
TB-Kham/Magar- E. Chadic- Lame Ethiopian-
Magari mata “die” Gurage
hma ~ hmat Skinner 190 (Masqan)
“to be lost, lose” W. Chadic- Hausa mwäta “die”
Benedict 101 ma’tō v6 Leslau 1979
ventive of mutù v.2 179
“die”
Newman, P. 2007
158
C.37b.2 E. Chadic- Lele NC-
TB-Kham/Magar-Magari ma Fulfulde
hma ~ hmat “mort” [dead] [Fulani]
“to be lost, lose” Skinner 206 māya
TB- Murmi “to die”
ma “to be lost” Taylor 136
Benedict 101
C.37b.3 Proto-Chadic Semitic-
TB-Tibetan (Newman, P.) Hebrew
méd-pa *mətə “die” met
“to be not, to exist not” Ehret 1995 #600 “die” pres.
Jaschke 415 312 “dead”
“to be not, to be without, Skinner 206 “corpse”
not to have” Baltsan 282.
Das 973
C.37b.1
TB- Proto-Kiranti mat “die, disappear”
< W. Chadic- North Bauci- Diri matu “die” /
Semitic-Arabic maat “to die”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *mat- “to die”
C.37b.1
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Lau Chunfat) mad6 “sink, disappear, go into oblivion” Hakka Dict.
TB- Garo mat “to be spent” Benedict 101
Old Chinese mi̭at “drown, extinguish, destroy” Karlgren 294b Matisoff 2003 352
C.37b.2 TB-Limbu ma.maʔ root is
-mey / -ma.- vi. “be lost, get lost” ma.siŋmaŋ “pass away, decease”
ma.maʔ “lose” van Driem 1987 464- 465
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] maʔ “to be exhausted, ended” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
C.37b.1
E. Chadic-Mubi maat “die” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2. 103
Semitic-Arabic maita “to die” Greenberg 1966 55
C. Chadic-Masa group Zime-Batna mat “die” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 103
E. Cush. Rendille umaat “die” “alternate perfective stem of amuut” Pillinger 284, 329
338

C.37b.2
IE-Sanskrit májjati “to sink, go down” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
májj “drown” “submerge” vimájj “submerge” Cologne Lexicon
↓↓
C.38a-c AA– AA –Cushitic AA- Nilo- Khoisan
Chad. Semitic etc. Saharan
C.38a.1 E. Cushitic- Egyptian S. Khoisan-!Kwi-
Old Chinese Sidamo ager ‖Xegwi
ər “famine, gō’r “thirst” “hunger” ‖o “thirsty”
esp. want of grain” Skinner 292 Budge v.1 96 Bleek 1956 581
Karlgren Proto-S. Starostin, G.
GSR #547k Cushitic *k’or 2012 18
Matisoff 2003 437 “hunger”
Skinner 292
C.38a.2 Semitic- Songhay- N. Khoisan-!Kung
S. Chinese-Min Arabic Djerma ǂo “die of
go7 “hungry, guc “hunger, go hunger”
hunger” “starve” famine” “thirst” Khoisan-Hatsa
Hakka Dict. Skinner 292 Greenberg ǂo
See also E.5a.5 Semitic- 1966 146 “die of hunger,
S. Chinese-Yue Harsusi be ill”
(Cantonese) gewē c / goc Greenberg
ò / ngò “hunger, 1966 75200
“sickness, disease” famine”
C.38a.3 Proto-Afro- West Semitic- S. Khoisan-Kwi-
C. Chinese-Wu Asiatic Ethiopian- |Xam, Batwa
ŋou6 v. “hungry, (Orel / Stolbova Gurage gōro |owa
hunger” “starve” 1995) “hunger, “thirsty”
Hakka Dict. *gorac famine” Starostin, G.
S. Chinese-Kejia “hunger” Semitic-Mehri 2003 14
[Hakka] ngo5 / Skinner 292 gəwa
ngo6 “hunger”
“hunger” “hungry” Skinner 292
Hakka Dict.
200
Note- C.38a.2-3 (Khoisan) The palatal click (ǂ) phoneme of the Khoisan-!Kung / Hatsa ǂo lexeme by itself
7
contains a velar consonant and as such corresponds to the velar initial of the C.38a.2 Chinese-Min go lexeme.
Thus in the C.38a.2 AA and NS morphemes with g- initial there is no closure of the frontal air flow, and absent the
click, only the velar ejective (plosive) of the palatal click phoneme is produced.
This contrasts with the pre-nasalized obstruent ng- of the C. 38a.3 Cantonese and Hakka forms in that the ǂo click
6
is injective (implosive) followed by a velar ejective (plosive) ;. hence in the ngo Kejia form where the click is absent as
in Chinese languages, the tip of the tongue remains in palatal contact thus closing off air flow from the mouth, then release
of the implosive alveolar lateral closure with ejection of air through the nose produces a nasalized ejective ng- sound .
For other cases of TB languages attesting only the Khoisan click as initial consonant see sets A.26.7, A.33.2
(Extended), B. 11b.3, C.1a.3, C.26a.3, C.33.3, G.11a.2 and Supplementary Tables 3 section 1.1
339
C.38a.4 E. Cushitic- See also

N. Chinese-MSC Sidamo E.5b.1
kŏukě kŏkkawa Khoisan
“thirsty” “to be hungry”
Manser 258, kŏkke shita
Chen 41 no’e
“I am hungry”
Gasparini 196
C.38a.2 S. Chinese-Min go7 “hungry, hunger” “starve”
/ Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ngo5 / ngo6 / ngo3 “hungry, hunger”
< C.38a.2 Semitic-Arabic guc “hunger, famine” / Semitic-Harsusi goc “hunger, famine”
Approximate Sinitic etymon: *go “hunger”
C.38a.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ngoh “hunger” “hungry” Kwan 227 Chik / Ng Lam 494
ngòh dóu “to collapse from hunger” Chik / Ng Lam 494
C.38a.1 NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] ko’e “morning appetite” Taylor 112
C.38a.2 NS-Kanuri ngúdu n. “thirst” ngudai adv. “without taking food” Cyffer 1990 38
E. Cushitic-Sidamo kokkawa “to be hungry” kokke shita no’e “I am hungry”201 Gasparini 196
C. 38a.3 NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] ko’ama “feel, be hungry on rising in the morning” Taylor 112
E. Cushitic-Kambata gorru “hunger” Skinner 292
C.38a.1
Altaic-Proto Tungus-Manchu *gure- “starve, be empty” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Written Mongolian ɣuriɣa / ɣuriɣu “hungry, starving“ Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
Altaic-Proto Mongolian *guri- “starve, be empty” “hungry, starving“ Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology ;
Altaic-Mongolian-Khalka guriad “hungry, starving“
Altaic-Mongolian-Buriat gurinka “hungry, starving“ Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
C.38a.2 South Daic-Lao kwan3 yak6 kow6 n. “hunger”, yak6 kow6 adj. “hungry” Marcus 107
C.38a.3 Proto-Altaic *górà “starve, be empty” http://starling.rinet.ru./c
/
C.38b.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic–Gwandara NC-Swahili
ňuŋ “to starve oneself, to go on a hunger ŋyúŋwa “hunger” nyongea
strike” “to be sick”, ill” Goldstein 438 yi ŋyúŋwa “to be hungry” “malnutri-
ñuŋnɛɛ “a fast, fasting” Matsushita 1972 91 tion”
Goldstein 842 (Cancara) yuŋwâ “hunger” Awde
smyuŋ-wa “to fast, to observe a scant diet” Matsushita 1974 #246 69 2000 184
Das 993 [Disyllabic corresp.] W. Chadic–Hausa
smyuŋ-ba “to fast, to observe a strict diet” yunwàa “hunger” “famine”
Jaschke 428 Newman, P. 2007 44 226
Skinner 292
C.38b.2 TB-Tibetan snyun-ba “to be ill, W. Chadic – Hausa
sick, indisposed” Jaschke 199 yùnwatà “be hungry”
yuŋwe “feeble, weak” Goldstein 1013 Newman, P. 2007 226
201
Note- C.38a.4 (Cushitic Extended ) kokke means “throat” in Cushitic-Sidamo and several other AA
languages. See set C.1a.1 Extended forms above. So the Semitic C.38a.2 morphemes meaning “hunger” and
having a final glottal stop are probably also derived f rom this root as the base.
The second morph -kawa of the Cushitic kokkawa lexeme corres ponds to the Arabic xawa “to be empty, to
be hungry”of the Extended section and also to the Cantonese, Khoisan and Hausa (Extended) forms of E.5a.5.
340
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) mayùnwàcī n.m. NC-Swahili

gyuhn “tired, weary” “person suffering from nyong’onya
Chik / Ng Lam 20 starvation” “to be tired”
yùhng ”indolent, lazy, idle” juhngkwan / Newman, P. 2007 154 nyong’on-
yùhngkwan “tired and indolent” Chik / Ng yeza
Lam 156 “to make
[compound of this root and that of C.38c.1] tired”
Awde 2000
184
C.38b.3 TB- Written Burmese NC-Fulanii

nyauŋ “sad, ill, achy” nyauna
Matisoff 2003 284 “to make ill,
��ŋ “to ache, be tired, cramped” to injure”
Benedict 47 nyaunādo
“injured one”
Taylor 230
C.38b.1 TB-Tibetan smyuŋ-wa “to fast, to observe a scant diet”
< W. Chadic-Gwandara ŋyúŋwa “hunger” yi ŋyúŋwa “to be hungry”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *ŋyúŋwa “hunger”
C.38b.1 Proto-Lolo-Burmese *ŋ(w)at “hungry” Matisoff 2003 332
C.38b.2
Proto-TB nyuŋ = (s-)ńuŋ “sad, tired, ill” Benedict #194 47, 205
N. Chinese-MSC yōng “weary, lethargic, languid” Wu, J. 835
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] nyuŋ “sad, dejected” Benedict 47
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) yuhngjeuhn “exhaustion” Kwan 173 yúhn “weak, feeble”
Chik / Ng Lam 446
C. 38b.2 Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) juu‫ع‬aan “hungry, starved, famished” juu‫“ ع‬hunger, starvation”
Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 80 ; (Yemeni) juuc “hunger, starvation” Qafisheh 93
↓↓
C.38c AA–Chadic AA –Cush. AA-Sem. Nilo-Saharan NC
C.38c.1 S. Chinese-Yue W. Chadic- Nuer
(Cantonese) Gwandara ŋwaaŋ
kwan ”tired, weary, ji kwana “worn out
fatigued” ”to trouble, “to feel sleepy” physically,
to worry, to harass” Matsushita tired”
Chik / Ng Lam 74 1972 55 Huffman 37
C.38c.2 N. Chinese-MSC W. Chadic-Hausa Semitic-
kùndùn “be tired out, gùnduràa vg.3 vi. Written
be exhausted” “lose interest in, Arabic
DeFrancis 522 be tired of” takuna
kùn “sleepy” Newman, P. “to wear out,
Wang, F. 289 2007 77 exhaust”
Chinese-Min khun3 “be tired” Wehr 123
“tired, weary, fatigued” Newman, R.
See also G.13a.1
341
C.38c.3 Kanuri
TB-Tibetan kûnyé / kûné
gu ñee vi. “tiredness,
“to get tired, exhausted” exhaustion”
Goldstein 56 Cyffer
[Disyllabic corresp.] 1990 102
C. 38c.4 W. Chadic-Hausa Proto-AA
TB-Tibetan kùmama *xom-
gammi gummi m.f. “person of “be sick,
“decrepit weak physical be ill”
(usually used for an old constitution” Skinner 91
person unable Newman, Ma
to get up or walk)” 1979 69
N. Chinese– “feeble person ”
MSC / Beijing Awde 1996 89
kumu-xuizu kùmantà vi.
“senile, sick person” “become feeble”
“weak and powerless” Newman, P.
kǔmèn 2007 117
“depressed, dejected”
kumu-sihui
“living corpse”
(fixed expression)”
DeFrancis 521
C. 38c.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) kwan ”tired, weary, fatigued”
< W. Chadic- Gwandara ji kwana “to feel sleepy” /
NS-Nuer ŋwaaŋ “worn out physically, tired”
C. 38c.2
N. Chinese-MSC kùn “tired, fatigued, sleepy”
< W. Chadic-Hausa gùnduràa “be tired”
C.38c.4
N. Chinese-MSC kumu-xuizu “senile, sick person” “weak and powerless”
< W. Chadic-Hausa kùmama n. m. or f. “person of weak physical constitution”
kùmantà vi. “become feeble” / W. Chadic-Dwot, Pelci *kum- “tire”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma.
*kwan- / gùn “to be tired” ~ *kum- “to become weak, to tire” “to be weakened with age”
342

C. 38c.1
C. Chinese-Wu khuəŋ 5 ”difficult, hard, poor” “tired, weary” Hakka Dict.
Chinese-MSC (WG) kwân “exhausted, worn out” Mathews #3556 525
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) kwan “drowsy, sleepy” Chik / Ng Lam 319
yùhngkwan ”tired and indolent” Chik / Ng Lam 156 [compound of this root and that of C.38b.1]
N. Chinese-MSC juàn “weary, tired” Wu, J. 373
pijywàn “tire” vi. Chen 415
C. 38c.2 N. Chinese-MSC kùn vn. “be stricken” Merriam-Webster Chinese 78
C.38.c.1 W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Warji, Dirii gwan- “sickness” Skinner 91
C.38c.2 C. Chadic-Malgwa kúde “be tired” Stolbova, Olga C.Chadic Etymology
C.38c.4 W. Chadic-Dwot, Pəlci *kum- “tire” Skinner 91
C. Chadic-Pidlimbi ngum- “tire” Skinner 91
C.39.1 IE-Bengali ghumano v. “sleep” ghum n. “sleep” Thompson 125
↓↓
C.39 AA– Chadic AA-Cushitic AA- Semitic etc. NS NC
C.39.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic–Hausa Semitic-Hebrew
ŋál ‘jug-ba gàllabàa vt. khalash
“to tire, fatigue” “worry, harass” “weak”
ngál-wa “fatigue, gàlàabaità vi. Baltsan 194
weariness” Das 351 “undergo Semitic-Arabic
ŋál-ba “be fatigued, deterioration, kall “to be or
tired, worried” suffering” become tired”
“fatigue, weariness” Newman, P. Dict. of Iraqi
Jaschke 127 2007 68 Arabic part 2 409
C.39.2 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic–Mofu-
gá-ri “dejected” Gudur gərey
Das 204 “se fatiguer”
gālεε ̀“to get tired” [get tired]
Goldstein 19 Skinner 75
C.39.3 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic–Hausa Proto-AA Egyptian
ka ceè “to be tired gàji (Orel / Stolbova khasi “an
of (sth.), to be fed “become tired” 1995) exhausted or weary
c
up” Goldstein 173 Newman, P. 2007 67 * -gaj- man” Budge v.1
gājεε “undergoing / Skinner 75 “be weak” 574
enduring hardship Kraft 342 Skinner 75 khass “to be
and difficulties” gàji dà “be tired of” *ʕ-gaʒ- feeble, sick, weak”
Goldstein 18 Newman, P. “be weak” Budge v.1 574, 570
S. Chinese-Min 2007 67 Mlitarev / Semitic-Arabic
(Xiamen) ka-che gàjiyayē “weary” Stolbova (Iraqi) ‫ع‬aajiz
“to nod in sleep, Newman, R. AA-Etymology “weak, feeble”
drowsy” Sagart 102 1990 301 2007 Dict. of Iraqi
Goldstein 299202 Arabic part 2 302
202
C.39.3 Note- In the Min citation the first syllable ka- has been considered to be a prefix. However, the PAA,
Chadic and Semitic correspondences give evidence that etymologically it is the first radical of a disyllabic root. See
also Chapter 10 Section 10.2 for more examples.
343
C.39.4 W. Chadic – Egyptian

TB-Tibetan Gwandara geh
ngee cεὲ [all dialects] “to be weak,
“to be tired, weary” gèji “to get tired” helpless”
Goldstein 299 Matsushita 1972 43 Budge v.2 812.
[Disyllabic corresp.] 1974 #491 111
Middle Chinese W. Chadic –Burma
ngej gəje “tire”
“small and weak” Skinner 75
Sagart 164 W. Chadic –Kir
gə�e “become or be
tired”
W. Chadic –Zaar
gə�I “become or be
tired” Militarev /
Stolbova
C.39.1 TB-Tibetan ŋál ‘jug-ba “to tire, fatigue, worry” ŋál-ba “be fatigued, tired, worried” “fatigue,
weariness”
< W. Chadic-Hausa gàlàabaità vi. “deteriorate due to personal hardships” “be exhausted (tired)”
C.39.3 TB-Tibetan ka ceè “to be tired of (sth.), to be fed up”
< W. Chadic–Hausa gàjii “be tired”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *gaji “be tired” ~ *gàlàaba “be exhausted, tired”
C.39.1
TB-Tibetan galε�= ka / galεε k‫כ‬āg “to get tired”
gal�� kāgnan “visibly showing signs that one is undergoing difficulty or hardship or is tired”
Goldstein 19
TB-Chin-Lushai gol “to be over-worked or overfatigued, be tired out” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
C.39.3 TB-Tibetan gá-sha “dejected” Das 205
gá-chaḏ-pa “fatigued, very tired” Das 204
C.39.1 E. Chadic-Gabri gelāle “weak” Stolbova, Olga E. Chadic-Etymology
Egyptian
gah “to rest, to be weary”
gabi “to be wretched, weak, helpless”
gabun “tired, wearied” Budge v.2 802-803
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic angálatta “toss (throw about), maltreat, handle roughly”
Leslau 1976 204
E. Cushitic-Oromo gaggabu vi. “svenire, sentirsi male, estenuarsi” [ to faint, to feel bad , be
exhausted] Borello 160 Militarev, A. Low E. Cushitic Etymology 2005
C.39.2 C. Chadic–Gisiga gar “fatigue” Skinner 75
E. Cushitic-Oromo (Borana) gargalu vi. “patire, soffrire” [to suffer] Borello 169
Semitic-Hebrew khalah v. “fell sick, was taken ill” Baltsan 194
C.39.3 W. Chadic-Hausa (Gobir dial.) àngàje “nodding from sleepiness” Matsushita 1993 117
C.39.1
IE-Bengali kahil adj. “exhausted, tired” Thompson 43,130
Kartvelian-Georgian ɣal- “to get tired” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 22
Kartvelian-Megrel ɣol- “to get tired” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 22
↓↓
344

C.40 Afro-Asiatic AA – AA- Nilo- NC
– Chadic Cushitic Sem. Saharan
C.40.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- E. Kanuri NC-Common Bantu
thu “to spit” Ron (Kulere) Cushitic- təfa “spit” *-tú “spit”
Jaschke 232 tutó “spit Sidamo Skinner Williamson/
“spittle” Das 577 (cracher)” tuhu ya, 258 Shimizu 1973
S. Chinese-Kejia Jungraithmay tutu ya Maba v.2 348
[Hakka] (Meixian) t’u r “to spit ” tuf “spit”
(Lau Chunfat) 1994 Gasparini Edgar 209
tu4 “to spit” v.2 302 318, 320
Hakka Dict.
C.40.2 Old Chinese W. Chadic- Daza
t’o “vomit, spit out” Hausa to̟fay
Karlgren GSR #62d tōfàa vt. “spit”
Matisoff 2003 173 “to spit” Skinner 258
S. Chinese-Yue Newman, P.
(Cantonese) 2007 202
tou “to spit”
Chik / Ng Lam 53
C.40.3 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Kanuri NC-Adamawa Eastern-
thulüǜ “spit” Sura tə́léle Limba tutu “saliva”
thüǜlüǜ tùs lìì “spittle” NC-Fulfulde
“spittle” “spit” “saliva” [Fulani]
Goldstein 493, 497 Jungraith- Cyffer 1990 tuta “saliva”
thu-lu “spittle” mayr 1994 173 Greenberg
Das 577 v.2 302 1966 21
C.40.4 Khoisan-Proto-Sandawe
TB-Proto-Kiranti thuka
* thuk(s-) “spit” (Kagaya)
Starostin, S. thuk’a “spit, spittle”
Kiranti Etymology203 Starostin, G.
2006-2008.
C.40.5 NC-Benue-Congo-
TB- Lepcha Akpet (Upper Cross
tyuk “spit” Group) tjùùk “spit”
dyuk “spittle” Williamson/ Shimizu
Benedict 126204 1973 v.2 349
C.40.1 TB-Tibetan thu “to spit” / S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] tu4 “to spit”
< W. Chadic–Ron tutó “spit” / NC-Fulfulde tūta “spit”
C.40.4 TB-Proto-Kiranti *thuk(s-) “spit”
203
Note-C.40.1,4-5 Tibeto-Burman languages attest both a final ending of –k and its absence. This has been
noted previously as occurring widely in AA families and ST. See notes A.14a.3 and B.25.2 . The C.40.1,3 and
C.40.5 of the above table also show the presence and absence of the –k final within the Niger-Congo group.
204
Note- C.40.1,3-5 A contrast in the Sino-Tibetan forms reviewed thus far is the absence of any root stems with
a final -f. This forms the final ending of the protoroots: Proto-Afro-Asiatic *-tuf-“to spit”, Proto-Cushitic *tuf- “to
spit” Proto-Chadic (Newman) *təfə “spit”and Proto-Semitic *tf(f) “to spit” Ehret 1995 #162 139. However two W.
Chadic forms and Cushitic-Sidamo do not contain the final –f ; so they or NC are the probable source of the ST
forms.
345
< NC-Benue-Congo-Niten tūk-ke “spit” /

Khoisan-Proto-Sandawe *thuka (Kagaya) thuk’a “spit, spittle”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *tu- ~ *thuk- “spit”
C.40.1
TB-Bodo/Garo-Dimasa thu “spit” Starostin, S. ST Etymology;
TB-Garo stu “to spit” Benedict 58
Middle Chinese thuwH “to spit as a mark of disagreement in conversation” Sagart 91
TB-Kinauri thu “spit” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
N. Chinese-MSC tu “vomit, throw up” Wu, J. 697
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) t’ui5 t’o5 “to spit” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) to / teu / tou “saliva, to spit” Chik / Ng Lam 62
C.40.2
S. Chinese-Min thô “eject, vomit” Bodman 1987 v.2 186, 208
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] mətho “to spit” Benedict 58
C. 40.3
TB-Tibetan tho-lé “to spit” Jaschke 236
TB-Kiranti-Limbu thεʔl n. “spit, saliva” van Driem 1987 531
C. 40.4
TB-Kiranti-Limbu thokmaʔ “spit at a distance” “spew” van Driem 1987 534
Proto-Tibeto-Burman
(m-)tuk ~ (s-)tu.k ~ s-)du.k “spit, vomit, spittle”
Benedict 58, 75, 146, 208
C.40.1
Proto-Afro-Asiatic (Orel Stolbova 1995) tuf- “spit” Skinner 258
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] tūta “spit, vomit” tūde “spittle” Taylor 199
Proto-Chadic (Newman, P. ) *təfə / tufə “spit” Skinner 258
NS-Songhay (Gao) tufa “spit” Edgar 209 “cracher” Ducroz 226
C. Chadic- Logone tufa “spit” Greenberg 1966 62
E. Chadic-Mubi tuffa “spit” Greenberg 1966 62
Proto- Cushitic *tuf- “spit” Ehret 1995 #162 139
C.40.3 Nilo-Saharan-Kanuri təɬìn “mucus” Lukas 1937 245
C.40.4 NC-Benue-Congo-Niten (Plateau 3 group) tūk-ke “spit” Williamson / Shimizu 1973 v.2 349
NC-Benue-Congo-Banggangte (Mbam-Nkam (Bamileke) tɔg- “spit”
NC-Benue-Congo-Fe’ tək “spit” Williamson / Shimizu 1973 v.2 346
C.40.5 Semitic-Arabic jabsʕuku (IPA) “spit” v. Merriam-Webster Arabic 149
C.40.1 IE-Sanskrit Sthu “to spit out” thUthU “imitative sound of spitting” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Bengali thuthu “spittle, saliva” Thompson 56
See also Supplementary Table 2 C.40.1
C.40.1-2
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali thu: / tho: “spit”
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari thu: dǝ’ʔa “spit” Kobayashi Table 3 #12 7, 13
C.40.4
IE-Hindi tūknā “spit” vt. / vi. Scudiere 259
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish tükür- “to spit” / Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz tükür- “to spit”
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur tükür- “to spit” / Altaic-Turkic-Khakassian tükür- “to spit”
Altaic-Turkic-Oyrat tükür- “to spit” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
IE-Pashto (Pushtu) ttukh “a cough, an expectoration” Raverty 287
346
↓↓
ST Languages African/AA languages- Close
correspondences
C.41a-c AA – AA –Cushitic AA- NS NC
Chadic Sem.
C.41a.1 Cushitic- Rendille
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) miín
mìhn “face of a person” “surface, side” “forehead”
Chik / Ng Lam 487 miínsán
Kwan 179 “pointed towards”
mihn deui “face each other” Pillinger 224-225
“face to face” Kwan 179 miínsáda
S. Chinese-Min (Shàowû) “(to) head for a place”
5
min “face” miínicha “direct
(Meixian) mìen5 “face, side, direction” (something or
(Hailu) mìan5 “face” Norman 240 someone) towards,
point (someone or
something towards)”
Pillinger 224-225
C.41a.1
S. Chinese-Min bīn “face” “surface, side, direction” Bodman 1987 v.2 122 ;
(Taiwanese) bīn “face” Bodman 1983 79, 147
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) -bihn / -mihn “side” Chik Ng Lam 458 Kwan 477-478
C.41a.1 E. Cushitic-Oromo mili-accu “voltarsi verso, voltar la faccia” [turn toward, turn the face]
Borello 304
/
C.41b.1 Proto-AA Semitic- Hebrew
S. Chinese-Yue *yamin- yameen “right hand” Baltsan 449
(Cantonese) “right side” Semitic-Judaic Aramaic
yauhmìhn [Orel / Stolbova] yammīnā m. “right side, right hand”
“right” Skinner 289 Militarev / Stolbova
Kwan 438 *yamin- Proto-Semitic
[Disyllabic corresp.] “right hand” *yamin- / *yaman- “right, right hand”
N. Chinese-MSC Militarev / Stolbova Militarev, A. Semitic Etymology 2006
yòuhmìan Afroasiatic Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi)
“the right side” Etymology yamiin m. “right, right side”
Wu, J. 844 205 2007 Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 1 151 part 2 508
ala al yameen (IPA) “right hand” adj.
Merriam Webster Arabic 131
205
Note- C.41b.1
The Chinese languages have inherited and preserved a compound of two Afro-Asiatic roots, min- “direction”
(C.41a) and *yam- “right hand” “west” (C.41b). The associated AA semantics of “evening, afternoon” and
”west” reflect an originsl derivation of the direction “west” from the position of the sun in that direction in the
later part of the day.
Hence the semantics of “right hand” and “right” imply that the speaker is using south as the base cardinal point
(facing south so that one’s right side is toward the west ). This is clearly the case in Egyptian, i.e. when sailing
south on the Nile the west bank is on the right side of the boat. For example the amen “right side, west” and
amen-t “the west bank of the Nile and the land westwards” Budge v.1 53 (Egyptian C.41b.2 Extended)
347

C.41b.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) yauhmìhn “right”
< Proto-Afro-Asiatic *yamin- “right side” / Semitic- Arabic yamiin “right, right side” /
Semitic- Hebrew yameen “right hand”
Approximate Sinitic etymon: *yamin- “right, right side, right hand”
C.41b.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) yauhsáu “right-handed” Kwan 438 sáu “hand” (C.21b.5)
N. Chinese-MSC youhshôu “the right hand” Wu, J. 844
TB-Tibetan yεὲ “right (side)” Goldstein 1011
C.41b.2
Proto-Semitic *yamīn- / *yamān “right, right hand” Militarev / Stolbova
Semitic-Hebrew yemeen “right (hand)” yemeenah adv. “(to the) right” “keep right!”
Baltsan 454, 723
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharicyâme’arab “west” adj. Leslau 526
W. Chadic-Hausa yâmma “west” n.f. yâmmā “afternoon” Newman, P. 2007 223
Proto-W. Chadic *ʔama / *yama “arm” “westwards” Militarev / Stolbova
W. Chadic-Ron (Fyer) yaŋŋo “Abend” [evening] Skinner 289
Egyptian amen “the right hand, right side” “western” Budge v.1 53 “right side, west”
Skinner 289 Tu Amenu “Hill of the West” “name of a cemetery” Budge v.2 869 tu “hill”
C.41b.2 IE-Sanskrit yamya “the right hand” Cologne Lexicon
/
C.41c.1 W. Chadic-Hausa Fulfulde
N. Chinese-MSC / Beijing b’angarèe [Fulani]
biàn n. “side” “border, frontier, boundary” “side (area within a bangēre /
Wu, J. 36 “edge” “side” whole)” bangēji
Wang, F. 33 a wannàan b’angarèn “place, region,
-bianr gàarin environs, borders,
“suffix localizer to form place word” “on this side of town” direction”
Wang, F. 33 Norman 162 Newman, R. 1990 245 Taylor 11
biānjiè “border” n.
Merriam-Webster Chinese 8
C.41c.1 N. Chinese-MSC biàn n. “side” “border”
< W. Chadic-Hausa b’angarèe “side (area within a whole)” /
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] bangēre / bangēji “place, region, environs, borders,
Approximate Sinitic etymon: *b’angarèe “side” “border”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) bihn “side (border)” Chen 358
bihngaai “the national boundary” Chik / Ng Lam 458
N. Chinese-MSC
piànshī “wing or flank of an army” Wu, J. 518
wàibian “outside, out” Wu, J. 705
páng “side” Wu, J. 509
pàngbiān “side” adv. “beside” Merriam-Webster Chinese 99
De Francis 968 [compound of this root and that of C.12b.1
C.41c.1 E. Chadic-Lame mbəlaŋ “coté, profil” (Fr.) [side, profile] Skinner 163.
↓↓
348

C.42 AA – Chadic AA – AA- Nilo-Saharan NC
Cush. Sem.
C.42.1 W. Chadic- Ngizim Songhay (Gao)
TB-Tibetan zə̀ngàgád zùngútù
z̀uŋ- z̀uŋ “dozing off, “hochement de la tête
“to nod or bow repeatedly, nodding from de haut en bas”
of a pigeon” drowsiness” [nodding of the head
Jaschke 477 Schuh 181 down]
shung-shung W. Chadic- Hausa zùntù
“to nod or bow repeatedly, sunkùyā “bend over, “être baissé, être
of a pigeon” Das 1073 stoop down, bow incliné, être la tête en
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] down” bas” [[to be bent down,
(MacIver) Newman, P. 2007 190 to have the head
1
chun “doze, nap, nod” “bend down, stoop, down]
Hakka Dict. bow” Skinner 237 Ducroz 249
C.42.1 TB-Tibetan z̀uŋ- z̀uŋ “to nod or bow repeatedly, of a pigeon”
< Songhay zùngútù “nodding the head up and down”
Approximate Tibetan etymon: *zung- “nodding the head up and down”
C.42.1
W. Chadic-Hausa sùnkwiye “bent over, stooped” Kraft 361
C. Chadic-Gude zənkut- “nod head” Skinner 237
E. Chadic-Migama zòonò “baisser la tête” [lower the head] Jungraithmayr/ Adams 137
Nilo-Saharan-Kanuri sə́mngin “lower, bring down, drop (a load from one’s head”, “bend or lower
(head) in deep thought or meditation” Cyffer 1990 157
↓↓
C.43 AA - Chadic AA- AA- Nilo-Saharan NC
Cushitic Sem.
C.43.1 TB-Tibetan E. Cushitic- Songhay (Gao)
khogs “cough” Oromo kogótò
khogs-pa “to cough” kokorsa n. “tousser”
Jaschke 43 “tosse [to cough]
S. Chinese-Kejia convulsa” Ducroz 152
[Hakka] (MacIver) [whooping
kok8 “cough” cough]
(Lau Chunfat) gog5 Borello 236
“cough” Hakka Dict.
C.43.2 W. Chadic – Cushitic- Songhay NC-Mande
Proto- TB Hausa Oromo (Koyra) kaki “glaire,
ka’k ~ kâk kàakī m. qakkee kaaku “clear crachat”
“cough up, phlegm” “spit out “whooping one’s throat, [phlegm,
Benedict 71, 184 mucus” cough” hawk” spittle]
TB- Chin- Mikir tshing Skinner 133 Gragg 314 Heath v.1 154 Skinner 133
khak “clear throat, Nuer
phlegm, sputum” kak “to clear
TB-Chin-Lushai one’s throat”
kha.k “phlegm” Huffman 23
349
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu W. Chadic – Anywa

kha.koma Hausa kʌ̀ʌk
“to scrape one’s throat” yi kàakī “to cough
“to hawk up” “clear one’s something up”
Benedict 71 throat” Reh 33, 94
S. Chinese-Yue Newman, P. kʌ̀gé
(Cantonese) 2007 105 “sputum”
gaak “a hiccup or Reh 34, 126
hiccough”
Chik / Ng Lam 67
C.43.1 TB-Tibetan khogs “cough” / S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) kok8 “cough”
< NS-Songhay kogótò “to cough”
C.43.2 Proto- Tibeto-Burman ka’k ~ kâk “cough up, phlegm”, S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] kok8
“cough”
< W. Chadic–Hausa kāki “spit out mucus”, kàakii n.m. “phlegm from throat” / Semitic-Arabic
kat’t’ “to cough” / NS-Songhay kogótò “to cough”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *kog- “to cough” ~ *ka’k / kak- “cough up (phlegm)”
C.43.2
TB-Kiranti-Limbu khākw “phlegm, coughed up sticky mucus” Starostin, S. Limbu Dict.
Proto-Tibeto-Burman, TB-Chin-Lushai *ha:k “hawk, gag, choke” Matisoff 2003 325
TB-Written Burmese hak “hawk, gag, choke” Matisoff 2003 325
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) kat7 “cough up” Ramsey 102
N. Chinese-MSC kà “cough up” Wu, J. 379
C.43.2 C. Chadi –Dangaleat [Dangla] kāke “cracher”(un gros crachat de morve)” [spit out mucus]
Fédry 271
C. Chadic-Buduma (Yedina) káhàge “cough” v. Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology
W. Chadic-Gwandara kákàre “to clear one’s throat for spitting phlegm” Matsushita 1972 60
E. Chadic–Bidiya kāk “s’ėclaircir la gorge” [to clear the throat] Skinner 133
E.Cushitic-Oromo qaké “tosse, tisi” Borello 332
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) kat’t’ “to cough” qat’t’ “cough” Qafisheh 510, 511
(Iraqi) ga / ‫حح‬ga‫ح‬ga‫“ ح‬to cough” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 384
E. Cushitic-Afar khòcc-exce “cough [tousser]” Parker / Hayward 149
C.43.2 Sanskrit khat “the sound made in clearing the throat” Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2 C.43.2
↓↓
C.44 Afro-Asiatic AA –Cushitic AA- Nilo-Saharan NC
– Chadic Sem.
C.44.1 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Gedeo Daza hamer v.
TB-Chin-Lushai Hausa hamuum-at “bailler”
hām “to gape, yawn” hammàa v. “yawn” [to yawn]
Starostin, S. “yawning” Hudson 244 Jourdan 32
ST Etymology Newman, P. Tubu [Teda], Daza
TB-Kiranti-Limbu 2007 85 ham-
khamma vi. “yawn” “to yawn”
van Driem 1987 442 Skinner 104
350
S. Chinese-Yue E. Cushitic- Somali Nuer ŋam-

(Cantonese) hamaansi “to open, as open
da haamlòuh “to yawn” “yawn” mouth, to yawn”
Kwan 577 Awde 2009 34 Huffman 36
C.44.2 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic- Songhay
(W. Tibet) ha “a yawn” Gisiga ha ha ba
Jaschke 595 ha ham “yawning”
N. Chinese-MSC hāqian “to yawn” Skinner 104
“yawn” Wu, J. 262 Skinner 104
C.44.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) da haamlòuh “to yawn” / TB-Lushai hām “to gape, yawn”
< W. Chadic – Hausa hammaa “yawning” / NS- Daza hamer “to yawn”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *ham- / ha “to yawn”
C.44.1 TB-Jingpho kekhám “yawn” Matisoff 136
C.44.2 TB-Tibetan ha “breath” ha debs-pa “to breathe” Das 1325
C.44.1 W. Chadic-Gwandara hámma “yawning” i hámma “to yawn” Matsushita 1972 49
W. Chadic-Hausa hám ideo. “widely gaping” Skinner 104
Nilo-Saharan-Anywa [Anuak] àám “to yawn (once) Reh 1
C.44.2 W. Chadic-N. Bauci Group, C. Chadic-Mafa Mada Group *ham- “yawning” Skinner 104
W. Chadic-Gwandara hakyi “gasping” “to pant, to gasp” Matsushita 1972 48
↓↓
C.45 AA – Chadic AA –Cush. AA-Semitic NS NC
C.45.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – E. Kanuri NC-N.
phu debs-pa Hausa fūra / Cushitic- fu- “blow” Mande-
“to blow, to puff” hūra Afar Hutchison Bozo
phu-ba “perfect tense “blow” fuufe 1981 59 puu
of bud-pa “to blow” Skinner 113 “blow, “blow”
“colloquially used for E. Chadic – breathe” Mukarovsky
the latter” Jaschke 342 Kera Parker/ 103
[Disyllabic corresp.] fuuli “blow” Hayward
S. Chinese-Yue Mukarovsky 105, 202
(Cantonese) 103 See also
fù “to exhale” B.10.1
Chik / Ng Lam 57
C.45.2 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- West
TB-Tibetan Gwandara Oromo Semitic-
‘bud-pa pf. phus búsa buufa vt. Ethiopian-
imp. phu “to blow “blowing” “blow Gurage
either with the mouth Matsushita (bellows)” buufa
or be blown by the 1972 28 Gragg 72 “bellows”
wind” W. Chadic – afuufa vt. Leslau
Jaschke 342, 393 Diri “blow” 1963 40
“to blow” Das 919 fútshù Gragg 10
TB-Mikir “blow” “blow (on
but “blow” Jungraith- fire)”
Walker 208 mayr 1994 Hudson 29
v.2 32
351
C.45.3 TB-Tibetan E. Chadic– Omotic- Maba Group-

puugyaa Mokulu Mocha Masalit
“to blow” pūke pùg “to fu-ig
Goldstein 680 “respirer” blow” “blow”
dbugs [breathe] Ehret 1995 Edgar 161
“breath, respiration” Skinner #73 102
Jaschke 388 113 48
C.45.1 TB-Tibetan phu-ba “to blow, to puff, to inflate” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) fù “to exhale”
< Proto-Cushitic *fur- “puff, blow” / Kanuri fu- “blow”
C.45.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dbugs “breath, respiration”
< E. Chadic–Mokulu pūke “respirer” [breathe] / Proto-E. Cushitic *fug’ “to inhale, exhale”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *fu- “blow” / *fug- “breathe” “to inhale”
C.45.2 TB-Tibetan phu-wa “to blow” Das 823
C.45.1 NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] fūfa “blow, play a wind instrument” Taylor 59
Proto-Cushitic (Ehret) *fur- “puff, blow” Skinner 113
Nilo-Saharan-Kanuri fúu ideo. “of blowing of wind” Hutchison 1981 349
Songhay (Djenne, Koyra, Gao) fúusù / fúsù “blow, exhale forcefully” Heath v.1 94, v.2 70
“souffler, enfler” Ducroz 94
S.E. Mande-Guro fúlu-fε “blow” ; -Yaure furu-fê “blow” Mukarovsky 103
NC-N.Mande-Bozo Dia, Bambara fulu “blow” Mukarovsky 103
E. Cushitic-Rendille afuufa “blow (something) away” Pillinger 62
E. Cushitic-Burji ufu(u)f- “blow” Hudson 29, 224
E. Cushitic-Sidamo ufuufa- “to blow into a musical instrument” Gasparini 333, Hudson 29
E. Cushitic-Somali afuuf “blow” Awde 1999 21
C.45.2 W. Chadic-Hausa búusàa “blow” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 32
C.45.3 Omotic-Yem pùg “ to blow etc.” Ehret 1995 #73 102 –Janjero fùga “blow” Skinner 113
Proto-E. Cushitic *fug’ “to inhale, exhale” Ehret 1995 #73 102
Proto- W. Chadic (Jungraithmayr) *pk “to blow” Ehret 1995 #73 102
W. Chadic–Ron (Bokkos) fu’ “blasen” [blow] Jungraithmayr 1970 141
C.45.1 S. Daic-Lao bpo2 v. “blow” Marcus 33
C.45.2 IE-Sanskrit phut, phūt “an onomatopoetic imitative sound made by blowing or puffing into
liquids or by the boiling or bubbling of water” phutkara “blowing, puffing, hissing”
phutKRta “puffed, blown etc.” Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 C.45.2
↓↓
ST Languages African languages-Close correspondences
C.46 AA – Chadic AA–Cush. AA—Sem. NS NC, Khoi.
C.46.1 W. Chadic-Hausa Semitic-Arabic
S. Chinese-Yue nitsèe vg.4 (Iraqi) nis’a
(Cantonese) (completive, “to sink down”
nik / niksei separative) “sink, Dict. of Iraqi
“to drown” vanish under water, Arabic part 2
Chik / Ng Lam 267 drown” 460
[Disyllabic corresp.] Newman, P. 2007
162206
206
Note- C.46.1 (Chadic-Hausa) In Cantonese both the basic form nik and the disyllabic niksei mean “drown”.
Niksei, however, could be interpreted literally as “die by drowning” since the –sei syllable means “die” (as the -sî
352
N. Chinese-MSC nits- / nuts-

nìsî vi. “abate, sink, vanish”
“to be drowned Skinner 209
(person, animal)”
Merriam-Webster
Chinese 240
C.46.2 E. Chadic-Migama N. Proto-N.
S. Chinese-Yue núud’yo Cushitic- Khoisan
(Cantonese) “enfoncer, plonger” Bedauye *|nòí
niuh Jungraithmayr / [Bedawi] “drown”
“to drown” Adams 110 nu’ Starostin,
Chik / Ng Lam 267 W. Chadic- Hausa “senken, G.
nutsèe “sink, sinken 2003 14
vanish under water, lassen”
drown” [sink, let
Newman, P. 2007 163 sink]
nits- / nuts- Reinisch
“abate, sink, vanish” 178
Skinner 209
C.46.3 NC-
TB-Tibetan Fulfulde
nub-pa [Fulani]
“to fall gradually, nufa
to sink, “sink in”
to sink in, Taylor 151
to go down,
to set (sun, moon)”
Jaschke 305
TB-Lepcha
nûp “to be covered
with water”
Benedict 75
syllable does in MSC). In Hausa the basic form is nitsáa which means “settle down” but also “sink, vanish under
water, drown” as also in the completive nitsèe vg.4. The completive aspect expresses totality, finality, i.e.
completion of an action, do something thoroughly” and often also the notion of loss or separation > “deprivative /
separative”. Newman, P. 2000 648-649. Both ideas are involved in the concept of drowning, Hence the proposed
Chinese cognates may have possibly retained the full disyllabic Hausa morpheme, but with the development of the
written character-based language, the character sei for “die” was used to stand for what was originally the tsèe final of
a disyllabic Hausa verb grade. See Chapter 10 section 10.2.1.2 verb grade 4 for examples of ST-Sinitic lexemes which
match both syllables of a Hausa grade 4 verb. Moreover Metthews / Yip point out that in Cantonese sei is used to
mark “extent”, e.g. douh “degree, to the extent that sei “literally ‘to death” , hence “yauh-chin dou sei” literally
means “have money till die”. This usage also matches the sei meanng of “used as an intensve or superlative” Chik
/ Ng/ Lam 241. See Newman, P. 2000 468-369. Nevertheless the interpretation of Cantonese niksei as primarily
cognate to Hausa nitsèe vg.4 appears tobe the more likely one.
353

C.46.1
N. Chinese-MSC nìsî “drown” vi. / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) nìksei “drown”
< W. Chadic- Hausa nitsee vi. “sink” “drown (sink into)” “vanish into water”
Approximate Sinitic etymon: *nitsee vi. “sink, drown”
C.46.1 N. Chinese-MSC nì “drown” Wu, J. 495 Old Chinese niekm “sink, drown” Benedict 180
C.46.3 Proto-TB *nip ~ *nup “sink, submerge” Matisoff 2003 370
C.46.1 W. Chadic Hausa nitsòo n. m. “swimming under water” Newman, P. 2007 163
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) nizal “to descend, go down, come down” “to fall, sink, drop, go down”
“to go down, abate, subside” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 455
C.46.2 Proto-Cushitic (Ehret) *noc- “sink” Skinner 209
E. Chadic- Masa Group-Lame no’o “plonger dans quelque chose” Skinner 209
C.46.1 IE- Sanskrit nikRS “to draw or drag down” “to be borne down by the stream of a river” nihrs
“sink” nisad “to sink or go down” nitan “cause to go or grow downward” Cologne Lexicon.
See also C.37b.1 Sanskrit and Supplementary Table 2 C.46.1
The following tables are composed of morphemes denoting diseases, e.g. measles, smallpox, which
cause fever or skin rashes/pustules.
C.47a-b Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA– AA- Nilo-Saharan NC
Cush. Sem.
C.47a.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Hausa Songhay
ɣyan-pa “a cutaneous (Kano dial.) gyante
eruption” Jaschke 517 k’yândā n.f. “sickness,
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) “the rash of chickenpox, be sick”
ján / chán “rashes, measles” Skinner 121
eruptions” Matsushita 1993 287
Chik / Ng Lam 309 zanzanā “smallpox
chán “rash (skin)” marks” Newman, R.1990
Kwan 401 40, 249
C.47a.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Hausa Songhay-(Gao)
tsanɛɛ‫“כ‬illness due to heat tsankī m. “stomach spasm, záŋéy “être
or fever” “sunstroke” colic” malade” [be
207
Goldstein 870 jantè ailing, be sick]
[Disyllabic corresp.] “a cold with fever” Newman Ducroz 42
N. Chinese-MSC , P. Heath v.3 334
zhángli “communicable 2007 97, 205 (Dendi) zaŋŋay
subtropical diseases, such as Skinner 121 “maladie” (Fr.)
pernicious malaria etc.” [disease]
Wu, J. 879 Zima 266
207
Note C.47a.2 (Tibetan) The Tibetan and Hausa semantics of “heat, fever” suggest that this root is derived
from a similar root meaning “hot, heat” as in B.11f.1 TB-Tibetan tshan / san “hot, warm”.
Wang reports a related Beijing morpheme shang as in shang-huo “get indigestion, sore throat, headache or
some other discomfort from spice or very rich food” Wang, F. 405. This root refers to mustard in B.11f.1 Semitic-
Amharic and hot foods/ spices in several related B.11d.5 tsaw forms. Chinese traditional medicine also seems to
attribute the rashes and pock marks of some contagious diseases (measles, smallpox) to similar rashes produced by
food allergies both denoted by the jan / chán root.
354

C.47a.1 TB-Tibetan ɣyan-pa “a cutaneous eruption, akin to the itch” /
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ján / chán “rashes, eruptions”
< W. Chadic- Hausa k’yân- “measles”
C.47a.2 TB-Tibetan tsanɛɛ‫“כ‬illness due to heat or fever” “sunstroke”
< NS-Songhay záŋéy “be ailing, be sick”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *k’yân- “measles”~ záŋéy “be ailing, be sick”
C.47a.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jánji “measles, carbuncle” Chik / Ng Lam 309
fùngchán “measles” Kwan 290
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Lau Chunfat) zin1 zan2 “pustules, rash, fever” Hakka Dict.
C.47a.2
N. Chinese-MSC zhānrân “be infected with, be contaminated with” Wu, J. 873
zhên “rash ; zhênzi “measles” Wu, J. 887 Huang 553 ; chên “pustules of any kind, a rash or
eruption” “measles, various kinds of fever” Mathews 1966 #303 37 ch’ên “a fever characterized by
sores” Mathews 1966 #343 42 zhēng “disease, illness” Manser pt.2 577.See also B.11f.1
TB-Tibetan jaŋ “to have diarrhea” Goldstein 393
C.47a.1 W. Chadic-Hausa (Kano) k’yândā f. “measles, chickenpox, German measles, gastro-
enteritis. Strictly it is the rash of these diseases”. Matsushita 1993 287 k’yânk’yanaa “measles”
Newman, P. 2000 513
W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Warji, N. Bauci-Diri gwan- “sickness” Skinner 91
E. Cushitic-Oromo qannara n. “piaga tropicale” [tropical disease / plague] Borello 336
E. Cushitic-Rendille khannáat “sickness, disease” Pillinger 189
C.47a.2 W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic ĉänäfär “pestilence, plague” Leslau 1976 109
/
C.47b.1 TB-Tibetan ňaŋ Kanuri yángeba NC-Fulfulde (Fulani)
“to have diarrhea” Goldstein 431 “severe fatal type of nyau layangu
N. Chinese-MSC yàng “ailment, dysentery” “contagious disease”
illness” Wu, J. 801 Cyffer 1990 188 Taylor 122
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: ya̱ng “ severe illness”
↓↓
ST languages African/AA languages- Close Correspondences
C.48 AA – Chadic AA – Afro-Asiatic- Nilo-Saharan NC
Cushitic Semitic
C.48.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- West Semitic- Songhay (Koyra)
mdzár-ra / Hausa Oromo Ethiopian-Harari masar / mashar
mdzer-ré màshashařā sariti mašša “smallpox”
(Ladaki) / masassařa “infezione “kind of disease Heath v.1 197
“pitted with small “fever, cutanea” with swelling” (Djenne)
pox, pock-marked, smallpox” “eczema Leslau 1963 108 “itchy rash”
warty, blotchy” Skinner 198 umido” “from Galla Heath v.2 146
Jaschke 462208 “fever” [skin [Oromo] (Gao) masańì /
N. Chinese-MSC “cold sores” infection, màzàli / màzàlíà
mázi “pock mark” Newman, P. eczema] “migraine”
Wang, F. 327 2007 152209 Borello 370 Ducroz 174-175
208
Note- C.48.1 (Tibetan) Based on the comparison the Tibetan initial / m / is not a prefix but the result of a
contraction of a first radical, *ma-.
355
C.48.2 S. Chinese- E. Cushitic- Semitic-Arabic Songhay

Yue (Cantonese) Oromo (Iraqi) (Gao)
màh “measles, maaree mašxuut màskàlà
leprosy” “kind of “scratched, “syphilis, chancre
Chik / Ng Lam 311 smallpox marred, marked, syphilitiques,
N. Chinese-MSC (attacks scarred” maladies
má “pocked, pock- cattle and Dict. of Iraqi veneriennes”
marked, pitted”, humans)” Arabic 237 Ducroz 174
Wu, J. 452 Gragg 271
C.48.3 shâsshàutā
N. Chinese-MSC “cut tribal or
shazi decorative
“measles” scarifications
Wu, J. 591210 on s.o.”
Newman, P.
2007 184;
C.48.1 TB-Tibetan mdzár-ra “pitted with small pox” /
< NS-Songhay mashar “smallpox” / W. Chadic- Hausa màshasshař- “fever, smallpox”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *mashar “smallpox”
C.48.1 TB-Kiranti-Limbu dzɔro “fever” van Driem 1987 416
TB-Tibetan mdzer-pa “knot, excrescence of the skin” Jaschke 463
C.48.2 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ma2 “leprosy, measles” “pockmark” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) màchán “measles” Kwan 290 Chik / Ng Lam 309 591
[a compound of this (the ma root) and the C.47a.1 chán root]
N. Chinese-MSC màzhên “measles” Merriam-Webster Chhinese 298
[a compound of this (the ma root) and the C.47a.2 zhên root]
C. 48.1 E. Cushitic-Rendille charccháaréh / chaccháaréh “spotted, piebald, multicoloured
(referring either to several items, or to a single item covered all over with many colours)” Pillinger 83
NS-Kanuri sharshara “striped” Cyffer 1990 160
Semitic-Hebrew saretet “scar (mark)” Baltsan 729
C. Chadic- Hurza madzahɫ-d’ay “fever” Skinner 198
NS-Songhay (Dendi) màsássàʀa “maladie legere (rhume, grippe, etc.) Zima 266
(Koroboro) mašša “measles” Heath v.3 222 (Gao) màzàlí “migraine” Ducroz 175
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) maššag “to become rough or chapped” [skin] Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 439
NS-Songhay (Koroboro) čaarey “be striped, be multicolored, variegated” Heath v. 3 62
C.48.3 W. Chadic-Hausa shâsshāwàa “decorative markings on face or body (esp. on women)”
Newman, P. 2007 184 (Daura dial.) shasshāwà f. “any tattooing on any part of the face, neck,
body” Matsushita 1993 51
E. Cushitic-Oromo sarara “riga” [stripe, streak], “striscia” [stripe, streak] Borello 369
209
Note- C.48.1 (Chadic-Hausa) Ehret has constructed AA and Cushitic proto-forms from Cushitic/Omotic
reflexes which Skinner considers cognate to the Chadic forms, but these have semantics of “disturbance” or “to be
drunk’, i.e. E. Cushitic- Somali mashaqo “turbamento”, Proto- E. Cushitic *macc- “to be drunk”,
Omotic *maš “to be drunk”. See Ehret 1995 #573 301 and Skinner 198. The present table includes only the
forms which refer to disease rashes and/or body marks resulting from scarification.
210
Note- C.48.3 (N. Chinese (Beijing) shazi “measles” appears to be either the result of a reduction of this first radical
ma- to ø-, or inheritance of the variant Semitic, Chadic, or Cushitic (Extended) sha- /ca- forms which also lack the
ma- initial.
356

C. 48.1 IE-Pashto sharaey “the measles, a slight cutaneous eruption” shari niwal “to take or fall sick
of the measles, to get the measles” Raverty 651
IE-Sanskrit masuraka “eruption of lentil-shaped pustules, smallpox” masuri “a kind of smallpox”
sara / zara “motley, speckled” saraGga “having colour or having a dappled body” “of a variegated
colour, dappled, spotted” “(of doubtful derivation)” Cologne Lexicon.
↓↓
C.49 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA – AA- NS NC
Cush. Sem.
C.49.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Hausa gùmī “perspiration, sweat”
ŋǖǖmə “sweat, “hot, humid weather” Newman, P. 2007 77
perspiration” “sweat, heat, hot weather” Skinner 91
[Disyllabic corresp.] W. Chadic- Glavda nggudəfa “sweat”
nüü “to sweat” Rapp / Benzing 72
Goldstein 318-319 Proto-AA [Orel/ Stolbova] *hum- /
*k’um- “sweat, heat” Skinner 91
C.49.1 TB-Tibetan ŋǖǖmə “sweat, perspiration”
< W. Chadic- Hausa gùmī “perspiration, sweat”
Approximate Tibetan etymon: *gùmī “perspiration, sweat”
C.49.1 W. Chadic-Hausa yi gùmī “perspire” mai gùmī “hot (of temperature)”
Newman, R. 1990 126, 198
↓↓
C.50 AA –Chadic AA – AA- NS NC
Cush. Sem.
Swadesh “tooth” W. Chadic- Deno Maba NC-N. Mande-
C.50.1 TB-Tibetan so “tooth” oşo Group- Malinke
Jaschke 578 Das 1280 “tooth” Aiki sori
Hodge 26 “teeth” Mukarovsky sòwátar “wisdom
TB- Mikir so “tooth” Walker 438 378 “canine tooth”
TB-Qiangic-Pumi Dayang tooth,” Mukarovsky
şóu “tooth” Matisoff 2003 171 Edgar 383 378
C.50.2 Written Burmese W. Chadic- NC-S.E.
swâ “tooth” Matisoff 2003 167 Mangas Mande-
TB-Bhramu, Murmi şwoo Busa
swa “tooth” Benedict 106 “tooth” soa
Proto-Tibeto-Burman Mukarovsky 378 “tooth”
*s-wa “tooth” Benedict 106, Mukarovsky
209211 Matisoff 2003 167, 613 378
C.50.2 Written Burmese swâ “tooth” / TB-Thebor soa “tooth”
< Maba Group-Aiki sòwátar “canine tooth” / NC-S.E. Mande- Busa soa “tooth”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon: *sowa- “tooth”
211
Note- C.50.2 (Proto-TB) Benedict considerd the s- initial to be a possible occurrence of the s- prefix for
animals and body parts. Hence the Proto TB s-wa “tooth” would be a case of s- prefix + Proto-TB *wa “bite”.
Benedict 106. See also Chapter 2A notes A1a.1, A.9a.1 and Chapter 10 section 10.3.3. The African
correspondences here give evidence that the s- is the root initial rather than a prefix.
357

C.50.2
TB- Kadu tsəwa “tooth” Benedict 106
TB- Written Burmese swâ “tooth” Benedict 106, 122
TB- Thebor soa “tooth” Benedict 106
TB- Manchati tshoa “tooth” Benedict 106
C.50.1
W. Chadic-Gwandara adošori “tooth” Skinner 45
NC-N. Mande-Bambara soli “eye-tooth” Mukarovsky 378
↓↓
Sino-Tibetan African/AA-languages-Close correspondences
Languages
C.51a-b AA-Chadic AA –Cush. AA- NS NC, Khoi.
Sem.
Swadesh “hair” W. Chadic–Hausa Maba group- S. Khoisan-
C.51a.1 tukkū n.m. Masalit Proto-!Wi
TB-Chin-Lushai “tuft of hair on the totoke *|khu
tuk crown of the head “hair tuft” |Xam |khu
“the knot or bob (a traditional hair Edgar 213 |Auni |kho
of hair on the nape style for male “hair”
of the neck” children)” Starostin, S.
Starostin, S. Newman, P. 2003 19
ST Etymology 2007 210
TB-Tibetan “braid or bun
tugŋa (of hair)”
“black banner “tassel, plume of
made of yak hair hat” “cock’s comb”
on the roof of “bird’s crest”
monasteries” Newman / Ma 1979
Goldstein 541 127
C.51a.2 W. Chadic–Hausa E. NS-Maba C.. Khoisan –
N. Chinese-MSC tōliyā “tuft of hair Cushitic- group-Kibet Hietšware
tóu “the head” on the crown of Oromo tow < towi |hoo “hair”
“hair (style)” the head (old hair tūtto < tww-I N. Khoisan
“top/end of style for male “ciufetto di hair” !O!Kung
something” children), capelli NS-Maba !wi “hair”
DeFrancis 95 crest of a cock” [tuft, group-Aiki Starostin, G. 2003
“hair, hair-do” Newman, P. 2007 forelock of tòw < 19
TB-S. Loloish- 203 hair] tówó / tò NC-Proto-Bantu
Phunoi tōliyā “tuft Borello “hair, skin, túe “head”
ʔã-tu “head” < *tōle-ā < *tūle 404 feather” Williamson/
Matisoff 2003 Newman, P. 2000 Edgar Shimizu
109 236 208, 213 v.1 200
C.51a.3 W. Chadic–Hausa Egyptian
N. Chinese-MSC tōfā vg. 1 = tōhō tep
tóufâ “hair on the vg.6 “sprout up, “the head, the
top of the head” grow back” top of
Wang, F. 467 (e.g. leaves, hair”) anything”
Mathews #6489 Newman, P. Budge v.2
941 2007 202 828
358
C.51a.4 TB- NS-Songhay NC-Mande

Tibetan thortor / (Gao) túru “touffe de
thor-thsugs túrú / túró cheveux”
“a plaited tuft of “tressage des “crȇte”
hair, toupet” cheveux” (Fr.) [tuft of hair,
Jaschke 239 [hair coiffure] crest]
Ducroz 227 Skinner 263
C.51a.5 W. Chadic-Hausa C. Khoisan –
TB-Tibetan tūtàa f. Naron, Namang
tuù “flag, banner” |� “hair”
“circular banner of Newman. P. Ruhlen 1994 54
yak hair that is 2007 213 N. Khoisan –‖Ng
hung on the roof tūtu |u “hair”
of large “crest, tassel, Starostin, G.
monasteries” tuft of hair” 2004 19
C.51a.1 TB-Chin-Lushai tuk “the knot or bob of hair on the nape of the neck”
< W. Chadic–Hausa tukkū n.m. “tuft of hair on the crown of the head
C.51a.2 N. Chinese-MSC tóu “the head” “hair (style)” “top/end of something”
< NS-Maba group-Kibet tow “hair”
Tibeto-Burma Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *tuk- “hair, tuft of hair” ~ *tow- “hair”
C.51a.1
TB-Burmese tuk “head” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
TB-Lepcha tok “the head, the top of anything, top ornament etc.” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Tibetan tog “the top of anything, a top ornament” Das 237 thog “what is uppermost”
Jaschke 237 “head, top in a general sense”, e.g. “to be at the head , to lead” Das 591
tugböö “a yak hair tassel used on the banners erected on the roof of monasteries” Goldstein 493
C.51a.2
Middle Chinese tóu meas.“head” Norman 115212
S. Chinese-Min (Taiwanese) thaū-mó / thaū-mng “hair of head” Bodman 1983 79, 198.
N. Chinese-MSC
tóu “a helmet or head covering” Mathews #6469 938 “a turban, a kerchief”
tóushéng “string for binding a plait, bun etc.” shéng “rope, cord, string” DeFrancis 953
tóumian “woman’s head ornament” Wu, J. 692 tiao “a child’s hanging hair” Wu, J. 681
C. Chinese-Wu tɤw1 “head-covering, helmet” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) tàuh “the head”213 Chik / Ng Lam 490 1
S. Chinese-Min (Zherong) thau2 “head” Norman 190
Chinese-Mandarin-Lingbâo thou5 “head” Norman 192
TB-S.Loloish-Sangkong ʔaŋ-tu “head” Matisoff 2003 522
TB-S. Loloish-Bisu ʔaŋ-tù “head” Matisoff 2003 109
212
Note-C.51a.2 (Middle Chinese Extended) “This measure, literally meaning ‘head’, is mostly used to refer to
things having heads, especially animals”, e.g. “du shi- tóu” lit. “calf ten-head” i.e. ‘ten calves’”. As a measure
word it appears during the Nanbeichao period (420-589 CE). Today the term as measure is limited to livestock but
in the Nanbeichau period it could refer to wild animals, birds, and even insects and fish. Norman 115.
213
Note- C.51a.2 (S. Chinese-Yue Extended ) As a noun suffix tàuh “head” is applied in Cantonese to various
head-shaped items, e.g.sehk-tàuh “stone” (B.3a.1 Extended), gwat-tàu.h “bone” Matthews / Yip 38-39. It
corresponds to the -tóu“ head” suffix appearing in the similar Mandarin shi-tóu “stone” (B.3b.1 Extended) and
gù-tóu “bone” morphemes.
359

C.51a.1 W. Chadic–Hausa tuk’o “put forth buds” Bargery 2002
C.51a.2
NS-Kanuri toli “top, summit” Cyffer 1990 177
NS-Nuer dul “long hair” dulɛ “bleached hair” Huffman 13
E. Cushitic-Oromo tūtto “cresta di gallo” [cock’s crest, comb] Borello 404
C.51a.3 Egyptian teben “lock of hair over the temple” “helmet” “head covering” Budge v.2 828
C.51a.1
IE-Sanskrit StukA “a knot or tuft of hair or wool” “thick curl of hair” Stukavin “having tufts of hair”
kezaStuka “a lock of hair” keza “hair”
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek tugun “knot” English-Uzbek Dictionary.
C.51a.2
IE-Sanskrit tula “a tuft of grass or reeds, panicle of a flower or plant” Cologne Lexicon
Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen tüj “animal’s hair” “body hair”
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish tüj “feather” “animal’s hair” “body hair” “fur” “hair”
C.51a.3
Altaic-Uyghur töbä “top of the head”
Altaic-Kyrgyz töbö “top of the head” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
IE-Pashto ttopa’i “a cap, a hat, a helmet” ttopal “the crown of the head” Raverty 294-295
IE-Sanskrit Stupa “a knot or tuft of hair” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Hindi topī “cap, hat” n.f. Scudiere 25,73, 252
IE- Bengalii tupī n. “cap, hat” Thompson 53, 103
C.51a.4
IE-Hittite tarna “crown of the head” Starostin, Sergei Afro-Asiatic Etymology 144
IE-Tokharian tarne “crown of the head, summit” Starostin, Sergei Afro-Asiatic Etymology 144
Iranian-Persian tār(e) “crown of the head” Starostin, Sergei Afro-AsiaticEtymology 144
Iranian-Yazg tern “crown of the head” Starostin, Sergei Afro-Asiatic Etymology 144
/
C.51b.1 E. Chadic-Migama Proto- NC- Fulfulde
TB-Tibetan jukurkuru Cushitic [Fulani]
ɣtsug / “crête (du coq)” *tsag- sukka
ɣtsug-tu [rooster’s crest] “crown of horejo
“crown of the Skinner 294 head” “one with a
head” Jaschke Ehret 1995 mop of hair”
433 Hodge 190 #497 271 hore “hair”
“tuft, crest of Taylor 182
birds”
C.51b.2 C. Chadic-Logone Proto-AA W. Semitic-
TB-Tibetan ʔəm-sə‫כ‬gə̀ “hair” [Orel, Stolbova] Ethiopian-
s‫̀̀כ‬gs‫̀ככ‬ C. Chadic-Gulfey *țs̝ag- Amharic
“hairy, bushy m-sege “hair” “hair” s’ägur
(in hair)” Stolbova, Olga Skinner 267 “hair”
Goldstein 1135 C. Chadic Leslau 1976
Etymology 235, 363
C.51b.3 West Semitic-
TB-Tibetan Ethiopian-
toger “hair bun Amharic
on top of the t’ägur “hair”
head” Jaschke Leslau 1976
237 235, 363
360
[Disyllabic
corresp.]
C.51b.2 TB-Tibetan s‫̀ככ‬gs ‫“ ככ‬hairy”
< C. Chadic-Logone n-�əga “hair” / West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic s’ägur “hair”
Approximate Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *šəg- “hair, tuft of hair”
C.51b.1 TB-Tibetan
dzūgd‫“ ככ‬hair tied in a bundle on the top of the head” dzūggyii “cowlick”Goldstein 848
gtsug-tor “the swelling of flesh or top-knot of hair on a Buddha’s head” Hodge 190
dzùŋdru “comb of a rooster” Goldstein 848 dzugyεn “head ornament”
dzugbu “hair on the top of the head”
Middle Chinese syuX “head” Sagart 155
C.51b.1 E. Chadic-Lame
dzukua “tout ce qui se portait sur la tête, en herbes tresées en general”
[anything worn on the head, generally braided weeds] Skinner 296
Proto-Omotic *šok’- “point, tip” Ehret1995 #466 259
C.51b.2
Proto-S. Cushitic *c’əg “hair” Militarev, A. South Cushitic Etymology 2005
Proto-AA c’ag(ar) “hair” Militarev / Stolbova. AA-Etymology 2007
C. Cushitic-Bilin šəgwər “hair” Militarev, A. Central Cushitic Etymology 2005
Proto-Low E. Cushitic *d’agur “hair” Militarev, A. Low E. Cushitic Etymology 2005
Semitic-Hebrew sa’ara “hair” Baltsan 601
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šä‫ع‬ar colloquial “hair” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 242 l
ʃaʕr (IPA) “hair” n. Merriam-Webster Arabic 67
Semitic-Old Aramaic sa’ran “hairy” Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon
W. Chadic-Hausa tsagiyā “long tail hairs of a horse or donkey” Newman, P. 2007 204
C.51b.3 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic yä t’ägur assärar “hairdo” Leslau 1976 235, 363
C.51b.2 IE-Sanskrit saGgaja “having hair, together with hair, covered with hair” Cologne Lexicon.
śikhā “tuft on the crown of the head” Klostermeier 304 Kuiper 1955 151
viśikhá “having no tuft of hair, bald, unfeathered” Kuiper 1955 151
IE-Bengali tiki “tuft of hair, top knot” Kuiper 151 See also Supplementary Table 2 C.51b.1-2
↓↓
C.52 Afro-Asiatic – AA- AA- Nilo- NC
Chadic Cushitic Semitic Saharan
C.52.1 E. Chadic- S. Cushitic- Semitic- Kanuri
N. Chinese-MSC Dangaleat Iraqw Arabic dângîn
dānge “stop over , stay” [Dangla] (Mbulu) (Iraqi) “stand, place
“delay” “put off” táŋkìlè “tarder” dam- daam oneself”
Wu J.133 [to delay, to be a “wait” “to last, “stop, wait”
Wang, F. 88-89 long time coming] Militarev continue” Cyffer 1990
dàng v. “delay” táŋkìlnàw A. madaam 31
DeFrancis 166 “retard” [lateness] S. Cushitic “as long “stop, stand”
S. Chinese-Yue Fédry 156 Etymology as” while” Hutchison
(Cantonese) Dict. of Iraqi 1981 142
dang “wait” Arabic pt. 2
Kwan 564 171
361
dangdoi “wait for”

Chik / Ng Lam 342
dánghauh “wait for”
Po-fei Huang 372
C.52.2 W. Chadic- S. Kanuri
N. Chinese-MSC Bauci- Geji də́mngin,
dêng “wait, await” dem “sit” də́mjin
Wu J. 143 W. Chadic- S. “stay forever,
“wait, wait for” Bauci- Tule remain
Wang, F. 102 dəmò “sit” forever”
Jungraithmayr Cyffer 1990
1994 v.2 294 35
C.52.3 W. Chadic- .
TB-Tibetan Gwandara
dεεdoo “to sit, stay (Karshi) déde
watching or looking at (Cancara, Gitata)
something” Goldstein 478 dəde “spend long
time” Matsushita
1974 #711148
C.52.1 N. Chinese-MSC dānge “stop over , stay” “delay” “put off”
< Kanuri dângîn “stop, wait” “stop, stand” / E. Chadic-Dangaleat [Dangla] táŋkìlè “tarder”
[to delay, to be a long time coming]
Sino-Tibetan etymon: *dâng- “stop, wait”
C.52.1 S. Chinese-Min tan “wait” Bodman 1987 v.2 176
C.52.2 TB-Tibetan dεn “permanent” Goldstein 447 dεmbo / denden “firm, steady, stable”
Goldstein 477-478
C.52.1
NS-Kanuri dadangin “wait a minute, stand by” Cyffer 1990 31-2
W. Chadic-Hausa (Gobir dial.) dangamā “sticking at a task” Matsushita 1993 129
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *dam- “live, last, sit” Militarev / Stolbova Afroasiatic Etymology 2007
E. Chadic-Somrai dàmà “rest” “rest, spend time” Militarev / Stolbova
Nilo-Saharan-Songhay (Djenne) dámba “remain (at home)” Heath v.2 48
Nilo-Saharan-Kanuri dám “emphasizes staying seated” Cyffer 1990 30
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) daam “to last, continue, go on” Qafisheh 218
C.52.2
W. Chadic-S. Bauci-Tule dəmò “sit” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 294
E. Cushitic-Somali deg “settle, stay” Awde 1999 74-75
Proto W. Chadic *dam- “live, sit, remain” Stolbova, Olga W. Chadic-Etymology
W. Chadic-S. Bauci-Kir tem “sit” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 294
↓↓
C.53 Afro-Asiatic– AA - AA- NS NC
Chadic Cushitic Semitic
C.53.1 TB-Tibetan mdoŋs-pa C. Chadic- Zime NC-N. Mande-
“blind, physically and morally” Batna Susu
Jaschke 274 Das 676 d‫כ‬ŋàr “blind” doŋxui
ldóŋ-ba “to become blind, to be Mukarovsky 99 “blind”
blind” Jaschke 292 Das 713 Mukarovsky 99
362

C.53.1 TB-Tibetan ldóŋ-ba “to become blind, to be blind”
< NC-N. Mande-Susu doŋxui “blind”
Approximate Tibetan etymon: *doŋ- “blind”
C.53.1 C. Chadic-Gidar daŋar “blind” Mukarovsky 99
Nilo-Saharan-Songhay (Gao) dànà “être aveugle” [be blind] Ducroz 64 ;
(Djenne) danam / danâ / danan “be blind” Heath v.2 48
C. Chadic-Peve deŋa “blind” Mukarovsky 99
363
Chapter 2D
Words representing kinship relations, social classes, gender, age and other human groups.
Semantic domain D word families.
Introduction- As in the previous chapters, the lexemes of this semantic domain support the hypothesis of
a migration of peoples speaking languages of African origin into the present ST linguistic area. This
lexicon, however, has a particular importance for validating the hypothesis of a remote linguistic
connection with Africa. Anthropologists who compare two languages in the Sahel region of Africa cannot
assume that corresponding kinship or gender designation roots existing in two adjacent languages are the
sign of a genetic relationship. Borrowing between these language families is common, often due to
intermarriage. See, for example set D.37.1 where the AA-Hausa word is a loan from NC-Fulfulde; and a
large number of words in Ethiopian Semitic have been incorporated from previously dominant Cushitic
languages which have become a substratum in the now dominant Semitic. (Ehret 2002 211). However the
E. Asian populations of the present study who speak languages substantially based on AA are over two
thousand miles away from Northeast and East Africa. Hence when there is great geographic distance
between the compared language families, discovery of close correspondence between kinship terms has a
strong probative force for a hypothesis of a historical relationship not based on direct loaning.
For example previous to the discovery of the Indo-Iranian languages, European linguists had
recognized the similarity of the Celtic brathair, the English brother, the Russian brat, the Gothic
brothar and the Latin frater “brother”. Since these languages were geographically contiguous, the
linguists first hypothesized, not only that their ancestral language was solely found in Europe, but also
that borrowing could not be excluded as the source of many of their cognate words. However, in the late
18th century the Sanskrit bhrātra / bhrātrka and Avestan brātar meaning “brother” were found to
correspond closely to European forms.
When a large number of such close matches had been identified in this distant area, they led to a firm
proposition that Sanskrit and E. Iranian Avestan were derived along with European from a common
ancestral language which probably originated outside of Europe in W. Central Asia.
2D Domain statistics
Tables and word Families
Tables = 39 numbered tables which represent an individual or generic word family.
Individual word families = 59. Each of the individual word families within a generic word family is
counted as a separate unit.
Large single independent word families = 2
“man, male, son” D.1.1-6
“woman” D.9a.1-8
Generic word families = 13 These are :
“child, offspring, seed” D.3a-d
“husband, male” “uncle, older male relative” “strong, powerful man” D.4.a-c
“elder brother” “person with authority, monarch” D.5a-b
“aunt, mother, woman” D.9a-b
“family, relatives” “protect, stand up for” D.10a-b
“pawn” “loan” D.11a-b
“poor person” “lonely person” D.15a-b
“gray haired” “old, old man, old woman” D.18a-b
“old” “old man” D.19a-b
“be guilty, be bad (in character)” “be lazy, be weak” D.21a-d
“thief, steal” “be evil, wicked” “trouble, disaster, destruction” D.26a-c
“wizard, witch” “practice divination, magic” “astrologer, magician” D.27a-b
“dad” “father” “older relatives” “uncle, older brother” D.30a-b
The size of these generic word families indicates that most are old in the ST languages and not loans.
364
Basic vocabulary. In the D Domain 5 word families contain one or more sets of ST ↔ African/AA
language correspondences which match an English gloss of the 100 word Swadesh list.
3 of these correspondences are found in the generic word families listed above.
Etymologies
Chinese-MSC etymologies 1
ST-Languages African languages- Close correspondences

D.1-2 AA – Chadic AA –Cush. AA- NS NC
Sem.
Swadesh “man (male)” Proto-Chadic Proto-AA *nim- / *nam-
“person” *nəm- “person” “person”
D.1.1 Ehret 1995 Ehret 1995 #621 320
S. Chinese-Yue #621 320 E. Cushitic- Oromo, Konso,
(Cantonese) Gidole nama “man”
naàhm “a man, a boy, Sasse 1982 133
a son” N. Omotic *na:m- “son”
nàahm “a little child” Ehret 1995 #637 327
D.1.2 W. Chadic- Hausa
S. Chinese-Yue namijìi adj.
(Cantonese) “male”
nàahmji hon “a manly “courageous”
man” hon “a man” “masculine gender
Chik / Ng Lam 306 (in grammar)”
nàahmji heikoi Newman, P.
“virility” Kwan 561 2007 161
nàahmjái “boy, son”
Kwan 46
Po-fei Huang 425214
D.1.3 Proto-AA
N. Chinese-MSC *ŋaan-
nán “man, male” “boy”
“son, boy” Wu, J.488 Ehret 1995 #637 327
214
Note- D.1.3 (Cantonese, Hausa) The miji “husband, male, man” of D.2.1 following is relevant to the
etymology of Hausa namiji and Cantonese nàahmji. Skinner considers Hausa namiji to be derived from miji.
Skinner 307. The mi “man, human” root occurs in the Chadic and Niger-Congo African language families, and
also widely in Tibeto-Burman. The miji morpheme is attested in D.2.1 Hausa/Gwandara, Chadic-Bole-Tangale
*mídzi “male” and Chadic-S. Bauci- Guruntum mishi. Skinner 201. Hence the D.1.2 Hausa form probably
represents the nam- and mi- root stems plus the D.3c.1 AA or NS -ji / -ize morpheme used as a diminutive. See
Note D.3c.1-2. The Cantonese form has contracted this to nàahmji.
365
D.1.4 TB-Kiranti- Some W. Chadic E. Cushitic-Afar nangalu

Limbu naŋ “younger (Jungraithmayr) “male whose mother is of the
siblings of the same *nan “brother” same tribe as one’s mother”
sex as ego” Ehret 1995 Parker / Hayward 174
van Driem 1987 477215 #637 327
D.1.5 Old Chinese W. Chadic-Ngizim E. Cushitic-Somali
b
nin nə̀n “person” nin “man”
“human being” “someone” Awde 1999 67
Sagart 199 163 Schuh 119, 208
D.1.7 Chinese–Min E. Cushitic- Burji
lám “man, male” lámm-i
Bodman 1987 “man”
v.2 96, 155 Sasse 1982 133
lâm “man, male, son”
Amoy-English Dict. 491
D.1.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) nàahm “a man, a boy, a son”/
TB-Proto-Kiranti *nam “man, person”
< Proto-E. Cushitic *nam- “man” “person” / E. Cushitic-Oromo, Konso, Gidole nam-a “man”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *nam- “man” “person”
D.1.1 TB-Proto-Kiranti *nam “man, person” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
TB-Bodo/Garo-Digaro nəme “man, person” Matisoff 2003 449
D.1.2 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] nám2eɲin2 “man” ɲin2 “person” Yue 145
nàahmgái “men (exclusively)” Po-fei Huang 425
D.1.3 N. Chinese-MSC
nān “child”
nán- bf. [precedes the morpheme to which it is linked] “male” “male person”
nánzî “man, male”
nānnān “little darling (used as a term of endearment for a child” Wu, J.488
D.1.1
Proto-E. Cushitic *nam- “man” Sasse 1982 133 “person” Ehret 1995 #621 320
E. Cushitic-Oromo nama “man, person” Gragg 299 “uomo, persona, individuo” [a man, person,
individual] Borello 316
E. Cushitic-Rendille ínam “boy, son” Pillinger 155
E. Cushitic-Afar num “man, person, human being” Parker /Hayward 175
Khoisan-Sandawe nome “person” Starostin, G. 2003 27
D.1.2 W. Chadic-Hausa d’ā namijìi m. “son” Newman, P. 2007 161 d’ā “son, daughter”
E. Cushitic-Oromo namiccha “man” Clamons 533
D.1.3 Egyptian nn “child” Ehret 1995 #637 327
D.1.4 E. Cushitic-Afar nangalata “offspring of a woman born within one’s maternal clan”
Parker / Hayward 299
215
Note- D.1-2, 3-4 S Chinese-Yue, MSC (-m and -n finals) “Sometime after the14th century the ending -m
3
merged with –n, Middle Chinese nam “man, male > Peking [Beijing] nán. Ramsey 142 . The fact that the
same contrast exists between the Proto-AA forms of D.1.1.and D.1.4 is noteworthy, but this does not rule out
the possibility that the same change occurred historically within Sinitic.The contrast also exists between the D.1.1
and D.1.3 TB-Kiranti and the TB-Proto-Kiranti forms *nam “man, person”. The -m > -n shift might simply be a
result of result of regressive (anticipatory) assimilation: m to n before velars as in D.1.4 Cushitic-Afar nangalu
“male. See also the contrast between the B.18a.2-3 Chinese and Chadic forms.
366
↓↓
D.1-2 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA – AA- NS Niger-Congo
Cush. Sem.
D.2.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Gwandara S.E. Mande-Yaure,
Swadesh “man” míjìi “male” Guro
“person” Matsushita 1972 81 mi “man, person”
mi “person, human, W. Chadic-Hausa S.E. Mande-Nwâ
man” “a man, the mijìi “husband”m. mī “man, person”
ordinary word” Newman, P. 2007 155 S.E. Mande-Mano
Jaschke 412 Das 956 W. Chadic-Kirfi mí / min “man,
TB-Proto-Kiranti mí:mí “person” person”
*mi “man, person” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 200 Mukarovsky 254
Starostin, S. W. Chadic-Tangale míye
ST Etymology “people” [plural of muu
TB-Chin-Lushai, ”male person, man]
TB-Kinauri Jungraithmayr 1991 22, 122
*mi “a person, E. Chadic-Jegu
a man” mito “person”
Matisoff 2003 449 Newman, P. 1977 #96 30
Starostin, S.
ST Etymology
D.2.1 Proto-Kiranti *mi “man, person” / TB-Tibetan mi “person, human, man”
< S.E. Mande-Yaure, Guro mi “man, person”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *mi “man, person”
D.2.1
TB-Naga-Moshang mi-va “person” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Bodo-Garo-Dimasa mî-ya “person” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *r-mi-(y) “man (homo)” Benedict #357 107, 203, 216 Matisoff 2003 449
D.2.1
E. Chadic-Migama miid’im, miid’i pl. “homme (mâle)” Jungraithmayr / Adams 107
E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] mítìkò “mâle, homme” míta “mari” [husband] Fédry129
W. Chadic-Bole-Tangale *mídzi “male” Skinner 201
W. Chadic-S. Bauci- Guruntum mishi “person” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 200
↓↓
D.3a-d Afro-Asiatic – AA-Cushitic, AA- Nilo-Saharan Niger-
Chadic Proto-AA Semitic Congo
D.3a.1 Proto-TB, C. Chadic- Proto-AA Egyptian Songhay
Proto-Lolo-Burmese Fali Gili (Orel / sa (Djenne)
*za ~ *tsa ža Stolbova “son” ja- “initial form
“child, son” “daughter” 1995) Budge of ije meaning
Matisoff 2003 Skinner 121 *dza’- v.2 583 “child,
28, 154, 172, 621 Jungraithmayr “son” (juvenile)”
TB-Tibetan 1994 v.2 7 Skinner 121 “child
tsa-wo “nephew, (offspring)”
grandson, grandchild” Heath v.2 99
367
TB-Written Burmese Chadic-Fali-Gili

sâ “son” ža “son, child”
Matisoff 2003 28 Stolbova, Olga
C. Chadic
Etymology
D.3a.2 W. Chadic- . NC-
TB-Tibetan N. Bauci group- Mumuye
tsha “grandchild” Pa’a žā
Jaschke 442 zhà “child” “child”
TB-Jingpho Jungraithmayr Skinner
[Kachin] 1994 v.2 74 121
śa “son, offspring”
Benedict 27
TB-W. Kiranti Bahing
tśa- tśa
“grandson”
Matisoff 2003 450
D.3a.3 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic-
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu- Hausa Sidamo
‫כ‬yâ “child ‘da sing. ajā
Matisoff 2003 28 ‘yā‘yā pl. “young, little,
N. Chinese –MSC / “son ” youth,
Beijing Newman, P. young man”
yá 2007 50 Gasparini 8
“child, kid” ‘ya mace
Wu, J 790 “daughter”
Newman, R.
1990 61
D.3a.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *za ~ tsa “child, son”
< Proto-Afro-Asiatic *dza’- “son”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *dza’- “son, child”
D.3a.1
TB-Burmese sà “son, offspring” “child, son” Benedict 27, 90
TB-Proto-TB *tsa “child, grandchild, nephew, niece” Benedict 208
TB-Proto-Lolo-Burmese *za2 “child” “son” Matisoff 2003 28, 620
TB- Nyi zá “child, son” Benedict 27, 90
TB-Bahing tsá-tsá “grandson” Benedict 27
TB-Tsangla za ~ źa “son, offspring” Benedict 27
TB-Magari, Digaro sa “son” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Tibetan btsa-wa “to be born to, to bring forth” Das 1004 ; dza “to give birth” “to bear a child”
Goldstein 852 ; btsa-ba “to bear, bring forth” Jaschke 434 ; btsa-wa “to be born, to bring forth”
Das 1004 bca “to bear” Starostin, S. Sino-Tibetan Etymology.
D.3a.2 TB-Tibetan tsha-bo “grandchild, grandson” “nephew, brother’s son” Jaschke 443 Das 1018
bu-tsha “son, boy” Das 871 See also D.35.1 Extended
D.3a.1
W. Chadic- Gwandara (Gitata) ya z͂az͂a “baby” Matsushita 1974 #373 91
C. Cushitic-Afar saldi “new-born baby” Parker / Hayward 187 Skinner 121
Semitic-Arabic zah̟r “give birth” Ehret 1995 #192 149
368
D.3a.2
E. Cushitic- Oromo ija / iji n. “rampollo, discendente, figlia”“frutto di albero, semi, chicco di grano”
[scion, descendent, daughter] [fruit of a tree, seeds, grain of cereal plant] Borello 247 ; ija “fruit”
Gragg 222. See also B.35.1, 4.
Semitic-Written Arabic jāriya “girl” Wehr 146
W.Chadic-Hausa jàarīrìi “infant” Newman, P. 2007 98
Nilo-Saharan-Ingassana aja:r “child” Greenberg 1966 97.
D.3a.3 Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi, Yemeni) jaahil “child, baby, youngster” Qafisheh 91
Asian non-ST languages with close correspondences to the African/AA roots:
D.3a.1
IE-Sanskrit ja “born or descended from, born or produced in or at” “birth” “a daughter”
“a son of (in compounds)”
jA “offspring, pl., descendants” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Hindi janam “birth” Scudiere 20 See also Supplementary Table 2 D.16.3-4
D.3a.3
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *uja “relation, blood relation”
Altaic-Middle Turkic uja “younger sister”, “ brother”, “blood relation”
Altaic-Turkic-Karakhanid uja “brother, kinsman”
Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen uja “sister”
Altaic-Turkic-Tatar oja “family” “kin”
Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz ujalaš “by one venter” [by one womb]
Altaic-Turkic-Karakalpak ujalas “by one venter” [by one womb] Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
/
Swadesh W. Chadic- E.Cushitic- West Semitic-
“seed” Tangale Gedeo Ethiopian-
D.3b.1 TB- sálá zare Amharic
Tibetan “seed, kernel” “seed” zär “seed, descent
sá-bon “seed” Jungraith- Hudson 265 (origin),
“seed-corn, corn, mayr 1991 E.Cushitic- offspring, line,
grain” 140 Kambata lineage, issue
“propagation, W. Chadic- zaretta (descent)”
progeny, issue” Ngizim “seed” Leslau 1976 180
Jaschke 570 zádák Hudson Egyptian
btsa-ma / btsa “seeds” 130 sáa “a seed or
“fruit” “good quality fruit used in
Jaschke 434 millet” medicine”
TB-S. Qiang “kind” Budge v.2 641
zue / za “seed” Schuh 181 Semitic-Hebrew
Matisoff 2003 zaroo’a “sown,
238, 489 seeded”
zera’ “seed”
Baltsan 460, 463
D.3b.2 Semitic-Aramaic S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa
S. Chinese-Kejia zarʕā *sâʔŋ “seed”
tsak “seed” C. Khoisan-Proto-
“seed” Comprehensive Non-Khoekhoe
Aramaic Lexicon *‖âʔá /
-!Xóo saʔaŋ
“seed”
369

D.3b.1 TB-Tibetan sa- “seed”
< W. Chadic-Tazngale sala “seed, kernel”
D.3b.2 S. Chinese-Kejia tsak “seed”
< S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa *saʔŋ, -!Xóo saʔaŋ “seed”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *saʔŋ “seed”
D3b.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] tsak “seed” Ramsey 113. See also B.35.2
D3b.1 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic zärra “sow, seed, plant (wheat), grow (wheat, cotton)”
zərrəyya “offshoot, offspring, progeny” Leslau 1976 180-181
Semitic-Written Arabic zar’ “sowing” Wehr 436
W. Chadic-Mburku, Jimbin vazar “seed” Militarev / Stolbova
D3b.2 NC-Fulfulde saka “to sow broadcast” Taylor 164
D3b.1 IE-Sanskrit sarvajiba “the seed of everything”sarga “begetting, procreation” “offspring,
a child” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Bengali cara “seedling, a young plant” Thompson 49 See also Supplementary Table 2 D3b.1
IE-Tokharian säryām “seed” sāry- “to plant” sārm “seed”
/
D.3c.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Proto-AA Egyptian Songhay Khoisan-
zi “something of a very small Hausa tsirit *jiʔ- or shi (Koro- Hadza
size or quantity” Jaschke 487 ideo. “tiny” *dziʔ- “infant, boro) |itsʔeiya
TB- Jingpho [Kachin] tsirari “a few, “child, child” -ze = “small”
zi “little small” Benedict 27 a small offspring” Budge /ize/ S.
TB-Qiangic-Xixia (Tangut) number of” Ehret 1995 v.2 731 “child, Khoisan-
zji1 “child” Matisoff 2003 172 mītsitsi adj. #479 Berber- infant” |Xam
Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] “small, tiny” 264 Siwi Heath ëise
(MacIver, Meixian) tsii3 tsìigigi adj. D.3c.3 E. zir v.3 336 “small”
(Lau Chunfat) zi3 “offspring, “very small Cushitic- “enfant” Green-
child, son” Hakka Dict. and thin” Sidamo Skinner berg
Middle Chinese tsiX “child” tsiro n. çiro “shoot, 121 1966 81
< Old Chinese *tsiʔ “sprout, shoot, scion (of a
“child” Sagart 1999 164 plant” plant)”
Chinese-MSC zî / zī “son, Newman, P. Gasparini 59
young animal” Wu, J. 929216 2007 207- 208
216 3
Note- D.3c.1-2 (Chinese-MSC, NS-Songhay) The character representing modern Chinese zi [Old Chinese] >
*tsiʔ “child” > Middle Chinese tsiX “child” occurs frequently in the Shang and Zhou inscriptions. “The meaning
“child ”is clearly attested as early as the Shang inscriptions: questions regarding child-bearing were among those
frequently submitted to the oracle” Sagart 1999 164
Zî is also a common suffix indicating a diminutive, esp.for children, animals, e.g. hai / háizi “child” “son or
daughter” Wu, J. 262 Huang 153 nánzî “boy, son” Wu, J. 488 “The common noun suffixes zî, ér and tóu are
all-pervasive in many modern dialects. Zî and ér both mean “son” or “child” and they both clearly originated as
diminutive suffixes. Norman 113. Norman also considers the zīr “seed” -r final to be a noun formative which
carries a diminutive overtone. Norman 155. See also note D.25.2(2) on -r final as diminutive. However, the
D.3c.1 comparative data can alternatively suggest that it is a reduced form of the Hausa tsirit ideo. “tiny”. See
“erisation” and rhotacized finals in Notes B.14d.2, E.33.1, set F.18b.1 and Norman 144-145. The use of the
morpheme meaning “child” as a marker of the diminutive is still commonly found in some southern dialects; in the
370
-zî diminutive suffix

Norman 113
zīr “seed”
Norman 155
D.3c.2 W. Chadic- Songhay
TB-Tibetan Hausa (Djenne)
chiì /chiìbə jīkàa -yje
“child” “grandchild” “son of”
Goldstein 735 Newman, P. Heath
S. Chinese-Yue 2007 58 v.2 99
(Cantonese) Skinner 125
jí “child, son” “seed, egg”
“young animal”
Chik / Ng Lam 9, 101,348
3
Guangzhou dialect, for example, tsai “son, child” is used in this way”. Norman 113. Also S. Chinese-Yue
(Cantonese) -jai diminutive suffix.
3 3
Thus the Chinese-MSC/Beijing zī “and Hakka zi / tsii “son” lexemes are attested both as independent roots
and diminutive suffixes. This corresponds exactly with the role of closely corresponding morphemes in AA and
NS. The Proto-AA *jiʔ- or *dziʔ- “child” morphemes give evidence that in AA the root is originally independent.
However the D.3c.1-2 NS-Songhay -yze / yje “child” morpheme is both an independent form and combines with
other roots to serve as a diminutive. Heath treats it as the second element of certain Songhay compounds. He
explains the two forms as follows: “Ije / -yje ‘child, juvenile n.’ as the initial syllable of a compound the form is
/ija-/ or /ja-/ ; As the final syllable of a compound it has the form /-yje /.” Examples are:
a. m‫“ ככ‬rice plant, rice (as crop in paddy) m‫ככ‬-yje “uncooked, shelled rice (after chaff is removed by pounding)
[lit.“son of rice”or “rice-child”] (B.9.4 NS-Songhay Extended).
b. As the final syllable of a compound -yze may also denote a small object connected to or otherwise associated
with a large object such as “tree → fruit” or “door → key” Heath v.2 99. For example: in Songhay
(Gao/Koroboro) -yze “child” (Heath v. 3 173 ) occurs in kabi-ize “doigt” (de main fils)” [finger, lit. child/son of
the hand)] Ducroz 144. kabi “hand” [variant form of Songhay kamba “right hand”]. ( F.1.3). S. Chinese-Yue etc.
Similar examples in Songhay are čew-ize “toe” lit. child of’ the foot. Heath v.3, 68 čew “foot” (C.21b.6) and in the
semantic opposition between the Songhay gúllú / ó “grand canari” [big water pot] and gúllize “bol, petit calebasse “
lit. son of big water pot i.e. bowl, small calabash . Ducroz 106 (F.3.1 Songhay Extended)
In the above examples of AA languages the Proto-AA *jiʔ-or *dziʔ- “child” regularly appears as a noun or as an
adjective with meaning of “small”. These also have close phonetic correspondence to the ST –ji / -zhî suffixes.
Hence the Old Chinese forms are probably compounds of AA roots which denote human beings + the AA Proto-
root meaning child. *jiʔ- or *dziʔ- “child”.
In modern Chinese this morpheme has been grammaticalized into a nominaliziing suffix. But the Beijing
shôuzhî (Wu, J. 631) and Cantonese saují (Kwan 188) “finger” support a hypothesis that the proximate proto-
form meant “son of the hand” sau / shôu “hand”. (C.21b.4) as in NS- Songhay. Hence both this root and the
Cushitic *arʔ- “man, male, male child” free root of D.25.2 (functioning as a Chinese diminutive suffix) are the
result of grammaticalization of independent morphemes from African languages. See also Note D.25.2(1).
Ramsey states “The most common noun suffix [in Mandarin Chinese] is -zi. It is also the oldest recorded
suffix, appearing in some of the earliest historical writings. In these early works, however, -zi was only found
attached to nouns referring to humans- e.g., qizi ‘,wife’ ---Later, during the Tang period, the suffix began to spread
widely throughout the Chinese vocabulary”. Ramsey 63.
Hence the evidence of this table supports the position stated by Norman and Ramsey that the *-ji suffix in
Sinitic originally was a diminutive applied only to humans and had not yet become a generic particle used
especially to distinguish homonyms (a later function). Its use in Old Chinese qizi “wife” suggests that a derived
sense as a term of endearment had also developed very early, perhaps from its Khoisan and Chadic usage as
“little” since lexemes having this meaning are used in many world languages to express affection.
371
D.3c.3 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- D.3c.3

S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) Hausa Oromo Semitic-
jí “to bear, beget in large tsira vi. cira Arabic
numbers” “to grow, to increase “sprout, “to beget” zira‫ع‬
to multiply” germinate” Gasparini “to plant,
Chik / Ng Lam 103, 268 Newman, P. 59 grow,
N. Chinese-MSC 2007 208 raise”
zhí “plant, grow” C. Chadic- Dict. of
“breed, multiply” Bura tsitsa Iraqi
Wu, J. 899-900. “to hatch” Arabic
Middle Chinese Dict. of Bura. part 2 202
dzih “to copulate, breed”
Sagart 1999 210.
TB-Tibetan
gye vi.
“to be born, to give birth,
to have a baby” Goldstein 72
D.3c.1 TB-Qiangic-Xixia (Tangut) zji1 “child” / Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] tsii3 “offspring, child, son”
Old Chinese *tsiʔ “child””
< Proto-Afro-Asiatic *jiʔ-/ *dziʔ- “child, offspring” / NS-Songhay (Koroboro) -ze = /ize/ “child,
infant” / Khoisan-Hadza ǀitsʔeiya “small”, S. Khoisan-ǀXam ëise “small”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *jiʔ- / *dziʔ- “child, offspring” ~ ëise “small (child, animal)”
D.3c.1
N. Chinese-MSC érzí “son” Wu, J. 177 ər2tsí “son” Norman 198
[compound of this root and that of D.25.2]
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ziy = *źəy “small, minute” Benedict #60 17, 27, 209
*́zəy “little, small, tiny” Matisoff 2003 191, 621
S. Chinese–Min ji “child, son” Amoy-English Dict. 321
TB- Kiranti-Limbu cidzi “a little bit” Starostin, S. Limbu Dict.,
Proto-Kiranti *ci “small, little” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
D.3c.2
Chinese- Hakka (MacIver) ji2 “baby, child, son” Hakka Dict.
Chinese–Min chi2 “offspring, child, son” “seed, egg” ji5 “baby, child, son” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) yìhji “son” Chen 370 gwàjí “melon seed” Po-fei Huang 391
saují “finger”Kwan 188
Chinese–Beijing jīzĭr “egg” Norman 249 [compound of D.3c.2 and D.3c.1.
[found only in Beijing dialect, not in MSC which attests jidan “egg” Norman 249 Table 10.1]
D.3c.1
NS-Songhay (Gao) ize “fils, petit d’animal” [son, small offspring of animal] Ducroz 132
Proto-South Cushitic-Proto-Rift *dziʔa “chick, young bird” Ehret 1995 #479 264
C. Chadic-Gave, Glavda, Nakatsa *zir- “boy” Skinner 121
C. Chadic-Bura group zir- “boy, small (child)” Skinner 121
Semitic-Amharic zərrəyya “offshoot, offspring, progeny” Leslau 1976 181
C. Chadic-Gudu nzir “child” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 75
Semitic-Hebrew tse’etsa “descendant, scion, offspring” Baltsan 437
D.3c.2 C. Chadic-Bura ánjírí “small baby” Dict. of Bura
See also D.3a.2 Extended) and B.35.1 (Cushitic-Oromo).
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) jiru “puppy, whelp, cub” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 71
372
NC-Benue-Congo-Common Bantu *-jikudu “grand-child” Skinner 125

*kodo “grand-parent”
C. Chadic-Higi Nkafa ĉili “seed” Militarev / Stolbova
W. Chadic-Ngizim jilílií “tiny” Schuh 85
C. Chadic-Higi-Baza c’ɨlu “seed” Militarev / Stolbova
/
D.3d.1 W. Chadic-Hausa Proto-AA Semitic-Written
Chinese-Kejia jinjìrī m. (Orel /Stolbova Arabic
(Hakka) “infant, baby” 1995) janīn ajinna
(MacIver, jinjiřnìya / jinjinnìya f. *jin- / *jan- pl. “embryo,
Meixian) “infant, baby” “child” fetus, germ
jin1 “baby, infant, Newman, P. 2007 100 Skinner 121 (in a seed)”
suckling” W. Chadic-N. Bauci Gp.- N. Cushitic- Wehr 164
“a baby, Warji Beja
especially a girl, jínná “child” [Bedawi]
an infant” - Kariya jín / jîn “son” *jína
Hakka Dict. Jungraithmayr “newly-born
1994 v.2 74 infant”
W. Chadic- Skinner 121
Gwandara (Koro)
jínjíri
(Toni) jínjìrī “baby”
Matsushita 1974
#373 91
D.3d.2 W. Chadic-Gwandara E. Cushitic- Semitic-Written NC-Proto-
TB-Bodo-Garo- jā, janja Burji Arabic Bantu
Dhimal t́s̀an “small (of child)” saññee janīn ajinna *-jánà
“son” Skinner 121 “seed” pl. “embryo, “child”
Matisoff 2003 Leslau 1963 fetus, germ Greenberg
169, 448, 450 141 (in a seed)” 1966 34
TB-Qiangic- E. Cushitic- Wehr 164 NC- Fulfulde
Pumi-Dayang
̂̂̂̂̃ Oromo ʒani:n [Fulani]
t‫כ‬șəN saññii (IPA) jānirāwo
“child” “seed” Leslau “fetus” n. “great-
Matisoff 2003 1963 141 Merriam- grandson”
169 sanyi “seme, Webster Taylor 97
See also D.6.3, semenza” Arabic 64
D.16.4 [seed, sowing]
Borello 368
D.3d.1 Chinese – Hakka jin1 “baby, infant” / Chinese–Min gînà “child”
< W. Chadic-N. Bauci Gp.- Kariya jín / jîn “son” / Proto-Afro-Asiatic *jin- “child” /
N. Cushitic- Beja *jína “newly-born infant”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *jin- “child, baby” / *jína “infant”
D.3d.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jìn / jìnjìn “small little, tiny” Chik / Ng Lam 162
Chinese–Min gînà “child” Bodman 1987 v. 2 135 1983 120, 160
D.3d.2 TB-Lepcha a-zon “grandchild” Matisoff 2003 169
N. Chinese-MSC sūnzi “grandchild (male on father’s side)”
sūnnû “grandchild (female on father’s side)” Merriam-Webster Chinese 266
373

D.3d.1 W. Chadic-N. Bauci Gp.-Siri gá tshíní “child” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 74
D.3d.2 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari säni “seed, sow seed, plant (wheat), grow (wheat, cotton)”
“from Cushitic-Galla [Oromo] sani, sanni ‘seed’ ” Leslau 1963 141.
Cushitic-Darasa sanne “seed” Leslau 1963 141
Proto-AA (Orel /Stolbova 1995) *jin- / *jan- “child” Skinner121
Asian non-ST languages with correspondences to African/AA roots:
D.3d.1 IE-Pashto jina’i “a girl not yet arrived at puberty”
jinaka’i “a little or very young girl” Raverty 340
D.3d.2 IE-Bengali shɔntan “offspring, son/daughter” shɔntan “son” n. Thompson 78, 126
jɔnmo “birth, origin” Thompson 51, 88
IE-Hindi janam “birth” janamjāt “born” adj. janamdin “birthday”m. Scudiere 20. 244
Austro-Asiatic-Kherwarian-Munda-Ho, Mundari, Santal1 ʤaŋ “seed” Kobayashi Tables 1- 3 #127
↓↓
D.4a-c Afro-Asiatic AA-Cushitic AA- Nilo-Saharan Niger-
– Chadic Semitic Congo
D.4a.1 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Egyptian Tubu [Teda]
Chinese–Min Hausa Oromo ānkhu aŋkə̀r / aŋger /
âng “husband” angòo m. angafa ilma “man, aŋkuri
Bodman pl. adj. citizen” “Männchen,
1987 v.2 120, angwaayē “primogenito” Budge mannlich”
Bodman 1983 138, 145 “bridegroom” [first-born, v.1 124 [male, manly]
ang-sai Newman, P. eldest son] Lukas 1953 195
“husband” 2007 8 Borello 22 Tubu [Teda], Daza
Amoy-English Dict. 8 Skinner 7 aŋgkar “male”
TB-Mikir Skinner 7
ang “man” Walker 335
D.4a.1 Chinese–Min âng “husband”
< W. Chadic- Hausa angòo n. m. angwaayē pl. “bridegroom”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *ang- “bridegroom” “powerful, impressive man”
D.4a .1
Chinese–Min ân- “prefix in certain kinship terms” Bodman 1987 v.2 119
Proto-TB ʔaŋ- ~ ʔak- “noun prefix” Matisoff 2003 583217
217
Note- D.4a.1 (Min, Proto-TB) The *ʔaŋ ~ *ʔaŋ ~ *ʔak- ~ *ʔa ~ *ʔə- *ʔə ̆ prefixes appear throughout
ST with kinship terms and usually have vocative (direct address) or referential functions. Matisoff 2003 105.
Matisoff notates the last three vocalic prefixes as consonantal glottal stops, *ʔ(ə)-.
Matisoff 2003 88 note 6.
Besides the D.4a.1 correspondences above there are the following ST examples. Each of the word families has
multiple AA/African close correspodences but only one or two are shown here..
D.4c.1 TB-Tibetan ’akhú “uncle” < Semitic-Arabic *akw- “brother”
D.9a.5 TB-Miri a-na “mother”; TB-Jingpho ʔnā voc. “older sister” < W. Chadic-Geji ana “mother”
D.9a.1TB-Tsangla ənye “aunt” ; TB-Tibetan əni / ʔa-ne “aunt (paternal)” / S. Chinese-Min ân-nè “mother”
< NS-Zaghawa, For (Fur) anya “paternal aunt” / TB-Tsangla ənye “aunt”
D.9b.1 TB- Garo ama voc. “mother ” < E. Cushitic- Haddiya ama “mother”
D.20.1 Middle Chinese ānú “younger brother” < E. Cushitic-Rendille núgul n. “--children older than toddlers
but younger than teenagers” “small, young”. núgleel “smallness” “early childhood”
D.30a.2 TB-Lahu ā-pa voc. “father!” / TB-Tibetan āba “father” a-pa voc. or ref. “father’ /
374
N. Chinese -MSC láng (WG) “a young gentleman, a term of respect” xīnláng “bridegroom” xīn ”new”
Mathews #3820 559 láng “[pet address by woman to her husband or lover] my darling” Manser part2 68
lángjūn “(used in addressing one’s husband) you” (old, [archaic term]) Hsiung 583
TB-Mikir arlang “man” Walker 335 ar “man” (D.25.1 TB-Mikir).
Chinese-Min láng “person, people, man” Bodman 1987 v.2 96, 156
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] long2 (Lau Chunfat) “man, gentleman” “young man, husband” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver, Meixian) ŋgoi5 ŋgoi4 “a term referring to one’s husband”
Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ŋgoiji “husband” Kwan 227
TB-Tibetan láŋ-tsho “youth, youthful age” Jaschke 543 Das 1206 laŋ-dzo “youth, young adult”
Goldstein 1064
TB- Kiranti-Yamphu langam “friend, companion, mate, fellow” Starostin, S. Yamphu Dict.
D.4a .1
NS-Maba Group-Maba angar “male in-law” Edgar 281
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic angaffa “first-born son” Leslau 1976 141
E. Chadic-Bidiya ʔagármo “brother-in law” Stolbova, Olga E. Chadic Etymology 2006
W. Chadic-Sura ŋgo “husband” Skinner 7
W. Chadic Ngizim ngo “person” Skinner 7
Proto-Chadic *(n)gw-(-) “person, male, husband” Skinner 97
/
D.4b.1 W. Chadic–Hausa C. Cushitic- Semitic- Arabic
TB-Tibetan gàawurtàa / Bilin (Yemeni)
ŋar-wa gāwùřcē gär gawwa
“strength, vigor” “be(come) great and “stark, kräftig “to strengthen,
Goldstein 299 full of strength” sein” make strong”
Das 351 Newman, P. [to be strong, Qafisheh 505
[Disyllabic 2007 72 powerful]
corresp.] Skinner 180
D.4b.2 W. Chadic–Hausa Semitic-Aramaic Songhay
TB-Tibetan k’arfàfā gabbār (Gao, Djenne)
gár-ba “strong” “become strong or “strong man, hero, gáabì
Jaschke 67 encouraged” fighter” “power,
ŋar / ŋarbo k’arfii gbār, gabra, strength, force”
“aggressive, “strength, power” “man, husband Heath
vigorous, “fired Newman, P. Comprehensive v.2 71,
up” Goldstein 2007 127 Aramaic v.3 118
298-299 Lexicon
Chinese-Min â-pa “father, daddy” < C. Khoisan-Naro aba voc. “father” / E. Cushitic-Rendille áaba “father”
D.30b.1 TB-Tibetan apo “address for an elderly man” ābo “older relatives” < Khoisan-Proto-Khoe *ábó “father” /
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) ʔabu “followed by a conventional male name: a form of address to a man who is not
married and has no children” /
D.31.1 N. Chinese (Beijing) āyi “one’s mother’s sister, auntie” “a child’s form of address for any woman of its
mother’s generation” < Semitic-Arabic *akw- “brother”
The ā- prefix may go back to the Han dynasty, 206 BCE-220 C.E., but is well-attested from the Three Kingdoms
period, 220-265 C.E. Norman 113
Norman notes that the ā- form is a vocative particle no longer used in the Beijing dialect, but is widely employed
in many southern dialects as a prefix to kinship terms and personal names. An example of its use from an early date
as a personal pronoun prefix is ā-ni (G.34.1 Middle Chinese) Norman 113
This prefix is a rare case of an AA > TB ↔ Chinese affix cognate. See also Note- D.9a.1.
375

D.4b.1 TB-Tibetan ŋar-wa “strength, vigor” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gáu “valiant, gallant”
< Semitic- Arabic gawwa “to strengthen, make strong” / E. Cushitic-Oromo angawu “become
handsome, strong”
D.4b.2 TB-Tibetan gar-ba “strength, vigor”
< NS- Songhay gáabì “power, strength, force” / Semitic-Aramaic gabbār “strong man,
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *angaw- “strong” ~ *gár “strong, powerful”
D.4b 1
Chinese –Yue (Cantonese ngaht “gallant, valiant” “stately, majestic” Chik / Ng Lam 9
Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gáu “valiant” Chik / Ng Lam 438
D.4b.2 TB-Tibetan bāŋar “bravery, courage, fearlessness” “valor, spirit, morale”
[compound of this root and that of D.29.1] Goldstein 646-647
D.4b.1
E. Cushiic-Oromo angawu “diventar bello, forte” [become handsome, strong] Borello 23
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) gawi “strong, powerful” Qafisheh 505
Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi) tqawwa “to be or become strong” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 382
E. Chadic–Tumak nga “être fort” Skinner 180
C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur gwaw, gwam “pouvoir, être puissant” [power, be powerful] Skinner 96-97
Semitic-Hebrew gavra n. m. “potency, virility” gavree adj. “manly, man-like” Baltsan 107
gvar-tan adj. and n.m. “strong man ” n.m. “tough guy” Baltzan 114
W. Chadic-Hausa k’warī n. m. “strength, power, soundness, hardness” Skinner 180
“soundness, strength of construction” gwařzo “dauntless, energetic, courageous person”
Newman, P. 2007 135, 80 Skinner 97
D.4b.2
E. Chadic–Masa-Banana karən “strength” Skinner 180
W. Chadic- Ngizim gàřd’ú “become powerful” Schuh 69
West Semitic-Ethiopian Amharic bala gabda n.m. “hero”
gabda “act of bravery, valor” Leslau 1976 202 368 518
NS-Maba Group- Aiki àggár “courageous, brave, tough” Edgar 142
C. Cushitic-Awngi ngara “husband” Militarev / Stolbova
Proto-AA (Orel / Stolbova 1995) *gabar- “male” Skinner 97
W. Chadic–Gwandara, C. Chadic-Fali Bwagira ng-r- “strength” Skinner 180.
W. Chadic–Gwandara k’àk’k’arfa adj. “very strong” Newman, P. 2007 126
E. Cushitic-Oromo ango “strength” Foot 3
W. Chadic–Bole gwərzo “man” Skinner 97
C. Chadi –Bura gwarda “strength, strong man” Dict. of Bura
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic gwärämsa “young man, robust young man, adolescent ” Leslau 1976 207
/
D.4c.1 TB-Tibetan Semitic-Arabic N. Khoisan-
’akhú “uncle” *akw- !’O-!Kung, !Kung
“father’s brother, “brother” !kǔ “man (male)”
uncle” “husband, Skinner 169 Ruhlen 1994
consort” #385 58
Jaschke 603218 “person”
[Disyllabic corresp.] Greenberg 1966 80
218
Note- D.4c.1 (TB-Tibetan / Khoisan) In Jaschke’s notation of this morpheme as ‘a-khu, he describes the
sound represented by the initial ‘a as “the audible re-opening of the air passage of the larynx”. See Introduction
376
TB-Miri ə-kü S.Khoisan-Xam

“uncle, father-in-law” !ku “person”
TB-Naga-Ao o-khu Ruhlen 1994
“uncle, father-in-law” #385 58219
Benedict 61
D.4c.2 W. Chadic – Proto-AA C. Khoisan-Hietsho
S. Chinese-Yue Hausa (Orel / khao “man”
(Cantonese) kàawu / Stolbova Ehret 1982 [177]
káuh kāwù m. 1995) C. Khoisan-Proto-
“maternal uncle kàawùnai *gaw Khoekhoe
(mother’s brother)” pl. “man, *kxao “man”
“brother –in –law “maternal people” Starostin, G.
(wife’s brother)” uncle” Skinner 2003 24
Chik / Ng Lam 380 Newman, P. 7 NC- Fulfulde [Fulani]
káuhjái “wife’s elder 2007 111 kau / kāwu
sister’s husband” Skinner 141 “maternal uncle”
Kwan 50 Taylor 109
D.4c.3 TB-Kiranti- West Semitic-
Limbu kwaʔ n. Ethiopian-Amharic
“ego’s maternal aggwät
uncle” “uncle”
Starostin, S. Leslau 1976 151,
Limbu Dict. 512
D.4c.1 TB-Tibetan ʔakhú “uncle” “father’s brother, uncle” “husband, consort”
< N. Khoisan-!’O-!Kung,, !Kung !kǔ “man (male)”
D.4c.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) káuh “maternal uncle (mother’s brother)”
< W. Chadic–Hausa kàawu / kaawù “maternal uncle” / C. Khoisan-Hietsho khao “man”,
C. Khoisan-Proto-Khoekhoe *kxao “man”.
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *ʔaxu “brother” / *kàawu “maternal uncle” ~ *!kǔ “man”
D.4c.1
TB-Lepcha ku / a-ku “a paternal uncle” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Proto-Kiranti k[u] “uncle” Starostin, S. Limbu Dict.
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] gû ~ kû “father-in-law” Matisoff 2003 450 ku “father-in-law” Benedict 61
N. Chinese–MSC kǔ (WG) “a bull” “a male” Mathews #3457 514
TB-W. Kirant-Vayu, Bahing ku-ku “uncle” Benedict 61
section 1.4 above and Jaschke “Introduction” xiv. This is of course the glottal opening for which Benedict and
others use the current standard symbol ʔ.
219
Note- D.4c.1-2 (Khoisan) The contrast between the D.4c.1 Khoisan form containing the initial frontal click and
its ST counterpart reflects its reduction to a glottal opening). (See Supplementary tables 3 section 1.1) The shift of
the initial click to zero (*ø), a glottal opening or glottal stop occurs even within some Khoisan languages. For
example the D.4c.2 Khoisan Naron (Extended) forms k’au ~ ‖k’au show an alternation between the alveolar
lateral click and the glottal stop. In the same way in set D.4c.1 the Khoisan !’O-!Kung, !Kung !kǔ shifts to the
glottal opening in Semitic-Arabic ʔaxu and the TB-Tibetan ’akhú. See also Chapter 10 Section 3.2.2.
It is not clear whether the D.4c.2 Extended Naron k’au glottalized form represents an influx (ingressive,
injective, implosive) air flow) or efflux (egressive, explosive, ejective) air flow. If it is an influx, there is a close
correspondence between it and the click since the only difference between the k’au and the ‖k’au morphemes
would be the presence or absence of the click release. See also Introduction section 1.4.1.1 above and
Supplementary Tables 3 Section 1.1 frontal clicks).
377
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *kuw = *kəw “uncle (maternal), father-in law” Benedict #255 61, 202
TB-Tibetan khu-bo / khu-wo “uncle on the father’s side” Das 145
ku-gu / khu-gu “paternal uncle” Jaschke 40, Das 144, Goldstein 119
Chinese–Min kū “mother’s brother, uncle” Bodman 1987 v.2 151
D.4c.2 S. Chinese-Min koǔ “elder brother” Bodman 1987 v. 2 150
TB-Tibetan khyo “husband” khyeu “male child, infant boy” “youth, adolescent” Jaschke 48
D.4c.1
Semitic-Old Aramaic ʔah̝, ʔah̝ā “brother” Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon
Semitic-Hebrew akhva “brotherhood” Baltsan 8
NS-Barea ku “person” Greenberg 1966103
Proto-Benue-Congo *gu “human singular class marker” Skinner 7
NS- Songhay kúrñè “mari, epoux” [husband, spouse (male)] Ducroz 164
D.4c.2
C. Khoisan-Naron k’au ~ ‖k’au “man (male)” Ruhlen 1994 #384 58
N. Khoisan-|’O-|Kung k’au “man (male)” Ruhlen 1994 #384 58
C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe *kxao “man” Starostin, G. 2003 24
D.4c.1 IE-Pashto aka “an uncle, a paternal uncle” Raverty 41
Proto-Altaic *aka “elder brother” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 4
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *aka “elder brother” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 4
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *(i)aka “elder brother” “elder uncle” “father” “grandfather” “respectful address”
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish,Tatar aga “elder brother” “elder uncle”
-Mongolian-Kalmuck aɣə “elder brother” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 4
-Mongolian-Buriat, Ordos axa “elder brother”
-Mongolian-Dongxian aɣa “elder brother” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
Altaic-Tungus-Manchu *ak- “man” “elder brother”
-Tungus-Ulcha aGa “elder brother” Starostin, Sergei Tungus Etymology
D.4c.2
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian–Ho ‘kʊwe / ‘kowǝ “man” Kobayashi Table 1 #224 5
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian–Ho kʊ’wa / kuwaʔ “husband” Kobayashi Table 1 #199 5
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian–Mundari, Santali ko’ra “man, husband” Kobayashi Table 2-3
#224 11, 18 ; Table 2 #199 11
↓↓
D.5a-b AA – Chadic AA- AA-Sem. NS Khoisan
Cush.
Swadesh “man” Proto-Chadic *kən- / Songhay N.Khoisan-
D.5a.1 TB-Kiranti- C. Chadic – Musgu (Djenne) !O!Kung
Limbu kən “uncle, nephew” kune !uŋ
kuŋba Newman, P. 1977 “husband” “man”
“ego’s wife’s elder or #138 33 Heath Starostin,
younger brother” W. Chadic- v. 2 135 G.
“ego’s elder or younger Gwandara tàbà 2003 24
sister’s husband” kúnnī “great-
van Driem1987 439 grandparent ↔ great
grandchild” Matsushita
1972 111220
220
Note- D.5a.1 (Chadic-Gwandara) The Gwandara correspondence gives evidence that Chadic used the AA
tabar root to denote reciprocal older ↔ younger relationships, i.e. that this reciprocity originally was denoted
378
N. Chinese-MSC/Beijing
kūn / k’ūn (WG)
“elder brother”
Wu, J. 400
D.5a.2 S. Chinese-Yue West NS-Anywa N.
(Cantonese) Semitic- [Anuak] Khoisan-
kwàn / guàn Ethiopian- ówʌ́nnì n. ‖Au‖en
“an elder brother” Amharic ”her/his !waŋ
Chik / Ng Lam 203 wändəmm half- “man”
Old Chinese kuən “brother” brother” Proto-N.
“older brother” Leslau Reh 63, Khoisan;
Karlgren GSR #417a-b 1976 172 124 N.Khoisan
Matisoff 2003 450 Nuer Zhu|hoan
xi̭wăŋ “elder brother” guanlen *!hoaŋ
Karlgren GSR #7651e “uncle on “man”
Matisoff 2003 303 father’s Starostin,
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu side” G. 2003 24
kwaŋ “mother’s guan thu
younger brother” “father-in-
“uncle” law”
Starostin, S. Yamphu Huffman
Dict. 17
D.5a.3 S. Chinese-Yue W. Chadic- Hausa NS-Kanuri
(Cantonese) angwancìi Kanuri
gwànji “a perfect or “being a bridegroom” kwângâ
true gentleman; Kraft 334 “male
a man of virtuous--” person or
[conduct ?] animal”
[Disyllabic corresp.] kwan-
gungwàn gangin
“the champion in “be brave,
athletic games” be a man”
Chik / Ng Lam 53 gun Cyffer
“young man, male 1990 106
relative” (D.5a.1)
D.5a.1 Proto-TB *gəwn ~ *kəwn “older brother, senior male relative”
< Proto-Chadic *kən- “uncle, nephew” / N.Khoisan-!O!Kung !uŋ “man”
D.5a.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) kwan / guan “elder brother”
< NS- Nuer guanlen “uncle on father’s side” / N. Khoisan-‖Au‖en !waŋ “man”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *kən “uncle, nephew” ~ !waŋ “man”
D.5a .1 Chinese-Hakka (Lau Chunfat) kun1 (Meixian) k’wun1 “elder brother” Hakka Dict. ;
Matisoff 2003 450
C. C. Chinese-Wu khuən1 n. “elder brother” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gùng “grandfather , father of one’s husband” “the male (of animals)”
Chik / Ng Lam 30 gùn “the groom” Chik / Ng Lam 19
explicitly by a lexeme which signified a mutual relationship. (See Note H.3b.1-3 Cushitic-Rendille tabar dow
“the opposite, contradictory” / tabar dowa “go in an opposite direction to someone” and Supplementary Table 2
H.3b.3.
379
N. Chinese-MSC kūnzhòng n. “brothers” kūndì n. “elder and younger brothers”, “brothers”

DeFrancis 522
N. Chinese-MSC gōng “husband’s father, father-in-law” “male (animal)” Wu J. 234
Chinese–Min khun1 “elder brother” Hakka Dict.
TB-Tibetan gūndə “spouse” (honorific) Goldstein 58
D.5a.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gwàn “you (used in addressing a male in formal speech)”.
Chik / Ng Lam 53
N. Chinese-MSC guànjūn “champion” Wu, J. 251
D.5a.1
W. Chadic-Sura kən “uncle, nephew” Newman, P. 1977 #138 33
W. Chadic-Angas mwolke nin kûn “mother’s elder brother”
W. Chadic-Dyarim k‫ככ‬nmaàn “male child” maàn “man, male, person” Blench 2007 49
Egyptian h̟unu “boy, youth, young man” Budge v.1 471
C. Chadic-Maba kunón ‘le gendre” “le beau-père” “la belle fille” “la belle mère”
[son-in-law, father-in-law, daughter-in-law, moher-in-law] Caitucoli 104
D.5a.2 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic wändənnet “manhood” Leslau 1976172
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) ʔuxwaan pl. “brothers” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 1 25
NS-Anyua [Anyuak] wʌ‫כ‬ŋɔ́ “male relative of grandfather’s generation” Reh 120
NS-Nuer ŋweni “suitor, bachelor, young man” Huffman 38
NS-Songhay (Gao) aru-wangari “guerrier”[warrior] Ducroz 31 aru “man” (D.25.1)
D.5a.1 Sanskrit kumbhila “a wife’s brother” Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2 D.5a.1
D.5a.2 Altaic-Turkic-Turkish gwan “father” Tureng 16
/
D.5b.1 S. Chinese-Yue W. Chadic- Proto-AA West Semitic-
(Cantonese) Burma *gwan- Ethiopian-
gwàn “a sovereign, gwə̀n “chief” “chief” Amharic
a monarch, a king” Stolbova, Olga Militarev, mäkwänən
Chik / Ng Lam 53 W. Chadic Stolbova “governor,
N. Chinese-MSC Etymology Afro- noble person
‘huángdi n. 2006 Asiatic of high rank,
“the Emperor, emperor” / W. Chadic- Etymology officer (in the
huángshang Ngizim 2007 army),
“emperor” Wang, F. 208 wanu dignitary,
guan vt. “government “rule gentleman”
official” “control, govern, (tyrannically)” mäkwänənt
regulate” Wang, F. 175 Schuh 171 “appointive
S. Chinese-Min nobility,
kuàn “to care for, take care nobleman,
of; control (area), manage” aristocracy”
Bodman 1987 Leslau 1976
v.2 82,151221 34
221
Note- D.5b.1 (S. Chinese-Min) The Min verb nd Sinitic nouns match the form and semantics of the
other “kwan /gwan roots which signify not only “control, manage” but also “persons having autority or
proficiency in a certain area”. This root is derived from the aauthority/power which a father or older brother
possesses in an African patrilineal society.
D.5b.2,4 NS- morphemes related to the ST D.5b.2,4 roots denote power achieved through knowledge, skill, e.g
gwan thok “interpreter”, gwan wal “medicine man”, gwan dep “fisherman” dep “to fish”. Huffman 17.
380
D.5b.2 N. Chinese–MSC Nilo-Saharan-

(Beijing) guan “a keeper Nuer
of domestic animals” gwan dan
Wu, J. 250 “owner”
yángguān bf. gwan deet,
“herdsman, shepherd” “shepherd”
DeFrancis 317 deet “sheep”
“a groom” Huang 145 Huffman 17
D.5b.3 W. Chadic-
N. Chinese–MSC Hausa
kuàn (WG) gwàní m.
“experienced in, expert in” gwànā f.
Mathews 526 #3567 “expert, highly-
skilled person”
Newman, P.
2007 79-80.
D.5b.4 Semitic- Kanuri
TB-Tibetan mkhan Gurage gang-rang
“an affix to substantives kännät “expert”
and verbal roots denoting “skill” Cyffer 1990 56
one who knows a thing Mukarov-
thoroughly making a trade sky 329
or profession of it”
Jaschke 53222
D.5b.1
S. Chinese-Yue ( Cantonese) gwàn “a sovereign, a monarch, a king”
N. Chinese–MSC
‘huángdi n. “The Emperor, emperor” / uángshang “emperor”
Chinese-MSC
guan “government official” vt. “control, govern, regulate”
< West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic
guan / guânli “manage, run, administer” “have charge”
Approximate Sinitic etyma: gwàn “person with authority” ~ kwän- “ruler, governor”
Hence this word family may be related to that containing sets E.4b.1-2 which primarily denotes authority
gained through knowledge. Both word families include words denoting “king”, but in the case of E.4b.1-2 the
ruler is also a teacher in a religious context. This suggests that knowledge accompanied by virtue and religious
practice was an equally important concept in some African societies along with positions of authority based on
family hierarchy. This was clearly the case in in old N. Chinese culture. See Keightley 2000 11 note 8.. .
222
Note- D.5b.4 (Tibetan m- prefix) C.Chadic- Dghwede màgàná “chief, king” is cited in Mukarovsky 124 as a
variant of the Chadic / Mande mang- root which commonly means “chief, king”. See D.28.1. However the initial
m- of E.4b.1 Tibetan mkhán-po “a clerical teacher” probably represents the related Chadic form of the E.4b.2 kan-
root which means “one who knows”. The *ma- prefix is found in Chadic languages as a designator of human beings
having some type of authority or skill including those who practice a trade, profession , e.g. W. Chadic-Hausa magìni
“builder, potter” See F.15a.1 (Extended), Newman, P. 2000 51, 2007 144 and masùncī m. “fisherman” Newman,
P. 2007 153 sú “fishing”.
Also in Chadic the ma(i) morpheme is often attested as an independent particle denoting possession of an object
or a quality. W. Chadic-Tangale ma “belonging to, that of”, W. Chadic-Hausa mai “one with”, E. Chadic-Sokoro
mala “one with” Skinner 192. All these are plausibly related to the W. Chadic-Tangale mai “owner, chief, king,
head”.
381

D.5b.1 Chinese-MSC guan / guânli “manage, run, administer” “have charge” Wu, J. 250 ; kuân
(WG) “to govern, to care for, to control” Mathews #3557 525 kuān (WG) “an official or Mandarin”
“public” “a term of respect” Mathews #3552 524 guān “government official, office-holder”
DeFrancis317 Wu, J. 249 Manser156 guānjia “steward, butler, manager” Wu, J. 250 jia “household”
Old Chinese g’wan “servant, officer, official” Karlgren GSR 188a Matisoff 2003 424
S. Chinese-Min uán b.f. “one assigned or designated to a job, member of a unit”
kau-uán “teacher” tông-uán “party member” Bodman 1987 v.2 187
Chinese-MSC wāŋ “power, authority” Goldstein 750
TB-Tibetan wāŋ “power, authority” Goldstein 750
D.5b.1 Nilo-Saharan-Nuer gwan “father” Huffman 17
C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur gwam “pouvoir, être puissant” [power, be powerful] Skinner 96-97
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic wanna “principal adj. “chief, important, main, prime, primary”
wanna azzaž commander-in-chief” azzaž “commander” Leslau 1976 172, 299, 320, 399
D.5b.4 Semitic-Gurage (Muher) qännɔnät “skill” Mukarovsky 329.
↓↓
D.6 Afro-Asiatic – AA –Cushitic AA- NS Khoisan
Chadic Egyptian
D.6.1 TB- E. Chadic-Somrai Egyptian
Tibetan sen “brother” sen
gcen “an elder Greenberg 1966 53 “brother”
brother” Das 388 W. Chadic- N. Bauci- “kinsman”
gc̀en “one’s Tsagu Budge
elder brother” shə̂n “elder brother” v.2 674
Jaschke 144 Jungraithmayr 1994 sn
jēnbo v.2 48 “brother”
“elder brother” E. Chadic- Kera Ehret 1995
Goldstein 337 śε:nn “my brother” 483 265
Jungraithmayr Greenberg
1994 v.2 49 1966 53
D.6.2 W. Chadic-Cagu C. Cushitic- N. Khoisan-
N. Chinese–MSC šən Demba !O !Kung sìŋ
xiōng “elder “elder brother” zan, zin -Zhu sìŋ / chìŋ
brother” Stolbova, Olga “brother” “younger
xióng “male” W. Chadic Etymology Greenberg brother”
Wu, J. 775-776 2006 1966 53 Starostin, G. 2008
S.Chinese–Min 353-4
siêng “a nephew -!Kung
(with different sìŋ “younger
name) ” brother”
Bodman 1987 Greenberg
v.2 172 1966 76
D.6.3 E. Chadic- Sumray C. Cushitic-
N. Chinese -MSC shʌ̂n Demba
zhângzi “my brother” zan, zin
“eldest son” Jungraithmayr “brother”
zhângsūn 1994 v.2 49 Greenberg
“son’s eldest 1966 53
son”
382
“eldest grandson” N. Cushitic-

Wu J. 877 Beja [Bedawi]
See also san “Brüder”
D.3d.2, D.16.4 Reinisch 202
“brother”
Ehret 1995
265 #483
D.6.1 TB-Tibetan gcen “an elder brother”
< E. Chadic- Somrai sen “brother”
D.6.2 Chinese–Min siêng “a nephew” /
N. Khoisan !Kung sìŋ “younger brother” / C. Cushitic-Demba zan, zin “brother” /
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *sen / sìŋ “ brother”
D.6.3 N. Chinese-MSC (WG) hsiūng “a brother, an elder brother” Mathews #2807 421
xiōng “elder brother” Manser 500
kūnzhòng n. “elder and younger brothers” “brothers” Wu, J. 401
Chinese–Wu ɕioŋ1 “one’s elder brother” Hakka Dict.
D.6.1 E. Chadic-Kwang sé:nī / sèní “elder brother” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 49
E. Chadic-Modgel sen “brother” Greenberg 1966 53
Chadic root A *śn “brother” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 21
E. Chadic-Dangaleat sìŋò / sèní “brother” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 49 ; D.5b.2 “frère” Fédry 374
C. Chadic-Bacama zino(gi) “my brothers” Greenberg 1966 53
E. Chadic-Migama sín “frère” Jungraithmayr/Adams 124 “my brother” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 49
E. Chadic-Birgit sìntù “my brother” Jungraithmayr1994 v.2 49
E. Chadic-Mubi (Monjul) séné hihim “mother’s brother” /
sìn “brother” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 49
All of the attestastions listed by Jungraithmayr are from E. Chadic except the Tsagu instance from
W. Chadic).
D.6.3 Proto-Cushitic *isan “brother” Ehret 1995 #483 265
See also D.16.4 TB-Tibetan including extended section
N. Omotic-Mocha šímo “brother” Ehret 1995 #483 265
D.6.2 Kartvelian-Megrel si(n)ʒa “brother-in-law” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 49
D.6.3 IE-Sanskrit sanaAbha “a near kinsman, a uterine brother” Cologne Lexicon
↓↓
D.7 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA -Cushitic, AA- NS NC
Proto-AA Sem.
D.7.1 S. Chinese-Yue Proto-Chadic Proto-Cushitic
(Cantonese) yùh “a young (Jungraithmayr) *yuh- / *yaw-
child, an infant” *yw “to give birth” “child”
yúh “to give birth” Ehret 1995 #1004 476 Ehret 1995
Chik / Ng Lam 103, 5 #1004 476
N. Chinese-MSC yù
“to give birth to, rear, raise”
Wu, J. 850
D.7.2 Middle Chinese W. Chadic- Ngizim ‘yàwú
bjəu “hatch” “bear, give birth (human,
Norman 211 animal, plant)” Schuh 178
383
D.7.3 C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur Proto-AA

S. Chinese-Yue mayàwa *-yâw-
(Cantonese) “naissance” [birth] “to produce
yauh yìh “infant, baby” Skinner 102 young”
yaujo “with child” Ehret 1995
Chik / Ng Lam 1 #1004 476
D.7.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) yùh “a young child, an infant”, yúh “to give birth”
< Proto-Chadic *yw “to give birth” / Proto-Cushitic *yuh- “child”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *yuh- “child” “to give birth”
D.7.1
yúh “the young of animals, birds etc.” Chik / Ng Lam 5
yiu “tiny, small” “the youngest son or daughter of a family” Chik Ng Lam 126
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) juk7 “produce, give birth to, breed” Hakka Dict.
Middle Chinese yuwk “to nourish, to give birth” Sagart 1999 31
D.7.2
TB-Tibetan khyeu “male child, infant boy” “youth, adolescent” Jaschke 48
TB-Tibetan gyewa “birth” Goldstein 74
D.7.3
N. Chinese-MSC yao “youngest” “tender, young” Wu, J. 801
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) yau “young, tender, immature” ; “to take care of the young”
Chik Ng Lam 126
D.7.1
NS-Anywa ɲuɔl “to give birth” Reh 55
D.7.2 C. Chadic-Glavda yava “to bring forth, to yield, to give birth” Rapp / Benzing 108
Berber–Tuareg [Tamasheq] ayyaw “grandchild, descendent” Skinner 102
↓↓
D.8 Afro-Asiatic AA-Cush., Afro-Asiatic- Nilo-Saharan NC
– Chadic Proto-AA Berber
D.8.1 W. Chadic- Proto-AA Berber– Songhay (Djenne)
S. Chinese-Yue Hausa (Orel / Tuareg háy-kayna
(Cantonese) haihùwā / Stolbova [Tamasheq] “offspring, son,
hàaih haifùwā f. 1995) ahàia daughter”
“a child, an infant, “birth” *hày- “petit fils” Heath v.2 90
a baby” “one’s “give [grandchild] Songhay (Gao)
hàaihji biological birth” Cortade 217 háy-téji
“a child” child” *hàwar- / “grandchild, “bébé” [baby]
Chik /Ng Lam 103 vn. of haihù *hayar descendent” [literal meaning
Chen 34 “give birth, “breed” Skinner 102 given by Ducroz is:]
N. Chinese-MSC (have a “multiply” “accouchement
hái “child” child”) Skinner nouveau”
Huang 153 Newman, P. 102 ‘new birth’]
hái bf. háizi 2007 83 Ducroz 119
“child”
“son or daughter”
DeFrancis 344
Wu, J. 262
384

D.8.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) hàaih “a child, an infant, a baby”
< Songhay (Djenne) háy-kayna “offspring, son, daughter”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *háy- “offspring, baby”
D.8.1
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] hai2 (MacIver) “baby, child, infant, children” Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC hái’ér “child, son, daughter” DeFrancis 344
[Compound of this root and that of D.25.2 ér “youngster, youth” “son”] nánhái “boy” Wu, J. 488
D.8.1 NS-Songhay-(Koroboro) háy “give birth, to bear” Heath v.3 123 háy-jin-ow “first-born”
Heath v.3 154
(Gao) háy “accoucher, naître (enfant)” Ducroz 119
(Koyra) hay-ndi “be born, birth” Heath v.1 123
↓↓
D.9a-b AA – Chad. AA-Cushitic AA-Sem. Nilo-Saharan. NC
D.9a.1 TB-Tsangla C. Chadic- Nile Nubian Benue-Congo-
ənye “aunt” Hurza, Kotoko [Kenuzi- Bendi-Bokyi
Benedict 69 əny- Dongola] (Osokom)
[Disyllabic “mother” any “aunt” ò-ɲìɲyì
corresp.] Skinner 116 Greenberg 1966 “woman, wife”
S. Chinese-Min 134 Williamson /
ân-nè “mother” NS-Zaghawa, Shimizu
Bodman 1987 For (Fur) v.2 407
v.2 119, 16 anya
TB-Kinauri “paternal aunt”
əne “aunt” Greenberg
“father’s sister” 1966 134
Benedict 69
D.9a.2 W. Chadic- NS-Kanuri
TB-Lakher Hausa yiná
in “mother” innà / “mother’s
Starostin, S. ìnna f. younger sister”
ST Etymology “mother, Cyffer
maternal aunt” 1990 192
Newman, P.
2007 93
D.9a.3 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- NS-Songhay
na-ma “bride” Tangale (Djenne)
Goldstein 627 náà / náa- naanaa
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu “mother” “favorite wife”
na:na “elder sister” Jungraith- Heath
Starostin, S. mayr v.2 154
Yamphu Dict. 1991 123
D.9a.4 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- NS-Anywa NC-Fulfulde
TB-Proto-Kiranti Tangale Oromo niti / [Anuak] [Fulani]
*ni “aunt” nene nitti “moglie, ɲìj‫[�ככ‬voc.] nenne
Starostin, S. “old woman” consorte” “old lady (when “mother”
Kiranti Etymology Mukarovsky [wife, consort] addressing)” Taylor 149
413 Borello 31 Reh 54
385
N. Chinese-MSC “wife,
nii woman”
“woman, female” Foot 46
Wu, J. 502
D.9a.5 TB-Miri W. Chadic-Geji E. Cushitic- Semitic- NS-Songhay
a-na “mother” ana Afar Aramaic (Koroboro)
Starostin, S. “mother” anna “aunts, a(n)tā anna
ST Etymology Skinner 116 within both “woman, “appelation,
TB-Jingpho one’s paternal wife” vocatif”
[Kachin] and maternal Compre- voc.
ʔnā voc. clan” hensive “maman”
“older sister” Parker / Aramaic Skinner 116
Matisoff 2003 115 Hayward 299 Lexicon
D.9a.6 E. Cushitic- NS-Anywa
Old Chinese Oromo ɳìwʌnnì
ni̭ o “woman, lady, anniyó “half-sister
girl” Karlgren GSR voc. (same father,
#94a-e, “mamma, mia different
Matisoff 2003 173 madre” mothers”
N. Chinese-MSC / [mamma, ɳìwúuó
Beijing nyǔren my mother] “female cousin
“woman” Borello 23 (daughter of
Chen 460 paternal uncle)
Wang, F. 353 ”ɳìwaaɔ
niū “girl” “female cousin
Wu, J. 499 223 (daughter of
TB-Tibetan paternal aunt)”
nεεyɔɔ‫כ‬ Reh 55
“nurse”
Goldstein 1984 298
D.9a.7 E. Cushitic- NS-For (Fur) N.Mande-
Proto-TB Rendille nya Ligbi
*nya “woman” nyarnyàar “wife” nyâ “woman,
Matisoff 2003173 “newly Greenberg 1966 wife”
S. Chinese-Min married 147 S.W. Mande-
nia5 “mother” woman, Mende
“young girl, newly married nyàhâ
women, wife, wife, bride ” “woman,
girls” Hakka Dict. Pillinger 236 wife”
Mukarovsky
413
↓↓
223
Note- D.9a.6 (N. Chinese-Beijing, MSC) The root niu of this morpheme corresponds closely to another common
form nǔ “woman, female” (Wu, J. 502) meaning “woman” in Standard Chinese. These form many compounds, e.g.
nǔrén “woman, womenfolk”, nǔzȋ “woman, female”, nǔwang “queen”, nǔshēng “female voice” etc.
A similar Beijing (MSC) form with the rising (acute) tone nú “sons and daughters, children” (meaning “young person,
whether male and female)” (Wu, J. 502) belongs to a different word family reported in D.20.1. Attestations in TB-
Tibetan nú-mo “the younger sister of a female”, nú-bo “a man’s younger brother”, Middle Chinese ānú “younger
brother” etc. show it to be a different ST < African root.
386
D.9a.8 NS-Nuer
Chinese-MSC nyam “girl
niáng “a young (directly
woman” “ma, mum, addressed)”
mother” Huffman 35
niángzi “a form of “The prefixes
address for one’s nya- and
wife” Wu, J. 497 nyan-
niángrmen always
“woman” indicate
[occurs only in feminine
Beijing not in MSC gender”.
according to Huffman 55
Norman 249]
D.9a.9 E. Cushitic-
TB-Tibetan Somali
nag-mo naag- “wife,
“a woman in general” woman”
Jaschke 300 Mukarovsky
“a female” 414
Goldstein 603 Awde
1999 79
D.9a.1 TB-Tibetic-Tsangla ənye “aunt” / TB-Tibetan ʔa-ne “father’s sister, aunt, grand-aunt” /
S. Chinese-Min ân-nè “mother”
< C. Chadic- Hurza, Kotoko əny- “mother” / E. Cushitic- Oromo anniyó (vocative noun) “mamma, mia
madre” / NS- Zaghawa, For (Fur) anya “paternal aunt”
D.9a.4 N. Chinese-MSC, Beijing nii “woman, female” / Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ney ~*ni(y) “aunt,
mother-in-law”
< E. Cushitic- Oromo nitti “woman, wife” / NS-Nuer nyiti “girl (directly addressed)” / NS- Anywa
[Anuak] ɲìjɔɔ�= “old lady (when addressing)” / NC-N. Mande-Numu, Huela nien “woman, wife”
D.9a.7 Proto-TB *nya “woman” / S. Chinese-Min nia5 “mother” “young girl, women, wife, girls”
< NS-Songhay nyâ “mother” / N.Mande-Ligbi nyâ “woman, wife”.
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *əny- “aunt (father’s sister)” “mother”~ *ni- ~ *nyi- “woman,
wife, girl” ~ nyâ “mother” “woman, wife”
D.9a.1 S. Chinese-Min ân- “a prefix in certain kinship terms” Bodman 1987 v. 2 119, 161224
224
Note- D.9a.1 (Chinese-Min) As in Note- D.4a.1 the ân- and a- initial prefixes in Min are identified as
prefixes “for kinship terms and names, direct address and familiar reference.” Bodman 1987 v.2 119. The initial
/an-/ has the same function in AA and other African languages for words denoting older female relatives and for
other kinship terms. In this set the D.9a.1 Oromo correspondence is vocative and familiar. The Semitic-Amharic
2d person feminine pronoun anĉi “you” is probably related. Leslau 1976 137.
Other attestations which explicitly identify the morpheme as vocative and/or used in addressing a woman are:
D.9a.4 TB-Proto-Kiranti ↔ NS-Nuer
D.9a.5 TB-Miri, TB-Jingpho ↔ NS- Songhay
D.9b.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ↔ West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic
D.25.1 N. Chinese (Beijing) ↔ Cushitic-Rendille including Note D.25.2
D.30a.2 TB-Tibetan, S. Chinese-Min ↔ Khoisan, Cushititc-Rendille, Semitic-Hebrew/Amharic
Benedict considered the a- to be a pronominal prefix since it appears with kinship terms. He distinguishes it from
Tibetan prefixed / ‘ / = /a/ which appears before verb forms throughout TB. Benedict 122-123. See also Matisoff
387
TB-Tibetan ʔa-ne “father’s sister, aunt, grand-aunt” (W. Tibet) “wife, spouse” “a woman, a female”
Jaschke 603-604 ʔəne “aunt” Matisoff 2003 509
ə̄ne “paternal aunt, female relative of the first ascending generation patrilineally”“nun”
Goldstein 1188 ; a-ne “uncle’s wife” a-ne “an address to a Buddhist nun” Das 1343
TB- Gyarong, Nung əni “aunt, father’s sister” Benedict 69
D.9a.3 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *m-na “mother, older sister, daughter-in-law” Matisoff 2003 173
TB-Tibetan mná-ma “daughter-in-law” Jaschke 312
D.9a.4
TB-Chin-Lushai ni “a paternal aunt, any paternal female who belongs to the same generation as one’s
father” Starostin, S. Sino-Tibetan Etymology
Chinese-Wu ɲy “woman” Rose 161 ni2 / ni3 “woman, female” “daughter, girl, lady” Hakka Dict.
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ney ~ *ni(y) “aunt, mother-in-law” Benedict #316 69, 204
TB-Kiranti-Limbu nεnε “elder sister, elder female cousin through paternal uncle or maternal aunt”
van Driem 1987 478
TB-Mikir ni “aunt” Matisoff 2003 218
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] nī “aunt” Matisoff 2003 218 “mother-in-law” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
TB-Bodo/Garo-Garo ma- nī “aunt” Matisoff 2003 218
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) nèih “a nun” Chik / Ng Lam 112
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ni2 / ni3 “maid, servant girl” “little girl, cute girl” Hakka Dict.
TB-Tibetan né-ne-mo “aunt, the father’s sister or wife of the mother’s brother” Jaschke 306
C. Chinese-Wu nE6 “wife” Hakka Dict.
D.9a.6 niūr “an ---affectionate way of referring to a young woman in northen China” Wang, F. 353
D.9a.7 TB-Kiranti Limbu nyaʔ “ego’s paternal aunt” van Driem 1987 483
TB-Tibetan nyá-ma “ mistress of the house, housewife”
Jaschke 184 Das 473
D.9a.1
NC-S.W. Mande-Kpelle neni “woman, wife” Mukarovsky 413
NC-Benue-Congo-Bendi-Bokyi (Abu) ò-nìnì “woman, wife” Williamson / Shimizu v.2 407
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) ʔunɵa ʔinaaɵ pl. “female, a female” ʔannaɵ “to make feminine” (grammar)
Semitic-Socotri ‘enneh “sister” Skinner 116
Semitic-Arabic enjeya ‘aajooz (IPA) “auntie” Merriam-Webster-Arabic 10
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic anəst / ənəst “female” Leslau 1976 136
D.9a.2
E. Chadic-Lele, Somrai Ina “mother” Skinner 116
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic ənnat / ɨnnat “mother” Leslau 1976 137, 413 Hudson 102
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Harari ināy “respectable lady, matron” Leslau 1963 29
D.9a.3
W. Chadic-Ron (Daffo) naâ “Mutter”[mother] Jungraithmayr 1970 219
E. Cushitic-Dobango nah̟ay- “wife” Mukarovsky 414
E. Cushitic-Oromo nadd-a “donna sposata, femmina” [married lady] Borello 315
D.9a.4
NS-Nuer nyiman “sister” man “woman” nyiti / nyiɛr “girl (directly addressed)” [voc.] Huffman 35
NC-N. Mande-Numu, Huela nien “woman, wife” Mukarovsky 413
S.W. Mande-Kpelle néni, n� nú “woman, wife” Mukarovsky 413
NS-Bagirmi ne “wife” Greenberg 1966 147
2003 114-115. The present study confirms this distinction since the Tibetan / ‘ / also represents initials of both
verbal and nominal ST morphemes whose corresponding African/AA k- or g- initials have been reduced to the
initial glottal. See Note B.11a.1-2 its references and Chapter 10 Section 10.3.2.2.
388
NS-Nile Nubian [Kenuzi] eny “wife” Greenberg 1966 108

D.9a.5
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari anna “paternal aunt” Leslau 1963 27
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Selti) anāt “aunt, paternal” (Wolane) anat “aunt, paternal” ;(Gyeto)
anatchwär; (Muher) annatchewät “aunt, paternal” (Masqan) annat “aunt, paternal” Leslau 1979 v.2
28-9 ; -Amharic, Tigrinya ənnat “mother” Leslau 1976 137 Skinner 116
Semitic-Written Arabic anuta “to be or become feminine, womanly, womanish”
anata “feminine, female, a female (of animals)” Wehr 38
D.9a.6 NS-Songhay (Gao) ňóŋó “mère” [mother] Ducroz 192
D.9a.7
NS-Songhay (Gao) ňa béeri “tante maternelle” Ducroz 192 [maternal aunt]
NS-Anywa [Anuak] ɲa “you there (when calling a woman”) Reh 52
NS-Nuer nyal “girl” Huffman 35
NS-Songhay (Djenne, Koyra) ňaa “mother”“mother’s sister” Heath v.1 206 v.2 157
NS-Didinga ŋa “wife” Greenberg 1966 108
D.9a.8
NS-Nuer nyanyade “girl grandchild” Huffman 55
Proto-Benue-Congo *-nine “woman, wife” Williamson / Shimizu v.2 409
D.9a.9 NS-Anywa [Anuak] ɲàkɔɔ “girl” Reh 103
D.9a.1
Proto-IE an- “grandmother”Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz,Turkmen ��“mother” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Proto-Turkic ana / ��“mother” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Kazak ��/ ana “mother”
D.9a.3
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek ona n. “mother” English-Uzbek Dictionary
IE-Old Indian nana “familiar expression for ‘mother’)”
IE-N. Iranian-N. Persian nana “Mutter” (Ger.) ‘mother’
Kartvelian-Megrel nana “mother” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 38
Kartvelian-Georgian nena ‘mother’ Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 38
IE-Bengali nani “grandmother (maternal) Thompson 207
D.9a.4
Proto-Altaic *n�K u “female relative (sister or brother’s wife)
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *neŋu “female relative (sister or brother’s wife)
D.9a.5 IE-Pashto ana “grandmother, maternal or paternal” Raverty 50
Altaic-Turkic-Balkar ana “mother” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
D.9a.7 IE-Pashto nya “a grandmother, paternal or maternal” nya-yah “a maternal uncle”
Raverty 997-998
South Daic-Lao nya2 “grandmother (father’s mother)” Marcus 95, maa3 nya2 “mother-in-law
(paternal)” Marcus 140
nya2 maa3 “madam” Marcus 128
D.9a.8 South Daic-Lao maa3 nying3 “woman (women)” Marcus 258,
peuang2 nying3 “girl friend (for girl)” Marcus 92
D.9a.9
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian nagachü “female relative (sister or brother’s wife”)
Starostin, S. Altaic Etymology
/
389
D.9b.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- West Semitic- Kanuri Khoisan-

‘ama “mother” Hausa Haddiya Ethiopian-Amharic ma |Kham,
Jaschke 604 màama f. ama əmmamma “mother” |Nu-‖’e
ama (colloq. of “mother” “mother” “mamma!, address Cyffer mama
mother) Newman, P. Gasparini 13 to a mother or an 1990 99 “mother”
“my kind mother” 2007 E. Cushitic- elderly woman” Ruhlen
Das 1344 W. Chadic- Sidamo əmmät / 1994
S. Chinese-Yue Gwandara amaama f. əmmete #406 59
(Cantonese) ama voc. “mother” “madame!”,
màmà / ama mother” Hudson 102 “yes (in reference
“mother (more Skinner 195 “name by which to a summons by a
intimate term) children address woman)” Leslau
Kwan 303 their mother” 1976
Gasparini 13 123-124
D.9b .1 N. Chinese-MSC māma “mamma, mammy”
< W. Chadic- Hausa màama n. f. “mother” / Khoisan-ǀKham ǀNu-‖’e mama “mother”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *mama “mother”
D.9b.1
TB-Kinauri ama “mother” Benedict 148 [Disyllabic corresp.]
TB- Garo ama voc. “mother” Benedict 121 Matisoff 2003 105
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ma “mother, feminine suffix” Benedict #487 216 Matisoff 2003 175
Proto-Kiranti *má / *mám “mother” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
TB-Tibetan amàh “grandmother” Matthews, S. 376
D.9b.2 N. Chinese MSC, Beijing mà “form of address for a married woman one generation one’s
senior” Wu, J. 452
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ma2 / ma3 “feminine suffix” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) mà “a woman servant (when used immediately after her family name)
Chik / Ng Lam 99
D.9b.1 NC-Proto-W. Nigritic *-ma *-mama “mother” Skinner 195
S. Cushitic- Irakwe ama “grandmother” Skinner 195
E. Chadic-Masa Group ma “femme, epouse, femelle” [woman, wife, female] Skinner 195
↓↓
D.10a-b AA – Chadic Proto-AA AA- NS NC
Sem.
D.10a.1 TB-Kiranti-Yamphu W. Chadic- Hausa Proto-AA Maba
tāŋbaŋ “relative” dangi “family” *dan táŋ “hut,
Starostin, S. Yamphu Dict. dangantaka “family” family
N. Chinese-MSC táng “relationship” Militarev / lineage” 226
“relationship between cousins, W. Chadic- Sura Stolbova. pl. taŋetu
etc. of the same paternal deŋ / daŋ “family, Afroasiatic “village”
grandfather or great-grandfather, household” Etymology Edgar 225
of the same clan” Wu, J. 666225 Skinner 43 2007
225
Note- D.10a.1 (Beijing, Tibetan, NS) Kiranti have retained only the dang / dangi “family relation,
relationship” semantics unlike N. Chinese (Beijing) which attests both the original NS meanings of “village <
“relatives/friends”
390
tâng (WG) W. Chadic- Hausa

“a village of 500 families” dangīi n. m.
“a clique , a faction, “kin, family relation(s),
a gang, an association” relatives”
Mathews #6094 875 Newman, P. 2007 42
D.10a.2 N. Chinese-MSC Kanuri
dâng / dāngshìren dangin
“party to a lawsuit, litigant” “stand up
“be partial to, take sides with” for
“defend those who belong to someone
one’s own faction” Wu, J. 136 (e.g. in a
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) court of
táanwuh “to shield or protect, law)
side with” Chik / Ng Lam 410 Cyffer
“to side with” “to protect a 1990 31
person (with prejudice)”
Po-fei Huang 494
D.10a.1
N. Chinese-MSC táng “relationship between cousins, etc. of the same paternal grandfather or great-
grandfather, of the same clan”, tâng “a village of 500 families” / TB-Yamphu tāŋbaŋ “relative”
< W. Chadic- Hausa dangīi “kin, family relation(s), relatives” / Maba Group- Maba táŋ “family
lineage” taŋetu pl. “village”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *táŋ “family lineage” “relative”
D.10a.1 N. Chinese-MSC, Beijing
dàngjiazi “a member of the same clan, a distant relative with the same family name” Hsiung 199
tàngbóshū n. “father’s male first cousins of the same surname” DeFrancis 913
tángxiōngdì n. “male cousins (sons of father’s brother)” Wang, F. 452
�K ng “equal” Wu, J. 143 bù�K ng “vary, differ” Wu, J. 51
dâng “political party” “faction, clique, gang” “kinsfolk, relatives” Wu, J.136
dàngzi meas. for “groups of people” DeFrancis 1360
TB-Tibetan daŋ “friends, supporters” Goldstein 479
Chinese- Cantonese dang “rank, grade” “same, equal” Chik / Ng Lam 342
Chinese–Min tâng “together with, alike, same” Bodman 1987 v.2 176
TB-Limbu-taŋba suffix “like, of the kind” van Driem 1987 24
D.10a.2 N. Chinese-MSC danbau ren “sponsor” Chen 376
D.10a.1 W. Chadic-Hausa dàngantàa v. “to be related to, comparable to” “to correspond to”
dàngantàa (vi. with da) “depend on, be related to” Newman, P. 2007 42
dangantaka “relationship” Skinner 43 Newman, P. 2007 42
d’an’uwa m. “brother, cousin” “buddy, mate, comrade fellow:” Newman, P. 2007 52
E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] támbáà- “clan (dimension historique) Fédry 152
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage yalbet däŋa “servants and slaves of the family” Leslau 1978 v.1 44
D.10a.2 W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic d’agg’äfä vt.. “support, sustain, prop up, hold up, favor
(support), rally to, side with, stand by one” Leslau 1976 200, 495.
226
Note- D.10a.1 (Nilo-Saharan) This root occurs in other Nilo-Saharan languages of the Maba Group area with a
the single meaning of “house, hut”. The root also compounds with the word sing “wood “ to denote “door”.
Nilo-Saharan- Maba Group- Kodoi táŋ sing’ “door” ; - Mimi táŋ sinye “door” Edgar 225
Nilo-Saharan- Masalit táŋì / taaŋì “hut, roof” ; Nilo-Saharan Zaghawa daŋa “hut, house”
391

D.10a.1
Proto-Indo-European *dam- “tribe, family” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *daŋgi “root, origin, generation” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology ----
-Mongolian-Kalmuck *däŋgə “root, origin, generation” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
/
D.10b.1 TB-Tibetan NS-Anywa NC-Common
duŋdre “contact, [Anuak] Bantu
relation” Goldstein 451 tùuŋ “family” *-dongo-
S. Chinese-Yue “relatives” “brother”
(Cantonese) Reh 78 -dugu-
tùhngjùngge NS-Tubu “in-law”
“relatives (not in the [Teda] Skinner 43
same household)” dùŋgu
Kwan 419 “berwandte”
tòhng “relatives born of (Ger.)
the same grandfather” [a relative]
“a team or a group” Lukas 1953
D.10b.2 Chinese–Min W. Chadic- NS-Anywa Proto-W.
ke-tiéng Gwandara tɛ‫כ‬ɛŋ Nigritic
“extended family” dengyi pl. tɛ‫כ‬ɛŋi *-dem-
Bodman 1987 v.2 86, 146 “relative” “type, kind” “in-law”
Chinese-MSC Matsushita Reh 74 Skinner 43
dêng “class, grade, 1972 36
rank” Wu, J. 143
meas. “class of, degree
of, grade of”
Wang, F. 102
D.10b.3 Chinese- Hakka NS-Maba
dong3 “village” group-Aiki
“community of families” tòŋgo
“relative” “village”
“party, gang, faction” Edgar 225
Hakka Dict. NS-Songhay
N. Chinese-MSC (Djenne)
tóngxìăng dung’ke
“fellow countryman” “habitual
“be from the same place” companion”
Wang, F. 465 Heath v.2 58
D.10b.4 S. Chinese-Yue N. Cush.- W. Semitic-
(Cantonese) Beja Ethiopian-
tùhng “a servant” [Bedawi] Gurage
“a boy” dungwi däng’a
tùhng buhk “servants” “servant” “boys”
Chik / Ng Lam 25 Skinner 43 Skinner 43
D.10b.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) tùhngjùngge “relatives (not in the same household)” /
TB-Tibetan duŋdre “contact, relation”
< Anywa tùuŋ “family” “relatives” / NS-Tubu [Teda] dùŋgu “a relative”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *tùuŋ “family, relatives” “a relative”
392

D.10b.1 N. Chinese-MSC tóng “be the same” “be in the same group etc.” Wang, F. 463
xiāngtóng “identical” xuetóng “blood relatiion Merriam-Webster Chinese 144, 150
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] dong3 “party, gang, faction” “relative” “community of 500 families”
“take sides with, be a partisan of ” “village” Hakka Dict.
TB-Tibetan gdung “family, lineage, progeny, descendents” Jaschke 266 Das 661 ;
mthun-phyogs “relations, friends” Das 601
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) tùhngbàau “children of the same parents/brethren”
dóngpaai “parties, factions” Po-fei Huang 375, 447 tyùhn “a group, a party, an organization,
a society” Chik / Ng Lam 76 dóng “gang” “party (political group)” Kwan 200, 339
tùhng-sih “mate (fellow workman”) tùhng-hok “schoolmate” Kwan 13, 288
S. Chinese-Min tong “political party” Bodman 1983 117, 202
TB-Kiranti-Limbu tɔŋ “match, be equal, fit” van Driem 1987 24, 536
D.10b.2 N. Chinese-MSC dêngyu vt. “equal to, be an equivalent” Wang, F. 113 dêngdêng “etc.,
and the like” Wu, J. 143 Wang, F.102 “an enumerative pronoun- thing or things of the same kind”
Yip, Po-Ching 2004 54
D.10b.3 S. Chinese-Min tōng-hiông “same village, fellow villager” Bodman 1983 142, 202
“people from the same region” Bodman 1987 v.2 102, 181 ; -(Taiwanese) tōng-hiông hue
“association of people coming from the same place” Bodman 1983 142, 202.
D.10b.1 NS-Maba Group-Masalit tung’yi “similar to, like” Edgar 226
D.10b.1
Proto-Altaic *túŋì “relative by marriage” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology,
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *düŋür “relative by marriage” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
↓↓
D.11a-b AA – Chadic Cush. AA-Semitic NS NC
D.11a.1 W. Chadic- Hausa Semitic-
N.Chinese-MSC dangànàa vt. Written Arabic
dàng vt. “pawn” “pledge or pawn dāna
n. “things to be pawned” something” “to borrow,
Wang, F. 89 Wu, J. 137227 Newman, P. take up a loan”
S. Chinese–Min 2007 42 “to be a
1
tang dàngàntaa v. debtor, to
“pawn, mortgage, pledge” “to entrust” owe”
Hakka Dict. Awde1996 28 Wehr 352
227
Note- D.11a.1 (Chinese, Chadic-Hausa) Hausa dangànàa means “pawn” but also “impose a responsibility
on” e.g. Sun dangànàa manà nauyin aiki. “They pushed the responsibility for the work on us” Newman, P.
2007 42. Beijing Chinese attests dānren “assume a position or responsibilities” Wang, F. 90. The context for
these semantics lies in the institution of pawning in Africa.
The pawn in traditional African society was most commonly a person. “A lineage in need of money, or forced to
pay compensation for a homicide or some other crime, or unable to feed its members in time of famine, might
transfer all its rights in a person to another lineage in return for goods or money. The individual, usually a child,
would now be totally at the disposal of the recipient lineage, to which he would “belong”, and could do with him as
it wished---. Alternatively the transfer of such rights could be temporary. This is usually called “pawning” in the
literature and was extremely widespread. In exchange for a loan, a kin group would transfer to its creditor a pawn---
who could be redeemed later” Dunbar 10 This practice is the basis for the ST words meaning “pawn, pledge”
“loan” as well as the D.11a.3 Tibetan Extended “hostage”.
393
D.11a.2 E. Chadic- Semitic-Arabic Maba

TB-Tibetan Dangaleat (Yemeni) group-
d� ŋuu “deposit, pledge, dèŋ v. dayn Masalit
pawn, bail” Goldstein 450 “mettre en gage” “debt” dεin-ko
S. Chinese-Yue [to pawn] Qafisheh “debt”
(Cantonese) Fédry 62 221228 Edgar 224
dehng “deposit W. Chadic- Hausa
(a payment indicating dànk’a vt.
trust)” Kwan 130 “to hand over, to
TB-Qiangic-Pumi- Dayang entrust”
dən-nî “borrow / lend” Newman / Ma
Matisoff 2003 168 1979 25
D.11a.3 Semitic- NC-
TB-Tibetan Written Arabic Swahili
gtama “a pawn, pledge” damana dhamana
Das 522 Jaschke 206 “guaranty, “guarantee
[Disyllabic corresp.] surety, bail,
S. Chinese-Yue collateral, collateral”
(Cantonese) security, bail” Awde
dàam bóu “to guarantee, Wehr 637 2000 41
to pledge”
Chik /Ng Lam 172 229
D.11a.2 TB-Tibetan d� ŋuu “deposit, pledge, pawn, bail”
< E. Chadic- Dangaleat dèŋ “to pawn”
D.11a.3 TB-Tibetan gta-ma “a pawn, pledge” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dàam bóu
“to guarantee, to pledge, a guarantee, a pledge”
< Semitic-Written Arabic “guaranty, surety, collateral, security, bail”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *dèŋ “to pawn” ~ dam- “guaranty, surety”
D.11a.1
N. Chinese-MSC dàng dàng “to pawn things” DeFrancis 166 tàng (WG) “to treat as, to regard as-
thus to pawn” “a pledge” “to represent, to stand in the place of” Mathews #6087 874
D.11a.2 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka](Dongguan, Bao’an) den3 v. “pawn, mortgage” Hakka Dict.
TB-Tibetan dεndzin “a receipt/agreement paper for something that had been pawned” also dεnj‫̀ככ‬
dzinyig ka dɛn dzinyig “a written contract regarding an agreement”. See also note D.13.2 below.
dεma “pawn, pledge, security” Goldstein 450
N. Chinese-MSC dìngqian “deposit, earnest (money)” “agreement”, make a contract” Wu, J. 158-9
228
Note- D.11a.2 Given the widespread influence of Arabic from the 9th century CE on all the African languages
cited above, it might be assumed that the original root is Semitic in origin. However, the Hausa and Sino-Tibetan
semantics express the exact original meaning of the root in African societies. The Arabic, Swahili and Cushitic
semantics attest a later more abstract development of the root in which it refers to more modern lending and
borrowing transactions using money. The Tibetan D.11a.3 TB-Tibetan (Extended) mi gta-ma “a hostage” shows
that the transaction at the time of the entry of the root into TB involved persons as well as money or goods. Both TB
and Chinese also contain the later derived meanings, perhaps under the influence of Arab trade with Central and
East Asia in the historic period after writing had become widespread. See also Chapter 9 section 9.9 and Chapter 4
Section 4.3.4
229
Note- D.11a.3 (Tibetan, Cantonese) The tam / dam- variants of this root in Cantonese and Tibetan have the
concrete meanings “contract, deed”. These suggest a relationship between this root and the D.11a.3
(Extended) E. Cushitic-Oromo dambi “agreement in writing”, a modern usage in Africa.
394
dáingaat “mortgage” “pawn” “pledge (things)” Kwan 303, 341, 355
dáingaatbáhn “hostage” Kwan 225 Chik Ng Lam 456
daih gàau “to hand over, to deliver” “to substitute” Po-fei Huang 371
dài “take the place of, be in place of” Wu, J.130
dàitì vt. “substitute for someone or something, be a substitute” Wang, F.87
D.11a.3 TB-Tibetan mi gta-ma “a hostage” Das 522
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dàam / daam “to take upon oneself” “a load, a burden”
Chik / Ng Lam 172 uhdaam n. “responsibility (debt)” Kwan 430 ; “simple documentary proof,
receipt, invoice etc.” Wang, F. 90
D.11a.1
W. Chadic- Hausa dangànàa vt. “lean, prop, put against” Newman, P. 2007 42
Nilo-Saharan-Kanuri kadarngin v. “pay back (a debt) in kind” Cyffer 1990 73
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic adanä “save (rescue), cure, heal” “redeem (save) ”danä “be saved,
be spared” Leslau 1976 196, 467
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) deen “credit” “debt” “a loan, outstanding, money owed one” “creditor”
Dict. of Iraqi Arabic 47, 173 See also D.11b.1 below.
D.11a.2 W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic mädən “immunity, bail, security” Leslau 1976 37
D.11a.3 E. Cushitic-Oromo dam-u v. “affidare un incarico, delegare” [to entrust a responsibility
(to someone) Borello 97 dambi “agreement in writing, contract, deed” Foot 13
NC-Swahili dhamini “to guarantee” “to stand bail” “to be sponsored by somebody” Awde 2000 41
/
D.11b.1 N. Chinese-MSC Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi, Yemeni)
dài “loan” dàifāng daayan “to lend, loan” dayyaan “creditor”
“credit side, credit” Wu, J. 131 Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 173
xīndài “credit” tdaayan / tidaayan “to borrow money”
xīn v. “trust” (D.13.1) Qafisheh 220-221
D.11b.1 N. Chinese-MSC dài “loan”
< Semitic-Arabic daayan “to lend, loan”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *daay- “to lend, loan”
D.11b.1 N. Chinese-MSC nóngdai “agricultural loans” Wu, J.. 500
↓↓
D.12 A-A– Chadic AA-Cushitic AA-Semitic NS NC
D.12.1 N. Chinese- W. Chadic- Hausa E. Cushitic-
MSC fàng fànsā vt. “redeem someone Sidamo
“let go, set free, from slavery” “ransom a fâ’na
release” Wu, J. 192 person”230 Newman, P. 2007 “to become a free
Wang, F. 135 59 Skinner 64 man”
230
Note- D.12.1 (Chadic-Hausa) Dunbar reports the practice of liberating slaves in 19th century Damagaram, the
area of Niger where Hausa was and is the dominant language. “Two customs that were related to the procurement of
slaves and kidnapping should be mentioned: ransoming and pawning. Normally agreements were made among
kingdoms to the effect that princes or other royal personages would not be captured. There is an account of one
nineteenth century source, however, which suggests that such capture was not unknown and that ransom -fanshe-
could exceed by two or three times the market price of a slave. Dunbar 161. The same account states that other
individuals pawned themselves, -jingine kānsu, in order to rescue relatives from slavery. kānsù “themselves”
Newman, R 1990 315. See the following Chinese root jing / chíng / xin in table D.13.1-2 which also has a Hausa
395
“to loosen, fansā f. fânsa

to liberate, to let go” “redemption, ransom” “declare someone
Mathews #1807 261 Newman, P. 2007 59 a free man,
TB-Tibetan to redeem”
‘phaŋs-pa Gasparini 95231
“to save, to spare,
to protect from harm”
phaŋ-ba
“to save,
to spare”
Jaschke 340, 355
D.12.2 E. Cushitic-
Chinese–Min Oromo
pâng bana
“to put down, “aperto, libero,
let down, set down, slegato”
let go, set free, [open, free,
release” unbound / untied]
Bodman 1987 banu vt.
v.2 105, 163 “aprire,
palancare”
[to open,
”throw open]
Borello 43
D.12.3 S. Chinese- Semitic-
Min Arabic
(Taiwanese) fann
pàŋ-sāk “to throw
“to give up, abandon” away, reject”
Bodman 1983 123, Ehret 1995
184 #48 95
D.12.1 N. Chinese-MSC fàng “let go, set free, release”
< W. Chadic-Hausa fànsā vt. “redeem someone from slavery” “ransom someone” /
fânsa “declare someone a free man, to redeem”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *fân- “to declare someone a free man, to redeem” “to save”
D.12.1 N. Chinese-MSC shìfàng “delivery (liberation)” Chen 67 ; “release, set free” Wu, J. 627
fāngshēng “free captive animals” Hsiung 277
C. Chinese-Wu fŋz5 “let go, release, free, liberate, loosen” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) fong “to let go, to release, to free, to liberate, to loosen, to relax”
Chik / Ng Lam 196 pàŋ-ka “be on leave, take a holiday” Bodman 1983 73, 184
D.12.3 N. Chinese-MSC liúfàng “banish” Merriam-Webster Chinese 42
TB-Tibetan spaŋs-pa “abandonment, rejection” Hodge 97
close correspondence and alternatively means “pledge” “guaranty” “indemnity” as well as “to save, to deliver, to rescue”
“let free”.
231
Note- D.12.1(Cushitic-Sidamo)
Sidamo traditional culture includes a rite of purification from leprosy or freeing of a slave. The full semantics of the E.
Cushitic-Sidamo fâ’n- root are: fâ’na “to become pure, to become a free man” fânsa “to purify”,
to declare someone a free man, to redeem” Gasparini 95
396

D.12.1 NS- Songhay (Gao) fénsá “racheter, libérer” [to redeem, to free] Ducroz 85
D.12.2 E. Cushitic-Sidamo fâna “to open, unlock” fansisa “to cause to open” Gasparini 94
W. Chadic- Hausa banye / fanye “open” Skinner16
Proto-AA (Orel / Stolbova 1995) *ban- “open” Skinner 16
Chadic root (C. and E. Chadic) *b-n(g) “open” Skinner 16
E. Cushitic-Kambata fan “open” Hudson 315
Proto- Cushitic *‘p-ngw “to lay open, to make bare” Ehret 1995 #48 95 *’p-n(g) “open” Skinner 16
D.12.3 Nilo-Saharan-Songhay (Gao) féndà “laisser, delaisser, abandonner, lâcher, relâcher”
[let, let go, abandon, release] Ducroz 84
↓↓
D.13 Afro-Asiatic – AA – AA- NS NC
Chadic Cush. Sem.
D.13.1 S . Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) W. Chadic- Hausa
bóujing “guaranty” “pledge” Kwan 211, 355 jingìnàa
bóu “to guarantee, to insure” “pawn”
jinggín “credentials” Kwan 112 “certificate” “something given
Po-fei Huang 407 [Disyllabic corresp.] as collateral for
jing / jìng “to prove, to testify” “evidence, proof, money borrowed”
testimony” Chik / Ng Lam 139, 427 Newman, P. 2007
N . Chinese-MSC yĭn zheng “quote or cite as proof 100
or evidence” Manser pt. 2 577 “support, pledge”
zhėng v. “prove” “evidence” n. Skinner 126
zhėngjiàn “credentials” Manser part 2 577 jingìnā “[to]
yājīn v. “deposit” dɛndzin “a receipt/agreement pawn” vt. and vi.
paper for something that had been pawned” Newman, R.
Goldstein 450 232 1990 196
N . Chinese-MSC xīn v.“trust” xīndài “credit”
Merriam-Webster Chinese 147 dài “loan” (D.11b.1)
D.13.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) W. Chadic- Hausa
chíng “to save, to deliver” Chik / Ng Lam 172 jingine kansu
chínggau “rescue” Kwan 427 “pawned
S. Chinese- Hakka (Lau Chunfat) xin5 themselves in order
(Meixian, MacIver) sin5 “pledge, sign” to rescue relatives
“let free” Hakka Dict. from slavery.”
C. Chinese- Wu ɕin5 “save, avoid” / Dunbar 161
5
tsəŋ “pull up, save, relieve” / as in Note D.12.1
siŋ “let free” Hakka Dict. (Chadic)
TB-Tibetan jin v. “to save a life” Goldstein 1145 kansu
gyīntsep “repayment, replacement, indemnity, “themselves”
reparation” tsep “substitute, replacement,
in place of” Goldstein 71
232
Note- D.13.2 (Chinese-MSC ) The shared Tibetan D.11a.2 (Extended) and D.13.2 Chinese-MSC (Extended)
dɛ̄ndzin compounded form furnishes an explicit connection between the D.11a.2 and D.13.2 roots. There is a
variant expression of this: dɛnjɔɔ‫כ‬dzinyig “receipt for something pawned”. Goldstein 450
Before the invention of writing pawning was probably an agreement formalized by an oath and perhaps recorded
in some physical way. In Tibet Chinese observers during the Tang dynasty reported that “they [the Tibetans] have
no writing for official purposes, and they fix arrangements by means of knotted cords and notched tally sticks.”
Snellgrove 29. Tally sticks were pieces of wood with carved marks to record important transactions/events.
397

D.13.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) bóujing “guaranty” “pledge” / jinggín “credentials” “certificate”,
TB-Tibetan gyīntsep “repayment, replacement, indemnity, reparation”
< W. Chadic-Hausa jingìnàa n.m. “pawn or deposit given as a pledge for money borrowed”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *jingìn “pawn, pledge”
D.13.1
N. Chinese-MSC xìnshì dàndàn “pledge in all sincerity”hsìn / sìn (WG) “to believe in, to trust”
“a pledge or token” Mathews #2748 408 ; xìnyòng “trustworthiness, credit”
xìndài “credit” [in financial sense] Wu, J. 770 ; xìnwù “pledge” v. Manser 334
jīngchéng “absolute sincerity, good faith” Wu, J. 360 bâujèng “pledge, security” Chen 288
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jìngsyu “credentials, diploma” Po-fei Huang 408
boujìngsyu “guaranty (written) Kwan 211 jìngmihng “certify” Kwan 65
jing “to prove, to testify, evidence, proof, testimony” jing geui “evidence, proof” Chik Ng Lam 139,
427 Kwan 170, 380 jìngyahn “witness, attestor” Po-fei Huang 408
Chinese- Hakka (Lau Chunfat) xin4 “credentials, evidence, pledge” “trustfulness, faith” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Min ciêng “evidence, documentation” Bodman 1987 v.2 127
TB-Tibetan skyin-pa “loan, a thing borrowed” Jaschke 26
gyimbə “replacement, payment for something lost, damaged, payment for a debt”
gyīnmi “a debtor” gyīnlu “something still left to be repaid” Goldstein 71
D.13.2 N. Chinese-MSC zhēng “save, rescue, deliver” Wu, J. 890 “struggle to get free” Manser 577
TB-Tibetan h̟dzin “bond, obligation, certificate” “contract, agreement, treaty” Jaschke 464
h̟dsin-dam “a sealed receipt or acknowledgement” Das 1051
D.13.1 W. Chadic-Hausa jingìnàr gida “mortgage [on house]” Awde 1996 74 jìnga m. “wages,
agreed amount of payment for a contract” Newman / Ma 1979 58
yi jìngā “fix, negotiate (wages)” Newman, R. 1990 178, 298 jingìnà (da) “lean (on)
Newman, R. 1990 149 “lean upon, depend on” Skinner 43
“prop against, lean against” Newman, P. 1997 100
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] jingina “pledge, security” < Hausa Taylor 101, 156
Nilo-Saharan-Kanuri gənangin “pawn, mortgage” Cyffer 1990 147 [apparently from zâu gənagəkin
“burden someone with financial responsibility”] zâu “difficult, costly, expensive” Cyffer 1990 59
↓↓
D.14 Afro-Asiatic – AA- AA-Semitic, Egyptian NS Khoisan-
Chadic Cush. NC
D.14.1 S. Chinese- W. Chadic- Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni)
Yue (Cantonese) Hausa ġabaa “stupidity, ignorance,
ngábā gāb’òo m. foolishness” Qafisheh 444
“mute (boy)” gāb’ùwā f. (Iraqi) ġābaawa “stupid
Kwan 307 “simpleton, person” “ignorance,
“a deaf mute person” fool” foolishness, stupidity”
Chik / Ng Lam 62 Newman, P. Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
[Disyllabic corresp.] 2007 66 part 1 58, part 2 333
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu gāb’ùb’u / West Semitic-Ethiopian-
kuba n. and adj. gāb’òo “fool” Gurage gawa
“(of a male person) Skinner 74 “fool” Skinner 285
dumb, unable to gaula / gābla Semitic-Arabic
speak” “dumb, silly, “idiot” muɣaffl (IPA) “fool” n.
stupid” Starostin, S. Skinner 285 Merriam-Webster
Yamphu Dict. Arabic 58
398
D.14.2 N. Chinese- Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni)

MSC / Beijing jawaad
yâba “simple, naive person”
“a dumb person, Qafisheh 92
mute” Wu, J. 791
D.14.3 W. Chadic- Semitic-Written Arabic N. Khoisan-
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu Hausa xarisa “to be dumb, mute” ‖Kh’au‖’e
qa “dumb” gārujèe Wehr 272 kàra
TB-Written Burmese “fool” Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) “stupid’
ʔa’ “dumb” Newman, P. xar(a)banda “an C.
Matisoff 2003 2007 71 incompetent, incapacitated Khoisan-
176 note b or senile person” Dict. of Nama
S. Chinese-Yue Iraqi Arabic part 2 131 gāre
(Cantonese) Egyptian ukha / ukhau “stupid’
ngá or ngà “to play the fool, to be Ruhlen
“dumb, mute”. foolish, ignorant, stupid” 1994 64
Chik / Ng Lam 57, “fool, simpleton”
165, 176 Chen 84 Budge v.1 180
D.14.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ngábā “mute (boy)” “a deaf mute person”
< W. Chadic- Hausa gāb’òo “simpleton, fool” / Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) ġābaawa “stupid person”
D.14.3 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ʔ-ga “dumb” / Proto-Lolo-Burmese *ʔa ~ *ʔ-ga2 “mute / dumb,
stupid”
< Semitic-Written Arabic xarisa “to be dumb, mute” / N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au‖’e kàra “stupid”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *gábā “dumb, mute” “stupid person” ~ *kara “stupid”
D.14.1 TB-Kiranti-Limbu
kεb n. “mute person” kε.ba / keʔeb.a n. and adj. “dumb, stupid” van Driem 1987 432, 434
TB-Tibetan gūgbə “a person who is mute/dumb” Goldstein 44 Starostin, S. Yamphu Dict.
D.14.3
TB-Proto-Kiranti *ʔ [ä]- “mute, dumb” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
TB-Proto-Lolo-Burmese *ʔa ~ *ʔ-ga2 “mute / dumb, stupid” Matisoff 2003 57, 165, 176
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ʔ-ga / *m-ʔa “dumb” Matisoff 2003
D.14.1
W. Chadic-Ngizim kàakáab’û “fool, foolish” Schuh 91
NS-Kanuri káawù “stupid” Hutchison 81
Semitic-Arabic ɣabijju (IPA) “stupid” adj. Merriam-Webster Arabic 153
(Iraqi) ġābi “dumb” “stupid, ignorant foolish” “stupid person” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic 58, 333
C. Chadic-Gude gəpa “fool” Skinner 74, 285
E. Cushitic-Oromo gofa “ignorante” [ignorant] Borello 178 gowwa “fool” Clamons 533
Semitic-Written Arabic xaulac “fool, dolt, simpleton” Wehr 297
W. Chadic-Hausa k’auyancī “naiveté” “boorish behavior of country people when visitng a city”
Newman, P. 2007 129 gaulā n.m. or gaulaye f. pl. “fool” Newman, P. 2007 71-2
Berber–Tuareg [Tamasheq] gafa “insanité” Skinner 285
NC-Swahili mghafala “fool” Awde 2000 145 [< Arabic]
D.14.3 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic gäragär “naive” Leslau 1976 209
kallala “lack of discretion, foolish” Leslau 1976 67, 350
D.14.1 Altaic-Turkic-Turkish mankafa “blockheaded, thick-headed, stupid” Tureng 743
D.14.3 IE-Old Indian mūka- “dumb, mute” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 93
399
IE-Sanskrit kharu “foolish, idiotic” “fool” kaDa “dumb, mute”

kala “indistinct, dumb” “indistinct, inarticulate (etymology doubtful)” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Pashto khar-sor “a fool, a blockhead” Raverty 411
IE-Bengali kala adj. ”deaf” Thompson 43, 94 See also Supplementary Table 2 D.14.3.
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali ka’la “dumb” Kobayashi Table 3 #221 18;
ka’la / ‘kala “deaf” Kobayashi Table3 #222 18
↓↓
D.15a-b AA – Chadic AA- Cush. AA- Nilo-Saharan Niger-
Sem. Congo
D.15a.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic Kanuri
rgud-mun Ngizim ngúdì “poor,
“a destitute person, ngúdi “poor destitute or needy
destitute” person” person”
rgúdpa disadvantage, Schuh 126 Hutchison 1981 68
trouble” Das 302 W. Chadic – Cyffer 1990 138
“to decline, to sink, Bura ngudi “poor man”
to get weak, frail” “grow “one who has Lukas 1937 234
thin, be impoverished” lots of trouble ngúdìngin
Jaschke 104 and no “become poor or
gödaà “poor, humble” possessions” destitute”
Goldstein 10 Dict. of Bura Cyffer 1990138
D.15a.2 TB-Tibetan C. Cushitic Kənzi (Kenuzi) NC-Fulfulde
gúd-du “aside, apart” –Bilin agūde adv. [Fulani]
[Disyllabic corresp.] guduc “allein, nur” gōdiddo
Das 221 Jaschke 69 “allein” [alone, only”] “lonely
gud “separation, [alone] agūde adj. person”
solitude, seclusion” Skinner 130 “einziger” Taylor 66
Jaschke 69 Das 221 [single, sole]
S. Chinese-Yue Hofmann 20
(Cantonese) gùduhk
“alone, lonely” Kwan 14
“solitary, friendless”
Chik / Ng Lam 103
TB-Tibetan gúd-du “aside, apart” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gùduhk “alone, lonely”
< C. Cushitic–Bilin guduc “allein, solus” [alone] / NS-Kənzi agūde adv. “allein, nur” [alone,
only”]
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *gudu “alone, lonely”
D.15a.2
TB-Tibetan gud “separation, solitude, seclusion” “loss, damage” Jaschke 69, Das 221
N. Chinese-MSC gūdú “alone, solitary” Wu J. 241 Manser 152 “orphaned, alone”
Chen 7 gūdān “alone” Wu, J. 241 “alone” “lonely, friendless” Manser 152
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gù “solitary, lone, lonely, friendless” “fatherless, orphaned”
Chik / Ng Lam 102
Chinese- Hakka gu1 / ku1 “orphan, solitary, lone, lonely” Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC gū “(of a child) fatherless, orphaned” “solitary, isolated alone” Wu, J. 241
“fatherless, lonely” Huang 142 ‘gu’er n. “orphan” Wang, F. 180 gūgua “A widow and her child”
“orphans and widows” “lonely, solitary” DeFrancis 327 [compound of this root and that of D.15b.1
following] yigū “orphan” yi “lose, something lost” Wu, J. 818
400

D.15a.1 E. Cushitic-Sidamo guddadayaawa “to be damaged, harmed, injured” Gasparini 200
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] guntida “be destitute” Taylor 68
W. Chadic-Ngizim gúdùgùm “widow who is too old to remarry” Schuh 75
D.15a.2
E. Cushitic-Burji gurshummé “widow” Hudson 195
E. Cushitic-Oromo gursumma “vedova, divorziata, donna libera da vincoli matrimoniali” [a widow,
divorcee, woman free of the bonds of matrimony] Borello 192
/
D.15b.1 N. Chinese –MSC W. Chadic-Hausa NC-Mande
guâ “alone, widow” gwagwarcìi / gwawancìi m. gbara
“widowed” Huang 144 “being wifeless” “being “celiba-
Wu, J. 246 temporarily a bachelor while taire”
guâfù “widow, widower” one’s wife is away” [bachelor]
DeFrancis 315 gwàurō pl. gwagwàare / Skinner 97
gūgua “a widow and her gwàuraye m.
child” “orphans and widows” “a now unmarried man
“lonely, solitary” (divorced or widowed)
DeFrancis 327 who was formerly married”
yigū “orphan” “lose, something Newman, P. 2007 80
lost” Wu, J. 818
gwá widowed, surviving the
spouse” “lonely, alone,
solitary”
Chik / Ng Lam 108
D.15b.2 N. Chinese-MSC W. Chadic-Hausa kēwā f. Proto-E.
kuâ (WG) “feeling of emptiness, solitude Cushitic
“friendless, alone” or grief after the departure or *kaww-
Mathews #3517 521 death of someone” “alone”
Chinese–Wu kuo5 “widowed, Newman, P. 2007 112 Skinner
surviving the spouse” “loneliness” Skinner 142 141
“alone, lonely, solitary” k’wal ideo. “alone”
Hakka Dict. Newman / Ma 1979 78
Base correspondences for positing etyma: .
D.15b.2 N. Chinese-MSC kuâ “friendless, alone”
< W. Chadic-Hausa kewā n.f. “loneliness” “feeling of solitude after the death or departure of
someone”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *gwa- “alone, widow” ~ *kēwā n. f. “feeling of solitude”
D.15b.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gwáfúh “widow” Po-fei Huang 391
D.15b.2 N. Chinese-MSC guān “wifeless, widowered” guān-guâ-gu-dú “widowers, widows,
orphans and the childless” Wu, J. 250 kuān (WG) “a widower, unmarried man” “solitary”
Mathews #3561a 526 k’uàng “unmarried, alone” Mathews #36066 532
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] gwan1 “bachelor, widower” Hakka Dict.
Chinese–Min kou1 “orphan, fatherless” “solitary, lone, lonely, friendless” Hakka Dict.
D.15b.1
C. Chadic-Glavda ngàwa “widower” Rapp / Benzing 72
NS-Kanuri gáw(u)í “solitary, stray, without an owner” Skinner 141
gáwí adj. “without an owner, ownerless” Cyffer 1990 57
401
D.15b.2 W. Chadic-Hausa kēwā “long for” yana kēwār iyalinsa , gida “he is longing for his
family, home”Newman, R. 1990 157 See also E.5a.4
The following D.16 word family is related to the E.12 “name” word family. Both families denote
personal characteristics, i.e. in D.16 “race” “gender”, in E.12 “personal and family names”. Hence the
concept underlying both word families seems to be “an identifying characteristic”as in D.16.2-3
Chinese/Tibetan “property, quality, attribute”. The lexemes meaning “race” “clan” have been included
here in the D domain along with their related meanings of “family relationship”, “class, type, kind”,
“alike, similar”. Of course, one’s gender is also outwardly identifiable through sexual characteristics.
Note also E.12.5 Tibetan tsɛnmeè “without signs, asexual” Goldstein 893. meè “not” (G.25.2 TB-
Tibetan Extended) Lexemes meaning “name” or “mark” are also included in the E.12 word family.
Lexemes meaning “sign” appear in both families since the term designates both general personal
characteristics and names.
D.16 AA – Chadic AA- Cush. AA-Semitic NS NC
D.16.1 N. Chinese-MSC / W. Chadic- Semitic-Arabic Nuer
Beijing hsìng / sìng (WG) Hausa (Iraqi, Written) ciìŋ-tha
“a clan, a people” jinsìi jinis “family-
Mathews #2770-1 414 “kind, race, “kind, sort, in-law”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) species” variety, Huffman
sing (WG) “a clan, a family” Newman, P. species, class, 9
“one’s family name” 2007 100 category,
Chik / Ng Lam 94, 144 jiniì “species, race, nation”
See also Note- E.12.4 race” e.g. jinsiyat
C. Chinese-Wu sìŋ5 jinin Sin nationality,
“clan, people, family” “the Chinese citizenship”
Hakka Dict. race”” Dict. of Iraqi
TB-Chin-Lai tsiŋ-la Newman, R. Arabic
“line of ancestors” 1990 10, part 2 78, 271
Matisoff 2003 31, 529 215, 155 Wehr 167233
D.16.2 N. Chinese-MSC W. Chadic- Semitic- Arabic
xìngzhì “quality, nature, Hausa jinsi “generic,
character” “sex, gender” jinsìi racial”
De Francis 1062 Wu, J. 775 “sex“ “sexual”
[Disyllabic corresp.] “gender” Semitic-Written
hsìng / sìng (WG) Newman, P. Arabic
“a property or quality” 2007 100 jinsiya
“nature, disposition” “sexuality”
“sex” Mathews #2770 234 Wehr 167
233
Note- D.16.1 (Arabic, Hausa, Swahili,)
Since Arabic is very probably the source of the NC-Swahili(Extended) morpheme, the matching Hausa form
might also be inferred to be a loan from Arabic.This would point to an Arabic origin of the ST forms. This is
possible, but the Phase 2 correspondences of Hausa with Arabic show a relationship which is more extensive than
that based on simple loaning of cultural language. The statistics in Chapter 4 Tables 4.3 show a more massive
influence of Chadic on the ST lexicon. Hence any hypothesis concerning the proximate source of the above root
in ST remains tentative, though the above evidence firmly supports an AA not an NS proximate origin.
234
Note- D.16.2-3 (MSC Etymology) The D.16.2 MSC xìng root would seem to be related also to the Note-
E.1b.4 (MSC) xīn / syin n. “heart, mind, feeling” since both designate personal characteristics. However, the tones
are different in MSC. Also the present D.16.2 xìng root mostly designates personal characteristics which are
outwardly visible. The glosses “nature, character, disposition” “property, quality” run parallel with glosses referring
402
D.16.3 E. Cushitic-
TB-Tibetan tsε̄nñiì Oromo
“essential or natural senyi
characteristics” “specie, stirpe,
tsεnňiibə “having all the razza”
characteristics of sth. or sb.” [species,
Goldstein 892- 893 race” ]
[Disyllabic corresp.] Borello 371
tsε̄nma “sex”
Goldstein 2001 893
D.16.4 E. Cushitic- Semitic-
TB-Tibetan Oromo Hebrew
shaňe “kinsman, descendent, sanyi zan
blood relative” Goldstein 1090 “razza, cabila, “breed,
gnyen-tshan “kindred, tribu” [“race, species”
relations” tribe, caste”] Baltsan 460
Matisoff 2003 450235 Borello 368 Semitic-Written
N. Chinese-MSC Arabic
zhŏng mutajanis
“species, race, seed” meas. “akin, related,
“kind, type” of the same
Wu, J. 910 kind or nature”
zhāngxìng “caste (India)” Wehr 167
Wu, J. 910
D.16.5 E. Cushitic-
TB-Tibetan Oromo
mtshaň-nyid “attribute, sanyi
characteristic” “qualita,
Hodge 78, 191 genere”
[Disyllabic corresp.] [“quality,
mtshan-pa type”]
“property, quality, symptom, Borello 368
indication”
Das 1036
“marked”
Jaschke 454
to the external identifiers “race, family” and “gender”. In contrast to this emphasis on externality the E.1b.4
Chinese morphemes xīng / sīn refer to interior entities “the heart, the moral nature, the mind, the affections”
“intention” “character, mental nature”. Xìng is also used a ssuffix to form an abstract noun , e.g. kenengxing
“possibiliy” Manser 510 (keneng) “possible” Manser 275
Given the E.1b.4 association of “heart” and “mind, affections”, i.e. internally experienced thoughts and
sentiments, the etymology of that word family is plausibly based on words referring to internal organs as the locus
of mental experience. Although the D.16 and E.1b word families may be ultimately related, the differences are
sufficient to treat them as having separate proximate proto-forms.
235
Note- D.16.4 (Tibetan). The following are “collective kinterms” khu-tshan “uncle and nephew”, pha-tshan
“cousins on the father’s side” Matisoff 2003 447, 450 N. Chinese (Beijing) attests a similar reciprocal kinship
relation in zēng “relationship between great-grandchildren and great-grandparents” Wu. J 869.
403

D.16.1-3 N. Chinese-MSC xìngzhì “quality, nature, character” “sex, gender”, xìngzì “nature,
character, disposition, property, quality”
< W. Chadic-Hausa jinsiì “kind, race, species” “sex“ (gender)“ / Written Arabic jinsi “generic,
sexual, racial”
D.16.4 TB-Tibetan shaňe “kinsman, descendent, blood relative”
< E. Cushitic-Oromo sanyi “razza, cabila, progenie, tribu, stirpe” [“race, caste, progeny, tribe,
lineage”] / Semitic-Hebrew zan “breed, species”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *sanyi “race, caste, progeny, tribe, lineage” ~ jinsiì “race
(human)“ “sex“ (gender)“
D.16.1 S. Chinese-Min chīn-chiĕk “relatives, relations”, chīn-láng “relatives, clansmen”
Bodman 1987 v.2 132 cièng “race, racial group” Bodman 1987 v.1 250 v.2 127
zīn-khaù “population” zin-bin “people, nationals of a country” Bodman 1987 v.2 153, 189
Old Chinese ts’ien “parents, relatives” Karlgren GSR 382o-p, Matisoff 2003 176, 450, 529
Proto-TB *dziŋ “relatives, ancestors” Matisoff 2003 529
D.16.2
C. Chinese-Wu sing “natural character, natural disposition, a quality or property” Hakka Dict.
Chinese- Hakka (MacIver, Meixian) xin4 (Lau Chunfat) (MacIver) / sin5 “nature, character,
natural property, disposition, temper” “sex” Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC xìngzì bf. / xìng bf. “nature, character, disposition, property, quality”
DeFrancis 1062 Wang, F. 510 xìngjiāo “sexual intercourse” Wu, J. 774 jiāo “intercourse” (H.39b.1)
hsìng / sìng (WG) xìng’ai “passion, sexual love” DeFrancis 1062
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sing “nature, natural property, disposition, temper” “a quality or
property” “sex” Chik / Ng Lam 144, 94. See also E.1b. -MSC
D.16.4 TB-Tibetan zhaŋ-nyen “in a general sense, relations by the mother’s side”,
e.g. tsha- zhaŋ “nephew and uncle, by the mother’s side” Jaschke 471
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chan “parents, relatives” Chik / Ng Lam 415
N. Chinese-MSC zhānqīn-dàigù “have ties of kinship or friendship” Wu, J. 873
D.16.5 N. Chinese-MSC xiàngzhēng vt. “be a manifestation of, symbolize, represent”
n. “symbol, manifestation” Wang, F. 499 See also E.12.5 (Tibetan, W. Chadic, Semitic)
TB-Tibetan mtshan-nyid “the essential characteristic, sometimes even implying the true innermost
essence of a thing” Jaschke 454 Goldstein 222 ; shan(-ma) “genitals” Jaschke 454
D.16.1 Written Arabic abna jinsina “our fellow tribesman” Wehr 167
NS-Nuer ciiŋ, ciiŋni “village, town” ji chiŋ “villagers, inhabitants” Huffman 97
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] jinsu “kind, genus, gender” < Arabic” Taylor 101
NC-Swahili jinsi “kind, sort, type” “species, gender” jinsia “sex, gender” Awde 2000 76
D.16.4 Semitic-Written Arabic tajanus “acquisition of citizenship, naturalization” Wehr 167
(Yemeni) tijannas “to become a naturalized citizen” Qafisheh 89
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic zämäd “relative, relation (relative), kin, kinsman” Leslau 1976 180
D.16.1 IE-Pashto jins “family, race” “genus, kind, gender, species, sort” Raverty 340
D.16.4 IE-Hindi janjati “tribe”n.f. janamsankhya n.f. “population” n.f. janam-bhumi “homeland,
nativeland” jananang “genitals” Scudiere 244
IE- Sanskrit janas n. “race, class of beings” janya n. “belonging to a race or family or to the same
country” “belonging or relating to the people” “people, community, nation”
janapada “living in the country, inhabitant of the country”
D.16.5 IE-Sanskrit laksaNa “characteristic, attribute, quality” lakSaNa “related with or acquainted
with characteristic signs or marks” samlaks “to distinguish by a mark, characterize, mark distinctly”
Cologne Lexicon See also Supplementary Table 2 D.16.1,4-5
404
IE-Hindi laksan “symptom, characteristic”n.m. Scudiere 27, 312

S. Daic-Lao la:k2 sa3:na2 n. “characteristic” la:k2 sa3:na2 adj.236 Marcus 43
/
D.17 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA -Cushitic AA-Sem. NS NC
D.17.1 W. Chadic- Hausa E. Cushitic-Afar W. Semitic- Kanuri
N. Chinese–MSC diyyàa “compensation diyyā Ethiopian- díya
dîyā “mortgage” (for injury, damages)” “compensation, Harari “ransom”
[Disyllabic corresp.] “damages (Law)” payment made diya “blood
dî “compensate for, Newman, R. under Afar law “blood money paid
make good” 1990 47, 60 for having klled money” to the
“mortgage” “pay with “compensation, someone of Leslau relatives of
one’s life (for a payment for accidental another tribe” 1963 60237 a murdered
murder etc.), homicide or injury” Parker / person”
a life for a life” Newman / Ma 1979 27 Hayward 85 Cyffer
Wu, J. 146-147 1990 37
S. Chinese-Yue daidai dà
(Cantonese) “equivalent to”
dái “to offset” Newman, R. 1990
“to substitute, to give dàidaita “equalize”
as an equivalent, to dàidaitō “balance,
offer as collateral” equal force, equivalent”
Chik / Ng Lam 169 Newman, P. 2007 40
D.17.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dái “to offset” “to substitute, to give as an equivalent, to offer as
collateral”
< W. Chadic-Hausa dàidaita “equalize” / daidai dà “equivalent to”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *daidai- “equalize” ~ diyyā “compensation, blood money”
D.17.1 N. Chinese-MSC dîzhài “pay a debt in kind or by labor” Wu, J. 147
D.17.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) seungdái “compensate, counterbalance” Chen 44 ;
dáih “same as” Chik / Ng Lam 226
N. Chinese-MSC / Beijng dài “to take the place of, be in place of” Wu, J.130 dáiyang “substitute”
dáiyanren “spokesman, mouthpiece” Wu, J.130 dàiliren vt. “substitute (man) dàiyùngpĭn vt.
“substitute (article) Chen 391
236 2 2
The D.16.5 S. Daic-Lao la:k sa3:na n. “characteristic” is an exact match with Sanskrit (Extended)
laksaNa “characteristic, attribute, quality”. Although the evidence indicates that both of these lexemes have an
ultimate origin in D.16.5 E.African Oromo, the Daic one is very probably a loan from Sanskrit through
Buddhist influence. See also Supplementary Table 2 the Sanskrit substratum D.16.5.
237
Note D.17.1 (West Semitic) Both Leslau and Cyffer consider the diya morpheme to be a loan from Arabic into
West Semitic and NS-Kanuri respectively. So with reference to Chinese it might also be considered a recent (post-
500 BCE) loan resulting from Arab trade. However, any such conjecture is weakened by the fact that the closest
Iraqi/Yemeni Arabic morphemes deen / dayn “debt” (D.11a.2), though perhaps related, do not correspond as
closely to the two D.17.1-2 Chinese morphemes as do the Chadic, Cushitic, and S.Semitic ones.
Hence the Chadic or Cushitic forms are the more plausible sources. The root is attested in three subfamilies of
Afro-Asiatic without the Chinese semantics of “mortgage”, but containing the concept of “ liability for payment”.
This supports a hypothesis that it is pre-historic and much more likely to have been inherited by Chinese languages
from a West Semitic, Cushitic or Chadic rather than a modern Arabic source.
405

D.17.1
E. Cushitic-Oromo digu lafa “Terra in contestazione per omicidio” [land claim over homicide]
Borello 112 lafa “territorio, suolo” [territory, soil] [digu means “blood”, hence the literal meaning is
“blood land”]
D.17.2 W. Chadic-Hausa dàidaità vt. “make something coincide with” vi. “be symmetrical, lined up
evenly” Newman / Ma 1979 23 daidai adv. “correctly, exactly” “correspondingly”
Newman, P. 2007 40
(Gobir dial.) daidai adv. “correctly, exactly” ladanka sule goma daidai “Your pay is exactly ten
shillings” Matsushita 1993 127
↓↓
D.18 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA – AA-Semitic etc. NS NC
Cush.
N. Chinese–MSC sôu tsōhuwā adj.
(WG) tsòfaffi pl. “old”
“an old person” Newman, P. 2007 209
Mathews #5470 755 “old man” Skinner 275
“old man” Wu, J. 653 tsōhō < tsòfàffi, tsòffi
shòu (WG) “old age, long n. and adj. f. “old
life” Mathews #5846 826 (person)”
“longevity” Newman, P. 2000 24
DeFrancis 126 Wu, J. 632
D.18.2 TB-Tibetan Semitic–Akkadian
mgo se-bo šību
“gray-headed person” “grey,
Jaschke 575 old man”
skra se-bo “grey-hair” Skinner 275
Das 1273 Semitic-Hebrew
[Disyllabic corresp.] se-ba(h)
se-bo “gray” “gray hair”
Jaschke 575 West Semitic-
sewo Ethiopian-Ge’ez
“gray (color)” šebä
Goldstein 1126 “have gray hair”
[Disyllabic corresp.] Leslau 1963 144
D.18.3 Egyptian
S. Chinese-Yue sau
(Cantonese) “sage, wise man”
sáu “an elder, a senior, sāauia “a man of
an old man, the old” years and dignity”
Chik / Ng Lam 50 Budge v.2 634, 644
D.18.1 N. Chinese-MSC sôu “an old person” “old man”
< W. Chadic-Hausa tsōhō < tsòfàffi , tsòffi “old (person)”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *tsò- “old (person)”
D.18.2 TB-Tibetan se-bo “gray-haired person, gray hair”
< Semitic-Hebrew se-ba(h) “gray hair” “have gray hair”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *sobu “old, gray haired”
406

D.18.2
S. Chinese-Min (Jianyang) seu5 “old (not young)” Branner 154
S. Chinese- Hakka (Meixian, MacIver) seu3 “old man” “elder” “the old” Hakka Dict.
D.18.1 C. Chadic-Hwona suhur- “old (of person)” Skinner 275
W. Chadic-Gwandara (Toni) sofa “grow old” Matsushita 1974 #689 144
sòsofe “old” Matsushita 1974 #421 99 ; (Gitata, Koro) tsufa “grow old”
Matsushita 1974 #689 144 ; (Koro) tsùtsufe “old” Matsushita 1974 #421 99
W. Chadic-Hausa tsūfā f. “old age” Newman, P. 2007 209
D.18.2
E. Cushitic-Afar (Northern dialect) saabar “senility” Parker / Hayward 184
E. Chadic–Dangaleat [Dangla] zab’- “être vieux” [be old] Skinner 275
Semitic-Hebrew sav n.m. “old man, grandfather, ancestor” savah “gray haired” Baltsan 368
savah, saba (colloq.) “grandfather” Baltsan 368 seyvah n.f. “gray hair, old age”
Baltsan 364, 376 sa’arot seyva f. pl. “gray hair” Baltsan 364
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic šəbät “gray hair, white hair” šäbbätäa “turn white (hair), turn gray,
have white hair ” Leslau 1976 64,360
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Chaha, Eža, Muher, Masqan, Gogot, Soddo, Selti, Wolane, Zway)
šəbät “gray hair” Leslau 1979 v.2 294-295.
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šeeb “grayness of the hair, gray or white hair” “old age”
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari šibät “gray hair” Leslau 1963 144
Semitic–Arabic (Yemeni, Iraqi)
šaab / šayyab “to grow old” “become an old man”“become gray-haired” Qafisheh 358
Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 254 šayb ‘grayness of the hair” Qafisheh 358
D.18.3 W. Chadic-Hausa shēhùu “erudite pious person” “distinguished professor” Newman, P. 2007
185 “title for learned man” Skinner 243 “a pious leader” Newman, R.1990 200
↓↓
D.19a-b AA – Chadic AA-Cushitic, AA- Nilo-Sah. Khoisan
Proto-AA Semitic
D.19a.1 E. Cushitic- W. N. Khoisan-
TB-Jingpho Rendille Ethiopian- !’O !Khung
[Kachin] raaga vi. Semitic- ‖gāa
ləga < *r-ga “be old (of Amharic “old”
“old” things, not aräğğä vi. Ruhlen
Benedict 110 people)” “grow old” 1994
Matisoff 2003 129 Pillinger 244 arägawi #421 60
TB-Tibetan E. Cushitic- “honorable
rgá-ba Oromo arogé person,
“to be old, aged” “vetusto, vecchio” old man”
Jaschke 103 [aged, old] Leslau
Benedict 110 Borello 27 1976 128
D.19a.2 Proto- Chadic E. Cushitic- Egyptian Kanuri C. Khoisan-
TB-Tibetan *garə Oromo kharāa kawua Tati
rgá-wa “grow old” ragu vi. “old man” “aged, ‖gao
“be old, Newman, P. “divenir vecchio” Budge advanced “old”
be aged” “old age” 1977 #64 27 [become old] v.1 532 in years” Ruhlen
Das 301 Ehret 1995 Borello 356 Cyffer 1994 #421 60
#284 186 1990 85
407
N. Chinese -MSC S. Khoisan-

gāo “old” Khakea
gāoji “senior” ‖xau “old”
Merriam-Webster Ruhlen
Chinese 47 1994 #42 1 60
D.19a.3 W. Chadic - Proto-AA *gád- Semitic- Proto-N.
TB-Tibetan Angas “old age group” Hebrew Khoisan
rgád-pa gadjet “elder” kadoom *ǂgah
“old, aged” “old man” S. Cushitic- “old, “old”
Jaschke 103 Skinner 94 Burunge ancient” (of things)”
ga̱ “to get old, (Mbulungi) Baltzan Starostin, G.
to age” *gáduwa “old 160 2003 12
Goldstein 249 man” Militarev /
Stolbova AA
Etymology 2007
D.19a.1 TB-Jingpho [Kachin] ləga < *r-ga “old” / TB-Tibetan rgá-ba “to be old, aged”
< E. Cushitic- Rendille raaga vi. “be old (of things, not people)” /
N. Khoisan- !’O !Khung ‖gāa “old”
D.19a.3 TB-Tibetan ga̱ “to get old, to age”
< Proto-AA Militarev/ Stolbova 2007 *gád- “elder” ; Proto-N. Khoisan *ǂgah “old” (of things)”
Approximate TB etyma *raagaa “old” / ka- “old, ancient” ~ *‖gāa “old” / *ǂgah “old”
D.19a.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *r-ga “old” Benedict #445 110
D.19a.2 TB-Tibetan gεὲbo “old man” gεὲmo “old woman” Goldstein 249
D.19a.3 TB-Kiranti-Limbu kappo:ba “an elderly man, a sage, elderly” Starostin, S. Limbu Dict.
D.19a.1 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic arogit “old woman” aroge “ancient” “old (thing)”
Leslau 1976 127
D.19a.2 W. Chadic-Ngizim gàrú “grow old” Schuh 69
Berber-Tuareg [Tamazigt] imɣar “être grand (de dimension ou d’age, être important) Skinner 85
Proto-AA, Proto-E. Cushitic *-gêrʕ- “to become old” Ehret 1995 #284 186
E. Cushitic-Sidamo gêrco “an old person” Gasparini 119
E. Cushitic-Afar egeerite “become old” eger “manifesting signs of old age” Parker / Hayward 95
D.19a.3
N . Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e |gὰ “old” Ruhlen 1994 #421 60
W. Chadic-Ngizim kàadúgu “ancestors, descendents” Schuh 91
E. Cushitic-Oromo gadamooji “someone who is very old” Gragg 160 “decrepito” (It.) [decrepit]
Borello 44, 157
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) qadiim “old, ancient” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 368
W. Chadic-Tangale kaagâ “great grandfather -mother” Jungraithmayr 1991 93
Semitic- Harari gádara “become great” Skinner 85
Proto-S. Cushitic *agad- “man, adult male” Ehret 1995 #265 180
NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] ngáda “be growing up, be no longer a child, be older than” Taylor 61
Proto-Cushitic *gâd- / *gûd- “big” Proto-AA *gâd- / *gûd- “to be big” Ehret 1995 #265180
Semitic-Hebrew gadol “big” Skinner 85
E. Cushitic-Sidamo gê’da “to grow old, get older” gê’dimma “old age” Gasparini 118
D.19a.2 IE-Hittite karu “fruher” (Ger.) “earlier, former” karuili “uralt” (Ger.) “very old, ancient”
IE-Tocharian kur- “age, grow old”
Proto-IE *g’era- / g’rā- “grown up, old, to grow old” Nicolayev, Sergei IE Etymology 2012
408
/
D.19b.1 W. Chadic – Proto-Highland E. Kanuri NC-
TB-Tibetan Hausa Cushitic kaká / kaa Fulfulde
kakmo kàakā *akako “grandfather, [Fulani]
“elderly” m. or f. “grandparent” grandmother” kākirāwo
kakma “grandfather, E. Cushitic-Oromo Cyffer 1990 74 “great-
“elderly woman” grandmother” akaakayu Tubu [Teda] grand-
Starostin, S. Newman, P. “grandfather, kagá “grandfather, parent”
Sino-Tibetan 2007 104 ancestors” grandmother” Taylor107
Etymology W. Chadic – Hudson 72 Barth 206
kāgεε Ngizim Foot 2 Songhay (Gao)
“to become old kàká E. Cushitic- Konso kaga “grandparent”
(for animals)” “grandparent” akaak-a Heath v.2 114
Goldstein 91 Schuh 91 “old man, kàagè “ancetre” (Fr.)
ancestor” [ancestor]
Sasse1982 24 Ducroz 140
D.19b.1 TB-Tibetan kak- / kag- “elderly, old”
< W. Chadic kaakaa “grandparent, ancestor”
Approxmate Tibeto-Burman etymon *kaakaa- “grandparent, ancestor”
D.19b.1
TB-Tibetan
kagεn / ka g�bo “old, elderly (for animals)” kag� “to become old” (for animals)” Goldstein 91
ga-gá “the old gentleman, the old squire (title of honor)” Jaschke 63
D.19b.1
C. Chadic–Bura kaka “grandparent, forefather” Dict. of Bura
E. Cushitic-Sidamo akaak-o “old man” Sasse 1982 24
akâko “great-grandfather” Gasparini 18
E. Cushitic-Afar kaxxabba “grandfathers within one’s paternal and maternal clans”
Parker / Hayward 299
West-Ethiopian- Semitic-Amharic ğağğä “be senile” Leslau 1976 202
↓↓
D.20 AA- AA-Cushitic AA- NS NC
Chadic Egyptian
D.20.1 N. Chinese-MSC E. Cushitic-Rendille Egyptian
nú “sons and daughters, núgul n. “youngsters (who nu “child,
children” Wu, J. 502 play together in the village), son, babe”
Middle Chinese ānú “refers primarily to children “children”
“younger brother” older than toddlers unnu
Norman 113 but younger than teenagers” “child,
TB-Tibetan nú-bo “small, young” infant”
“a man’s younger brother” nuccúl “small, little” Budge v.1
nú-mo “the younger sister of a Pillinger 234-235 165, 349
female” Jaschke 305 See also G.8a.2 (Somali)
D.20.1 N. Chinese-MSC nú “sons and daughters, children”
< E. Cushitic-Rendille nú- n. “youngsters” / Egyptian nu “child, son, babe” “children”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *nú- n. “youngsters, children”
409

D.20.1 N. Chinese-MSC/ Beijing nǔxù “son-in-law, husband ” Wu, J. 503 sūnnû “grandchild
(female, on father’s side)”
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] nāu “younger sibling” Benedict 63
TB-Chin-Lushai nau “younger sibling” / TB-Chin-Lakher nɔ “younger sister” Benedict 63, 66
TB-Garo no “younger sister” Benedict 63
E. Cushitic-Rendille núgleel “smallness” “early childhood” Pillinger 235, 333
D.20.1 IE-Sanskrit anuja “born after” m.f.n. “later, younger” “a younger brother” “a younger sister”
anujanman “a younger brother” m. “younger” anujAta “after , born later, younger, after”
“a younger brother, a younger sister” Cologne Lexicon.
See also Note- D.9a.6 and Supplementary Table 2 D.20.1
↓↓
D.21a-d Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA-Cush. AA-Sem. NS NC
D.21a.1 N. Chinese-MSC W. Chadic- Hausa
(Beijing) làipí “rascally, mài lâifī “criminal”
a man who has no shame, “guilty” Newman, R.
a rogue” Mathews #3776a 1990 56, 114
556 (Disyllabic corresp.)238 lâifī m. “crime,
làipígôu “mangy dog” offence, wrongdoing”
“loathsome creature” lài Newman, P. 2007 138
“no good” Wu, J. 405
D.21a.2 Chinese- Hakka W. Chadic- Hausa
(Kwantung, Siyan) lai5 lâifī n. “blame ”
(Meixian, Dongguan dora wa lâifī v.
etc). (Lau Chunfat) lai3 “blame (hold someone
(Hailu, Lufeng) lai2 / lai8 at fault)” Newman, R.
/ lai6 “accuse falsely 1990 25
without grounds or sâ wà laifī “to
evidence, put the blame accuse”
on somebody else, Awde 1996 104
repudiate a debt, deny yi wa lâifī
something one has said” “do wrong to
“no good, bad” “lazy” someone”
Hakka Dict. Newman, R. 1990 310
D.21a.3 W. Chadic- Hausa W. Semitic- NS- Songhay
TB-Tibetan lé-lo lālā / lālācìi m. Ethiopian- (Djenne)
“laziness, indolence, “laziness” Skinner 185 Amharic laali / láalò
tardiness” Jaschke 550 Newman, P. 2007 13 alläle / “lazy,
Das 1219 -Gwandara malalacì alalī “of good for
[Disyllabic corresp]. “idle person” “lazy” dissolute nothing”
Matsushita 1972 78 life” Leslau Heath
1979 3 v.2 138
238
Note- D.21a.1 (Beijing) This set presents evidence that the etymon of the disyllabic N. Chinese (Beijing)
form is the disyllabic lâifī and that this has been reduced to a monosyllable in the E.21a.2 lâi variants which
represent only the first radical of the original Chadic disyllabic root. All of the D.21a-dAfrican/AA correspondences
identified to date are disyllabic roots. (See also Note A.22.1 and Chapter 10 section 10.1.2).
410

D.21a.1 N. Chinese-MSC làipí “rascally, shameless”
< W. Chadic- Hausa mài lâifī n. “criminal” “guilty”, lâifī “crime, wrong, fault” “blemish, defect”
D.21a.3 TB-Tibetan lé-lo “laziness, indolence”
< W. Chadic- Hausa lālā “laziness” / NS- Songhay láalò “lazy”
Approximate ST etyma *lâifi “rogue, criminal” ~ *láalò “lazy” ”dissolute”
D.21a.2
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) laaih “to accuse without evidence” laih “bad, evil” Chik / Ng Lam 48, 436
N. Chinese-MSC lài “deny one’s error or responsibility”lài (WG) “blame” “blame someone wrongly”,
Wu, J. 405 “to accuse falsely” Mathews #3776 556
Chinese- Hakka (MacIver) lai5 (Lau Chunfat) laai6 / lai4 “lazy” “no good, poor, bad” Hakka Dict.
D.21a.3 TB-Tibetan (Ladak province) ló-li-ma “prostitute, harlot” Jaschke 552 239
TB-Tibetan lé-lo-chang “lazy, indolent, slothful” Jaschke 550 lāàmo “a derogatory word for women”
Goldstein 1051
D.21a.1 W. Chadic-Hausa (Daura) làfā “use false pretenses to obtain something” Matsushita 1993 43
E. Cushitic-Oromo lafafu “denigrare, far della maldicenza, sparlare, far pettegolezzi” [to defame,
to slander] lafaftu “maldicente” [slanderer] lafafa “maldicenza” [calumny] Borello 273
D.21a.3 E. Cushitic-Sidamo lê / le “malice, wicked action” Gasparini 208 See also E.28.1
W. Chadic-Hausa lalàta “spoil something, ruin” “lead someone astray, ruin someone’s reputation”
làlatà f. “immoral act” “fornication, premarital sex” Newman P. 2007 138
lālàacē “to go wrong” Awde 1996 105 -(Gobir dial.) lòlai “lazily, idly” Matsushita 1993 165
Nilo-Saharan-Songhay (Koroboro) laalu “be bad, no good, useless” “be powerful (sorcerer)” Heath v.3 22
E. Cushitic-Oromo alalu “essere disonesto, dissoluto, perverso” [be dishonest, dissolute, perverse];
alale “lussuria” [wantonness, lasciviousness] alaaluma “prostituta, mondana” [a prostitute, frivolous
woman] Borello 15-16
Nilo-Saharan- Bagirmi ngelali “bad” Skinner 185
NS-Songhay (Gao, Dendi) láalà “être mauvais” [be bad, evil] Ducroz 166 Zima 131
D.21a.1 IE-Pashto lasha’h “a deceitful, insidious, artful woman” Raferty 869
D.21a.3
Kartvelian-Georgian lele “good-for-nothing” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 33
Hmong-Mien-Mien luei “lazy” / Hmong-Mien-Ai Cham lwaj “lazy” Sagart 1999 153
Kartvelian-Megrel lala “good-for-nothing” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 33
IE-Sanskrit lalita “a wanton woman” lalanA f. “a wanton woman” lal “to play, sport, dally, behave freely
or loosely” lola “desirous, greedy, lustful” Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2 D.21a.3
Proto Altaic lemo “to be lazy, negligent” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Tungus-Manchu lemūk- “to be lazy, negligent” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish alu “weak, inferior” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology 2
D.21a.4 S. Daic-Lao yu lala “idle” Marcus 108
/
239
Note- D.21a.3 (TB-Tibetan Extended, Sanskrit Extended) The semantically closest correspondence to
Sanskrit in ST is the Tibetan lexeme ló-li-ma “prostitute, harlot” found in the Tibetan spoken in Ladak province
of Western Tibet. Jaschke seems to consider this form to be a loan into Tibetan from Urdu, a daughter language of
Sanskrit. However, given the presence of a Sanskrit substratum in Northern Pakistan (Supplementary table 2
D.21a.3), it can equally as well be viewed as inherited from AA by both West Tibetan and the African/AA
languages which became a substratum of Sanskrit. (On Sanskrit see Chapter 8 and Supplementary Table 2)
411
D.21b.1 N. Chinese-MSC E. Cushitic- Sidamo Maba Group- Maba

lèi “tired, fatigued, weary” Wu, J. 414 lecci yâ alle “be tired”
lèi “tire, strain, wear out” “tired, weary” “to walk slowly Maba Group- Kodoi
léiléi “haggard, hangdog” for tiredness, allea “tired”
lăolèi “thin and weak” be indolent” Edgar 340
DeFrancis 539-540 Gasparini 207
“tired run-down, overworked”
Wu, J. 409
D.21b.1 N. Chinese-MSC lèi “tired, fatigued, weary”
< Nilo-Saharan-Songhay léebù “be paralysed, sickness, physical defect” / Maba Group-Maba alle
“be tired”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *lée “be tired” “be sickly”
D.21b.1 N. Chinese-MSC kunlèi (stative verb) “tired, fatigued” DeFrancis 522
[compound of this form and that of C.38c.2.]
D.21b.1
E. Cushitic- Sidamo lollonga “to become slack”
E. Cushitic-Afar emlelekke “deteriorate, ‘go to the dogs” “be misguided, be mistaken” amlalakkime
(imperfect form) Parker / Hayward 96
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] lalata “lose one’s substance, suffer” Taylor 118
E. Cushitic-Rendille
lallakhaanyoda “feel continuously nauseous” lallabo “morning sickness”
lallabooda “have morning sickness” Pillinger 209
Nilo-Saharan-Maba Group-Maba lallai “fatigue” Edgar 340
Nilo-Saharan-Songhay (Gao) léebù “être paralysé” “infirmité, défaut physique” [be paralysed,
sickness, physical defect] Ducroz 168
NC-Swahili
legevu “lazy”
legea “to be faint” “to be weak” Awde 2000 122
D.21b.1 IE-Pashto liyah “useless, inutile, unavailing, worthless, good for nothing” Raverty 1158
Proto-IE *slēg- “soft, weak” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 127
/
D.21c.1 E. Cushitic-Haddiya, West Semitic-Ethiopian- NC-Fulfulde
TB-Tibetan Kambata lāfa “very weak” Gurage [Fulani]
lád-pa E. Cushitic-Wolamo lāfa “lazy, bad” lāfa
“weak, faint, lāfa “tired” Leslau 1979 v.3 375 “be lean,
exhausted” E. Cushitic-Oromo -Amharic azläfälläfä thin, weak,
Jaschke 543 [Galinnya] “cause languor, fill with infirm”
[Disyllabic lāfa “weak, soft” languor” Taylor 117
corresp.] Leslau 1979 v.3 375 tazläffalläfä “go limp”
lāfina “weakness” Foot 39 Leslau 1976 179
D.21c.1 TB-Tibetan lád-pa “weak, faint, exhausted”
< E. Cushitic-Haddiya, Kambata lāfa “very weak” / NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] lāfa “be lean, weak,
infirm”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *lāfa “weak”
D.21c.1 TB-Tibetan lád-pa “rotten, decayed” Jaschke 543 Das 1206
412

D.21c.1 E. Cushitic-Oromo laf-u vi. “ammorbidirse, debilitarsi, devenir molle, perdere le forze (di un
moribundo)” lāfina / laffini [to become sick, to become weak, to become flabby, to lose strength]
“languore, fiaccezza, debalezza, molleze, pigrizia, indebolimento” [languor, thinness, weakness, flabbiness,
laziness] Borello 274
Semitic-Argobba läffa “toil, make an effort, grow tired, grow soft” Leslau 1979 v.3 374
W. Chadic- Hausa
la’ifī “sexually impotent man” Newman / Ma 1979 80 ;
là’ifcìi “impotence”
là’ifī “impotent” Newman, R. 1990 6 < Arabic
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Ennemor, Gyeto) lāfa “lazy, bad” “from Cushitic Haddiya lāfa”
(Endegen) lāfä “lazy, bad” Leslau 1979 v.3 375
D.21c.1
Proto-IE *slap-, *slab- “weak, languid”
IE-Sanskrit
alasa “inactive, without energy, lazy, idle, indolent, tired, faint” analasa “not lazy, active”
madalasa ”lazy from drunkenness, languid, indolent, slothful” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Bengali ɔlɔsh “lazy” adj. Thompson 108
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish laçka “slack” laçka olmek “to slacken” “get slack” Tureng 737
See also Supplementary Table 2 D.21c.1
IE-Tokharian leswi “attacks of weakness” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 79
/
D.21d.1 E. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Semitic-Hebrew NC-
TB-Tibetan- Migama Sidamo ‘atslan m. Fulfulde
Ladakhi lámáati lânshawa “sluggard” [Fulani]
lâŋ “mollesse, “to become “lazy” lampita
“weak e.g. from faiblesse” weak, feeble, ‘atslanoot “be very
hunger, disease” [flabbiness, to flag” “laziness, sloth” tired”
Jaschke 542 weakness] “feeble” Baltsan 24 Taylor
Chinese–Min Jungraithmayr Gasparini 206 119
làm / Adams 103
“weak, infirm” W. Chadic-
Bodman 1983 178; Hausa
1987 v.2 155, 178 (Gobir dial.)
N. Chinese-MSC alank’òsà
lân “a lazy good-
“lazy, indolent, for-nothing
slothful” fellow”
“sluggish, drowsy” Matsushita
Wu, J. 406 1993116
413
D.21d.2 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- West Semitic- Tubu

TB-Kuki-Chin- Hausa Sidamo Ethiopian- [Teda]
Mikir lāk’was lāggama Amharic lak
lak ideo. “to avoid lāggämä “ohnmachtig
“weary, tired, “lethargic, working “be lazy, werden”
to flag, fatigue” limp, weak” much” inactive” [become
Walker 90 Newman, P. Gasparini 204 Leslau 1979 weak,
2007 138 v.3 375 powerless]
rāgo adj. Leslau 1976 13 Lukas1953
“weak, lazy, Semitic-Hebrew 197
idle” halakh
Newman, P. v. past “idled”
2007 165 Baltsan 119
D.21d.3 W. Chadic- Proto-S.
N. Chinese-MSC) Ngizim Cushitic
ʔak tlàkàtú *tlakw
“to be evil” “become “to be bad”
Old Chinese ruined, Ehret 1995
*ʔak spoiled, #848 414
“to be evil” deteriorate,
Norman 1987 fall into a
Table 4.1 85 deteriorated
moral or
physical
condition”
Schuh 162
D.21d.1 TB-Tibetan-Ladakhi lâŋ “weak e.g. from hunger, disease” / Chinese–Min làm “weak, infirm”
< E. Cushitic- Sidamo lânshawa “to become weak, feeble, to flag”
D.21d.2 TB-Kuki-Chin-Mikir lak “weary, tired, to flag, fatigue”
< NS-Tubu [Teda] lak “become weak, powerless” / W. Chadic-Hausa lāk’was ideo. “lethargic, limp,
weak”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *laŋ ~ *lak “weak”
D.21d.1
Chinese-Hakka (MacIver) lan1 lan3 (Lau Chunfat) lan1 “lazy, listless” “indolent” “inactive, reluctant”
Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese láahn “lazy” Kwan 268 Po-fei Huang 414
D.21d.2
E. Cushitic-Oromo malāga adj. “idle, indolent, lazy” Foot 41
W. Chadic-Hausa (Gobir dial.) kìlakì “lazy, good-for-nothing person” Matsushita 1993 154
Semitic-Written Arabic rakka “to be weak, feeble” Wehr 412
E. Cushitic-Rendille lakhaanyoda “feel nauseous, want to vomit” Pillinger 208
E. Cushitic-Oromo lagaccu / lakaccu “aver la febbre” [to have a fever] Borello 274, 277
D.21d.3
Semiitc-Arabic laggam “to cadge, sponge, bum, freeload” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 426
NS-Nuer lɔki “tramp” Huffman 29.
D.21d.1 IE-Pashto bad-laman “incontinent, unchaste, wanton, licentious” Raverty 93
Altaic-Old Turkic alâŋ-a-d “to become weak” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology 2
414
Altaic-Turkic-Bashkir, Tatar alama “bad” “old, worn out” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology 2
Altaic- Turkic-Kyrghyz alâŋ “absent-minded, unattentive” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology 2
Altaic- Turkic-Uyghur alâŋ “crazy” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology 2
D.21d.2
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish lök “awkward, clumsy, sluggish” Tureng 739
Altaic- Turkic-Kyrghyz alâɣ-di “absent-minded, unattentive” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology 2
Altaic-Turkic-Turkishalik, alu “weak, inferior” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology 2
Proto-IE *slūg- “weak, languid, small” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 126
Altaic-Turkic-Karakhanid alig “bad” aliq “to be vile (of a man)” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology 2
Altaic- Turkic-Uyghur alâq “crazy” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology 2
↓↓
D.22 Afro-Asiatic – Afro-Asiatic - Afro-Asiatic- Nilo- Niger-
Chadic Cushitic Semitic Sah. Congo
D.22.1 N. E. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Oromo, West Semitic-
Chinese -MSC Dangaleat [Dangla] Kambata Ethiopian-Harari,
dí “enemy, foe” ádinè diina m. “enemy” Amharic
“oppose, fight” “ce qui est contre, Hudson 57, 314 diina “enemy”
díduì “hostile, ennemi” E. Cushitic- Sidamo “from Galla”
antagonistic” àdinàw “hostilité” diina n. “enemy” [Oromo]
Wu, J. 145 Fédry 8 Gasparini 75 Leslau 1963 57
D.22 .1 N. Chinese-MSC dí “enemy, foe”
< E. Cushitic- Oromo, Kambata diina m. “enemy”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *dii- “enemy”
D.22.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dihk “enemy, foe” “to oppose, to resist” Chik / Ng Lam 198 ;
dihkyàhn, sàuhdihk “enemy” Kwan 163
C. Chinese-Wu-Shanghai diq8 “enemy” Ramsey 96
N. Chinese-MSC díyi “hostility, animosity” díkài “hatred towards the enemy” Manser 98
D.22.1
Nilo-Saharan-Tubu [Teda] erdí / irdí “Feind” (Ger.) [enemy] Lukas 1953189
E. Cushitic-Oromo diina “nemico publico, avversario, ostile, rivale”
[public enemy, adversary, hostile, rival”] Borello 114
E. Cushitic-Rendille díha “attack someone (of people only)” dího “(an) attack, battle, war”
dii’da “to refuse, reject (someone or something)” dii’ddo “refusal, dislike, hatred” Pillinger 95, 102
↓↓
D.23 AA – Chadic AA-Cush. AA- NS NC
Sem.
D.23.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Hausa Proto-AA
dágbo “owner, master, proprietor” dagacìi *daʔ
bdág-po “village head” Newman, “chief, lord”
“proprietor, master, lord” P. 2007 39 Skinner 39 Militarev /
Jaschke 268-9 Das 665 Hodge 25 W. Chadic-Ngizim Stolbova
mi-bdág də‫כ‬gə̀m AA-
“the king” Das 958 “chief, emir” Etymology
mi “man, person” (D.2.1 above) Schuh 34, 193
415

D.23.1 TB-Tibetan dágbo “owner, master, proprietor”
< W. Chadic- Hausa dagacìi “village head”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *dag- “chief” “village head”
TB-Tibetan ‘chi-bdag “the Lord of Death” Hodge 177
D.23.1 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic däğğazmač “honorary title” däğğač “abbreviated form of
däğğazmač Leslau 1976 199
↓↓
D.24 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA –Cush. AA- NS NC
Semitic
D.24.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic- West Semitic-
bran “slave, baràa m. Oromo Ethiopian-
servant” baranyàa f. “servant” gabari “servo Amharic
Jaschke 380 Newman, P. 2007 17 della feudatario, barenn’at
Das 895 bàrànta vn. “being a servant” suddito” “slavery,
“subject, < baràa “servant” [servant of the bondage”
one owing Newman, P. 2000 6 feudal lord, Leslau 1976
allegiance” Skinner 16 subject (person)] 90, 478
Jaschke 380 Newman, R. 240 240 Borello 155
D.24.1 TB-Tibetan bran “slave, servant”
< W. Chadic- Hausa bàrànta “being a servant”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *bàràn- “being a servant”
D.24.1 W. Chadic-Hausa
bàràncē m. “casual work done by a young person for which he may get money or food, but without
fixed wages” ‘dan bāremàa “farm hand” Newman, P. 2007 18
(Kano dial.) bàrinje n. f. “A Fulani’s slave who lives in a village near to his master’s town”
Matsushita 1993 246
NC-Gbaya bara “esclave” [slave] Skinner 16
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic bariya / barəya “slave” Leslau 1976 91, 478
Semitic-Old Aramaic barbay / bar baytā “servant” Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon
Chadic-Bolewa baya “slave, servant” Militarev / Stolbova
W. Chadic-Ngizim bàayí “slave, servant” Schuh 217 Militarev / Stolbova
See also C.12b.1 Hausa Extended
D.24.1 IE-Pashto barda’h “a female slave, a captive, a servant” Raverty 98
bardah “a male slave, a captive, a servant” Raverty 117
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *barlug “slave” / -Mongolian-Khalka *barlag “slave”
↓↓
240
Note- D.24.1 (Chadic) The Hausa form is an abstract noun which for non-compounded disyllabic words is
generated by using the verbal noun infix in the noun form. “If the final vowel is / i / or / a /, then the verbal noun
is generally realized as /an/”. Newman, P. 2000 6. Based on this rule the Tibetan form is posited to be derived
from the Hausa verbal noun baranta “being a servant” The contemporary Hausa form bāwàa “slave” (Newman
/ Ma 1979 12, Newman, P. 2007 19), can then be posited to derive from bara or baya, found in NC, Chadic and
Semitic.
416

D.25 AA- Afro-Asiatic –Cushitic AA-Semitic, Nilo- Khoisan
Chad. Egyptian Saharan
D.25.1 Proto-Highland E. Cushitic Egyptian Songhay Khoisan-
TB- Kuki-Chin- *aroʔo m. “husband” āru (Gao) ǂHoan
Mikir Hudson 168 “child” àrù / àrò ari
arlang Proto C. Cushitic-Agaw, Budge “male” “man”
“man” Proto-Omotic *ʔar- v.1 130 àrwàsù Starostin,
Walker 335 “husband” “jeune G.
See also Militarev, A. homme” 2003 24
D.4a .1 C. Cushitic-Agaw / Omotic [young man]
(TB-Kuki-Chin- Etymologies 2005 àrù-
Mikir Extended E. Cushitic-Rendille waŋgaari
ang “man”) éra interj. “Men! Friends! “guerrier”
Comrades! (call name)” [warrior]
áram m. Ducroz 3241
“man, married man, elder”
Pillinger 68,110
D.25.2 N. Cushitic-Beja [Bedauye] W. Semitic-
N. Chinese- or “son” Ethiopian-
MSC / Beijing ‘ar pl. “sons” Gurage
ér “son” Greenberg 1966 47 (Gyeto)
“male” er’ikena ärä “boy”
“youngster” “younger, youngest, last born” Semitic-
“child” ikena “small” Gurage
diminutive ‘ar “children” (Čaha)
suffix Skinner 167 ärē “boy”
Packard E. Cushitic-Rendille Leslau
173-174 ersím 1979 v.2 76
érzi “son” “baby boy, boy child,
Wu, J. 177 male baby” Pillinger 110242
241
Note D.25.1-2 (NS-Songhay) In Khoisan and Songhay the meaning is “man, male”. In Songhay the first syllable
àr- is used either as an independent morpheme, or the first word of a compound . Cushitic languages attest semantics of
both “male” and “male child”. Beijing incorporates these dual Cushitic semantics of “male” and “male child”’ but thus
far no TB corresspondence with the “male child” variant has been found.
242
Note- D.25.2 (Chinese-Cushitic) In E. Cushitic-Rendille the word for male child ersím also means “shepherd,
herdsman”. “Customary description of a male child at birth- Ersime Waakho siiche ‘God gave them a male child‘”
[a shepherd] Pillinger 110 . The er- initial syllable is similar to the Semitic-Amharic ərraňňa which also means
“shepherd, cowherd, herdsman”) Leslau 1976 127, and this in turn is probably related to Amharic awra “male
(of animals), head (of family), chief” Leslau 1976 143. See also A.21a.1 (Extended) Proto-E. Cushitic *ʔawr- “bull”.
But both the Rendille and Amharic er- appear to be derived from an AA, NS, and Khoisan root ar- whose primary
meaning is “male”; hence the Rendille expression éra “Men! Friends! Comrades (call name)” (D.25.1 Extended)
represents the primary semantics and “shepherd” is derived from it, this being almost the only traditional occupation
among Rendille men. This word is “used among men to address a group. It is not used as a form of address by or to
women” Pillinger 110. This may also be the origin of the use of this morpheme as second person pronoun in Beijing
Chinese. (See êr “you” Wu, J. 177 G.35.1). It seems to function also in Beijing primarily as a vocative, e.g. êrcao
“you people, you and your kind” Wu, J. 177. The same association of ər “you” as a term of address and “shepherd” is
again found in South-Semitic-Amharic as ərsäwo / ərsəwo “You (respectful)” and ərräňňa “shepherd, herdsman”. The
possessive form of “you” is yärsəwo “Your, Yours (respectful)”. All these latter citations are from Leslau 1976 127.
417

D.25.1 TB-Kuki-Chin-Mikir arlang “man”
< NS-Songhay (Koroboro) aru [male] / Khoisan-ǂHoan ari “man”
D.25.2 N. Chinese-MSC ér “youth, son, male”
< Semitic- Gurage äre “boy” / E. Cushitic-Rendille
ersím “baby boy, boy child, male baby” /
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *‘are “boy, male child” ~ *ari “man”
D.25.2
N. Chinese-MSC hái’ér bf. “child, son, daughter” DeFrancis 344 Wu, J. 177243
[Compound of this root and that of D.8.1 above]
N. Chinese–MSC / Beijing -er suffix which functions as a nominalizer. Packard 175244
D.25.1
E. Cushitic-Sidamo, Kambata aroo / aró “husband” Hudson 168
C. Cushitic-Proto-Agaw *ʔar- “husband” Militarev / Stolbova
NS-Songhay (Koroboro) ar-kusu “adult man” Heath v.3 30
NS-Songhay (Gao) àrkúurù “célibataire (homme)”[bachelor] àrwàsù “young man”
àrtàréy “virility, courage” etc. Ducroz 31.
E. Cushitic-Rendille aram “men, married men” “man, married” Pillinger 69, 362
éera m. “paternal uncle, father’s brother” Pillinger 107
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic
awra “male (of animals)” “head (of family), chief” Leslau 1976 143
awra bare “bull, young bull” Leslau 143, 287
NS- Tubu [Teda] arrù / aro “billy goat” Lukas 1953 205
NS-Daza arro “bouc” [goat, he-goat, billy goat] Jourdan 32
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic ərsu pron. “he” Leslau 1976 366
D.25.2
N. Cushitic-Beja [Bedauye] ’or “son, child” Skinner 290
Berber–Tuareg [Tamasheq] ar̟a “child, fruit, product” Skinner 117, 290
E. Cushitic- Afar urru “children” Skinner 290
Berber-Tuareg arew “engendrer, enfanter” Skinner 290 ara “child, fruit, product” Skinner 117
Semitic- Gurage (Eža) äreğğ “boy” Leslau 1979 v.2 76
W. Chadic- Ron (Kulere, Bokkos) ’al “Kind, Gebären” [child, give birth to] Skinner 290
W. Chadic- Bole are “seed” Skinner 117
E. Cushitic-Afar arma “pip, seed” Skinner 117
N. Cushitic-Beja [Bedauye] ’ara “Same, Frucht” (Ger.) [seed, fruit] Skinner 117
243
Note- D.25.2(1) (MSC / Beijing Extended)
Norman used the occurrence of the word erzi “son” as one of the means for classifying Chinese dialects into
northern and southern groups. Erzi is found in the Northern group in Beijing, Xian, and Kunming dialects (the
traditional Mandarin (Bĕifānghuà) group). It does not occur in the Southern group which includes the Meixian,
Guǎngzhōu, Fúzhōu and Jiànōu dialects of the Kejia, Yuè and Min languages.Norman 181-182.The variety of forms
of this root found in many Altaic languages as well as the Khoisan correspondence suggest that the root is very old
in Central, Northeast and East Asia.
244
Note- D.25.2(2) (MSC/Beijing Extended). Packard considers -er to be a true suffix in Beijing Chinese, not a
bound form. Packard 173-174. As such this function is historically the result of grammaticalization of an
independent root, since all of the African-AA correspondences are free roots. In this respect it is similar to the
*-ji / *-zhi suffix of Note- D.3c.1. DeFrancis lists ér as a bound form. DeFrancis 230. However he points out that
the alternate -r form existing only in MSC / Beijing Mandarin is a suffix and functions there as a diminutive.
DeFrancis 762 Yip Po-Ching 2000 30. See also Notes D.3c.1-2, E.33.1 and B.14d.2 on “erisation”.
418
Egyptian ȧr-ti “kind of seed or grain” Budge v.1 69

W. Chadic-Hausa yāròo “boy, child” Newman, P. 2007 224
C. Chadic-Bura nkyar “son, small child” yarakuma “first-born”Dict. of Bura
E. Cushitic-Somali yar “small, little”Awde 1999 52, 174 yaran ”childhood” Skinner 290
Omotic-Kafa, Mocha, S. Mao, Nao yāro “seed” Skinner 290
Proto-Omotic *yar- “seed” Militarev / Stolbova Omotic Etymology 2005
D.25.1
Proto-Altaic *āri / *ēra “man” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 5
Proto-Turkic *ēr “man” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 5
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish er “man” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Azerbaidzhan är “husband” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen ar “man” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Tuvan er “man” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *ere “man” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 5
-Mongolian-Kalmuck erə “male, man” / Mongolian-Ordos ere “male, man”
-Mongolian-Khalkha er “male, man”
-Mongolian-Dagur er “male, man” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *erkek “man, husband, male” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish, Kyrgyz, Kazakh erkek “man” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek, Uyghur er “man” “adult male” English-Uzbek Dictionary, Uyghur Dictionary
erkak “man” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan, Old Persian aršan “Mann” [man] Starostin, Sergei Indo-European
Etymology 35 arsha “male (animal)” Peterson, J. 1995
IE- Armenian arrn “Mensch”[person, human being]
Starostin, Sergei Indo-European Etymology35
Proto-IE *erš- “bull” “male”
D.25.2
IE-Pashto urukaey “little, small, less, diminutive” Raverty 62
ur-ghūmaey “a male kid” ur-ghūma “a female kid” Raverty 20
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *arkun “young (of an animal)”
Altaic-Proto-Tungu-Manchu *ora “young (of an animal)”
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *(h)ori “young (of an animal)”
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *urɨ “male child, son”
Altaic-Turkic-Karakhanid urɨ “male child, son”
Altaic-Old Turkic urɨ “male child, son” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
↓↓
D.26a-c AA – Chadic AA –Cush. AA- Nilo-Saharan Niger-
Proto-AA Sem. Congo
D.26a.1 TB-Newar E. Chadic- Proto-AA Anywa Proto-W.
khul- “steal” Banana (Orel / [Anuak] Nigritic
Matisoff 2003 442 kul Stolbova kùu n. pl. *ɣiu
TB-Tibetan gū “to steal” 1995) kùuwè “steal”
“to steal” Greenberg *xuruc “thief” Skinner 180
Goldstein 40 1966 62 “steal” Reh 38, 129
Old Chinese k’u “rob” C. Chadic- Skinner 180 Kanuri kurkurí
Karlgren GSR Higi-Futu “petty theft”
#111a-b gùr-ti “steal” Cyffer 1990
Benedict 184 103
419
Proto-Tibeto-Burman C. Chadic- Nuer

*r-kuw or *r-kəw Fali Kiria cuer
“steal” ɣùrì “steal “thief”
Benedict #33 21, 110, 202 Stolbova, Huffman 10
Olga
C. Chadic
Etymology
D.26a.2 N. Cushitic- NS-Dinka NC-S.E -
TB-Tibetan Beja kwal Dan
rku-wa “to steal, rob” [Bedawi] “to steal” kuà
Das 7 [Disyllabic corresp.] guhar Greenberg “steal”
rku-ba “to steal, to rob” “steal” 1966 105 NC-S.E.
Jaschke 16 Skinner 180 Anywa [Anuak] Mande-
küára kwal vt. Tura
“räuber” kwʌ̀dò kú 2á 2
[robber] detransi-tivized “steal”
Reinisch “to steal Muka-
145 something” rovsky
Reh 40 353
D.26a.3 Proto- S. Anywa NC-
TB-Written Burmese Cushitic [Anuak] Fulfulde
khûi “steal, thief” *’agwi kùu kùuwè [Fulani]
Matisoff 2003 178, 441 “steal” pl. nguika
khuì “steal” Skinner 180 “thief” “theft”
Benedict 21, 90 N. Cushitic- Reh 38, 129 gujjo /
S. Chinese-Kejia (Hakka) Beja Nuer wuibe
(MacIver) kwui3 [Bedauye] kwil “stealing” “thief”
(Lau Chunfat) gui1 gwihar Huffman 26 Taylor
“traitor, villain, thief, “steal” 68, 220
treacherous fellow” Skinner 180
Hakka Dict.
D.26a.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *r-kuw
< Proto-AA *xuruc “steal” / Anywa kùu n. kùuwè pl. “thief”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *xur- “steal”
D.26a.1
TB-Nung [Rawang] khü “rob, steal” Benedict 21
TB-C. Loloish-Lisu khû “steal” Benedict 90
TB-Kiranti-Thulung khu- “steal” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
TB-Kuki-Chin-Mikir inghu “steal, rob” Walker 61
TB-W. Kiranti-Bahing ku “steal” Benedict 21 Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Tibetan güü “theft, robbery, plunder” Goldstein 83
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu qhɔ̂ “steal” Matisoff 2003 182
TB--Naga Angami regu / rügu “steal” Matisoff 2003 129
TB-Lepcha khüt-mo “a thief, theft” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
N. Chinese-MSC kòu “bandit, invader, enemy” Wu, J. 394
TB-Kiranti-Limbu khup-ma “rob someone, steal something” van Driem1987 450
D.26a.2 N. Chinese-MSC huá “cunning, crafty, sly” Wu, J. 289
D.26a.3 N. Chinese–MSC guî “deceitful, tricky, cunning” DeFrancis 328 Wu, J.255
guijue “strange and changeful, treacherous” Wu, J. 255
420
gâoguî “play tricks, be up to some mischief” Wu, J. 289 guī “dirty trick”
Chinese–Wu kuE5 “cunning, crafty, wily, deceitful” “dirty trick, dirty work” Hakka Dict.
Chinese–Min huì “outlaw, bandit” Bodman 1987 v.2 141 ui5 “evil, fault” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] wui “evil, fault” Hakka Dict.
D.26a.1
C.. Chadic-Gava ɣulùwa “steal” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology
E. Chadic- Bidiya kurd’us “homme méchant” [evil man] Skinner 180
Semitic-Written Arabic xulsatan “by stealth, stealthily” [from] xalasa “to steal” Wehr 294
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) muqurbaaz “cheater, swindler, crook” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 370
Egyptian kher “evil, wickedness” Skinner 180
W. Chadic–Ngizim kə̀rú “to steal” Schuh 88 àkə̀r “thief” Schuh 7
Proto-Chadic *xərə “to steal” Newman, P. 1977 #124 32 Ehret 1995 #403 231
Proto-Berber *akər, *akwər, *ukər “steal” Skinner 180
W. Chadic –N. Bauci-Pa’a kèra “to steal” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 308
D.26a.2
Proto- AA, Proto- Cushitic *xwar- / *gwar- “to attack” Ehret 1995 #403 231
NS-Nuer kwal “to steal” Huffman 25 ŋwale “bad” Huffman 37
Proto-S. Cushitic *kwalar “doctor diviner” Skinner 180
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic t’änäqqwälä “be a soothsayer, foretell the future, engage in sorcery”
Leslau 1976 232 Skinner 180 qaləĉĉa “magician” Leslau 1976 68
Proto-Berber *akər, *akwər, *ukər “steal” Skinner 180
C. Chadic-Glavda gwardáxa “robber” ghwád(a) “bad, evil” Rapp / Benzing 45-46
D.26a.1 Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur oghurlumaq / oghurlimaq “steal, rob” Uyghur Dictionary
IE-Pashto ghulati “cheating or tricking at play” ”a cheat at play” Raverty 729
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *kula-gai “to steal, deceive”
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *kola- “to steal, deceive”
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *K(i)al- “to steal, deceive” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
IE-Sanskrit cur “to steal” curaNya “to steal” cor / coraka “a thief” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Bengali, Hindi cor “thief, robber” n. Thompson 130 Scudiere 170, 240
IE-Bengali curi “theft, stealing” Thompson 49 curi kɔra v. “steal” 127
IE-Sanskrit kuh “to surprise or cheat by trickery or jugglery” Akhu “a thief”
D.26a.2 IE-Sanskrit kuha “a rogue, a cheat” kuhaka “a cheat, rogue” “an imposter” “deception,
trickery” kuhana “hypocrisy, assumed and false sanctity” kuhanika “jugglery, hypocrisy”
D.26a.3 IE-Sanskrit kuj / khuj “to steal”245 Cologne Lexicon.
/
D.26b.1 Chinese-MSC W. Chadic- Hausa West Semitic-
wāi “devious, underhanded, wàayō m. Ethiopian-
crooked” Wu, J. 705 “cleverness, Amharic
huài “bad” huàishi “evilly” cunning” t’änqway
Manser pt. 1 149 pt. 2 184 Newman, P. “magician,
kuāi (WG) “cunning, 2007 220 wizard, witch
crafty, perverse” mài wàayō adj. doctor”
kuâi (WG) “to kidnap, “crafty (shrewd)” t’änqwäl
to decoy, to swindle” Newman, R. 1990 “mischief”
Mathews 522 #3533 43, 55 Leslau 1976 409
245
Note- D.26a.1-3 (Sanskrit) In this word family Sanskrit exhibits parallel correspondences with three Afro-
Asiatic proto- forms.
421
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) wāyō adj. t’änq

wáih sihk “to make a “cleverness, “pernicious,
deceptive display, trickiness” disastrous,
to conceal the truth” Kraft 369 harmful, evil”
Chik / Ng Lam 425 yi wawaiyo Leslau
guái “cunning, crafty” “trick (play a trick 1976 233
gwáaiháau “clever, on” Ma Newman,
ingenious” “wily” R. 1990 284
mogwai “devil, demon,
monster” Kwan 133
D.26b.2 C. Chadic-Mofu- Egyptian
Chinese-MSC Gudur kuley khui
gui “ghost, spirit, apparition” “esprit des “spirit”
Wu, J. 255, 479 ancêtres, esprit Budge
Middle Chinese surnaturel” v.1 537
kuei “disembodied spirit” [spirit of an
Smith 4, 206246 ancestor,
supernatural
spirit”]
Skinner 156
D.26b.3 Chinese-MSC W. Chadic- Hausa Egyptian NS-Shilluk C.
jyăuwá “cunning” k’waro tcha / kwalo Khoisan
“sly”(Y) Chen 59, 365 “thief, wizard” tchau “to steal” -Nama
jiăo “crafty, foxy, cunning” Skinner 180 “fiend, devil, Greenberg gãǔa
Wu, J. 340 [pronounced demon, enemy” 1966 105 “evil
zhāo “trick, device” Manser k’ywaro Budge v.2 895 spirit”
pt. 2 566 See Note A.33.1] Ruhlen
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) 1994
gáauwaat “cunning” #296 54
Kwan 117 “tricky
(deceptive)”
Kwan 538 {Disyllabic
corresp.]
gáauwaatge “crafty”
Kwan 111
Chik / Ng Lam 186
246
Note- D.26b.2 (Chinese) The earliest notion of the kuei was of a soul which after death was associated with a
tomb, and was finally absorbed into the earth from which it had come. By the time of the Shang dynasty, the
aristocracy at least held a belief that the ancestor spirits became powerful divine beings dwelling on high. The two
ideas that the kuei lived on in the tombs, but also lived in heaven “was undoubtedly an important factor in the
development later of the peculiar Chinese belief that man produced two soul elements, the hun which on death
became a shen and partook of the nature of heaven, and the p’o [ which] became a kuei, earthy by nature”.
Smith 5. On the shen root see H.23d.1-2.
Keightley states that the Shang dynasty diviners referred to the “high ancestors”who controlled the crops as kui or
nao. He prefers a reading of nao for the character in question, but the data from Modern Chinese reported above
indicates that kui was the correct term for these ancestors who were closst to Di, the high god. (Keightly 2000 14,
100,116. In modern standard Chinese nao refers to the brain or head (Wu, J. 491). The related Cantonese terms are
gwai which means “spirtits, ghosts” (the phrase gwai wahn means “ghosts, spirits of the dead”).and nouh
which also means “brain” or “head”. (Chik / Ng Lam 502)., Kwan 47).
422

D.26 b.1,3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gáauwaat “cunning” “tricky (deceptive)” / Chinese-MSC
guàiwu “monster, demon, evil being” / gwái “a treacherous fellow, a traitor, a thief”
< C. Khoisan-Nama gãǔa “evil spirit” / West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic t’änqway “magician,
wizard, witch doctor”
Approximate Sinitic etymon * gãǔa “evil spirit” ~ gwái “a treacherous person”
D.26b.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gwái “cunning, shrewd” Chik / Ng Lam 421 gwáaiháau “clever,
ingenious” “cunning, crafty, wily” Chik / Ng Lam 4, 502 guāi “clever, shrewd, alert” kuài “quick-
witted, ingenious” Wu, J. 396 gwáai “to kidnap, to abduct” “to swindle” Chik / Ng Lam 170, 218
gwái “a treacherous fellow, a traitor, a thief” “to cheat, to deceive” Chik / Ng Lam 103, 421
gwáija “craft, guile” (Y) Chen 56 kwàaihyahn “villain, hoodlum” Po-fei Huang 414 waaih
“vicious, mean, evil (persons etc.)” Chik / Ng Lam 85 “bad (in character)” Po-fei Huang 384 wái
“vulgar, wanton, low, lewd and licentious” Chik / Ng Lam 296 wáihge “evil” Kwan 171
N. Chinese-MSC guàiwu “monster, demon, evil being” “ monstrosity, freak” Wu, J. 247-248
huàibāor “rascal, rogue” huàirèn “bad person, evildoer, scoundrel” Wu, J. 291 huài sv. “bad”
“crafty, sly” Wang, F. 206 kuâi (WG) “to kidnap, to decoy, to swindle” Mathews 522 #3533 guâi
“to kidnap, to swindle” Huang 145 huài “bad, evil, harmful” DeFrancis 376 jingguài “goblins,
spirits, demons” Hsiung 515 145 mógwài “demons and monsters , fiends” moguî “devil, demon,
monster” Wu, J. 255, 479
Chinese–Min kī-kuāi “strange, weird” Bodman 1983 173 yāoguài “devil, demon, monster”
Manser pt. 2 516 See also D.26b.3 following.
Chinese–Min kī-kuāi “strange, weird” Bodman 1983 173
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) mògwai “devil” Kwan 133
D.26b.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gwái “spirits, ghosts” Chik / Ng Lam 502 “ghost” Kwan 203
N. Chinese-MSC gui “supernatural beings, such as ghosts, devils, demons” Wang, F. 180
gáaugwái “to play underhand tricks” Chik / Ng Lam 186.
S. Chinese–MSC (Beijing) yāo “goblin, demon, evil spirit” Manser pt. 2 516
S.Chinese-Cantonese gwāht / waaht “insincere, dishonest, cunning, comical”
Extended African/AA language word family
D.26b.3 E. Cushitic-Oromo qallu “mago, stregone, indovino,casta sacra sacerdotale Galla” [magician,
wizard, witch doctor, soothsayer, Oromo sacred priestly caste] Borello 334
qōlō “evil spirit” Skinner 180
W. Chadic-Ngizim kyelu “shadow” Skinner 156
W. Chadic-Hausa kurwa “soul, shadow, spirit, ghost” Skinner 156
NS-Kanuri kárá “witchcraft (white or black)” karáma “witch, someone who practices magic”
Cyffer 1990 79
E. Cushitic-Oromo ekera “ghost of dead person” Skinner 156
NC-Fulfulde (Fulani) karamajo “witch, wizard” [compound of this root and that of D.27b.3 Extended
Cushitic] karamaku “witchcraft” [compound of this root and that of D.27b.1 Extended Hausa
māguzanci “rites of the Maguzawa”]
E. Cushitic-Rendille kharaawa “become clever, become wise, become cunning”
kákharaawa vt. “defraud, cheat” Rendille 176
D.26b.1 IE-Sanskrit vaJcaka “deceiving, a deceiver, fraudulent, crafty” “a low or vile man”
vaJcanata “trickery, deception, roguishness” vaJcatha “deceit, a deceiver, cheater”
vaJcana “cheating, deception, fraud” “to practice fraud, cheat” “illusion, delusion, hallucination”
vaidagdya “dexterity, intelligence, acuteness, cunning” vaidagdyavat “cleverness, clever, skillful,
experienced” vaipajcamika “a diviner, a soothsayer” Cologne Lexicon
/
423
D.26c.1 West (Ethiopian) Anywa

S. Chinese-Yue Semitic-Amharic gwʌ‫כ‬ʌ́do‫כ‬
(Cantonese) gwädda gwʌ‫כ‬ʌt pl.
gwāt “to destroy, “damage, “bad omen”
to ruin” injure, ruin” Reh 28, 115
Chik / Ng Lam 248 Leslau 1976 217
D.26c.2 W. Chadic-Hausa West Semitic-
N. Chinese-MSC wàhalàa Ethiopian -
huà “disaster, “trouble, Amharic
misfortune, difficulty” gwäği
calamity” Newman, P. “harmful,
Wu, J. 306 2007 215 detrimental”
Skinner 280 Leslau 1976 220
D.26c.3 E. Cushitic-Sidamo Egyptian
Chinese-Cantonese wahe “calamity, uai “death,
waimiht “ruin” trouble” destruction”
Kwan 446 E. Cushitic-Somali “to destroy,
[compound of this wah+yelo to vanquish”
root and that of “mischief, injury” “foul, bad,
E.29.1] Skinner 280 stinking”
waiwaaih Semitic-Arabic Budge v.1 145
“destruction” (ruin) (Iraqi) twajja
Chen 70 Kwan 132 “to become sick”
Chinese-MSC Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
huai “bad” part 2 488
Wu, J. 291
D.26c.4 E. Cushitic-Oromo West (Ethiopian)
N. Chinese-MSC wayo exclamation Semitic-Amharic
(Beijing” “esclamazione di wäyyo “alas!
āiyōu dolore molto usata woe!”
“indicating pain or nei pianti funebri” wäyyäw
suffering, ouch! [cry of sorrow much “oh dear!
Wang, F. 4 used in funeral Leslau 1976
lamentations] 173, 263
Borello 423
D.26c.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gwāt “to destroy, to ruin”
< West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amhharic gwädda “damage, injure, harm, hurt, ruin”
D.26c.3
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) waiwaaih “destruction” / N. Chinese-MSC huai “bad”
< E. Cushitic-Sidamo wahe “calamity, trouble” / Egyptian uai “death, destruction”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *gwäd- “damage, injure, harm, hurt, ruin” ~
*wahe “calamity, trouble”
D.26c.3
N. Chinese-MSC
hwài “bad, badly” “go bad, spoil, ruin” Wu, J. 291 Chen 15
“bad, spoiled, useless” Hwang 172
hwàichu “harm, disadvantage” Wu, J. 291
424
huī “destroy” Merriam-Webster Chinese 60

waaih “broken down, decaying, rotten” “bad, poor (scores, marks, etc.)” Chik / Ng Lam 85
kwai “to lose, to damage” Chik / Ng Lam 400
D.26c.1
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Čaha, Ennemor etc.) gwäda “injure, harm, hurt”
Leslau 1979 v.2 298 v.3 260
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic awäddämä “devastate, ravage, demolish, put an end to”
Leslau 1976 174
D.26c.2 Egyptian ua “to attack, to smite, to smash, to destroy” Budge v.1 145
D.26c.3 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic äwayyä “tell another one’s misfortunes”
E. Cushitic-Oromo wayo “esclamazione di dolore molto usata nei pianti funebre”[cry of sorrow much
used in funeral lamentations] Borello 423
Proto-W. Chadic *wuy- “disaster” Militarev / Stolbova
W. Chadic-Hausa wuya “trouble, difficulty” Skinner 287
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) twajja “to become sick” Dict of Iraqi Arabic part 2 488
D.26c.3
IE-Sanskrit
vaidhuri “adversity, adverseness”
vaidhurya “misery, wretcheness, desperate plight” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Armenian vay “Wehe, Unglück” (Ger.) [pain, ache] [bad luck]
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan
vaiyōi / āvōya “wehe!” (Ger.) [woe]
Nicolayev, Sergei IE Etymology 2012 100
↓↓
D.27a-b AA- Chadic AA –Cushitic AA- Nilo-Sah. NC
Sem.
D.27a.1 TB-Tibetan E. Cushitic-
mo-pa / mó-mkhan Rendille
“a soothsayer” móro
möò “to curse” “to invoke “soothsayer,
a deity to harm someone” star-gazer”
Goldstein 833 Pillinger 227
mo-debs-pa “to cast the lot” E. Cushitic-Oromo
Jaschke 419247 móru “aruspice,
N. Chinese-MSC mó “evil, mago, stregone,”
spirit, demon, devil, monster” [astrologer,
“magic, mystic” Wu, J. 479 sorcerer, wizard,
èmó “demon, devil, evil soothsayer]
spirit” Wu, J. 176 Borello 309
247
Note- D.27a.1 Note Jaschke’s description of Tibetan soothsaying: “mo-debs-pa “to cast the lot”; is always a
religious ceremony performed by lamas ---which does not preclude the possibility of an imposture”;
mo-pa “one dealing with these practices, a soothsayer” ; mo-mkhan, mo-mrtsis-pa “the latter expression in the
respective passage =court-astrologer” Jaschke 419
Chinese observers during the Tang dynasty reported the Tibetan belief in wizards and soothsayers. “[Ils] croient
aux sorciers et aux devins” Pelliot 3
425
D.27a.2 Kanuri
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) moworú
mòuh “gifted,
“man of talent” talented”
Chik / Ng Lam 500248 Cyffer 1990
125
D.27a.3 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic-Burji Kanuri
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) Dyarim mó(o)r joo mowóma
mòuh seun m‫ככ‬ r‫ככ‬ “thief” “cheat, liar,
“treacherous, sly, cunning” “thief” Sasse 1982 147 perpetrator of
Chik / Ng Lam 427 Blench fraud” Cyffer
2007 49 1990 125
D.27a.1 Chinese-Wu mo6 “wizard, witch, demon power” / TB-Tibetan mo-pa
< E. Cushitic-Rendille móro “soothsayer, star-gazer”
D.27a.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) mòuh seun “treacherous, sly, cunning”
< NS-Kanuri mowóma “cheat, liar”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *mór- “soothsayer, star-gazer” “wizard” ~ mow- “cheat, liar”
D.27a.1 Chinese-Wu mo6 “wizard, witch, demon power” Hakka Dict.
TB-Tibetan dmód-pa “to curse, accuse, execrate” “to pronounce a prayer or conjuration”
“imprecation, execration, malediction” Jaschke 423 ; möòdzi “words of a curse” Goldstein 833
C. Chinese-Wu mo6 “call names, swear, curse, scold, revile”Hakka Dict.
mòuhsi “sorcerer (witch) Kwan 493
mòseuht / mòuhseuht “magic” Kwan 281
naahmmòuh “wizard” Kwan 573
mògwai “devil” Kwan 133
mòlihk “magic charm” Kwan 281
mah “to swear, to curse” Chik / Ng Lam 364
Old Chinese må “curse, revile” Karlgren GSR #40h Matisoff 2003 462
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) mu “wizard, sorcerer, witch” Hakka Dict.
D.27a.3 N. Chinese-MSC émó “demon, devil, evil spirit” Wu, J. 176 “evil, vice, wickedness”
moguî “devil, demon, monster” Wu, J. 479 mófâ “magic” Merriam-Webster Chinese 93
Chinese-Wu móshù “magic, conjuring, sleight of hand” Hakka Dict
D.27a.1 E. Cushitic-Burji murúmi “wizard, sorcerer” Sasse 1982 149
E. Cushitic-Oromo móru “predire, leggere il peritoneo della vittima sacrificata, consultare il
peritoneo” [predict, read the entrails of a sacrificed victim] Borello 309
NS-Songhay (Gao) mòorù “passer la main sur un animal pour le consacrer en vue d’un sacrifice
rituel” [pass the hand over an animal to ‘consecrate’ it for a ritual sacrifice] Ducroz 179
W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Siri marā “sorcerer” Skinner 199
E. Chadic-Dangaleat [Dangla] mélmò “sorcier” [wizard] Fédry 129
248
Note- D.27a.2-3 (Cantonese, Nilo-Saharan,, Cushitic) The sorcerer is viewed alternatively as a malevolent or
benign person in African cultures as evidenced in the D.27a.1-3 and D.27.2 sets. The good ones are healers, experts
in medicine and metallurgy; therefore treated as wise men; the evil ones are thieves, extorsionists and poisoners.
These contrary views are reflected in the contrasting Cantonese and NS-Kanuri semantics (D.27a.2-3).
See also F.24.1-2 mɛ̄n “medicine” semantically contrasting with F.24.2 (Extended) mən- “poison”and F.24.3
“medicine, good or bad). See also the Skinner 192 citations. These also illustrate this ambivalence toward the
magician / wizard / healer. See also Ehret 2002 50-51
426

D.27a.1,3 IE-E. Iranian-Avestan, Sanskrit moha “a magical art employed to bewilder an enemy”
“bewilderment, delusion, error” mohamantra “a spell or charm causing infatuation or illusion”
mohayit “one who bewilders” Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 D.27a.1,3
/
D.27b.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Ngizim E. Cushitic- Kembata
garmagεn mágàná mágànánín pl. magàn + āncu
“astrologer” “term of address or “wizard” “magician”
Goldstein 53 reference to a sorceress” Hudson 149, 177, 331
gar “star” Schuh 108 Skinner 192
gyuməgεn W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic- Burji
“magician, conjurer” māgàncē “bewitch, put a mugáanga
Goldstein 281249 charm on, mesmerize, “magician, wizard”
[Disyllabic corresp.] enchant” Newman, P. < NC-Swahili
gyu “illusion, fantasy, 2007 144 Skinner 192 Sasse 1982 148
magic, conjuring” magàanii “spell (magic)” See also E.4b.1
Newman, R. 1990 255 (Swahili)
D.27b.2 W. Chadic-Hausa NC-
TB-Tibetan gànē m. Common
mtshan-mkan “soothsaying” Bantu
[lit. sign-knower] Newman, P. 2007 69 *-ganga
“soothsayer, “ medicine-
astrologer” man”
ča-mkhan Skinner 192
“soothsayer, fortune
teller” ča “prospect,
auspices”
Jaschke 454, 151
See also E.12.4
(TB-Tibetan Extended)
D.27b.3 N. Chinese- W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic-Oromo
MSC màihbû mayèe m. mayu f. amajaju
“practice divination for “sorcerer, wizard, “stregare, ammaliare,
a living, be a fortune witch” portar iettatura” [to
teller” DeFrancis 592 mayàudàri m. bewitch, to enchant ,
S. Chinese-Yue “trickster, deceiver” to cast a spell on]
(Cantonese) màih Newman, P. 2007 154 Borello 18
“to bewitch, to charm” Newman / Ma 1992 90
Chik / Ng Lam 451 ma agential prefix
màihwaahk mâyyàa “witch”
“bewitch” Kwan 39 Newman, R. 1990 307
“to misguide, to mâyèe “witch”
confuse” Newman, P. 2000 455
Chik / Ng Lam 451
249
Note- D.27b.1 (Tibetan, AA and NS-Tubu) The morphemes of this table appear to be variants of the root which
is the source of the E.4b.2Tibetan mkhan. In Tibetan it is a suffix to substantives and verbal roots denoting “one
5
who knows a thing thoroughly making a trade or profession of it”. Also Hakka ngan “man of ability and virtue”.
(See the close Cushitic, Semitic and Chadic correspondences to these in E.4b.1-2 including the note). Also the
Tibetan association of the two roots in mó-mkhan “a soothsayer” in Note D.27a.1. mkhan as “one who knows”
suggests that these are reflexes of the E.4a.1 Extended , Proto-Cushitic *ɣaa’hn “know, understand” Skinner 77.
427

D.27b .1 Tibetan garmagεn “astrologer” / gyuməgεn “magician, conjurer”
< W. Chadic-Bedde-Ngizim magàn “witch” / E. Cushitic-Kembata magàn + aancu “wizard”
“magician”
D.27b.2 N. Chinese-MSC màihbû “practice divination for a living, be a fortune teller”
< W. Chadic-Hausa maye n.m. maya n.f. mayu pl. “sorcerer, witch, wizard”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *magàn ~ *may- “wizard, magician, sorcerer”
D.27b.2 TB-Tibetan sgyu-ma mkan “magician sgyu ma “illusion” Hodge 174
D.27b.3 N. Chinese-MSC mèi “demon” n. mèiì “charm” n. Merriam-Webster Chinese 90
D.27b.1
NS-Tubu [Teda] móɣene suru “qui connait les remedes” suru “remedes” [the one who knows the
remedies] Skinner 192. See also F.24.3
W.Chadic-Hausa māguzanci “rites of the Maguzawa” “obscene language”250 Newman, P. 2007 145
W. Chadic-Dyarim məə̀n m‫́כ́כ‬n pl. “witch” Blench 2007 49 See D.27a.2-3 above.
D. 27b.2 W. Chadic- Hausa màagāntā “treat, cure person” Newman, P. 2007 144 See also F.24.3
Semitic-Arabic tkahhan “to predict, foretell, prophesy” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 412
W. Chadic-Ron (Bokkos) kan “verzaubern, mit bösem blick treffen” [to enchant, bewitch, to give
the evil eye] Jungraithmayr 1970 143
D.27b.3 W. Chadic-Hausa māyee “witch doctor” mâita “witchcraft” Newman, R. 1990 307
Skinner 199
E. Cushitic-Oromo amajaja “maliardo, stregone” [enchanter, sorcerer/wizard”] Borello 18.
NC-Fulufulde (Fulani) karamajo Taylor 108 [compound of this root and that of D.26b.5
[Extended Cushitic]
W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Tsagu mārin “sorcerer” Skinner 199
Asian non-ST languages with correspondences to the African/AA↔ST roots:
D.27b.1
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek magiya “magic, use of supernatural rituals, forces etc. English Uzbek Dictionary
IE-Pashto makkari “fraud, deceitfullness” makr “fraud, deceit, evasion” Raverty 930
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *maka- “to be deceived, perplexed”
Proto-Altaic *mak’e “to be deceived, perplexed” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
IE-Sanskrit makatpitRka “a magic formula”
IE-E. Iranian-Osset mang “Betrug” [fraud, swindle] Nicolayev, Sergei IE Etymology 2012 86
D.27b.3 IE-Sanskrit
maya “wisdom, extraordinary or supernatural power (only in the earlier language)” “illusion,
unreality, deception, fraud, trick, sorcery, witchcraft, magic” “artifice” 251
mayakara “illusion maker” “a conjurer, juggler”
250
D.27b.1 (Chadic-Hausa Extended) P. Newman’s gloss of the word māguzanci“ rites of the Maguzawa”
“obscene language” reflects the more recent strong Islamic condemnation of the magical practices of traditional
African religion.The Maguzawa are a Hausa group who retain the rites of the traditional pre-Islamic culture. Given
that the name is used to designate their religious rituals, it is plausible to consider the word māguzanci as derived
from the similar roots for magic / sorcery above. P. Newman glosses the group’s name Maguzawa as “Non-
Islamic Hausa group” Newman, P. 2007 145. R. Newman’s Hausa equivalent to the English word “pagan” i.e.
(non-Muslim Hausa)” is bamaguje Newman, R. 1990 193 See also F.24.3 (Hausa Extended) màgirō “pagan
Hausa fetish”.
251
Note- D.27b.3 (Sanskrit) According to several Upanishads, at times all that is outside of the inner self is
created by “a sort of mystic, quasi magic power sometimes called maya, that is, artifice”. It is a word sometimes
applied to sorcery, and to tricks and stratagems of various kinds”. The Bhagavat Gita, translated and interpreted
by Franklin Edgerton. Cambridge : Harvard University Press, ©1972..
428
mayadhika “abounding in magic”

mayadhara “possessing illusion, skilled in magic”
mayin “artful, skilled in art or enchantment, cunning, deceptive, illusory” “a conjuror, juggler,
magician” “a cheat, a deceiver” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Old Indian māyā “illusion, witchcraft ” dur māyú “using bad arts”
IE-Bengali maya “illusion”n. Thompson 72 See also Supplementary Table 2 D.27b.1-2 ..
↓↓
D.28 AAsiatic– Chadic AA-Cushitic AA-Sem. NS NC
D.28.1 C. Chadic-Logone E. Cushitic- West Semitic- Maba Group- N. Mande-
TB-Burmese mánɣe Oromo Ethiopian- Aiki Bozo
màng “chief, king” mangisti Amharic manja maŋa
“ruler, governor, Mukarovsky 124 “govern- m’angest “old person -Susu
official” W.Chadic-Hausa ment, “kingdom, (chief)” mange
Benedict 189 mànyan gàri royalty” government, Maba Group- “chief,
màŋk “term of address for a Foot 41 reign” Maba king”
“king” village head or other Leslau manja-k Muka-
Starostin, S. titleholder” 1976 31 “village chief” rovsky
TB Etymology Newman, P. Edgar 304 124
2000 24252
D.28.2 W. Chadic- E.Cushitic- Maba Group-
TB-Written Gwandara Oromo Masalit
Burmese manŋya manguddo mangar
û-mâŋ “big man” “seniore, “father-in-
“big, older Skinner 196 anziano, law”
(brother, uncle)” Matsushita 1972 78 grande” Edgar 281
Matisoff 2003 W. Chadic- Hausa [older man / Nuer
264 mànyantàa vi. brother, old, deman
Old Chinese “be older than” big/great] “brother ”
mâŋ mânyā (pl. of Borello 293 Huffman 11
“eldest of babba “large”)
brothers” “adults”
“great, “important people
principal” dignitaries)”
Karlgren GSR Newman, P.
#761e 2007150
D.28.1
TB-Burmese màng “ruler, governor, official” / màŋk “king”
< C. Chadic-Logone mánɣe “chief, king” / NC-N. Mande-Bozo maŋa “chief, king”
D.28.2
Old Chinese mâŋ “eldest of brothers” “great, principal” /
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *maŋ “big, older (brother, uncle)”
< W. Chadic-Gwandara mánŋa “big man”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *maŋ “chief, king” “big, important person”
252
Note- D.28.1 (Chadic) The root man / mai means “old” “big” in Chadic and NS-Maba. This is the plausible
source of the derived forms referring to various authorities, the chief etc. The D.28.2 Hausa form is the plural of the
Hausa D.29.1 bàbba “big, large”. The root is probably originally from Nilo-Saharan or NC-Mande and has been
inherited or borrowed by the other African families.
429

D.28.1
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *maŋ “big, older (brother, uncle)” Benedict 189, 203
TB-Trung (Nungish) dəmaŋ “big (of persons) ; older (brother, uncle) ” Benedict 189
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) maahng “the eldest of brothers” Chik / Ng Lam 102
D.28.1 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic m’angest “kingdom, government, reign” Leslau 1976 31
D.28.2 W. Chadic- Hausa mânya- mânya “the upper class” important people”
mànyantà / manyance pl. “become important, “move up in years (become sixtyish)”
Newman, P. 2007 150
↓↓
D.29 AA– Chadic AA –Cushitic AA-Sem. NS Niger-Congo
Swadesh “big” E. Chadic-Musgu E. Cushitic- Mubi Semitic- NC-
D.29.1 TB-Jingpho bba “large” bbá Gurage N. Mande-
[Kachin] bà Greenberg 1966 58 “big” bätət Vai
“to be big W. Chadic- Hausa Militarev / “wide, ba “big”
nba “great, big” bàbba adj. Stolbova broad, Mukarovsky
Benedict 118 “big” “important, large” 91
Matisoff 2003 121 great” “elder, senior” Skinner 62 Greenberg
Newman, P. 2007 12 1966 156
D.29.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- E. Cushitic-
dpá-ba Gwandara Oromo
“brave, strong, babba n. and adj. babu vi.
courageous” “big man” “essere forte,
Jaschke 325 Skinner 13 robusto”
[Disyllabic corresp.] Matsushita 1972 78 [be strong,
dpá-bo C. Chadic- Mofu- robust]
“strong man, hero” Gudur baba
“demi-god” bábázla “forte, robusto”
Jaschke 325 “géant” [giant] Borello 35
Hodge 13 Barreteau 356
bājen “a great hero” b̟ab̟əl
Goldstein 647 “big, become big,
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] become thick”
məbàʔ Stolbova, Olga
“chief, ruler” C. Chadic-Etymology
Benedict/ Matisoff
118
D.29.3 W. Chadic-Ngizim
TB-Tibetan báawìyá
bawo / bawa “general name to refer
“a hero” to someone important”
Goldstein 659 Schuh 23
D.29.1 TB-Jingpho bà “to be big
< W. Chadic- Hausa bàbba “big, large” / NC-N. Mande- Vai ba “big”
D.29.2 TB-Tibetan dpá-bo “strong man, hero”
< E. Cushitic- Oromo babu vi. “be strong, robust”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *ba “big, strong” ~ *babu “big man, important man”
“strong man”
430

D.29.2
TB-Tibetan rbad-rbód “thick, dense, close, strong, great” Jaschke 403 bobba “bravery, courage
spirit” Goldstein 659
D.29.3 TB-Tibetan baŋar “bravery, courage, fearlessness” [compound of this root and that of D.4b.2 ]
Goldstein 646 ŋarbo “aggressive, vigorous, volatile” “fired up, stirred up” Goldstein 299
D.29.1
NC- N. Mande-Malinke ba “large” Greenberg 1966 156
C. Chadic-Zime-Batna ba “big” Militarev / Stolbova
E. Cushitic-Oromo babbal’ā “very wide” Skinner 13
NC-Kpelle bayi “large” Greenberg 1966 156
S. Cushitic-Qwadza baʔ “to increase in size” baʔ-ti “long” Militarev / Stolbova
Nilo-Saharan-For [Fur] apa “large” Greenberg 1966 141
D.29.2 W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Pa’a babela “big” Skinner 13
E. Cushitic-Oromo babsu “rinforzare, irrobustire, fortificare” [to strengthen, make sturdy/vigorous,
build up] Borello 35
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Ge’ez ʕäbäyä “be large, thick” Greenberg 1966 59
Nilo-Saharan-Songhay (Gao) bàmbátà “être gros, énorme” Ducroz 34
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic balabbat “nobleman, squire, tribal noteable, patriarch, chief”
Leslau 1976 87
D.29.3
C. Chadic-Higi bwa “large” Greenberg 1966 58
C. Chadic-Bura bwabul “very strong and energetic” bwabulkur “great strength” Dict. of Bura
bawo / bawa “a hero” bawa “bravery, courage valor” Goldstein 647
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic bārātta “be strong, prevail” bərtu “strong. powerful, vigorous”
Leslau 1976 90
D.29.2 Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *aba- “huge” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
D.29.3
IE-Hindi barā adj. “big” Scudiere 20 barāī n. “greatness” Scudiere 70
IE-Bengali bɔro “big” Thompson 87, 108
Khoisan-Sandawe baʔe “big” Starostin, G. 2003 9 http://starling.rinet.ru./c
↓↓
D.30a-b Afro-Asiatic AA-Cushitic, AA- Nilo- NC, Khoisan
– Chadic Proto-AA Semitic Saharan
D.30a.1 Proto- Proto-AA West Semitic- Kanuri NC-Proto-W.
TB-Tibetan Chadic (Orel / Ethiopian- babá / Nigritic
baba “father, dad” *baba Stolbova 1995) Amharic bawá *-bhabha
Goldstein 641 “father” *bab- abbat “father” “father” “father”
[Disyllabic Skinner 12 “father” Leslau Cyffer 1990 Skinner 12
corresp.] W. Chadic N. Cushitic- 1976 134 140, 20 S. Khoisan-
N. Chinese -MSC Hausa Beja [Bedawi] *abbābba Maba ‖Khegwi
bàba “dad” bàaba bāba voc. “daddy!, Group- bāba
S. Chinese-Yue “father, “father” papa!” Masalit “father”
(Cantonese) dad” Skinner 12 Leslau ba(a)bá Ruhlen 1994
bāhbā “dad” Newman, P. 1976 134 “father” #260 52
Chen 61 2007 12 Edgar 160
431
D.30a.2 Proto-AA West Semitic- C. Khoisan-

TB-Tibetan ʔab- Ethiopian- Naro auba,
āba “father” Amharic aba voc.
“father Militarev / abbat “father”
Goldstein 1188 Stolbova 2007 “father” N . Khoisan-
Chinese–Min Afroasiatic Leslau !’O !Kung
â-pa voc. Etymology 1976 134 ba, pá
“father, daddy E. Cushitic- Semitic- voc. “father”
(familiar)” Rendille Hebrew Ruhlen
Bodman 1987 áaba “father aba colloq. #260 52
v.2 16 (also used as a “papa, daddy, See Note-
call name)” father” D.4a.1 on
Pillinger 58 Baltsan 2 vocatives
D.30a.1 TB-Tibetan baba “father, dad” / N. Chinese-MSC bàba “dad”
< Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi) b̟aab̟a “(a familiar form of address by a child to his father) daddy, papa” /
Khoisan-Hadza *ba, baba, bawa “father”
D.30a.2 TB-Tibetan āba “father”
< E. Cushitic-Rendille áaba “father (also used as a call name) /
Khoisan-‖Khegwi bāba “father”, C. Khoisan-Naro auba, aba voc. “father” /
N . Khoisan-!’O !Kung ba, pá voc. “father”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *ba, baba “father”
D.30a.1 Proto-E. Cushitic *bābb- “father” Skinner 12
TB-Tibetan pha “father” Das 815 Jaschke 338 ʔ-pha / ʔ-pa “father (Vulgo)” [i.e. colloquial form]
Jaschke 338
TB-Bodo/Garo-Garo a-pa voc. Matisoff 2003 104
TB-Lahu ā-pa voc. “father!” Matisoff 2003 105
D.30a.1 E.. Chadic-Dangaleat [Dangla] pàabá “papa” (Fr.) Fédry 72
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) b̟aab̟a “(a familiar form of address by a child to his father) daddy, papa”
Khoisan-Hadza *ba, baba, bawa “father” Starostin, G. Macro-Khoisan Etymology
W. Chadic-Bura baba / papa “daddy” Dict. of Bura
Nilo-Saharan-Songhay (Djeene, Koroboro) baaba / baba “father” Heath v.2 24 v.3 34
W. Chadic-Ngizim bàabángám “term by which person refers to or addresses his own father or an
older man with whom he feels a father-like attachment”
“younger paternal uncle” Schuh 17
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] bappa “paternal uncle” Taylor 13
Omotic-Bencho baba “ancestors” Skinner 12
W.Chadic-Hausa baffa “uncle, paternal” < Fulani bappa Skinner 13
D.30a.2
E. Cushitic-Oromo abba “padre, genitore” abbayé “papà” Borello 2, 3
Semitic-Arabic ʔab (IPA) “dad” Merriam-Webster Arabic 39 1966 142
NS-For (Fur) aba “husband” Greenberg 1966 142
D.30a.1
IE-Bengali baba “father ”abba “father” Thompson 98
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian–Ho, Mundari ‘babǝ / a’ba “father”
D.30a.2
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian–Santali ‘apa / a’ba / ba’ba “father”
432
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian–Ho ‘abǝ “father” Kobayashi Tables 1- 3 #202 2, 5, 8, 17

Altaic-Proto-Mongolian ab[u] “father, paternal uncle” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
Altaic-Mongolian-Dongxian aba, apa, avi “father, paternal uncle”
Proto-Altaic *áp’a “father” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 3
D.30a.2 Proto-IE *bhā “father, elder brother” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 15
/
D.30b.1 E. Cushitic- Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) Khoisan-
TB-Tibetan Oromo ʔabu Proto-Khoe
apo “address for an obbo voc. “construct state of ʔab *ábó
elderly man” “”Padre mio!” ‘father’” “father”
Das 1344 “Signore” ʔabu “followed by a Starostin, G.
ābo [My father!, conventional male name: a Macro-
“older relatives” Sir] form of address to a man Khoisan
Goldstein 1188 Borello 322 who is not married and has Etymology
[Disyllabic corresp.] no children”
TB-Naga-Chang Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
apou part 2 2
“father” See also Note D.4a.1 on
Matisoff 2003 165 vocatives
D.30b.2 E. Cushitic- Khoisan-
TB-Kham Rendille ǀKham
bobo imbóobo / bobo
“husband’s father” imbóo “father”
Starostin, S. “elder Ruhlen 1994
ST Etymology\ brother” #260 52
TB-Tibetan Pillinger 154
jēnbo “elder
brother”
Goldstein 337
bōō “grandfather,
old man”
Goldstein 645, 659
N. Chinese-MSC
bó / bóbo
“father’s elder
brother, uncle,
the eldest of
brothers” Wu, J. 47
D.30b.3 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-
phu-bo / pho-bo Tangale
“a man’s elder pube
brother” Jaschke 342 “father”
pū-wo / powo Jungraith-
“elder brother” mayr 1991
Goldstein 680, 685 133-134
D.30b.1 TB-Tibetan apo “address for an elderly man” / ābo “older relatives”
< Proto-Highland E. Cushitic abbo “maternal uncle” / Khoisan-Proto-Khoe *ábó “father”
Khoisan-Proto-Khoe *ábó “father”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *abo “older male relatives”
433

D.30b.2
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) bo2 “older brother, father’s elder brother” Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC bófù “father’s elder brother, uncle” “the eldest of brothers” Wu, J. 47
fû “a respectful term for an elderly man in ancient times” Wu, J. 209
TB-Kiranti-Limbu bu “elder brother” Starostin, S. Limbu Dict.
D.30b.3
TB-Chin-Lushai pu “a grandfather” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Kwoireng pyu “father” Benedict 58
TB-Chin-Maram əphu “father” Benedict 28
TB-Kiranti-Limbu phu “elder brother” van Driem 1987 502 Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
TB- Tibetan po “male, masculine” pōgyüǜ “paternal relatives, patrilineal descent line” Goldstein 684
N. Chinese-MSC fù “father” “male relative of a senior generation” Wu, J. 211
TB-Karen-Pwo, Sgaw phü “grandfather” Benedict 148
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) fuh / fú “father” “male elder” “a man, an old man” Chik / Ng Lam 289
D.30b.2 E. Cushitic-Somali aboowe “brother” Skinner 55 Awde 1999 55
E. Cushitic-Oromo abbóla “giovani di fiducia, fratello” [trusted young person, brother] Borello 4
E. Cushitic-Somali abooto voc. “grandmother” Awde 1999 21, 63
Egyptian abut “forefathers, grandparents, ancestors, kinsfolk” Budge v.1 4
Semitic-Hebrew avot “ancestors, fathers, forefathers” Baltsan 26
D.30b.3 W. Chadic-Tangale poobe “term of address given to an old man”
Jungraithmayr 1991 133-134
D.30b.1 Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian–Ho, Mundari a’pu “father”
Kobayashi Table 1-2 #202 5, 11
↓↓
D.31 AA – AA-Cushitic AA- NS Khoisan
Chadic Semitic
D.31.1 N. Chinese- W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- West Semitic- N. Khoisan-
MSC / Beijing N.Bauci- Burji Ethiopian- !Kung
āyí “one’s mother’s Jimbin aayee Gurage ʔai
sister, auntie” aya “mother, ayya C. Khoisan-
“a child’s form of “grand- aunt” “form of Naron ai
address for any mother” “father’s address to “mother,
woman of its Skinner brother’s grand- grandmother,
mother’s generation” 118 wife” mother” aunt”
Wu J. 1 Wang, F. 8. ayyé Skinner 118 S. Khoisan-
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu “aunt, Omotic- ǀ‘Auni
ɔ‫כ‬-e “mother, maternal” Wolamo aija “mother ”
grandmother, Hudson ajē “mother” Ruhlen
maternal aunt” 22, 176, 179 Ruhlen 1994 292
Matisoff 2003 208 1994 292
D.31.2 NS-Kanuri
N. Chinese –MSC / Kanuri
Beijing yeiyá n.
yéye “great-
“(paternal) grandfather,
grandfather” great-
“grandpa grand-mother”
434
(a respectful form of yeiyarí

address for an old “great-
man)” Wu, J. 805 grandparents”
[Disyllabic corresp.] “lineal
S. Chinese-Yue ancestors”
(Cantonese) Cyffer 1990
yèh “grandfather 189
(father’s father)”
Chik / Ng Lam 290
D.31.1 N. Chinese–MSC āyi “one’s mother’s sister, auntie”
< N. Khoisan-!Kung ʔai “female, mother” / E. Cushitic-Burji aayee “mother, aunt”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *aye- “mother, grandmother”
D.31.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ayī “aunt” (maternal younger sister)” Kwan 28
aye “grandfather (paternal)” Kwan 207 [Disyllabic corresp.]
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ay “mother, grandmother, maternal aunt)” Matisoff 2003 208
D.31.2 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *yay “mother, grandmother, maternal aunt)” Matisoff 2003 208
D.31.1 Khoisan-Hadza aija “ mother, grandmother, aunt” Ruhlen 1994 292
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic ayat “grandfather, grandmother” Leslau 1976 146
E. Cushitic-Somali ayeeyo “grandmother” Awde 1999 22, 63
N. Cushitic-Beja [Bedawi] ayyay “relative” Skinner 118
NS-Daza aya “mother” Greenberg 1966 142
W. Chadic-Hausa iyā “term of address for one’s mother or maternal aunt” Newman, P. 2007 94
iyāyē pl. “parents” Newman, P. 2007 94 Skinner 118
W. Chadic-Tangale iya “grandmother” Skinner 118
E. Cushitic-Oromo ayo “mamma” Borello 33 āyyō “mother” Skinner 118
E. Cushitic-Rendille aayo “Mother!” (call name) Pillinger 58
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage āyyō “mother!” Skinner 118
Proto-E.Cushitic, Proto S. Cushitic *ay- “mother” Skinner 118
D.31.1 Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur ayal “woman” Uyghur Dictionary
↓↓
D.32 Afro-Asiatic – AA- AA- Nilo- NC
D.32.1 N. Chinese -MSC W. Chadic–Hausa NS-Anywa
chyúnji (Y) (Gobir) [Anuak]
“multitude, crowd” k’unjìya ācʊ̄ʊŋā
Chen 238 [Disyllabic corresp.] “any collection, ācʊ̄ʊŋ�
S. Chinese-Kejia number, or company pl.
qún “crowd, group, herd flock” of people, animals, “meeting,
Wang, F. 388 trees, things” gathering
[Hakka] (Meixian) Matsushita 1993 158 of people”
k’iun2 / kiun2 k’ùngìya / Reh 2, 103
“group, crowd, multitude” k’umjiya /
“swarm, flock, herd” k’umniya
Hakka Dict. “group of people,
TB-Tibetan khyuŋ collection, quantity”
“herd, multitude” Das 163 Skinner 176
435
S. Chinese-Min “group (particular

(Fuzhou) association of
kuŋ people)”
“a group of” Newman, R.
Sagart 1999 119 1990 113
D.32.2 W. Chadic –Hausa NS-Anywa
S. Chinese-Yue cùnkoso mutane [Anuak]
(Cantonese) “crowd, multitude” cʊ‫כ‬ʊŋ
chyùhn “to bring together, cùnkus “to call
to gather, to assemble, “full of people or together
to collect” other countable (for a
Chik / Ng Lam 194 things” meeting).
chyunjung “crowd of Newman, P. 2007 36 Reh 18, 91
people” Chen 58
chùhng “to crowd together”
“to meet in large numbdrs”
Chik / Ng Lam 50
D.32.3 C. Chadic-Mofu-
TB-Kiranti-Limbu Gudur -cəm-
cummaʔ vi. vi. “gather, join”
“assemble, gather together, “gathering”
form a crowd. C. Chadic-Gude
van Driem 1987 414 cəəmə “gather
cumma- , -cum- many things into one
“assemble, gather together, place” Stolbova,
form a crowd” Olga C. Chadic
Starostin, S. Limbu Dict. Etymology
[Disyllabic corresp.] 2006
D.32.4 W. Chadic – Hausa NC-Swahili
Chinese–Min gungùu kúndi n.
kun5 “crowd, group of “group”
“group, crowd, multitude, mob, people” “crowd”
swarm, flock, herd” Newman, P. “herd”
Hakka Dict. 2007 77253 Awde
2000 115
D.32.1 N. Chinese-MSC chyunji “multitude, crowd”
< Chadic–Hausa k’unjìya “any collection, number, or company of people, animals, trees,
things, etc.”
D.32.4 Chinese–Min kun5 “group, crowd, multitude, mob, swarm, flock, herd”
< W. Chadic–Hausa gungùu “group” / gungùu “crowd”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *k’unjìya / *k’un- “any collection, number, or company of
people”
253
Note- D.32.4 (Chadic-Hausa) Skinner considers this root to be related to the Hausa goma “ten” and
game, gamo “together”, gamo ”encounter”, the Gwandara gwama “herd of cattle” gunwu, genwu
“come together, meet”, Proto-Chadic (Newman) *g-ma “meet”, E.Chadic-Jegu ŋam “(zusammen) treffen”
[meet together] and E. Chadic-Bidiya gamaŋ “troupeau” [flock] Skinner 75
These are considered to be reflexes of Proto-AA (Orel / Stolbova 1993) *goma “gather, meet” and *qom-
“gather, join” (See Skinner 75, 176, 87). These lexemes give evidence of being part of the same word family but
are less closely related to the Chinese forms than those cited above. See also note G.23.1.
436

D.32.1
TB-Mikir akeongpi “many, multitude, crowd, throng” Walker 3
keong “many” Matisoff 2003 137
TB-Tibetan khyung-po “many collected or assembled together” Das 164
D.32.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chùhng “to crowd together, to meet in large numbers”
Chik / Ng Lam 50
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] cung2 / ciung3 “crowd together, meet in large numbers” Hakka Dict.
k’iung5 “together” Ramsey 111.
N. Chinese-MSC
chyún (Y) “group” “swarm (of bees)” Chen 145, 398
qunjí “swarm, flock together” Wu, J. 567 qún “crowd, group” “flock together” Wu, J. 567
qūn meas. for “crowd, group, herd, flock” Wang, F. 388 DeFrancis 136, 758
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chyùhn “to bring together, to gather, to assemble, to collect”
Chik / Ng Lam 194 zhong “crowd, multitude Wu, J. 911
Middle Chinese gjong- “together” Norman 207
D.32.4 S. Chinese–S. Min kōng-sī “company (commercial)” Bodman 1987 v.2 82
N. Chinese-MSC
gungsi “company, corporation” gōngjia “the state, the public, the organization” Wu, J. 234-235
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gungsi (Y) “multitude, crowd” Chen 238
guhng “common, same, all collectively” “to share, to work together” Chik / Ng Lam 305
N. Chinese-MSC kùng (WG) “all, the whole, collectively” “to share, to work together”
Mathews #3709 545
S. Chinese-Min (Fuzhou) kuŋ “a group of” Sagart 1999 119
TB-Tibetan koŋdee “belonging to or part of something” Goldstein 129
Chinese-Min kóng “public, common” Bodman 1987 v.2 149 ; kóng-kiōng “public, common”
Bodman 1983 71
TB-Tibetan kuŋmi “member, constituent” mi “person” Goldstein 129
Chinese–Min kióng “together with” Bodman 1987 v.2 148
Chinese-Xiang (Chéngbù) goŋ6 “together” (Shàoyáng) koŋ6 “together” Norman 207
D.32.1
W. Chadic-Hausa k’ungìyā “society, association” Newman, P. 1977 133
yi k’ùngìya “travel together” Newman / Ma 1979 77 See also H.13a.1
D.32.3
Semitic-Arabic jamar “crowd, people” jam “to gather, assemble” Ehret 1995 #280 499
Sidamo guma vi. “to assemble, to gather” Gasparini 133
E. Cushitic- Sidamo guma vi. “to assemble, to gather” Gasparini 133 gamo “company”
gamba “gather” Skinner 76
E. Cushitic-Oromo gǔmawu “radunarsi, assembrarsi” [to congregate, to assemble] Borello 189
Nilo-Saharan- Kanuri kombâ “small gathering, meeting” Cyffer 1990 98
D.32.4
Nilo-Saharan Songhay (Gao) kúndà “groupe de n’importe quoi” [group of anything] Ducroz 162
(Djenne) kɔndey “private men’s association” Heath v. 2 125
(Koroboro) kondey “social club” Heath v. 3 208
Proto-Cushitic *kǔm- “multitude, large number” Ehret 1995 #322 198
Proto-W. Chadic *g(w)am- “meet” Skinner 75
D.32.4 IE-Sanskrit kaNDa ”a party, number, multitude, assembly”
ganata “the forming of a class or multitude, the belonging to a party”
Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 D.32.4
437
↓↓
D.33 AA Chadic AA – AA- Nilo-Saharan NC
Cush. Sem.
D.33.1 TB-Tibetan h̟búd-pa W. Chadic- Bole-
“to let out of (a cage), Tangale *bəd-
to set free, to set at liberty” “untie”
“to put off, pull off, take off” W. Chadic-
Jaschke 393 Gwandara
“to put off, take off butu “take off
(hat, coat, ring etc.)” (clothes)”
Das 920 Skinner 25
D.33.2 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic-Gude NS-Anywa
bud-pa perf. mbəd’ (Anuak)
phud-pa “thrown out, cast “leave behind” bɔ̀th
out, turned out, Skinner 18 “divorce (one’s
dismissed wife)”
servants etc).” Das 825 Reh 97
D.33.1 TB-Tibetan búd-pa “to put off, take off (hat, coat, ring etc.)” “to let out of (a cage), to set
free, to set at liberty”
< W. Chadic- Gwandara butu “take off (clothes)” /
W. Chadic- Bole-Tangale *bəd- “untie”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *bəd- “untie” “set free” “dismiss”
D.33.2
TB-Tibetan ‘búd-pa “to fall from, drop, fall down” “to go away, to leave, to escape, to disappear”
Das 919 bud “turned out, expelled” Das 872 yul-phud “an exile” Jaschke 393
D.33.1
W. Chadic-Hausa būd’èe vt. “open” Newman / Ma 1979 14 ina būde “I loosen, open”
Barth v.2 104
W. Chadic- Seya mbut-, b’lt- “untie” Skinner 25
Proto-W. Chadic *b-(w)t- “loosen, untie” Skinner 25
C. Chadic- Kilba mbud- “open” Skinner 25
W. Chadic- Hausa būd’-ee “to open, uncover” Skinner 25
C. Cushitic-Afar botoc “split open” Skinner 25
Proto-Cushitic *b-t’- “separate” Skinner 25
D.33.2 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic fätta “release, untangle, untie, unfasten, free, repudiate
(one’s wife), divorce” Leslau 1976 248
↓↓
D.34.1 Proto-TB W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Semitic-Written
*bwar ~ hwar / Hausa ‘barī Oromo abararu Arabic
TB-Mikir vt. “abandon “mandar via, bari’a
var “throw, throw (leave, cast scacciare, “rid oneself of”
away, divorce aside)” fugare” [to send “to free oneself
(a spouse)” “leave behind” away, to drive from”
Matisoff 2003 Newman, R. out, to chase
394, 585 1990 1, 150 away] Borello 1
438
TB-Tibetan bōràa f. C. Cushitic-Bilin mubara’a

‘bór-ba / “a wife who is bār “ablassen, “divorce by
h̟bór-wa out of favor aufgeben” mutual consent”
“to leave, forsake” with her [to give up, Wehr 62
“to forsake a husband husband as abandon, let out]
or wife” “to throw, compared with E. Cushitic-Burji
cast, fling” a co-wife’ habar vt.
Jaschke 396 Newman, P. “leave behind”.
Das 923 2007 23 Skinner 18
bor past aspect of
verb “cast away,
abandoned” Hodge 37
D.34.2 TB-Written W. Chadic- Cushitic-Agaw
Burmese pay Dera bay-
“put aside, put away, ‘bahi vt. “leave, cease”
reject” “allow, ignore, Skinner 18
TB-Chin-Lushai leave”
paih “throw/fling Skinner 18
away, strike out,
cancel, annul, discard”
Matisoff 2003 484
D.34.3 C. Chinese- W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Songhay
Wu Dera Somali fur (Koyra,
phɔ1 “throw (away)” pūle “untie” “to open, Djeene,
“abandon, reject, give Skinner 25 to divorce” Koroboro)
up” “cast aside, leave Awde 1999 31 fur vt.
behind” pu1 “cast E. Cushitic- “abandon, get
away, abandon” Rendille rid of, throw
Hakka Dict. fura “untie, away”
TB-Chin-Lushai undo, open Heath v.1 94,
vorʔ “throw, throw (anything that has v.2 70, v.3
away, divorce (a been fastened, 116
spouse)” (rope, door, etc.)
Matisoff 2003 394 Pillinger 116-117
D.34b.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *bwar ~ *hwar “throw, throw away, divorce (a spouse)”
< W. Chadic-Hausa ‘bari vt. “abandon (leave, cast aside)” “leave behind”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *‘bar- vt. “abandon (leave, cast aside)” “leave behind”
D.34.1
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu bà “throw, throw away, divorce (a spouse)” Matisoff 2003 483-484
TB-W. Kiranti-Bahing, TB-Chepang war “throw, throw away, divorce (a spouse)”
Matisoff 2003 394
D.34.2
TB-Tibetan phyir “to cast out” Jaschke 396
Proto-TB *ba:y “throw” Matisoff 147, 484
TB-Chin-Tiddim pa:i “throw/away” discard” Matisoff 2003 484
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] kəbài ~ gəbài “throw” Matisoff 2003 446
D.34.1 Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) bar, barii “free, rid” tbarra “to disaassociate oneself” “to disown”
439
NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] barra “be clear of, be acquitted” barrina “acquit” Taylor 13
W. Chadic-Hausa bari vt. “leave, leave off” “let, allow” Newman / Ma 1979 11
bari / bar / bura “leave, let, allow” Skinner 18 bāra-gurbi m. “unhatched egg(s) ignored by the
hen” Newman, P. 2007 17
D.34.3
Nilo-Saharan-Songhay(Gao) fúrú “jeter, rejeter” [throw, reject] Ducroz 93
E. Cushitic-Rendille furda vi. “ come undone, become relaxed” vt. “open, untie, undo something
(for oneself)” Pillinger 116-117
W. Chadic-Gwandara buro “leave, let, allow” Skinner 18
C. Chadic-Mada, Muyang *mbər- “leave, let” Skinner 18
D.34.2 Egyptian fh̬ “to loose, release, cast off, get rid of” Ehret 1995 #72 102
D.34.3 NS-Songhay (Gao) fur-a vi. “be dropped, be thrown away” fúrú “jeter, rejeter”
[throw away, reject] Ducroz 93 Songhay (Koyra)
fur-baa “rejected or abandoned thing” “outcast, loner” Heath v.1 94
fur-a-yan n. “being abandoned, loneliness” Heath v.3 116
D.34.1 IE-Sanskrit, Avestan
parAs “to throw away or down, cast aside, expose (as a newborn child), abandon, reject”
parAda “to give up or over, deliver, throw away” RV AV
parAdiz “to order off, remove” AV Cologne Lexicon
See also Supplementary Table 2 D.34.1.
IE-Pashto bahar yastal “to put or cast out or away. Raverty 126.
See also C.12b.1 Extended Pashto
D.34.3 Altaic-Proto Tungus Manchu *burī- “to abandon, lose” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 9
Proto-Altaic *biura “to abandon, lose” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 9
↓↓
ST-Languages African languages-Close correspondences
D.35 Afro-Asiatic – AA – AA– NS NC
Chadic Cush. Sem.
D.35.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] W. Chadic – Hausa
(Meixian, Kwangtung) sau5 / shau3 sauràyī
(Bao’an, Dongguan) sau5 pl. sàmàarī
“young, youthful, junior, juvenile” Hakka Dict. “youth
Old Chinese sau “small” Branner 137 (young person)”
N. Chinese-MSC syăuhàidz (Y) “youngster “young man”
(child)” Newman, R. 1990
shàunyán (Y) “youngster, (youth)” 311, 312
Chen 465 shào “young” Wu, J. 602 “young man, youth”
Mathews #5675 784 Newman / Ma 1979
shàonián n “youngster, (youth)” 108
“youth, young person” “youth, young man
”period of growth, one’s youth” (aged 12
Wang, F. 407 Chen 465 through 40)”
S. Chinese-Min siàu-lián Skinner 231
“young, youngster”
siâu “small”
Bodman 1987 v.2 118, 171
D.35.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] sau5 “young, youthful, junior, juvenile”
< W. Chadic – Hausa sauràyī “youth (young person)” “young man”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *sau- “youth (young person)” “young man”
440

D.35.1
N. Chinese –MSC / Beijing xiăo “young” Wu, J. 759 xiăozi “boy” Wu, J. 761
shàofu “young married woman” Manser 391 syăujyê (Y) “Miss (title)” Chen 238
syău (Y) “young (of animals)” Chen 465 syău (Y) “small (in size)” Chen 365
zhăoqi pengbo “full of youthful spirit” Wu, J. 880
Middle Chinese sjewX “small” Sagart 1999 64
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) siu “small (of quantity)” Kwan 486
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] su5 / su6 “boy who has not come of age” Hakka Dict..
Extended African language family:
D.35.1 Semitic-Aramaic šabrū, šabrūtā “childhood” Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon
C. Chadic-Mofu Gudur sab’ar “être adolescent, grandir” sab’ara “jeune fille” Skinner 231
Semitic-Arabic šaabb “young man, youth” “youthful, young, juvenile” -(Iraqi) s̟abi “youth, lad,
boy” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 233, 257 ʃa:bbun (IPA) “young” sʕabij (IPA) “boy”
Merriam-Webster Arabic 18, 182
Egyptian tcham “youth, young man” Budge v.2 898
D.35.1
IE-Pashto jawan / jawanwan “young, juvenile” Raverty 343
IE-Hindi javān “guy” javani “youth” f. javan “youthful” adj. Scudiere 71, 245
IE-Sanskrit śāva “young of an animal” Kuiper 148
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur uwan “young” Uyghur Dictionary
↓↓
D.36 Afro-Asiatic–Chadic AA – AA- NS NC
Cush. Sem.
D.36.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Hausa
rugɔɔ “a group of nomads” rugā “Fulani cattle
“neighbors / encampment, settlement”
community of nomads” Newman / Ma 1979 101
Goldstein 1042 “camp (transitory during a trip,
[Disyllabic corresp.] Fulani type)”
Newman, R. 1990 34254
D.36.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Hausa
rugaà “unit, team, brigade” řukùnin sōjà “Army unit”
Goldstein 1042 Newman, P. 2007 171255
254
Note- D.36.1 (Hausa) This root provides a linguistic indicator to Tibetan origins. The original Tibetans were
nomadic cattle keepers. The Hausa and other Chadic groups now are settled farmers, but in the period after 8500-
7500 BCE speakers of Afro-Asiatic in the northeastern Sudan lived both from cattle-keeping and gathering of wild
grains. (Ehret 2002 228). Later in the Central Sahel they combined livestock-raising and crop cultivation. (Ehret
2003 67.) They had settlements, but as the Sahara dried up, they practiced transhumence, i.e seasonal movement
from the home area to other areas to seek pasture for their flocks. (See also Note H.18.1and Chapter 9 section
9.4.1.5)
Many Fulani with whom the Hausa are presently in contact are cattle-keeping nomads. But the fact that in Tibetan
and Hausa the term refers both to nomadic groups and to groups in general indicates that the term is prehistoric in
both languages. The Cantonese luhk forms show that the term is a Sino-Tibetan root. Also the Cantonese forms
are sufficiently different to indicate that they probably are not loans from Tibetan. As usual N. Chinese (Beijing)
D.36.3 has lost the final /k ~ g/ of the root stem.
255
Note- D.36.2 (Tibetan, Hausa) In Tibetan the ru morpheme means “horn” as well as “part, division”
“brigade” of an army.“ Jaschke 531, Goldstein 1042. In Hausa the two roots appear to have separate etymologies.
441
D.36.3 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Hausa NC-

rugduǜ “collecting, gathering řukùnī Fulfulde
together” “group (of people, animals, [Fulani]
rùggi “all (gathered) together” things)” rūga
ruhgo “the head of a line Newman / Ma 1979 101 “go in a
(usually when soldiers in ruguntsùma vi. body”
formation, in a unit)” “go as a group” Taylor
Goldstein 2001 1043 rungutsa “crowd together” 160
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) rungutsi “crowding together”
luhk “to unite or join” Bargery 2011
luhk lik “to join force, Newman / Ma 1979 101
to cooperate”
Chik / Ng Lam 163
D.36.1
TB-Tibetan rugɔɔ “a group of nomads” “neighbors / community of nomads”,
rugaà “unit, team, brigade”
< W. Chadic-Hausa rugā “Fulani cattle encampment, settlement” “camp (transitory during a trip,
Fulani type)” řukùni “group (of people, animals, things)”
D.36.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) luhk “to unite or join” luhk lik “to join force, to cooperate”
< W. Chadic-Hausa řukùnī “group (of people, animals, things)”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *rugā “a group of nomads” / *řuk- “group (of people,
animals, things)”
D.36.1 TB-Tibetan drɔgde “nomad group, tribe, unit”
drɔgba “herdsman, nomad” Goldstein 774
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) luhkgwan “army (military forces on land)” Kwan 23
D.36.3
TB-Tibetan
rùgdzɔɔ “gathering, assembling together”
rùgpa “to collect, gather” Jaschke 531
N. Chinese-MSC / Beijing rù “join, become a member of” Manser 378
rùhuȏ “join a gang, join in partnership” rùwū “enlist in the armed forces” Wu, J. 581
rùhlie “take one’s place in the ranks, join in” Wu J. 581
Extended African language family:
D.36.1 W. Chadic-Hausa
rùnduna “crowd, multitude, army”
rùndunar soja “army” Newman, R. 1990 14
rùntuma “leave or depart as a group” Newman / Ma 1979 101.
↓↓
(See also A.32.1). But some historians and Tibetan lexicographers consider that the meaning of ”horn” as
“brigade”implies that the horns represent the right and left salients of a Tibetan army in battle formation. (See Das
118 gyas-ru “right wing or district, or banner”.) However, the analogy with a left and right horn of an animal
breaks down in the term dwu-ru “central division”
Note also the Hausa D.36.2 řukùnin sōjà “Army unit”and D.36.2 (Extended) rùndunā “crowd, multitude,
army”. There may well have been contamination between the rug / rùn “group” root and the ru “horn” root in
Tibetan history, b ut the Hausa military semantics of rug in Tibetan and \Chinese are well-attested in the above
table. Historically these seem originally to have been groups armed for conflict over grazing territory or cattle raids
both of which which still exist among the warrior societies of cattle-keeping nomads along the northern edge of
the African Sahel.
442

D.37 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA – AA- NS Niger-
Cush. Sem. Congo
D.37.1 W. Chadic- Hausa NC-
N. Chinese -MSC gwaggòo / gwàggo f. Fulfulde
gūgu “father’s sister, aunt” gwaggunà pl. < Fulani [Fulani]
Wu, J. 241 goggo “aunt (paternal)” goggo
Wang, F. 180 Skinner 95 “paternal
[Disyllabic corresp.] “paternal aunt” aunt”
S. Chinese-Yue Newman, P. 2007 79 Taylor 66
(Cantonese) Newman, R. 1990 16
gù “sisters of one’s father”
Chik / Ng Lam 94
D.37.1
N. Chinese-MSC gūgu “father’s sister, aunt” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gù “sisters of one’s
father” / S. Chinese-Min kô “father’s sisters, aunt”
< NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] goggo “paternal aunt”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *goggo “paternal aunt”
D.37.1
TB-Tibetan gǖǜmu “sister-in-law”Goldstein 60 gū gyema “female” Goldstein 55
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gùmā “aunt (paternal older sister)”
“elder sisters of one’s father” Chik / Ng Lam 94 gùjè “aunt (paternal younger sister) ” Kwan 28
a-gù “aunt, paternal” Po-fei Huang 357 a-gū “paternal sisters in general” Kwan 28
S. Chinese-Min kô “father’s sisters, aunt” Bodman 1987 v.2 86
↓↓
ST-Languages African languages-Close correspondences
D.38 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA – AA- Nilo- Niger-
Cush. Sem. Sah. Congo
D.38.1 W. Chadic – Hausa
TB-Tibetan ‘yàntaccē adj.
yán-pa “free, independent”
“free, vacant, unoccupied, ‘yancī m.
having no owner” freedom, independence”
Jaschke 506 ‘yântā vt.
Das 1128 “emancipate a slave”
sagyaŋ tungyaŋ ‘yântā
“eating and drinking freely “liberate (e.g. a country)”
without hesitation” Newman, P. 2007 227
Goldstein 953
D.38.1 TB-Tibetan yán-pa “free, vacant, unoccupied, having no owner”
< W. Chadic- Hausa ‘yàntaccē adj. “free”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *‘yàn- adj. “free”
D.38.1 TB-Tibetan kuyaŋ / kuyaŋbo “open-minded, easygoing, carefree, liberal” Goldstein 183
D.38.1 W. Chadic-Hausa d’a “child, son, fruit, freeborn” pl. ’yā-‘ya Skinner 53
↓↓
443

D.39 Afro-Asiatic – AA – AA- Nilo-Saharan Niger-
Chadic Cush. Semitic Congo
D.39.1 TB- W. Chadic-Hausa Semitic- NC-
Written Burmese kuyanga f. Arabic Fulfulde-
kywan “slave” “slave girl” qiyan (Fulani)
Matisoff 2003 Newman, P. “slave” kuyangajo
261,408 2007 120 Skinner “handmaid”
[Disyllabic kwìyanga 158 < Hausa
corresp.] “slave girl” Taylor 116
Old Chinese [colloquial
gywan pronunciation]
“servant” Newman P. 2000
Karlgren GSR 239
#188a
D.39.2 NS-Songhay (Djenne)
TB-Tibetan k‫כ‬ŋŋ ‫ כ‬/ k‫כ‬ŋ‫ כ‬/ k‫כ‬ŋg‫כ‬
kēŋ “female slave”
“slave” (archaic) Heath v.2 126
Goldstein 124 NS-Kanuri kə́nji
“male or female slave”
Cyffer 1990 92
D.39.1 Old Chinese gywan “servant”
< W. Chadic-Hausa kwìyanga / Semitic-Arabic qiyan “slave”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *kwìyan- “slave, slave girl”
D.39.1 W. Chadic-Hausa kuyangancîi m. “serving a superior (usually by a younger person”)
Newman, P. 2007 120
D.39.2 NS-Songhay (Gao) koŋa “captive, esclave (femme)” [captive, woman slave] Ducroz 155,
Skinner 158 ; (Koyra) koŋŋo (Timbuktu) koŋo “female slave” Heath v.1.169.
444
Chapter 2E
Human communication: cognitive, volitional, evaluative.
Semantic Domain E word families.
Introduction- Few of this domain’s terms are found in the Swadesh basic language list. However, words
for the specific actions expressing a human intention to communicate (or not), e.g. “calling”, “scolding”,
“lying”, “hiding” are observable in all human cultures. This vocabulary seems not to have been identified
as being more stable or less so in the historical evolution of languages. Hence it is not clear whether these
words are commonly loaned between the traditional languages of an area when the language of a different
religious tradition or a dominant invading class is superimposed on it.
In Tibetan many Sanskrit words of this kind were introduced into the language with the arrival of
Buddhism, although most of the religious terms were translated as calques.
In English at least, the old Germanic roots preserved in the words “thinking”, “willing”, “saying”,
“seeing”, “fearing” “lovable” and “good” were all retained as the basic vernacular terms, in contrast to
their later imported Latin or Norman-French counterparts such as “reflecting/reflection, pensive”,
“desiring”, “diction”, “vision”, “timorous”, “benevolent, amiable” and “bonus”.
The E section is characterized by a relatively narrow semantic domain and a large number of variant
morphemes corresponding to the basic cognitive/volitional/affective concepts.
The cognitive/volitional lexicon is of particular interest for research on prehistory since it does not
represent concrete observable objects but rather mental activity, and hence the non-material culture
which, in the absence of a decipherable written language of the period, cannot be directly correlated with
archaeological or other historical research. The hypotheses of sciences such as archaeology, proto-
climatology and geology are necessarily derived from the study of surviving physically observable
objects; the indicators of mental states and cultural values are found only through the surviving words
which represent them.
2E Domain statistics
Tables and word Families:
Tables = 34 numbered tables which represent an individual or generic family.
Individual word families = 65. (Each of the individual word families within a generic word family is
counted as a separate unit).
Single independent large word families = 7
“know” E.4a.1-8
“quarrel, rebuke, scold” E.10.1-4
“sign, name” E.12.1-5
“to cry, to weep, to shout” E.14.1-7
“to grunt, to murmur, to growl” E.15.1-7
“strict, severe” ”injure, harm” “grieved” E.17.1-5
“to examine, search” “try” E.31.1 -4 “
“to sing, a song” E.33.1-4
“the mind” “to think, know” “to wish, to hope for” E.1a-d
“to wish, for, to covet” “to hope, to expect” E.2a-b
“to understand, to know” “to wish, to desire” “meaning, purpose” E.3a-d
“see, look at, sight” “teacher, expert, astrologer” E.4a-d
“desire, love” E.5a-c
“good, beautiful, better” E.7a-e
“say, announce, publish, judgment” “law” “predict, divination” E.8a-e
“to talk, chat” “speak, say, state that” E.9a-b
“state, report, tell, say” E.11a-c
“speak, cry out, call, greet” E.13a-f
“silent, calm down” E16a-b
445
“fear” E.23a-b
“to hide, to conceal” E.24a-b
Basic vocabulary
In the whole section 16 word families contain one or more sets of ST ↔ African language
correspondences which match an English gloss of the 100 word Swadesh list.
8 of these correspondences are found in one of the generically related word families listed above.
Etymologies
In the following E.1 and E.2 tables the variant morphemes show evidence of being attestations of
an Afro-Asiatic root meaning “think, remember” and /or “wish, desire, hope, expect”. The tables also
include evidence that these mental acts have been associated with the interior body organs especially the
heart and/or liver (E.1b.1-3).
ST-Languages African/Afroasiatic languages- Close correspondences
E.1a-d Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA-Cush., AA- NS Khoisan
Proto-AA Sem.
Swadesh #59 “know” W. Chadic –
E.1a.1 TB-Tibetan Gwandara
sēm “the mind” (Nimbia)
“to think, to conceive” yi sə̀máni
Goldstein 1127 “think”
sems-pa / sems ~ Matsushita 1974
bsams perf. #531 118
“to think, ponder”
Das 1278
Jaschke 577
E.1a.2 Proto- Chadic
N. Chinese-MSC *sənə “know”
shên W. Chadic- Nancere
“know, sen “know”
be aware of” Newman, P. 1977 28
Wu, J. 609 C. Chadic- Logone
Middle Chinese sən “know”
źjen- “recognize” Greenberg 1966 58
Norman 230 W Chadic- Ron (Sha)
TB-Tibetan syen “kennen,
gshen wissen” [be
“the act of remembering acquainted with,
or reminding” know]
Das 1082 Jungraithmayr
1970 288
446
TB-Jingpho
(Hkauri dialect)
tšêŋ
“know”
Matisoff 2003 291
Swadesh W. Chadic-Hausa Proto-AA Proto- N.Khoisan-
“to know” shinàa (Orel / Berber !O!Kung
E.1a.3 “to know” Stolbova *sin- siŋ / sŋ
TB-Tani-Apatani Newman, P. 2007 186 1995) “know” “to see”
čin “know” Greenberg 1966 58 *siniH- Militarev, Proto-
Matisoff 2003 291 Skinner 228 “know” A. N.Khoisan-
N. Chinese -MSC tsinkaya Skinner 228 Berber *sŋ̃
xĭng “see in the distance, Etymology “to see”
“become conscious, foresight” 2006 Starostin, G.
be aware” Skinner 273 2003 29
Wu, J. 774 C. Chadic-Bura C.Khoisan-
tixĭng sinda Hiechware
“remind” “to know” njin
Merriam-Webster Dict. of Bura “to think”
Chinese 148 Starostin, G.
2003 22
E.1a.3 N. Chinese-MSC xīng “become conscious, be aware, see the truth” xìn “believe, profess faith in”
< W. Chadic–Hausa shinà “to know” / Proto-AA *siniH- “know” / N.Khoisan- !O!Kung siŋ / sŋ
“to see” / Proto-N.Khoisan- *sŋ “to see”.
E.1a.4 TB-Tani-Apatani čin “know”
< C. Khoisan-Hiechware njin “to think”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *siniH- “know” ~ * siŋ “to see”
E.1a.3
S. Chinese-Min chìn-khuâ “to consider, ponder over” Bodman 1987 v.2 133
N. Chinese-MSC xīnsi “thought, idea” Wu, J. 767
xìnxīn “confidence, faith” Wu, J. 770
E.1a.1 Omotic-Majoid (Nao) sem- “to see” Ehret 1995 #219 159
E.1a.2
C. Chadic–Gaanda, Wamdiu sÌni “know” Stolbova, Olga C.Chadic Etymology
C. Chadic–Kotoko seŋ “know” Newman, P. 1977 28
N. Cushitic-Bedauye [Bedawi] shə’(a) “remember, think of” Skinner 228
E.1a.3
W. Chadic –Hausa sanì / shinà “knowledge” Newman, P. 2007 178, 186
“know something, become acquainted with, know someone” Newman / Ma 1979 106, 110
Skinner 228 Greenberg 1966 58
Proto-AA *-c’iin- “to observe” Ehret 1995 #559 294
Omotic- Gonga *č’i:n- “to observe” Ehret 1995 #559 294
C. Chadic-Mafa-Mada Group *tsin- v. “hear” Skinner 123
See also C.5a.3
C. Chadic-Gude, Njanye *zin “smell, perceive” Skinner 123
C. Chadic-Mandara Group *TsinaTsina “smell, hear” Skinner 228.
C. Chadic-Malywa čina “hear, smell” Militarev / Stolbova
NS- Kanuri shin “say, think, intend” v. Cyffer 1990 137 See also Notes E.28.2 and H.12.4.
447

E.1a.2
IE-Bengali cena “know, recognize” v. Thompson 49,121
Kartvelian-Georgian xsen “to remind” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 44
E.1a.3 Kartvelian-Megrel, Laz šin “to remind” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 44
/
Swadesh “heart” “liver” NS-Nuer Proto-N.Khoisan-
E.1b.1 TB-Tibetan cin *čh‫כ‬íŋ “[the] liver”
cīn / cimbə “the liver” “bowels, N. Khoisan-
Goldstein 379 intestines” !O!Kung
mčín-pa “the liver” Huffman 9 číŋ “[the] liver”
Jaschke 165 NS-Anywa Starostin, G. 2003 23
TB-Kinauri śìn “liver” [Anuak] N. Khoisan-Kua,
Benedict #234 55, 207 cíinó / ciŋ Cua
Matisoff 2003 31 “intestine” ćʔíŋ [the] liver”
məsìn “the liver” Reh15 Starostin, G.
Matisoff 2003 154 2003 2
E.1b.2 Proto-AA
TB-S. Loloish-Phunoi (Orel /
ʔɑ̃-sin “liver” Stolbova
Matisoff 2003 109 1995)
TB-Tani-Miri *hadzin-
aśin “liver” “heart,
Benedict 55 intestines”
Matisoff 2003 33 Skinner
N. Chinese-MSC 105
hsīn / sīn (WG)
“the heart, the moral nature,
the mind, the affections”
“intention”
Mathews #2735 404256
TB-Jingpho [Kachin]
sìn “internal organ”
Matisoff 2003 154
E.1b.3 NS-Anywa S. Khoisan-ǀKham
TB-Qiangic-Pumi-Dayang [Anuak] |kwíŋ|kwíŋ
tswĭn cwɪ̄ɲ “bowels”
“liver” “liver” Ruhlen 1994
Matisoff 2003 64 Reh 19, 111 #173 49
NS-Nuer
cweny
“liver”
Huffman11
256
Note- E.1b.2 (Beijing, Proto-AA) The Chinese root hsīn / tsin and its closely corresponding variants mean
“heart’ in Chinese and “liver” in Tibeto-Burman. The corresponding proto-Afro-Asiatic root E.1b.2 *hadzin
“heart, intestines” attests the initial h- of the Beijing form and the same semantics of “heart”. On an h- prefix for
body parts in Afro-Asiatic see Leslau, Wolf “A prefix h̟ in Egyptian, modern South Arabian and Hausa” Africa
v.32: 65-68. and Newman, P. 2000 228-229.
ŋ
The ultimate root is probably the Khoisan E.1b.1 *čh‫כ‬í “liver”, but the proximate root for Chinese is more likely
to be the variant E.1b.2 Proto-AA *hadzin-.
448
E.1b.4 West S. Khoisan-Xam

N. Chinese-MSC / Beijing Semitic- |íŋ “heart”
syīn (Y) “the heart” Ethiopian- S. Khoisan-Nusan
257
Chen 152 Gurage |eŋ “heart”
xīnshi “matters in one’s (Eža) Starostin, G.
heart” “what one cares about” x’in / 2003 20
Wang 513 x’enn
shi “matter” (H.37.1) “heart”
See also note D.16.2-3 “heart,
(MSC Etymology) intelligence”
Proto-Lolo-Burmese Leslau 1979
*tsin / *(t)sin v.2 302-3,
“liver” Matisoff 2003 31 v.3 372
E.1b.2 TB-S. Loloish-Phunoi ɑ̃-sin / TB-Tani-Miri aśin / TB-S. Loloish-Phunoi ʔɑ̃-sin /
TB-Tani-Miri aśin “liver” / N. Chinese-MSC hsīn / sīn (WG) “the heart, the moral nature,
the mind, the affections” “intention” / TB-Jingpho sìn “internal organ”
< Proto-AA *hadzin- “heart, intestines” / West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage x’in “heart” /
Proto-N.Khoisan *čh‫כ‬íŋ “[the] liver”
E.1b.4 N. Chinese -MSC syīn (Y) “the heart”
< West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage x’in “heart, intelligence” / S. Khoisan-Xam |íŋ “heart”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *ʔdzin “internal organ (heart, liver)” ~ *čh‫כ‬íŋ “[the] liver”
E.1b.1 TB-Jingpho [Kachin] məsìn “liver” Matisoff 2003 154, 277, 306 Benedict 55
TB-Nung phəsin “liver” Benedict 55 Matisoff 2003 119
TB-Chepang sinh, TB-Magari mi-sinh, TB-Kiranti sem “heart, soul, think”
Proto-Tibeto-Burman sìn-kri “gall, bile”Matisoff 2003 154b *m-sin “liver” Benedict #234 55, 207
Matisoff 2003 306, 613
E.1b.2 C. Chinese-Wu siŋ1 “core; middle; center; inside” “intention; idea; ambition; design”
“conscience, moral nature” “mind” “heart”
Hakka Dict.
E.1b.3 N. Chinese-MSC shenzhì “consciouness, senses, mind” Wu, J. 609 See also H.23b.2
257
Note- E.1b.4 (Beijing)
The Beijing xīn / syīn functions as a regular final syllable of cognitive/intentional compounds similar to the
following Cantonese saam of E.1c.1 (Cantonese, Tibetan.) The first morpheme of the compound is a noun, verb
or adjective which by itself does not necessarily have a cognitive / intentional denotation and the xīn element
converts it into a cognitive term. Although as a a noun xīn functions as an independent root meaning “heart, mind,
affections”, in these composite forms it is a bound root. Packard gives evidence to show that such bound roots
retain their original syntactic class, in this case that of noun. (Packard 50-53.) These can often be more directly
understood through the literal translation of the two morphemes rather than the English gloss which gives a more
standard English synonym. Hence the literal meanings of the following examples are:
zhōngxīn lit. center-heart, i.e. “core” DeFrancis 1060 Wu, J. 770 zhong “center, middle, interior”
nàixīn lit.enduring/bearing mind/heart, i.e.“patient” nai “be able to bear or endure” Wu, J. 493
pingxīn lit. heart leans on, i.e.“trust, believe” ping lean on, lean against” Wu, J. 525
pianxīn lit heart slanted or inclined to one side, i.e. “partiality, bias” pian “inclined to one side, slanting, leaning”
Wu, J. 517-518
sixīn lit. heart toward self, i.e.“selfish motives” si “personal, private” Wu, J. 648
Thus the bound form creates a semantic field in N. Chinese (Beijing) unified under the concept of mental
activity, though the governing root basically means “heart”.
449
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) sim1 “heart” “mind” “conscience” ”moral nature, intention”
“idea, ambition, design” (Lau Chunfat) xim1 “intention, idea” “ambition, design”
tsim / sim1 “heart, mind, conscience, moral nature” Hakka Dict.
Old Chinese si̭əm “heart” Karlgren GSR 663a Benedict 184 Matisoff 2003 311
S. Chinese-Min sîm “heart, mind” Bodman 1987 v.2 90, 172 (Taiwanese) sîm “heart, mind”
Bodman 1983 13, 191 sín “spirit”
E.1b.1 NS-Kanuri cimrám “bile, gallbladder” Cyffer 1990 27
W. Chadic-S. Bauci group *njim “heart” Skinner 105
E.1b.2 NS-Songhay (Gao) jèŋgáà “rognon, rein, hanche” [kidney, lower back, hip] Ducroz 134
E. Cushitic-Kembata azi “inside” Skinner 105
E.1b.3 NS-Anywa [Anyuak] tɛɛk cwɪ̄ɲ “to be fearless” “courage” tɛɛk “strong” [lit. “strong liver”]
Reh 73, 94
E.1b.4 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Endegen, Masqan) hin “heart” Leslau 1979 v.2 302-3
/
Swadesh #59 “know” W. Chadic - Proto-AA West Semitic-
E.1c.1 TB-Tibetan Hausa (Orel / Ethiopian-
bsammnó tsàmmààni Stolbova Gurage (Caha,
“thinking, wishing” “thinking” 1995) Ennemor,
sāmba “thoughts, ideas” Skinner 268 *c̟amon Gyeto)
Jaschke 592 Das 1317258 “thought, “think, ĉ’ämätä
TB-Proto-Kiranti thinking” know” / “reflect, think,
*sam “heart, soul, think” “expectation” *dzam- remember things
Starostin, S. Kiranti Newman, P. “think, of the past”
Etymology 2007 205 remember” Leslau 1979
S. Chinese-Yue C. Chadic- Skinner 268 v.3 182
(Cantonese) sám Dghwede West Semitic-
“to think of, to know” čama “know” Ethiopian-
Chik / Ng Lam 424, 429 Stolbova, Olga Gurage
“the mind, the conscience” C. Chadic c̟äm(m)äta
“intention, idea, ambition” Etymology “think, suppose,
sàm “the heart, the expect”
core” Chik / Ng Lam 140 Skinner 298
Kwan 218
E.1c.2 W. Chadic- Ron Proto-AA Semitic-Written C. Khoisan-
N. Chinese-MSC (Bokkos) (Orel/ Arabic |Kaise, Deti,
syâŋ (Y) “think” shánggî Stolbova z’anna Danisi
syâŋdàu “think of” “wissen, 1995) “to think, ʔjà�
syâŋsyàŋ erkennen” *saniH- believe” “[to] know”
“conceive” [to know, “know” Wehr 681 Starostin, G.
Chen 45, 411 to recognize] Skinner 228 W. Semitic- 2003 22
xiâng Jungraithmayr Ethiopian-
“think” “suppose, 1970 146 Gurage
consider” Wu, J. 755 ašyänä
“recognize”
Skinner 228
258
Note- E.1c.1 (Chadic, Tibetan) The Tibetan samm- can be explained as first radical + m- of the geminated
m- of the Hausa tsàmmààni morpheme. “All consonants can be geminates in Hausa, but only when in medial
position”. Newman, P. 2000 397). Note also the gemination of the medial -m- in the Semitic attestations of the
root in E.1d.1 below.
450
E.1c.3 TB-Burmese C. Chadic-Logone S Khoisan-

ʔəsâñ‫’כ‬ xsanten |Proto-Taa
“liver” “liver” *!qʔà[�]
Matisoff 2003 297259 Skinner 106 “heart”
Starostin, G.
2003 20
E.1c.1 TB-Tibetan bsammnó “thinking, wishing” sāmba “thoughts, ideas”/
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sám “to think of” “to know, to be aware” “the mind, the conscience”
“intention, idea, ambition” sàm “the heart, the core” / TB-Proto-Kiranti sam “heart, soul, think”
< W. Chadic–Hausa tsàmmààni “thinking” “expectation” / Proto-AA *dzam- “think, remember”
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage ĉ’ämätä “reflect, think, remember things of the past”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *dzam- “think, remember”
E.1c.3 N. Chinese-MSC xiângxiâng “imagine” xiângxìn “believe” Wang, F. 498
Extended African / AA language word family:
E.1c.1
C. Chadic- Mandara group dzam- “know, remember, think” Skinner 268
C. Chadic-Paduko cama “know” C. Chadic Etymology
C. Chadic-Fali Muchella čama “know” C. Chadic Etymology
W. Chadic –Gwandara yi tsàmáni “think” Matsushita 1974 #531 118
/
E.1d AA – Chadic AA – AA-Semitic NS NC
Cush.
Swadesh #58 W. Chadic–Ngizim sànùutú Semitic- Arabic
“hear” E.1d.1 “recognize, (Yemeni)
TB-Tibetan become aware of” samaac “hearing,
gsán-pa Schuh 143, 215 listening”
“to hear, C. Chadic-Gisiga can sammac “to make hear,
to listen” C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur čan- cause to hear” Qafisheh
Jaschke 588 “hear, understand” Stolbova, 315
Das 1304 Olga C. Chadic Etymology W. (Ethiopian) Semitic-
2006 Tigre
Proto C. Chadic tsamʔa “hear”
*c̟an “hear, smell” Militarev, A.
*čan- “hear, understand” Semitic Etymology 2006 8
Stolbova, Olga
C. Chadic Etymology 2006260
259
Note- E.1c.3 (TB-Burmese) Benedict. and Matisoff consider the Burmese ʔəsâñ “liver” to be a reflex of
Proto-TB m-sin “liver” Benedict 55, Matisoff 2003 296-7. The African evidence of the E.1b.1 (including
Extended) forms confirms the dominance of the čiŋ / cin / cim root variant.
260
Note- E.1d.1 (Chadic, Arabic) Phonetically the root indicates a relationship to the preceding E.1c.1 root sám
“to think, to know, to be aware”, and the E.1c.3 Proto-AA Extended (Orel/Stolbova) *saniH- “know”.
This table, however, gives evidence of an early development of a separate root meaning “ear” as attested in the
Extended Chadic, Berber and Nilo-Saharan forms sam / sem / sə́m “ear” “hear”. These link this form also to the
C.5a-b forms for “nose” and “smell”; thus it also has close correspondence to these two word families whose
primary reference is to perception through the sense organs. Chadic languages do not always use different
morphemes for the different senses. (See C.5a.3 Extended, e.g. Chasdic “hear, smell”. Also the senses of hearing,
451
E.1d.2 C. Chadic-Matakam
N. Chinese –MSC atsəna
ts’ung (WG) “to hear”
“the hearing” C. Chadic-Kilba
“to listen” ci’ūn
Mathews “smell”
#6916 1019 C. Chadic-Fali
TB-Tibetan zun-
suŋsu ru̱ŋwa “smell”
“objects that can Skinner 123
be seen, touched,
smelled, heard and
tasted”
Goldstein 971
See also C.5b.2
E1d.1
W. (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic sammä “hear, listen, take heed, understand (a language)”
Leslau 1976 49
C. Chadic--Matakam sam “ear” Greenberg 1966 55
E. Chadic-Kabalai sàmí “ear” Stolbova, Olga E. Chadic Etymology 2006
Proto-Chadic (Newman) *s̟əmi “ear” Ehret 1995 #219 159
Semitic-Arabic sami ʕa “to hear” Greenberg 1966 55
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) tsamma “to listen in, eavesdrop” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 225
Semitic- Hebrew shama’ v. “heard” Baltsan 385
Egyptian smt “hear, listen” Skinner 231
Berber-Ghadamsi isem “ear” Skinner 231
E1d.2
C. Chadic-Mulwi šúm “ear” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology
Nilo-Saharan-Kanuri sə‫כ‬mobangin “pay attention, listen” sə́mo “ear” Cyffer 1990 158
E.1d.1
IE-Sanskrit samAkarN “to give ear to, listen to, hear” karN “ear” [compound of this root and that of
C.34.1] samAkarNitaka “any gesture which expresses the act of listening”
samupazru “to listen to anything, hear, hear or perceive anyone” Cologne Lexicon. See also
Supplementary Table 2 E.1d.1
Kartvelian-Georgian sem- “to hear” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology
Kartvelian-Svan səm- / sim- “to hear” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology
IE-Pashto sāmi “a hearer” sāmiɶān “the sense of hearing, the power to hear” Raverty 573
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan gaoshem “ear” Peterson, J. 1995
E.1d.2 I
E-Hindi sunnā “hear” vt. sunanā “hear” vt. Scudiere 74, 339
Bengali shona “hear, listen” Thompson 77
↓↓
smell and touch are included in the semantics of E.4d.1 W. Chadic-Hausa ji vt. “hear” “understand” “listen”
“feel, taste, smell”
Therefore the san / sam attestations in this table with semantics of “hear” can be considered to be additional
reflexes of the C.5a.4 Proto-AA *san “smell”. A more accurate English gloss could be “perceive” or “sense” v.
which is a meaning of the C.5a.2 (Extended) C. Chadic-Gude-Njanye.
452

E.2a-b AA –Chadic AA – AA-Semitic Nilo- Niger-Congo
Cush. Saharan
E.2a.1 C. Chadic–Bura West Semitic- Kanuri NC-Swahili
S. Chinese-Kejia tamata Ethiopian-Ge’ez, təmâ dhamiria
[Hakka] “to expect, think” Tigrinya “thought, “to aim at, to
(MacIver) t’am1 Dict. of Bura tämànnaya “wish” hope, consider, to
“hope for, wish W. Chadic- Ron Leslau 1963 208 expectation” be intent on”
for, search for” (Sha) tacam Semitic-Arabic < Arabic dhamiri
Hakka Dict. “denken” [think] jatamanna (IPA) Cyffer 1990 “aim,
TB-Burmese Skinner 268 “wish” Merriam- 173 intention”
tam1 W. Chadic – Webster Arabic 179 “purpose,
“promise, Hausa tammani (Iraqi) t’ammal mood”
intention” / tammaha “to hope, to expect” Awde
Starostin, S. “to expect, think” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic 2000 41
ST Etymology Skinner 268 part 2 16
E.2a.2 Semitic- Arabic NC- Fulfulde
S. Chinese-Kejia (Iraqi) t’ama [Fulani]
[Hakka] “greedy, avid, tammunde
(MacIver) avaricious, desirous” thought,
t’am1 Dict. of Iraqi Arabic opinion,
“desire for more part 2 294 desire”
than one’s rightful Wehr 666 Taylor188
share” t’ammu‫“ ح‬aspiring,
“greedy, covet , ambitious, eager,
covetous” craving, avid”
Hakka Dict. Dict. of Iraqi
Arabic
part 2 294
E.2a.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] t’am1 “hope for, wish for, search for”
< W. Chadic – Hausa tammani “to expect, think”
E.2a.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) tàam “to covet, greedy” “hope or wish for”
< W. Chadic – Hausa tammani “to expect, think”
E.2a.3 TB-Tibetan tuùmöö “wish, desire”
< West (Ethiopian) Semitic–Tigre təmänna “wish”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *t’am- “to hope, to expect” “greedy, avid, avaricious, desirous”
E.2a.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) tàam “to covet, greedy” “hope or wish for” Chik Ng Lam 433
tàam tòuh “to hope, desire or long for” Kwan 110
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] tam “to seek, look for” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
E.2a.2 S. Chinese-Min tham1 “desire for more than one’s rightful share, greedy, covet , covetous”
Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver, Hailu, Siyan) tiam5 “remember, bear in mind, miss, be
concerned about” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) tàamsàm lit. greedy/covetous-heart/mind “covet” Chen 56
Chik Ng Lam 433 “greedy” Kwan 209 [compound of E.1c.1 and this root]
N. Chinese-MSC tān “have an insatiable desire for” tānxin “greed, avarice” Wu, J. 663
sv. “covetous, greedy” Wang, F. 450
Written Burmese thaŋ “think, feel an emotion” Matisoff 2003 266
453
TB-Kiranti-Limbu tεmma “agree, concur, believe, consent” van Driem 1987 522
E.2a.2
TB-Ao Naga təmaŋ < teamaŋ “faith” Benedict 114
TB-Tibetan tuùmöö “wish, desire” Goldstein 496
E.2a.1
NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] tamma “think, suppose; used sometimes to express the future” Taylor 188
NS-Songhay (Gao) tàmàháà “croire que…, esperer que…, penser que… ” [believe that, hope that,
think that] Ducroz 217
E. Chadic-Lele tam “supposer, imaginer” Skinner 268
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) t‫ع‬ämàd “to intend, to do on purpose” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 322
W. Chadic-Gwandara (Cancara) tabata “think” Matsushita 1974 #531 118
NS- Kanuri tanggîn “remember, recall, think about” Cyffer 1990 170
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) ta’ammal “to hope” ‘amal “hope” Qafisheh 17
tmanna “to wish” “root = m-n-n” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 446
t’ammaqqu‫“ ع‬hope, expectation” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 1 65
E.2a.2
Semitic-Written Arabic t’ami’a “to covet, desire, wish, crave, strive” Wehr 666
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage
(Ennemor) tämeňaat “desire”
(Endegen) tämannaad,
(Eža) tämwennat,
(Muher) (tä)männam, /
(Soddo) (tä)minna-m, (Gyeto) tämänat ,
(Selti) tämenat,
(Čaha) tämäňňat “desire”.Leslau 1979 v.2 176
NC-Swahili tùumâini “hope, trust” “to expect, to trust” Awde 2000 237
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic tämäňňä “desire, wish, be desirous of, covet, aspire to”
Leslau 1976 32
NS- Kanuri ideo. dám “emphasizes knowledge, awareness” Cyffer 1990 30
támà “penser” Zima 161 [probably a loan from Arabic] “expectation”
W. Chadic–Hausa tammani “thought, thinking” Newman, P. 2007 196
NC- Swahili tamani “yearn, desire, strive” < Arabic? Rechenbach 507
NS- Kanuri támtam “appeal, attractiveness, interest” támtamma “appealing, attractive, interesting,
enjoyable” Cyffer 1990 169
təmâŋin “think, hope, expect” Lukas 1937 245
təmângin “hope, think, believe” < Arabic Cyffer 1990 173
West (Ethiopian) Semitic–Tigre təmänna “wish”261 Leslau 1963 108
W. Chadic–Ngizim tùumân “thought, hope, expectation” Schuh 164
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic tammaňň “loyal, honest, faithful, trustworthy, dependable,
devoted, reliable” Leslau 1976 101 amännä “have faith” Leslau 1967 342
E.2a.1
IE-Sanskrit tam “to desire” tama “most desired”
tamata “desirous of” Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 E.2a.1-3
↓↓
261
Note E.2a.1-2 The contrast between the E.2a.1-2 tamman- / tammun- sets and the maŋ / məň- of
E.2b.1-2 appears to be due to derivation from different sources, i.e. NC for E.2a.1-2 and Khoisan or Kordofanian
for E.2b.1.
454
E.2b.1 C. Chadic- Proto-AA Semitic Khoisan-

TB-Nepali Lame (Orel/Stol- (Ethiopic)- Sandawe
man mana bova 1995) Amharic mana “know”
“mind, heart, “under- *man-, manfas Starostin, G.
faculty of stand” *aman-, “spirit, feeling, 2003 22
thinking, feeling” Stolbova, “know” frame of mind, NC-Fulani
Starostin, S. Olga Skinner 196 will” *mānda-
Yamphu Dict. C. Chadic- E. Cushitic- W. Semitic- “bear in mind”
TB- Naga-Ao Etymology Sidamo Ethiopian- Skinner 196
əmaŋ ammana Amharic Kordofanian-
“to believe” “to believe ammänä Tumale
Benedict 114 (something)” “believe, trust” aiman
Gasparini 14 Leslau 1976 “to think”
124 Greenberg 1963
41 1966 159
E.2b.2 West Semitic- Anywa
TB-Tibetan Ethiopian- [Anuak]
smon-pa Amharic maɲɲ‫̀כ‬
“to wish, desire” məňňot “to want
Jaschke 428 “wish, desire, something”
S. Chinese-Yue ambition”. maɲɲ�K
(Cantonese) Leslau 1976 “to look for
mohng 32, 530 something”
“to hope, Reh 47
to expect”
Chik / Ng Lam
212 Kwan 224
E.2b.1 TB-Nepali man “mind, heart, faculty of thinking, feeling”
< Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova 1995) *man-, *aman- “know” / Semitic-Arabic mann “to yearn,
be covetous”
E.2b.2 TB- Naga-Ao əmaŋ “to believe”
< NC-Proto-W. Nigritic *-man / *-min “know” / Khoisan-Sandawe mana “know”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *mana “know”
E.2b.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) máhn “to strive, to endeavor” Chik/ Ng Lam 510
mahn “to ask, to inquire, to investigate” Chik/ Ng Lam 63
E.2b.1
C. Chadic-Bura mana “analyze” “understand” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic-Etymology
NC-Proto-Bantu *manya “to know” Greenberg 1966 19
W. Chadic-Bole mon- “know” Skinner 196 Militarev / Stolbova
E. Cushitic- Kambata amma’n- “believe” Hudson 112, 307
E. Cushitic- Oromo amanu vi. “affidare, confidare a, aver fiducia, crederei” [to confide, have trust,
believe” ] Borello 19
haimanota “fide, credo, credenza” [faith, creed, belief] Borello 197
Semitic-Hebrew ameenah “trustworthy, credible” amen interj. “amen” Baltsan 13, 14
Semitic- Arabic (Yemeni) ’aaman “to believe” Qafisheh 18
E.2b.2 NS-Kanuri
mángərngîn v. “desire, covet, like” n. mángər “covetousness, greed, desire” Cyffer 1990 119
mángin “look for, seek” “want, require, desire” Cyffer 1990 119
455
NS-Malinke mɛn “understand” Greenberg 1963 41 Ruhlen 1994 312

Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) mann “to yearn, be covetous” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 445
Asian non-ST languages with corresp. to African/AA roots:
E.2b.1 IE-Sanskrit
manas n. “mind (in its widest sense as appied to all mental powers) Cologne Lexicon
man “to think, believe, imagine, suppose, conjecture”
manaya “to think, consider”
manin “thinking, being of the opinion”
manoratha “a wish, a desire” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Hindi mānsik adj. “mental” mānyata m. “recognition” Scudiere 300-301
IE-Old Indian manute / manyate “to think, believe” Nicolayev, Sergei IE- Etymology 2012 90
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan mān- “to think” “mind, thinking, purpose” Peterson, J. 1995
See also Supplementary Table 2 E.2b.1-2
IE-Armenian imanam “understand” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
IE-Bengali mane n. “meaning, import” Thompson 72, 111
IE-Pashto maənā n. “meaning, signification, sense” Raverty 927
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek
ma’no, mani n. “meaning” “symbolic value of something”
ma’nosiz “meaningless, lacking meaning” English-Uzbek Dictionary
E.2b.2
IE-Tokharian maňu “desire” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
IE-Bengali mon n. ”heart, mind, thought, feeling” Thompson 71
IE-Sanskrit manoratha “a wish, a desire” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Proto-IE *men “to think” Pokorny 1959 726 Ruhlen 1994 312
↓↓
E.3a-d Afro-Asiatic – Proto-AA AA- Nilo- NC
Chadic Egyptian Sah.
Swadesh #59 W. Chadic – Ron Proto-AA Egyptian
“know” (Daffo) (Orel / sun
E.3a.1 TB-Tibetan sun Stolbova “to know”
suŋsu suŋ “erkennen, 1995) Budge
“to remember, to bear in mind, wissen” *sun / v.2 650
to not forget” [recognize, know] *sunah
N. Chinese-MSC Jungraithmayr “know etc.”
ts’un (WG) 1970 220 Skinner 228
“to consider, to reflect”
Mathews #6894 1015
E.3a.1
N. Chinese-MSC ts’un “to consider, to reflect” / TB-Tibetan suŋsu suŋ “to remember,
to bear in mind, to not forget”
< W. Chadic-Ron (Daffo) sun “recognize, know” / Proto-AA *sun / *sunah “know “ /
Egyptian sun “to know”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *sun- “to recognize, know”
456

E.3a.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) seun “believe, believe in” Po-fei Huang 438 “to believe or trust”
Chik / Ng Lam 17
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) séung “think, conceive” Kwan 529 Chen 411, 45
“to think, to consider” “to hope, to expect” Chik / Ng Lam 152
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) siong3 “think, consider, suppose” “hope, expect”
Hakka Dict.
E.3a.1
NS-Kanuri somngîn, somjîn “recall, bring to mind” Cyffer 1990 163
Egyptian-Coptic swon “know” Greenberg 1966 58
W. Chadic–Bole zumm- “think, remember” Skinner 268
NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] sūna “be covetous, desire” Taylor 184
/
E.3b.1 W. Chadic- Hausa
TB-Tibetan tùnàani m.
tönjee / töndɔɔ̀ “thinking” “reflecting”
“to comprehend, to understand” Newman, P. 2007 212
Goldstein 545 yi tùnàanii à kân
Jaschke 242 “think something over
S. Chinese-Kejia carefully”
[Hakka] Newman, R. 1990 276
(Meixian, Hailu, Siyan) tunà (dà) tùnàanī n.m.
tung3 (Lau Chunfat) “mind (intellect)”
dung3 “reflection”
“understand, Newman, R. 1990 168, 222,
comprehend, know” 277
Hakka Dict. “thought” “remember”
S. Chinese-Yue E. Chadic-Banana
(Cantonese) dunk- “remember”
dúng Chadic- Bole
tunn- “remember”
“to understand,
W. Chadic- S. Bauci
to comprehend, to know”
*tən-
Chik / Ng Lam 159 “remember”
S. Chinese-Min Skinner 262
thông
“understand clearly,
communicate with”
Bodman 1987 v.2 186
E.3b.2 W. Chadic- Hausa NC-Benue Congo-
TB-Tibetan yi tùnàanin Efik
mthong “see” “think of, about” d‫ככ‬ŋ /
mthong-ba Newman, R. 1990 276 NC-Proto-Bantu
“seeing”. tunà d‫ככ‬ŋg
Hodge 14 “nachdenken” “pay attention to”
mthoŋ-ba [to reflect, cogitate, think] Greenberg 1966 33
“to see, to perceive, to know, “sich besinnen”
to understand” [to consider, reflect, think of,
Goldstein 545 remember]
Jaschke 242 Skinner 262
457

E.3b.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] tung3 , dung3 “understand, comprehend, know” /
TB-Tibetan tönjee, töndɔɔ̀ “to comprehend, to understand”,
mthoŋ-ba “to see, to perceive, to know, to understand”
< W.Chadic-Hausa tunà “to reflect, cogitate, think” “to consider, reflect, hink of, remember”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymom *tuŋ- “to know, to consider, to think of”
E.3b.1
TB-Tibetan toŋ “to see” Goldstein 516 toŋwa “seeing, perceiving” Goldstein 517 ;
mthoŋ -wa “to see, to view” “seeing, hearing, touching” “to witness, to observe mentally” Das 603
N. Chinese-MSC dōng vt. “understand, comprehend” Wang, F. 112 DeFrancis 943
dòng “see clearly the crux of the matter, get to the heart of the problem” Wu, J. 162
E.3b.1
W. Chadic-Gwandara (Toni) yi tùnàni “think” Matsushita 1974 #531 118
W. Chadic-Hausa tunātar da “remind” Newman, P. 2007 212
Egyptian teni / thenu “to count, to reckon, to estimate” Budge v.2 838, 856
/
E.3c AA – AA –Cushitic AA- NS Niger-Congo
Chad. Semitic
E.3c.1 E. Cushitic- Semitic- Niger-Congo-Proto-
TB-Tibetan Rendille Arabic Bantu
dün bsammnó ‘doona vt. (Iraqi) *túna “to wish”
“to desire, to wish, “want, like, t’uma‫ع‬ *ţuna “to seek”
to hope for” desire” “love” “to aspire to, Greenberg 1966 34,160
“thinking, wishing” ‘don’doona to be NC-Lefana
Goldstein 574 vt. “search for, ambitious tuna “to wish”
duŋ “to have a great look for” for” “to be Kordofanian-Krongo
desire” Pillinger 103 greedy, tuna “to seek”
Goldstein 558 E. Cushitic- covetous, Greenberg 1966 160
‘dun-pa “longing, Somali avaricious”
aspiration” Hodge 182 doon Dict. of Iraqi
S. Chinese-Yue “to want, to Arabic 294
(Cantonese) wish, to will”
tùhng doondoon
“to yearn, to aspire” “look for’
Chik / Ng Lam Awde 1999 29
157-158
E.3c.2 TB-Jingpho E. Cushitic- NC-Benue-Congo
[Kachin] Somali (Cross River Group-
doŋ doon Efik)
“to like, favor” “to want, tɔ‫כ‬ŋ
Starostin, S. wish, will” “strong desire”
ST Etymology Awde1999 Greenberg 1966 34
29, 79
E.3c.1 TB-Tibetan dün “to desire, to wish, to hope for” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
tùhng “to yearn, to aspire”
< NC-Proto-Bantu *tún “to wish”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *tún “to wish, desire”
458

E.3c.1
TB-Tibetan mthun-pa “to to be wished for, desirable” “to wish, to like, to delight in" Jaschke 241
TB-Chin-Lushai tum “to wish, to desire, to want” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
E.3c.2 E. Cushitic-Somali doondoon “to look for” Awde 1999
Asian non-ST languages with corresp. to African/AA roots:
E. 3c.2 S. Daic-Lao dtohng5 gan1 “want (need) Marcus 251
/
E.3d.1 TB-Tibetan don W. Chadic – Hausa
“sense, meaning, signification” “for the sake of, don / dòmin conj. “because
on account of” of , for the sake of, on behalf
“with genitive case of infinitive- in order to, that” of”
Jaschke 258-9 “because, in order that” prep.
tön “meaning, significance” (vb. + tön) = and conj. ”for” Newman, P.
“The reason for the preceding verbal act follows (will be 2007 46 Skinner 49
explained)” “reason, purpose” “sense/meaning of the don mèe adv.
verbal action” Goldstein 544 “why, for what reason?,
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] on what account?”
ton1 “leads, clue, cause” Newman, P. 2007 46262
Hakka Dict.
E.3d.1 TB-Tibetan don “sense, meaning, signification” “for the sake of, on account of”
“with genitive case of infinitive- in order to, that”
< W. Chadic–Hausa don “because, in order that” prep., conj. “because of, for the sake of”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *don conj. “because, in order that” “for the sake of”
E.3d.1
TB-Tibetan töndu “for the purpose of, in order to, for” Goldstein 545 kodön “meaning, sense”
Goldstein 186 ; don “the sense, meaning, signification of anything” Das 645 ; tö̱nkel “achieving
ones purpose / aim / goal, realizing one’s hopes” Goldstein 544 gõödon “the reason for a need, the
reason something is needed” gõö “to need, to require” Goldstein 225
N. Chinese-MSC “reason, cause” duānni / duānxù “clue, inkling” Wu, J.167
bf. wuduān “reason” DeFrancis 213
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dyùn “beginning, cause” Chik / Ng Lam 340
S. Chinese-Min toan1 “cause” “leads, clue” Hakka Dict.
E.3d.1 W. Chadic –Gwandara dùm “in order to” dum / dumu “because”
Skinner 49 Matsushita 1972 38
262
Note- E.3d.1 (Tibetan, Hausa) “domin / don ‘in order that,’ ‘so that’ plus a clause in the subjunctive.”
“Instead of using a subjunctive clause, it is possible to express ‘purpose’ by means of a phrase consisting of don
plus a dynamic noun (which includes verbal nouns). Note that one usually uses don rather than the full form
domin.” Newman, P. 2000 506-507
Hausa examples are: Sun shiga don màganàa.“They entered in order to talk”.
Yaa hau bishiya don hàngen neesa. “He climbed the tree to look in the distance. (lit. he climbed the tree in
order to look afar”. Newman, P. 2000 506-507
Tibetan examples of usage to express purpose are: zas nór-gyi dón-du ‘tshoŋ-ba.“to sell food for money”.
nór “money”, ‘tshoŋ –ba “sell” ;
‘gro(-bai) don byed-pa “to work for the welfare of all beings”. ‘gro “a being, a living creature”
byed-pa “to work, to do” Jaschke 259
459
↓↓
E.4a-d AA – Chadic AA –Cush. AA—Sem. NS Khoisan
Swadesh “to see” W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- C. Khoisan-
Swadesh “to know” Hausa Somali Nama
E.4a.1 ganī “see” -qiin / - ǂan
TB-E. Kiranti-Rodong “look at, watch” qaan- “know”
khan “see, look, know” “(in continuous) “know” Starostin,
Starostin, S. Sino- see that, Sasse 25 G. 2003 22
Tibetan Etymology recognize” N. Cushitic-
N. Chinese-MSC ganèe vg.4 Beja
kàn “see, look at, (completive) [Bedauye]
watch, read” [lit.see kān
“think, consider” completely] “kennen,
kàntòu “understand “understand wissen”
thoroughly”, realize” [know]
Wu, J. 383, 384 Newman, P. Reinisch 142
2000 69
E.4a.2 Old Chinese Semitic- C. Khoisan-
kian “see” Ge’ez, !Khora
Karlgren GSR Arabic (!Ora)
#241a-d h’anaka ǂ’á�
Matisoff 2003 311 “understand, “know”
N. Chinese-MSC perceive” Ehret 1982
k’àn (WG) “see” Skinner 105 [174]
Mathews #3255 489 Starostin, G
“to spy, to watch” 2003 22
Mathews #3260 489
E.4a.3 N. Khoisan-
N. Chinese-MSC ǂHaba
xiang ǂkʔâŋ
“think” “[to] know”
Wu, J. 755 Starostin,
G. 2003 22
E.4a.4 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- C. Khoisan-
mkhyen-pa kyēn Gwandara Gedeo Proto-!Wi
“to know, geni ege’n *ǂʔεn
also knowledge” “to see, seeing” “know” “[to]
“understand” “to think” ege’na know”
Das 184 Goldstein 156 Matsushita #4 “knowledge” Starostin,
Old Chinese 1972 43 Hudson 239 G. 2003 22
kien “see”
Karlgren GSR #78
van Driem 1977 475
E.4a.5 S.Khoisan-
TB-Tani-Padam |Kham
ken “know” *ǂen
Matisoff 2003 291 “know”
Ruhlen 1994
#347 56
460
E.4a.6 W. Chadic-
S. Chinese-Min Hausa
gan2 n. “eye” ganī m.
v. “look, glance” “sight”
Hakka Dict. Newman, R.
gán-bók 1990 245
“eyes” “seeing,
Amoy-English looking”
Dict. 189 Newman, P.
2007 69
E.4a.7 W. Chadic - Sungor
S. Chinese-Kejia Angas go:n
[Hakka] kon5 goŋ “to see”
“see, look at, observe, “look ” Green
watch, read” “examine, Skinner 77 -berg
consider” 1966
Hakka Dict. 104
E.4a.1 N. Chinese-MSC kàn “see, look at, watch, read” “think, consider” “observe”
< W. Chadic-Hausa ganī “see”, ganèe v4 “see (understand)” / W. Chadic–Lele ganri “look”
E.4a.4 TB-Tibetan *m-kyen “know” / Old Chinese kien “see”
< E. Cushitic-Gedeo ege’n “know” / C. Khoisan-Proto-!Wi *ǂʔεn “[to] know”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *gan- ~ *ǂʔεn “to see, to know, to understand”
E.4a.1
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] kan5 / kan1 “see, look at, observe, watch, read” examine, consider” “think”
Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC ganzhī “perception” Packard 61 [lit. “feeling-knowledge”]
[compound of this root and that of E.4d.1 ]
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu kaŋma “see, look, know” Starostin, S. Yamphu Dict.
TB- Dimasa khana “hear” Benedict 113
S. Chinese-Min gan-lek “eyesight, vision” Amoy English Dict.189
E.4a.4 Proto-TB *m-kyen “know” Matisoff 2003 311
Middle Chinese kenH “to see” Sagart 1999 75
E.4a.6 S. Chinese-Min ngaahngwōhng “vision (power of seeing” Kwan 561
“foresight” Po-fei Huang 426
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ngaahn “the eye” Chik / Ng Lam 319
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver, Lau Chunfat ) ngan3 “the eye” “look, glance” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gám “to feel, to perceive” “feeling, sensation, emotion”
Chik / Ng Lam 153
E. 4a.7 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gùn / gun “to see, to observe, to view” Chik / Ng Lam 416
E.4a.1 W. Chadic-Bole gān “understand” Skinner 77
W. Chadi–Gwandara gani “to see” Matsushita 1972 42
E. Chadic-Lele gangri “regarder” [look at] Skinner 77
Proto-Cushitic (Ehret) *ɣaa’hn “know, understand” Skinner 77
Semitic- Amharic tägänäzzäbä “remember, recall, realize, perceive, be aware, note (make an
observation), conclude” Leslau 1976 214.
W. Chadic- Hausa (dà) ganīn cêwā “(on) seeing (that)” Newman, R. 1990 238
E.4a.2 W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic qaňňä v. “glance about, reconnoiter” Leslau 1976 79
q = glottalized velar Leslau 1976 xiii
461
S. Khoisan-!Xóõ *qʔan “hear” Starostin, G. 2003 20

S Khoisan-!Xoo qʔ�”“heart” Starostin, G. 2003 22
E.4a.4 E. Cushitic-Rendille oogeneet “be aware of, know, understand” Pillinger 241
E.4a.5 C. Khoisan-Kam ǂenn “[to] know” Starostin, G. 2003 22
E.4a.6 Egyptian gamh’ “to see, perceive” Budge v.2 802
E.4a.7 NS-Songhay (Koyra) gùna “see” Heath v.1 111 -(Gao) gùna “regarder” [look at]
Ducroz 108
E.4a.1
IE-Bengali gaen “knowledge, perception” Thompson 52, 107
IE-Hittite kanes “erkennen” (Ger.) “to know”
IE-Sanskrit kantu “the mind, heart” Cologne Lexicon
E.4a.2 IE-Hindi gyān “knowledge” Scudiere 88, 248
E.4a.3
IE- Hindi jānnā vt. “know, recognize, identify” Scudiere 88
IE- Bengali jana “know, be aware of” janano “inform, make known” Thompson 51,107
E.4a.4 Proto-IE g’ena- “to know” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 40
E.4a.7 IE-Sanskrit gam “to observe, understand, guess”
Cologne Lexicon See also Supplementary Table 2 E.4a.3
↓↓
E.4b.1 TB-Tibetan E. Cushitic-Burji Semitic-Hebrew NC-(Lower
mkhán-po gánn-i “traditional kahan, kohen Congo River
“a clerical teacher, high-priest cum (Jewish surnames) region)
professor, king”263 [In the Hebrew Bible *kani
doctor of divinity, Sasse 1982 78 Kahan / Kohen means “king or
principal of a great ak’an-s- “priest”] lord”
monastery, “teach” Baltsan 185265 Ehret 2002
abbot” Jaschke 53 Sasse 1982 25264 269
263
Note-E.4b.1 (E. Cushitic-Burji) Sasse states that the institution of a High-priest-cum-King in the Burji culture is
apparently borrowed from Omotic-speaking peoples. The institution of the sacred chiefship emerged clearly during
the first millenium BCE, but there were clearly many centuries of prior evolution of this kind of institution. “In the
old Omotic henotheism, the hereditary clan head was a priestly figure, responsible for making the annual livestock
sacrifices to the society’s or clan’s deity, and at the same time an especially sacred person because of these duties.”
By 1000 BCE this priestly role among Omotic peoples had evolved into a chiefship able to make political as well as
spiritual claims to the community’s allegiance. The new ideology soon spread to several of the Highland East
Cushitic communities” (Ehret 2002 216-217, 296, 298). Ehret calls this structure “Sudanic sacral kingship”. (Ehret
2001 240-241). The above evidence indicates that the origins of institutional religious kingship lie in the oldest
branches of the Afro-Asiatic language families, i.e.Cushitic and Omotic. It also points to its existence in the
Semitic and Egyptian civilizations.
Under the Shang dynasty in China the king was not only a supreme political ruler, but also the highest priest,
commanding the religious power of all sacrifices and rituals” Yun-yi, Ho 296. See also notes B.35.2.and E.4c.2-3
following. The existence of the root in Altaic-Mongolian does not seem to indicate any more than a secular role of
leadership for the khan in Northeast Asian Altaic-speaking cutltures.
Under this root entry Sasse also cites Burji mugáanga as a loan from Swahili.The meaning of the root in many
Niger-Congo-Bantu languages is also “magician, wizard”, but as in Swahili the function of “doctor, healer” is
more prominent. On the social role of the mugáanga in much of sub-Saharan Africa see Herbert 33+.
See also note D.27b .1 (Tibetan, AA and NS-Tubu)
264
Note E.4b.1 (E.Cushitic) The base form is gan / khan “to know” (E.4a.1 Proto-Cushitic (Ehret).
462
S. Chinese-Kejia E. Cushitic-Oromo Semitic-Aramaic

[Hakka] kahəneta kāhen / kāhnā m.
(MacIver, Bao’an) “ordine “priest”
ngan5 sacerdotale” Comprehensive Aramaic
“man of ability and [priestly order] Lexicon
virtue, erudite Borello 223 W. Semitic-Ethiopian-
scholar” Amharic kahən
Hakka Dict. “priest, churchman,
clergyman”
Leslau 1976 155, 442
E.4b.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- NC-Swahili
mtshan-mkan Hausa mganga
[lit. sign-knower] gànē m. “doctor”
“soothsayer, “sooth- “healer”
astrologer” saying” Awde 2000
ča-mkhan Newman, 145
“soothsayer, P. 2007 69 NC- Bantu
fortune teller” See also *-ganga
ča = “prospect, note “ medicine-
auspices” D.27b .1 man”
Jaschke 45, 151 Skinner19
E.4b.1 TB-Tibetan mkhán-po “a clerical teacher, professor, doctor of divinity, principal of a great
monastery, abbot”
< E. Cushitic-Burji gánn-i, gan-án-tu pl. “traditional High-priest cum King”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *kan- “a teacher, a priest, a learned person” “skilled person”
E.4b.1 TB-Tibetan mkhán-po “a scholar, teacher, an abbot” Hodge 50 gεndzin “person in authority”
Goldstein 236 mkhan-rgyud “spiritual gifts” Das 216 khan “see, look, know”
TB-Tibetan E.4b.2
N. Chinese–MSC făguān “judge, justice, magistrate” [lit. law expert”] Wu, J.183 Chen 210
tánguān “a hired hand in certain trades” DeFrancis 317
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) faatgùn “magistrate” [lit. law expert] Chen 210
E.4b.1
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) kaahin, kahana pl. “priest, religious leader”
kaahin “priest, religious leader” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 412
Egyptian khenu “an officiating priest, a prophet” Budge v.1 549
zkan-ha “chief, head of” ha “of” Baltsan 185, 464, 702
N. Cushitic-Beja [Bedawi] kānana “kundiger, gelehrter” [a learned person] Reinisch 142
In Burji the stem is ak’an-. In the middle voice this becomes ak’an-d’- ~ ak’an- ’- “learn”, and the causative
form is ak’an-s- “teach” Sasse 1982 25. Hence since -s is a postposed causative affix, the literal meaning is
“cause to know” On m- of mkan see note D.5b.4 (Tibetan m- prefix) and Chapter 10 section 10.3.4.
265
E.4b.1 (Hebrew). In contemporatry Judaism any Jewish man with a surname such as Kohen, Kohn, Cohen,
Cohn, Kahan, Kahane, Kogan or Kagan is considered to be a decendent of “the ancient biblical caste of priests of
the Temple in Jerusalem”. Baltsan 185 As can be seen in the E.4b.1 Amharic and Aramaic citations the root also
refers to priests among Christians who speak a Semitic language. In Arabic the root refers to Jewish or Christian
priests but not Islamic religious leaders since Mohammed explicitly declared that “there shall be no monks in
Islam” (Information from Said Hamdun, professor of Islamic studies, Makerere University, Uganda). .
463
E.4b.1
Altaic-TurkicTurkish kǎhin “soothsayer, seer, oracle” kaqan “Khan, ruler” Tureng 702
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *K(i) aŋ “head of clan” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
IE-Sanskrit SKandha “a sage, a teacher” “a king, a prince”
gaNadIkSin “one who officiates for a number of persons or for a corporation (as a priest)”266
kaNDa “teaching, learning” gaNin “a teacher” gaNacArya “teacher common to all”
gaNaka “a calculator of nativities, astrologer” Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2 E.4b.3
/
Swadesh C. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Semitic- NS-
“to know” Dghwede Somali Arabic Longarim
E.4c.1 ngínè “see” -qiin / -qaan- (Yemeni) gini
S. Chinese-Kejia W. Chadic- Tambas “know” ginic “to see”
[Hakka] (MacIver) ngin5 à gììní “you see” Sasse 25 “to be or Greenberg
3
(Meixian) ngin Jungraithmayr 1994 N. Cushitic-Beja become 1966104
(Lau Chunfat) ngin6 v. 2 285 [Bedawi] convinced,
“recognize, know, W. Chadic- gin’i persuaded”
understand” Gwandara “verständig” Qafisheh
Hakka Dict. gin “to see, seeing” [intelligent, 501
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) “to think” sensible,
gin “to see, to understand” Matsushita #4 prudent]
Chik / Ng Lam 415 1972 43 Skinner 77
Old Chinese
*kinh “to see”
*ginh “to be seen”
Norman 85
E.4c.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gin “to see, to perceive, to understand” “see (meet and talk)” /
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ngin5 “recognize, know, understand”
< C. Chadic- Dghwede ngínè “see”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *gini “to see”
266
Note- E.4b.1-2 (Sanskrit Extended) The close phonetic and semantic Sanskrit correspondences with the
Cushitic / Semitic root meaning “king, teacher” suggest a possible relationship of the Indus civilization with that
of Mesopotamia and East Africa. One of the main interpreters of the Indus civilization’s culture was Mortimer
Wheeler. He considered the main building of Harappa to be a temple. From this he inferred that the Indus
culture’s social organization was much like that of Sumeria. “In Sumer the wealth and discipline of the city
state were vested in the chief deity, i.e. in the priesthood or a Priest-King.The civic focus was the exalted temple,
centre of an elaborate and carefully ordered secular administration under divine sanction”. “It can no longer be
doubted that, whatever the source of their authority---and a dominant religious element may be fairly assumed---
the lords of Harappa administered their city in a fashion not remote from that of the priest kings of Sumer and
Akkad. In other words, the social structure conformed in principle with that of the other great riverine
civilizations of the day.” Wheeler, M. “Harappa, 1946.The defenses and cemetery”. Ancient India v. 3:76. Cited
by Possehl 18.
Wheeler may or may not have had knowledge of the Sanskrit kaN “priest, king and teacher” root and its
Cushitic, Semitic,Tibetan and Sanskrit attestations. His proposal of a sacral kingship in Harappa appears to
have been based on archaeology alone.
Possehl comments that it is not known what kind of architecture was on the summit of the AB mound at Harappa,
but “the Mound of the Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro seems to have been a place of ritual”. Possehl 19. (See also
the ST Language for aristocracy and kingship found in Note D.5b.1 gwàn and set D.28.1.)
464

E.4c.1
C. Chinese-Wu ɲiŋ6 “know, recognize” “understand, make out” Hakka Dict
S. Chinese-Min (Jiangle) ŋin6 “recognize” Norman 230
E.4c.1
W. Chadic–Ron (Tambas) à gììní “you see” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 285
Semitic-Arabic ʔììna “behold!” -Hebrew hinn- “behold!” Greenberg 1966 61
E. Cushitic-Rendille ogeneet “be aware of, know, understand” Pillinger 241
NS- Kanuri ngin v. “say, think, intend” Cyffer 1990 137
E.4c.1
Kartvelian-Megrel gin- / gen- “to understand”
Kartvelian-Georgian gen- / gn- “to understand”
/
E.4d.1 Swadesh “hear” W. Chadic-Hausa
S. Chinese-Yue jî vt.
(Cantonese) “hear”
jī “to know, to recognize” “understand”
“to record, to remember” “listen”
Chik / Ng Lam 428 “feel, taste, smell”
TB-Qiangic-Xixia Newman, P.
(Tangut) nji2 2007 99
“listen” “smell, feel, hear”
E.4d.2 Swadesh E. Chadic-Mubi Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) Khoisan-ǂHoan
“know” jige “hear” s’iġa ciʔa
S. Chinese-Yue C. Chadic- “to heed, listen, “know”
(Cantonese) Matakam pay attention” Starostin, G.
sīk ž(ə)k “smell” ši‫ح‬ar 2003 22
“to know, to recognize” Skinner 123 “to know”
Chik / Ng Lam 428 “to feel, sense”
Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
part 2 242, 265
E.4d.1
TB-Qiangic-Xixia nji2 “listen” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jī “to know, to recognize”
“to record, to remember”
< W. Chadic –Hausa ji “hear” “understand” “listen” “feel, taste, smell”
E.4d.2
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sīk “to know, to recognize” “to record, to remember”
< E. Chadic-Mubi jige “hear” / Khoisan-ǂHoan ciʔa “know”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *ji ~ ciʔ- “to know, to hear” “to feel, to sense, to smell”
465

E.4d.1 N. Chinese-MSC
zhī “know, realize, be aware of” Wu, J. 896
chīh (WG) “to know, to perceive, to be aware of” Mathews 128 shí “know” Wu, J. 619
ganzhī “perception” Packard 61 [lit. “feeling. knowledge”] [compound of this root and that of
E.4a.1 ]
zhīshi “knowledge” Packard 61 [lit. knowledge-knowledge or know-know, essentially a
reduplication of E.4d.1 with MSC orthographic variants zhī ‘to know’ and shí ‘know’] .
See also Chapter 10 section 10.5.
TB-Jingpho (Hkauri dialect) tšē “know” Matisoff 2003 291.
TB-Tibetan dzi “the sense of smell” Goldstein 914
E.4d.2
Proto-S. Cushitic *tsi’ “smell” Skinner 123
Semitic-Socotri tsic “écouter” [listen] Skinner 123
↓↓
E.5a-c AA – Chadic AA –Cushitic AA-Semitic NS Khoisan.
E.5a.1 W. Chadic- Egyptian N. Khoisan-
S. Chinese-Yue Ngizim gau-t ‖Kh’au-‖’e,
(Cantonese) kàwáu vi. “want, need” C. Khoisan
kauh / kàuh “become fond of” Budge Naron
“to seek, to ask for, kàwà vn. v.2 800 ǂkau “want”
to pray for, Schuh 95-96 Ruhlen 1994
to beg” W. Chadic- #608 67
ngaauh Hausa Khoisan-
“to love, to like, (Damagaram Sandawe
to be fond of” dial.) ‖gaue “seek”
Chik / Ng Lam 23, k’aǔci Greenberg
134, 247 “intense desire” 1966 83
Matsushita 1993 69
E.5a.2 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic-
N. Chinese –MSC / Hausa Oromo
Beijing yi hà’awàa hawu vi.
hào “liking, wanting” “desiderare,
“like, love, be fond “desire for sperare ”
of” women” [to desire,
hào-wù Newman, P. hope for]
“likes and dislikes, 2007182 Borello 205
taste”
Wu, J. 271
466
E.5a.3 W. Chadic-Hausa West N. Khoisan-

S. Chinese-Kejia shà’awàa Semitic- !Kung
[Hakka] “desire” Ethiopian- dzau, sau
(Meixian, Newman, P. Amharic “to hunger”
Ma.cIver) 2007 182 ašša(w) Greenberg
jau5 / jau1 k’āwàa “choose, 966 75
“want, demand, [pronunced wish” S. Khoisan-
need, require, k’yāwàa Leslau |’Auni
desire” See Note A.33.1] 1976 61 |kau|kau
Hakka Dict. “yearning, strong “want”
N. Chinese-MSC desire” Ruhlen 1994
châo (WG) Newman, P. 2007 #608 67
“to seek, to look 129
for” Mathews Newman, R.
#4778 29 1990 66
C.ChadicPadoko,
E. Chadic-Lele
ŋgwa “aimer,
vouloir”
[love, wish to]
Skinner 169
E.5a.5 S. Chinese- E. Chadic- E. Cushitic- S. Khoisan-
Yue (Cantonese) Migama Rendille Khakhea
hánkàuh “crave” ‘anko ankaa ‖kau
Kwan 111 “désirer, vouloir” “be hungry” “to be hungry”
“to entreat, to [desire, wish for] Pillinger Ruhlen 1994
beseech, to implore, Skinner 169 66, 351 #327 55
to plead”
Chik / Ng Lam 159
E.5a.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ngaauh “to love, to like, to be fond of”, kauh / kàuh “to seek,
to ask for, to pray for, to beg”
< W. Chadic- Ngizim kàwáu vi. “become fond of” / N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e,
C. Khoisan Naron ǂkau “want” / Khoisan-Sandawe ‖gaue “seek”
E.5a.3 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] jau5 / jau1 “want, demand, need, require, desire” /
N. Chinese-MSC châo (WG) “to seek, to look for”
< W. Chadic-Hausa shà’awàa “desire” / N. Khoisan--!Kung dzau, sau “to hunger”
E.5a.5 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) hánkàuh “crave” “to entreat, to beseech, to implore, to plead”
< E. Chadic- Migama ‘anko “désirer, vouloir” / E. Cushitic- Rendille ankaa “be hungry” /
Khoisan- Khakhea ‖kau “to be hungry”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *kàw- “to want, to beg for” ~ *nkàw “to crave, be hungry,”
E.5a.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) kàuh “beg, implore, seek after” Po-fei Huang 413 kauh yahn “ask
for help or a favor” Po-fei Huang 413 kàungoi “woo” Kwan 573 kàuh fàn “to propose (to a
woman)” Chik / Ng Lam 247 Kwan 573 Po-fei Huang 413) ngòi kàuh “to entreat, implore, beg or
appeal pathetically” Chik /Ng Lam 59
N. Chinese-MSC gàosu bf. “ask for, request” DeFrancis 291
TB-Tibetan gar‫“ ̀ככ‬lover, boyfriend, girlfriend” Goldstein 219
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu ga “desiderative particle” Matisoff 2003 163
467
E.5a.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) hóu / hou “to love, to like to, to be fond of” “to be addicted to”
“what one likes or prefers” Chik / Ng Lam 91
E.5a.3 N. Chinese-MSC chyóu “pray (beg) Chen 295 chiâo (WG) “to desire” “to pray for
blessings” Mathews #686b 93
Chinese-Cantonese yáuh “a friend, friendly relationship” “to befriend” Chik / Ng Lam 49
Chinese-MSC ch’iú (WG) “to implore, to beseech, to seek after” Mathews #1217 175
qiú “beg, request, entreat, beseech” Wu, J.558
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian, Dongguan etc.) k’iu2 “solicit, ask for” “seek” “demand, request,
beseech” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Min kiu5 “solicit, ask for” “seek” “demand, request, beseech” Hakka Dict.
E.5a.1
C. Khoisan-Nama ǂgao “want” Ruhlen 1994 #608 67
Anywa [Anuak] kwac kwʌ‫כ‬ò detransitivized “to ask for, to beg for something” Reh 40
W. Chadic-Hausa k’àwàncē “camaraderie” Newman, R. 1990 34 k’àwa f. “a girl’s female friend”
“ally (political)” Newman, P. 2007 129
NS-Kanuri kəráwó “love” Hutchison 78 Cyffer 1990 93
C. Khoisan- ‖kh’au-‖’e , N. Khoisan-!Kung k’aru “seek” Ruhlen 1994 #488 62
Semitic- Hebrew khaver “friend, pal, comrade” “boyfriend, girl friend” Baltsan 202
Egyptian khebar “to be associated with, to be a friend, neighbor or ally” Budge v.1 539
E. Cushitic-Oromo kaddu “questuare, chiedere, pregare, supplicare, mendicare”[to beg, to ask for,
to request, to pray, to beg for alms] Borello 222
E.5a.2 E. Cushitic- Oromo hawa “covet” Foot 27
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari h’arara “craving” Leslau 1983 86
E.5a.3 Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šawwaq “to fill with longing, desire” Dict. Of Iraqi Arabic
part 2 253
Semitic- Aramaic sawwi “desiring” Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon
Written Arabic jawan “ardent love, passion” jawiyya “to be passionately stirred by love or grief”
Wehr 177
Semitic-Akkadian hašahu “desire, like” Leslau 1963 173 part 2 253
E.5a.4 Semitic-Written Arabic xawa “to be empty, to be hungry” Wehr 307
ʒawʕa:nun (IPA) “hungry”Merriam—Webster Arabic 72
C. Chadic-Mada ŋgov “like” Skinner 169
W. Chadic- Hausa kwàd’àyi “yearning, craving, greed” Newman, P. 2007 120 “keen desire, greed”
Kraft 352
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic gwaggwa “desire, be anxious, be eager, wish strongly, long, yearn,
crave affection, hunger (for love)” Leslau 1976 220 gwàmmà “rather, it would be better if”
gwàmmàca “be preferable” vi. Newman / Ma 1979 47 “it behooves one” Newman, P. 2007 79
NS- Anywa kwàc vt. “to ask for something, to beg for something” kwʌ‫כ‬ò detransitivized”
gwε̌l a̅-kwáa-� “She asked for money” Reh 40
E.5a.5
Semitic-Harsusi gewē c / goc “hunger, famine” Skinner 292
W. Chadic-Hausa k’àwà-zuci “greed” Newman, R. 2000 112 yi k’āwàa / k’waawàa “crave”
(pejorative) Newman, R. 1990 55
Semitic-Hebrew gava’ “starved, was dying of hunger” Baltsan 114
See also C.38a.1 (Cushitic-Sidamo).
E.5a.1 Hmong-Mien-White Hmong khav “to covet, to seek after” Heimbach 93
E.5a.3 IE-Bengali caowa “want, desire, look at” vb. Thompson 48, 133
E.5a.4 Kartvelian-Georgian qvar- “to love” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 46
Proto-Kartvelian *qwar- “to love” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 46
468
/
E.5b.1 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic- Semitic- NS-Songhay S. Khoisan-
rŋáb-pa Gude Arabic (Gao) ngáaréy |Khakhea
“to desire earnestly, nga’a jarɣabu “demander, ‖k’aba
to crave” “want, “desire” supplier, “to be hungry”
Jaschke 134 desire, like” v. mendier, prier, C. Khoisan- Naron
“to be hungry” Skinner 169 Merriam- implorer” ‖kαba
“to have a craving appetite” Webster [ask for, “hunger, to be
Das 368 [Disyllabic Arabic 42 supplicate, beg hungry”
corresp.] for, implore] C. Khoisan- Tati
Proto-Lolo-Burmese “prière, demande, ‖kaba
m-ga “want, think, love” supplication” “hunger”
Matisoff 2003 163 Ducroz 190 Ruhlen #327 55
E.5b.1 TB-Tibetan rŋáb-pa “to desire earnestly, to crave” / Proto-Lolo-Burmese m-ga “want,
think, love” < W. C. Chadic- Gude nga’a “want, desire, like” / Khoisan-ǀKhakhea ‖k’aba
“to be hungry”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma *nga’a “want, desire, like” ~ *k’aba / ngaba “to be
hungry”
E.5b.1
Semitic-Written Arabic xawa “to be empty, to be hungry” Wehr 307
C. Chadic-Padoko; E. Chadic-Lele ngwá “aimer, vouloir” Skinner 169
Egyptian ukha “to seek, to enquire for” Budge v.1 179
Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi) gadda “to beg” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 385
/
E.5c.1 TB-Kiranti-Limbu C. Chadic- Logone Semitic- Hebrew
kamma “develop an attachment (u)gəm kama̱h v. past
“to be or become dependent on” “wollen, lieben” “longed”
van Driem 1987 252 [to want, desire, Baltsan 163
[Disyllabic corresp.] wish, love] khamo̱o̱d
TB-Tibetan skam-pa / rkam-pa C. Chadic- Daba “coveted,
“long for” Jaschke 20 ngəm desirable”
ŋam “to desire, to want, “friend” khamdanoot n.
to hunger, to thirst for” Skinner 169 “greed,
Goldstein 318 lustfulness”
gamöö “liking” Goldstein 218 Baltsan 196, 598
E.5c.2 W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic-
N. Chinese-MSC / Beijing k’ànwa n. Oromo
qiân “(of love between man and “desire, love” qanani
woman) deeply attached to each Skinner 169 vn. and adj.
other” Wu, J. 544 k’àuna “love” “amato,
xiângsi “yearning between lovers” Awde 1996 98 diletto,
Wu, J 753 [pronunciation prediletto”
xiângnian vt. “long for, think of, k’yàuna / [beloved,
miss” Wang, F. 497 k’yanwa] darling,
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) See Note A.33.1] dearest]
chàungoi “love and cherish” W. Chadic-N. Borello 335
Chen 208 Bauci-Kariya, Miya
chàn / chan “to love” gyam “friend”
“intimate” Chik / Ng Lam 415 Skinner 169.
469
Proto-Lolo-Burmese
kyâŋ “intimate friend”
Matisoff 2003 265
See also E.1c.2
E.5c.2 N. Chinese-MSC qiân “(of love between man and woman) deeply attached to each other”
< W. Chadic – Hausa k’yànwa n. “desire, love”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *k’an- “to desire, to love”
E.5c.1 TB-Tibetan rŋam-pa “to pant for, to desire ardently” Jaschke 134 Das 368
gam-pa “to desire, want, lust for” gamjaa “desire, lust” “stinginess” Goldstein 40 rkam-pa “of
passionate desire” Das 75 gamgεn “greedy, avaricious, gluttonous” Goldstein 237
Chinese-MSC gân “affection, attachment, love” Wu, J. 220 kànshang “take a fancy to”
Wu, J. 384 “favor” DeFrancis 501
E.5c.2 Written Burmese ʔəkyâŋ “one who is connected with another” Matisoff 2003 265
S. Chinese-Min (Taiwanese) khiām “to need, to lack” Bodman 1983172
E.5c.1
NS-Anywa [Anuak] kāammā “fifth sequence (long) in a dancing event (love dance): women ask men
for a dance [unmarried women often ask a relative of their secret love]” Reh 61
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic gwämäğğä “desire eagerly, crave, have an appetite for”
Leslau 1976 206
E. Cushitic-Oromo hamilu “bramare, desiderare” [to desire, to long for] Borello 199
E. Chadic-Lele kuma “désirer” [desire] Skinner 169
Middle Chinese khomX “to covet” Sagart 1999 14
E.5c.2
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) h’ann “to long, to yearn, be anxious for”
h’annaan “affection, sympathy, tenderness” Qafisheh 146
Written Arabic h’anna “to long, yearn” “crave” “to feel tenderness, affection” Wehr 244 ;
(Iraqi) ‫’ح‬ann “to long, to yearn, be anxious” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 121
NS-Songhay (Gao) káàn “être agréable aux sens et au coeur, être doux, être aiguise” [be pleasing to
the senses and the heart, be sweet, be stimulating to the appetite] Ducroz 141
W. Chadic-Hausa k’àunā f. “affection, love” yi k’àuna v. “cherish” k’àunatàa vt. “love”
Newman, R. 1990 40, 159 k’àunatàa “beg, plead” vt. Newman / Ma 1979 75
NS-Anywa [Anuak] cóoŋ “longing (for something)” Reh 16
E.5c.1
South Daic-Lao kwam3 hak2 v. “love (feeling)” Marcus 56
IE-Sanskrit kam “to love, be in love with” “wish, desire, long for”
kama “wish, desire, longing” kamavat “being in love, enamoured, wanton” kamana “lustful,
sensual, lascivious” Cologne Lexicon
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan kam “to love, to be in love with” Peterson, J. 1995
E. 5c.2 IE-Sanskrit kan “to strive after, seek, wish” kanta “desired, loved, dear, pleasing, agreeable,
lovely, beautiful” m. “anyone beloved, lover, husband” “wish, desire, long for” kantu “love, the god
of love” Cologne Lexicon
South Daic-Lao ngaan5 v. “crave” Marcus 56
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian kan / Mongolian-Kalka xa� / -Mongolian-Buriat xani “friend, mate”
-Mongolian-Kalmuck xa�i, xa� “friend, mate” / -Mongolian-Ordos xani “friend, mate”
-Mongolian-Dagur x�” , xani “friend, mate” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
IE-Hindi cāhanā “want” “desire” vt. Scudiere 44, 237
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan kan “to desire, prefer, select” cakana “to love” Peterson, J. 1995
470
↓↓
E.6 AA– Chadic AA –Cushitic AA-Semitic NS NC
E.6.1 W. Chadic-Sura N. Cushitic- Semitic-Arabic Daza
TB- Burmese šār “Freund, Bedauye (Iraqi) sardo
tsa Genosse” [Bedawi] ts’adaq “ami”
“have tender [friend, sharik “to be or become [friend]
regard for one companion] “freund, mutual friends” Jourdan 32
another” Skinner 269 Kamerad” Dict. of Iraqi
Benedict 28, C. Chadic- Bura Reinisch 217 Arabic
200, 216 sha / tsha part 2 261
“love, affection”
Dict. of Bura
E.6.2 W. Chadic- C. Cushitic- Semitic- Kanuri
TB-Tibetan Hausa Bilin Ethiopian- sáwàngin
mdsah’-wa sha’awa c’arā Amharic “become a
“to love” “liking, “Genosse, sha’awa friend
mdsa-wo wanting” “desire Kamerad, “liking” (Arabic)”
“love, husband, for women” Nebenmann” Semitic-Arabic Cyffer
friend” Newman, P. [companion, (Yemeni) 1990 155
Das 1049 2007 182 comrade, ] s’aah’ab sáwà
[Disyllabic (Kano) sawō Skinner 269 “to be or become “friend”
corresp.] Matsushita 1993 a friend of Hutchison
300 someone” 1981109
Qafisheh 362
E.6.3 C. Chadic- Egyptian NC-
TB-Tibetan Bura shagig Fulfulde
cāgshen dzakwabta “to delight in, (Fulani)
“attachment, “to disturb, to desire” sago
desire” excite in the Budge v.2 729 “desire”
Goldstein 353 sense of extreme Taylor 163
desire”
Dict. of Bura
E.6.4 TB- C. Cushitic- West Semitic-
Tibetan Bilin Ethiopian-Gurage
camba “love, šām (Čaha, Eža, Gogot)
compassion” “Liebe, šä-m “desire”
camden Zuneigung” Leslau v.2
“dear, beloved” [love, liking, 176-177267
Goldstein 733 affection]
Skinner 234
E.6.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *m-dza “to love”
< W. Semitic-Arabic ts’aadaq “to be or become mutual friends”
E.6.2 TB-Tibetan mdsah’-wa “to be amicable, to love”
< W. Chadic-Hausa sha’awa “liking, wanting” “desire for women”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma *tșaa- “to love (as friends do), to be a friend to (someone)”
~ sha’awa “liking, wanting” “desire for women”
267
Note- E.6.4 (Semitic) In these Čaha, Eža, Gogot, Soddo dialects of Semitic-Gurage this is an alternative form
along with the tam- root also meaning “desire” found in E.2a.2 above.
471

E.6.1 TB-Tibetan shādza “love, fondness, affection” Goldstein 1091
caà “to get attached to, to love, to like” Goldstein 352
ça-tsha “affection” Goldstein 1091
ça-tsha “affection” Das 1227 caà “to get attached to, to love, to like” Goldstein 352
Proto-TB *m-dza “to love” Benedict #67 28, 118, 200 Goldstein 852
dzajiŋ “relatives and close friends” Goldstein 854 rtsa-lag “relation, friend”
Das 1007 mdsah̟-mo “a mistress, also a female friend” Das 1049
TB- Jingpho [Kachin] ndzha “show love, affectionate” Benedict/ Matisoff 28, 118
E.6.2 TB-Tibetan mdzá-ba “to be amicable, to love as friends or kinsmen do” Jaschke 461 “intimate
friend, husband, wife” mdza-bo “friend” Jaschke 462 Goldstein 904
E.6.4 TB-Tibetan cambo “affectionate, kind and loving” Goldstein 733
E.6.1 West (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic šärik “partner, associate” Leslau 1976 63
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šariik “partner, ally, associate” “accomplice”
Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 260-261
W. Chadic- Ngizim sáařá “peer” Schuh 144
W. Chadic-Hausa sark’u vg.7 (sustentative) “become close friends” Newman, P. 2007 180
W. Chadic- Ron (Daffo) màzàlàŋ zalaŋ pl. “Freund (eines Madchens), flotter junger Mann” [friend
of a young girl, a dashing young man] mà “(prefix for deriving masculine noun forms)”
E. Cushiic-Sidamo jaale “friend” jaale “accomplices, confederates, a party to” Gasparini 179-180
E.6.2
Berber–Tuareg [Tamasheq] z’awat “être aimé de tous” [be loved by everyone] Skinner 234
E. Chadic-Dangaleat sāwne “volonté propre, bon vouloir” Skinner 234
W. Chadic-Hausa tsāràa / sa’aa “peer, lover” -(Gumel, Hadejia dialect) tsārā “a paramour”
Matsushita 1993110, 222 Skinner 223, 269
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šahha “to cause hunger, desire, craving” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic 253 ;
(Yemeni) šaa / šaaʔa “to want, wish, desire” (used in a few phrases of God)” Qafisheh 356
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic ša “want, wish” Leslau 1976 61
Egyptian sha “to seek, to ask, to beg” Budge v.2 730
W. Chadic- Hausa sābàa (da) “be used to, be familiar with” sàabō “familiarity, friendship”
Newman, R. 1990 92 Skinner 223
E.6.3 W. Chadic- Hausa shàak’u vi. “be fond of, be close friends” Newman / Ma 1979 109
shàak’uwa (vn. of shàak’u) “intimacy” Newman, P. 2007 183
E6c.4 Egyptian shaām “to desire” Budge v.2 723
E.6.2 IE-Sanskrit jara “a paramour, a confidental friend”
jAraya “to cherish,” jArya “intimacy”
sAra “a confederate prince, ally”
E.6.3 IE-Sanskrit
sakama “wishing, desirous of” “full of love, loving” “a lover”
sakha “a friend, companion”
sakhya “friendship,intimacy” “fellowship, community”
sAkhya “association, party” “friendship”
sakhitvana “friendship, intimacy”
sakasaya “dominated by passion” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Old Indian sákhā m. “friend, assistant, companion”
Nicolayev, Sergei IE-Etymology 2012 129
See also Supplementary table 2 E.6.1-3
↓↓
472

E.7a-e AA– Chadic AA–Cush. AA-- NS Niger-
Sem. Congo
Swadesh W. Chadic – Hausa Kanuri Niger-
“good” yâwwā excl. yâuwa Congo-
E.7a.1 “excellent!, well done” “all right, Fulfulde
S. Chinese-Yue Skinner 291 O.K.” (Fulani)
(Cantonese) “that’s right” expression youwah
yàu “bravo!, well-done” Cyffer excl.
“good, excellent” Newman, P. 2007 225 1990 189 “Hoorah!”
Chik / Ng Lam 27 C. Chadic- Mofu- Taylor 238
Gudur yaw, yawa
“bon!, d’accord!”
[good!, agreed!]
Skinner 291
E.7a.2 W. Chadic- Ron E. Cushitic-
N. Chinese -MSC (Daffo) Sidamo
hâo “Hello!” hyaw kâyyo
Manser pt. 2 169 “gut, schön sein” “luck, good
“good, fine, nice” [be good, beautiful] luck”
“kind” Jungraithmayr 1970 kâyyoha
Wu, J. 269 216 ikkohe
“good” “well” Skinner 164 “Let it be a
Huang 158 blessing to
S. Chinese-Kejia you.”
[Hakka] “You have
(MacIver) good luck!”
hau3 / hau5 Gasparini 192
“good, nice,
excellent”
Hakka Dict.
E.7a.3 E. Chadic- Masa
N. Chinese -MSC Group- Lame
yōu yo “bon!, bien!”
“excellent” [good!] Skinner 291
Wu, J. 836-837 W. Chadic- Karekare
yəwəw “goodness”
Skinner 291
E.7a.4 W. Chadic-Hausa
S. Chinese-Kejia ho [a] greeting
[Hakka] W. Chadic-
ho3 “good” Kofyar
Yue 2001 145 hoŋ
C. Chinese-Wu “welcome, hello”
ɦo6 “fine, beautiful”Skinner 111
Hakka Dict.
E.7a.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) yàu “good, excellent”
< W. Chadic – Hausa yawwā excl. “that’s right” “bravo, well-done”, yâuwā “bravo!”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *yâuwā “bravo!” “well done” “that’s right”
473

E.7a.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) yáuh yihk n. “profit” yáuhleih “profit” v. Kwan 377
E.7a.4
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) hóu / hou “good, nice, fine, excellent”
“All right” “bravo!” “wonderful!’ “an exclamatory expression” Chik / Ng Lam 91
S. Chinese-Min hôa-bí / hôa-le “beautiful, splendid” Amoy-English Dict. 243
E.7a.1
W. Chadic–Hausa yâuwā “bravo!” Newman, P. 2000 607
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic yäwät’t’allät’ “accomplished, successful, excellent”
Leslau 1976 177
E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] òyàw “générosité ” Fédry 42
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] yawa “generous” Taylor 229
N. Cushitic- Bedauye [Bedawi] yawa “benefit, profit” Skinner 291
E. Chadic- Migama ’ayāwi “richesse” Skinner 291
W. Chadic- Hausa kyau / kyaawo “goodness, beauty” Skinner 291
E.7a.4
NC-Mande fo “salutation” Skinner 111
NS-Songhay fo “saluer” [greet] Skinner 111
E.7a.4 IE-Pashto ho “yes, ay, be it so” “vocative particle” Raverty 1069
/
E.7b.1 W. Chadic – Hausa Egyptian
S. Chinese-Min kyâu < kyāwòo qaráu
kiau1 < kyāwùu “goodness, “light, weak,
S. Chinese-Kejia fine appearance, delicate”
[Hakka] beauty” Newman, P. Budge
giau1 “beautiful, 2000 14, 409 v 2 764
lovely” Kraft 352
Hakka Dict.
E.7b.2 W. Chadic – Hausa Semitic-
N. Chinese-MSC k’àwàatā vt. Arabic
(WG) “beautify, adorn” (Iraqi)
ch’iào / ts’iào Newman, P. 2007 129 jawda
“handsome, [pronounced k’yawata “goodness,
beautiful” See Note A.33.1] excellence”
Mathews #759a Newman, R. 1990 Dict. of Iraqi
103 110, 201 Arabic
part 2 80
E.7b.3 W. Chadic– Gwandara Kanuri
N. Chinese-MSC kyawu / sháwa
sháo cawu “good, kind, “beautiful,
“splendid, handsome” pretty”
beautiful” “goodness, beauty” Cyffer
Wu, J. 601 Skinner 164 1990 160
chiāo (WG)
“beautiful,
graceful”
Mathews #690 93
474
E.7b.4 E. NC-
S. Chinese-Yue Cushitic- Fulfulde
(Cantonese) Oromo [Fulani]
gáau garawu wauna
“handsome, adj. gaunidum
attractive, “buono, “be
charming” benigno,” beautiful,
Chik / Ng Lam 15 [good, handsome”
benign] Taylor 210
Borello
170
E.7b.1-2 S. Chinese-Min kiau1 / S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] giau1 “tender, delicate, beautiful,
lovely” / N. Chinese-MSC ch’iào / ts’iào “handsome, beautiful”
< E.7b.2 W. Chadic – Gwandara kyawu / cawu “good, kind, handsome” “goodness, beauty”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *kyawu / cawu “good, kind, handsome” “goodness, beauty”
E.7b.2
N. Chinese-MSC jjiāo / jiăo “handsome, beautiful-looking” Wu, J. 339, 340 “tender, lovely
charming” ; jiâomei “coquettish, sweet and charming” Wu, J. 339 ;
ch’iāo “beautiful, graceful” Mathews 93 #690 chiâo “handsome” Mathews #703 96
qiâo “pretty, smart, handsome” Wu, J. 548
E.7b.3
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Kuangdong, Meixian, Donguan etc.) ziau1 “tender, delicate, beautiful,
lovely” Hakka Dict.
E.7b.4 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gáau “handsome, pretty, good-looking” Chik / Ng Lam 95 ;
E.7b.1
W. Chadic- Hausa dà kyâu “all right, fine, very well” Newman, P. 2007 124
kyâuta “gift, do a kindness” Skinner 164 ;
kyàkyāwā adj. kyāwàawā pl. “beautiful, handsome” Newman, P. 2007 123 Kraft 352
mài kyâu “beautiful” “good (of quality, beauty)” Newman, R.1990 21,110
W. Chadic–Gwandara
kyawu / cawu “good, kind, handsome” “goodness, beauty” Skinner 164
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *ɧywar- / / *ɧ-yar- “be good” Militarev, A. Afro-Asiatic Etymology 2007
E. Cushitic- Borana kayoma “grazia, fortuna, dono” Skinner 164
E.7b.2
W. Chadic – Hausa k’āyatar / k’āwatar (dà) “make something look good” “please”
Newman, R. 1990 110, 201
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic t’əru “good, nice, fine (weather), clear (water), perfect (condition)
t’ərunnat “virtue, (good quality), excellence, goodness” Leslau 1976 226
E.7b.3 E. Cushitic-Oromo cawu “essere urbano” [be polite] c’owu vi. “essere urbano, garbato,
gentile, nobile, dabbene” [to be polite, graceful, gentle, noble, upright” Borello 81 /c’/ = /ʧ’/
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic ĉ’awa “person of good breeding” “urbane, well-bred” “behaved,
well-mannered, gallant, gentleman” Leslau 1976 240-241 ĉ’awannat “politeness, civility, decency,
good-breeding” Leslau 1976 240-241 čar / čər “good, generous” čārənat “bounty, kindness”
čərota “charity, philanthropy, beneficence” Leslau 1976 109
NS-Kanuri sháuwà “beautiful” Lukas 1937 29, 241
E.7b.4 E. Cushitic-Oromo garrumma n. “bontà, cortesia, amabilità, gentilezza, benignità”.
[goodness, kindness, gentleness, mildness”] gari “buono, virtuoso” [good, virtuous] Borello 169-170
W. Chadic- Hausa kārama f. “generosity, kindly disposition” “generous” Newman, P. 2007 108-109
475

E.7b.3 IE-Sanskrit cAru “agreeable, approved, esteemed, beloved, endeared”
cAruta “loveliness, beauty” cArutva “endearedness” “lovely, beautiful” “dear (with name of person)”
E.7b.4 IE-Sanskrit gaura “brilliant, clean, beautiful” Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2 E.7b.3-4
/
E.7c.1 W. Chadic- Hausa
S. Chinese-Min chhiau kyautàtā “improve” vt.
“be more than, exceed” kyàutatàa “improve, become
“be better than” better” Newman, P. 2007 124
Hakka Dictionary gyàaruwā / k’àaruwā f.
S. Chinese-Kejia “improvement” Newman, R. 1990
[Hakka] (MacIver) 132 gyàaru vg.7 vi.
kiau3 “correct, (sustentative / passive)
rectify, straighten” “has passive meaning” “be repaired”
Hakka Dict. Kraft 153 “be well repaired”268
Newman, P. 2000 664, 666
E.7c.2 S. Chinese- W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic-Oromo
Kejia [Hakka] k’àaru vi. č’alu
chau1 “be more than, “improve, “sorpassare, essere
exceed, be better than, get, become better” migliore, superare”
excel” [to surpass,
Hakka Dict. be better] Borello 74
E.7c.3 W. Chadic- Hausa
N. Chinese–MSC fi “exceed, surpass”
bîjiào “compare, “used to form comparatives and
contrast” “fairly, superlatives” (See E.30.1)
comparatively, fi kyâu vi. “be better than”
relatively, rather” Newman, P. 2007 62
Wu, J. 32
E.7c.2 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] chau1 “be more than, exceed, be better than, excel”
< W. Chadic–Hausa W. Chadic-Hausa k’àaru vi. “improve,
get, become better”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *k’àaru
E.7c.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gáu “to correct, to discipline” Chik / Ng Lam 351
gaau deui “proofread, proof reader” Po-fei Huang 383
TB-Tibetan garso “making oneself look good ”
E.7c.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) beigaau “compare”
beigaauge “comparative” Kwan 84 Chen 43269 See also E.30.1.
268
Note- E.7c.1 (Chadic-Hausa) The E.7c.1 Hausa morpheme gyàaru “be repaired” is a grade 7 verb.
“Grade 7 which is strictly an intransitive (or sociative) grade, denotes that the subject of the verb has sustained or is
capable of sustaining some action. In many cases it thus corresponds to the English passive. There is usually an
accompanying connotation that the action was done thoroughly” Newman, P. 2000 665. It is also called a
sustentative. Newman’s example for gyàaru is “motar ta gyaru”. He translates this as “The car was well
repaired”, an emphasis on the quality of the repairs. Hence the Hausa grade 7 syntax generates the semantics of
“being better than (before)”, which are found in the Chinese morphemes. See also E.13e.4, H.39a.3 and Chapter
10 section 10.2.0 on the grade 7 sustentative, passive..
476
S. Chinese-Min kàu “compare, to correct, proofread, revise (books etc.) Amoy-English Dict.360
E.7c.2 TB-Tibetan 0 gyarjöö “altering, modifying again, remodeling, revision” Goldstein 86
N. Chinese-MSC chāo “exceed, surpass, overtake” Wu, J. 78
E.7c.3 N. Chinese-MSC bîjyâu “compare” chāoguò “surpass, exceed” Wang, F. 60
bi gao-di “to compare so as to see who is better” De Francis 49 E.7c.5
Chen 43 [Disyllabic corresp.]
S. Chinese-Min pî-kaǔ “compare, comparatively” Bodman 1987 v.2. 82 1983 186
N. Chinese-MSC Middle Chinese sjuw “to arrange, repair, well attend to” Sagart 1999 70
N. Chinese-MSC jiâo “rectify, straighten out, correct” chiâo (WG) “to bend straight, to reform”
Mathews #692b 94 jiào “check, proofread” Wu, J. 341-2
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] jàu5 “must, should, ought to” Hakka Dict.
E.7c.1 W. Chadic-Hausa gāra adv. “rather, it would be better (followed by a nominal or by a
complement cause)” Newman, P. 2007 70 (Gobir dialect.) k’ārā “rather” gāra “it would be better,
preferable” Matsushita 1993 137, 151 See also H.25c.1
E. Cushitic-Oromo gar-omu “farsi buono, migliorarsi” [make oneself good, improve]
E. Cushitic-Rendille ikároón “good for, beneficial for (someone)” Pillinger 151
NS-Kanuri kartə “well-done, good, nice, pretty” Cyffer 1990 82 ngálwo “state of being improved or
having recuperated” Cyffer 1990 134
Egyptian garbu, garpu “to hammer, to rework” Budge v.2 803
E.7c.2
W. Chadic-Hausa (Gumel)
gyarta m. “the trade of calabash mending” Matsushita 1993 99
gyarawa vn. of gyara “repair” yana gyarawa “He is repairing” Newman, P. 2000 703
C. Chadic-Fali-Kiria ŋgyar- “exceed” Skinner 74
E.7c.3
W. Chadic-Hausa k’àaru vi. “improve, become better” Newman, R.1990 132
“increase, benefit” Newman, P. 2007 127 [pronounced k’yàaru. See Note A.33.1]
gyārā m. “repairs” “modification or amendment to a document” Newman, P. 2007 80
W. Chadic-Ngizim d’ə̀kau (vn. d’ə̀kaya) “exceed, surpass, be more than (or if context makes
compared quality clear, could mean “be bigger than”, “taller than”, “better than” Schuh 51-52, 190
Semitic-Arabic-Iraqi
’‫ح‬awwar “to change, alter, amend, modify” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 123
zarwaq ”to decorate, adorn, embellish” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic Part 2 203
E. Cushitic-Rendille káwéen “bigger than, superior to” Pillinger183
NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] yauta “excel, surpass” Taylor 229
E.7c.1 IE-Sanskrit karka “good, excellent” “beauty” Cologne Lexicon
/
269
Note- E.7c.1 (Cantonese Extended ) beigaau also functions as an adverb in Cantonese. “To make a
comparative meaning explicit, [an adjective ] may be reinforced by the adverb beigaau ‘rather’ ”Gamyaht
.beigaau yiht di.” lit. “today rather hot a bit” Matthews, S.166 yiht “hot”
477
E.7d.1 W. hadic- Daza C. Khoisan-Hiechware

S. Chinese-Yue Hausa gale kaie “agreeable, nice, pretty”
(Cantonese) k’āyata vt. “beautiful, Starostin, G. 2003 18
gàai “good “beautify” good” N.Khoisan-Naron
beautiful” k’āyà- Greenberg !kãĩ “good”
ngaaih “fine, fair, taccē 1966 134 Ruhlen 1994 #302 54
beautiful, good” “beautiful,” N. Khoisan !Kung
Chik / Ng Lam Newman, kaiä “good”
14, 83 P. 2007 129 Ruhlen 1994 #302 54
E.7d.2 W. Chadic-
N. Chinese –MSC Ngizim
/ Beijing ngálkò
gâikou “it would
“withdraw or be better
modify one’s that
previous remark, Schuh 125
correct oneself”
[Disyllabic
corresp.]
Wu, J. 216
E.7d.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ngaai “fine, fair, beautiful”
< W. Chadic-Hausa k’āyàtaccē “beautiful, sophisticated” / N.Khoisan-Naron !gãĩ “good”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *!gãĩ “good”
E.7d.2 N. Chinese-MSC gâiguo “mend one’s ways, correct one’s mistakes” Wu, J. 216
N. Chinese -MSC gâi “ought to, should” Wu, J. 216
S. Chinese-Min kāi / leng-kaî “should, ought to” Hakka Dict. Bodman 1987 v.2 108
N. Chinese-MSC jiàogâi “educational reform” jiào “teaching” Wu, J. 341

E.7d.1
E. Cushitic- Somali gaayo “valuable” “quality” Awde 1999 44
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) xayri “charitable” xayyir “generous man, charitable, benevolent man”
Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 150 ; Written Arabic ḵair “good, excellent, outstanding, superior”
Wehr 308
Semitic-Arabic hayyee baaya “approve by saying hayyee” Leslau 1963 89
W. Chadic- Hausa kàrimì adj. “generous” kārimci “generosity” Newman, P. 2007 108-109
E. Cushitic-Oromo gârī “good” Skinner 78 Clamons 533
NC-Swahili kārimu “generous, kind, open-minded” Awde 2000 84
NS- Kanuri kərê adj. “be generous” Cyffer 1990 93
N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e !kãĩ “good” Ruhlen 1994 #302 54
S. Khoisan-!Kwi-!Ng!ke kyai “good” Bleek 1956 7 Starostin, G. 2013 24
C. Khoisan-Nama !kâi “good” Ehret 1982 [173] Starostin, G. 2003 18
E.7d.2 Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari hāya “allright” “from Arabic” Leslau 1963 89, 17
E.7d.1
IE-Pashto khair “good, well, best” khair / khairat “alms, charity”
khairat kawul “to give alms” Raverty 445
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur xeyr “good, good act, blessing, alms, charity, right, fine, okay”
Uyghur Dictionary
478
/
E.7e.1 N. Chinese-MSC / Beijing E. Chadic- Masa NS-Kanuri
gâiliáng “improve, ameliorate” Group ngəlangin
“reform” Wu, J. 216 kileŋ “become good, get better,
“change to/for the better” “improve” “fin, joli” improve” Cyffer 1990 136
Wang, F. 159 Boping 40 [nice, pretty] NS-Bari kεlan “beauty”
[Disyllabic corresp.] Skinner 145 Greenberg 1966 118
E.7e.2 Old Chinese liáŋ “good” NS-Nuer
Karlgren GSR #735a-d lan lan
Proto-TB *l(y)ak ~ *l(i)áng “good, “very good”
beautiful” Matisoff 2003 327, 601 Huffman 27
E.7e.1 N. Chinese-MSC gâiliáng “improve, ameliorate”
< NS-Kanuri ngəlangin “become good, get better”
E.7e.2 Old Chinese liáŋ “good” / Proto-TB *l(i)áng “good, beautiful”
< NS-Nuer lan lan “very good”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *ngəlang- “become good” ~ lang “good”270
E.7e.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) góilèung “improve, ameliorate” Wu, J. 216
TB-Tibetan glan-pa / “patch, mend” lhan-pa / glan-pa “sew on a patch” Jaschke 80, 648
Proto- TB glan “repair, mend” Matisoff 2003 590-591
E.7e.1
NS-Kanuri ngə̀la adj. “good, beautiful” Cyffer 1990 136
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] ngala “begin to get better after a serious illness” Taylor 61
E. Chadic- Peve kəlieŋ “clean” Skinner 145
E.7e.1 Altaic-Uzbek o’nglamog “make better” English-Uzbek Dictionary
↓↓
E.8a-e AA– Chadic AA –Cushitic AA-Semitic Nilo- NC,
Saharan Khoisan
Swadesh E. Cushitic- Egyptian Nuer N.
“to say” Sidamo uaua ɛwa Khoisan-
E.8a.1 waar- “to take “they say” ǂKhomani
N. Chinese –MSC- “gossip, tell counsel, Huffman kwa
Beijing (news), talk, to discuss, to 15 “say”
huà “word, talk” speak” deliberate, to Kanuri Starostin,
“speak about ” Hudson 72, 399 talk things hawar G. 2003 29
Wu, J. 289 Proto-Cushitic over” “story,
“words, saying, talk” *war- Budge news”
Mathews #2215 330 “to call out, v.1 145 “informa-
S. Chinese-Yue news, report” tion”
(Cantonese) Ehret 1995 Cyffer 65
wah “say” Kwan 456 #972 462
“a talk, a speech, words,
language”
Chik / Ng Lam 421
270
Note E.7e.1-2. This is a case of “disappearing k- initial. See discussion in Chapter 10 section 10.3.2.1.
479
E.8a.2 S. Chinese-Yue E. Chadic- Proto-AA

(Cantonese) Sumray (Orel/
waih “to tell, to say” wáy “say” Stolbova 1995)
“to name, to call” Muka-rovsky *way “say”
Chik / Ng Lam 42 309 Skinner 280
E.8a.3 S. Chinese-Yue C. Chadic- West Nubian- NC-S.E.-
(Cantonese) Gude Semitic- Kənzi Mande-
wei “to tell, to say” u’i Ethiopian- [Kenuzi] Mano
Chik / Ng Lam 426 “say, tell” Amharic wee wé “say”
C. Chinese-Wu Skinner 280 wəyeyyet “sagen, NC-S.E.-
uE6 “say, tell” “discussion, sprechen” Mande-Dan
“call, name, be called” dialogue” [say, we “say”
Hakka Dict. Leslau speak”] Mukarov-
TB-Karenic 1976 174 Skinner sky
-wέ- “reported speech” 280 309
Matisoff 2003 222
E.8a.4 E. Cushitic-
S. Chinese-Yue Afar waane
(Cantonese) “chat”
wàhn waanise
“to say, to speak” “speak, talk”
Chik / Ng Lam 6 Parker /
Hayward 207
E.8a.1 N. Chinese-MSC huà “word, talk” “talk about, speak about” “words, saying, talk”
/ S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) wah “say”
< Egyptian uaua “to take counsel, to discuss, to deliberate, to talk things over” /
N. Khoisan-ǂKhomani kwa “say”
E.8a.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) wei “to tell, to say” / C. Chinese-Wu uE6 “say, tell” “call, name, be
called” / TB-Karenic -wέ- “reported speech”
< C. Chadic-Gude u’i “say, tell” / NS-Nubian-Kənzi wee “say, speak”,
NS-Dongola, Kənzi we: “to say”, Nuer wε “to say” / NC-S.E.-Mande-Mano, Dan wé “say” /
Approximate Sinitic etyma *kwa ~ * wé “say” “to say”
E.8a.1 N. Chinese-MSC tánhuà (lit. talk words) “speak” Yip, Po-Chin 2004 90
zhenhuà “the truth “ Manser pt. 2 571 [Compound of this root and that of E.11a.1]
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gwa “to divine” “divination” Chik / Ng Lam 46 E.8a.3
S. Chinese-Min uē “language, word, expression” Bodman 1987 v.2 188
E.8a.1 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic awärrä “announce, report, tell news, narrate, gossip”
Leslau 1976 168 wäre “news, tidings” 168 417 hawarya “apostle” Leslau 1976 4, 268
Egyptian uāa “to cry out, to conjure, to curse" Budge v.1 154
E. Cushitic- Afar warisa / warse “tell” wàlal “conversation” Parker / Hayward 120, 209
E. Cushitic-Somali war “news” Leslau 1963161 warran “to give news” Awde 1999 50
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic wäräňňa “one who tells news, who tells gossip” Leslau 1976 169
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Ge’ez waray “tell news, narrate” Skinner 290
Proto-AA *-war- “to call out” Ehret 1995 #972 462
E.Cushitic-Oromo wareru “esclamare, gridar dallo spavento, dalla gioia, dalla sorpresa”
[exclaim, shout (from fear, from joy, from surprise” Borello 421
E.Cushitic-Rendille waha “call (a person) Pillinger 290
NS-Kanuri wawǔr “proclamation of a herald”
480
wawur-ngin “announce, publicize, proclaim or herald public news” Cyffer 1990 183
W. Chadic-Ngizim wàařáw “the person previously mentioned” Schuh 172
W. Chadic- Angas gwá “oratio obliqua” [indirect discourse], that” Foulkes 113
gwar “this is used only when a person is repeating another’s words. It precedes the words being
quoted.” Foulkes 193
Berber–Tuareg [Tamasheq] awal “parole, langue (idiome)” Skinner 290
NS- Nuer rwac “word, to speak, speech, to talk” Huffman 43
E.8a.2 W. Chadic- Hausa wai “hearsay ” “one says, it is said that (after verbs of saying, hearing etc.)
‘that’” Newman, P. 2007 216
E. Cushitic-Burji waari- / waar-iy- “tell” Hudson 225
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic täwäyäyyä “converse, discuss with one another”
w’äre “news, tidings, information, gossip, rumor, conversation” Leslau 1976 168, 173
C. Cushitic- Bilin ware “news” Leslau 1963 161
E.8a.3
N. Khoisan-!Kung kwe “say” Starostin, G. 2003 29
NS-Nuer wε “to say” “to exclaim” “to call out” 50-51
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] wi’ “say” Skinner 280
N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e k’wi “language” Ruhlen 1994 56 #351
NS-Zagawa, Nuer oi “to speak” Greenberg 1966 144
E.8a. 4 E. Cushitic-Rendille waanicha “advise” waansí “advice, guidance” Pillinger 289
E.8a.1 IE-Sanskrit vyahr “to utter or pronounce a sound, speak, say to (acc.), converse with, to call
by name” Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 E.8a.1
E.8a.2 IE-Pashto (Pushtu) waina “to say, to preach” Raverty 1049
/
E.8b.1 S. Chinese- W. Chadic- Omotic – Semitic-Arabic NS-Tubu
Kejia [Hakka] Hausa Janjero (Yemeni) [Teda]
(MacIver) fat7 fàd’ā fadu fatan “to tell on fat
(Lau Chunfat) fad5 “tell, say” “prophesy” someone” “sagen”
“issue, publish, reveal, fàd’àa vt. Skinner 62 fard [say]
disclose, uncover” “tell to” “to predict, announce, Lukas 1953
“utter, express, speak” Newman, P. divine commandment” 198
Hakka Dict. 2007 56 Qafisheh 459 NS-Daza
S. Chinese-Yue Skinner 61 (Iraqi) fader / fado
(Cantonese) fad’akar fattan “to be in the “dire”
faat “to issue, give vt. “teach, tell, habit of tattling, Jourdan 35
forth” faat bíu cause to informing, fader
“to make known, realize” to bear tales” “parler”
to make public” Newman / Ma Dict. of Iraqi Arabic Jourdan 40
Chik / Ng Lam 314 1979 33 part 2 345
E.8b.2 E. Chadic- Proto-AA West Semitic-
S. Chinese-Min Krio (Orel / Ethiopian-Amharic
huât wāte Stolbova awät’t’a “make go
“to issue, send out” “sagen” 1995) *wat- out, issue (a coin,
Bodman 1987 [to say] “call, speak” a magazine),
v.2 140 Skinner 61 Skinner [61] publish”
Leslau 1976 177
E.8b.3 W. Chadic- Semitic-Arabic
S. Chinese-Kejia Gwandara (Iraqi)
[Hakka] (Gitata) faawwaɗ̟
(MacIver) fa5 / va5 páà “tell” “to negotiate with”
481
(Meixian) (Toni) tfawwah

fa5 wa5 fala “to pronounce, utter”
“speak, talk, converse, “tell” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
say” Hakka Dict. Matsushita part 2 363
N. Chinese-MSC 1974 #552
fā “utter, express” 121
Wu, J. 180
E.8b.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] fat7, fad5 “issue, publish, reveal, disclose, uncover” “utter,
express, speak”
< W. Chadic–Hausa fàd’ā “tell, say, utter” / Omotic – Janjero fadu “prophesy”
E.8b.2 Chinese-Min huat “to issue, send out”
< E. Chadic–Krio wāte “to say” / Proto-AA *wat- “call, speak”
E.8b.3 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] fa5 “speak, talk, converse, say” / N. Chinese-MSC fā “utter,
express ”
< W. Chadic- Gwandara fala “tell” / Semitic-Arabic tfawwah “to pronounce, utter”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *fàd’- / *fàa- “tell, say, utter” “prophesy” ~ *wat- “say, call,
announce”
E. 8b.1 Semitic- Arabic (Yemeni) fattaah’-al-faal “fortune teller” Qafisheh 458
E.8b.2
Semitic-Akkadian wadu “inform” -Gurage ewädä “tell, say” Skinner 62
W. Chadic-Hausa wāto, wātau “that is to say, namely” Skinner 284”
E.8b.3
Berber-Ayr affal “immunité (contre une maladie) [immunity] ; “paroles magiques ayant pour but de
retrouver un object egaré) [magic speech] Militarev, A. Berber Etymology 2006
W. Chadic- Gwandara (Cancara) pa ncè “say” (Koro) fara nkyè “say” Matsushita 1974 #551 121
Niger-Congo-N. Mande- Bambara, Jula fɔ‫“ כ‬speak, say” Mukarovsky 346
W. Chadic- Gwandara para ”to tell” Matsushita 1972 94
Proto-Chadic (Newman) p-rə “to say” Ehret 1995 #51 96
E. Cushitic-Sidamo fajja “to allow, grant permission” Gasparini 96
E.8b.1 IE-Sanskrit
vad “to speak, say, utter, tell, report” “to adjudge, to adjudicate” “to proclaim, announce, foretell”
vad “to speak, say, utter, tell, report, speak to, talk with” RV
“to proclaim, announce, foretell’
vada “speaking, a speaker”
vAda “speaking of or about to adjudge, to adjudicate”
“speaking about, mentioning”
vadana “the act of speaking, talking”
IE-Avestan “to proclaim, announce, foretell” “to allege, affirm, to declare (anyone or anything) to be”
Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 E.8b.1.
E.8b.3 IE-E. Iranian-Avestan rastara vāɣenti “verkunden, sagen, sprechen, besonders in feierlicher
Weise” [announce, proclaim, say, speak, especially in a celebratory way]
/
482
E.8c.1 S. Chinese-Yue C. Cushitic-Afar West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic

(Cantonese) faatica fətəh “justice, law, judgement”
faat “law, “court decision” Leslau 1976 249, 293
regulation, rule, Parker / Hayward Semitic- Arabic (Yemeni)
statutes, legal” 99 fatwa “formal ruling on a
Chik / Ng Lam 253 E. Cushitic– religious matter” Qafisheh 460
faatding ge Sidamo (Iraqi) “a formal legal opinion
“fixed by law” farada “to judge” (Islamic law)”
Kwan 269 Gasparini 96 Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 345
făguān “judge, justice, E. Cushitic–Burji West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic
magistrate” farad- v. färrädä “dispense justice, judge,
[lit. law expert] “judge” render judgment, pronounce
Wu, J. 183 Chen 210 Sasse 1982 69 sentence” Leslau 1976 246, 389
E.8c.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) faat “law, regulation, rule, statutes, legal” / N. Chinese-MSC
fá “to punish, penalize”
< Semitic-Arabic*fatwa “formal decision on a religious matter” / C. Cushitic-Afar faatica “court
decision”
< E. Cushitic–Sidamo farada “to judge”/
färrädä “dispense justice, judge”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *faat- “legal judgement” ~ fa / far “to dispense justice, to judge”
“to punish, penalize”
E.8c.1
C. Chinese-Wu faʔ7 “law, rules, statutes”
Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC falyuan “court of justice, law court” Wu, J. 183
N. Chinese-MSC fá “to punish, penalize” Wu, J. 182-183
E.8c.1
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic fərd “judgement, sentence (of court, justice, trial)
Leslau 1976 247.
Also Gurage (all dialects) Leslau 1979 v.2 348-9
E. Cushitic–Oromo faradu “giudicare, sentenziare, emettere un veredicto”
[to judge, to sentence, to issue a verdict] Borello 143
E. Cushitic–Sidamo fafisa “to pronounce a sentence, a decision, to testify, witness”
“to grant, answer a petition” Gasparini 93
E.8c.1 IE-Hindi vād n. “lawsuit” Scudiere 89
/
E.8d.1 TB-Tibetan Proto-Cushitic Semitic- Arabic
parεε‫ כ‬gyaà “to shout / yell” *fâr- “to call out” farfar
parεε‫ כ‬tsābò Proto-AA *-fâr- “to cry out at”
“somebody who talks loudly” “to call out” Ehret 1995
Goldstein 674 Ehret 1995 #84 106 #84 106
E.8d.1 TB-Tibetan parεὲ gyaà “to shout/yell”
< Proto-Cushitic *fâr- “to call out”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *fâr- “to call out”
483
/
E.8e.1 N. Chinese - Proto-AA fa’l- Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi, Yemeni)
MSC (Orel / Stolbova 1995) “foretell, faal “to tell fortunes,
fâ “magic arts” magic word, omen” Skinner [61] predict the future”
fâli “supernatural E. Cushitic-Afar faal / faala “omen, auspice, sign”
power” Wu, J.183 “divination, forecast, omen” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
C. Chinese-Wu Parker / Hayward 98, 101 part 2 342, 344 Qafisheh 479
faʔ7 “tricks, magic faale “indict through sorcery, West Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari
arts” Hakka Dict. name a culprit” fālaňňa “fortune teller”
S. Chinese-Yue Parker / Hayward 98 fāl “omen” fäla “divination”
(Cantonese) E. Cushitic-Burji Leslau 1963 62
mōfat “witchery” falfal “(to) bewitch” Sasse 69 Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi)
Kwan 572 E. Cushitic–Rendille fattaa‫ ح‬/ fattaa‫ ح‬il-faal
faatseut “magic” fala “to curse (a person)” “fortune teller”
Kwan 281 Pillinger 113 Sasse 69 Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 343
E.8e.1 N. Chinese-MSC fâ “magic arts”, fâli “supernatural power”
< E. Cushitic-Afar faal / faala “divination, forecast, omen” / Semitic-Arabic faal “to tell fortunes,
predict the future”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *faal / *faala “divination, forecast, omen”
E.8e.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian, MacIver) fap7 Hakka Dict. Ramsey114
(Lau Chunfat) fab5 “tricks, magic arts” “penalty, punishment” Hakka Dict.
E.8e.1 E. Cushitic–Oromo fala “specie de divinazione” [a type of divination] “rapimento, trance,
predizione, profezia” [being entranced, a trance, prediction, prophecy] “una specie di getto di dadi
religioso” [a type of religious dice throwing] fagu “divinare, profetizare, predire” [devine, prophesy,
predict” Borello 140-141
Proto-C. Cushitic-Agaw *fal- “omen” Militarev, A. C. Cushittc-Etymology
Proto-AA *faʔVl- “foretell” Militarev / Stolbova Afroasiatic Etymology 2007
Semititc-Arabic (Iraqi, Yemeni) fawwaal “fortune teller” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 342-344
Qafisheh 479
E.8e.1 IE-Old Indian vāghát “the institutor of a sacrifice” Nicolayev, Sergei IE Etymology 2012 36
↓↓
E.9a Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA –Cush. AA-Sem. NS NC
E.9a.1 TB-C. Loloish- W. Chadic- Hausa Egyptian - Tubu
Lahu cê “say, tell” vg.1 Coptic [Teda]
cê “quotative particle” Newman, R. 1990 235, 648 ce “intro- ce
TB-S. Loloish-Akha Newman, P. 2007 32 duces a “say”
dje “quotative particle” C. Chadic- Buduma quotation” Skinner
Matisoff 2003 477 ce “say” Skinner 34 Skinner 34 34
E.9a.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic–Ron (Fyer) Proto-AA
se “direct discourse sé “Rede” [talk, discourse, (Orel /
speech particle, speech] Stolbova
(said)” Goldstein 962 Jungraithmayr 1995)
sεε “according to, 1970 89 *tse-
as said/written” “speak”
484
E.9a.3 W. Chadic-Hausa
TB-Tibetan cêwā
sewa “saying, quote, that”
“direct discourse Kraft 337
speech particle, (said)” “saying”
Goldstein 962 (vn. of cê above)
[Disyllabic corresp.] “that (complementary clause
introducer, usually with verbs
of thinking, saying hearing ”
“that is”
Newman, P. 2007 33271
271
Note E.9a.3 In spoken Tibetan as recorded by Jaschke and Goldstein the nominalizing suffix is most
commonly found as -ba or -wa (depending on the Tibetan dialect, as these are allomorphs between western and
eastern Tibet). See Jaschke Phonetic table xvii, xix-xx. and Goldstein 641. For examples of Hausa ↔ Tibetan
–ba / –wa suffix correspondences see sets C.36a.1, F.9b.1, E.6.2, E.14.1and H.42.1.
1. Verbal noun quotative function in both Chadic-Hausa and Tibetan
1a. Verbal noun function in Hausa- The E.9a.3.1a-b Hausa an gaya mana cêwā za ka means “We were
told that you would come” but is translated literally as “They told us saying you would come”. Thus the direct
discourse (quotative particle) in Tibetan corresponds to the continuous action gerund form in Hausa which governs
the complementary clause stating exactly what has been said.
Paul Newman in his grammar of Hausa (2000) deals with the verbal noun function extensively in chapter 77.
The cêwā example is included in section 3.1 704-5 ‘‘Weak verbal nouns with -wā.’’In this case the E.9a.1 cê
“say” morpheme is an irregular Grade 4 verb. All Grade 4 verbs form weak verbal nouns with -wā e.g. cê+wa =
cewā “saying”. Newman, P. 2000 648. See also Kraft 1973 98-103. In Hausa the verbal noun -wa suffix is used
with verb stems in grades 1, 4 ,5 and 6.
1b. Verbal noun function in Tibetan- In Tibetan also the -ba / -wa suffix converts the present tense stem of the
verb into a verbal noun. (Hodge 14.) Hodge uses the E.3b.2 Tibetan “mthong “see” “mthong-ba “seeing” as an
example.
In the present table it is noteworthy that E.9a.1 TB-C. Loloish-Lahu cê “quotative particle” matches the
Hausa verb grade 1 root, and the present Tibetan E.9a.3 form matches the Hausa cêwā “saying, quote” the
verbal noun form of this same Hausa grade 1 verb root. See also note E.9b.1 below and Chapter 10 Section 10.6.4.
2. Function of denoting ethnicity or geographic origin
Hodge’s explanation of the generation of verbal adjectives/participles from the basic verb states that “being
something” [an existential type of the present participle] is the basis for personal attributes such as
ethnicity/nationality or occupation. Hence Tibetan –ba is “a particle indicating a person from a country”
bod-pa “a Tibetan” Hodge 14. This matches the W. Chadic-Hausa bà prefix also indicating ethnic or geographical
origin” “In the plural the prefix is dropped and a suffix āwā is added.” e.g. Bahaushe singular masc. “Hausa
man” → Hausawa plural “Hausa men / women/people”. The Tibtan and Hausa usage of –ba / –wa as an
ethnonym is reviewed also in Chapter 10 section 10.2.2.1 .
3. Occupation/trade. The ba- / -wa affix to denote a peron’s occupation. As with ethnic designations one’s
occupation is expressed through a ba- prefix or in the plural form, a -wa suffix, both denoting a person’s
occupation, e.g. baduku sing. dukawa pl. “leather worker”, f rom dukanci “leather working”.
Other examples are” bafada sing. fadawa pl. “courtier” from fada “palace”, baaskari sing. askarawa pl.
“soldier” .See also Chapter 10 Section 10.2.2.1.
The NS- Kanuri -ma suffix also designates ethnicity, occupation or origin for nouns.
In TB-Meithei a similar suffix -pə also gives evidence of verbal noun functions: i.e. as “nominalizer, relativizer,
and citation form of verbs”. Matisoff 2003 439. In TB-Limbu the -b suffix functions as an active participle and a
nominalizer of verbs and adverbs. van Driem 1987 193, 199.
485
E.9a.4 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic- Lamang Proto-AA

ser “to say, to call, zərá / zə‫כ‬rà “call” *cer- /
to address” Jungraithmayr 1994 *c’er-
“direct discourse speech v.2 249 “speak”
particle” Goldstein 96 W. Chadic- Tangale “shout”
zer-wa “to be named, se’e’re “to speak, Militarev/
called, to say” to deliver a speech, Stolbova
Das 1097 to tell” se’e’ra “report, Afroasiatic
zer “say, be named” news, story, tale” Etymology
Hodge 122 Jungraithmayr 1991142
E.9a.1 N. Chinese-MSC chê “chat, gossip” / TB-C. Loloish-Lahu cê “quotative particle”
< W. Chadic-Hausa cê “say , tell” / Egyptian–Coptic ce “introduces a quotation”
E.9a.4 TB-Tibetan ser “to say, to call, to address” “direct discourse speech particle”
< Proto-AA (Orel-Stolbova 1995) *cer- / *c̟er- “speak”
Approximate ST etyma *čê / *čêwa “say, tell to” “quotation particle” ~ *cer- “speak”
E.9a.1 N. Chinese-MSC chê “chat, gossip” chêdan “talk nonsense” Wu, J. 81
TB-Tibetan ches / shes / zhes “so, thus, in ancient literature regularly placed after words or
thoughts that are literally quoted” Jaschke 142 shɛɛ̀gyün “legend, tale” shɛɛ‫כ‬daŋ “manner, style of
talking” shɛɛ‫כ‬leŋ “discussion, conversation” Goldstein 1109
E.9a.2 C. Chinese-Wu seɿ6 “language, words, speech, expression” Hakka Dict.
E.9a.3 TB-Tibetan h’ser-wa “to say, to speak” Das 1056
E.9a.4 TB-Tibetan serg�la “It is said, they say” Goldstein 962 mdser-pa“to speak” Das 1050
E.9a.1 W. Chadic-Gwandara (Cancara) pa ncè “say” Matsushita 1974 #551 121 Skinner 34
W. Chadic-Gwandara (Karshi) para ǹkyè “say”(marker for quotation)
(Koro) fara nkyè “say”(Toni) nkyè “say”Matsushita 1972 89 1974 #551 121.
NS-Songhay (Gao) ce “appeler” [call] Ducroz 54
E.9a.2 Semitic-Hebrew tseeyoon “remark, notation” Baltsan 438
E.9a.3 W. Chadic- Hausa Hàausàawā sunàa cêwā … “There’s a saying in Hausa …”
Newman, R. 1990 235
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic tȁĉ’awawwatȁ “converse” ĉ’əwəwwət “conversation, chat”
Leslau 1976 241
/
E.9b.1 W. Semitic- NS-Songhay Proto Bantu
TB-C. Loloish- Chadic- Ethiopic- (Zarma) *tè “say”
Lahu t� ʔ Angas Amharic tyi “say” Greenberg
“quotative te təqs Skinner 34 1966 34
particle” “say” “quotation” NC-Common Bantu
Matisoff Skinner Leslau *-ti “dire” [say]
2003 508 34 1976 449 Skinner 34
E.9b.2 C. NS-Songhay
TB-Tibetan Chadic- (Koyra,
chiì “talk, Margi Djenne)
discourse” ci čii “speak”
tsii “a word” “speak” ”discuss”
Goldstein Skinner Heath
379, 878 34 v.1 59
v.2 42
486
E.9b.3 C. E.Cushitic- Egyptian

TB-Tibetan Chadic- Oromo tchet’
çed Daba jeda vt. “to speak,
“says, said” ced’u “say to say,
Das 1242 “say” (usually to tell to”
Skinner governs direct “mark of
34 discourse)” quotation”
Biyyikee Budge v.2 913
cesaa Semitic-Hebrew
jed’anii tseeto
gaafatani “citation,
lit. “Where is quotation”
your country? tseetet
saying, they “cited, quoted”
asked him” Baltsan
Gragg 233 437, 510, 711
E.9b.1 TB-Tibetan
tig / tig-tig “certainty, surety, certain” “In colloquial language
tig, dig, thig is frequently used for “to be sure, very right ” Jaschke 203
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *tik “very, real, certain” Matisoff 2003 507
E.9b.2
N. Chinese-MSC / (Beijing)
ch’î (WG) “to explain, to inform, to state” Mathews 71 #542
cí “word, term” “speech, statement” Wu, J. 111 Huang 68
chî “to speak”
chìh “words, expressions” Chik / Ng Lam 511, 420
(Meixian) ch’i3e / chii3 “speak of, mention”
(MacIver) ts’ii2 “word, phrase” “talk, speech, tell” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Min zī “word, Chinese character” Bodman 1983 14, 205 ; 1987 v.2 188
TB-Tibetan tsii “a word” Goldstein 878
E.9b.1
Semitic-Ethiopic-Amharic täqqäsä “quote” Leslau 1976 449
Cushitic-Rendille titidaaheen “kept saying, telling” “say, tell many things repeatedly” Pillinger 278
E. Chadic-Dangaleat d’iye “dire” Skinner 34
E.9b.2
W. Chadic-Hausa -ci used as a suffix to indicate that the root denotes a language, e.g.
Fařansanci “French” (< Fàransà - France),
Barbarci “Kanuri” (< Babarbare “a Kanuri person)”
Newman, P. 2000 293-294
NS-Songhay (Gao) cì “dire, informer” [say, tell, inform] Ducroz 59
E.9b.3
E. Cushitic-Oromo jeccu / jedu “dire, parlare” [say, speak] Borello 264
E. Cushitic-Burji
šiid- “speak”
šiid-i “speech, conversation” Sasse 1982 172
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) ĉilma “word”
487

E.9b.1
IE-Sanskrit iti “used to indicate that the preceding phrase is a quotation”272 Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Bengali
thik / thik “right, (correct)” adjectives Thompson 122
shot̝hik adj. “correct, accurate”
shotti adj. “true, actual” Thompson 78
See also Supplementary Table 2 E.9b.1 for full semantics and other African and ST variants.
IE-Pashto ttīk “exact, accurate, true, right” Raverty 1113 See also H.35.1-2.
↓↓
E.10 AA –Chadic AA–Cush. AA-Semitic NS NC
E.10.1 W. Chadic - Hausa E. Cushitic- Semitic- Kanuri
TB-Tibetan tsigèe Oromo Hebrew cingin /
tshig-gi mtshon- “abuse cigaa “odio, seekhsehk cigékin
cha some one” vt. maledizione, v. “attack
“words which hit at Newman / Ma abominio” “fomented verbally,
the heart, e.g. which 1979 125 [hatred, quarrel, speak
give pain or offense” E. Chadic-Tumak cursing, abomi- instigated” harshly to”
[Disyllabic corresp.] jəgən nation] seekh- Cyffer
rdsig-rdsig / “insulte” (Fr.) Borello 78 sookh 1990 27
rdzig-rdzig Skinner 294 m.
“to address one “quarrel,
harshly and dispute”
threateningly” Baltsan 371
Das 1025, 1058
Jaschke 468
S. Chinese-Yue
(Cantonese)
chīk
“to scold, to revile”
“to accuse, to blame”
Chik / Ng Lam 52,
199
272
Note-E.9b.1 (Sanskrit Extended) The Sanskrit iti morpheme is most similar to the above E.9b.1 morphemes.
The NC-Common Bantu *-ti “dire” [say] is also similar in being a postpositiond particle.
The Sanskrit use of iti as a postpositioned quotative marker was one of three linguisticfeatures in the Rgveda
which are not found in other Indo-European languages. Several scholars held that it was due to a a local substratum
of Dravidian or Munda. (Bryant 78-79). The present study posits that it belongs to an African language substratum
based on the group of Sanskrit, Hindi, Pashto correpondences with African / AA roots reported in the present data
record and summarized in Supplementary Table 2.
African roots denoting speech acts which correspond to TB roots denoting quotative particles have been
identified explicitly in African languages in sets E.9a.1 and E.9b.1. The E.9a and E.9b word families contain ST
↔ African/AA correspondences which show that multiple words for speech acts in African languages have
correspondences in ST which function as quotative particles, i.e.direct discourse markers. In the IE-Hindi, Bengali
and Pashto languages cited here thīk attests an additional semantic dimension meaning “right, correct, true” which
suggests that the quotative particle also implies an affirmation of the truth of the original statement which has been
quoted. See discussion in note E.11a.1 below. This also suggests that the H.35.2 Chinese si, sih lexemes
affirming the truth of something being discussed may be related to the present E.9b.1 Tibetan and Sanskrit
lexemes.
488
E.10.2 W. Chadic –Hausa Semitic- Songhay

Chinese-MSC ci mutuncìi Arabic (Koroboro)
chì “loudly rebuke, “humiliate, (Iraqi) čichi / čiti
shout at” “scold” treat with disrespect” šìtam “speak
Wu, J. 92 “to scold,” Newman, P. 2007 33 “to curse, angrily”
Huang 56 [basic form is ci revile, vilify” “to criticize,
cī “give a tongue- “eat”] tsiyā-tsìyàa Dict. of Iraqi reprove”
lashing to” “mutual Arabic Heath
Wu, J. 111 disagreement, part 2 235 v.3 73
S. Chinese-Kejia argument”
[Hakka] Newman / Ma 1979
(MacIver) 125
tsii1 / ts’ii1
(Lau Chunfat)
ci1 “scold”
Hakka Dict.
TB-Tibetan
she ‫“כ‬to scold”
shɛɛ‫כ‬shɛɛ‫“ כ‬scolding”
Goldstein 108, 110
E.10.3 E. Cushitic-
N. Chinese-MSC Afar
shì “swear, vow, xiiba “oath”
pledge” xiibita
shìcí “oath, pledge” “swear an
Wu, J. 628 oath”
S. Chinese-Kejia Parker /
[Hakka] (MacIver) Hayward 91
tsii3 “curse’,
TB-Tibetan cɛɛ‫כ‬
“curse, spell”
Goldstein 732
ch’i3 “vow, pledge,
take an oath”
si’5 “swear, take an
oath” Hakka Dict.
E.10.4 Cushitic-
N. Chinese-MSC Oromo
ch’iào (WG) cigawu vi.
“to scold, to ridicule, “denigrare,,
to blame” maledire”
Mathews #758 103 [to slander,
to curse]
Borello 78
E.10.1
TB-Tibetan rdsig-rdsig “to address one harshly and threateningly”
E.10.2
Chinese-MSC chì “loudly rebuke, shout at” “scold”
< C. Chadic-Hausa tsigèe “to swear (at)” / NS-Kanuri cigékin “attack verbally, speak harshly to”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *cig- “attack verbally, speak harshly to”
489

E.10.1
chìk hot “to shout or bawl angrily” Chik / Ng Lam 52
jìk “to argue, to dispute” Chik / Ng Lam 69
TB-Tibetan
tsigbe “anger” Goldstein 879
tsig-pa “anger, indignation, vexation” Jaschke 448
S. Chinese-Min chek1 “upbraid, censure, reprimand, blame” Hakka Dict.
E.10.2
Chinese- Wu tçhi1 “insult, bully” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Min cî “to quarrel” Bodman 1987 v.1 227
Extended African-AA language word family:
E.10.1
W. Chadic-Hausa tsēgumi f. “constant complaining about other people with implied threats”
Newman, P. 2007 207
(Gobir dial.) cakwan “constant complaining about the conduct of others” Matsushita 1993 118
Proto-S. Cushitic *-ty’ʌg- or *ty’eg- “to curse, to bewitch” Ehret 1995 #565 297
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šikaaya “complaint, grievance, accusation” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 247
E. Cushitic-Rendille
cheeka “tell” “accuse”
cheekda “to blame, to praise” ”the basic meaning is ‘to speak out the truth about someone, good or
bad’ ” Pillinger 84
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic täĉäqäĉcäqä “fight vi, quarrel, argue, dispute, squabble”
Leslau 1976 239
E. Cushitic- Oromo c’iiga’a “have aversion to” Gragg 81 Borello10.3.4 780
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šika “to complain about’ šaagab “to make trouble, disturb the peace”
Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 243, 247
E.10.2
W. Chadic- Ron (Fyer) se’ “beschimpfen, beleidigen” [to insult, to offend] Jungraithmayr 1970 145
NS-Songhay (Koyra) jee “swear an oath” Heath v.1 140 ; (Gao) zé “jurer, prêter serment”
Ducroz 243
W. Chadic- Hausa
cē-cē-ku-cê “angry exchanges” “infighting” Newman, P. 2007 33
tsiyā “quarrelsomeness” Newman, P. 2007 208 Skinner 274
W. Chadi –Ron (Bokkos) siyo “Kontroverse, Auseinandersetzung, Streit” [controversy, quarrel, dispute]
E.10.3 Nilo-Saharan-Kanuri káshí “oath” Cyffer 1990 83
E.10.1 IE-Hindi
šikayat n. “complaint” “grievance”
šikayat karna vi. “complain” Scudiere 33, 70
IE-Bengali jhɔgra “quarrel, altercation” Thompson 52, 12
IE-Hindi jhagra “quarrel” Scudiere 129
IE-Pashto jhagrra
“strife, contention, altercation, quarrel, squabble” Raverty334
See also Supplementary Table 2 E.10.1
//
490

E.11a-c Afro-Asiatic AA – AA-- Nilo-Saharan NC
– Chadic Cush. Semitic
Swadesh “say” W. Chadic- West Semitic- Songhay (Gao)
E.11a.1 Hausa Ethiopian-Ge’ez senn-e /
TB-Tibetan cé-na / shena / cene zenawa shenn-e
ze-na “if anyone says so, asks so, “say” “inform, tell, “words,
after words literally quoted” Skinner 34 report” speech, story,
Jaschke 142 W. Chadic- Skinner 296 language”
shena “it is said or asked” Kofyar West Semitic- Heath v.3 275
Das 1075 [Disyllabic corresp.] zene Ethiopian- ženti / zenti /
zhenhuà “the truth “ “story” Amharic zanti
Manser pt. 2 571 Skinner 296 zena “news” “story, tale”
“[Compound of this root and Leslau 1976 Heath
that of E.8a.1] 183, 417 v.3 338
E.11a.2 N. Chinese-MSC W. Chadic- Egyptian Songhay (Gao)
ch’én (WG) Ngizim shen sénní
“to make a statement, zə‫כ‬nzə‫כ‬n “to speak, “langage,
to make a plea” pl. to proclaim, parole,
Mathews #339a 41 zenzaanin to tell” nouvelle”
shēn “state, express, explain” “tale, riddle” shenn “ Ducroz 202
Wu, J. 605 Schuh 181 to cry out,
“to state to a superior, to invoke,
to report, to notify” to entreat”
Mathews #5712 789 Budge v.2 745
S. Chinese-Kejia
[Hakka] (Meixian, MacIver)
sien1 “say, tell, state”
Hakka Dict.
E.11a.1 N. Chinese-MSC ch’én “to make a statement, to make a plea”
< W. Chadic – Hausa cene “say”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *cen- “say, inform, tell”
N. Chinese-MSC zhēng “contend, argue” Merriam Webster Chinese 169 “argue about ” Wang, F. 590
E.11a.1
NS-Kanuri ngin / shin “say, think, intend” Cyffer 1990 147
Niger-Congo-Efik sem “speak a language” Greenberg 1966 158
Kordofanian-Masakin sem “language” Greenberg 1966 158
E.11a.1 Sanskrit iticen “often placed at the end of the objector’s statement , hence a meaning of
‘if it be argued that’ ”273 Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 E.11a.1.
/
273
Note- E.11a.1 (Sanskrit Extended)
Both E.9b.1 Sanskrit iti and E.11a.1 cen are independent morphemes which denote speech acts in African
languages. Iticen appears to be a compound of this cen root and the E.9b.1 TB-C. Loloish-Lahu tὲʔ “quotative
particle” which is reported also as iti in the E.9b.1 Sanskrit set.
491
E.11b Afro-Asiatic – AA – AA-- Nilo-Saharan NC

E.11b.1 W. Chadic- Hausa West Semitic- Kanuri
N. Chinese-MSC sanař dà vt. Ethiopian- zandéngin,
tsān (WG) “inform someone” Amharic zandéjin
“to counsel, to consult sanářwā f. zanta “chat, converse, talk”
together” “announcement” “story, tale” zandégakin
Mathews #6685 980 Newman, P. West Semitic- “make aware of,
shāng “discuss, 2007 178 Ethiopian- inform of”
consult” Wu, J. 595 2000 705 Ge’ez “ < Arabic”
S. Chinese-Yue zanta “talk, zenawa Cyffer 1990 195
(Cantonese) inform, converse” “inform, tell, Hutchison 1981 111
sàn “to report” Skinner 296 report”
sàn sou “to present a Skinner 296
complaint”
Chik / Ng Lam 12
E.11b.2 W. Chadic- Ngizim Kanuri
S. Chinese-Yue sàmàná “talking səmaná
(Cantonese) about, relating “talk, chat, discussion”
sám stories concerning” Cyffer 1990 157
“to let know” “discussion, talking
Chik / Ng Lam 424 something over”
Schuh 143
E.11b.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sàn “to report”
< W. Chadic – Hausa sanař dà “inform someone”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *san- “inform someone”
E.11b.1 N. Chinese -MSC căn “explain, interpret” Manser 57 cān “give advice, suggestion etc.”
Wu, J. 62 / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) “to appeal” “to explain” “to present one’s case (in a law court)”
Chik / Ng Lam 306
E.11b.1
W. Chadic- Ngizim sàanú “mention” Schuh 143
NS-Anywa [Anuak] cāan “to tell something, to talk about something” Reh 14
NS-Songhay (Koroboro) ženti / zenti / zanti “story, tale” Heath v.3 338
E.11b.2 W. Chadic-Hausa sambàtu “idle talk” Newman / Ma 1979 105
E.11b.1
IE-Bengali
janano “inform” “tell” Thompson 105, 129
shɔngbad “news” ‘information” Thompson 78, 114 shɔngbad n. “message” Thompson 111
shangbadik n. “reporter, journalist” Thompson 106, 121
E.11b.2 IE-Sanskrit
samAbhas “to talk with, converse together, address, speak to” “to speak about”
samAbhaSaNa “talking together, conversation with” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Hindi
samvaddātā “reporter”n. Scudiere 136
samāchār “news”
samāchārpatr “newspaper” m. Scudiere 332 See also Supplementary Table 2 E.11b.2
492
/
E.11c Afro-Asiatic – AA – AA-- NS NC
E.11c.1 N. Chinese -MSC E. Chadic- Bidiya
sù “tell, relate, inform” susunna “conte,
chénsù “state, recite” formule
Wu, J. 83 chén introductive du
“make a statement” (E.11a.2) conte” [tale,
TB-Tibetan shǜǜ introductory
“something that follows is an formula for a tale]
exact transcription or E. Chadic-
verbatim account” Dangaleat
Goldstein 1111 [Dangla]
S. Chinese-Min kò-sū susinay (formula)
“story, narrative” “story, tale” “je vais vous poser
Bodman 1987 v.2 149, 174 un conte”
[I’ll tell you a
story] Skinner 254
E.11c.2 TB-Tibetan E. Chadic- NS-Maba
suŋ “to say, to tell, Migama sūsūna Group-
to speak” Goldstein 1156 “conte, histoire” Maba
ɣsuŋ-ba / ɣsuŋ-wa Skinner 254 suŋ
“to speak, talk, say” W. Chadic- Hausa “say”
Jaschke 589 Das 1306 tatsuniya Edgar 375
gurdu suŋ “to say / “tale, riddle”
sing a gur” Goldstein 229 Skinner 254
gur “classical / religious song” “folktale, fable”
(E.33.4) Newman, P. 2007
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) 200
sèung “to discuss,
to exchange views, to confer”
Chik / Ng Lam 63
E.11c.1 N. Chinese-MSC sù “tell, relate, inform”
< E. Chadic-Bidiya susunna “conte, formule introductive du conte” [tale, introductory formula for a
tale] / E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] susinay (formula) “je vais vous poser un conte” [I’ll tell you
a story]
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *su- “tell a story” ~ suŋ “to say”
E.11c.1
N. Chinese -MSC sùshuō “tell, relate, recount” Wu, J. 654 shù (WG) “to narrate, to tell the details,
to state” “to transmit, to hand down” Mathews #5800 833
S. Chinese-Min ciù-cuā “swear, take an oath” “sworn declaration” ciù-cuā-zī “sworn declaration in
writing” Bodman 1987 v.2 128
E.11c.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sèungyih “counsel” Kwan 107 Chen 66
E.11c.1 NS-Kanuri kasùwá “gossip” Hutchison 78 Cyffer 1990 83
E.11c.2 Egyptian sunsun “to entreat, to petition, to converse” Budge v.2 650
↓↓
493
The following E.12 variants show a link between this word family based on “name” and “sign with
the D.16 word family based on the social group designations “race, clan, family” and “sex”. Clan and
family names of course identify a person’s origins and his/her primary social relationships based on
kinship and gender.
E.12 AA-Chadic AA–Cush. AA-Semitic NS Niger-Congo
E.12.1 Swadesh “name” W. Chadic – NC-Benue-
C. Chinese-Wu S. Bauci- Tule Congo-
tshəŋ1 “call, name” shè:n Kahugu
“name, appellation” “name” (Plateau
Hakka Dict. Jungraithmayr 1B Group)
N. Chinese-MSC chēng v.2 248 ri-dzεne ;
“call” “name” Wu, J. 84 W. Chadic– -Benue-
S. Chinese-Min Gwandara Congo- Gure
siêng “surname” šéŋyi “name” (Plateau 1B
Bodman1987 v.2 172 Matsushita Group)
seN3 “one’s family 1972 107 ri-zene
name” “surname” “clan, Jungraithmayr “name”
people, family” v.2 248 Williamson-
Hakka Dict. W. Chadic– Shimizu 1973
See also D.16.1 N. Bauci- Pa’a v.2 253
TB-Tibetan səŋ “name” S. Khoisan-
tsεn “name” Jungraithmayr ǀAuni
Goldstein 892 1994 v.2 248 ǀen “name”
E.12.2 N. Chinese-MSC E. Chadic – NC-Proto-
hsìng / sing Dangaleat Benue-Congo
“a surname” [Dangla] *zina
Mathews sîŋ “nom . “name”
#2770-#2771 414 (individuel, i.e. Williamson-
S. Chinese-Yue de personne)” Shimizu1973
(Cantonese) Fédry 374 v.2 252
sing (WG) “name” note 1
“one’s family name” Jungraithmayr
Chik / Ng Lam 94 1994 v.2 249
S. Chinese-Kejia W. Chadic- S.
[Hakka] (Meixian) cin5 Bauci- Geji
(Lau Chunfat) shin / shîn
1
cin “call, name” “name”
Hakka Dict. Jungraithmayr
1994 v.2.248
E.12.3 S. Chinese-Min C. Chadic- N. Cushitic- Semitic- Hebrew
(Taiwanese) Logone šémi Beja šem
sè:-mia “full name” “name” [Bedawi] “name”
Bodman 1983 169 C. Chadic –Daba síma Greenberg
sì:-mia “name” žīmi “name” “benennung” 1966 #52 6
Bodman 1987 v.1 248 Stolbova, Olga [name] seeman heker
[Disyllabic corresp.] C. Chadic- Reinisch 201 “recognition
TB-Tibetan Etymology “name” mark”
tsεmbe 200 Greenberg Baltsan 372
“marks, signs” 1966 #52 60
Goldstein 893
494
tsεnmá “mark, sign, W. Chadic- N. seeman m.

label, symbol” Bauci- Tsagu “sign,
“sex” Goldstein 892 shimàn “mark”
‫כ‬
tsεnmee‫כ“ כ‬without “name” Baltsan 371,
signs, asexual” Jungraithmayr 651, 744 274
Goldstein 892-893 1994 Oxford English-
tsεεndε� v.2 248 Hebrew Dict. 554
“omen, prophesy”
Goldstein 893
Swadesh “name” E. Chadic – Kera West Semitic-
E.12.4 sám “name” Ethiopian-
TB-Tibetan E. Chadic – Mubi Amharic
mtshan “name, sâmè assäňňä
especially the name “name” “name,
which everyone receives Militarev / make to be
who takes orders” Stolbova called”
“to take, Leslau 1976 57
to assume a name”
Jaschke 454 Das 1036
E.12.5 S. Khoisan-
Middle Chinese |Nu‖en
mjäng “name” |aŋ
Norman 13 “name”
xiang4 Starostin, G.
“one’s family name” 2003 25
Hakka Dict.
E.12.3 S. Chinese-Min sè:-mia “full name” sì:-mia “name” / TB-Tibetan tsɛmbe “marks, signs”
< Proto-Chadic s̟əm “name” / Semitic- Hebrew seeman “sign (indication)” “mark”,
šem “name” / Proto- Cushitic *sîm- “name”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *s̟əm- / *sîm- “name” “sign”
E.12.1 TB-Tibetan tsɛnnɛn “title, designation” tsɛngyur “to have one’s name be/get changed” “to have
one’s sex changed” Goldstein 892
N. Chinese-MSC zhèn “omen” Wu, J. 888
Old Chinese mjing “name” Norman 13
274
Note- E.12.3-4 (Tibetan, Hebrew) In Africa tribal scars/marks have commonly been a visible identifier of
one’s ethnicity. This is a case of an empirical link between the semantics of “clan, people, family” found in
D.16.1 with the semantics of “mark, sign” of this table.
As in many other cultures (e.g. mc- and mac- prefixes to many names of Celtic origin) the form of the African
family name still identifies a person as descended from a certain ethnic group. In E. Africa, for example, the NC-
Bantu speaking groups recognize persons of Nilo-Saharan origin by the widespread initial O- of their surnames, as
this does not occur in Bantu names. (Personal observation).
Tibetan encompasses all the semantics found in the African languages cited in this table and D.16. (See
especially D.16.3)
The full semantics of Jaschke’s E.12.4 mtshan entry are “sign, mark, token, badge” “shape and peculiar
characteristic of separate parts of the body” “favorable sign, some special (good) quality” “genitals” “the sign, the
essential characteristic”, “property, quality, symptom, indication”, “marked” Jaschke 454-455. Hence the Tibetan
forms give evidence of having preserved the multiple meanings across several AA language families which are
derived from the basic notion of “sign”.
495
E.12.2 C. Chinese-Wu sìŋ5 “one’s family name, surname” Hakka Dict.

S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chìng fù “name by which one addresses another” Chik / Ng Lam 335
N. Chinese-MSC sying (Y) “family name” Chen 241 xìng “surname, family name” Wu, J. 775
-xìng suffix which means “nature” Packard 174
Old Chinese siěŋ “clan, family, family name” Karlgren GSR #812q-r Matisoff 2003 307
S. Chinese-Min siêng “surname” Bodman 1987 v.2 172
seN3 “one’s family name” “surname” “clan, people, family” Hakka Dict.
E.12.3
N. Chinese-MSC xīng “star” xìng “good fortune” xìngzhan “divine by astrology” Wu, J. 775
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] zhin1 / zin1 “lucky, auspicious, good omen” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jìng “good omen” Chik / Ng Lam 331 sìng “star” Chen 380
TB-Tibetan shing’gam “planet” Goldstein 928 gam “planet” (B.31.1 Tibetan)
TB-Tibetan mtshan(-ma) “sign, mark, token, badge, symptom” “good favorable sign”
Jaschke 454 Das 1036 “to take, to assume a name” mtshan-mar sgom-pa “to take as an omen”
mtshan-mkan [lit. sign-knower] “soothsayer, astrologer” Jaschke 454
Chinese-MSC zhān “practice divination” zhānxìng “divine by astrology” Wu, J. 771
E.12.4 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) siang5 Hakka Dict.
E.12.1
S. Khoisan-ǀXam, ‖Ng ǀeŋ “name” Starostin, G. 2003 25
W. Chadic-S. Bauci-Guruntum sindi / sîn “name” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 248
NC-Benue Congo-Okoyong (Delta-Cross: Calabar River grp.) sîn “name”
Williamson-Shimizu 1973 v.2 251
NC-Benue Congo-Okoyong (Delta-Cross: Calabar River grp.) sîn “name”; -Kuma (Mambila district)
(Non-Bantu, Bantoid: Mambile-Wute) jin “name” Williamson-Shimizu v.2 1973 251-252
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Ge’ez sem “name” Leslau 1963 140
E. Chadic–Migama sémè “nom, mot” Jungraithmayr / Adams 123
Kordofanian–Twi asɛm “word” Greenberg 1966 158
Proto- Semitic *šim- “nome” [name] Skinner 237
NS- Songhay (Gao) céyoŋ “appel” [call n.] Ducroz 54
Semitic-Hebrew shem “name” Baltsan 395 Leslau 1963 140 sem “name, reputation”
Leslau 1979 v.3 545, 579, v.2 424-425 ‘al shem “named after” Baltsan 10
E.12.2 W. Chadic-N. Bauci- Mburku, Diri shín “name” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2.248
E.12.3
C. Chadic-Wamdiu šɨmɔ‫“כ‬name” Militarev / Stolbova
C. Chadic-Margi šəm “name” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology
Berber-Qabyle səmmi “call”, “name” Militarev, A. Berber Etymology 2006
W. Chadic-S. Bauci-Guruntum sindi / sîn “name” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 248
Semitic-Aramaic sīmān “sign” Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon
Semitic-Hebrew seeman tov “Good omen! Good luck!” 275 Baltsan 372, 375
NS- Songhay (Gao) sìlmàŋ-kéyná “signe, marque” [sign, mark] Ducroz 204
275
Note- E.12.3 (Hebrew Extended) The use of the “sign” morphemes in the sense of “good omen” “good
fortune” appears to have been developed mainly within Sanskrit and Sino-Tibetan, although this meaning is
present in the E.12.5 Semitic-Hebrew seeman “sign (indication)” seeman tov “Good omen!, and the E.12.4
(Extended) NS-Songhay sìlmàŋ “sign” below. See also Chapter 6 section 6.7.
The Tibetan and Hebrew morphemes meaning “omen” attest to its use in morphemes denoting astrological
divination. The star had this important cultural function in Middle Eastern and Egyptian society. The extended
Beijing, Cantonese and Tibetan variants also use the morpheme to mean “star” or “planet”. Hence the star in these
languages is etymologically identified as a sign or good omen. However, other Afro-Asiatic / African languages
have not thus far yielded linguistic pointers to this belief.
496
E. Cushitic- Rendille sumát “a brand, mark (to distinguish livestock)” Pillinger 269
E. Cushitic- Somali summad “name, mark, symbol” Awde 1999 48
W. Chadic-Angas səm “name” Greenberg 1966 #52 60
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Čaha, Eža, Gyeto etc.) šem / sem “name, reputation”
Leslau 1979 v.3 545, 579, v.2 424-425
Proto- Chadic (Newman) *s̟əm “name” Ehret 1995 #220 160
C. Chadic–Masa sémná “name” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 249 ; sēm “le nom” Caitucoli 134
Semitic-Syrian Aramaic, Socotri šem “name” Militarev / Stolbova
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Ge’ez,Tigre səm “name” Militarev / Stolbova
Proto- Cushitic *sîm- / *sûm- “name” Ehret 1995 #220 160
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) ʔisim “name” samma “to name, designate, call” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 226-227
E.12.3 Proto-AA *sûm- / *sîm- “name” Ehret 1995 #220 160
E.12.4 C. Chadic–Masa sámnaa “name” Jungraithmayr v.2 249
NS-Songhay (Koroboro) zammu “family name” Heath v.3 334
Semitic-Written Arabic asamin “name, appelation, reputation” Wehr 498
C. Chadic–Masa sámnaa “name” Jungraithmayr v.2 249
Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi) samma “to name, designate, call” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 226
NC-Fulfulde (Fulani) jamma “have or adopt a name, other than the real name” Taylor 96
E.12.4 IE-Sanskrit sannimita “a good omen” lakSaNika “knowing marks, acquainted with signs, an
interpreter of marks or signs” “diviner” jatilAkSaNa “mark of a tribe or caste” Cologne Lexicon..
IE-Hindi sanket “sign” Scudiere 150
IE-Sanskrit samvid “a name or appelation” “a sign, signal” samabhida “a name, appelation”
samlaks “to distinguish by a mark, characterize, mark distinctly” samajJa “appelation, name,
reputation, fame” samjJa “a sign, token, signal, gesture“ ”to give a signal” samudra “an impression or
mark on the body” Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 E.12.3-5
↓↓
E.13a-f Afro-Asiatic – AA -Cushitic AA-- NS Niger-Congo.,
Chadic Semitic Khoisan
Swadesh “to say” W. Chadic – Proto-South Semitic- N. Mande- Malinke
E.13a.1 Tangale ka / ga / Cushitic Arabic káa
TB-Tibetan nga “to say, *xah- (Iraqi) “language, speech”
ka “mouth” to speak” “to speak” kalima NC-Proto-W. Sudanic
“word, speech” Jungraithmayr Proto-AA “word” *ka-
Goldstein 87 1991 93 *-xâh- “speech, “say”
TB-Jingpho Skinner 82 “to utter” address” Williamson / Shimizu
[Kachin] C. Chadic-Cibak Proto-Omotic kallam #86 v.2 1973 344
gà ~ əgà “word, ɣa “to say, speak” *x2a- or “to talk to, N. Khoisan- !O!Kung
speech” Skinner 82 *x2ah- speak with” ka “to say”
Benedict 18 E. Chadic – “to utter” Dict. of Greenberg 1966 81
TB- Kiranti- Migama Ehret 1995 Iraqi Arabic Starostin, G.
Yamphu gáa “il dit” #386 224 part 2 410 2003 29
kha “speech” [he says] Cushitic- W. Semitic- S. Khoisan-
Starostin, S. Jungraithmayr / Afar kaala Ethiopian- |Xam, ǂKhomani ;
Kiranti Etymology, Adams 85 “voice, the Amharic ka “to say”
Yamphu Dict. E. Chadic – Tera spoken qal “word, Starostin, G. 2012 41
TB- Nung ga “speak” word” sound” Khoisan-Sandawe
kha “speech, Stolbova, Olga Parker / qalat pl. ga “to say”
language” C. Chadic Hayward 140 Leslau Greenberg 1966 81
Benedict 18 Etymology 2006 1976 66
497
E.13a.2 Proto-South Proto-

TB-C. Loloish- Cushitic N. Khoisan-
Lahu khɔ‫כ‬ʔ *xaaʕ *ku
“language, “to make a “to say”
speech” noise (vocal) N. Khoisan-
ɔ‫כ‬khɔʔ Ehret 995 Zul’hoan
“noise, sound” #373 519 kò
Matisoff “to say”
2003106 Starostin, G. 2003 29
E.13a.1
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ka “talk, speech” / TB-Jingpho gà ~ əgà “word, speech
< NC- N. Mande- Malinke káa “language, speech” / Proto-South Cushitic *xah- “to speak” /
Khoisan-|Xam, !O!Kung ka “to say”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *káa “language, speech”
E.13a.1
TB-Tibetan bka “word, speech” Jaschke 12 ŋaà “speech, words, talk” Goldstein 293
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ka “talk, speech” Benedict 18, 21, 187, 201 “word, speech, language”
Matisoff 2003 594
E.13a.1
C. Chadic-Logone ka “say” Stolbova, Olga. C. Chadic-Etymology 2006
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) gaal “to say, tell” Qafisheh 503
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) kallam “to talk to, speak with”
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic qal “word, sound, term (expression) Leslau 1976 66
C. Chadic- Tera ‘ga “call” Newman, P. 1977 23
W. Chadic- Dera ngwa “it is said that ” Skinner 82
C. Chadic-Margi Group *nga “call” Skinner 82
N. Mande- Xassonke kâ “language, speech” Mukarovsky 232
E. Cushitic-Kambata ga “call” Skinner 82
E. Cushitic- Burji kah- v. “swear (an oath)”
kaho “an oath” Sasse 1982113
Semitic-Arabic ḵabar “news, information” Wehr 262
E.13a.1 Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek xabar “news” “new information of interest” English-Uzbek Dictionary
/
E.13b.1 West Semitic-
TB-Tibetan Ethiopian-Amharic
ŋag “speech, talk, word” näggärä
Jaschke 125 “say, tell, speak,
Das 347 inform”
ŋagεε nägär
“talk, conversation” “word, thing, affair”
Goldstein 293 Leslau 1976 115
TB-Burmese nəgəggər
ŋag “speak” “speech, oration,
Starostin, S. address (speech),
ST Etymology lecture”
Leslau 1976 116
498
E.13b.2 TB-Tibetan E. Cushitic-Afar NS-Kanuri

kago xaagu “news” kàagálâ
“talk, speech” Parker / “advice, counsel”
Goldstein 91 Hayward 88 Cyffer 1990 73
E.13b.1 TB-Burmese ŋag “speak”
< West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic näggärä “say, tell, speak, inform”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *nag- “say, tell, speak, inform”
E.13b.1 TB-Tibetan ŋa̱glam “speech, words” Goldstein 2001 294
E.13b.2 TB-Tibetan kag� “spoken/colloquial language” Goldstein 87
E.13b.2 E. Cushitic- Afar xagna “appointment, promise, speech, word” xaagite “pass on news”
Parker / Hayward 88, 89
W. Chadic-Ngizim kagala “crier” [cry out”] Schuh 91
/
E.13c.1 C. Chadic- Tera E.Cushitic- West Semitic-
TB-Tibetan gara “call” Somali Ethiopian-
ŋa-ro “a loud voice, Skinner 167 gar “claim, Gurage
a cry” Jaschke 125 W. Chadic- Hausa plaint, suit” qar
“a loud deep voice” k’āra vg.3a vi. Skinner 167 “word,
“the roaring sound of “cry out” Proto-AA voice”
the lion or the tiger” “complain” (Orel / Skinner 82
seŋge naro k’ārā f. Stolbova
“roar of a snow lion” “complaint” “noise” 1995)
Goldstein 1126 Newman, P. *k’ar-
nga-ra 2007 127 “shout”
“noise, sound” Skinner 167
E.13c.2 W, Chadic- Hausa E. Cushitic- Egyptian NC- Fulfulde
TB-Tibetan gàyyatàa v. Afar kai [Fulani]
gāye “invite” kaaye “to cry out, kai excl.
“a call used to hail Newman, P. “call, invite” call out, tell “look here, you”
somebody” 2007 72 Parker / out” Taylor 10
ka-yé Proto-Central Hayward Budge S. Khoisan-
“oh! holla! hear! Chadic *gay- 140 v.2 782 Khakhea
e.g. at the beginning of “call” E.Cushitic- Skinner144 ‖kaī
a royal proclamation” Stolbova, Olga Somali Semitic- C. Khoisan-Naro
kye oh! holla!, C. Chadic qaylo Arabic k”xai
in calling to Etymology “noise, ya‫ع‬yag “to cry”
somebody” W, Chadic- Hausa shout” “to shout, Greenberg
“also merely a sign of kayyàa excl. Awde 1999 yell, scream” 1966 76
the vocative case” “a call for help in 44, 74 Dict. of Iraqi N. Khoisan-
Jaschke 7 catching a thief or Arabic ‖Au‖en
“the vocative sign ; animal” part 2 331 k’ai “to cry”
O!” e.g. “O great Newman, P. Greenberg
1966 76
king” Das15 2007112
gye
“an interjection: oh!”
“hey!”
Goldstein 10
499
E.13c.3 S. Khoisan-
Chinese-MSC |Nu‖’e ‖kai
(Beijing) “call”
āi ‘“used informally Ruhlen 1994
to get someone’s #193 49
attention” S. Khoisan-
āi āi āi! shuō-nĭ-ne Khakhea
‘“Hey! You! ‖kaī
Wang, F. 2 Greenberg
“to cry”
1966 76
E.13c.1 TB-Tibetan nga-ra-ra “an expression of deep pain or suffering” Das 346
E.13c.1
C. Chadic- Fali-Gili xar “call” Skinner 144, 167
W. Chadic-Burma ngare “call” Skinner 167
E. Chadic Masa Group-Lame ka’a “crier fort” Skinner144
W. Chadic–Hausa k’alà “(usually in negative) “not a word“ [i.e. say nothing, don’t say a word]
Newman 2007 126 “words, speech” Newman / Ma 1979 74 Skinner166
kalmàa “word” kàalāmii “words, speech” Newman / Ma 1979 61
E. Cushitic-Burji
‘k’aal-ee f. “word” Sasse 1982 121
k’áale “word” Hudson 206
Semitic-Arabi kallam “to talk to, to speak to” Qafiisheh 520
E.13c.2
W. Chadic-Hausa kâi d’ibgì “Wow! How rotund” “self contained utterance, does not take a subject or
object” Newman, P. 2000 177
E. Cushitic-Sidamo qâle “word, voice” Gasparini 255
S. Khoisan-‖Khegwi ‖kài “cry” Ruhlen 1994 #193 49
Khoisan-!Kung k”ai “roaring of animals” Greenberg 1966 75
Khoisan-Sandawe k’e “to cry” Greenberg 1966 76
E.13c.1
Proto-IE *garə “to shout” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 39
IE-Hindi karāhnā vi. “groan” karā f. “moan, groan” Scudiere 216
/
Swadesh W. Chadic – Hausa Proto-AA Egyptian N. Khoisan-
“say” gáyàa vt. (Orel/ kay ‖Au‖en
E.13d.1 “tell” Stolbova “to speak, ‖kai “speak,
S. Chinese-Min Newman, P. 1995) to say” pray”
kai1 “state, explain” 2007 72 *gay- “say” Budge v.2 782 Greenberg
Hakka Dict. Skinner 82, 144 Skinner 82 W. Semitic- 1966 75
S. Chinese-Yue W. Chadic- Bura Omotic-S. Ethiopian- N. Khoisan-
(Cantonese) gaya Branch Gurage ‖Kh’au-‖’e
gái “to chat” “to converse, gay- qay ‖káiä Central
gáai “to explain” conversation, story” “to say” “word, voice” Khoisan-
Chik / Ng Lam Dict. of Bura Ehret 1995 Skinner 82 Naro
21, 416 #385 224 ‖kái “meet”
Po-fei Huang 382
500
E.13d.2 W. Chadic–Hausa Central

S. Chinese-Min gaisà “exchange Khoisan-
kài-siau greetings” Nama ‖ai
“make an gai dà / “meet”
introduction, gayar (dà) / gaishē Ruhlen 1994
to introduce ” “greet, pay one`s #393 58
Bodman 1987 v.2 144 respects to”
Newman, P. 2007 72
Newman, R. 1990 112
E.13d.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gái “to chat”, gáai, gaai “to explain”
< W. Chadic – Hausa gaya “to tell” / Proto-AA *gay- “say” / N. Khoisan-‖Au‖en ‖kai “speak”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *gaya- “to say, to tell” “to converse”
E.13d.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) kìnggái “chat, converse” Po-fei Huang 413
gái “to chat” Chik / Ng Lam 21 kìnggái “chat, converse” Po-fei Huang 413
E.13d.1 C. Chadic-Bura gari “to converse” Dict. of Bura
W. Chadic–Gwandara gye’ “tell” Skinner 82
/
E.13e.1 W. Chadic- Ron N.Khoisan-
TB- Jingpho [Kachin] (Bokkos) kawa !Kung
gāu “call” “weinen, schreien, !kau “to cry”
Benedict 19 klagen” [cry, weep, Starostin, G.
Matisoff 2003 scream”] 2008
225-226 Jungraithmayr Macro-Khoisan
1970 143 Etymology
E.13e.2 E. Semitic- C. Khoisan-
TB-Written Burmese Cushitic- Arabic Nama
ʔau “shout” Rendille (Iraqi) !hao “scream”
Matisoff 2003 225 hawda ‫ع‬awi vn. !ha̎o “call”
S. Chinese-Yue “bellow, “howling” Ruhlen 1994
(Cantonese) bleat, Dict. of #194 49
hau / hàau “(of low” Iraqi #483 62
beast) to roar or howl” Pillinger Arabic
Chik / Ng Lam 55 138 part 2 484
E.13e.3 S. Chinese- W. Chadic – Hausa North
Min kiau2 v. “call kirāwō vg.6 Khoisan-
arms” “summon to “call here” !’O!Kung
arms” Hakka Dict. (ventive of kirā !ʔau “call”
kiôu “to order, to call” “call, summon) Ruhlen 1994
Bodman 1987 Newman, P. #194 49
v.2 79, 149 2007 113, 114276 #483 62
276
Note- E.13e.3 (Hausa) The basic form for both the Hausa E.13e.3 grade 6 kirāwō and the E.13e.4 grade 7
kiràawu is the grade 0 Hausa kirā v. “call” “invite” Newman, P. 2007 113 2000 663, and Newman, R. 1990
34, 140. The syntactic differences carry semantic shifts as explained by Kraft and later in more detail by P.
Newman. Grade 6 is called the ventive or -o form verb in Hausa: The -o form verb typically has a basic form to
which the -o suffix is added. Kraft explains this grade as follows: “The meaning of the -o form of a given verb
indicates that the action performed had reference to, or was completed in, the vicinity of the scene of the
conversation or (in a story) the center of interest at the time.” Kraft 152. So in this case the basic form is kirā
501
S. Chinese-Kejia Proto-W. Proto-Khoisan

[Hakka] (Meixian, Chadic !ʔau
Kwangtung, Lufeng) *qirawa / “to call, cry”
kiau5 / giau5 v. *qwara Starostin, G.
“cry, shout, hail” “cry, call” 2008
“call, summon” Skinner 144 Macro-Khoisan
Hakka Dict. Etymology.
E.13e.4 W. Chadic – Hausa
S. Chinese-Kejia kiràawu
[Hakka] (Meixian) vg.7
kiau5 / giau5 v. (sustentative/
“be called, passive)
known as” “be called”
Hakka Dict Newman, P.
N. Chinese-MSC / 2000 664277
Beijing
jiào
“be called, named”
Wang, F. 233
meaning “call” “invite” and the grade 6 kirāwō means “call to come here”. Hence kirā “call” connotes
movement away from the scene of the conversation or center of interest , and kirāwō “call” “summon” means
calling toward the place of the conversation or center of interest, i.e.“call here”.
Newman further explains the insertion of the –w element. “Monosyllabic verbs ending in –ā
Insert /w/ between the stem-final vowel and the /ō/, e.g. jāwō “pull here” (< jā) and in this case kirāwo
“call here” (< kirā).” “The gr[ade] 6 form corresponding to kai “take”, is a clipped verb derived from */kay-/
which becomes kāwō ‘bring’.” Newman, P. 2000 662, 2007 104. These Hausa examples of the grade 6
form have close correspondences in Sinitic languages. For example see:
H.1.2 Cantonese chàu “to draw out” “to pull out or open” / Beijing shào “drive (a cart ) backwards”
< Hausa jāwō (grade 6 verb) “pull (here)”, “drag (toward speaker)”
3 1 1 2 4
H.2.1 S. Chinese-Min kau v. “to arrive, reach, direction, to, up to, until” / Hakka kau / gau / gau / gau
“submit, hand in or over” “come close to, join”
< Hausa kāwō (grade 6 verb) “bring”, “reach here, reach, arrive” “approach, get close to”.
Hence the E.13e.1 and E.13e.3 correspondence sets give evidence that S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka], Min and
Beijing have retained the Grade 6 (ventive) -o form of the Hausa verb. See also Notes H.1.2, H.2.1 (Hausa),
Newman, P. 2000 627, 663 and chapter 10 section 10.2.1.2 (ventives) for other examples.
277 5 5
Note- E.13e.4 (Hausa) Note that in the E.13e.4-5 sets the Hakka kiau / giau forms designate an active
and passive function of the verb, i.e. “to call” and “to be called, named”. In W. Chadic-Hausa the two functions
are distinguished grammatically by using the verb grade 6 for the active form and verb grade7 for the passive.
“Grade 7 which is strictly an intransitive grade indicates that the subject of the verb has sustained or is capable of
sustaining some action. In many cases, it thus corresponds to the English passive”. Newman, P. 2000 664-5. See
also Notes E.7c.1 and H.39a.4.
P. Newman includes the above-cited grade 7 form kiràawu ”be called” as an example. It is derived from the
grade 0 kira “call, name” Since Sinitic languages have been reduced to monosyllabic forms, the grade 6 active
form kirāwo and the grade 7 passive form kiràawu have lost the final -o of the grade 6 and the final -u of the
5 5
grade 7 form. They have been contracted into the Hakka morpheme kiau or kiau (< kiràaw- or giràaw-) The
S. Chinese-Yuè Cantonese) and Min E.13e.2 extended forms also have passive semantics. They contrast
minimally with the Hakka form, but are also plausibly derived from the Hausa Grade 7 kiràawu.
5 5 “
The E.13e.3 set Hakka kiau / giau call, summon” ↔ Hausa kirāwō grade 6 “summon”
represent palatalization of the initial velar, whereas the Sinitic forms of the E.13e.5 set are the result of fronting of
the Chadic palatalized k’ velar.
502
E.13e.5 N. Chinese W. Chadic – NS-

-MSC jyàu (Y) / jiào N. Bauci-Tsagu Songhay
vt. “yell (cry out” k’awu- “call” (Koyra)
“call” “shout” Skinner 167 čow
chiào (WG) W.Chadic-Ngizim Heath
“to call, to summon” d’auru = d’aaru v.1 63
Mathews #700 95 “call” Schuh 55
E.13e.6 W. Chadic–Hausa
S. Chinese-Yue yi tsāwā “scold,
(Cantonese) shout at someone”
châau “to quarrel, tsàawatàa vg.2
to wrangle, dispute” “scold someone”
Chik / Ng Lam 55 Newman, P. 2007
206
E.13e.7 Chinese-Yue W. Chadic- NS-
(Cantonese) S. Bauci-Guruntum Songhay
giu “call” Kwan 55 gyuli čew
“to call, to summon” “call (summon)” “call,
Chik/ Ng Lam 51 Jungraithmayr summon”
jìu “to beckon with 1994 v.2 58 Heath
hand, to summon” v.1 63
Chik/Ng Lam 171
E.13e.8 W. Chadic – Proto-AA NS- Tubu
TB-Newar-Dolakha Ngizim kúrúwâ (Orel / [Teda]
khor- “cry” “shouting” Stolbova kórroro
Matisoff 2003 443 Skinner 156 1995) “schreien
E. Chadic–Tumak *qor- ” [scream
gūra “cri” (Fr.) “shout” cry out]
Skinner 167 Skinner Lukas
E. Chadic- 167 1953
Dangaleat 199
[Dangla] kōle
“crier”
Skinner 167
E.13e.9 W. Chadic – Proto-AA NS- Tubu
TB-Newar-Dolakha Ngizim kúrúwâ (Orel / [Teda]
khor- “shouting” Stolbova kórroro
“cry” Skinner 156 1995) “schreien
Matisoff 2003 443 E. Chadic–Tumak *qor- ” [scream
gūra “cri” (Fr.) “shout” cry out]
Skinner 167 Skinner Lukas
167 1953
199
E.13e.10 E.
TB-Chin-Thado, Cushitic-
Lushai koù “call” Rendille
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu kówdo
qho “summon by “noise of
calling” Matisoff 2003 any kind”
225-226 Pillinger
203
503

E.13e.2 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ʔa:u “call, shout” / Written Burmese ʔau “shout” /
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) hau / hàau “(of beast) to roar or howl”
< C. Khoisan-Nama !hao “scream”, !ha̎o “call” / Khoisan-!’O!Kung !ʔau “call”
E.13e.5 S. Chinese-Min chiau1 “call, summon” “cry, shout, hail, scream” /
N. Chinese-MSC chào “to call, to summon”
< W. Chadic– N. Bauci- Tsagu k’awu- “call” / NS-Anywa jʌ‫כ‬ʌò “to shout”, cʌ‫כ‬ʌò “to name
somebody, something” / N. Khoisan-!’O!Kung !ʔau “call”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *k’awu- “call, shout” ~ !ha̎o “call” / !ʔau “to call”
E.13e.1
Old Chinese ɣâw “cry out, call” Benedict 193
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) kau5 “cry, shout, hail” “be called, known” “call, summon”
Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC hào “name” Wu, J. 271
TB-Written Burmese kâu “call” Matisoff 2003 225-6
Proto-Tibeto-Burman gāw = gāw ~ kau “call” Benedict #14 19, 200
Matisoff 2003 590
TB-Tibetan gawur “the noise made by a cheering crowd” Goldstein 219
TB-Burmese ŋaw “to cry, weep” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
E.13e.2 N. Chinese-MSC háo v. “howl (of humans / animals)” DeFrancis 352
xiào “howl, roar” Wu, J. 762
Proto-Tibeto-Burman ʔā:w “shout” Matisoff 2003 583
E.13e.3 S. Chinese-Min kio3 “call, summon” “cry, shout, hail, scream”
E.13e.4
N. Chinese-MSC jiào “call, address someone as” Wang, F. 233
Chinese–Cantonese giu “to be called or known as” Chik / Ng Lam 51
E.13e.5
S. Chinese-Min kio3 “be called, known as” Bodman 1987 v.2. 98
kiòu-cuê “named, called” Bodman 1987 v.2. 98 Hakka Dict.
E.13e.6 N. Chinese-MSC zhāo “beckon” “recruit, enlist, enroll” Wu, J. 879
zhào “instruct, imperial edict” zhào “call together, convene, summon” Wu, J. 881
châo “make a noise” “quarrel, wrangle” DeFrancis 98 jiào “call, greet” “cry, shout” Wu, J. 342
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Lufeng, Kwangtung) shau5 v. “summon” “call up”
zhau1 “beckon with one`s hand, summon” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Min chiau1 “call, summon” “cry, shout, hail, scream” Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC châorang “make a racket, shout in confusion, clamour” Wu, J.80
E.13e.1
NS-Kanuri kówo “voice, sound” Cyffer 1990 99
Proto-S. Cushitic *k̟wala’ “shout” Skinner 167
Proto-Cushitic *kw’âlʔ- “to call out (stem + *ʔ concisive extension)” Ehret 1995 #442 245
E.13e.2
Proto-Bushman, Proto-Zhu !ʔau “cry” Macro-Khoisan Etymology.
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) hawwas “to make a commotion, be noisy” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 330
E.13e.4 NS-Anywa [Anuak] cāk vt. cʌ‫כ‬ʌò “to name somebody something” Reh 14
NS- Kanuri cuwuna “namesake” cuwúna sekkin ”name after someone” Cyffer 1990 29
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) t’awwat “to broadcast, tell around” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 295
E.13e.5 NS-Anywa [Anuak]jāk vt. “to shout at” jʌ‫כ‬ʌò detransitivized “to shout” Reh 30, 123
E.13e.8
Proto-AA (Orel / Stolbova 1995) *qur- “voice, noise” Skinner156
504
W. Chadic–Hausa kúrūruwa “shouting” Skinner156

W. Chadic–Gwandara (Toni, Gitata, Koro) yi gúra “yell (of women)” Matsushita 1974 #539 119
C. Chadic–Bura kuraku ”voice, noise” hara kuraku “to cry out” Dict. of Bura.
E.13e.9 E. Chadic-Dangaleat [Dangla] kōle “crier” Skinner 167
E.13e.1
IE-Old Indian kauti ”to sound, cry” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
IE-Tokharian *kwā- “call out to, invite” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
E.13e.2 IE-Bengali haumau “uproar, complaint” Thompson 81
/
E.13f.1 Semitic- Arabic NS-Kanuri C. Khoisan-
Chinese-MSC (Yemeni) káwé Nama
kào (WG) “to tell, gawl “advice, counsel” gawa, gowa
to inform, to announce “saying” kawulngin “to say”
to” Mathews #3287 492 (vn. of gaal “to make a speech Greenberg 1966
gào v. “to tell, inform, “to say, tell”) to someone” #79 81
notify” Wu, J. 225 Qafisheh 503 < Arabic
S. Chinese-Yue qawl (IPA) Cyffer 1990 85
(Cantonese) “saying”
gàau daai “tell, instruct Merriam-
(in the sense of order)” Webster Arabic
Po-fei Huang 383 136
E.13f.2 NS-Anywa C.Khoisan-Nama
S. Chinese-Min [Anuak] gawa, gowa “to say”
koù “report, announce” kóó “to report S. Khoisan- ‖Ng !Ke [‖!Ke]
Bodman 1987 v.2 150 something, koa “to say”
to say something” Greenberg 1966 #79 81
Reh 37 Starostin, G. Macro-Khoisan
Etymology
E.13f.1 N. Chinese-MSC gao “to tell, inform, notify”
< Khoisan-Nama gawa, gowa “to say”
E.13f.2 S. Chinese-Min koù “report, announce”
< NS-Anywa kóó “to report something, to say something” / Khoisan- Nama Hottentot gawa, gowa
Khoisan-‖Ng!ke koa “to say”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *gawa “to say” ~ *kowa “to say” “to report something,
to say something, to call out”
E.13f.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Kwangtung, Meixian) gau5 “tell, announce, inform” Hakka Dict.
Chinese–Cantonese chénggaau “ask for advice” Po-fei Huang 364 [compound of this morpheme
and that of E.11a.1]
E.13f.1
C. Cushitic-Bilin gawr “segnen, grüssen” [to bless, to greet] Skinner 82
E. Chadic-Bidiya garaw “parler” Skinner 82
qawl “word, promise” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 381
qawl “saying” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 1 155
qawanna “tale, stor y”Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 380
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) jawwad “to recite (from the Quran)” Qafisheh 92
↓
505

E.14 Afro-Asiatic – AA –Cushitic AA-- Nilo-Saharan Niger-
Chadic Sem. Congo
E.14.1 W. Chadic- Proto-AA Songhay N.Khoisan
TB-Tibetan Hausa (Orel/Stolbova (Koroboro) -!Kung
ŋu-wa / ngu-ba kūwwàa / 1995) kuuwa !kóu
“to cry, to weep” kūwàa f. *kuha’ “be noisy” “scream”
Das 352 “shouting, “speak, shout” Heath Ruhlen
Jaschke 127 shouts” C. Cushitic- Bilin v.3 224 1994
[Disyllabic corresp.] Newman, P. kuā “schreien” #483 62
2007 120 [to scream, cry
Skinner 158 out] Skinner 158
E.14.2 TB-Tibetan Proto-AA Tubu [Teda]
ŋu vi. “to cry, (Orel / kululu
to weep” Stolbova 1995) “cri de deuil
Goldstein 301 *kuw- des femmes”
N. Chinese-MSC “shout” [women’s cry
k’ū (WG) “to weep, Skinner 158 of mourning]
to cry, to wail, to Skinner 156
mourn for”
Mathews #3498 519
E.14.3 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- E. Cushitic-
kügεε “crying, Hausa Sidamo
wailing” k’ugii kūkki
Goldstein 123 “screaming, “bird cry”
[Disyllabic corresp.] roaring Skinner 151
TB-Chin-Lushai (e.g. of a
ku:k “shriek” hyena or a
Matisoff 2003 363 lion)”
[Disyllabic corresp.] Newman, P.
2007 132
“roar, bellow”
Skinner 175 59
E.14.4 TB-Written W. Chadic- Egyptian
Burmese ŋui “weep, Dera khui
cry” Benedict 31 kui < *kuhi “weep, cry”
Matisoff 2003 185 “cry” Budge v.1 537
Skinner 175
506
E.14.5 W. Chadic – Proto-E. Cushitic

TB-Burmish-Maru Hausa kūkā *g’uuʕ
ŋuk “weep” “crying” “to cry loudly”
Matisoff 2003 182 “complaining” Proto- Cushitic
Proto-Tibeto-Burman “ high-pitched *ɣuuʕ-
*kü:k “weep, wail” cries of an “to make a loud
Matisoff 2003 363 animal or bird” noise”
Old Chinese Newman, P. Ehret 1995
*k’uk “lament, weep” 2007 116 #373 519
Karlgren GSR 1203a
Matisoff 2003 363
E.14.6 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic – E. Cushitic- Afar
kug(s)-pa / Bura group kùq-exce
gug-pa “to call” *kuka “call” “call out”
Jaschke 41 Skinner 151 kùqto
‘gug(s)-pa v. kugu “call “calling out,
“to call, to summon ” (summon)” a shout”
Jaschke 93 Parker /
h̟gugs-pa “to Hayward
summon” Das 289 150
E.14.7 W. Chadic – E. Cushitic- Songhay (Gao)
N. Chinese-MSC Hausa iihùu Oromo huhu húddù
hū “shout, cry out” m. “yelling, “dar l’allarme, “crier de
hūháo shouting, chiamar ayuto” detresse,
“wail, cry out in booing” [give the alarm, demander du
distress” Newman, P. cry for help] secours”
Wu, J. 283 2007 92 Borello 217 Ducroz 128
E.14.2 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ŋuw = ŋəw “weep, cry”
< W. Chadic- Gwandara kuwo “cry” / Proto-AA *kuw- “shout” / N.Khoisan-!Kung !kóu “scream”
E.14.3 Old Chinese *k’uk “lament, weep”
< W. Chadic–Hausa kuka “weeping, crying” “any high-pitched cry of animal or bird”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *ŋuw- “to weep loudly , to cry out” ~ !kóu “scream”
E.14.2 TB-Tibetan ŋu vi. “to cry, to weep” Goldstein 301 ku (Western Tibet) “clamour” Jaschke 3
“cry, moan” Das 16 ku (Western Tibet) “clamour”Jaschke 3 “cry, moan” Das 16
TB-C. Loloish-Nyi ŋu̱ “weep” Benedict 60
TB-Nung [Rawang] ngü “weep, cry” Benedict 31 ŋɯ “to weep” Matisoff 2003 185
“cry” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Chin-Daai khü “call” Matisoff 2003 119
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ŋuw = ŋəw “weep, cry” Benedict #79 31, 205 Matisoff 185, 606
TB-Tibetan guù “to summon, to call, to send for” gugda “a message” “to recall/summon”
Goldstein 238
TB- Kinauri, C. Loloish-Lahu kù “call” Benedict/ Matisoff 19 Matisoff 2003 226
TB-Empeo gu “call” Matisoff 2003 226
E.14.4 TB-Newar-Kathmandu kho-ye vi. “cry” Matisoff 2003 443
E.14.5 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) hūk “to weep, to cry, to sob, to wail” Chik / Ng Lam 60
E.14.6 TB-Tibetan guggya “a written summons” Goldstein 238
TB-Chin-Lushai [Mizo] kūk “to call or cry out” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
ST- Proto-form *kuk “call” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
E.14.7 N. Chinese-MSC hôu “roar, howl” Wu, J. 281 ū “cry, weep” Wu, J. 394
507

E.14.1
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic č’uhät “scream, shout, yell, cry” Leslau 1976 240
W. Chadic- Gwandara kuwo n. “cry” Skinner 158
C. Chadic-Malgwa kyúwa “cry” Stolbov, Olga C.Chadic Etymology
W. Chadic – Dera kūwu “shouting” Skinner 158
W. Chadic –Ron (Bokkos) kawa “weinen” [to weep, cry] Skinner 158
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic ĉ̟ohä “shout in a loud voice, cry (shout), cry out, yell, scream”
Leslau 1976 240
E.14.5
W. Chadic-Ron (Sha) kûk “weinen, schreien” [weep, shout] Jungraithmayr 1970 286
W. Chadic- Gwandara kuka “crying” Matsushita 1972 68
W. Chadic- Hausa yi kuka “weep” Newman, R. 1990 301 kōkàa vi. “cry” Newman, P. 2007 115
NS-Anywa jʊ̅ɔk “to weep for somebody” Reh 33
E.14.6
C. Chadic -Cibak kugà “call” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 59
E. Cushitic- Afar kukta “edict, announcement, call to arms” Parker / Hayward 151
E.14.7 yi iihùu v. “shout” Newman, R. 1990 244
E.14.1 IE-Sanskrit kuvana “a disagreeable noise” ku “to sound, make any noise, cry out, moan, cry
(as a bird)” “to cry aloud” kuj “to make any inarticulate or monotonous sound” “moan, groan”
Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 E.14.1-2
Kartvelian-Georgian qu(v)- “to cry, howl” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 46
Proto-Kartvelian *quw- “to howl” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 46
E.14.2
Kartvelian-Svan *qūl- “to cry, howl” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 46
IE-Sanskrit ghur “to cry frightfully, frighten with cries”
↓↓
E.15 Afro-Asiatic – AA –Cushitic AA-- Nilo- NC
Chadic Semitic Saharan
E.15.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – E. Cushitic- W. Semitic- Songhay
khun-pa Hausa Oromo Ethiopian- (Gao)
“the uttering of any gunàagunī guunguma Gurage gùngúuni
articulate sound; m. “groaning” “grumble” (Endegeň) ”murmurer”
cooing, moaning, Newman, R. Gragg 189 qunquččä Ducroz 108
to grunt, to groan” 1990 47, 114 E. Cushitic- barä kùndúrù
Das 148 “complaining Sidamo “grumble” “rugir,
‘kún-pa to oneself” gunguma Leslau 1979 grogner
“to groan, “grumbling” ”to grumble, v.3 488 (chien)”
to fetch a deep sigh” Newman, P. murmur” [bark, growl]
Jaschke 55 1977 77 Gasparini 134 Ducroz 162
E.15.2 S. Chinese- C. Chadic –
Yue (Cantonese) Bura
ngihngi-ngòngòh nggyinggya
“grumble” “to groan”
Kwan 211278 Dict. of Bura.
278
Note- E.15.2 (Cantonese Extended) ) The Cantonese ngihngīngōngòh “grumble”can be explained as a
compound of the two Chadic variants nggyinggya (E.15.2) and ngungguni (E.15.1 Extended)
508
E.15.3 E. Cushitic-
N. Chinese -MSC Rendille
yuànyán nyunyuwa
“complaint, “to grumble”
grumble” Pillinger 236
Wu, J. 856
E.15.4 C. Chadic- E. Cushitic- West Kanuri N. Khoisan-
TB-Tibetan Mafa Oromo Semitic- ngurngur- !Kung
ŋur-ba “to grunt (Matakan) gururi’a v. Ethiopian ngin ‖gǘ v.
(of yaks and pigs)” gurgur “growl” -Amharic “roar (e.g. of “bark”
Jaschke 127 “snore” Gragg 189 əngur- a lion), Ruhlen 1994
Das 352 Stolbova, Olga C. Cushitic- gurro grumble, #146 48
sŋur-wa “snore” C. Chadic Bilin “muttering, pout (of NC-Swahili
Das 374 Eymology gurəmrəm murmuring” people)” nguruma
TB-Chin-Lushai “murren” Leslau 1976 Cyffer 1990 “rumble,
ŋur “to growl, [to murmur, 209, 414 139 thunder,
to snarl, grumble” grumble] Lukas1937 growl, roar”
Starostin, S. Skinner 93 235 Rechen-
ST Etymology bach 404
E.15.5 TB-Tibetan E. Chadic - W. Chadic– W. NC-Fulfulde
ŋurg� Mokulu Hausa Semitic- [Fulani]
“a grunting sound gurgire gurgutu Ethiopian ngūra
(like a pig or yak) “grogner” “growling, -Amharic “purr,
ŋerg� “growling” Skinner 93 purring” kurfiya n. growl”
Goldstein 302 Skinner 93 “snore” ngūrāngo
[Disyllabic corresp.] Leslau 1976 “purring”
159 Taylor 68
E.15.6 C.Chadic– Anywa
TB-Tibetan Logone ŋʌ‫כ‬r�=
ŋer “to growl” ŋer “bellen” “to growl”
Goldstein 302 [to bark] Reh 56
Skinner 93
E.15.7 E. Chadic–
TB-Sherpa Lele
ngor-pa “snore” ngorngili
TB-Sunwar “ronfler
ngor “snore” [purr, snore]”
E.15.1 TB-Tibetan khun-pa “the uttering of any articulate sound; cooing, moaning, to grunt,
to groan”
< W. Chadic–Hausa gunàagunii “groaning” n. gunji m. “growling by animal”.
E.15.4 TB-Tibetan ŋur-ba “to grunt (of yaks and pigs)”, sŋur - wa “snore” / TB-Chin-Lushai
ŋur “to growl, to snarl, grumble”
< E. Cushitic-Oromo gururi’a “growl” v. / C. Cushitic- Bilin gurəmrəm “to murmur, grumble” /
Khoisan-!Kung ‖gǘ v. “bark”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *gun- / *ngur- ~ *ngǘ “utter an inarticulate sound”
E.15.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) hunggou “complain” Kwan 85
TB-Tibetan kün vi. “to groan, to moan” küng� “sound of groaning, moaning” Goldstein 158
khun-pa “to grunt” Jaschke 41
509
E.15.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ngihngīngōngòh “grumble” Kwan 21

E.15.3 TB-Burmese nyany “sigh, moan, groan, grumble, or murmur at” Benedict 47
E.15.4 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ku3 / gu1 “murmur, mutter, mumble” Hakka Dict.
E.15.5 TB-Tibetan ngug-pa “to grunt, to snore, to purr” Jaschke 127 Das 352
E. 15.7
TB-Naga-Tangkhul ŋər “snore” Matisoff 2003 400
TB-Pattani gor gorsi “snore” Matisoff 2003 400
TB-Kiranti-Thulung khor “snore” Matisoff 2003 400
TB-Nepali ghurnu “snoring” Starostin, S. Yamphu Dict.
E.15.1
C. Chadic–Bura ngungguni “to grumble, complain” Dict. of Bura
W. Chadic–Hausa gunji m. “growling by animal” Newman / Ma 1979 46
yunk’ura “grunt (in making an effort)” Skinner 292
yi gùngùni “complain, grumble” Newman, R. 1990 47, 114
E. Cushitic-Afar gunnùq-exce ”grumble, rumble” Parker / Hayward 117
Cushitic- Qabenna, Alaba qunqūččo “grumble” Leslau 1979 v.3 488
E. Cushitic-Oromo gungumu “borbottare, criticare, imprecare, mormorare” [to mutter, to criticize,
to curse, to complain] Borello189
NS- Anywa [Anuak] kʊ‫כ‬ʊn “to grieve” Reh 39
Proto-AA *-k’um- or *-k’uum- “to grumble, sigh” Ehret 1995 #420 236
Proto-South Cushitic *k’um- or *k’uum- “to grumble” Ehret 1995 #420 236 Skinner 91
C. Cushitic-Afar (Southern dialect) gumùnuq ”mumbling, muttering” Parker / Hayward 117
NS- Kanuri ngurngurngin vi. “roar (e.g. of a lion)” ”grumble, pout (of people)” Cyffer 1990 139
Schuh 127 ; ngùrngùr-jin ”grumble” Cyffer 1990139 Schuh 127
NS- Nuer kuom “grunt” Huffman 25
E.15.2 Berber–Tuareg [Tamasheq] genugenu “grogner” Skinner 91
E. Chadic-Migama ŋerŋiro “grogner (se dit des chiens)” Jungraithmayr / Adams 111
E.15.3 C. Chadic–Mofu-Gudur ŋwangguz- “grogner, se plaindre, gemir” Skinner 91
E.15.4
E. Cushitic- Somali khurro “snore” Awde 1999 38,75
E. Cushitic-Afar gurmùg-exce “grumble, rumble” Parker / Hayward 117
Semitic-Aramaic qurqā, qurqur “making an animal noise” Comprehensive Aramaic Leicon
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari gurur bäya “roar, (animal)”, “rumble (thunder)” Leslau 1963 75
W. Chadic-Ngizim ngùřèngùřì or ngùřèngùř “mumbling to oneself” Schuh 127
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Wolane) gurgurta “thunder, murmur” Leslau 1979 v.3 293
C. Khoisan- Nama ‖húu v. “bark” Ruhlen 1994 #146 48
E.15.7 W. Chadic–Hausa gurnani “growling, purring” Skinner 93
E.15.1 Altaic-Turkic-Turkish gumburdemek “roar”gurlemek “roar” Tureng 363
E.15.4 Kartvelian-Svan gurgwn “to thunder” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 21
Proto-Kartvelian gurgw- “to thunder” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 21
IE-Sanskrit ghurghura “growling (of a dog or cat)”Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Pashto ghurchedal “to roar, to bellow”
ghur-zang “to roar, to bellow (as a bull)” Raverty 719
IE-Hindi gurānā “growl, snarl” gurahit “growl” Scudiere 71, 231
S. Daic-Lao ku2 “growl” Marcus 97 See also Supplementary Table 2
Kartvelian-Georgian qurqul “wolf’s or dog’s howl” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 45
Proto-Kartvelian *qur- “to howl” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 45
Kartvelian-Georgian, Svan gul- “to growl” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 24
↓↓
510

E.16a-b AA – Chadic AA–Cush. AA-Sem. NS NC
E.16a.1 W. Chadic – Semitic-Arabic
S. Chinese-Yue Hausa (Iraqi)
(Cantonese) sík’ée vi. sikat “to become
jihk “quiet, still, “become silent, lapse into
serene” temporarily silence”
Chik / Ng Lam 106 speechless or sikan “to become
Middle Chinese silent” still, tranquil.,
dzek “to repose, Newman, P. calm, to subside”
quiet” 2007187 Dict. of Iraqi
Sagart 1999 63 Arabic part 2 220
E.16a.2 W. Chadic – Proto-AA
S. Chinese-Kejia Hausa tsit *̣cit-
[Hakka] (MacIver) ideo. “in “be quiet”
sìp7 / tsip7 / tsit7 complete Militarev /
(Dongguan, silence, Stolbova
Lufeng) hushed, still, AA-
“still, silent, quiet, quiet” Etymology
peaceful, serene” Newman, P. 2007
E.16a.3 TB- W. Chadic – E. Cushitic- Songhay
Tibetan shi Hausa Sidamo (Koroboro)
“to calm down”, shirū c’irri síróẁ
Goldstein 926 m. “silence” “silence” “silence”
N. Chinese -MSC shiru-shiru Skinner Ducroz
(WG) tsì / chì adj. “taciturn” 245 205
“still, silent” Newman, P.
Mathews 1966 2007 186
#505 Skinner 245279
E.16a.4 C. Chadic– NC-
TB-Tibetan Padoko Fulfulde
shi-wa šiya- [Fulani]
“to be peaceful or “calme et sirwa
calm” “to be silencieux” “be quiet,
pacified” Skinner 245 still”
Das 1069 Taylor 176
279
Note- E.16a.3-4 In Hausa “when followed by a front vowel, either i(i) or e(e), the alveolars s,z and t
palatalize to sh, j and c respectively.” [c before i in Hausa is pronounce like ch in English] “Palatalization is
significant both as an active process and as a historical result of the process.” (Newman, P. 2000 414).
In this table the AA forms except for Arabic, Chadic-Hausa sík’ and Chadic-Bura show palatalization s > sh.
Neither of the NS forms show palatalization. All the ST morpehemes match a Chadic form but only the E.16a.2-3
correspondences are exact matches since E.16a.1 Hausa is not palatalized and E.16a.4 does not show a Hausa
correspondence.. This suggests ultimate ST inheritance from Proto-AA for E.16.2-4 and that E.16a.1 Hausa and
Bura are results of late loaning from Arabic. Newman noted the exceptions to the rule in Hausa due to the influence
of Arabic as in E.16a.1 (See also Notes A.4.1, B.5b.1 and C.31d.1.) An interesting feature of this word family is
the C. Chadic Bura doublet with E.16a.2 tsid- related to one Hausa form based on Proto-AA and E.16a.3 siri
related to a different Hausa form, Cushitic and NS. This may be the result of migration and loaning in Africa
before the migration(s) into Asia.
511

E.16a.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] sìp7 / tsip7 / tsit7 “still, silent, quiet, peaceful, serene”
< W. Chadic–Hausa tsit ideo. “in complete silence ” “still (without motion)” /
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *ṭṣit - “be silent”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *tsit “still, silent, quiet”
E.16a.3
N. Chinese-MSC / Beijing (WG) chì “quiet, self-composed” Mathews #404a 53
TB-Tibetan shinεὲ “peaceful place, peaceful” Goldstein 927
E.16a.1
E.Cushitic-Sidamo sîda “to listen silently” Gasparini 288
E.16a.2 Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) tsilmi “peaceful” Qafisheh 312
C. Chadic–Bura tsidak(u) “done without others hearing of it”, tsidaktsidaku “quietly, so as not
to be heard” Dict. of Bura
E.16a.3 E. Chadic–Bidiya cirit “silence” (Fr.) Skinner 245
C. Chadic–Bura siri “quiet, silent” Dict. of Bura
NS- Kanuri sə́rín “silently” Skinner 245 Cyffer 1990 159
E.16a.3 Sanskrit kSi “to remain, be quiet, to make a person live quietly” Cologne Lexicon.
/
While the following word family testifies to the complexity of any analysis of these related E.16a-b
word families, it adds certitude to the “out of Africa” hypothesis by showing additional relationships
including a large group of Sanskrit and other non-ST Asian language correspondences.
E.16b.1 TB-Tibetan E. Chadic– N. Cushitic-
sīmbu / sīmmèwa Dangaleat Beja
“quiet, silent” síìmè [Bedawi]
simsim simlə “rester šimis
“quietly, silently” silencieux” “be quiet,
Goldstein 1123 (Fr.) patient”
[Disyllabic corresp.] [remain silent ] səmak
S. Chinese-Yue Fédry 372 “schweigen”
(Cantonese) Skinner 237 [be silent, keep
sìhm “placid, calm and quiet]
tranquil (water)” Skinner 237
Chik / Ng Lam 274
E.16b.2 TB-Tibetan Proto-E. Cushitic W. Semitic- NS-Nile-
cam “quietly, c’aamb- Ethiopian- Nubian-
without any noise” ”to be quiet” Amharic Kənzi
Das 379 Ehret 1995 c’ammata [Kenuzi]
(W. Tibet) sam(-ma) / #557 294 “be calm” samm
sum(-me) “with a low E. Cushitic- c’əmmət “still sein,
voice, lowly, softly” Oromo “quiet, taciturn” müssig
Das 1267 Jaschke 572 c’amu Leslau 1976 sein” [be
S. Chinese-Yue “calmarsi, 237 still, be
(Cantonese) tranquillizzarsi” Egyptian idle”]
chàhmjing “quiet [to become calm, tchaām Skinner 237
(of a person) Kwan 395 tranquil] “quietness, rest”
cháhm Borello 75 Budge v.2 896
“to sleep, to rest”
Chik / Ng Lam 108
512
E.16b.3 Semitic- Arabic

Chinese-MSC (Iraqi)
xián s’anta
“idle” “quiet” “quiet, silence,
adj. quietness,
Merriam-Webster stillness”
Chinese 143 Dict. of Iraqi
Arabic
part 2 270
E.16b.4 W. Chadic- West Semitic-
TB-Tibetan Hausa Ethiopian-
(West Tibet) sùmùmù ideo. Amharic
sam(-ma) / “describes zəmməta
sum(-me) “with a low moving silently “silence”
voice, lowly, softly” and stealthily” zəmmalä
Das 1267 Jaschke 572 Newman. P. “be quiet,
sāmsūm zer 2007 190 keep quiet”
“speak in a low voice!” suma Leslau 1976 179
Jaschke 572 “become
speechless”
Skinner 237
E.16b.1 Tibetan cam “quietly, without any noise” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chàhmjing “quiet
(of a person)
< West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic ĉ’ammata “be calm, tranquil” / Proto-E. Cushitic c’aamb-
“to be quiet”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *cham- “be quiet, still, calm”
E.16b.4 TB-Tibetan kāsum “shut up!” kā “mouth” Goldstein 111
E.16b.1
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Ge’ez s-mm “be silent, not listen” Skinner 237
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) silmi “peaceful” Qafisheh 312
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) s’inat “to be or become silent, quiet, still” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 270
E.16b.2 Proto-AA *-c’aam- “to rest” Ehret 1995 #557 294
Semitic-Arabic sʕamt “silence” sʕamitun (IPA) “silent” Merriam-Webster Arabic 142
t’amāna “to calm, quiet, pacify, appease, soothe” Wehr 664.
NS-Kanuri samngin “settle a dispute, calm people down” < Arabic Cyffer 1990 151
Egyptian sharma “peace, comfort” tchama “calm (of the weather)” Budge v.2 896, 898
Semitic-Written Arabic t’amān “calm, quiet, repose, peace” Wehr 666
On t’ notation see Note C.5a.4 (Semitic-Amharic)
Semitic-Hebrew sha’anan “serene, tranquil” Baltsan 382
E.16b.1 Proto-Altaic *simo / simu “to be silent, whisper”
Altaic Proto-Turkic *sim- “to be silent, whisper” .
Proto-Tungus-Manchu *sim- “to be silent, whisper” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology.
E.16b.2 IE-Sanskrit kSeman “safety, tranquillity, peace, rest, security”
kSemavat “attended with tranquillity and security” samana “quiet, calm” samupazan “to become
quiet, cease”sampraSAda “perfect quiet (mental repose during a deep sleep)”
KSam “to be patient or composed, suppress anger, keep quiet” zamya “to keep quiet”
zamatha “quiet, tranquility” Cologne Lexicon.
513
Proto-IE *sam- “quiet” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 117

Old Indian sáman “calming, tranquilizing” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 117
E.16b.3 IE-Bengali shanto “quiet” shan “peace” shanti “peaceful” Thompson 117, 120
ɔshanti n. “lack of peace, unrest” Thompson 35 ɔ prefix expresses “lack of, absence of”
IE-Hindi śānt adj. “calm” Scudiere 24 See also Supplementary Table 2 E.16b.1-2, E.16b.4
Kartvelian-Georgian čum- “quiet, calm” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology
↓↓
E.17 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA -Cushitic AA-Sem. Nilo-Sah. NC
E.17.1 W. Chadic- Hausa
TB-Tibetan tsananī m.
tsanɛn “strict, stern, “sternness, strictness”
harsh” tsànantà “become
Goldstein 2001 870 severe, serious”
[Disyllabic corresp.] Newman, P. 2007 205
btsán (-po) matsànàncī
“strong, mighty adj. “harsh”
powerful, of kings, Newman, R.
ministers etc. 1990 118
esp. as title of honor”280 W. Chadic-Hausa
“strong, violent” mài tsananī
“coercive, strict, severe” “extreme”
Jaschke 434 e.g. yunwa mai
N. Chinese-MSC tsananī
ts’án (WG) “extreme hunger”
“grievous, cruel” Newman, R.1990 90
Mathews #6686 981
E.17.2 W. Chadic- Hausa E. Cushitic- West NS-Anywa
N. Chinese-MSC tsanàntā “harass, Oromo Semitic- [Anyuak]
cân “cruel, savage” aggravate” Newman, canakk-sisu Ethiopian- càann‫̀כ‬
DeFrancis 80 P. 2007 205 vt. tribolare, Amharic vi.
“savage, barbarous, “persecute” far penare” ĉ’ännäqä “to oppress
ferocious” Wu, J. 63 Newman, R. 1990 198 [to torment, “embarrass, somebody”
‘cânrên sv. tsanàntā wa to cause distress” Reh 14,
“cruel, brutal” (implying “torment” v. suffering for, Leslau 114
cruelty without Newman, R. 1990 to distress] 1976 239
restraint)” 281 Borello 75
Wang, F. 51-52
280
Note- E.17.1 (Tibetan) Jaschke reports as a variant noun/adjective form of this root btsaŋ-po “title of
sovereigns, alleged to be Khams dialect for btsan-po” Jaschke 434. The E.17.3-4 Beijing / Hausa shang /
tsang- attest a verbal form of this root.
The original kings of Tibet were thought to be from the Khams region in Eastern Tibet and from there they
conquered the rest of the country. “It is said that while Tibet was under the early monarchy, the laws were enforced
with the greatest severity and rigor, and because the kings administered them so well, they were called btsaŋ-po.
Das 1004
The severity of the Tibetan kings can be measured by the punishments which the Chinese observers during the
T’ang dynasty reported. “As punishments, even for a small fault, they take out the eyes, or cut off the feet or the
nose. They give floggings with leather whips just as they see fit and without any regulated number (of lashes).
For prisons they dig down into the earth several dozens of feet, and they keep their prisoners there for two or three
years.” Snellgrove 30.
514
shán (WG) Egyptian

“to abuse, to revile” shent
Mathews #5634 775 to revile,
cánhai to abuse,
“cruelly injure or kill” to curse”
Wu, J. 63 Budge
v.2 748
E.17.3 Chadic-Hausa
N. Chinese-MSC tsàngwamàa
xián v. “mistreat,
“dislike” dislike”
Merriam-Webster Newman, P.
Chinese Dict.143 2007 205
E.17.4 W. Chadic-Hausa Semitic- Kanuri
N. Chinese-MSC (Gumel dial.) Arabic zə́nggin
shānghài vt. zànzomā (Iraqi) “annoy,
“injure, harm, hurt “any pestering or šakwat irritate,
wound” badgering of a person” “to harass, worry,
shāng “injure, hurt” “any sort of torment, persistently
“be harmful to” inordinate eagerness bedevil” bother”
Wu, J. 595 by which one may Dict. of Cyffer
shāng-ganqing annoy another” Iraqi Arabic 1990 198
“hurt someone’s Matsushita part 2 243
feelings” 1993 111 [Same root
Wang, F. 402 as B.11d.1
Arabic]
E.17.5 W. Chadic- Hausa E. Cushitic- Egyptian
N. Chinese-MSC shânyêwar jìkī Oromo sheni
cánfei “paralysis” canakku vi. “to be sick,
“maimed, crippled, shânyêwā “ tribolare, to be
disabled” “stroke (medical)” penare, helpless,
Wu, J. 63 Newman, P. 2007 184 angustiarsi” depressed,
ts’án (WG) shân innà [be troubled, cast down”
“sorrowful, grieved, sad, “stroke (medical, suffering, shenn
miserable” believed to be caused anguished, “mental
Mathews #6686 981 by a spirit)” distressed” sickness,
shāng Newman, R. Borello 75 disgust”
“wound, injury” 1990 shenn-t
“be distressed” 194, 264 “oppression,
Wu, J. 594-595 weariness”
Budge v.2
744
515

E.17.1 TB-Tibetan tsanɛn “strict, stern, harsh”, btsán (-po) “strong, mighty powerful, of kings,
ministers etc.” “strong, violent” “coercive, strict, severe” /
N. Chinese-MSC ts’án “grievous, cruel”
< W. Chadic–Hausa tsananii m. sternness, strictness” “severity”
mài tsananii “severe, violent”
E.17.3 N. Chinese-MSC ts’án “to injure, to spoil, to destroy” “to oppress”
< W. Chadic–Hausa tsanàntà wa “harass, persecute”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *tsan- “sternness, severity” “cruel, violent” “to harass,
persecute”
Proto-TB *tsan “strong, firm” Matisoff 2003 616
Proto-Lolo-Burmese *zan “strong, firm” Matisoff 2003 260, 620
TB-Written Burmese san “strong, firm” Matisoff 2003 260
N. Chinese-MSC chyángjwang (Y) “strong (physically)” Chen 387
TB-Proto-Northern Naga jan “strong, firm” Matisoff 2003 260
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] tsen1 “harsh, severe, rigorous” Hakka Dict.
TB-Tibetan
dzɛndzub “cruelty and oppression” Goldstein 850
dzɛndaà “tyrant, despot” [lit. cruel and oppressive king”] daà “king” (D.23.1) Goldstein 850
N. Chinese -MSC
zhēngfú “compel submission by force”
zhènyā “repress, put down an uprising” Wang, F. 92, 595
E.17.2
chàahnyán (Y) “cruel” Chen 343
chàahnyánge “cruel” Kwan 115281
S. Chinese-Min cān-zim “cruel” Bodman 1987 v.2 124
N. Chinese-MSC
ts’án (WG) “to injure, to spoil, to destroy” “to oppress” Mathews #6689 982
ts’án (WG) “sorrowful, grieved, sad, miserable” Mathews #6686 981
shânshī “mishap, accident” Wu, J. 594
cánfei “disable, cripple” “disabled, crippled person” Wang, F. 51
E.17.5 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sèung “a cut, wound, or injury” “to hurt (feelings” “to make
sick” Chik / Ng Lam 23
E.17.1
s’enu “firm, secure, binding (contract), acute, severe (sentence)
s’änna “be firm, be binding (contract), be in effect, be in force” Leslau 1976 242
ṭänäkärrä “be hard, be strong, be powerful, be vigorous, be tough” Leslau 1976 233
281
E.17.2 S. Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) chàahnyán“cruel” chàahnyánge “cruel” / N. Chinese (Beijing) cân
“cruel, savage” ↔ South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic t’änäkärrä “be hard, be strong, be powerful, be vigorous, be
tough” A similar variance exists within Iraqi Arabic which has a doublet involving the initial palatal spirant š-
(šaqq-) “to split off, break away, separate” and the initial palatalized t’- (t’agg-) “to crack, split, break”
(H.30a.2 Extended). The initial t’- (glottal) phoneme and the initial š- (voiceless palatal spirant) show minimal
contrast. See also notes C.5a.4, C.31d.1 and E.16a.3-4 on palatalization of t- in Semitic.
Amharic is today spoken only in Ethiopia, but around 800 BCE it was probably a dialect of south or southwestern
Arabic, the major Semitic dialects of the southern Arabian peninsula at that time involved in trade and settlement in
Easterrn Africa.
516
On ṭ- notation see Note C.5a.4 (Semitic-Amharic)

Semitic-Arabic
tšaddad “to be harsh, strict, severe”
šadiid “strong, powerful, forceful, severe, hard, harsh, violent”
E.17.3
W. Chadic-Gwandara dzāna “insult” Skinner 294
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) xānnaɵ “to scare, terrify, cow” “to get scared”
E.17.1
IE-Pashto zi-yan “to cause harm, hurt, injury” “to injure” “injured, harmed, hurt” Raverty 551
E.17.2 I
E-Sanskrit
canDa “fierce, violent, cruel” “violently, in anger”
sanirghRNa “having no pity, merciless, cruel”
can “to hurt, to injure”
ksan “to hurt, injure, wound” ksanana “hurting, injuring” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Old Indian ḳsạnóti aorist aḳsạnit “to hurt, injure, wound”
Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012145 See also Supplementary Table 2 E.17.1-3
↓↓
ST Languages African/AA languages-Close corresp ondences
E.18 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA –Cushitic AA- NS NC
Sem.
E.18.1 W. Chadic- Hausa
S. Chinese-Yue tsànākī “caution, carefullness,
(Cantonese) sahn deliberation”
“cautious, careful, Newman, P. 2007 205
scrupulous, prudent” mai tsànākī
Chik / Ng Lam 154 “careful (with deliberation)”
gánsahn “cautious” tsantsan “cautiously”
Kwan 63 Newman, P. 1990 4 244
“prudence” Kwan 385 N. sànnu “slowly”
Chinese –MSC > sànnu-sànnu
shān-shān lai chi “very slowly and carefully”
“be slow in coming” Newman, P. 2000 4, 509
Wu, J. 593282
E.18.2 C. Chadic- Gude E. Cushitic-
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) saməm “carefully, sorry!” Rendille
sám “cautious, judicious, Skinner 228 samaccháar
careful” C. Chadic- Bura “slow, careful,
Chik / Ng Lam108 sama “slowly” gentle, quiet”
síusàm sama sama “slowly,
“cautious” “very slowly” carefully,
Kwan 63 Dict. of Bura gently, quietly”
Pillinger 256
282
Note- E.18.1 (Beijing, Chadic-Hausa) Reduplication occurs in both Chinese and Chadic languages. In both
languages this is a case of full reduplication, i.e. “the underlying stem is repeated exactly as in: sànnu “slowly” >
sànnu-sànnu“very slowly and carefully” Newman, P. 2000 509 See also set A.7b.1 in Chapter 10 section 10.5.
517

E.18.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sahn “cautious, careful, scrupulous, prudent”
< W. Chadic- Hausa mai tsànākii “careful (with deliberation)” tsantsan “cautiously”,
sànnu “slowly, carefully”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *tsan- “slowly and carefully”
E.18.1 N. Chinese-MSC shèn “careful, cautious” Wu, J. 610 ;
shên “careful” Wu, J. 609 shênshên “careful, cautious” Manser 396
E.18.1 W. Chadic-Hausa
tsànàke “carefully and deliberately” Newman , P. 2007 205
sànnu “greetings!, slowness, carefulness” sannu sannu “little by little” Skinner 228
tsan tsan ideo. “firmly, securely, cautiously” Newman / Ma 1979 123
E. Cushitic-Oromo sonan “carefully” Skinner 228
E. Cushitic-Sidamo sunu “slowly, gently” Skinner 228
E.18.2 IE-Sanskrit samcintana “careful consideration or reflection” samcintya “one who has
carefully considered or thought about” samcintita “carefully considered or thought about”
Cologne Lexicon.
Proto Altaic *sēmi “caution, attention” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Proto Tungus Manchu *sēmke “caution, attention” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
↓↓
E.19 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA – Afro-Asiatic- NS Khoisan
Cush. Semitic etc.
Swadesh “say” W. Chadic-Hausa Semitic-Arabic South
E.19.1 tàmbayàa muʔtamar n. Khoisan-
Old Chinese “ask, “conference” Proto-Taa
d’am “speak” inquire, Dict. of Iraqi *tám
Karlgren GSR 617-1 ask about” Arabic “say”
Matisoff 2003 299 Newman, P. part 1 43 Starostin,
S. Chinese-Min 2007 196 Merriam- G.
tám “to chat, talk” “ask question” Webster Arabic 2003 29
tāmtám “have a chat” Newman, R. 32
Bodman 1987 v.2 80, 176 1990 213
TB-Tibetan dām Skinner 251
“speech, talk” “to say, yi tàmbàyàř
to speak” “inquire about
Goldstein 448 someone”
S. Chinese-Yue Newman, R.
(Cantonese) 1990 136
tàahm “to talk,
to converse”
taahm “ask for
someone”
Kwan 25
“to visit, to inquire about”
“to find, to search,
to prospect”
Chik / Ng Lam 179
518
E.19.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic - Hausa Semitic-Hebrew

than “a reply tankàa vi. ta’aneh
(esp. in the dialect of “argue, answer back, “answer!”
Upper Tibet)” reply” “reply”
Das 570 Newman, P. Baltsan 407
dam ka len “to give an 2007 197
answer back to
somebody”
Goldstein 448
N. Chinese-MSC
da’an “answer, solution”
Wu, J. 121
E.19.3 N. Chinese -MSC West Semitic- S. Khoisan-
tán “talk, talk about, Ethiopian- Xóő
chat, discuss” Amharic *!tâna
Wu, J. 664 Wang, F. 450 tänättänä “to talk,
tàn “try to find out, “treat (discuss), speak”
explore” analyze” Starostin,
tàntao “inquire into, Leslau 1976 104 G.
probe into” Wu, J. 665 Semitic-Hebrew 2003 29
jiaotàn dan “discussed,
“talk with each other, dealt with”
converse, chat” Baltsan 53
Wu, J. 338
E.19.1 Old Chinese
d’am “speak” / TB-Tibetan dam dri “to question, to ask” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
taahm “ask for someone” “to visit, to inquire about” “to find, to search, to prospect”
< W. Chadic- Hausa tàmbayàa “ask, inquire, ask about” / S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa *tám “say”
E.19.3 N. Chinese -MSC tán “talk, talk about, chat, discuss”
< West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic tänättänä “treat (discuss), analyze” /
S. Khoisan-Xóő !tâna “to talk, speak”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *tàm- “talk, speak” “ask, inquire, ask about” < *tám “say”
E.19.1
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver, Meixian, Lau Chunfat) t’am2 “talk, converse, chat” Hakka Dict.
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] ntam “eloquence” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Tibetan tàahmpun “conference” Kwan 90
Proto-TB *dam “talk, speak” Matisoff 2003 586, 299
TB-Tibetan dam dri “to question, to ask” dri n. “question” ɣttam “speech, conversation, discourse,
talk”, “news, tidings, intelligence” “report, rumour” Jaschke 206 Das 521
E.19.1
NS-Kanuri tátámngin “talk privately or whisper secretly in front of others” Cyffer 1990 171
W. Chadic–Ngizim tàb’tlú “ask, make inquiries” Schuh 154
E.19.3
Semitic-Hebrew ta’an “claimed, argued” ta’anah “claim, argument” Baltsan 407
W. Chadic–Hausa tankiyā f. “quarreling, arguing”
tantamā “doubts” Newman, P. 2007 197
Egyptian ̣tená “to question, to interrogate” Budge v.2 882
519

E.19.1
IE-Sanskrit
damz, dams “speak” Cologne Lexicon
South Daic-Lao
tam4 v. “question, enquire” ka:m3
tam4 n. “question”
kam sa:k tam4 n. “query”
tam4 v. “query” Marcus 72, 176
↓↓
E.20 AA – AA -Cushitic, AA-Sem. NS NC,
Chadic Proto-AA Khoisan
E.20.1 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Oromo NC-Fulfulde
TB-Tibetan Pero soba v. “lie, deny, [Fulani]
shob / çob / gshob şob’à pretend sofaku /
“a fib, a falsehood, a lie”“lie” “false” adj. “liar”n. chofu
Jaschke 564 Das1246 Muka- Foot 51 “duplicity,
sööbo / sööbu rovsky 239 sobu “mentire, deceit”
“swindler, deceiver, liar, simulare, fingere” sofa
conniver” Goldstein 964 [to lie, pretend] “delude, dupe”
sopadhi soba “bugia, chofdo
“fraudulent” Das 1059 finzione, “deceiver”
N. Chinese-MSC / Beijing simulazione, Taylor 177
zuòbì “practice fraud, menzogna, falsita”
cheat, indulge in corrupt [lie, deception,
practices” Wu, J. 944 falsehood]
[Disyllabic corresp.] Borello 377
E.20.2 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic-Rendille Semitic- N. Khoisan-
TB-Tibetan Bole soonyóoy Arabic !Kung
rdsuwa sòwta “a trick, cheating, (Iraqi) tjua n.
“to give a deceptive “lie” deception” zawwar “lie”
presentation, to make a Mukarov- Pillinger 266 “to forge, C. Khoisan-
thing appear different from sky 239 C. Cushitic-Bilin falsify” Naron
what it is” See also suw Dict. Of čuša
Das 1058 D.26b.4 “stehlen” [steal] Iraqi “lie” n.
[Disyllabic corresp.] Skinner 230 Arabic Ruhlen
N. Chinese-MSC N. Omotic-Yem part 2 1994 57
shuwa huāzhāo sòlsù “evil,bad” 208
“play tricks” Merriam- Ehret 1995 #484
Webster Chinese 122, 374 266
E.20.1 TB-Tibetan shob / gshob “a fib, a falsehood, a lie” çob “a fib, falsehood, lie”,
sööbo / sööbu “swindler, deceiver, liar, conniver”
< W. Chadic–Pero şob’à “lie” / E. Cushitic-Oromo soba v. “lie, deny, pretend” “false” adj.
“liar, hypocrite” n. / Proto-AA *-tsob- or *-cob- “to do wrong”
E.20.2 C. Chinese-Wu ʦho5 “cheat, deceive, swindle, trick, lie” / Khoisan-Sandawe tsoro n.
“wrong” / C.Khoisan-Nama soro adj. “wrong”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *tsob- “to lie, to deceive” “ liar, hypocrite”
520

E.20.1 TB-Tibetan shōbe “perpetual liar” Goldstein 1104 rdsob-po “vain, empty, spurious”
Das 1060
söö “deceit” “with verbs ‘to pretend’” Goldstein 964 rdzú-ba “to give a deceptive representation,
to make a thing appear different from what it is” “to disguise oneself” Jaschke 468
rdzub “deceit, imposture” Jaschke 469
E.20.2
C. Chinese-Wu ʦho5 “cheat, deceive, swindle, trick, lie” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Min chou “error, mistake, wrong, mistake” Bodman 1987 v.2 133
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) cho (Y) “mistake, (error)” Chen 229
N. Chinese-MSC
zuò’ è “do evil” Wu, J. 945
tswò (Y) “error” Chen 229 cuò vi. “make a mistake” stative verb “wrong” Wang, F. 81
E.20.1
S. Cushitic-Dahalo tsoβ- “to make mistake” Ehret 1995 #495 270
Niger-Congo-S.E. Mande-Samo (Wowara) sùbré “lie” Mukarovsky 239
E. Cushitic-Oromo c’ubbu “peccato, errore, sbaglio, delitto” [sin, mistake, fault, crime]
/c’/ = ʧ’ Borello 81 ; chubu “sin, iniquity” Foot 11
sob-u “mentire, simulare, fingere” [to lie, pretend to be, pretend as if] Borello 377
W. Chadic-Hausa
tsubbù m. “magic, sorcery”matsùbbaci n.m. “magician, sorcerer” Newman / Ma 1979 126, 90
tsubbù m. “dealing in protective charms, medicines, amulets, etc. by a malam making use of his
religious knowledge” Newman, P. 2007 209
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *-tsob- or *-cob- “to do wrong” Ehret1995 #495 270
E.20.2 Khoisan-Sandawe tsoro n. “wrong” n. Greenberg 1966 #115 83
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) zuur “false testimony, perjury“ Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 208
suuʔ “evil, ill” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 228 (Yemeni) suu’ “bad” Qafisheh 322
C.Khoisan-Nama soro adj. “wrong” Greenberg 1966 #115 83
E.20.1 IE-Sanskrit sopadha “full of fraud or deceit” sopadhi “fraudulent”
sopadhize “one in whom a residue of guile is left (Buddhist term)” Cologne Lexicon.
E.20.2 IE-Bengali showa n. “lie false statement)” Thompson 75
See also Supplementary Table 2 E.20.1-2
↓↓
E.21 AA– Chadic AA–Cush. AA-Sem. Nilo-Saharan NC
E.21.1 W. Chadic- E. Cush.- W. Semitic- Kanuri
N. Chinese-MSC Hausa Sidamo Ethiopian- lablawángin
lālāchêchê lallàmē lallawa Amharic “persuade
“exchange flattery and “flatter, coddle, “to dälällä (someone)
favors” sweet-talk, woo announce, “cajole, flatter” with sweet
[Disyllabic corresp.] (e.g. voters)” to praise” Leslau flattering
laladuì Newman, P. Gasparini 1976189 words”
“cheering squad, rooters” 2007 138 205 Semitic-Arabic Cyffer
Wu, J. 402 lallàb’ā (Iraqi) 199 107
“cheering team, “soothe, flatter” leeluwwa
Rah,Rah team” Newman, P. “lullaby”
Wang, F. 294 2000 712 Dict. of Iraqi
Arabic
part 2 431
521
làlàdeui “cheer[ing] squad”
Chik / Ng Lam 63283
E.21.2 S. Chinese-Yue Kanuri
(Cantonese) lailaingin
laih “to incite, “flatter,
to encourage, praise”
to rouse to action” (usu. of a
“to persuade, praise singer)”
to encourage” Cyffer 1990
Chik / Ng Lam 42,48 107
E.21.1 N. Chinese –MSC lālāchêchê “exchange flattery and favors”
< W. Chadic–Hausa lallàb’a “soothe, flatter” / E. Cushitic- Sidamo lallawa “to praise”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *lalla- “flatter, praise”
E.21.1 N. Chinese-MSC lalong vt. “try to gain someone’s favor by social means” Wang, F.294
E.21.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gīklaìh / gúlaìh “cheer somebody on” Kwan 68
E.21.1 W. Chadic-Hausa làllàsā vt. “persuade, coax” Newman / Ma 1979 80 Skinner 185
lallāshī vn. “coaxing” Newman / Ma 1979 804 Newman, P. 2000 712
lallàmàa f. “lobbying” vg. 2 vt. “to lobby” Awde 1996 105
Semitic-Hebrew heelel / heelela v. past “praised, lauded” halel “a special God-praising prayer for
holidays” halelooyaah “Praise the Lord, (Psalm)” / aleloyah “praise be to God” Baltsan 11, 129-130
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic läzza “speak in a captivating fashion” Leslau 1976 11
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic ələll alä “ululate” “utter cries of joy” Leslau 1976 120, 511 284
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Ge’ez lawlawa “move the tongue” Skinner 156
E.21.2
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Tigre läh’sa “schmeicheln” [flatter] Skinner 185
NS-Nuer liak “to praise, to commend” “praise” Huffman 28
E. Cushitic-Oromo lellisu “inneggiare, acclamare, lodare, rendere omaggio” [to praise, to acclaim,
to laud, to render homage] Borello 278
283
Note- E.21.1 (Beijing, Cantonese, AA, Sanskrit) The Beijing / Cantonese semantics “cheering squad, rooters” here
indicate that the lālā- / laih- forms have been inherited from an African/AA root referring to a cultural practice found
across Africa and institutionalized in the Hausa and Kanuri societies.. The Kanuri king’s court had a group of musicians
called “praise singers” who praised him and gained favors through their flattery. This feature of African/AA culture is
still very much in evidence in Northern Nigeria among the Kanuri and the Hausa. “In the more hierarchical societies of the
north and southwest – proficient and well-rewarded individuals perform vocal and instrumental music and play an
important role in the validation of social structures through praise-singing.” Blench 2004..
Praise singers also perform at private ceremonies such as the naming of a child and are used by politicians in their
campaigns for office.
The ultimate origin of this root appears to be Cushitic. This indicates that public proclamations of praise have been
widespread in African/AA tradition, although it is not clear that this practice has been institutionalized in eastern Africa
to the degree that it is in the Central African Sahel.
284
Note-E.21.1 (West Semitic Extended ) Ululation is a high trilling sound (almost always by women) used, for
example, to praise the leaders of a victorious army after a battle and in other social contexts of celebration. The
lalla- root represents the praise sound, so is clearly onomatopoeic. The practice is not known in European societies,
hence the English term “ululation” repeats the lalla- root and is thus an imitative loan based on borrowing by
anthropologists. Sanskit attests both the meanings of “praise singing, i.e. “a king’s jester” and “ululate” “to loll
the tongue”. See also Chapter 6 Section 6.8.
522

E.21.1
IE-Pashto lalo-lalo “a lullaby, a song to soothe a child, solace” Raverty 874
IE-Sanskrit lalana “caressing, fondling, coaxing” lalaka “caressing, fondling” “a king’s jester”
lalita “caressed, coaxed, indulged” lal “to loll or wag the tongue” Cologne Lexicon
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek alla “lullaby” “soothing song to lujll children to sleep” English-Uzbek Dictionary
N. Iranian-North Persian lāba / lāwa “Schmeichellei” “flattering, coaxing”
Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European–Etymology 2012
E.21.2
IE-Sanskrit slāgh “to flatter, to coax” “wheedle, to praise, applaud, celebrate, eulogize”
slāghyate passive “to be praised or celebrated”
Cologne Lexicon
↓↓
E.22 AA – Chadic AA -Cushitic, AA-Semitic NS NC
Proto-AA
E.22.1 W. Chadic – Hausa E. Cushitic- Semitic-Hebrew
N. Chinese-MSC tsòorō m. Oromo sodaa soled v. present
shòujīng “fear, fright, timidity” “fear” “resents, shrinks”
“be frightened, tsòoratàa vg.2 vi. Gragg 360 salad v. past
be startled” “be afraid of” Hudson 62 “shrank from,
Wu, J. 632 tsòoratà vi. “be(come) sodada vi. abhorred”
frightened, afraid” “fear, afraid” Baltsan 379, 366.
Newman, P. 2007 209 Foot 51
E.22.2 W. Chadic-Ron (Fyer) Proto-AA Egyptian
N. Chinese-MSC šušwet “be afraid” (Orel / Stolbova suh
chù W. Chadic-Tangale 1995) “to be terrified,
“fear” suudɛ “be afraid” *dzuw-c- to be confused,
Wu, J. 103 Militarev / Stolbova “fear” dazed”
Skinner 275 Budge v.2 651
E.22.3 W. Chadic- Ron (Daffo) Omotic- Bencho
TB-Tibetan šišyer v. šer(k’) v.
tsher-ba “to be “fear” “fear”
afraid, to fear” Skinner 275 Skinner 275
Jaschke 460
E.22.1 N. Chinese-MSC shòujīng “be frightened, be startled”
< W. Chadic – Hausa tsòoroo n. “fear” “fright” tsòoratà vi. “be afraid, get scared”
E.22.2 N. Chinese-MSC chù “fear” / TB-Tibetan shɔɔ‫כ‬wur “a sudden fright, panic”
< Proto-AA *dzuw-c- “fear”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *tsòo- ~ *dzuw- “fear”
E.22.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sòu / sou “ashamed, bashful” sàu “ashamed, shy”
N. Chinese-MSC tsò (WG) “to be ashamed” Mathews #678 998 sào “shy, bashful” Wu, J. 589
TB-Tibetan tshom-rŋams “fright, angry or wrathful attitude” Das 1036 ;
tshóm-pa “to doubt, to hesitate, to be timid, bashful, shy, to be ashamed” Jaschke 453
E.22.2
TB-Tibetan shɔɔ‫כ‬wur “a sudden fright, panic” Goldstein 938
523
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chauh chyu “to falter, to hesitate” Chik / Ng Lam 444
N. Chinese- (MSC) chóu chú “hesitate” Wu, J. 97
E.22.3 TB-Tibetan
tser-tser byed-pa “to shake, quake, tremble” Das 999 tseena / tseebo “shy , bashful” “embarrassed”
Goldstein 900 tser “to be shy” Goldstein 895
E.22.1 E. Cushitic-Sidamo šoll- “be shy” Skinner 241
W. Chadic-Tangale sọọ n. “fear” sọọde fear” v. Skinner 275
W. Chadic–Dera šōr- v. “fear” Skinner 275
NS-Kənzi [Kənuzi] saw “sich verwundern, erschrecken” [to be in awe at (sthg.), be frightened”]
Hofmann 150
E.22.3 NS- Kənzi (Kenuzi) sarki v. “furchten, sich furchten” [to fear, to be afraid of”] Hofmann 150
↓↓
E.23a-b AA- Chadic AA- AA-Semitic NS NC
Cushitic
E.23a.1 W. Chadic- Hausa E. West Semitic-Ethiopian-
TB- Nung fařgàbā f. Cushitic Gurage
phərε “to fear, “dread, fear, Konso färe
be afraid” anxiety” fūr “fear,
TB-Mikir phere Newman, P. 2007 “fear” be afraid”
“fear, doubt, dread” 60 Skinner 65 Militarev, Leslau 1979
Benedict 112 “fright” A. v.3 240
“fear” “horror” Newman, R. E. Cushitic
Walker 304 1990 103 Etymology
[Disyllabic
corresp.]
E.23a.2 S. West Semitic-Ethiopian-
Chinese-Yue Amharic
(Cantonese) babba
pa “afraid” “be afraid”
“fear” Leslau 1976 93
Kwan 9, 184
“to fear, afraid,
scared”
Chik / Ng Lam 143
E.23a.3 E. West Semitic-Ethiopian- NS- Nuer
TB-Tibetan Cushitic- Harari bäräga v. parika
phár-ba Sidamo “bolt, be startled” “to jump
“to leap, baragi v. Leslau 1963 45 because
to bound” “bolt, W. Semitic-Ethiopian- frightened”
“to throb be Amharic Huffman
(of the veins)” startled” bäräggägä v. 38
sá-la phár-ba Leslau “be startled” See also
“ to jump from 1963 45 Leslau 1976 91 A.5b.2
fear”
Jaschke 356
Das 848285
285
Note- E.23a.3 (Tibetan) ‘phár-ba / ‘phár-wa is the verbal noun of spór-ba / spar-wa “to elevate, raise”
“lift up” Das 803 Jaschke 332. However as a verbal noun it means “to leap up, to fly up, to bound” as well as “to
524

E.23a.1 TB-Nung phərε “to fear, be afraid”/
E.23a.2 S. Chinese-Min pha3 “fear, dread, afraid, scared or frightened”
< E.23a.1 W. Chadic–Hausa fárgaba f. “dread, fear” / West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic färre
“fear, be fearful, be afraid”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *fár- “fear, be fearful, be afraid”
E.23a.1 S. Chinese-Min pha3 “fear, dread, afraid, scared or frightened” Hakka Dict.
E.23a.2 N. Chinese-MSC pà “fear, dread, be afraid of” Wu, J. 505
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) p’a5 (Lau Chunfat) pa4 “fear, afraid, frightened” Hakka Dict.
E.23a.3 TB-Tibetan pàr “to bounce up, to fly up (e.g. sparks), to beat, throb” per gyaà “to tremble,
shake” vi. Goldstein 724
parbar “pulsating, bouncing, throbbing, hopping” Goldstein 703-704
bārbar “hopping” Goldstein 643
E.23a.1
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic färra “fear, be fearful, be afraid”
fərhat “fright, fear, apprehension” Leslau 1976 245-246
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Wolane) ferot (Selti) ferōt n. “fear”
(Wolane, Selti etc.) atfere “frighten, scare, terrify Leslau 1979 v.3 240
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Čaha) bərägägä (Endegren, Gyetoi)
bəräkägä “bolt, be startled” Leslau 1963 45
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) faja “to alarm, frighten, terrfify” Qafisheh 460
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic af’ärrä “be ashamed, be shy, be embarrassed” ;
afarra “shy, bashful, timid, modest” Leslau 1976 154
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *furVh “fear” AA Etymology
E.23a.3
W. Chadic-Hausa fařfād’iyyā n. “convulsions (epileptic)” “epilepsy” Newman, R. 1990 52, 83
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic yäbariya bäššəta n. “epilepsy” Leslau 1976 334
Semitic-Hebrew peerper v. past “quivered” peerpoor “quiver, spasm” ;
peerkoos m. “spasm” Baltsan 339
Semitic-Aramaic prpr “to writhe in death” Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon
NS- Kanuri fərtənggin vi. “convulse or shake violently prior to death, go through death throes”
Cyffer 1990 49
Egyptian perper “to run swiftly, to leap about, to be agitated” Budge v.1 243
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari firfir baya “be in convulsions (an animal having been shot or
slaughtered)” Leslau 1963 64
NS-Songhay (Gao) fírìm “sauter brusquement, surnager” [to jump suddenly, to spring up]
Ducroz 77 88
NS- Kanuri fəfənngin “flap one’s wings (of birds)”
“convulse, shake violently prior to death,
go through the final throes of death (of birds only after slaughtering)” Cyffer 1990 46
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage Čaha) bəräqätäm v. “flee because of fear, jump because of joy”
Leslau 1978 31
fidget, to be restless, to jump from fear” Note that Ehret’s Proto-Cushitic root *pâr- means both “fly” and “jump”.
See A.5b.2. Hence these roots with semantics of “fear” and “to jump from fear” give evidence of being
correspondences to and/or reflexes of the same A.5b.2.Proto-Cushitic root.
Note also that the Semitic root farr- means “fear, be fearful” in Amharic (E.23a.1 above) and means
“to flee, run off, run away” in Arabic. See farr “to flee, run off” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 348 and A.5b.2 Arabic
Extended.
525

E.23a.1
IE-Sanskrit paribhaya “fear, apprehension” / paritrasa “terror, fright, fear”
E-Pashto par-wā “fear, terror” Raverty 165
IE-Tokharian parsk < par(k) “feel fear, be afraid” Nicolayev, Sergei IE Etymology 2012 106
See also Supplementary Table 2 E.23a.1,3
E.23a.3 IE-Sanskrit parivep “to tremble” / parispand “to tremble, throb, quiver”
parikampa “tremor, great fear or terror” [Disyllabic corresp.]
sphal, sphalati, pasphala “to tremble, quiver, throb” sphul “to tremble, throb, vibrate”
sphuryat, sphuritun “to tremble, palpitate, quiver, twitch, become agitated, to start ”
phurAphurAya “to tremble” parispand “to tremble, throb, quiver” parivep “to tremble”
parikampa “tremor, great fear or terror” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Hindi fařfařānā “flap” vt. fařfařāhāt “flap” f. Scudiere 288
IE-Pashto parřāk khwarral “to tremble” “to become agitated” Raverty 174
/
E.23b.1 E. Chadic- Bidiya Proto-AA Semitic- Hebrew
TB-Tibetan b’āk bạk- “fear” pakhad m. “fear”
pagdza / “avoir peur” Militarev / Stolbova pakhad v. past
pagdzawa [be afraid] Afroasiatic Etymology 2007 “feared”
A.7b.1 Skinner 70 C. Cushitic-Bilin bak- “be afraid” Baltsan 334, 574,
“fear” C. Cushitic-Agaw bakak- 588
Goldstein 715 “horror, fright”
Militarev / Stolbova
E. Cushitic-Afar
(Southern dialect)
fagqi
“being petrified with fear, shock”
Parker / Hayward 99
E.23b.2 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Afar West Semitic-
TB-Tibetan Hausa firig-exce Ethiopian-Harari
phrig-ba firgigit ideo. “make involuntary, uncontrolled bīriğ bīriğ baya
“to struggle, “a sudden movements” “be agitated,
flutter” startled “wave limbs without control, move have confused and
“to throb, movement” restlessly in pain, writhe” precipitate
pulsate” Skinner 70 firgite movements”
Jaschke 360 firgita “move convulsively Leslau 1963 45
verb grade 3 vi. as of a newly slaughtered animal”
“become startled Parker / Hayward 103
or frightened”
Newman, P.
2007 63
E.23b.1
TB-Tibetan pagdza / pagdzawa “fear”
< W. Semitic- Hebrew pakhad m. “fear”, pakhad (v. past) “feared”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *pakh- m. “fear”
E.23b.1
TB-Tibetan
bag-pa “to be afraid, to be apprehensive of, to be anxious”
bag-tsha-wa “to be afraid, to be convulsed out of fright” Das 862
526

E.23b.1
E. Cushitic-Somali báqayya “be afraid” Militarev/Stolbova
baqdin “fear” baqo “to be afraid” Awde 1999 23
E. Cushitic-Afar (Southern dialect) fagàqqa-exce “be petrified with fear, be shocked, be startled”
Parker / Hayward 99
E.23b.2
C. Chadic-Padoko vərəgət “s’envoler” [fly away] Skinner 70
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari frāgäṭa “struggle” Leslau 1963 64
E. Cushitic-Afar furug-exce “palpiter, se contracter pendant le sommeil” (Fr.)
[throb, twitch in one’s sleep] Parker Hayward 100
NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] furka “intimidate” purka “intimidation” furkita “threaten” Taylor 60
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic bərk “hysteria” Leslau 1976 90
NS- Kanuri fəgəlátəkin “writhe in pain or discomfort” Cyffer 1990 46
E.23b.1
N. Iranian-North Persian bāk “Furcht” (Ger.) [fear, dread]
Nicolayev, Sergei IE Etymology 201219
IE-Pashto bhāk “fear, dread, anxiety” Raverty 84
IE-Sanskrit bhaGga “panic, fear” Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2 E.23b.1
IE-Bengali ɔbak “amazed, stunned, speechless” Thompson 35
↓↓
E.24a-b Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA- AA- NS NC
Cushitic Sem.
E.24a.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic–Hausa
phag / phag-ma “something fàkā vi. “lie in wait for”
hidden, concealment” “eavesdrop on”
“to listen” Jaschke 339 fàkèe vi.
pagda “looking secretly” “take shelter or refuge”
sgo phag nas bltas pas W. Chadic–N. Bauci Group-
“to watch, spy, lurk behind the Diri b’ágwa vi. “hide”
door” Jaschke 339 Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 186
E.24a.2 TB-Burmese C. Chadic – Mandara Group
phwak ~ hwak “hide, conceal” *bwaɣ vi. “hide”
Benedict 24, 50 Skinner 32
E.24a.3 TB-Tibetan bugsaŋ C. Chadic- Mandara Group Cushitic-
“concealing / keeping in the dark” *b’wug Dera
Goldstein 778 “hide, conceal” buk’
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] Skinner 32 “cover”
(Meixian, MacIver) fuk8 C. Chadic – Dghwede Skinner
8 6
(Lau Chunfat) fug / pug b’ə́gà vi. “hide” 32
“hide, lie in ambush” Hakka Dict. Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 187
E.24a.1
TB-Tibetan phag / phag-ma “something hidden, concealment” /
< W. Chadic–N. Bauci Group- Kariya págwu vi. “hide”
E.24a.3 TB-Tibetan bugsaŋ “concealing / keeping in the dark” /
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] pug6 “hide, lie in ambush”
527
< C. Chadic–Dghwede b’ə́gà vi. “hide”

Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *pag- vi. “hide” ~ *pug6 “hide, lie in ambush”
E.24a.1 TB-Tibetan pagdu “secretly” Goldstein 675
phag “that which is hidden or secret” Das 818 Sgo phag nas bltas-pan “to watch, spy, lurk behind the
door” Jaschke 339
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *pak = *pwak “hide” Benedict #46 24, 50, 205
E.24a.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) màaihfuhk / fuhkgīk v. “ambush” n.
fuhkbing “ambuscade” Kwan 15
TB-Tibetan bugdzii “inner /confidential /secret talk” Goldstein 778
E.24a.1 W. Chadic–Hausa fàkē “shelter, avoid” Skinner 1
E.24a.3
W. Chadic-N. Bauci Group *B-gw- “close, cover” Skinner 32
C. Chadic–Bachama m‫כ‬bʉ́d’o “bury” Mukarovsky 113
E.24a.1 IE-Sanskrit upaguh to hide, cover, conceal” apaguh “conceal, hide” apagUDha “hidden,
concealed” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Bengali phāki n. “deception, evasion, hoodwinking” Thompson 64
See also Supplementary Table 2 E.24a.1
E.24a.3
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *büg- “to lie in ambush, to hide” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 10
-Mongolian-Dagur, Khalka *bügši- “to lie in ambush, to hide”
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *buk- “to lie in ambush” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 10
*bug- “to lie in ambush” “to hide” Turkic Etymology 15
Proto-Altaic *bǒke “to lie in ambush” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 10
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *bokan “to lie in ambush, to hide” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 10
/
E.24b.1 N. Chinese- C. Chadic- Mada NC- S.E. Mande-
MSC bì “cover, b’ìya vi. “hide” Dan, Mwa
shelter, hide” W. Chadic- Angas, Goemai bî “bury”
Wu, J. 35 *p-y- “close, cover” NC-S.E. Mande-
S. Chinese-Kejia Skinner 32 Samo K.
[Hakka] W. Chadic- Hausa biî “bury”
(Meixian) (MacIver) binnèe vt. “bury” Mukarovsky 113
pi3 pi1 (Lau Chunfat) “fill in a hole”286
bi4 “hide, protect, Newman, P. 2007 21
conceal” Hakka Dict. Skinner 22
E.24b.2 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic- Mofu-Gudur Egyptian
beè “to conceal, b’ey “hide” behen
to hide, to cover up, E. Chadic- Masa Group- “cover over,
to bury” Goldstein 778 Lame pe’e “cacher” (Fr.) covering, veil”
[ hide] Skinner 32 Budge v.1 220
E.24b.3 S. Chinese- NC-Proto-W.
Min bîq “hide, Nigritic *bik-
conceal (of people)” “hide, conceal”
Bodman 1987 v.2 90 Skinner 32
286
Note- E.24b.1 (Hausa) “In Chadic and Cushitic ‘bury’ is often synonymous with ‘cover, close’ ”
Skinner 22
528

E.24b.1 N. Chinese-MSC bì “cover, shelter, hide” / S. Chinese-Min bìh1 “hide, go into hiding,
conceal” < C. Chadic-Mada b’ìya vi. “hide” / W. Chadic-Angas, Goemai *p-y- “close, cover”
E.24b.2 TB-Tibetan beè “to conceal, to hide, to cover up, to bury”
< C. Chadic- Mofu-Gudur b’ey “hide”
E.24b.3 S. Chinese-Min bîq “hide, conceal (of people)”
< NC-Proto-W. Nigritic *bik- “hide, conceal”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *bi- / *bik- / *bee “hide, conceal” “cover”
E.24b.1
S. Chinese-Min pì-bît “secret” Bodman 1987 v.2 164
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *bip ~ *pip “conceal, bury” Benedict #376 80, 199, 211
TB-Dimasa
bib ~ bub “conceal oneself, hide” bphip ~ phup “bury” Benedict 80
TB- Mikir pip “bury” Benedict 80
E.24b.2 TB-Tibetan bεὲsaŋ “concealing, hiding” Goldstein 777
[compound of this root and E.25.1 following]
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) bai “to cover, to cover up” “to hide, to conceal” Chik / Ng Lam 395
S. Chinese-Min bai5 “secrete, conceal, lie in wait” Hakka Dict.
E.24b.1
E. Chadic- Lele bìír “dig” Mukarovsky 113
S.E. Mande- Samo Ba bìrì “bury” Mukarovsky 113
↓↓
E.25 AA–Chadic AA – Afro-Asiatic- Nilo- Niger-
Cushitic Semitic etc. Saharan Congo
E.25.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Semitic-Written Arabi Kanuri
ɣsaŋ-ba “to do a thing Hausa janna zanggin
secretly, to conceal” sàn’dā “to cover, hide, “close,
“to hide oneself, to be “stalk conceal, veil” shut”
concealed” Jaschke 588 (someone)” Wehr 163 “cover,
saŋ “to keep a secret, “move (Iraqi) cover up”
to conceal” Goldstein 1150 stealthily” tsa’nnat “conceal,
N. Chinese-MSC Newman, P. “to eavesdrop, keep secret”
ts’áng (WG) 2007 178 listen secretly” Cyffer
“to hide, to conceal” Dict.of Iraqi Arabic 1990 195
Mathews #6718 985 part 2 270
E.25.2 S. Chinese-Yue West Semitic-
(Cantonese) Ethiopian-Amharic
sám “to hide, šämäqqä
to conceal” “hide, conceal”
Chik / Ng Lam 424 Leslau 1976 62
E.25.1 TB-Tibetan ɣsaŋ-ba “to do a thing secretly, to conceal” “to hide oneself, to be concealed”
< Semitic-Arabic ts̟annat “to eavesdrop, listen secretly” / W. Chadic- Hausa sand’ā “stalking, going
along stealthily”
E.25.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sám “to hide, to conceal”
< West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic šämäqqä “hide, conceal”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *ts̟an- “to do something in a secret manner” “to stalk, listen
secretly” ~ *sam- “hide, conceal”
529

E.25.1
TB-Tibetan saŋwa “secrecy, secret, clandestine, confidential” saŋ “to keep a secret, to conceal’
saŋdam “secrets, secret/ confidential talk” Goldstein 1150-1151 gsang-wa “to do a thing secretly,
to conceal” “hidden things, secret” Das 1303 bεε‫כ‬saŋ “concealing, hiding” Goldstein 777
[compound of this root and that of E.24b.2] saŋ-seŋ “hiding place” saŋ-ŋá / saŋ-ŋé “secretly,
privately” Jaschke 571 bugsaŋ “concealing / keeping in the dark” Goldstein 778 [Compound of
this root and that of E.24a.3]
N. Chinese-MSC zàng “bury, inter” Wu, J. 865 tsàng (WG) “to bury” Mathews #6702 983
Old Chinese tsangh “to bury” Norman 85
E.25.2 S. Chinese-Min chhiam5 “hide, conceal” “hidden, secret, latent” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] siam2 / xiam2 “hide, conceal” “hidden, secret, latent” Hakka Dict.
E.25.1 Semitic-Written Arabic janna “to cover, hide, conceal” Wehr 164
E.25.2 Semitic-Akkadian samāku “cover” Militarev / Stolbova
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Čaha, Eža, Muher) šämä-m “hide” Leslau 1979 v.2 306
säma “hide, conceal, put aside” Leslau 1979 v.3 578
Semitic-Hebrew samooy “unseen, concealed” Baltsan 366
shamoor “reserved, guarded, kept” Baltsan 386
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage säm-, təm, çäm- “wait, listen” Skinner 231
Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi) ɗ̩amm “to be secretive, to keep things to oneself” nɗ̟am “to hide oneself”
Dict. of Iraqi Arabic 281 ɗ̩ = voiceless interdental spirant, velarized
Semitic-Arabic t’ämt’äm “to hide, cover up, conceal” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 294
E.25.1
IE-Sanskrit
sanutar “secretly, clandestinely”
sanutara “furtive, clandestine”
sanutya “furtive, lying furtively in ambush”
channa “covered, covered over” “obscured (the moon)” “hidden, secret, clandestine, disguised”
samachanna “completely covered” sama “completely” See H.23a.3
E.25.2
IE-Sanskrit
samupAvis “to conceal”
samII “to lie down, hide, cower, lurk, be concealed”
samvR “to cover up, enclose, hide, conceal, hide, obscure”
Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 E.25.1-2
↓↓
E.26 AA – Chadic AA-Cush. AA-Semitic etc. Nilo-Sah. Niger-Congo
Swadesh E. W. Semitic- Nile S.W.
“to sleep” Cushitic- Ethiopian-Gurage Nubian Mande-
E.26.1 Dasenech (Gyeto) [Kenuzi] Kpelle
TB-Tibetan niini ñi’a ne:re nyii / yii
ñii “sleep” “sleep” “be asleep” “to sleep” “sleep”
“sleeping” Muka- -(Selti) Green- Mukarovsky
Goldstein 425 rovsky əñe berg 337
337 -(Ennemor) 1966104
ñe’ä “be asleep”
Leslau 1979
v.2 26-27
530
E.26.2 W. Chadic-Ron West Semitic-

TB-Tibetan (Daffo) Ethiopian-Gurage
nyál-ba / nyah “to sleep” (Endegen)
nyál-wa Jungraithmayr ña’a
“to lie down” 1994 “be asleep”
“to sleep” v.2 298287 Leslau 1979
Jaschke 186 v.2 26
E.26.1 TB-Tibetan ñii “sleep” “sleeping”
< S.W. Mande- Kpelle nyii “sleep” / E. Cushitic- Dasenech niini “sleep”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *nyii “sleep”
E.26.1 TB- Burmese ńit “nod the head” Benedict 56
Proto-TB *n(y)it “nod, sleep” Benedict 56
TB-Tibetan gňid “sleep, to fall asleep” Das 491 ɣňid “sleep” Jaschke 192
E.26.1
S.E. Mande-Samo (Bangasoko) nyî ; (Toma) nyíwɔ́ “sleep” Mukarovsky 337
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Zway) iñi “be asleep” Leslau 1979 v.2 27
NC-S.E. Mande-Lebir nyintîm ba “sleep”
NC-S.E. Mande-Samo (Toemi) nyìní n. “sleep” Mukarovsky 337
NS- Nuer niɛn “to sleep” “sleep” Huffman 34
E.26.2 W. Chadic-Ron (Kulere) nyâ “to sleep” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 298
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Wolane) (Zway) əññe “be asleep” Leslau 1979 v.2, 26-27
↓↓
E.27 AA –Chadic AA –Cushitic AA-Semitic Nilo-Saharan NC
E.27.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- West Semitic– Songhay (Gao)
(W. Tibetan) Ngizim Ethiopian- gáabù
kháb-le “difficult” kàbíinè Amharic “être difficile,
Jaschke 38 “troubles, käbbad être
dka’-ba / difficulties “difficult, hard, compliqué”
dka-bo “difficult” (esp. arising heavy” (Fr.)
Hodge 30 from lack of Leslau 1976 Ducroz 96
Jaschke 9 means of 161, 320 [be difficult,
[Disyllabic support)” complicated]
corresp.] Schuh 90
E.27.2 W. Chadic– Cushitic– Semitic –Hebrew
TB-Tibetan Hausa Sidamo dokhak adv.
dkah / dkah-wa dà k’yar ‘karra “with difficulty”
“hard, difficult” ”with difficulty” “misfortune, kahsheh adj.
“pains, exertions” Skinner 164 trouble” “hard, difficult”
Das 50 288 dà “with” Gasparini 258 Baltsan 58, 166
287
Note- E.26.2 (Chadic) Jungraithmayr does not propose an etymon for this root. There are 7 variants of it, 2 in
the W. Chadic Ron group and these show the closest correspondence to the Tibetan form.
288
Note- E.27.1-2 (Tibetan) The initial d- in Tibetan could appear to be the result of a contraction of the dà
preposition in Hausa which means “with, having”. However Kraft comments that the kyar lexeme is used only
with the dà preposition in Hausa. Kraft 352. However the proximate source of the Tibetan dkah form could be
Semitic.The existence of parallel Chadic and Semitic correspondences with Tibetan and the variant Hebrew
morphemes with and without the d(a/o)- initial suggests that the Tibetan morphemes could be a doublet inherited
531

E. 27.1 TB-Tibetan kháb-le “difficult”, ka-ba “difficult”
< S. Semitic–Amharic käbbad “difficult, hard, heavy” / Songhay gáabù “to be difficult”
E.27.2 TB-Tibetan dkah / dkah-wa “hard, difficult”
< W. Chadic–Hausa dà k’yar ”with difficulty” / Semitic–Hebrew dokhak adv. “with difficulty’”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *kabbad “hard, difficult”
E.27.1 TB-Tibetan gāwa “difficult” “difficulty, hardship” Goldstein 18
E.27.2 TB-Tibetan gakāà “difficult, hard” Goldstein 17
E.27.1 NS-Kanuri kawùne “grudge, sorrow, sadness, damage” Cyffer 1990 85
NS- Songhay (Koroboro) gaabi-gaabi “by force” Heath v.3 119
(Koyra) gaabi goy “hard labor” Heath v.2 97 ; (Dendi) gáábè ga “difficulté” Zima 88
Semitic-Hebrew kaved “heavy” Baltsan 168 hakhbadah n.f. “inconvenience, burden” Baltsan 118
E.27.2 qarra “difficulty, trouble, pain” Gasparini 100
C. Chadic–Gude ngah ”doing something with difficulty” Skinner 164
Cushitic–Sidamo qarrama “troubled, afflicted” Gasparini 258
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) karaab “hard work, toil, drudgery” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 401
↓↓
E.28 Afro-Asiatic – AA- AA- Nilo-Saharan Niger-
Chadic Cush. Sem. Congo
E.28.1 W. Chadic- Hausa Semitic- Kanuri NC-Fulfulde
S. Chinese-Yue là’antàa Arabic lânna [Fulani]
(Cantonese) “reprimand, (Yemeni) “abuse, reviling” lāna
làahn shame” “curse” lacan Cyffer 1990 109 “to curse”
“to abuse, to revile” là’anàa f. “curse” “to damn, Kənzi [Kənuzi] Taylor 120
Chik / Ng Lam 429 Newman, P. 2007 curse” la’nee “fluchen,
N. Chinese-MSC 137 Qafisheh schimpfen,
lán “calumniate, Skinner 183 535 verfluchen”
slander” Wu, J. 406 [swear, curse]
Hoffman 120
E.28.2 S. Chinese- Kanuri
Yue (Cantonese) lânngin /
làahnyìhn lânjîn
“abusive words” “insult, curse,
Chik / Ng Lam 429 abuse”
[Disyllabic corresp.] Cyffer 1990 109
yìhn “speech, words” Nuer
“to say, to talk, lam “to curse,
to mean” imprecate”
Chik / Ng Lam 417289 Huffman 27
from Semitic or Chadic or both. However Cushitic Sidamo variants with and without the initial glottal are another
possible candidate . This is a case of clear African origin without a clearly identifiable proto-form. See Note 1.6.1.
289
Note- E.28.2 (Cantonese) làahn yìhn gives evidence of being a disyllabic correspondence with the NS-
Kanuri lânngin or lânjîn. The Kanuri -ngin is used as a bound morpheme through which verbs can be
generated from adjectives. See Hutchison 1981 101-105. It also is an independent morpheme meaning “say,
intend” Kanuri ngin / shin “say, think, intend” Cyffer 1990 137. See E.1a.3 Extended.
2 2
In Tibetan gyin functions as a “present (continuing) tense particle” Goldstein 10. The Hakka gien / ngen /
3
gian is glossed as “used as a particle, adverb etc. in various expressions” “language, dialect” “speak, say, talk,
532

E.28.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) làahn “to abuse, to revile”
< W. Chadic – Hausa là’antàa “curse (strongly)” “reprimand, shame, curse”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *là’an “to curse, to revile”
E.28.1 TB-Tibetan brláŋ-po “abusive word, invective, abusive language” Jaschke 539
E.28.1 NC-Swahili laana n. “curse” Awde 2000121 Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) là‫ع‬na n. “curse”
Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 1 48 làʕna (IPA) v. “curse” Merriam-Webster Arabic 27
laam / lawwam “to blame, censure, rebuke, chide, reproach” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 430
NS-Anywa lam “to curse sb.” Reh 41
Semitic-Hebrew klalah f. “ curse” Baltsan 533
Nilo-Saharan-Songhay (Gao) láalí “maudire” [to curse] Ducroz 166 . See also D.21a.3. (Extended).
E.28.1
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish lanet “curse, imprecation, lanetti “cursed, damned” Tureng 737
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur lenet “curse”n. lenet etmek v. “curse” Uyghur Dictionary
↓↓
E.29 AA – Afro-Asiatic –Cushitic AA- NS NC
Chad. Sem.
E.29.1 E. Cushitic- Rendille
S. Chinese-Yue miída “mistreat, treat harshly”
(Cantonese) miíddo “maltreatment, harsh treatment
miht “to disdain, to slight, (of humans or animals)” Pillinger 224
to neglect” E. Cushitic- Oromo
Chik / Ng Lam 395 midu “dannegiare, far torto, opprimere,
“to stain with blood, ledere, nuccere”
to slander” [to injure, to do damage, to oppress,
miht hei to harm, do wrong to]
“to despise and cast away” Borello 303
E.29.1 Chinese - Cantonese miht “to disdain, to slight, to neglect” “to stain with blood, to slander, to
trump up a charge”
< E. Cushitic- Rendille miída “mistreat, treat harshly (humans or animals)”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *miíd- “to mistreat, oppress, treat harshly, do wrong to”
E.29.1 N. Chinese-MSC / Beijing
miè “slight, disdain” “smear”
mièshì “despise, show contempt for, scorn” Wu, J. 473
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) wáihmiht n. “ruin” Kwan 446 Chen 340
[compound of this root and that of D.26c.1 above]
E.29.1 E. Cushitic-Oromo mida “sofferenza, tormento, afflizione, lesione, frode, danno”
[suffering, torment, affliction, damage to rights, harm, fraud] Borello 303
↓↓
mean, express” “word, speech” Hakka Dict.. Cantonese forms appear as yin / yìhn “a final particle indicating
numerous senses” or yìhn “speech, words” “to say, to talk, to mean”. Chik / Ng 282, 417. See also Note H.12.4
(Tibetan).
533

E.30 Afro-Asiatic–Chadic AA- AA- NS NC
Cush. Sem.
E.30.1 C. Chinese-Wu W. Chadic- Hausa
pî5 “compare with” “liken, fi vt. “exceed, surpass” “used to form
compare” “compete” “than” comparatives and superlatives” e.g.
phi5 “liken, compare” dōkìn nân yā fi wancàn gudùu dōkìi
“simile, example” “This horse is faster than that one’ (lit.
Hakka Dict. horse of this, it comparative exceed
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] that one running)” kàràatu yā fi nōmā
pi3 “compare” ngai2 pi3 gajiyârwā “Reading/studying is more
ɲ2 ko1 sam1 ts’un5 (lit.). tiring than farming. (lit. studying, it
I compare you tall three exceeds farming in tiring out)” 290
inch “I am three inches Newman, P. 2005 93-94
taller than you” Yue 145 fi dācéewā
N. Chinese-MSC “be more suitable than”
pî / pì (WG) “compare” fi sôn “prefer”
Mathews #5077-8 702-703 fiyèe “be better, preferable”
“compare, contrast” Newman, P. 2007 62
“emulate, compete, match”
Wu, J. 31 coverb “more---
than---”
followed by a stative verb.
Wang, F. 31
(See also E.7c.3)
E.30.1
C. Chinese-Wu pî5 “compare with” “be comparable to” “liken, compare” “compete” “than”
< W. Chadic–Hausa fi vt. “exceed, surpass” “used to form adjectives of comparison”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *fi vi. / *fi kyâu vi. “exceed, surpass, be more than” “be better”
E.30.1
S. Chinese-Min pì “compare” Bodman 1987 v.2. 82 ; 1983 186
Chinese-Gan pi1 “compared with” Sagart 2001 141
N. Chinese-MSC bî coverb “compared to” “compare, contrast” “emulate” DeFrancis 39
E.30.1 W. Chadic-Hausa (Gobir dial)fi “exceed, surpass” “yā fi ni k’arfi “he is stronger than I”
[i.e. he surpasses me in strength” comparative], “yā fi su duka k’arfi [he is the strongest of them
all” superlative] Matsushita 1993 134 mafifici n. and adj. “superior” Newman / Ma 1992 84
fifiko “showing one’s superiority over others” Newman / Ma 1992 37
290
Note- E.30.1 (Chadic)
“In Hausa fi ‘be more than’ ‘exceed, surpass’ --- stands alone and is used to form adjectives of comparison, e.g.
hular nan ta fi taka tsada ‘This hat is more expensive than yours’ ; ya fi dukansu tsawo ‘He is the tallest one of
them’ [lit. ‘He surpasses them in height’].” Newman / Ma 1992 37. See also E.7.3.
In Hausa and other Chadic languages the fi root variants often refer to passing someone by or going ahead in a
physical sense, e.g. Hausa ficèe “pass by” Skinner 70, “go out and away” Newman, P. 2007 62, 63 ; C. Chadic-
Gude pitə“go past” Skinner 68
In Hausa there is no contrast between an initial f- and an initial p-. “The phoneme indicated as /f/ is
pronounced variably as [ɸ] (the norm), [f], [p], or [h], depending on dialect / ideolect and phonological
environment.] Newman, P. 2000 393. See also Notes B.10.2 ( Hausa), B.14d.1 and H.3a.2 (Hausa.)
534
↓↓
E.31 Afro-Asiatic–Chadic AA – AA- Nilo-Saharan Niger-
Cush. Semitic Congo
E.31.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Hausa Semitic-
gzhig-pa cigìita vn. Arabic
“to examine, search, “search for” siʔal
try” Jaschke 480 Newman, P. “to ask,
gshig-pa / 2007 33 inquire”
gshigs- pa C. Chadic-Buduma Dict. of
“to make minute (Yedina) *čegá Iraqi
inquiry of every point, “ask” Stolbova, Olga Arabic
to investigate, C. Chadic Etymology part 2 210
to examine” C. Chadic- Glavda
Das 1080 shiga “to try,
to tempt, to test”
Rapp / Benzing 88
E.31.2 W. Chadic- Hausa Kanuri
N. Chinese-MSC shishigī m. shíshíngin
shìh (WG) “meddlesomeness, “inquire about,
“to look at, to regard, inquisitiveness” snoop into,
to inspect” Newman, 2007 186 pry into”
Mathews #5789 808 shishinó
chī (WG) “research,
“to inspect, to investigation”
examine” Cyffer 1990
Mathews #415a 55 162
“to examine into”
Mathews #427 56
E.31.3 S. Chinese- Songhay NC-
Yue (Cantonese) (Koyra) Fulfulde
si “try, attempt” síì [Fulani]
Kwan 540 “try, test” sīsa /
sih “to look at” Heath sīsīni
”to observe” v.1 219 “inquire
Chik / Ng 415, 171 into, look
S. Chinese-Kejia over,
[Hakka] investigate,
(MacIver) ch’i5 report on”
(Lau Chunfat) Taylor 176
s’i5 “test, try,
experiment”
Hakka Dict..
N. Chinese-MSC
shì “try, test”
Wu, J. 624
E.31.4 TB-Tibetan Songhay
jεεjeè “to examine, (Koyra)
to research, čeèče “seek,
to analyze” go looking for”
[Disyllabic corresp.] Heath v.1 56
535
jeèdzεε / jeèdzöö Songhay

“to follow a trail/track (Koroboro)
in search of sth. or sb., čeeči
to trace/look /search “seek, look for”
for” Heath v.3 63
Goldstein 401
jεεba ceè
“to examine,
investigate”
Goldstein 653
S. Chinese-Min
che “to look for, seek,
look up friends”
Bodman 1987
v.2 131
E.31.1
TB-Tibetan gzhig-pa “to examine, search, try” gshig-pa / gshigs- pa “to make minute inquiry of
every point, to investigate, to examine”
< W. Chadic–Hausa chigita “search (for something needed or lost)” /
C. Chadic- Glavda shiga “to try, to tempt, to test”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *chig- “search (for something)” ~ shig- “to try, to tempt, to test”
E.31.2
N. Chinese-MSC shìyàn vt. “make an experiment” n. “experiment, test” Wang, F. 423
S. Chinese-Min chhì “to try, to test, to experiment” Amoy-English Dict. chî “to try, attempt”
Bodman v. 2 131
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) tsii1 “inquire, consult” Hakka Dictionary.
E.31.3 NS-Songhay (Koyra) síì “try, test” Heath v.1 219 (Gao) “essayer, tenter quelque chose”
Ducroz 203
NS-Kanuri shíshì “curious, investigation” shíshìma “nosy person” Hutchison 1981 57, 60
E.31.1
IE-Sanskrit zikS “try to effect, attempt, undertake” “to wish to be able”
“to learn, acquire knowledge, study, practice” ziksarasa “desire of acquiring skill in”
ziksa “desire of being able to effect anything, wish to accomplish” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Bengali jiggasha ”question, inquiry” n. Thompson 51,120.
IE-Hittite *sak(k)- / sek(k) “wissen, kennen, erfahren” (Ger.)
[know, be acquainted with, find out, experience]
↓↓
ST Languages African/AA languages -Close correspondences
E.32 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA – AA- NS NC
Cushitic Sem.
E.32.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Hausa
rtog-pa “consideration, tōgèe vg.4 (completive)
deliberation, reflection” “hold back, withdraw,
“scruple, hesitation” Das 538 stand aloof”
tɔ̄g “having suspicions, “witrhhold one’s true feelings”
doubts” Newman, P. 2007 202
536
tɔ̄gba “doubt, apprehension,

misgiving” Goldstein 543
rtóg-pa “scruple, hesitation”
rtóg-ba skyes-te
“to grow doubtful, hesitating”
Jaschke 214
E.32.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Hausa E. Cushitic-
dɔ̄gge “sophistry” tōgèe gaskiya Oromo
Goldstein 463 “withhold the truth” tagawu
rtog-ge “the act of arguing, Newman, R. 1990 122 “sofisticare,
reasoning, dialectics” (See Chapter 10 section 10.2.1.2 cavillare”
[Disyllabic corresp.] grade 4 on completives) [to cavil,
rtóg-ge-pa “an arguer, tōge m. “exclude, withdraw” to quibble]
disputer, reasoner” Das 538 Skinner 258 “cheating” Borello 387
kun-rtog “fancy, illusory Awde 1996 157
associations” Das 25 “cheating at cards”
Newman, P. 2007 202
E.32.1
TB-Tibetan rtog-pa “consideration, deliberation, reflection” “scruple, hesitation” < W. Chadic-
Hausa tōgèe “hide, withhold”, tōgèe gaskiya “withhold the truth”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *tōgèe “hide, withhold”
E.32.1 TB-Tibetan rtog-ba skye-wa “to reflect on a thing, to indulge in musings” Das 538
the-rtog “ doubt, uncertainty, hesitation” Das 584
tɔgdri “questioning or investigating with regard to doubts, suspicions / apprehensions” Goldstein 543
↓↓
Sino-Tibetan African/AA languages-
E.33 AA – AA-Cushitic, Afro-Asiatic- NS NC
Chad. Semitic
E.33.1 N. Chinese- E. Cushitic-Sidamo W. Semitic-Ethiopian-
MSC gēr “song, sing” gêrâra “to chant war Gurage (Endegeň)
Yip Po-Ching songs” Gasparini 119 gērārā
2000 30 E. Cushitic-Oromo “war song or epic of
Wang, F.168291 geerara vi. “sing a song self-praise”
TB-Tibetan (specifically a geerarsa” Leslau 1979 v.3 295
dgyer-ba “chant” [war song]
Jaschke 619 Gragg 172
E.33.2 N. Chinese- E. Cushitic-Rendille
MSC gē “song, sing” geey “(art of) dance,
Wu, J. 22 dancing, song, singing”
Yip Po-Ching 2000 30 Pillinger 123-124
291
Note- E.33.1 (N. Chinese (MSC) gēr) In the phonemic analysis of standard Chinese, the gēr “song, sing”
variant could be considered to have undergone “erisation” i.e. the addition of an unstressed -r at the end of the final.
See Yip Po-Ching 2000 30. In this case the MSC/Beijing gēr most closely corresponds to the Cushitic, Semitic and
Niger-Congo gēra- forms, so it can plausibly be considered to be an inheritance from one of these. This example
does not necessarily negate the principle of erisation as specific to Beijing Chinese, but there are other instances of
similar retention of the final –r of an African / AA root in Beijing/MSC morphemes. See also Notes D.3c.1 and sets
B.14d.2, F.18b.1 MSC sī(r) and H.8a.2 dàor.
537
E.33.3 West Semitic-Ethiopian-

Proto-Tibeto-Burman Amharic
ga:r “dance, sing” qärärto
Matisoff 2003 590 “war cry, battle song”
TB-Tibetan Leslau 1976 71
kar ”dancing” Egyptian
Goldstein 181 ga
gar-mkhan “a dancer, “to sing to a musical
performer” instrument”
mkhan “skilled Budge v.2 800
person” Das 216
E.33.4 TB-Tibetan E. Cushitic- Rendille West Semitic-Ethiopian-
mgur / mgur-ma gúrro Gurage (Čaha)
“song, voice, melody ” “wedding song ” gwärärit
Das 282 Jaschke 90 Pillinger 130 “war song”
gur “classical / Leslau 1979
religious song” v.3 295
Goldstein 229
E.33.1 N. Chinese-MSC gēr “song, sing”
< E. Cushitic- Sidamo gêrâra “to chant war songs”
E.33.4 TB-Tibetan gur “classical/ religious song”
< E. Cushitic- Rendille gúrro “wedding song ”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *gēr / *gur “song, sing a song”
E.33.1 TB-Tibetan dgyer-wa “to sing, chant” Das 276
E.33.3 Old Chinese kâ “sing / song” Karlgren GSR 1q Matisoff 2003174
E.33.4 Tibetan mgur-du gsungs-pa “anything sung or put into verse” Das 282
bgro “a song” Das 281 gurdu sūŋ “to say / sing a gur” Goldstein 229
Chinese-Taiwanese gua “song” Bodman 1983 70
E.33.1 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Soddo) gērāre bäla (Endegeň) gērāre bärä “boast through
songs, sing a war song or an epic song” Leslau 1979 v.3 295
E. Cushitic-Oromo gereru “cantare, canti” Borello 173 ; gerera “canzone di guerra, di fatti, d’armi e
di caccia, canto di vittoria.” [songs of war, hunting and victory] Borello 173
gello “dance at certain ceremonies (song associated with this dance)” Gragg 172
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] gēra “dance the gerewol ” [a Fulani dance]. Taylor 65
Semitic-Arabic ġarrad “to sing, twitter” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 334
NS-Anywa ŋàr “to sing something very well” Reh 56
C. Chadic–Bura geli “play, game” Dict. of Bura
E.33.2 NS-Kanuri kăiya “song” Cyffer 199074
E.33.4 NC-Fulfulde (Fulani) gugurūgu “minstrel” gulūru “a kind of lute” Taylor 68
E.33.2 IE-E. Iranian-Avestan gaea- “song” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
E.33.3 IE-Sanskrit kAra “a song or hymn of praise” “a battle song”
kari “raising hymns of praise” karika “a female dancer” “raising hymns of praise”
karaNaneri “a kind of dance” karaNanerika “a kind of dance”
carcara “a kind of song” “musical symphony” Cologne Lexicon
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan garo-hmana “house of song” Peterson, J. 1995
Kartvelian-Svar ɣar- “to cry, sing” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 22
Kartvelian-Megrel ɣargal- “to cry, sing” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 22
538
IE-Sanskrit garah- “Lob, Preislied” (Ger.) [praise, praise / glory song]

E.33.4
IE-Sanskrit gurti “approval, praise” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012.
See also Supplementary Table 2 E.34.2-4
Proto-IE *gwrā “to praise” / *gwerə “to praise” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
IE-Bengali gaowa vb. “sing” Thompson 124
↓↓
E.34 AA – Chadic AA –Cushitic AA-Semitic Nilo- NC
Saharan
E.34.1 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Semitic-Arabic Kanuri
N. Chinese-MSC Hausa Oromo (Yemeni) bayen
pái (WG) bayyànā bayanu bayyan “explanation,
“clear, obvious” “explain, “decidere, “to make description”
“simple, easy describe” decretare, something bayenngin,
to understand” “reveal, sentenziare, clear, plain” bayenjin
“to explain, display, dar ragione” “to appear” “explain,
to inform” expose” [decide, decree, “to seem, clarify,
Mathews Newman, P. sentence, appear to be” describe”
give reasons]
#4975a 690 2007 19 Qafisheh 57 Cyffer
Borello 50
bái “clear” [as in] zai bayyana 1990 15
“Everything is clear muku da Hausa
now. The whole truth “He’ll explain it
has come out” “state, to you in Hausa”
explain” Wu, J. 12 Newman, P.
2000 50
E.34.1 N. Chinese-MSC N. Chinese-MSC pái (WG) “clear, obvious” “to explain, to inform”
< W. Chadic-Hausa bayyànā “explain, describe” / Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) bayyan “to make
something clear”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *bayyan “to make something clear, explain”
E.34.1
N. Chinese-MSC mingbái “clear, obvious, plain” “understand, realize, know” Wu, J. 475
ming “bright, brilliant”
C. Chinese-Wu paʔ8 “state, explain” Hakka Dict.
E.34.1
W. Chadic-Hausa bàyānii “explanation” Newman, P. 2007 19
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) bayyan “to explain, expound” “to appear, show up, become evident”
tbayyan “to turn out, to prove to be, appear” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 50
E. Cushitic-Sidamo bayyana “decide, decree, arbitrate” Skinner 20
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic bayyana “decide, (of judge) decree, resolve” Leslau 1976 97
E.34.1 IE-Pashto bayan “explanation, exposition” “to relate, expose, tell, explain” Raverty 139
539
Chapter 2F
Words for Human artifacts. Semantic Domain F word families.
This cultural vocabulary is of interest to both the pre-historian and the archaeologist, since it facilitates
comparison of African material culture with that of the ST linguistic area. There are only two Swadesh
list terms in this group. (See F.7a.1 / F.8a.1 and F.25.2 ) . The domain includes not only tools and other
instruments, but also practices within the material culture involving, e.g. land measurement and words for
human living quarters. Verbal or adjectival morphemes which are phonetically and semantically related to
the names of the artefacts are also included. The verbs are mainly transitive.
2F Domain Statistics
Individual word families = 43 Each of the individual word families within a generic word family is
counted as a separate unit.
Single large word familie = 5
“hold” “tongs” F.1-8
“surround, encircle” “enclosure for animals” F.7a.1-7
“tie up” “bundle, roll” F.10.1-4
“fold” repeat” “crease” F.19.1-4
“road” F.25.1-4
“gourd, container” F.2.a-b
“gourd, container” F.4a-c
“to turn” “circle, round” “a ball” F.6a-b
“a ring, to encircle, to surround” “to turn round, go around” “surrounding wall” “area, neighborhood”
“a boundary, suburbs” “enclosure for animals” F.7a-b
“surrounding area, vicinity” “enclosed, walled town” “an area, country with certain dimensions” F.8a-c
“to spin, go around” “to pen up, to surround with a fence, wall” “to enclose, obstruct” F.9a-b
“to pierce, to sew” F.12a-c
“to build, dwelling(s)” F.15a-b
“to stop up, to plug” “to block, to seal” F.17.a-c
“yarn, thread, twine” F.18.a-b
“wood (used as tool, weapon, fuel etc.)” “staff, stick” “firewood, stick, club” F.21a-b
Basic-vocabulary- Swadesh list

The section contains 2 correspondences of lexemes which match an English gloss of the Swadesh list.
It is common in many languages for the vocabulary of technology to contain a large number of loan
words. In this section, however, the multiple variant morphemes and the presence of these roots across
the African/AA and ST linguistic areas indicates that any such borrowing is not recent. For example the
use of gourds as vessels is very old and widespread in African culture and the development of pottery
took place in the Neolithic period in Africa, i.e betweeen 8000 BCE to 6000 BCE. Sewing is also very
old in human cultures and the tables suggest its possible origins in old roots for “piercing” and “arrow”.
TB ↔ Chinese cognates 26
Proto-Afro-Asiatic ↔ ST (TB and/or Sinitic) root correspondences: 18
Etymologies
540
Tibetan etymologies. 5
The following table presents evidence that variant Sino-Tibetan forms are reflexes of three different related
Proto-Afro-Asiatic roots. The basic meaning is verbal, i.e. “grasp, seize, hold” as in the Proto-AA roots.
F.1 Afro-Asiatic – AA-Cushitic, AA- Nilo- Niger-Congo
F.1.1 Chinese- W. Chadic- Proto-S. Semitic- Songhay NC-N.
Yue (Cantonese) Hausa Cushitic Arabic (Iraqi, (Djenne) Mande- Bozo
kàhm kāmàa *kam- Yemeni) kamba kàme
“to capture, vg.1 vt. “catch, “to hold” kammas “hold onto, “seize, take”
to catch” seize, Proto-AA “to catch, control” Mukarovsky
“to arrest” take hold of” *-kam- collect ” (Koyra) 315
Chik / Ng Lam “capture, arrest “to hold” Dict. of Iraqi “hand, (entire)
332, 190 someone” Ehret 1995 Arabic arm” “hold
“to hold in the Newman, P. #321198 part 2 410 onto”
mouth, 2007 106 Heath
to hold back” Skinner 134 v.2 115
Chik Ng Lam 71
F.1.2 Proto-AA N. Khoisan-
Old Chinese *ʔam- !Kung ‖kʌm
*ʔiam- “catch, seize” / C. Khoisan-
“grasp” Militarev / Nama
Karlgren GSR Stolbova ‖kam
616g AA- “hold up”
Matisoff 2003 525 Etymology Ruhlen 1994
55
F.1.3 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Semitic-
bkam-pa Hausa Written
“pincers” makāmā f. Arabic
“to hold with “handle” kammaša
pincers” Newman, P. “a pair of
Das 60 2007 146 pliers”
TB-Kiranti- Skinner 193 Wehr 984
Yamphu makāmi
kamba “tool”
“wooden tongs” Newman, P.
292
Yamphu Dict.
292
Note- F.1.3 (TB-Tibetan etc.) The F.1.3 Tibetan / Kiranti bkam-pa / kamba variant meaning “pincers /
tongs” also matches an NS- Songhay (Djerma) morpheme kambe meaning “arm, hand” (Greenberg 1966 133).
Other matching NS attestations meaning “arm, hand” are:
NS- Songhay (Koroboro) kamba bory-o “right hand” Heath v.3 190
NS-Kanuri musko kəmburám “right hand” Cyffer 90
NS- Anywa [Anuak] càam “right hand” Reh 14, 40
The same root is also attested in all reflexes of the W. Chadic-North Bauci Group proto-root *’kam “hand,
arm” and W. Chadic-Hausa kamu “measure of forearm and hand” Skinner 135.
Various AA languages also attest a minimally contrasting root *’kan- / *kan- / ngaan meaning “hand,
forearm” to which the F.1.4 ST variant corresponds phonetically:
541
F.1.4 TB-Tibetan Proto-AA

h’chaŋ-wa *-‘kâŋ-
“to hold, to take “to grasp”
hold of, to keep” Ehret 1995
Das 441 #421 237
N. Chinese-MSC
chyâng (Y)
“snatch (seize)”
“rob”
Chen 357, 367
F.1.5 N. Chinese West Semitic- Anywa
-MSC Ethiopian- kwʌɲí
qián / qiánzi Amharic “pincers
“pincers, pliers, mäqwän- (of a
tongs, forceps” t’äč̟a blacksmith)”
“grip (with pincers) “tongs” Reh 39
Wu, J. 543 Leslau 1976
chyándz (Y) 27
“pincers, pliers”
Chen 284
F.1.6 Proto-Afro-
Chinese–Min Asiatic
khin5 “catch, *’kiŋ
capture, seize, “to grasp”
arrest” Ehret 1995
Hakka Dict. #421 237
F.1.7 E. Cushitic-
N. Chinese-MSC Gedeo
ch’in (WG) c’i’mis
“to seize, to clutch” “to pinch
“to arrest, (a person)
to capture” Hudson 235
Mathews E. Cushitic-
#1102 153 Oromo
qimmida-
“pinch
(a person)”
Hudson 113
W. Chadic- Jimbin ‘kan “hand, forearm” Mukarovsky 200

West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic qäňň “right hand” Leslau 1976 78
N. Cushitic- Beja [Bedawi] qan’a ”hand, forearm” Mukarovsky 200
293
Note- F.1.3 (Hausa) In Hausa the ma- prefix of makāmā / makami “handle, tool ” is a “locative”
and instrumentak prefix; it designates the place the action operates and also that it is an instrument of the
agent. Newman / Ma 1979 85 and Appendix 3 [150], Newman, P. 2000 59. It is commonly used before
roots which are basically verbs to denote the tool or other means by which the action of the verb is carried
out, and/ or the location in which it takes place. In this case it is used before the noun showing an application
of its referent. In makāmi “tool” it represents an instrument of the verb’s action. See also Hausa
mafitsara “bladder” < fitsari “urine” Skinner 191, 70 ; ma’aiki “messenger” < W. Chadic-Hausa àikē
“send someone (often on an errand)” Skinner 190 , 3. With nouns denoting human actors the prefix is
called “agential “. See also Chapter 10 Section 10.3.4 and F.15a.1 Extended below.
542
F.1.8 C. Chadic-Bura West Semitic- Egyptian

S. Chinese-Kejia kimta Ethiopian- khemā
[Hakka] “Wegnehmen” Amharic “to grasp,
kim2 [take away, qämma to seize,
“catch, capture, capture] “rob, to lay hold
seize, arrest” Skinner 134 take by force, upon”
Hakka Dict. carry away Budge
by force” v.1 547
Leslau 1976 akhem
69-70 “to seize,
to grasp
violently”
Budge v.1 79
F.1.9 E. Cushitic-
S. Chinese-Yue Sidamo
(Cantonese) ki’mi-
kìhm “use pliers” daanco
Po-fei Huang 413 “what serves
“forceps, tongs” to pinch
“to hold with” something”
Chik / Ng Lam “to seize and
Lam 466 squeeze
“tongs, pincers, something”
tweezers” “tongs,
Chik / Ng Lam pliers”
Lam 346 Gasparini
S. Chinese-Min 262
(Amoy diatect)
khim2 “to catch,
trap” Branner 154
F.1.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) kàhm “to capture, to catch” “to arrest, to capture”
< Proto-AA * -kam- “to hold” / W. Chadic- Hausa kāmàa “catch, seize” /
NC-N. Mande- Bozo kàme “seize, take” /
S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa *ǂgahʔm “hold under the arm”
F.1.2 Old Chinese *ʔiam- “grasp”
< Proto-AA *ʔam- “catch, seize” C. Khoisan-Nama ‖kam “hold up”
F.1.4 TB-Tibetan ‘chaŋ-wa “to hold, to take hold of, to keep”
< Proto-AA *-‘kâŋ- “to grasp”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *‘kâŋ- ~ *-kām- “hold” “take hold of”294
F.1.4 Middle Chinese jiāng v. “to hold in the hand” prep. “marker of instrumentality”
Norman 131295 Chinese-MSC chyâng (Y) “snatch (seize). rob” qiâng “rob, loot” “snatch, grab”
294
Note- F.1.4 (Etyma) The fact that four different Afro-Asiatic proto-roots have been proposed suggests that
AA inherited the forms from an older African language superfamily. This was probably either Niger-Congo or
Khoisan and hence the proposed ultimate root is *-kam- “to hold” “to seize”. Ruhlen has identified 15
superfamilies of the world’s languages which attest it. (Ruhlen 1994 297).
295
Note- F.1.4 (Middle Chinese Extended ) Norman reports that a pretransitive preposition jiāng was a marker of
instrumentality from the early Tang dynasty until the Qing dynasty, [618 to 1644 CE]..It is derived from a verb
meaning “to hold in the hand”. When this verb was first used as a preposition, it denoted an instrument. (Norman
543
F.1.5 N. Chinese-MSC / Beijing kaqiān “calipers” Wu, J. 379

F. 1.1
S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa *ǂgahʔm “hold under the arm” Starostin, G. 2003 14
NS-Anywa gām “to catch something flying” Reh 26
F. 1.3
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) kamša “grasp, grip” “handful” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 410
NS-Songhay (Djenne) kámbi “tweezers” Heath v.3 191
Egyptian khanakh “a wooden tool, a winnowing instrument” Budge v.1 531
F.1.4 Proto-Cushitic *’kâŋc’- “to catch, hold “ (stem + *c’ extendative extension)” Ehret 1995 #421 237
F. 1.5 NS-Anywa kwāɲ “to pick something up” Reh 40
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic qwänat’t’ära “take a pinch (of roasted grain, etc.), pick up crumbs”
Leslau 1976 78
F. 1.6 E. Cushitic-Somali hakin “hold” Awde 1999 34
Asian non-ST languages with correspondences to the African/AA roots
F.1.6
IE-Sanskrit ghiNN “to take, grasp” Cologne Lexicon.
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish gən “to hold or carry in the hand” Tureng 16
F.1.9 IE-Hindi cimtā m. “tongs” cimtī f. “tweeezers” Scudiere 120, 238
Proto-Turkic čim- “to pinch” “a pinch” / Altaic-Turkic-Tuva šimči “to pinch” šim “a pinch”
Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz čimči-, čimči-la “to pinch” čimčim “a pinch”
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur čimdi, čimqi “to pinch” čimdim “a pinch”
Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh šimši “to pinch” šimši-la “a pinch”
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek čim, čimči “to pinch” čimdi- , čimdi-m “a pinch”
Altaic-Turkic-Khakhassian čimƷi-la “to pinch” čimčix “a pinch”
Altaic-Turkic-Azerbaidzhan čimdik-le “to pinch” čimdik “a pinch”
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish čimdik, čimƷik “a pinch” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Tables F.2-F.5 are grouped semantically under their common referent “gourd/calabash”. The gourd
has been a very important part of African material culture both as a food source and in its use as a
container. In Afro-Asiatic languages the various morphemes which mean “gourd” in most cases also
signify some type of container artefact such as a jar, cup, bowl or basket. The same parallel exists
between the gourd /vessel lexemes in Sino-Tibetan and Sanskrit languages. These match closely on
African variants, providing evidence that various kinds of gourds used in Africa generated the etyma of
the ST “gourd / container” lexemes in Central and E.Asian languages
.
F.2a-b Afro-Asiatic AA-Cush. AA- Nilo- NC
– Chadic Proto-AA Sem. Saharan
F.2a.1 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic – Proto-AA Kanuri
ku-wa “gourd, the bottle gourd” Das Glavda *gwâb- “calabash guwá
17 [Disyllabic corresp.] kúwà (used as container, “bowl-
N. Chinese-MSC “calabash, utensil)” shaped
-guā bf. “fruit or plant of the gourd cup” Ehret 1995 gourd”
family, including melon, cucumber, Rapp / #375 219 Cyffer 64
pumpkin etc.” Wang, F. 172 Benzing 56
131.) Note the closely similar Beijing morphemes F.1.4 chyâng (Y) “snatch (seize)”and F.1.5 Beijing qián
“pincers, pliers, tongs” “grip (with pincers), clamp”. This latter functions both as a verb and the name of an
instrument for grasping/holding things. In general the table shows that both TB and Chinese attestations of this root
parallel the AA and NS meanings of “grasp, hold” and “instruments for grasping /holding”.
544
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) E. Chadic-

gwā “gourd” / Dangaleat
gwà “melon” [Dangla]
Kwan 206, 291 gúwà
“melons, cucumbers” “grande
Chik / Ng Lam 291, 303 jarre à large
TB-Naxi col
k’wua “bowl” montant”
Matisoff 2003 321 [large long-
necked jar]
Fédry 334
F.2a.1 TB-Tibetan ku-wa “gourd, the bottle gourd” / S. Chinese-Yue kwa1 / gua1 “melon, gourd”
< C. Chadic-Glavda kúwà “calabash, cup” / E. Chadic- Dangaleat gúwà “large long-necked jar”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *kuwa “calabash, cup” ~ *guwa “large long-necked jar ”
F.2a.1
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] kwa1 / gua1 “melon, gourd” Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC guā n. “melon, gourd” Wu, J. 246 Huang 144 xiguā n. “watermelon”
Wang, F. 172 kuā (WG) “melons, gourds, cucumbers etc.” Mathews #3504 520
mùguā / mùgwā “papaya” [literally “tree gourd”] Wu, J.483 Chen 267
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) muhkgwā (Y) “papaya” Kwan 336 Chen 267
wùlóugwa “bottle gourd” Kwan 206 [compound of this root and that of F.3.2]
Old Chinese kwaX-lwaK “kind of gourd” Sagart 1999107
F.2a.1
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Čaha, Eža, Muher, Masqan, Gogot)
qwamat “gourd, bowl made from a gourd” “from Cushitic Kambata” qōomwa ‘gourd’ “
Leslau 1979 v.2 483
C. Chadic–Mofu-Gudur kwakulam “jarre (à eau, à bière) [water / beer jar] Barreteau 369
C. Chadic-Gulfey guā “basket” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic-Etymology 2006
W. Chadic–Hausa kwalabā “bottle, jar” Newman, P. 2007 121
W. Chadic-Tangale kwaali “calabash” Jungraithmayr 1991 107
W. Chadic–Hausa k’wáryàà n.f. k’ôrai, k’ôree pl. “gourd (medium round for keeping food)”
Newman, R. 1990 111 “calabash” Newman, P. 2007 135 ;
(Lagenaria siceraria) “bottle gourd” Blench Hausa names for plants 2011 print 42
W. Chadic–Hausa kwacciya “calabash (small)” Skinner 159 k’wáryàà f. “calabash, gourd”
‘korai pl. Newman, P. 2007 135 Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 56 Newman, R. 1990 111 Skinner 180
W. Chadic–Gwandara gwara “small gourd used as a water jar” Matsushita 1972 47
C. Chadic– Nakatsa, Zəgvana kwáta “calabash” Skinner 159
W. Chadic–Ngizim kwáayak “small earthenware bowl” Schuh 102
C. Chadic–Bura kwarkwata ”very large pot used for cooking beer or making dlalang” Dict. of Bura
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) qwaar pl. of quuri “kettle” “teapot” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 380
N S-Anywa agwʌ̀y agwʌ̀yè pl. “gourd (with small opening on top), no neck ” Reh 104
W. Chadic-Ngizim gwàbò “large spherical gourd for beer” Schuh 77 Ehret 1995 #375 219296
296
Note F.2a.1 (Chadic) The earliest African pottery was shaped like a calabash. Camps 567. The examples
observed by Camps at sites in southern Algeria in the Ahaggar, and Tassili N’Ajjer areas were all “round-based”.
They date from the seventh millenium BCE. Camps 564-565. The various roots for gourds phonetically match
words which denote containers and other round objects which appear below in this note and in tables F.6a-F.8a
545

F.2a.1
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek,Uyghur kawā “pumpkin” English-Uzbek Dictionary, Uyghur Dictionary
IE-Sanskrit kuhana “a small earthen vessel” Cologne Lexicon See also Supplementary Table 2
IE-Pashto kawāra’h “kind of oblong basket narrow at the ends, a kind of pannier” Raverty 813
↓↓
F.2b AA– Chadic AA –Cushitic AA-Semitic Nilo-Saharan NC
F.2b.1 C. Chadic- Proto-South Semitic- Arabic Kanuri
TB-Tibetan Buduma Cushitic kabeeto kaféto
kaped / kabed kapēto *kwad “gourd, plant” “calabash gourd”
“a gourd, “bottle “Kurbis” Edgar 246 Cyffer 73
a medicinal fruit” gourd” Skinner 181 West Semitic- Lukas 1937 205
Das 7 C. Chadic- Ethiopian-Amharic Songhay (Gao)
[Disyllabic Musgu gābāta “large cup or gáptà
corresp.] gabeto bowl of wood” “grande
kabed “prob. “bottle gābāte calebasse” (Fr.)
a sort of gourd” gourd” “wooden bowl” [large gourd]
Jaschke 2 Skinner 27 Leslau 1976 211 Ducroz 99297
F.2b.2 E. Cushitic- Semitic-Old Aramaic NS-Kanuri
TB-Tibetan Somali kob / kúbbā m. kàbàli
kú-ba koob “cup” “pitcher, goblet” “gourd for
“gourd” “mug” Comprehensive liquids”
Jaschke 3 Awde 1999 Aramaic Lexicon Edgar 246
38, 68
F.2b.1 TB-Tibetan kaped “a gourd”
< C. Chadic-Buduma kapēto / Semitic-Arabic kabeeto “gourd, plant” /
E. Cushitic- Oromo qabé “gourd”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *kabet- “gourd”
F.2b.1
Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova 1995) *kap- / *kib- “(gourd) vessel” *xab- / *xabic- “vessel”
Skinner 149
E. Cushitic-Oromo qabe “gourd” Leslau 1979 v.3 468 “recipiente con coperchio fatto di zucca”
[covered container made of gourd] Borello 330
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Čaha, Eža) qabe “bowl made from a gourd and used for milking” -
F.2a.1 (Chadic Extended) *kwar- “gourd” = F.7a.2 (Chadic ) kwàř “round, spiral” kwararo ideo. “describes
round thing”
F.2a.1 (Chadic Extended) kwal- “bottle, jar” “calabash” = F.7b.1 kwal- “ball” *gwal- “round”
F.3.1 (Chadic) k’ululu “gourd” (PAA) gulul “vessel”=F.8a.2 (Chadic Extended) gululu “ball”
(NS) kòoli “encircle”
F.4c.2 (NC, Chadic) kwankwan “calabash” / guan “pot, pitcher” = F.7a.6 (Chadic) kawan- surrounding a
place, making a circuit” “metal ring”
F.5.1 (Semitic, Chadic) kur- “gourd” “mug” = F.8a.1 (Extended) kurah / kura “ball, globe, sphere”
F.5.2 (Cushitic, NS, Khoisan) koote r- “gourd” = F.8a.1 (Chadic, PAA) *kor- (PAA) “round”
297
Note- F.2b.1 (Nilo-Saharan) The following note F.3.2 (Nilo-Saharan) reports Ehret’s conclusion that
pottery was invented by spekars of a Nilo-Saharan language. Both the F.2b.1-2 NS-Kanuri sets above and the
F.3.1 NS-Anywa / Songhay set below are consistent with this since the present study indicates a historically close
association between Chadic and NS languages
546
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic, Harari qaba “kind of gourd for milk” Leslau 1979 v.3 468
Egyptian qab “pot, vessel” Budge v.2 763 qeb “pot, jar, vase” Budge v.2 767
E. Cushitic-Somali xabxab “watermelon” Awde 1999 110
W. Chadic–Bedde-Ngizim kāBiyau “pumpkin” Skinner 149
gàabíyău “pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo)” Schuh 63
F.2b.2
W. Chadic–Hausa kābo “calabash species” Skinner 129 kobewa (Cucurbita pepo)” Barth 176
kàbēwa / kubēwa “pumpkin (vegetable) ” Newman, R. 1990 211 Skinner 129
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic kubbaya “cup, mug (of metal)” “calabash” “bowl-shaped gourd”
Leslau 1976 161
NS-Kanuri kawéto “calabash gourd” Cyffer 73, 85
Proto-Western Chadic *habi- “gourd watter botle” “cooking pot” “pumpkin”
Stolbova, Olga W. Chadic Etymology 2006
C. Chadic–Bura kwatam ”wooden platter or bowl”
kwatsela “small basket” Dict.of Bura
C. Chadic – Guduf kwáthà “calabash” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 56
W. Chadic – S. Bauci- Zaar kwatr “calabash” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 56
W. Chadic–Hausa ukwatoo “Cucurbita maxima” “bitter gourd” kwartowa “Citrillus colocynthis”
“bitter gourd” Blench Hausa names for plants 2011 print 2, 41
E. Chadic–Masa group -Banana gwətə “calabash, generic” Skinner 159
F.2b.1 Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek / Uyghur qapaq “gourd” English-Uzbek Dictionary, Uyghur Dictionary
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish kap “container” kabak “pumpkin” kabak “pumpkin” su kabagi “gourd”
Tureng 700
IE-Iranian-Middle Persian kapārak “Gefass” (Ger.) [vessel, jar]
IE-Old Indian kapāla- “cup, jar, dish” “ oil vessel; flask, bottle”
F.2b.2
IE-Pashto kupa’i / kuprra’i “a small leathern bottle, a flask” Raverty 778-779
Proto-Tungus-Manch *kiab- “a kind of vessel”
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *Kobga “a kind of vessel”
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *kob- “a kind of vessel” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek qovun “melon” English-Uzbek Dictionary
↓↓
F.3 AA – Chadic AA –Cushitic, Afro-Asiatic- Nilo-Saharan NC
Proto-AA Semitic
F.3.1 W. Chadic- Proto-AA W. (Ethiopian) Anywa
N. Chinese-MSC Hausa *gulul- “vessel” Semitic-Harari [Anuak]
xìhúlu n. k’ūlūlu Militarev / qulu’ “gourd” āgūlū “pot
“pumpkin, “big gourd Stolbova Leslau without neck
summer squash” water pot” AA Etymology 2007 1979 v.3 474 (for storing beer
DeFrancis 1059 Skinner 176 E. Cushitic-Oromo West Semitic- and water)”
húlu “bottle kullu / qulu “gourd” Ethiopian- ókɔ‫כ‬llú
gourd, calabash” kullumi Skinner 176 Gurage (Selti) “pumpkin”
Wu, J. 284 “jug” qullu / qilla qula “gourd, Reh 3, 61
“Chinese bottle Skinner 181 “gourd” bowl made from a
gourd” Leslau 1979 gourd”
Wang, F. 216 v.3 474 Leslau 1979
v.3 474
547
[Disyllabic Hausa kulu Proto-Semitic NS-Songhay

corresp.] (Damagaram “borraccia da *kull- (Gao)
húlúkè dial.) viaggio di cucuzza” “clay mug" gúllú / gúlló
“a plant of the kōlōlō [water bottle for “jug” “grand canari
gourd family” “a variety of travel made of Militarev, A. ou l’on met
DeFrancis 396 bottle gourd” gourd] Semitic d’eau”
Matsushita Borello 242 Etymology (Fr.)
1993 69 hullé #258 13 [big water pot]
W. Chadic- “fiaschetto di Ducroz 106298
Tangale cucuzza” [bottle
kuluk / made from gourd]
kúlak Borello 218
“gourd
species”
Jungraithmayr
1991 104
F.3.2 C. Chadic- W. Semitic-
S. Chinese-Yue Munjuk Ethiopian-
(Cantonese) wùlà Gurage (Zway)
wùlóu “calabash” wûlle
“bottle gourd” Stolbova, “gourd”
Kwan 206 Olga Leslau 1963 123
wùh lòu C. Chadic- (Soddo, Zway)
“the calabash Etymology wəlle
or bottle-shaped “gourd”
gourd” Leslau 1979
Chik / Ng Lam v.2 279
392 v.3 651
F.3.1
N. Chinese-MSC húlu “bottle gourd, calabash”
< E. Cushitic- Oromo qulu “gourd”, hullé “bottle made from gourd”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *qulu / hullé “gourd, bottle made from gourd”
298
Note- F.3.2 (Nilo-Saharan)
Based on archaeological and linguistic data Ehret considers that pottery making was invented in Africa by
speakers of Nilo-Saharan languages before 9000 BCE (Ehret 2002 64), Given the proto-AA roots and the great
number of Chadic reflexes of these, speakers of AA languages also appear to have also been very early users of
pottery. Pottery first appeared in China as early as 18,300 -14,000 BP . This could imply that pottery was invented
independently in China, but it is not completely clear that all the current vocabulary for containers existed in that
period. Ceramic technology became more advanced and widespread in China during the ealy Holocene, so many of
the current words for pots etc. may have entered East Asia at that time given their close similarity to African roots.
See Liu / Chen 64-68.including Fig.3.865 which lists sites where early pottery has been found in East Asia.
By the third millenium BCE pottery from the Indus Civilization was the main item being imported into the
Arabian peninsula. This area was a trading hub with the Indus Civilization from about 2500 BCE till 2000 BCE
Large amounts of Indus pottery existed in ancient Oman by 2400 BCE It is considered by experts on Indus remains
to have been technically and aesthetically superior to that of ancient Arabia. (Lawler 1096-1097). Potsherds
containing the Indus script have also been found at the third millenium site of Saar on the island of Bahrain
(Dilmun) along with other Indus artefacts. (Possehl 225). See Note F.3.1 (Sanskrit Extended) below. Also “It
appears that some sort of potter’s wheel was present in period II at Meghar [i.e.about 5500 BCE] in the Indus
Civilization, now SW Pakistan. Possehl 90.
548

F.3.1
Old Chinese *Ak-lojʔ-/ lojʔ “kind of gourd” Sagart 1999 107299
C. Chinese-Wu ɦu6 “a jar, pot, jug” “any potbellied container with a small opening.” Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC / Beijing hù “pot” Merriam-Webster Chinese Dictionary 58300
See also F.4c.1
F.3.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) wùh “pot” Kwan 362 Po-fei Huang 450
[also used as a measure word for containers] yat wùh jauh “a pot of wine” Po-fei Huang xix
wùh “the calabash or bottle gourd” Chik / Ng Lam 303
wùlóugwa “bottle gourd” Kwan 206 [compound of this root and that of F.2a.1]
F.3.1
Semitic-Hebrew kəlub “clay mug” “jug” Militarev, A. Semitic Etymology #255 13
Semitic-Akkadian qulliu “clay mug" Militarev, A. Semitic Etymology #258 13
Proto-C. Chadic *gul(ul)- “gourd” “straw-bottle” Stolbova, Olga C.Chadic Etymology
C. Chadic-Gisiga koloba “bottle gourd” Skinner 159
C. Chadic-Munjuk *gulo “gourd” Stolbova, Olga C.Chadic Etymology
E. Chadic-Mubi ko:lo “cooking pot” Greenberg 1966 61
E. Chadic-Sokoro koko:lo “cooking pot” Greenberg 1966 61
E. Chadic-Bidiya kurūkidya “la plus grosse calabasse” [the biggest gourd] Skinner 92
W. Chadic-Hausa guraka “a gourd (large) Skinner 92
E. Cushitic-Sidamo qulä “gourd” Leslau 1963123
E. Cushitic-Alaba, Qabenna qulā “gourd” Leslau 1963 123, 1979 v.3 474
Semitic- Arabic qulla “jar of clay” “gourd, bowl” Leslau 1963 123, 174. “jug, pitcher” Skinner 88
qull-at “clay mug" “jug” Militarev, A. Semitic Etymology #258 13
W. Chadic-Hausa kulàa f. “pot ( medium with long narrow neck & handle, for water)”
Newman, R. 1990 204 “water pot with handle” Newman, 2007 117
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic gulləlat “clay pot on the top of an Ethiopian house” Leslau 1976 204
C. Chadic- Padoko, Laamang kuləŋa “calabasse en form de bouteille” Skinner 92
NS- Tubu [Teda] kōlu “Flaschenkürbiss, cucurbita lagenarius” [bottle gourd] Barth 176
E. Cushitic-Rendille kúul “long-necked container (of wood in the shape of a calabash)” Pillinger 205
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Selti) qula / qila “gourd , bowl made from a gourd”
Leslau 1979 v.3 474
NS-Songhay (Djenne, Gao)) kùlba “gourd, bottle” Heath v.2 133, v.3 218 ; kùlba “grand calebasse,
bouteille”(Gao) kùla “calebasse à petite ouverture” [gourd with small opening] Ducroz 161
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Wolane) qulli “gourd, bowl made from a gourd” Leslau 1979 v.3 474
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic qəl “gourd” ras qəl “skull” ras “head” Leslau 1976 67
C. Chadic–Tera kolb’a “bottle gourd” Skinner 159
Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova 1995) *kolab- “container” Skinner 159
299
Note- F.3.1 (Old Chinese Extended)
Sagart and other researchers recognized the contrast between two Chinese morphemes with and without the initial
k(V)- and reconstructed two Old Chinese proto-forms. The table shows only a contrast between Sinitic initial k-
and initial w- which is also present in Cushitic-Oromo, W.Semitic and several Nilo-Saharan families. Sanskrit
gives evidence of having preserved the k- initial which is probably older. See chapter 10 section 10.2.
300
Note- F.3.1 (N. Chinese (Beijing Extended). Round pots with necks are called “hu jars” in Beijing Chinese.
They are found in several different early Chinese material cultures. (See illustrations in Liu / Chen Figures 6.9-
10 #10-12, 17-18; also Figures 5.9 #20; 7.3 #10 and 7.10C). In Afro-Asiatic languages the root hulu ( a Sinitic
variant form) refers to gourds, or more specifically bottle gourds. Like guan jars they are pot-bellied but with the
neck they more resemble bottle gourds. The Chinese “guan jars” generally do not have a neck. The word family
containing guan jar is in section F.4c.2..
549
F.3.2 NS- Daza wui (wua) “calebasse” (Fr.) Jourdan 33

E. Cushitic-Oromo willee n. “small cup-like gourd used for drinking” Gragg 403
willé “cocuzza, zucchetta che serve da bicchiere” [squash/gourd used as a glass or cup”] Borello 424
NS-Anywa wīllī willé pl. “bottle” “drinking glass” Reh 82, 90 w�lɔ‫כ‬w�l pl. “neck of a gourd,
(long) handle of a half gourd” Reh 81
F.3.1 IE-Sanskrit ćuluka “a small vessel” chullakI “a kind of water pot” kulaka “a sort of gourd”
kulakakarkaTI “a species of gourd” Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 F.3.1
Old Indian kulija “a particular vessel” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
IE-Bengali kolshi “a pitcher of water”
IE-Tokharain kolam, kolmo “vessel, shell” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 301
↓↓
F.4a-c Afro-Asiatic – AA - AA- Nilo- Niger-
Chadic Cushitic Semitic Saharan Congo
F.4a.1 C. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Anywa NC-
S. Chinese- Kejia Mafa Sidamo gɔ‫כ‬ɔnnɔ̀ Fulfulde
[Hakka] goŋgoŋ ‘koon-co / “cooking pot [Fulani]
(Lau Chunfat) “bottle gourd” ‘koona used to serve gono-
4
gon “vessel, jar, W. Chadic- “pumpkin” food to men” gono
container, jug, pitcher, Tangale Hudson Reh 28 “an edible
pot, can” Hakka Dict. kọŋ
̣ gọŋ 118, 381 Kanuri variety of
TB-Tibetan “bottle gourd” Gasparini góngóng the bottle
gon (Western Tibet) Skinner 96 267 “tin, can” gourd”
“the common gourd, Cyffer 62 Taylor 67
pumpkin” Jaschke 72
F.4a.2 W. Chadic – E. Cushitic- Semitic- Kanuri
TB-Kiranti-Limbu Hausa E. Cushitic- Aramaic guno-gunó
kunda n. gundàa Rendille gun, “white melon
“large metallic or “young fruit, kúnni gunnā grown in
earthenware jug” esp. pumpkin” “container “a large Lake Chad
van Driem 1987 438 gunàa (for milk)” vessel” area”
[Disyllabic corresp.] “small gourd” Pillinger Compre- Cyffer 63
S. Chinese-Yue Newman, P. 204 hensive
(Cantonese) 2007 77 Aramaic
gun “container” Skinner 91 Lexicon
Kwan 97 “jar (deep E. Chadic –
vessel) Chen 185 Lele gundu
“pot” Kwan 362 “gourde”
“a vessel, a jar, a jug” Skinner 155
Chik/Ng Lam 363
301
Note- F.3.1 (Sanskrit Extended) The disyllabi Sanskrit and other IE lexemes of this table closely match the
Chadic, Cushitic and South Semitic forms of words meaning both “gourd” and “pot”.
The Sanskrit / IE correspondences with the Afroasiatic languages of six of the F.2a-F5 tables i.e (F.3.2 , F.4a.2,
F.4b.5, F.4c.2 and F.5.1-2 Extended sections) provide linguistic evidence which supplements the archaeological
data. They provide important evidence that the Sanskrit words meaning “gourd, earthenware container” (which
match Chinese, AA and NS morphemes) existed in the language of a northwest Indian society during the period
of the Harappan civilization. Their closest African correspondent is the F.3.1 Chadic-Tangale kúluk / kulak
“gourd species”.
550
F.4a.3 W. Chadic- West

TB-Tibetan Hausa (Ethiopian)
gombu kōmā Semitic-
“small cup” “small fishing Amharic
“a trap, a net” net” gāmbo
Goldstein 63 Newman, P. “clay pot”
[Disyllabic corresp.] 2007 115 Leslau 1976
206
F.4a.4 TB-Tibetan E. Chadic – Songhay-
rkón-pa / skón-pa Lele kondor (Koroboro)
“basket” “panier avec kokondo
“net, fowler’s net” poche en filet” “large palm
Jaschke 17 Das 78 [basket with leaf basket”
göönba / gǖnbu+ pouch made of Heath
“a net used as a trap or net]” v.3 205
snare” Goldstein 42 Skinner 160
F.4a.1 TB-Tibetan gon “the common gourd, pumpkin” / S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] gon4 “vessel,
container, jar, jug, pitcher, pot, can ”
< W. Chadic-Tangale kọŋ ̣ gọŋ “bottle gourd” / E. Chadic- Dangaleat kôngkìlà “kettle, pottery with
wide opening” / NC-Fulfulde gonogono “an edible variety of the bottle gourd”
F.4a.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese), gun “container” “jar (deep vessel) “pot”
< W. Chadic-Hausa gunàa “melon, gourd” / E. Cushitic- Sidamo kunûna “a gourd, emptied and
prepared to serve as a drinking vessel”
F.4a.4 TB-Tibetan göönba “a net used as a trap or snare”
< E. Chadic–Lele kondor “basket with pouch made of net”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *gon- / *gun- “bottle gourd, gourd used as a container,
vessel” “ a net, trap”
F.4a.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ngòn “a basin, a pot, a bowl” Chik / Ng Lam 316
F.4a.4
TB-Tibetan cagön “net/trap for catching birds” Goldstein 729 ca “bird”
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] sùm-gòn “casting net” Matisoff 2003 258, 451
TB-Tibetan chag-khongs “a basket for measuring grain” Das 404 chag “grain”
TB-Tibetan goŋgshaà “fishing net” Goldstein 63
TB-Maru gum “net” Matisoff 2003 451
F.4a.1
E. Cushitic-Sidamo gonga “dish, plate” Skinner 96
E. Chadic-Masa Group- Lame gənāi “poterie” Skinner 84
E. Chadic–Dangaleat [Dangla] gòŋgòŋ “poterie protectrice” [pottery used as magical protection]
Fédry 331 kôngkìlà “marmite, poterie à large ouverture” [kettle, pottery with wide opening] Fédry 299
F.4a.2 W. Chadic–Gwandara (Toni, Gitata) gúnà (Koro) gúnà’ “melon” Matsushita 1974 #84 42
Cushitic-Sidamo kunûna “a gourd, emptied and prepared to serve as a drinking vessel” Gasparini 200
F.4a.3
E. Cushitic-Oromo gombo “vaso per acqua, idria en forma di anfora con collo stretto” [vessel for
water, water jar shaped like an amphora with a narrow neck] Borello180
C. Chadic–Buduma (Yedina) kúmō-, kèmó “calabash” Stolbova, Olga C.Chadic Etymology 2006
E. Cushitic-Burji ‘kóom-o “calabash gourd” Sasse 1982 126, Hudson 207
E. Cushitic-Kambata qōomwa “gourd” Leslau 1979 v.2 483
E. Cushitic-Hadiyya qōma “gourd” Leslau 1979 v.2 483
551
NC-Fulfulde (Fulani) gumbal “whole calabash with a small hand-hole in the top” Taylor 68
Maba Group-Masalit góňj-a / goňj-o “cucumber” Edgar 249
F.4a.2
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Endegen) quňňa (Selti) quňňe ; (Gogot) quňňu “jar of clay, cup
of clay used for milking” Leslau 1979 v.3 491
E. Chadic- Masa Group- Lame gənāi “poterie” Skinner 84
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) maa‫ع‬uun “plate, dish” Dict. of Iraqi Arabi pt.2 432
F.4a.3
W. Chadi–Hausa kumbòo pl. kumbuna “flat tray-like calabash used as eating bowl”
Newman / Ma 1979 69 “calabash species (long, narrow)” Skinner 152 “calabash basin made by
cutting a large round gourd in two halves” Newman P. 2007 117 kōmō “misshapen calabash”
Newman, P. 2007 115
E. Cushitic- Gedeo ‘koon-jo “calabash” Hudson 251
NS- Songhay (Gao) gùmbúlù n. “petit calebasse placée dans une autre pleine d’eau” [small calabash
placed within another full of water] Ducroz 106
NS-Nuer gum “big gourd with small opening in top” Huffman 6
W. Chadic–Gwandara (Newman) kəmbyoŋo “pumpkin (vegetable)” Skinner 149
F.4a.2 IE-Pashto kunda “a wooden cup or bowl” Raverty 811
kunjai “a small earthen vessel for water” Raverty 809
IE- Sanskrit kuNDa “a bowl-shaped vessel, basin, bowl, pitcher, pot” kuNDin “a kind of vessel”
guNDaka “an oil vessel” Cologne Lexicon kundá “pot, vessel” Kuiper 149
Altaic-Proto-Mongolan *kundaga “a kind of vessel”
Altaic- Proto-Turkic *Kenduk “large earthenware jar” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Middle Turkic kűnduk “jug” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
F.4a.3 IE-Pashto kumra’ī “a small earthen brass narrow mouth vessel for drinking out of,
a drinking cup” Raverty 427
IE- Sanskrit kumbha “a jar, a pitcher, a waterpot, ewer” “a measure for grain”
kumbHANDa “a pumpkin gourd” kumbhatumbI “a kind of large, round gourd”
kumbhazAlA “a pottery” kumbhakara “a potter” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Hindi kumhārī “pottery” f. kumharā “squash” m. Scudieri 220
IE-Bengali kumrā “pumpkin”n. Thompson 44,170
IE-Avestan xumba “Topf” (Ger.) [pot]
IE- N.Persian xumb, xum “Topf, Krug” (Ger.) [pot, jar] Nicolayev, Sergei IE Etymology 2012
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur xǔmbash ”jar” Uyghur Dictionary
Proto-Altaic *kǔmbaka ”a kind of vessel” [Disyllabic correpondence.]
Altaic-Proto-Turkic*kǔmgan ”a kind of vessel”
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian*kombuga ”a kind of vessel” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
F.4a.4 Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *kondi “a kind of vessel”
Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology http.//starling.rinet.ru./c
/
F.4b.1 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic – E. Cushitic-Burji West Semitic-Ethiopian-
(Ladakhi) Bura gundó “winnowing Gurage (Caha, Ennemor,
guŋ-dúm / gun- kundi basket” Hudson 195 Gyeto) gundo
dúm “basket” E. Cushitic-Oromo “food container made of
“a bottle shaped or Dict. of Bura gundoo “flat basket for grass, basket serving as a
cylindrical basket” bread, winnowing measure”
Jaschke 69 Das 222 instrument” Gragg 187 Leslau 1979 v.3 283
kündum “cesto, paniere largo”
“round basket” [wide basket, hamper]
Goldstein 184 Borello 189
552
F.4b.2 TB-Nung C. Chadic –

gun “casting net” Musgum
Benedict 44 kunsāc
TB-Lepcha “grosser
kun “sort of fishnet” Korb”
Benedict 44 [large basket]
kûnä ”a sort of Skinner 161
fishnet” Starostin, S.
ST Etymology
F.4b.3 TB-Tibetan E. Cushitic-Gedeo West Semitic-Ethiopian-
khyuŋ-dpyad k’unna Amharic, Harari, Gurage
“a small round basket “winnowing basket” qunna / quna
of reed” Jaschke 164 Hudson 252 “basket used as a measure”
Das 164 Leslau 1979 v.3 485
F.4b.1 TB-Tibetan gun-dúm ”a bottle shaped or cylindrical basket”, kündum “round basket”
< E. Cushitic-Burji gundó “winnowing basket”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *gund- “basket” ~ *kon- “net” “basket”
F.4b.2 TB-Nung [Rawang] gun “net” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ki’ong1 “shallow basket” Hakka Dict.
TB-Tibetan khyuŋ-ril “a type of round basket” Goldstein 136
F.4b.1 E. Cushitic-Oromo gundubbo “piccolo paniere” [small basket] Borello 189
qunna “canestro” [basket] “misura per granaglie” [measure for grain] Borello 352
gondo “canestro grande per granaglie” [large basket for grain] Borello 181
NS- Songhay kokonda “panier en vannerie spiralee” [basket with spiral wickerwork] Skinner 160
(Djenne, Koyra) kònji “frond of palm (doum or sébé) used in making baskets.” Heath v.2 126 v.1 169
F.4c.3 IE-Pashto kundda’i “a wooden cup or bowl” Raverty 811
/
F.4c.1 TB- Burmese W. Chadic – S. Cushitic-
kwan “casting net” Hausa Irakw
Benedict 44 kwàndō lakwanti
N. Chinese-MSC “basket (wicker)” “basket”
kuāng “basket” (usually Newman, R. Skinner 161
without handle and purely 1990 20
utilitarian)” Wang, F. 267 Skinner 160
F.4c.2 N. Chinese-MSC W. Chadic-Ron NC-Benue-
guàn “pot, jar, pitcher, (Bokkos) kwâŋ Congo-Jarawan
jug” Wu, J.73 Huang147 “Kalebasse” Migili
“jar (deep vessel)” [gourd] kwankwan
Chen 185 Jungraithmayr “calabash”
Liu / Chen 106 17-18302 1970 143 Williamson/
Shimizu v.1 57
302
Note- F.4c.2 N. Chinese (Beijing). As mentioned in Note F.3.1 above illustrations of a Chinese guan “jar”
are found in in Liu / Chen 2012 Fig. 6.10 #10-12, 17 and 18. The typical guan jar is round (pot-bellied) and has
a wide round opening on the top. It resembles a pumpkin or gourd with a hole cut in the top. The African cognates
designate gourds, calabashes. For other references to archaeological sites relevant to ancient pottery in China see
Chapter 6 section 6.1.1..
553
F.4c.3 E.Cushtitic- Semitic-

Chinese–Min Oromo Hebrew
kàn meas. “bottle” gaanii “jar” kankan
Bodman 1987 v.2.145 Militarev / “jar,
Stolbova flask”
AA- Baltsan
Etymology 164
F.4c.1 N. Chinese-MSC kuāng “basket” / TB- Burmese kwan “casting net”
< W. Chadic-Hausa kwàndō “basket (wicker)” / NC-Benue-Congo-Jarawan Migili
kwankwan “calabash”
F.4c.3 Chinese–Min kàn meas. “bottle”
< W. Chadic–Hausa kankanā f. “watermelon” / Songhay (Koroboro) káŋkána “cucurbitacées”
(Fr.) [plants with gourd-like fruits]
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *guan / kan “basket” “gourd, calabash”
F.4c.1
N. Chinese-MSC ‘kuāng “an open basket” Mathews #3598 532
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *kwan ~ *gwan “casting net” Matisoff 2003 258, 450, 592.
F.4c.2
S. Chinese-Min koàn “bottle” “can” Amoy-English Dict. 921
Middle Chinese khwjang “square basket” Sagart 1999 99
F.4c.3 N. Chinese-MSC k’ân “receptacle” “an earthen vessel” Mathews 1931 #3241, #3243 487
gâng “vat, jar, crock” Wu, J. 222 “large, wide-mouthed jar” Wang, F. 160
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu khaŋraŋ “big, round basket” Starostin, S. Yamphu Dict.
F.4c.1
NS- Kanuri kwánta “round mat with raised edges” Cyffer 106
W. Chadic –Hausa kwàn-kwandō “large basket used for carrying manure to the fields” Newman, P.
2007 121-122 gwangwanī “tin can” Newman, P. 2007 79 gwanda “papaya” Skinner 96
F.4c.3
W. Chadic–Hausa kankanā f. “watermelon” Newman, P. 1977 107
NS-Songhay (Gao) káŋkána “cucurbitacées” (Fr.) [plants with gourd-like fruits] Ducroz 146
W. Chadic–Ngizim kə̀ndé “basket made from palm leaves” Schuh 88
E.Cushitic-Somali aggan “jar” *ʔigan “vessel” Militarev / Stolbova AA-Etymology
W. Chadic–Hausa kindâi “type of basket made of palm fronds” Newman, P. 2007113
NS-Kanuri kəndâi “small round basket made of ngə́lai grass”. Cyffer 91
E. Cushitic-Oromo gaani “idria, giara grande per bevande (idromele, birra}”
[water jar, big jar for food and drink (honey, beer) Borello 165
Semitic-Akkadian agannu “cup, bowl” Militarev / Stolbova 4
Semitic-Hebrew ʔaggān “cup, bowl” Militarev / Stolbova 4
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic gan “large pottery jar used in making beer”
gȁnbo “clay pot” Leslau 213
Egyptian akana “basin, bowl, vessel, pot, bottle” Budge v.1 94
NS-Songhay (Gao) kànéỳ “pastèque, Citrullus lanatus (Cucurbitacées)” (Fr.) [watermelon]
Ducroz 147
F.4c.3 IE-Pashto kanddal “a cup, a pan, a vessel” kanddolay “a cup, a pan, a vessel”
kandū “a large earthen vessel for holding grain” Raverty 810
IE-Sanskrit kandola “a basket for holding grain” kandolaka “a basket” kandala “a reed basket”
kandika “a kind of gourd” kaNTakilata “a gourd” Cologne Lexicon.
554
See also Supplementary Table 2 F.4c.3

Proto-Altaic *kiàntu “a kind of vessel” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek kandi “bin, crib for flour, grain” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Helaj kändi “basket” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology http.//starling.rinet.ru./c
↓↓
F.5 AA-Chadic AA –Cushitic AA-Semitic Nilo-Sah. Khoisan,
NC
F.5.1 W. Chadic – E. Cushitic- Arabic NS-Tubu NC-Fulfulde
TB-Kiranti- Gwandara Rendille (Iraqi) [Teda] [Fulani]
Limbu, koriya karaáya / quuri, guro / goro / kōriyāje
TB-Nepalese “calabash, karaáyo quuriyyat gore n. “a large pot
khuriyā calabash bowl” “basin” pl. “kettle, “Kochtopf” for keeping
/ khoriyā Matsushita Pillinger 180 teapot” [saucepan, the sour
“small metal 1972 67 E. Cushitic- Dict. of pot, milk”
cup” van Driem W. Chadic – Sidamo Iraqi casserole] Taylor 86
1987 450 Hausa kória kûre f. Arabic Lukas
[Disyllabic and “Flaschenkurbis “large pottery part 1 98 1953 194
Trisyllabic [bottle gourd] jar” part 2 380
corresp.] Barth 176303 Gasparini 200
F.5.2 E. Chadic – E. Cushitic- Egyptian Kanuri C. Khoisan
TB-Tibetan Bidiya Burji qərr korê n. -Naro
ko-ré “cup for kōriyo “gourde a k’or-ee “drinking “vessel with !k‫כ‬re
drinking” eau” [gourd for “wooden pot pot” neck for S. Khoisan
shiŋ kor water] with handle and “water pot” keeping -‖Ng-!’e
“wooden cup” Skinner 181 base” Sasse Budge liquids” !k‫כ‬rε̎
Jaschke 15 W. Chadic-Hausa 1982 127 v.2. 775 Cyffer 98 “dish”
shiŋ ”wood” gòorā n. m. E.Cushitic- Daza S. Khoisan-
kó-re “bowl, “gourd (large, Oromo goré n. |Nu-‖’en
dish, drinking used as a float)” korre “marmite” !‫כ‬re “dish”
cup” Newman, R. “wooden bowl” [kettle] Ruhlen 1994
Jaschke 346 1990 110 Foot 37304 Jourdan 38 #235 51
303
Note- F.5.1 (TB-Nepalese, Kiranti, Chadic) S. Starostin considers the trisyllabic form *khoriyā to be derived
from a disyllabic root *khorī (*khoriyā < *khorī ). The African language evidence supports this hypothesis since
the F.5.2 disyllabic form is attested in the older African language families including Khoisan. Historically in Hausa
F.5.1-2 the Hausa/Gwandara form was developed through a “feminative” suffix –iya which converted disyllabic
morphemes into trisyllabic ones, e.g. *k’ugì > k’ugìya “hook” Newman, P. 2000 210, 214 Rule 2. See also Note
C.24b.1,3. Also F.18a.1 *zarE > zariya “trouser string”, and set F.18a.3 Extended. *tsarak > tsarkiya. Thus
the k’ôree > koriya development probably occurred in Africa before the migrations which brought them to East
Asia. Under this hypothesis there was an earlier migration of Khoisan and NS speakers which carried the disyllabic
form into the TB current linguistic area and a later one into the same general region. Also note that the F.5.1 TB-
Kiranti/Nepalese and Arabic trisyllabc forms refer to a metal container, thus indicating a migration after the
invention of metallurgy.
304
Note- F.5.2 (Tibetan, Cushitic) The Tibetan and Cushitic semantics present the possibility of a convergence of
two phonetically close but different roots through the association of morphemes meaning “gourd/drinking vessel”
and “wooden drinking vessel”. The proximate root for the Tibetan ko-ré is found in the E. Cushitic
forms which include the meaning of “wooden”. The word for wood in Cushititc-Somali is qori. (See F.21a.1
Extended). However there are similar morphemes meaning “gourd” or “pottery jar” attested in Cushitic– Sidamo
kure “large pottery jar” Gasparini 200, F.6.1 Hausa/Gwandara kor- / gòora and Ngizim kur- “gourd, calabash
(used as container)”.
555

F.5.1 TB-Nepalese khoriyā / TB-Kiranti-Limbu khuriyā “small metal cup”
< W. Chadic-Gwandara koriya “calabash, calabash bowl” / W. Chadic –Hausa kória “bottle gourd”
F.5.2 TB-Tibetan kó-re “bowl, dish, drinking cup” keeping liquids” / C. Khoisan–Naro !k‫כ‬re “dish”
< NS-Kanuri korê n. “vessel with neck for keeping liquids”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma *koriya < korê “bottle gourd” “calabash bowl”
Extended ST language word family:
TB-Kiranti-Limbu khorεʔl “small bowl, cup or beaker” van Driem 1987 447
F.5.1 C. Chadic-Zime-Batna gùrù “calabase”
Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic-Etymology 2006
Proto-Highland E. Cushitic k’ûr’e “jar, pot (small to medium)” Skinner 261
C. Chadic-Gude kəra “calabash species” Skinner 88 ;
gərá ”large water pot” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic-Etymology 2006
F.5.2 NS-Songhay (Gao) kórò “bassin” [basin] Ducroz 191
E. Cushitic-Gedeo k’ore “plate (of wood)” Hudson 114, 252, 308
E. Cushitic-Afar kor- “wooden bowl” Skinner 88
C. Khoisan-Nama !ores “dish” Ruhlen 1994 #235 51
NS-Nuer kεr, kεri “gourd” Huffman 23
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *gar- “container, vessel” Militarev, A.2007
Semitic-Arabic qarawaanna “large round shallow metal serving bowl”
Written Arabic qar’ “gourd, pumpkin” “bottle gourd, calabash”
qar’ī “gourd, pumpkin- (in compounds)” Wehr 887-888 qarura “long-necked bottle, flagon, vial,
flask” pumpkin” Wehr 881
E. Cushitic-Rendille karam karmo pl. “bowl (formerly made from the orooro calabash split
lengthwise, including the narrow protuberance attaching it to the parent plant (which thus formed a
handle). It was also later made from wood” Pillinger 180
Egyptian qaragantesi “gourd, pumpkin” Budge v.2 803
F.5.1
IE-E. Iran-Avestan kur “measure”e.g. “kur of barley” Olmstead 72-73, 134
IE-Sanskrit karaka “a water vessel” Cologne Lexicon Kuiper 150
kAravI “a small kind of gourd”
kAravella / kAravallI “the gourd Momordica Charantia”
karpara “a cup, pot, bowl”
gara “a water jar” Cologne Lexicon
gargara “a water jar” Kuiper 155
IE-Hindi
gharā “pitcher”m. Scudiere 120 233
kharbūzā m. “melon” Scudiere 224
gártā “vessel for drinking, wooden cup” Kuiper 150
Kartvelian-Georgian qarqara “gourd” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 1
Kartvelian-Laz qoqore- “a kind of gourd” Starostin, S. Kartvelian Etymology 2005 1
IE-Old Indian karkati “pumpkin” “Cucumis utilissimus” Nicolayev, Sergei IE Etymology 2012
These forms indicate that there was an original Afro-Asiatic root kure / kor- meaning “gourd /container” which
did not include semantics of “wooden, made of wood”. Apparently some E. Cushitic languages employed this
form of the word for “gourd” preferentially for wooden containers since the same morpheme also meant “wood”.
See F.21a.1 (Extended) Proto-S. Cushitic *’kor- “stick, tree, wood”. The association of “drinking vessel” and
“wooden” in the F.5.2 Tibetan ko-ré indicates its Cushitic origin.
556
F.5.2
IE-Bengali kɔrai [Disyllabic corresp.] “large cooking utensil, pan” Thompson 41, 116
IE-Pashto kara’h “a large wooden vessel used for covering meat or as dish cover” Raverty 772
See also Supplementary Table 2 F.5.1-2 and Note- F.3.1 (Sanskrit Extended) above.
Proto-Altaic *kòrke “a kind of vessel
Proto-Altaic *k’ure / *kor- “basket” Starostin, S. Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *Körke “a kind of vessel
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian n. *korgu “a kind of vessel” Starostin, S. Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *kurke “a kind of vessel” http.//starling.rinet.ru
↓↓
The following word family F.6a.1-4 shows a phonetic continuum of lexemes plausibly derived from a
Chadic root kəway (k’awy) / gəway basically meaning “go/turn around, surround”. These give
evidence of having generated the similar noun or adjectival forms meaning” “surroundings, enclosure,
circular” The word family is also of interest since there are multiple ST correspondences with the Hausa
verb grades:
F.6a.1-2 vg. 1 (basic non-suffixed form, intransitive) matches basic non-suffixed form in Yue, MSC
and Jingpho)
F.6a.3 vg.4 ( completive, total action) suffixed -ee ) matches the ST waih- roots which designate
completed actions “encircle , surround, enclose”. In Hausa these are transitive verbs.
F.6a.3 vg.6 (ventive- suffixed -o) matches the ST -yiu / yiuh suffixes which designate movement
back toward the speaker. This is typical of verbs denoting circular motion or shape as in the Chinese-Yue
wàaihyiuh vt. “to encircle, surround” < Hausa kēwayō vg.6 vi. (ventive) “come around again”
See also the introduction to Chapter 2H, set F.1.7 and Chapter 10 Section 10.2.1.
ST Languages African/AA languages-Close Corrspondences
F.6a-b AA-Chadic AA- AA- NS NC
Cush. Sem.
F.6a.1 S. Chinese-Yue C. Chadic-Glavda
(Cantonese) gwaya “to turn round”
gwáai “to turn” “to go about” Rapp / Benzing 46
Chik / Ng Lam 218 W. Chadic-Hausa
N. Chinese-MSC / Beijing gēwaya vi. “go round”
kuâi “to turn” Newman, P. 2007 73
Mathews #3532a 522 kēwaya / gēwaya vg.2 vi.
guâi “turn” Wu, J. 247 “go round” Skinner 143
“revolve” Newman, R. 1990 226 vg.1 vi.
F.6a.2 W. Chadic- Hausa
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] wàiwàyā “turn, return” Skinner 280
wai “whirl as a whirlpool, waiwayā vg.1 vi. “turn one’s head
stir, as with a ladle” around to look behind” Newman, P. 2007
Benedict 32 216 Newman, R. 1990 286
F.6a.3 S. Chinese-Yue W. Chadic- Hausa kèewàyèe vg.4 vt.
(Cantonese) wài completive “surround, enclose” “circle,
“to surround, to enclose, enclosure” Newman, P. 2007 73,112
to encircle’ Newman, R. 1990 268 “corral”
“surrounding environment” “circumference”
‘the circumference of a “environs”
circle” Chik Ng Lam 75 Newman, R.1990 41, 53, 81, 83305
305
Note F.6a.1-4 (Hausa) P. Newman establishes k’awy- as the base root for the F.6a.2-3 Chadic variants.
The F.6b.2 k’auwayya “country, rural area morpheme is a dialectal variant of the plural of this morpheme and
represents the normal development of this type of plural ā-ā. Newman, P. 2000 442-43.
557
wàiHhéi vt. “enclose (by Ya gēwayē gōnarsà dà shingē.

a fence)” Chen 91 “He put a fence around his farm”
wàihchèung n. “fence” Newman, P. 2007 73
Kwan 185 gēwàyèe n..m. “enclosure”
wàaihyiuh / wàaihjyuh kewàyar vg.5 efferential vt.
vt. “enclose” “enclose, surround”
“to encircle, surround” Newman, R. 1990 81
wàihyiu / v. “enclose” kēwayō vg.6 vi.
Kwan 162 (ventive) “come around again”
wàihyiu n. “environment Newman, P. 2007 112
(surroundings)” W. Chadic- Ngizim áakwàyú
Kwan 166 “boundary (of a farm etc.)” Schuh 8
F.6a.4 kèui “a district, an W. Chadic-Hausa
area, a zone” “a border” kēwayèe n. m.
gàau kèui “suburban area” “environs, surroundings”
Chik / Ng Lam 44, 75, 460 Newman, R. 1990 83, 268
F.6a.1 N. Chinese-MSC kuâi “to turn”, guâi “turn”
< W. Chadic-Hausa gēwaya vi. “go round” / kewàya vg.1 vt. “encircle, go around a place” /
F.6a.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) wàihyíuh / wàihjiuh “enclose” “encircle”
< W. Chadic- Hausa kēwayō vg.6 vi. (ventive) “come around again”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *kewàya / gewàye vt. “surround, encircle” ~ kēwayō “come
around”
F.6a.1-2 N. Chinese-MSC guâiwan “turn a corner, turn” “turn round, pursue a new course”
Wu, J. 247 [compound of this root and that of F.7a.4]
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gwài “to return (something to its owner)” Chik / Ng Lam 241
S. Chinese-Min kuāi “to sprain, as the foot” Bodman 1987 v.2 206
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] khwij “to coil, wind” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Burmese khrwij “to surround” Starostin, S. ST Etymology kwe’ “turn, corner”
Matisoff 2003 410
F.6a.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) bàauwàih v. “encircle, ring” Kwan 162, 439 waih ”used as a
classifier for round things” Matthews, S. 105
N. Chinese-MSC wéi “enclose, surround” “all round, around” wéizi “defensive wall surrounding a
village”wéirao “round, around” Wu, J. 715-716 wèixing “satellite” Wu, J. 718
TB-Burmese wajh “to revolve, turn around” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
wài “whirlpool” Benedict 32
F.6a.4 S. Chinese-Min kwāi: “county, district” Bodman 1987 v.2 82
F.6a.2 NS-Kanuri wainangȋn “wind (a watch” Cyffer 181
W. Chadic- Hausa këuaye “meandering roundabout” Barth v.2 28
à kèewàyèe “in a circle” Newman, R. 1990 41 kèewàyayyē “round” Newman, R. 990 230
F.6a.3 W. Chadic-Ngizim vàikú vn. váikà “encircle, surround (in the sense of actually forming a
circle)” Schuh 166, 221 rawaya “go round, go to another place” Skinner 291
F.6a.4 C. Chadic- Mofu-Gudur gəvay “quartier, village” (Fr.) [neighborhood, village] Skinner 88
way “maison (ensemble des cases” [house (group of huts)]” Barreteau 256
W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Warji ŋgəw+ai “part of compound” Skinner 88
E. Cushitic- Rendille góy- “circle, (any) group of people, social group (together with their livestock,
possessions etc.)” “always occurs with a following possessive: góytissa ‘his circle’ góyteena ‘our
circle’ Pillinger 128
558
The phonetics of the F.6b word family’s lexemesshow a link between it and those of F.6a though the
semantics at first seem different. The lexemes meaning “suburb”, “boundary” and “neighborhood’ are
semantically related to the F.6a words meaning “surroundings”, “environment” and “nearby”.
F.6b.1 S. Chinese-Yue Cushitic- West Semitic- Anywa
(Cantonese) Oromo Ethiopian- [Anuak]
gàau “suburbs of a city” gau Amharic k�� ʊ
ngàu “a district, an area, “essere qäbäle “boundary,
a zone” “a border” vicino a” “district, area, border,
Chik / Ng Lam 44, 460 [to be precinct, frontier”
S.Chinese–Min neighboring section of city Reh 36, 89
(Taiwanese) on, to be or country,
kaû “border, frontier, close by] region”
boundary” Borello 172 Leslau 1976 76
Bodman 1983 52,170
F.6b.2 W. Chadic- Hausa Written
N. Chinese -MSC k’auyèe “country (Iraqi, Yemeni)
jiāo “suburbs, outskirts” (as opposed to town)” jaawar
jiāowài “the countryside Newman, P. 2007 129 “to be neighbor
around a city, outskirts” “village, rural area” of, to live next
Wu, J. 339 Wang, F. 236 Kraft 353 door”
chiāo “open spaces “village, edge of “border on”
beyond a city” anything, Dict. of Iraqi
“frontiers” neighborhood” Arabic
Mathews #714 97 Skinner 169 part 2 80
jiào “border” [pronounced Qafisheh 92
DeFrancis 424 k’yauyèe]
jiāojiè “(of two or more See A33.1]
places) have a common k’auwayya
boundary” Wu, J. 338 dialectal variant
“meet, come together at a “rural area”
border:” Newman, P. 2000 443
Wang, F. 236
jiāo “(of places or
periods of time}
”meet, join” Wu, J. 337
See also H.39b.1
F.6b.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ngàu “a district, an area, a zone” “a border”, gàau “suburbs of a city”
< E. Cushitic- Oromo ga-u “to be neighboring on” / Semitic g-wr “be in vicinity”
F.6b.2 N. Chinese-MSC jiāo “suburbs, outskirts”, chiāo “open spaces beyond a city” “frontiers”
< Semitic-Arabic *jāw- “to be neighbor of, to live next door” “to border, border on” /
Approximate Sinitic etyma *ga-u “to be neighboring on” “be in the vicinity of” ~ *jāw- “to be
neighbor of, to live next door”
F.6b.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gàau-ngoi “outskirts of a city, suburbs” Po-fei Huang 384
gàaugaai “boundary, border region, adjoining” Po-fei Huang 383
S. Chinese-Min kau-kai “border, frontier, boundary” Bodman 1987 v.2 78, 145
[compound of this root and kai “boundary, world” F. 11.1 below]
F.6b.2 N. Chinese-MSC chiāo “to join, to intertwine” “adjoining” Mathews #702c 96
559
chiào “to go around” “the frontiers or boundaries” Mathews #686 93

S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jàu “an administrative district in ancient China” “(in old China) a county”
Chik Ng Lam 119
F.6b.1
NS-Anywa [Anuak] g�́ʊ “fence around a pounding ground” Reh 27
Semitic-Hebrew gaval v. “bordered” gevool “border” gvool m. “frontier, boundary”
Baltsan 106, 112, 114
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic akkababi “surrounding area, surroundings, environment, outskirts,
zone, region” Leslau 1976 142 agwärabätä “be neighbors of one another, live in the same
neighborhood” gwäräbet “neighbor” Leslau 1976 208
Semitic *g-wr “be in vicinity” Skinner 169
E. Cushitic-Afar gàwra “fields, cultivated land” Skinner 169
F.6b.2 Semitic-Written Arabic
mujāwara / jiwār “neighborhood, proximity”
tajāwur “neighborhood, (reciprocal) contiguity, relationship of several things” Wehr 173-174
(Iraqi)̟ t’awwag “to encircle, surround” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 296
‫ح‬awwaṭ “to wall in, to build a wall around, to encircle, surround”
Semitic-Arabic mujāwira (IPA) “neighborhood” Merriam-Webster Arabic 102
F.6b.1 Sanskrit kavata “a district containing 100 gralmas” kavatika “a district containing 200
gralmas” Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 F.6b.1
From at least early in the Holocene era the African dwelling of the northern savanna was in a circular
enclosed area. Ehret states that permanent settlements composed of circular houses with surrounding
bush fences characterized the Sudanic culture of the then humid Sahara which developed from before
7000 BCE. “By 7000 BCE the typical Saharo-Sahelian extended family resided in a large homestead
surrounded by a thick thorn bush fence.” “The thorn pens not only served as the location for their houses
and the granaries in which they stored their cultivated grain, but the area of ground thus enclosed acted as
a cattle pen, protecting their animals at night from predators, principally lions and hyenas. (See below the
text introducing word families F.9a-b below.)
The Saharo-Sahelian style has since become widespread-circular in floor plan with a conical thatched
roof.” Ehret 2002 67 (Ehret uses the term “Saharo-Sahelian” to designate the Nilo-Saharan and Afro-
Asiatic speakers who lived in an east-west belt of land across what is now the central and southern
Saharan desert.)
The Fulani and Khoisan correspondences of sets F.7a.2, 4 refer directly to these fences made of thorn
bushes. They can still be seen among cattle-keeping Nilo-Saharan groups of the dry steppe areas of the
Sahel, for example those of the Masai of Kenya, the Karamajong of northeastern Uganda and the
Turkana of northwestern Kenya. (personal observation).

F.7a-b AA–Chadic AA–Cush. AA-Sem. NS Khoisan
Swadesh “round” Semitic- S. Khoisan-
F.7a.1 Arabic |‘Auni
S. Chinese-Yue (Yemeni) !kãǔ
(Cantonese) mukáwwar “bracelet”
káuh / kàuh “ball-shaped, Ruhlen
“a ball, a sphere” round” 1994
Chik / Ng Lam Qafisheh 522 #176 49
245, 299
Kwan 497
560
F.7a.2 E.Cushitic- NC- Fulfulde

TB-Karenic-Sgaw Rendille [Fulani]
khəw‫כ‬ káwaara kowāje
“circle, surround” “surround” “a thorn
kw‫“ כ‬encircle, Pillinger fence”
bend into a circle or 183, 397 “circular”
curve, circle, curve” Taylor 86
Benedict 132306
F.7a.3 E. Cushitic- Semitic- NS-Kanuri NC- Fulfulde
TB-Tibetan Burji Arabic kōra [Fulani]
kōra “wall, fence ‘kor- (Yemeni) “fence off, kowagol /
(that goes around vt. surround” kurawi in” kowādi
something”) Hudson “to surround, Hutchison “any fence,
Goldstein 126 147, 208 encircle” 1981 109 hedge”
“any surrounding Qafisheh Taylor 86
wall” 514
Das 152
F.7a.4 Proto-S. S. Khoisan-
S. Chinese-Kejia Cushitic Proto-Taa
[Hakka] *kwam *‖ɣáùŋ
(Kwangtung) “enclosure” “to make a
kwan1 Militarev, A. bush fence
“encircle, S. Cushitic with hook-
confine” Etymology thorns”
TB-Karen 2005 Starostin, G.
gwaŋ 2003 22
“circle, ring” S. Khoisan-
Benedict / Matisoff |‘Auni
132 !kãǔnu
“earring”
Ruhlen
1994 52
F.7a.5 Khoisan-
TB-Chin-Lushai Proto-
huaŋ Central
“encircle, fence” Khoisan
Benedict #217 50, ‖áùn
132 “to fence”
N. Chinese-MSC Starostin, G.
huán 2003 22307
“ring, hoop”
“surround, encircle”
Wu, J. 247
306
Note- F.7a.2 TB-Karenic Many TB correspondences to this set mean “village” e.g. [Burmish] Samong kewa
and [Chin] Lushai kewa from which Benedict reconstructs Proto-TB *gwa “village”. Matisoff 2003 127, 134;
Benedict 113-114 See also notes F.6a.2-4, note F.8b.1 and sets F.8b.3-4.
307
Note- F.7a.2-4 (TB-Lushai, Jingpho, Old Chinese). The TB-Lushai and Chinese-Beijing morphemes of these
sets show an explicit phonetic and semantic connection between an ST variant meaning “encircle, fence” and a
Fulani / Khoisan root meaning “fence made of thorns”. See also the variant Chadic-Hausa kēway- form of this
root meaning “corral, enclosure” in set F.6a.3, and the khor- “round” root in sets F.8a.1-2.
561
F.7a.6 W. Chadic- NS-Anywa Khoisan-

N. Chinese-MSC Hausa cùɔɲ ǂHoan
juan k’awanyàa n. còoɲɲè ‖xáùŋ
“shut in a pen, [pronounced còoɲɲè pl. “fence”
pen in e.g. sheep”kyawanya] “bend, curve” Starostin, G.
Wu, J. 373 “surrounding Reh 18, 88, 2003 22
chywān (Y) n. a place” 95
“ring, a circle” Skinner 143
Chen 336308 “circle“
chuan “metal ring”
“ring through the Newman, R.
nose of an animal”1990 41, 228
Mathews #1647 233 “encircling”
Newman P.
quan 2007 129
“encircle, surround”
“round”
Wang, F. Proto-W.
385-386 Chadic
TB-Jingpho *čyan
[Kachin] “encircle,
śəwan surround”
“shut in, Stolbova,
fence in” Olga
Benedict 50 W.Chadic-
Etymology
F.7a.7 W. Chadic- NS-Songhay NC-Fulfulde
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu Angas (Djenne) (Fulani)
wäŋma “to go in a wâng waŋga / wanja
circle, “getting out waŋa “wind
to go around” of the way, vt. “go thread,
wäŋliŋ “round, avoid, around, esp. for
spherical” go round” revolve” weaving”
Starostin, S. Foulkes 94 Heath Taylor 207
Yamphu Dict. v.2 192
TB-Written wanga
Burmese “meandering
wân roundabout”
“round, circular” Barth
Matisoff 2003 406 v.2 29
F.7a.8 NS-Nuer
S. Chinese-Yue wan
(Cantonese) “to surround”
wàahn n. Huffman 49
“to surround”
Chik / Ng Lam 76
308
Note- F.7a.4 (S. Chinese-Kejia) Rings from the Zhukaigou culture of China’s central southern Inner Mongolia
culture (2000-1400 BC) and the Qijia culture of the Upper Yellow River valley are shown in illustrations (Liu /
Chen 315, 324, 329). The Zhukaigou rings are earrings and finger rings made of bronze. (Fig. 9.9 #A3-5 315). The
Qijia sites show a bronze bracelet, a bronze earring (Fig. 9.13 #19-20 324 ), a round jade ring called huan and a
curved jade pendant called huang (Fig. 9.16 #2, 5 329).
562
“turn (change of
direction)
Kwan 541
“curve”
Kwan 119
TB-Nung
waŋ
“surround”
Benedict 50
F.7a.6 TB-Jingpho [Kachin] śəwan “shut in, fence in” / N. Chinese-MSC quān “circle, ring”
“circle, encircle” “corral” “pen in, shut in a place” chywān (Y) n. “ring, a circle,
< Khoisan-ǂHoan ‖xáùŋ “fence” ~ !kãǔnu “earring”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *k’awan- [kyawan-] “ “circle, encircle” “corral, pen “ ~
*!kãǔn “a circular object” e.g. “earring´ *‖ɣáùŋ “to make a bush fence with hookthorns”.
F.7a.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) káuying ge “round” Kwan 445
S. Chinese-Min kiú “a ball” Bodman 1987 v.2 149
F.7a.2 Semitic- Arabic (Yemeni) h̟awwaṭ “surround, encircle” Qafisheh 149
TB-Proto-Kiranti *khòr “enclosure, fence” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Tibetan h̟khor-gyi h̟kyams “courtyard, an open space near a temple or residential house—also the
passage round a temple or monastery---“ Das 188 h̟kyams [variant of F.7a.3
*kwam “enclosure” or F. 7a.6 kyawanya “surrounding a place”?]
F.7a.4
N. Chinese-MSC xuán “revolve, circle, spin” Wu, J.782 kuang “frame, circle” Wu, J. 398
S. Chinese–Min khuán “a circle, a tour around” hue-khuán “a wreath of flowers” Bodman 1987
v.2 81, 154 khoan1 / khoan5 n. “circle, ring” “with a return to the starting point, round” “bracelet,
ring” v. “surround, surrounding” “enclosure for keeping livestock, corral” Hakka Dict. Bodman 1987
v.2 154 (Fuzhou) khuáŋ “to turn around” Sagart 1999 119
S. Chnese Kejia (Meixian) k’wan2 / k’wan1 “jade ring or bracelet” “earrings for women”
“around, round” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gwán “to turn round and round” “to roll, to rotate” Chik / Ng Lam 268
gwàn “a potter’s wheel” Chik / Ng Lam 77 gwán “roll (as a ball)” Chen 338
N. Chinese-MSC xuàn “whirl” “turn something on a lathe” Wu, J. 784
S. Chinese-Min hue-khuán “a wreath of flowers” Bodman 1987 v. 2 154
F.7a.6 Old Chinese g’wan “ring, encircle” “turn around, return” Karlgren GSR 256n Matisoff 2003
424 gi̭wan “circle, circumference” Karlgren GSR 227c Matisoff 2003 424309 “enclosure for pigs”
“wall around courtyard” Karlgren GSR 226k, 257u g’iwan “tie around, encircle” Karlgren GSR 256q
Matisoff 2003 424
N. Chinese-MSC quān “circle, encircle” “corral” “pen in, shut in a place” “circle, ring”
Wu, J. 563 DeFrancis 750 jwân (Y) “turn (revolve)” Chen 426 juân “roll up” Wu, J. 373
chüan “to roll up, to gather” “rolled up, curly” Mathews #1642 233 ;
chüan “a roll of paper, a book” Mathews #1640 233 See also F.10a.2-3
309
Note- F.7a.6 Chinese-MSC, Old Chinese) Karlgren posits two Old Chinese forms g’wan “ring, encircle” “turn
around, return” / gi̭ wan “circle,circumference, round, return” which correspond to a Hausa glotallized initial k’and
a palatalized initial k’y-. The standard written notation of glottalized k’ initial is ƙ. For Newman this ‘hooked
(ƙ)’ notation does not adequately represent this and other cases in which the initial glottalized velar is palatalized.
Both the F.7a.6 N.-Chinese-MSC chywan and Old Chnese g’iwan can be considered to be correspondences to a
Hausa glotallized kəyawanyaa or palatalized k’yawanyaa form. Newman, P. 2000 416. See also Note A.33.1
(Chadic-Hausa).
563
xuwánzhuán (IPA) “turn, rotate (object, wheel)” Merriam-Webster Chinese 145, 198, 375
zhuân / zhuàn “turn or revolve in a circle” Wang, F. 608 See also F.10.2 Extended.
Middle Chinese tjwân “turn” Norman 231
S. Chinese–Min cuān “to turn or twist, as a key” “winding, crooked” Bodman 1987 v.1 235, v.2 199
F.7a.7 N. Chinese-MSC huán “to revolve, to encircle, a circle” Mathews #2255 336
jyāuwan (Y) vt. “exchange” Chen 100 jyāu “exchange” (H.39a.1-2)
wān “bend, flex “e.g. “bend a bow” “turn, curve, bend” “go round curves ; turn a corner”
“a bend in a stream” wân “coil up” “wind, meander, zigzag” Wu, J. 707 ;
“to bend, bent, curved” Mathews #7028 1041 “a wriggling movement” “to bend, a curve” Huang 434
guâiwan(r) “turn a corner, turn” “turn round, pursue a new course” Wu, J. 247
chèunwàahn “to move in a circle” “circulation, rotation” Chik / Ng Lam 139 chèun “roll up”
(F.10.5 Extended) ; wàahn “to come back, to return” Chik / Ng Lam 458 ; wàahn “return
(articles)” Kwan 434
TB-Written Burmese wàŋ “swing around, spin” waŋ-rui “spindle” rui “handle” Benedict 25, 50
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) wahn “to move, to revolve” Chik / Ng Lam 455
F.7a.8
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] wâŋ “surround, encircle, circle, enclosure” Benedict 50
“encircle, fence” Matisoff 2003 269
wan “round, circular” Matisoff 2003 406
TB Burmese wàn “round, circular” Benedict 32 Matisoff 2003 406
TB Written Burmese wàŋ “fence made of wrought materials forming an enclosure” Benedict 50
TB-Kiranti wang-wang “circular” Benedict 50
S. Chinese-Min uân “bending, crooked”
aû-uân “to bend, crooked” Bodman 1987v.2 187, 199 uân “bending”
‘huánrào vt. “circumscribe, go around” Wang, F. 209 174
N. Chinese-MSC huán “a ring, a bracelet, to encircle”, Mathews #2258 336 “a metal ring”
Mathews #2262 337
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) wàanyíuh “ring” Kwan 439 “encircle” Kwan 162
[compound of this root and that of H.41.1]
F.7a.2
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] howa “put a fence around” Taylor 86
E. Cushitic-Somali kuwareeg-san “surrounded by” wareeg “go around” Awde 1999 76, 62, 73.
W. Chadic Hausa kwarkwaro “spindle for thread” “sewing machine” Newman, P. 2007 122
kwararo ideo. “describes round thing being too large” Newman / Ma 1979 72
C. Chadic–Bura kwarakwara “bobbin of a native loom” Dict. of Bura.
W. Chadic-Angas gwar “round, spiral patterns” Foulkes 193
Semitic-Arabic-Iraqi xawwar “to run around, roam” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 148
Written Arabic h̟awiya “convolution, coil, curl, roll” Wehr 254
NS- Maba Group-Aiki wàrrndi / wárándi “round, circular” Edgar 389
F.7a.3
Egyptian kerker “to circle, to mark out a circle with a stick” Budge v.2 796
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic guränno “enclosure for sheep” Leslau 1976 208
NS-Songhay (Koroboro) guri “enclos pour le betail” [enclosure for cattle”] Ducroz 109
NS- Kanuri korkomó “round area set up for temporary living” Cyffer 99
Proto-AA k’ur- “go round” Skinner 143
E. Cushitic-Sidam qoqowwo “a surrounded and defended place” Gasparini 268
F.7a.4 N. Khoisan- !‘O-! Kung !kãnu “bracelet” Ruhlen 1994 #176 49
F.7a.7 NS-Anywa wɛ‫כ‬ɲ vt. “to twist sth. (thread, rope) together, (two strings; by rolling them on one’s
thigh” āriet thɔɔl ā-wɛ‫כ‬ɲ-ɛ‫ כ‬vt. “Ariet twisted the rope together” Reh 81
564

F.7a.1 Hmong-Mien-White Hmong khaub “to wind around encircle, wind up” “a small stuffed ball
covered with cloth and used in Hmong games” Heimbach 94
F.7a.2 IE-Pashto khwā “round about, on all sides, all round” Raverty 429
kuhārra’h “a ring made of rope stuck up as a mark for arrows” Raverty 825
Kartvelian-Megrel kwarkwalia “round” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 32
Kartvelian-Georgian kwerkwera “round” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 32
F.7a.3 Proto-Tungus-Manchu *kori “wattle, fence, enclosure, building” Starostin, S. Altaic Etymology
Proto-Altaic, Proto-Turkic *kuri “wattle, fence, enclosure, building”; wattle = “a framework of
interwoven sticks and twigs used to make walls, fences and roofs” Starostin, S. Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish korunchak “enclosure”Turkish-English Dictionary
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *kurijen “wattle, fence, enclosure, building” Starostin, S. Altaic Etymology
Kartvelian-Georgian qore “stone wall” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 45
IE-Pashto kar / khar “a fence, a temporary defence made of thorns” Raverty 396 2d ed.1147.
F.7a.4 South Daic-Lao keuang4 gan1 “barricade”n. Marcus 29
F.7a.6 South Daic-Lao kian4 “pen (animal)” v. Marcus 160
F.7a.8 South Daic-Lao waan4 “ring” n. Marcus 186
/
F.7b.1 TB-Chin-Lushai W.Chadic-Hausa k’wallo f. “ball” Proto-AA
val “circular” Benedict 32 Newman, P. 2007 134 Skinner 179 *wal- “to go round”
Matisoff 2003 406 E. Chadic-Dangaleat [Dangla] Proto-Cushitic
Proto-Tibeto-Burman kikawal “en rond” [rounded] *wal- “to go round”
*wal “round, circular” Skinner 143 Ehret 1995 #968
Benedict 32, 209 Proto-C. Chadic *gwal- “round” 460
Matisoff 2003 404, 424 Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology
↓↓
F.8a-c AA–Chad. AA –Cush. AA-Semitic Nilo-Saharan NC
Swadesh “round” C. Proto-AA Semitic-Hebrew Kanuri korkór / S. Khoisan-
F.8a.1 Chadic- (Orel/ s’khor-s’khor kórkóri n. “circle” !Kwi-|Xam
TB-Tibetan Malgwa Stolbova adv. Cyffer 1990 99 kuérre-
‘khor khor kór-kóre 1995) “round about, Songhay (Djenne) k:uérre
“round, circular” “round” *kor- round and round” koori “be curved “round”
Jaschke 6 Stolbova, “be round” Baltsan 377 or circular” Bleek 1956
sgor-sgor Olga Skinner 143 Egyptian Heath v.2 124 113, 116
“round, circular” C.Chadic karkar -(Koroboro) Starostin,
Das 327 Etymology “anything round, korbey “cercle, G. 2012 40
[Disyllabic staff, roll, rond, anneau”
corresp.] cylinder” [circle, round,
Budge v.2 789 ring] Ducroz 157
F.8a.2 E. Cushitic- Semitic-Arabic NS-Kanuri
TB-Tibetan Afar (Iraqi) kórkórngin
‘khor-ba korkorise xoora “spin, “turn, spin, rotate”
“to turn around” “turn over turn, round” Cyffer 1990 99
Jaschke 57 and over” “whirlpool” kórókoró
h̟khor lo Hudson Dict. of Iraqi “spool, spindle,
“a wheel” 147, 208 Arabic part 2 148 shuttle” “wheel of a
Das 191310 vehicle” Cyffer 99
310
Note- F.8a.2 (Tibetan) In Tibetan if the morpheme ‘khor meant “wheel” at the time of a migration, this
migration took place in the historical period after 1000 BCE However, the ‘khor morpheme “circular, be round,
565

F.8a.1-2 TB-Tibetan ‘khor khor “round, circular” khor-ba “to rotate, spin” “to turn around”
< Proto-AA *kor- “be round” / Kanuri korkór / kórkóri n. “circle” /
Kanuri kórkórngin “turn, spin, rotate”
Approximate Tibetan etyma *kor- / *korkor- “be round” “a circle” “to turn, spin, rotate”
F.8a.1 TB-Tibetan ‘khor “circle, circumference” Jaschke 57 ; kɔrg‫“ ככ‬round, circular”
Goldstein 192 sgor-mo “a ball, a globe” Das 327
F.8a.2 TB-Tibetan sgor “a spindle on a turning lathe” Das 327 sgor-ba “surround, encircle, enclose
, besiege” Jaschke 24 korköö “circulation, circulating, revolving around” “making a circuit, going
around” Goldstein 160 k‫כ‬ryugtu “all around, surrounding” Goldstein 130
ḡ‫כ‬r “to turn around, to rotate” “to surround, to encircle” Goldstein 63 h̟khor-wa “to turn round,
to circumambulate” Das 190
F.8a.1 NS-Nilo-Saharan–Songhay (Dendi) kóóri “cerner, encercler, entourer, tourner” Zima 120
W. Chadic-Tangale ko̟ro̟l “exactly round” Skinner 91
NS-Kanuri kəríngin “turn (e.g. a key) “twist (e.g. a rope)” “stir with a circular motion” Cyffer 1990 94
E. Cushitic-Oromo makurakura “wheel” Foot 41 kolloo n. “part of loom, shuttle” Gragg 249
Omotic-Bencho kar3 “to be round” Ehret 1995 #328 200
Semitic-Arabic (IPA) korat thalj “snowball” korat al-salah “basketball”
Merriam-Webster Arabic 13, 146
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni, Iraqi) kura “ball, globe, sphere” kurawi “ball-shaped, spherical”
Qafisheh 514 Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 1 14 part 2 403
Semitic-Hebrew keerkoor n.m. “twirl, beating around the bush” keerker v. past “skipped around,
danced in circles” Baltsan 172 ‘agól adj. “round” “circular” Baltsan 5, 724
W. Chadic-Hausa gùlūlù “ball” Skinner 91
NS-Songhay (Koyra) kòoli “encircle” Heath v.1 167 ; (Gao) kólkóli “entourer autour de quelque
chose” “être sinueux” Ducroz 153 (Djenne) kooli “loop, curve, make a circle of” Heath v. 2 124
NS-Anywa [Anuak] gùl “to encircle somebody/something, to surround sb./sth. Reh 28
F.8a.2 W. Semitic-Amharic taškäräkärä “rotate” “move around” Leslau1976 463
W. Chadic-Ngizim kwàřkwàřtú “to turn around and around” Schuh 101
“to turn around and around” (stem reduplicated as( reduplication + *t durative) Ehret 1995 #404 231
Proto-AA *xwâar- vi. “to turn”
Proto-Cushitic *xwâar vi. “to turn about” Ehret 1995 #404 231
NS- Kanuri kolo-ngin “swing around, spin around (e.g. one’s walking stick while walking)”
Cyffer 97
F.8a.1
Proto-Altaic *kòlbèk “hub, wheel hub” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Proto-IE *gaul- “ball, swelling” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 39
IE-Sanskrit gola(ka) “ball, globe” kUrca “ball, roll” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Old Indian guli “any small globular substance” gulika “ball, globule” gola “ball, globe”
IE-Hindi gol adj. “round” golā m. “sphere” “circle” Scudiere 29, 232
IE-Bengali gol “round” Thompson 47, 122
F.8a.2 IE-Bengali ghora “turn” v. Thompson 48
ball” may have existed earlier and the semantics of F.8a.2 “wheel” were introduced along with an earlier artefact,
the potter's wheel, which was widely used in the Middle East by the beginning of the third phase of the Early
Bronze Age about 2400 BCE, and is depicted in Egyptian paintings of that period. This antedates the invention of
the wheeled vehicle by more than a millennium.
566
IE-Old Indian gargara “whirlpool, churn” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *kur- “to roll, churn” *xol- / *xul- “to roll, turn”
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *kor- / *kör “to roll, churn” / *kol-ki “to roll, turn”
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *Kul- “to roll, turn”
IE-Sanskrit kharb “to go round” Cologne Lexicon
Proto-Altaic *k’úlo “to roll, turn” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
IE-Pashto gola “a ball” Raverty 2d ed. 853
/
F.8b.1 W. Chadic- Ron E. Cushitic- Semitic-Arabic NS- Kanuri
TB-Tibetan (Bokkos) gara’ “etwas Oromo qura:ba kə́rgə
khóra / khórsa umgehen, herumgehen” qarqarā (IPA) “state,
“circumference, [to go around “confine, bordo, “proximity” region,
circumjacent space” (something)] contorno” Merriam- area”
Jaschke 43 Jungraithmayr [boundary, Webster Arabic Cyffer
1970 140 border, 122 81, 94
W. Chadic –Hausa surroundings]
kàrkàrā “inhabited Borello 337
area near city” E. Cushitic-Afar
Newman, P. 2000 514 gari “adjacent
“cultivated region area, environs”
around town” Skinner 78
Skinner 138
F.8b.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Tangale South Cushitic Egyptian
than-kór / la+korok (West Rift) khar / ákháar
tan-skór “town, village” *xoro “village, a
“surrounding Skinner 493 “land, district, quarter of a
country” country” town or city”
Jaschke 229 Budge v.1
Das 570 77, 532
F.8b.3 W. Chadic- Hausa NS-Kanuri
N. Chinese-MSC (ù)ngūwā, angūwā ngúro
guō bf. “outer wall, pl. (u)ngūwoyi “quarter of
or surrounding area ”village, ward a town ,
of a city” (of town)” “quarter of a ward”
De Francis 334 town, town ward” Lukas 1937
Wu, J. 257 Newman, P. 2007 235
214, 8 Skinner 278
F.8b.4 W. Chadic- Gwandara . Songhay
TB-Chin-Lushai, angwa (Koroboro)
General Kuki “quarter of town” kura /
khua “village” Skinner 278 kuraa
Benedict 109 “quarter
TB-Burmish- (of town)”
Samong [Phöng] Heath
kəwa “village” v.3 221
Benedict 109
F.8b.1 TB-Tibetan khóra / khórsa “circumference, circumjacent space” ḡ‫�כ‬
r “area, region”
“vicinity, proximity”
567
< E. Cushitic- Oromo koro / qoró “land, district, country” “district of divided into villages”
F.8b.4 TB-Chin-Lushai, General Kuki. khua “village” / Proto- Tibeto-Burman *g-wa “village”
< W. Chadic- Hausa (ù)ngūwā, (a)ngūwā “quarter of a town, town ward” “neighborhood” /
NC-Mumuye kwa “enclosed compound”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *(a)ngūwā “quarter of a town, town ward” “neighborhood”
“the outer circumference of an area” ~ * koro / *qoró “district having a defined area,
surrounding area”
F.8b.2 TB-Tibetan ḡ‫�כ‬ r “area, region” “vicinity, proximity” “nearby, around” Goldstein 63
yul-h̟khór “country, province” Das 1140 Jaschke 513 yul “place”
F.8b.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) guok- “the outer part of anything” Chik / Ng Lam 460
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] guo1 “the outer wall, outer part (of a city)” Hakka Dict.
F.8b.1 E. Cushitic-Oromo qoro “territory owned by the landlord, village headman”
Leslau 1979 v.3 494 koro / qoró “distretto di un paese diviso in Ganda” Borello 226, 238, 346
[the word Ganda means “village”] See F.15b.1 Semitic
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Ge’ez gor “neighbor, neighborhood, vicinity” Skinner 93
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic gurbətəna “neighborhood” Leslau 1976 208
NS- Songhay (Gao) kòyré / kòyrà “village” Ducroz 159 ;
kòyrà “quarter of town, (variant of kura)” (F.8c.1) Heath v.3 221
F.8b.2 Proto-AA *xoor- “ground” Ehret 1995 #393 226
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharica gär “country, nation, territory (region, land), district”
Leslau 1976 150
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Ge’ez hagar “town, country, inhabited region” Skinner 79
NS-Kanuri ngúromáskí “neighboring quarter of a town” Cyffer 1990 139 Hutchison 80
F.8b.3 Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) qarya / qura “village” qurawi pl. “rural, village”
Semitic-Aramaic qirya / qurya f. “city, town” Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon
E. Chadic- Mokulu kuwa “étendue de terre, plaine, éspace” [stretch of land, plain, space] Skinner 89
NC-Mumuye kwa “enclosed compound” Skinner 278
NC-Fulfulde (Fulani) gure “towns” Taylor 68
F.8b.4 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *r-wa ~ *g-wa “village” Benedict 109, 209 Matisoff 2003127
F.8b.1 Hindi gherā “enclosure”gherā paridi m. “circumference” Scudiere 29, 234
/
F.8c.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Hausa Proto-AA NS-Kənzi
kǖǖ “region, area” gû (Orel/Stolbova 1995) gū
Goldstein 122 “place” *gur- “house, place” “Stelle, Feld,
khul “district, Newman, 1977 76 Skinner 93 Teil, Acker,
province, domain” Skinner 89 E. Cushitic- Somali etc.” [place,
Jaschke 42 C. Chadic-Buduma guri “hut, house, field, part,
gur “a tent, also a ŋgu large enclosure in area]
house made of hay, “Ort, Haus, Stelle” which huts are built” Skinner 89
straw or grass” [place, house, Skinner 93
Das 222 location] “ house, home”
Jaschke 69 Skinner 278 Awde 1999 33
311
Note- F.8b.1 (Semitic-Arabic) In Yemeni Arabic the F.7a.3 morpheme kurawi means “to surround, encircle”
(Qafisheh 514).This contrasts minimally with the present F.8b.3 Extended Arabic morpheme qura / qurawi
“village” “but further indicates that “circularity” is the semantic basis for the F.8b morphemes meaning “living
area, village, surrounding area.” See also notes F.6a.2-4 and F.7a.2. (TB-Karenic)
568
S. Chinese–Min E. Chadic- Lele

khû “area, region” kur “place”
Bodman 1987 Skinner 93
v.2 75, 154, 550
F.8c.2 C. Chadic-Musgu Egyptian Maba
Tibetan gu(d) khu-t Group- Aiki
khú-tu “house” “house, kùdù
“a hut, a cottage” Stolbova, Olga palace” “house, hut”
Jaschke 40 C. Chadic Budge Edgar 254
Etymology 2006 v.1 537
F.8c.1 S. Chinese–Min khû “area, region” / TB-Tibetan kǖǖ “region, area” gur “a tent, also a
house”
< W. Chadic-Hausa gû “place” / Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova 1995) *gur- “house, place”
F.8c.2 Tibetan khú-tu “a hut, a cottage”
< Maba Group- Aiki kudu “house, hut”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *gūr “house, place” ~ *kudu “house, hut”
F.8c.1
TB-Tibetan gu “extension, extent, room, space” Jaschke 68
TB-Tibetan yúl-grú “a country with certain dimensions, i.e. the division of a country in provinces or
districts” Das 245 “place, village, town, country” yúl “place or inhabited place” Jaschke 77, 512
N. Chinese-MSC qūyù “district, region” Wang, F. 388
F.8c.1
C. Chadic-Logone ‘ɣo / ‘ɣū “Welt, Stadt” [world, city] Skinner 278
C. Chadic- Gude gəra “place” Skinner 93
W. Chadic- Hausa guri / wuri “place” Skinner 93 “place, area, side”
Newman, P. 2007 221,78
F.8c.2
W. Chadic-Ngizim khúdə̀mdə̀m “house” Schuh 97, 204
Proto-S. Cushitic gûd- “land, country” Ehret 1995 #296 190
Proto-Chadic (Jungraithmayr) *gwid / *gwud “place” Ehret 1995 #296 190
NS-Maba Group-Kibet, Dagal, Muru kùdùo “house, hut” Edgar 254
F.8c.1
IE-Pashto kor “a house, a dwelling” Raverty 817
IE-Bengali ghɔr n. “house, building” Thompson 48, 104
IE-Hindi gar n. “house” Scudiere 77
Proto-Altaic gūli “dwelling, cottage”
Altaic-Proto-Turkic gȕl “dwelling, cottage”
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu gūle “dwelling, cottage” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
F.8c.2
IE-Pashto kūdda “a hut, a shed, a temporary shelter of straw” Raverty 817
IE- Sanskrit
kùt’a “house” Kuiper 1955 148 kutī “a hut, cottage, house”
khara kutī “a stable for asses, a donkey stall” Cologne Lexicon
See also Supplementary Table 2 F.8c.-2
Dravidian-Tamil kutu “house” Kuiper 1955 148
569
↓↓
ST African/AA languages- Close correspondences
Languages
F.9a-b AA – AA-Cushitic, AA-Semitic Nilo-Sah. Khoisan
Chadic Proto-AA
F.9a.1 C. Chadic- Proto-AA Semitic- Kanuri N. Khoisan-
TB-Tibetan Mofu- *-kal- Hebrew kálángin !’O-!Kung
h’khál-wa Gudur “to turn round” sgalgal “turn over, galə
“to spin” ŋalŋal- Proto-Cushitic adj. return” C. Khoisan-Nama
Das 186 “mettre en *kal- “to go “oval, rotund” Hutchison gari
’kál-ba boule” round” Ehret Baltsan 377 142 “roll”
(Central and [roll up, 1995 #316 197 E. Cushitic- “turn Ruhlen 1994 61
Western Tibet) lit. make E. Cushitic- Sidamo around” NC- Fulfulde
’kál-ce into a ball] Oromo qale Cyffer [Fulani]
“to spin” Skinner kalka n. “a wheel, 1990 75 kalasal
Jaschke 55 179 “volta, turno” what turns “spindle, shaft,
[a turn, a twist] around” distaff”
Borello 225 Gasparini 254 Taylor 107
F.9a.1 TB-Tibetan h’khál-wa “to spin”
< PAA Proto-Cushitic *kal- “to go round, turn around” / N. Khoisan-!’O-!Kung galə ”
Approximate Tibetan etyma *kal- “to go round, turn round” ~ *gal- “roll”
F.9a.1
W. Chadic-Ngizim kàlàktú “to go back, return” Schuh 92 Ehret 1995 #316 197
Proto-Cushitic *kar- “to turn around” Ehret 1995 #328 200
Proto-AA *-kar- “to turn round, go round” Ehret 1995 #328 200
W. Chadic-Hausa gařàa “roll circular object along ground” Newman, P. 2007 70
E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] kààre “faire le tour” Fédry 273
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic täškäräkkär’ä “rotate, turn, revolve, pivot, whirl round”
Leslau 1976 65
Egyptian pekhar “to revolve, to go roundabout, to encircle” Budge v.1 246
Omotic, North Branch –Bencho kar’ “to be round” Ehret1995 #328 200
E. Cushitic–Oromo konkol-accu “rotolare, capitombolare, voltolarsi, rotarsi” [to roll,
to fall head over heels, to turn over, to rotate” Borello 237
F.9a.1 IE-Hindi calla “hoop”m. Scudiere 241
/
The following F.9b lexemes provide clues to the probable empirical origins of many of the kar / gar /
kal forms meaning “enclosure, fence, wall”, and some of those already described which mean
“surround”, “district, area, village, suburbs” or “turn around”
The F.9a word famly continues the pattern of lexemes which mean “round, turn around” “circular” and
“circular wall” recorded in the preceding F.7a-b-F and F8ba-b word families. The F.9b.1 E. Cushitic–
Sidamo gargara presents a related semantic dimension of roots which reflect origins of the gar root
based on “surrounding an animal in order to catch it, to guard animals, keep the animals together to
protect them and in this process ‘to hold (them) back, to restrain’”. (See text introducing word families
F.7a-b above ). So the basic implied meaning is “to encircle animals in order to control them”. This
occurred very early in hunting, and then is applied to the corralling of domesticated animals. See also
Note F.7a.6. Blocking and restraining are present in both activities. As mentioned above, cattle keepers
of the African Sahel still surround their animals with a circular fence, most commonly made of thorn
bushes. (See F.7a.4) From an anthropological point of view the exact semantic matching of the Tibetan
570
morphemes with those of multiple AA families, reinforces the usual view of early Tibetans as nomadic
cattle keepers. It is apparently used in Chinese languages, F.9b.3 Hakka, Cantonese only in the derived
abstract meanings of “blocking, separating, dividing, using a partition”
F.9b.1 TB- W. Chadic – E. Cushitic – West Semitic- NS-Nuer
Tibetan dgár-wa Hausa Sidamo Ethiopian- kʌrakɔn
“to separate, kārèe vg.4 gargara Amharic “prison”
confine, place (completive) “to surround an gärrädä Huffman
apart (men, cattle, “to screen animal in order “conceal, make a 23
goods)” Das 266 (temporarily)” to catch it” “to shelter, shield,
skár-wa “a “guard guard animals, screen,
penning of cattle, (shield off)” to restrain” obstruct”
separation, “protect” Gasparini 116 aggärä
to fold” Das 86 Newman, R. gargar- “impede, stop”
Jaschke 20 1990 “corral Leslau 1976
gar “to corner” 14, 210, 236 animals” 150, 208
Goldsten, 60, 108 Skinner 79
F.9b.2 TB- W. Chadic – C. Cushitic- W. Semitic- Kanuri NC-Tiv
Tibetan Hausa garka Bilin Ethiopian- garú gar
kārgyaŋ “wall “fenced in gargara Amharic “surround- “village,
around a fort, garden” “Ringzaun um magär ing wall or fence”
castle” Newman, P. 2000 ein Gehöfte” “wall of poles fence” Skinner
dgar byahi 450 [circular fence fastened in the Cyffer 78
phugs gàařu around a ground” 1990 57
“cattle to be “town wall” farm]” Leslau gargará
penned in a fold” Newman, P. 2007 Skinner 79 1976 38 “fenced
phugs “cattle” 71 place”
Das 266 Skinner 79
F.9b.3 W. Chadic-Hausa West Semitic-
TB-Tibetan gag gak’èe vt. Ethiopian-
“to block, to “hem in, Amharic
obstruct” prevent maggäğa
Goldstein 227 movement from a “embargo,
S. Chinese-Kejia place” barrier,
[Hakka] Newman, P. interdiction”
(Lau Chunfat) 2007 67 Leslau 1976 39
gag5 “to separate, W. Chadic– Egyptian
divide, partition” Angas kak “ward ga “to be
“blocked” off, protect” obstructed, shut
Hakka Dict. Skinner 79 in, blockaded,”
Budge v.2 800
F. 9b.1 TB-Tibetan dgár-wa “to separate, confine, place apart, (men, cattle, goods)”, skár-wa
“a penning of cattle”
< W. Chadic-Hausa kārèe vt. “to screen (temporarily)” “guard (shield off)”
kārèewa vn. “a screening, guarding” / E. Cushitic–Sidamo gargara “to surround an animal in order
to catch it, to guard animals, keep them together, to hold back, to restrain”, gargar- “corral animals”
F.9b.2 TB-Tibetan kārgyaŋ “wall around a fort/castle”
< W. Chadic – Ngizim gàarú “any mud wall, esp. a wall around a town” / Kanuri garú
“surrounding wall or fence” / E. Cushitic-Oromo gararo n. “corral, sheepfold”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *gar- “to surround with a fence, wall” “to surround and/or pen
animals” “a wall, a fence, a corral”
571

F.9b.1 TB-Tibetan dgár-ba “to separate, confine, fold up (men, cattle, goods)” Jaschke 83
kar “blocking somebody from getting something” gar “to corner” Goldstein 60, 108
F.9b.2 TB-Kiranti-Limbu garo “wall” “from Nepalese gāro” Starostin, S. Limbu Dict.
F.9b.3 TB-Tibetan ’gag “obstruction, stoppage” “ a place that has to be passed by all that proceed to a
certain point” ‘gag-pa “to stop, to cease” Jaschke 92 Das 288 ; chugaa “damming water, blocking
water” Goldstein 361 chu “water”, gags “obstructed” Das 207 gagdo “obstacle, barrier, obstruction”
Goldstein 235 h̟gag-skyor “anything like a fencing that is put around a field or garden to stop ingress from
outside” Das 289
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gaak-hoi “divide by putting something in between” Kwan 467
“to separate (as by partition)” Chen 351 Po-fei Huang 382
S. Chinese-Min câq “to block, obstruct” “obstruction” Bodman 1987 v.2 124
F.9b.1
C. Chadic-Bura gar / garta “to enclose” gardo “gate, door” Dict. of Bura
W. Chadic-Hausa kàrā “being screened off” Newman, P. 2007 108 kāriyā n. “a screen, protection”
Newman, R. 1990 14, 210, 236 kāriyàa f. “screen, shield” “screening off , protecting from harm”
Newman, P. 2007 109 gàrkuwa “shield” Newman / Ma 1979 42 Skinner 79
W. Chadic–Tangale kargè “enclose (with wall or fence)” Skinner 79
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Eža, Muher, Soddo) qəräqqärä (Čaha et al.) qəräqärä “prevent
cattle from entering a field by fencing it in” “prohibit, prevent, forbid, fence off” Leslau 1979 v.3 499
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic aggärä “impede, stop” Leslau 1976 150, 208
NS-Anywa [Anuak] kàal n. “enclosure for cattle (fenced in place or shed” Reh 34
NS-Kanuri kalngin, kaljin “corral, herd, drive (usu. a herd of animals)” Cyffer 76
ganngin “corral, herd (e.g. a herd of animals) Cyffer 56 See also note H.25a.1
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari gärädä “separate, distinguish, draw a curtain” Leslau 1963 75
E. Cushitic-Sidamo agara “guard, protect” Gasparini 12 gargari qola “to separate”
Gasparini 116
C. Chadic-Gude gəra “keep guard, watch” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Tigre kar’a “beschützen” [to protect, defend] Skinner 79
NS-Kənzi [Kenuzi] karu “Schild” [shield] Hoffman 106 “shield” Greenberg 1966 104
NS- Maba Group-Maba əngɔr “fence” Edgar 143
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Aymellel garrädä “curtain off” Leslau 1963 75
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic aggwärä “huddle, herd, bundle (clothes), confine, close with a bar,
pen up (livestock)” Leslau 1976 150 gärängäre “shield” Leslau 1979 v.3 295
mäggaräğa “curtain, blind (for windows” Leslau 1976 38
NS- Songhay (Koyra) gaar / garru “interpose, stand in the way of” Heath v.1 102
gaay “prevent (fight), restrain (fighters), pen in, confine” Heath v.1 104
E. Cushitic-Burji ʼkare kor “surround” Hudson 207
E. Cushitic-Oromo gargar “apart, separately” gara “element occurring in a number of compound
expressions meaning “other”, “separate” “apart” garaagara- ta’a v. “be separated” Gragg 167-169
E. Cushitic–Rendille gaan “to separate” Pillinger 386.
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic qwärännä “bind, attach, shackle” aqqwärännä “be tied (prisoner to
guard), bind (to a job)” Leslau 1976 72
F. 9b.2
W. Chadic –Ngizim gàarú “any mud wall, esp. a wall around a town” Schuh 69
Semitic-Aramaic ‘eggār / ‘eggārā m. “wall” Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon
Proto-C. Chadic *gaHur “enclosure,” “shed” “corral” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006
W. and C. Chadic kara “fence” Skinner 137
E. Cushitic-Oromo karra “recinto bovino, kraal, parco dei buoi” [cattle pen] Borello 228
gararo n. “parco per bestiame, ovile” [corral, enclosure, sheepfold] Borello 168
572
W. Chadic–Hausa gàrī m. “town” Newman, P. 2007 71 Newman / Ma 1979 42

Egyptian khar “village, quarter of a town or city, street” Budge v.1 532
Egyptian kará-t “place of restraint, prison” Budge v.2 789
Proto-Berber *a-ɣaram “town” Militarev / Stolbova
W. Chadic-Hausa (Kano) karkara “land near a city, which is covered with hamlets and farms”
Matsushita 1993 276
Semitic-Written Arabic qarya “village, hamlet, small town, rural community” Wehr 889
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) qarawī “village, country”
S. Cushitic-Irakw gârai “wall of the veranda” Militarev / Stolbova
N. Cushitic-Beja (Bedauye) gaʔra / gaaʔra “yard” Militarev / Stolbova
West Semitic–Ethiopian-Amharic gwaro “back yard” Leslau 1976 207
magwäriya “enclosure (for donkeys), pen (for donkeys) Leslau 1976 38, 151
gergedda “wall” Leslau 1976 209
Egyptian gaua “to blockade, to besiege” Budge v.2 801
Nilo-Saharan–Songhay (Koyra) kali “enclosure made with thorn brush (as garden or animal pen”
“pen in animals” Heath v.1 154 gà / gàa “camp” Heath v.1 96
(Gao) gà / gàa “campement nomade, parc à betail” [nomad camp, cattle corral] Ducroz 95
Semitic-Hebrew kala v. “imprisoned, locked up” Baltsan 162
E. Cushitic-Kambata kalu “temporary enclosure”
E. Cushitic-Gedeo kalo “pasture, enclosure” Hudson 249
NS- Nuer kal / kaal “fence, wall around a yard” Huffman 22
Proto-Highland E. Cushitic *kalo “pasture, enclosure” Skinner 137, 146
F.9b.3 NS-Songhay (Djenne) gaar “get in the way of, block the path” Heath v.2 75
E. Chadic-Dangaleat [Dangla] gákè “retenir”(Fr.) [hold back, restrain] Fedry 313
F.9b.1
IE-Hindi gar̝h m. “fortress” m. Scudiere 269
Proto-Altaic *k’ōra “to protect, guard” / Altaic-ProtoTurkic *K’ōrɨ- “to protect, guard”
Altaic-Proto Mongolian *kori- “to protect, guard” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
F.9b.2 IE-Hindi ghera “enclosure” Scudiere 234
Proto-IE *k’arek- “fenced place” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
IE-Pashto khār “a fence, a temporary defence made of thorns” Raverty 396
IE-Sanskrit kArabha “a wall” kArA “a prison” “binding, confinement”
kArAgAra “a gaol or place of confinement” kArAgupta “person confined, imprisoned”
karvata “a village, market town” nagara “a town, city” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Hindi ghar “home” m. Scudiere 233 ciriyāghar ”zoo” m. Scudiere 194, 229
[lit. bird enclosure or bird home] nagar “town” Scudiere 269
IE-Bengali karagar “jail, prison”n. Thompson 106, 119 See also Supplementary Table 2 F.9b.1-2.
↓↓
F.10 AA – Chadic AA- AA- Nilo-Saharan Niger-
Cushitic Sem. Congo
F.10.1 W. Chadic–Hausa E. Songhay (Koyra, NC-Swahili
N. Chinese-MSC k’unsàa vt. Cushitic- Koroboro) kunja
kûnzā “tie up, “wrap, envelope” Somali kunsum “to fold,
bundle up” Skinner 177 gùnud “bundle” to bend”
Wu, J. 401 Manser “wrap something “to fasten, Heath v.1 178 kunjwa
264 “tie, bind up” up” Newman / Ma to knot, “be folded”
DeFrancis 523 1979 78 Newman, to pin” Awde
[Disyllabic corresp.] P. 2007 133 Awde 33 2000 116
573
F.10.2 W. Chadic –Hausa C. Songhay

N. Chinese–MSC kundi m. Cushitic- (Koroboro)
kûn “tie, bind, “bundle of papers Afar kùŋkùni
bundle up” and notes, gùndi “roll up
Wu, J. 401 esp. those of a “roll of (e.g. mat),
kûn measure word malam” cloth” make into a roll”
“bundle” Newman, P. 2007 Parker / Heath v.3 221
yī kûn shū 117 Hayward
“a bundle of books” C. Chadic- Bura 117
Merriam-Webster kuntu n.
Chinese 78 “roll of Bura cloth”
Dict. of Bura
F.10.3 E. Cushitic- Songhay (Gao)
N. Chinese-MSC Oromo gùŋgùrèy
gûn “roll, trundle” gongalca / “rouler quelque
Wu, J. 256-7 konkolaac chose, se rouler
“to roll” a vt. “roll” à terre”
Huang 150 Hudson [to roll along the
vt. “roll” 125 ground ]
Wang, F. 69 [vt. and vi.]
Ducroz 108
F.10.4 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – Hausa
chun-po k’ùnshìi vn. of
“bundle” k’unsàa
Jaschke 159 “bunch, “bundle, parcel”
bundle” Das 42 Newman, R. 1990
31, 193
F.10.5 W. Chadic – Dinka, Shilluk
TB-Kiranti-Limbu Gwandara kum “to cover”
khummf kúmúsa NS-Dongola,
(khumsu) “to wrap” kom
“wrap up (body) Matsushita 1972 68 “envelop”
Starostin, S. Greenberg
Kiranti Etymology 1966 98
F.10.1 N. Chinese-MSC kûnzā “tie up, bundle up”
< W. Chadic–Hausa k’unsàa vt. “wrap, envelope” “wrap something up”
F.10.2 S. Chinese–Min khun2 v. and n. “roll” “bundle” “tie up, bundle up” “weave”
< NS-Songhay kùŋkùni “roll up (e.g. mat), make into a roll”
F.10.4 TB-Tibetan chun-po “bundle”
< W. Chadic–Hausa k’ùnshìi vn. of k’unsàa “bundle, parcel”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *k’unsàa “wrap, envelope”/ khun2 v. and n. “roll” “bundle”
“tie up, bundle up” ~ *k’ùnshìi “bundle ”
F.10.2
S. Chinese–Min khun2 v. and n. “roll” “bundle” “tie up, bundle up” “weave”
kun2 “turn round and round” “roll” “rotate” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Lau Chunfat) kun3 “bundle” Hakka Dict
N. Chinese-MSC kûn(r) v. “tie, truss, bundle” meas. for “bundles/bunches” DeFrancis 521, 1361
Wang, F. 289 gwûn “roll (as a ball)” Chen 338
TB-Kiranti-Limbu khuŋmaʔ vt. “wrap oneself in something” van Driem1987 450
574
F.10.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gón mihn “to roll dough” gón mihn jeuhng “a rolling pin”
Chik / Ng Lam 192
TB-Tibetan goŋ “to knead dough into balls” Goldstein 280
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) kwan “to bind, to tie up” “a bundle” Chik / Ng Lam 175
S. Chinese–Min khuàn “to pack” Bodman 1987 v.1 227
F.10.4 TB-Tibetan chun-pa “to bunch or bundle together” Das 423, chumbu “bunch, bundle,
bouquet” Goldstein 370
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gyún “to roll up” “a roll, as egg rolls” “to curl (hair etc.)”
gyún hei “to roll up (sleeves, screen etc.)” Chik / Ng Lam 177 “roll (shape a flat thing into a spiral)”
Kwan 442 gyún kūk “to curl up, to roll up” Chik / Ng Lam 47 ; kyùhn “to be coiled, to be curled up”
jyun v. “spin” Kwan 498
S. Chinese-Kejia Hakka] (MacIver) ‘kwun3 vn. “roll, bundle” v. “tie up, bundle up” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chèun wàahn “to move in a circle” “to come round in order, circulation,
rotation” Chik / Ng Lam 139 wàahn “to move, to revolve” (F.7a.4)
See also F.7a.5 Extended N. Chinese-MSCquan.
F.10.1 NS-Kanuri kə́ndəkin vn. “bind, wrap, or tie (a child) on one’s back”
kəndo vn. Cyffer 1990 91
NS- Songhay kunsum “tie up something in garment” Heath v.3 221
F.10.2 NS- Songhay (Dendi) kùŋkùŋ “envelloper, enrouler, emballer” Zima 127
(Gao) kùngkùnì “enrouler, envelopper, ourler, mettre en rouleau” [roll up, put in a rolled up bundle]
Ducroz 163
F.10.4 E. Cushitic-Somali gucunso “ball, any round body” Skinner 179
E. Cushitic- Sidamo gongo’m-ish- vt. “roll” Hudson 125
W. Chadic–Hausa k’ùnshìi vn. of k’unsàa “package, parcel” Newman, P. 2007 133
F.10.5 NS-Songhay-(Gao) kúmsì “replier une étoffe ou la main sur quelque chose” [wrap up a fabric
or wrap the hand around somthing] Ducroz 161
NS-Barea gomme, gumme “to cover” Greenberg 1966 98
NS-Nuer kwom “to cover” Greenberg 1966 98
F.10.2 IE-Sanskrit gunth “to enclose or envelop, surround, cover” gunthita “enveloped, covered
with” gunthana / guNDana n. “concealing, covering” guND “to cover, conceal”
F.10.5 IE-Sanskrit kumb “to cover” Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 F.10.1-2,5
IE-Bengali kka:m n. “envelope” Thompson 45
Proto-Altaic*kǔmu “to wrap up, cover” / Proto-Turkic *kǔm- “to wrap up, cover”
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian*kǔmi “to wrap up, cover” / Proto Tungus-Manchu *kǔm- “to wrap up,
cover” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology http://starling.rinet.ru./c
↓↓
F.11 AA – Chadic AA – AA-Semitic NS NC
Cush.
F. 11.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] W. Chadic- West Semitic- Songhay
(MacIver, Lau Chunfat) Hausa Ethiopian- (Gao)
kai5 n. “boundary” v. limit” k’ayyàdē Amharic kéỳ
“demarcate, define, delimit” “restrict qäyyäsä “frontière,
Hakka Dict. (put a limit on)” “measure fin”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) “specify” land, make a [border, end]
gaai “territory, world” “to limit” Newman, R. survey of land, Ducroz 150
gaaisin / gèunggaai 1990 225, 254 outline”
“boundary” Leslau
Chik / Ng Lam 306, 308 Kwan 46 1976 80
575
gaaihaahn “limit” Kwan 273

S. Chinese–Min kai
“boundary, world” kau-kai
“border, frontier, boundary”
Bodman 1987 v. 2 78, 144
F.11.2 S. Chinese-Yue W. Chadic-
(Cantonese) Hausa
káai / gàai “regular, standard” k’aa’idà n.f.
“model, norm” Chik / Ng Lam 229 “regulation,
kwài “regulations, laws, rules” standard”
“to plan” “to advise so as to ”etiquette, rules
correct” Chik / Ng Lam 415 of social
N. Chinese-MSC behavior”
kâi / kâimó “model, pattern” Newman, P.
Wu Jingrong 382 2007 125
F.11.1 S. Chinese-Hakka kai5 n. “boundary, limit” v. “limit, demarcate, define, delimit” /
S. Chinese–Min kai “boundary, world” kau-kai “border, frontier, boundary”
< West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic qäyyäsä “measure land, make a survey of land, outline” /
Semitic-Arabic qayyad “to restrict, limit, confine” / W. Chadic- Hausa k’ayyàdē “restrict” (put a
limit on)”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *qay- “measure land, make a survey of land” “to define, restrict, limit”
F.11.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gaai han “outer limit, border” Chik / Ng Lam 306 Kwan 46
ngàih “a division” “a beginning” “limit or bound” Chik Ng /Lam 2 gaai “territory, to limit” Chik
/ Ng Lam 306 “numerary adjunct for periodic terms or events, (of a term) to expire” Chik / Ng Lam
112 kèih “period, time” “designated time limit” Chik / Ng Lam 212 kèihhaahn “time limit”
Po-fei Huang 413
S. Chinese-Min keh1 “correct, adjust, regulate” “pattern, standard, form, style, rule” Hakka Dict.
F.11.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) kwàigéui n. “regulation, rule” Po-fei Huang 414
kwàih “to survey and weigh, to consider, to investigate, to estimate” Chik / Ng Lam 181
Chinese-MSC kāiben “format, book size” Wu, J. 379 kuí “conjecture, guess, estimate” “principle,
standard” kuíduó “estimate, conjecture” Wu, J. 400
F. 11.1
W.Chadic-Hausa kaidi “limit, restriction (usually used with negative), i.e. “without limit, without
restriction” Yanàa aiki ba kaidi “he is working non-stop” Newman / Ma 1979 61
Newman, P. 2007 104 k’ayyàdē lokaci “set a time” Newman, R. 1990 154
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) qayyad “to restrict, limit, confine” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 382
qajd “limit” n. juqajjidu (IPA) “ limit” v. Merriam-Webster Arabic 87
nayya‫“ ع‬to specify, designate” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 332
muya‫ع‬yan “fixed, designated, set, prescribed” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 332
“specific” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 1 165
F.11.2 W. Chadic-Hausa k’ayyàdē vt. “pass an order, rule,” such as a fixed time for workers to
come to work , “estimate a number, price, wage” vt. Newman, P. 2007 129
The Sino-Tibetan morphemes in the following F.12 tables signify various actions of piercing,
penetrating. They can plausibly be proposed as reflexes of Ehret’s Proto-AA / Proto-Cushitic
*-dzaaɣ- “to shoot, stab, spear”(F.12a.1) or Orel and Stolbova’s *suk- “spear, slaughter” ~
*s-‘k-r “strike, pierce” (F.12b.1).
576
Ehret reconstructs *-saɣ- or *sa’ɣ- as a proto-root which means “to weave” (F.12a.1). From a
historical / anthropological perspective the piercing actions in war and hunting using spears probably
came first, and hence the verbal forms, “stabbing, piercing”. Very early these roots also came to mean
“piercing with a needle”, i.e. “sewing” “weaving”.
The specialized meanings of “sew, weave” occur only in the F.12a.2 AA, NS, NC *-saɣ - or *sak’-
“to plait, weave” set, and apparently not among the F.12b forms which contain a main back vowel
*-u- / *-o-. This suggests that the F.12b *cuk- / súk- / *cok- variants are the older and ultimate forms.
The other specialized meanings “planting” and “plants”developed with the advent of agriculture, but
they are also derived from the F.12b.1 Proto-AA *cuk- “pierce, stab” as found in the Tibeto-Burman
F.12c.1 ‘dzugs-pa / zug-pa “to prick or stick into” “to set a plant into the ground, to plant”.
The F.12b.1 Proto-AA *cuk- “pierce, stab” is also the plausible basis of Orel and Stolbova’s F.12c.1
Proto-Afro-Asiatic*suk-“sow”.This verbal form appears also in the F.12c.1-2 W. Chadic-ausa/Gwandara
attestations along with noun forms meaning “plants, crops, grain”. Both are found in the matching
F.12c.1 and F.12c.3 TB and Chinese lexemes meaning “to plant” and “grains”.

F.12a-c Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA –Cush. AA-Semitic Nilo- Niger-
Proto-AA Saharan Congo
F.12a.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Hausa Proto-AA Semitic- Kənzi
gtsag-pa “to thrust càkā vt. *-dzâaɣ- Written (Kenuzi)
in, poke, pierce, “stab, pierce” “to pierce” Arabic šeg
prick” “a goad, Skinner 32 Proto- šaka “bohren,
a long whip” “hit with a sharp point, Cushitic “to sting, verwunden
Das 1000 prick” *-dzaaɣ- prick, hurt” ”[to bore,
S. Chinese–Min Newman, P. 2007 31 “to shoot, Wehr 577 to drill]
châq “to insert, stab, spear” Hoffman
to stick in” Ehret 1995 160
châk “to stab or # 457 256
pierce” Bodman 1987
v.2 131, 199
F.12a.2 W. Chadic – Hausa S. Omotic- West Tubu NC-
TB-Tibetan sāk’àa vt. “weave Ari ža̤a̤g- Semitic- [Teda] Mande
ɣság-pa (cloth, basket)” “to sew” Ethiopian- caga- sāgi
“to sew together” vn. f. “weaving” Ehret 1995 Amharic “weave” “tresser,
Jaschke 588 Newman, R. #457 256 säkka Skinner coudre,
Das 1302 1990 301 Proto-AA “thread 226 faufiler”
S. Chinese–Min Greenberg 1966 63 *-saɣ- (beads), Kanuri “to plait,
chiâq Skinner 226 “to plait, stick into, saga to
“to knit” W. Chadic- Angas weave” insert ” “to weave” weave”
Bodman 1987 sâk “to weave” Ehret 1995 Leslau Greenberg Skinner
v.1 227 v.2 200 Foulkes 130 #212 156 1976 1966 146 226
Greenberg 1966 63 57, 382
F.12a.1 TB-Tibetan gtsag-pa to thrust in, pierce, prick” / Chinese–Min châq “to insert, to stick in”
< Proto-AA *-dzâaɣ- “to pierce” / Semitic-Arabic ĉakk “to prick, stick” /
W. Chadic-Hausa caka “stab, pierce”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *-dzâaɣ- “to pierce” / *chak- “to prick, stick”
F.12a.1
TB-Tibetan ɣtság-pa “lancet for bleeding” Jaschke 432
N. Chinese-MSC chā “to prick” Mathews #85 9 chá “to pierce” Mathews #86 9 ;
577
chā “stick in, insert” ; “to insert, to mix in” Huang 42 Wu, J. 68 chāyu “spear fish” Wu, J. 68
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chà “to thrust, to pierce, to stab” “a prong, a fork, used in catching fish
etc.”, chā “a harpoon” Chik / Ng Lam 49 ; chaak “a whip for goading horses”
Chik / Ng Lam 343
F.12a.2
TB-Tibetan sagsaa “loosely woven cloth” Goldstein 1121 ”string, twine” Jaschke 226
N. Chinese–MSC zhā “prick, run or stick (a needle etc.) into” Wu, J. 870 chā “insert”
F.12a.1
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic ch’äkk’älä “drive a peg into the ground, plant (posts)” Leslau 1976 110
C. Chadic-Fali Gili tsaxw- “pierce” Skinner 33
W. Chadic-Hausa macakī “a piercing tool” Newman, P. 2007 142 ma = Agential prefix
masak’a n.m. “weaving place” ma = Locative prefix Newman / Ma 1992 88
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Ge’ez saqwana “push” Skinner 274
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Muher) säkkäkä “force the iron part of the knife or the sickle into the
hole of the wooden handle” Leslau 1979 v.3 540
Egyptian sāq “to make to enter, to introduce” Budge v.2 646
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) ĉakk “to prick, stick” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 1 139, 168 part 2 86
C. Chadic–Bura ncakwi “to implant a stake” ncakwibila “to pierce” Dict. of Bura
Semitic-Akkadian *shakaku “be pointed” Militarev / Stolbova
C. Chadic–Hildi, Wamdiu, Margi *dzəg- “pierce” Skinner 33
NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] sakkina “throw, throw a spear” Taylor 164
E. Cushitic-Somali shakad “fork” Awde 1999 47 62
C. Chadic-Bura caki “needle of the witch doctor” Dict. of Bura
Semitic-Syrian Aramaic sakkīn “knife” Militarev, A. Semitic Etymology #352 18
Semitic-Hebrew sakeen “knife” Baltsan 365, 633
Semitic-Arabic sakina (IPA) “knife”n. Merriam-Webster Arabic 83 jaɣruzu (IPA) “stick” v.
Merriam-Webster Arabic 151 (Iraqi) t’a‫ع‬na “stab, thrust,” “stitch” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 290
Egyptian tekas “to pierce, to cut into” teks “to pierce, to penetrate” Budge v.2 846
t’ag “to plant” Budge v.2 867
F.12a.2
Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova 1995) *ĉak- “plait, weave” Militarev / Stolbova 2007
Proto-Cushitic *saɣʔ- / *saʔɣ- “to weave” Ehret 1995 #212 156
C. Chadic–Gisiga tsaka “weave” sha’k- “weave, plait” Skinner 226
C. Chadic–Malgwa čaka “weave” Stolbova, Olga Central Chadic Etymology
Proto-C.Chadic čak- / čik- “weave” Stolbova, Olga Central Chadic Etymology
Proto-Cushitic (Dolgopolski 1973) *ts-k’- “weave, join” Skinner 226
W. Chadic–Gwandara sak- “weave, plait” Skinner 226
C. Chadic–Tera caka “weave” Skinner 226
W. Chadic–Ngizim càakáu càaká vn. “weave cloth” Schuh 30
Chadic root (C. Chadic) *zg- “to sew” “to pierce with a needle” Ehret 1995 #457 256
NS-Songhay (Gao) càakóỳ “tisserand” [Fr. weaver] Ducroz 53
Semitic-Hebrew s‫כ‬kak “weave, cover” Greenberg 1966 63
NS- Tubu [Teda] sok “nähen [to sew, stitch] Lukas 1953 196
W. Chadic-Angas sak “to weave” Greenberg 1966 63
E. Chadic-Musgu sasaka “to weave” Greenberg 1966 63
F.12a.1 IE-Tokharian tsak “pierce, bite (of a snake)” Nicolayev, Sergei IE-Etymology 2012 24
IE-Sanskrit zakti “a spear, lance, pike, dart” “a sword”zaktIka “belonging to or relating to a spear,
spearing, speared” “a spearman, lancer” zaktimat “armed with a spear or lance” Cologne Lexicon.
578
IE-Pashto tsarkh adj. “punctured, pricked, pierced, stabbed” Raverty 308

Kartvelian-Svan chag “thorn” chag-ār “prickly”
Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 6
IE-Hindi cākū “knife” m. Scudiere 87, 237 See also Supplementary Table 2 F.12a.1
Proto-Altaic sak’(urV) “a kind of stinging insect”
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian sag “a kind of stinging insect” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
/
F.12b.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – Proto-AA Semitic- NS-Kanuri NC-N.
gtsugs-pa Gwandara *ĉuk- Arabic súk- Mande-
“to go into, shukwa “cut, pierce” škk “pierce “pierce, Bambara
to penetrate by “to pierce” Militarev / with a spear” penetrate” s‫ככ‬g‫ככ‬
boring” Matsushta Stolbova Militarev Hutchison “pierce”
Jaschke 459 1972 110 AA-Etymology / Stolbova 1981 62 NC-N.
“bore, penetrate” C. Chadic- 2007 Semitic- Mande-Jula
“to prick, Ga’anda, Proto-AA Arabic s‫כ‬g‫כ‬
like a thorn” Gabin, Boka *s-k’-r juxi:tʕu “pierce”
Das 1051 cəkw- “strike, pierce” (IPA) Mukarovsky
‘dzugs-pa / “pierce” *suk- “spear, “sew” v. 285
zug-pa Skinner 33 slaughter” Merriam-
“to prick or stick (Orel / Stolbova) Webster
into” Jaschke 465 Skinner 234 Arabic140
[Disyllabic corresp.] Cushitic-Proto-
Chinese-Kejia Boni
[Hakka] (MacIver) *shuq- ~
ts’iuk7 *suq-
“pierce, stab, prick” “stab, pierce”
Hakka Dict. Skinner 33
F.12b.2 W.Chadic- NC-Proto-
TB-Jingpho Hausa W. Nigritic
[Kachin] sòokā vt. *cok-
cok3 “stab” “pierce, stab” “prick with
Starostin, S. sōkè vt. point”
Kiranti Etymology “pierce, Skinner 234
Chinese-Hakka prick” NC-N.
(MacIver) ts’ok7 Newman, Mande-
(Lau Chunfat) 2007 188 Malinke
cog6 “prick, stab, tsokàne sògo
jab, poke, pierce” “poke, prod “pierce”
Hakka Dict. someone” Mukarovsky
S. Chinese-Yue Newman / 285
(Cantonese) Ma 1979
cheuk “to jab, 126
to poke, to pierce”
Chik / Ng Lam 163
F.12b.1 TB-Tibetan gtsugs-pa “to go into, to penetrate by boring: “bore, penetrate”“to prick, like a
thorn” ‘dzugs-pa / zug-pa “to prick or stick into”
< Proto-AA *’cuk- “pierce, stab” / *s-k’-r “strike, pierce”
F.12b.2 Chinese-Hakka ts’ok7 / cog6 “prick, stab, jab, poke, pierce”
< W.Chadic-Hausa sòokā vt. “pierce, stab” / tsokàne “poke, prod someone”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *shukwa “to pierce” ~ sòok- “pierce, stab” “poke someone”
579

F.12b.1
TB-C.Loloish-Lahu jûʔ “pierce, stab” Matisoff 2003 368
N. Chinese-MSC shu “to kill” “a spear” Mathews #5849 826
F.12b.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sok “to thrust at one’s enemy” Chik / Ng Lam 186
C. Chinese-Wu tsho1 “thrust, pierce” “fork, prong” Hakka Dict.
F.12b.1 W. Chadic-Ngizim zùktu “pierce, become pierced” Schuh 184
Proto-C. Chadic cùʔVl “pierce, pierce quickly” Stolbova, Olga Central Chadic Etymology 2006
E. Cushitic-Rendille acchuuka “(to) stick (an object) into (something) repeatedly” Pillinger 60
NS-Daza tcukwi “aiguilloner”[to goad] Jourdan 31
NS-Kanuri súkcin “pierce, bore a hole, punch a hole” Cyffer 165, Lukas 241
NS-Songhay(Gao) zúkù “piquer devant soi, haleter” zúk-zúkù “fouiller avec un baton dans un trou”
(Fr.) Ducroz 24 [dig with a stick nto a hole]
NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] jugga “dig a hole for a picketing peg” jukka “spur, poke”Taylor 104
Proto-E. Cushitic *cuk- ”to strike (with a tool)” Ehret 1995 #534 285
Proto-AA *-suk’ or *-sukw’- ”to strike (with tool, weapon) Ehret 1995 #534 285
Proto-Chadic *s̟ūk- “knife” Newman, P. 1977 #77 28
W. Chadic-Angas čuk- ”knife” Stolbova, Olga W. Chadic Etymology
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic šūkka “fork” Leslau 1976 64
šok “thorn, spine” Leslau 1976 54
W. Chadic–Hausa sūku “barbless arrow” Skinner 234 (Gobir dial.) “arrow”
East Chadic–Lele sugo “lance” Skinner 234
E. Cushitic-Oromo šukkaa n. “dagger” Gragg 369
E. Cushitic-Burji shu(u)ko “(big) knife” Hudson 219
W. Chadic-Ron (Scha) šuk- “knife” Militarev / Stolbova
E. Chadic-Somrai sùgə́na, E. Chadic-Dam súgān “knife” Militarev / Stolbova
Proto-High E. Cushitic *šūk- “big knife” Militarev, A. High E. Cushitic Etymology
W.Chadic-Hausa tsokana “poke stick in hole, provoke” Skinner 274
F.12b.2
NC-N. Mande- Xassonke soxo, soɣo “pierce” Mukarovsky 285
W.Chadic-Angas djok “to poke or tickle” Foulkes 169
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šook “thorn(s), prickle(s)” “thorny bush” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 253
E. Cushitic-Somali shokad “fork” Awde 1999 62
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic šok / əšok “thorn, spine” šukka “fork” Leslau 1976 64, 132
C. Chadic-Gisiga cək “stab with spear” Skinner 33
C. Chadic-Hildi, Wamdiu, Margi *dzək “pierce” Skinner 33
F.12b.1-2
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *suk- “to stick in, insert” *cuk- “to pick at, to stab”
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish sokmak “poke a hole in ground” Tureng 343
Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen soq- “to stick in, insert” / Altaic-Turkic-Old Turkic suq- “to stick in, insert”
Altaic-Turkic-Karakhanid suq- “to stick in, insert”
Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh suɣ- / Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz suq- “to stick in, insert”
Altaic-Turkic-Tuva suq- “to stick in, insert” soqi “to peck” / suqi “to peck” “to pick at”
IE-Pashto sughedal “to perforate, to stab, to stick, to pierce, to prick, to spear” Raverty 608
sikhal “to stab, to perforate, to thrust” “a skewer, a small spit” “a long bayonet” Raverty 633
Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz čoqu- “to peck” “to pick at” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Kartvelian-Megrel cik- “to stick in” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 7
580
Kartvelian-Laz cig- “to stick in” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 7
Kartvelian-Svan c(i)q- “to stick in” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 7
Proto Kartvelian *ci(k)- “to stick in” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 7
/
F.12c.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Proto-AA West NS-
‘dzugs-pa / zug-pa Hausa (Orel / Semitic- Songhay
“to prick a stick, shūkàa vt. Stolbova 1995) Ethiopian- (Djenne)
to set a plant into the “sow, plant” *sük- “sow” Tigrinya suka vt.
ground, “to plant” Newman, P. Skinner 246 šäkälä / “stab, plant
Jaschke 465312 2007 187 Cushitic- täk’älä (into
TB- Burmese Newman, R. Sidamo “plant” ground,
tsuik “pierce, plant, 1990 201 shuquna Leslau etc.)
erect” “sow, place seed “to weed a 1979 Heath
S. Chinese-Kejia in the ground field, to hoe v.3 172 v.2 175
(Hakka-Meixian) and cover with around a tree”
*jûʔ “pierce, erect, soil” Gasparini 308
plant” Hakka Dict. Skinner 246
F.12c.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- NS-Maba
dzuù “to plant Tangale group
seedlings)” sọọ(y) dzo’o
“poke, stick, stab” “plant, sow” “semer
“to put in, to insert” Skinner 246 en
Goldstein 910 W. Chadic– Ron poquets”
N. Chinese-MSC (Daffo, Bokkos) [sow]
shù “plant, cultivate” su’ Skinner
“set up, establish” “anpflanzen” 246
“a tree, a plant” [to plant,
Wu, J. 637 vt. cultivate]
“to plant, to erect, Jungraithmayr
to sow grain” 1970 146, 220
Mathews #5879 832
F.12c.3 W. Chadic- Omotic-Mocha Semitic- NC-
S. Chinese-Yue Hausa šokki- “seed” Arabic Fulfulde
(Cantonese) shūkàa n.f. Omotic-Bworo ʃaʕi:rr [Fulani]
sūk “grains, millet” “plant(s), (Shinasha) (IPA) cuk-kundi
Chik/Ng Lam 349 crop(s)” šookà- “barley” “a variety
Kwan 295 pl. shuke “Saat”, Same” Merriam- of millet
Middle Chinese Newman, P. [seed] Webster having
syowk “grains still in 2007 187 Militarev, A. Arabic 13 long
their husk” Newman. R. Omotic prickles”
Sagart 1999 179 1990 Etymology Taylor 18
“foxtail millet” 56, 201313 2005
312
Note- F.12c.1 (Tibetan, Hausa) By 5000 BCE planting was done in Africa using a planting stick. With the
stick a hole is pierced in the ground and the seed is dropped in. See Ehret 2002 [203] Notable tools and weapons.
See also Chapter 7 section 7.7.
313
Note- F.12c.3 (Hausa) The Hausa shūkàa “plant(s), crop(s)” lexeme is probably a derived noun form of the
above-cited widespread AA verb root which originally meant “to pierce, thrust in, poke” but also “to plant”. The
Hausa shūkàa “crops” would be a derived noun form of the F.12c.1 Proto-Afro-Asiatic (Orel / Stolbova) *sük-
“sow” and its Hausa reflex shūkàa vt. “sow, plant”. See also Chapter 7 Section 7.6
581
Old Chinese Common

*sok Bantu
“foxtail millet” *-caka
TB-Loloish-Lisu “sorghum”
tʃoʔ “foxtail millet” Skinner
Blench 2010a 198
Table 4 #8
F.12c.4 Old Chinese W. Chadic- Semitic-
shushu “sorghum” Hausa Akkadian
314
Chang 79 sussukā f. šeʔu
N. Chinese –MSC “corn to be “barley,
sù “vegetable” threshed” grain”
Wu, J. 654 Newman, P. Merriam-
shùmi “husked 2007 191 Webster
sorghum” Wu, J. 635 2000 702 Arabic 13
ST-Sinitic-Chinese sù
“grain” Blench 2009 8
TB-Amdo Tibetan
tşu “bitter buckwheat”
Blench 2010a
Table 4 #8.
TB-N. Loloish-Yi Xide
zu “barley” Matisoff
2003 190 note c
F.12c.1 TB-Tibetan ‘dzugs-pa / zug-pa “to prick a stick, to set a plant into the ground, “to plant”
< W. Chadic-Hausa shūkàa v. “plant” “sow, place seed in the ground and cover with soil” /
NS-Songhay suka vt. “stab, plant (into ground, etc.)”
F.12c.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese sūk “grains, millet” / S.Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] siuk7 / sug5 /
xiug5 “grain, paddy, millet” / Middle Chinese syowk “foxtail millet”
< W. Chadic- Hausa shūkàa n.“plant(s), crop(s)”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *shūkàa / *suka vt. “plant” “sow, place seed in the ground”
“stab, plant (into ground) ~ shūkàa n. “plant(s), crop(s)”.
F.12c.1 TB-C. Loloish-Lahu jûʔ “pierce, plant, erect” Benedict 77-78 Matisoff 2003 362
TB-Tibetan gtsugs-pa “to plant, to put in the ground” Das 1002 ; h̟dsugs-pa “to thrust or stick into,
push down, to set a plant in the ground” Das 1054 tsugshiŋ “poles for putting up a tent” Goldstein 881
314
Note- F.12c.4 (Old Chinese) “Because Chinese sorghums (Andropogon sorghum, variety vulgaris) or
Sorghum nervosum ---carried shu in their older name shu shu of about AD 300, they were sometimes confused
with the millets”. Chang 79
The su- root was probably used originally to designate grains in their husk. “Chen argues that the word su4
(Middle Chinese sjowk) originally referred to the grains of he2 still in their husk---, and that in addition, the three
words he2, su4 and mi3 also served as generic words for cereal plants, grain in the husk and hulled grain
respectively. Later, but within the Old Chinese period, it denoted the species Panicum miliaceum”. Sagart 178.
See also note B.33b.1-2. “The basic Shang staple, the staff of the dynastic state and the elites who supported it, is
thought to have been millet, recorded in the oracle bone inscriptions as shu or he”. (Keightley 2000 9).
Different tones now distinguish the root as used to refer to grains, beans and the potato. (See Note- B.33b.)
These reflect a pattern in North Chinese of expressing different meanings of a homonym by using different tones
for them.
582
zùg-pa n. “building, erection” Jaschke 488

Proto-Tibeto-Burman (d)z(y)u(:)k “pierce” “plant, erect” Matisoff 2003 529
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *dzu[.]k “erect, plant” Benedict #360 77-8, 200
S. Chinese-Min coûq-chan “to farm” Bodman 1987 v.2 199
coûq “to build (as wells)” “to work (as in farming)” Bodman 1987 v.2 129
ST Proto-form, TB-Proto-Kiranti *cuk “stick into, plant” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB- Burmese cuik “pierce, plant, erect” Matisoff 2003 362, 529
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian) *jûʔ “pierce, erect, plant” Benedict 78 Matisoff 2003 362
NS-Daza cok- , cong- “planter (Fr.) [to plant] Skinner 246
F.12c.2
N. Chinese-MSC shù “plant, cultivate” “set up, establish” “a tree, a plant” Wu, J. 637 vt.
“set up vertically, erect” Wang, F. 430 “to plant, to erect, to sow grain”Mathews #5879 832
so-nam “agriculture, husbandry” so-nams byed-pa “to till the ground” “to practice agriculture,
farming” Jaschke 578
S. Chinese–Min chhiu7 n. “tree” “plant, cultivate” v. “set up, establish, erect” Hakka Dictionary
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) syuh “tree” “to plant” “to erect, to establish”Chik Ng Lam 233
Kwan 537
F.12c.3 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) siuk7 (Lau Chunfat) sug5 / xiug5 “grain, paddy, millet”
Hakka Dict.
TB-Burmish-Achang tɕauʔ “buckwheat Blench 2010-2011.
Sino-Tibetan “widespread root” tʃɔk “foxtail millet” Blench 2010a Table 4 8
TB-Qiangic-Queyu (Yajiang) ʑoqa “sweet buckwheat” Blench 2010a Table 4 8
TB-Deng-Darang [Taraon] tɯkɑ “bitter buckwheat” Blench 2010a Table 4 8
TB-Mikir sok “rice (paddy)” “grain” Walker 294, 392
TB-rGyalrong ʃok “foxtail millet” Blench 2010a Table 4. 8 See also D3b.2
S.Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Lau Chunfat) shut8 “a glutinous variety of millet, sorghum”
Hakka Dict.
F.12c.4 N. Chinese-MSC shū “broom corn millet” shú “sorghum”
tzû “common millet”Mathews #6926 1022 shû “potato, yam” Wu, J. 635-637
shû “glutinous millet” Blench 2010a Table 4 8 shū “beans” Wu, J. 634
TB-Tibetan so-ba “coarse, thick-shelled barley, used for fodder” Jaschke 578.
S.Chinese-Min-Fúzhōu tshiu5 “tree” Norman 242
zhu “trunk of a tree, stem of a plant” “individual plant, plant” Wu, J. 914
Middle Chinese źju- “ tree” Norman 242
N. Chinese-MSC zhù measure word used for trees DeFrancis 363
TB-Nungish-Trung (Dulong) tś(h)ɯ ma “rice” Matisoff 2003 486
TB-C. Loloish-Lisu zu “barley” Matisoff 2003 190 note c
F.12c.1 Proto-Omotic *swk “sow” Militarev, A. Omotic Etymology 2005
W. Chadic-Tangale suk “to plow” Stolbova, Olga W. Chadic Etymology 2006
suke “to till (a hard ground)” Jungraithmayr 1991 147
W. Chadic–Ngizim zə̀gə̀mú “plant, sow (any crop)” Schuh 179
NC-Tiv tsoghor “sow by hoeing in” Skinner 246
Cushitic-Oromo soqamá “cultivated, weeded” soqu “scavare, zappare, coltivare, sarchiare” [to dig
out, to hoe, to till, to weed] Borello 380 suq- “stick in, plant” Skinner 234
NS-Songhay (Koroboro, Koyra, Djenne) suka vt. “plant (e.g. pole in ground)” “drive in (e.g. knife)”
Heath v.3 287 ; “stab, plant (into ground etc.), impale, drive in (knife)” Heath v.1 227, v.2 175,
v.3 287 ; “enfoncer” Skinner 234
F.12c.3 Omotic-Janjero zokoro “millet species” Skinner 198
F.12c.4 E. Cushitic-Oromo shumo “granaglia bollita (con fagioli, piselli, miglio)” [boiled grain
(with beans, peas, millet)] Borello 383
583

F.12c.1 Hmong-Mien-White Hmong cog “to plant, to insert” Heimbach 15
F.12c.3 IE-Sanskrit śūkaka “barley” “wheat” śitaśūka m. “barley”
śūka “a species of grain” śūkladanya “a white grain or corn” cūkra “grain”
sāktuka “barley” yavasaktu “barley groats” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Pashto shūga’h “a kind of rice” Raverty 663
F.12c.4 Hmong-Mien-Mien-Mun of Hainan t’juu “grain” Blench 2010a Table 4 8
Hmong-Mien-Mien-Mun of Funing tsu “Setaria italica” [millet] Blench 2010a Table 4 8
↓↓
F.13 AA – Chadic AA –Cush. AA-Sem. NS NC
F.13.1 E. Chadic – West
Old Chinese Dangaleat Semitic-
t’i̭ ək “weave” [Dangla] Ethiopian-
Karlgren GSR920f tyāka Amharic
Matisoff 2003 328 “métier à tisser” t’äqqämä
S. Chinese-Min [weaving “darn, stitch
chiaq “to knit” occupation, trade] , mend,
Bodman 1987 v.2 199 Skinner 226 patch”
Proto-Kiranti Leslau
*ʔtək “weave” Starostin, 1976 229
S. Kiranti Etymology
TB-Tibetan h’thag-pa
“weave” Das 605
Benedict 19 “rope, cord”
Das 567 Jaschke 227
F.13.2 Proto-TB W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- NC-
*tak = trak “weave” Ngizim tə‫כ‬kú Burji dakkus Fulfulde
Benedict #17 19, 145, 207 “weave palm leave v. “fold” [Fulani]
TB-Kiranti-Limbu mat, round pot Sasse taggirgal
thak, thakma “weave” cover et10.2.1c.” 1982 52 “a loom”
van Driem 1987 530 Schuh 152, 226 Taylor 187
F.13.3 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic –Hausa
tàgu “a short cord or rope” takwalā
“string, twine” “fine thread”
Jaschke 226-227 Newman, P. 2007
tàgba “rope, string” 195
Goldstein 485 Newman / Ma
TB-Kiranti-Limbu 1979 116
takpa “rope, string”
van Driem 1987 520
F.13.4 N. Cushitic- Semitic-
TB-Chin-Lushai Beja [Bedawi] Hebrew
taʔ “weave” da’ “weben, tafoor adj.
Benedict 14, 19 flechten” “sewn”
Matisoff 2003 318315 [weave, plait] Baltsan 408
Reinisch 55
315
Note- F.13.4 (TB-Chin -Lushai) This is a case of reduction of final –k to a glottal stop. See Notes A.14a.3,
A.20a.2, Chapter 10 Section 10.3.2.2 and Benedict / Matisoff #14 note 50,
584

F.13.1 Old Chinese t’i̭ ək “weave” / S. Chinese-Min chiaq “to knit” /
Proto-Kiranti *ʔtək “weave”
< West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharict’äqqämä “darn, stitch (make stitches in), mend, patch”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *tak “to weave” “to braid”
F.13.2
TB-Kuki-Chin-Mikir thak “weave” Benedict 19 Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB- Karenic-Pwo tha n. “weaving” thaʔ “weave” Benedict 144, 134
TB- Karenic-Sgaw tha tha “weave” Benedict 144, 134
TB-Magari, Garo dak “weave” Benedict 19,21, 145
TB-Thebor tak “weave” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB- Kiranti-Limbu tha:k-tha:kmaʔ / tha:k-tha:g “weave” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
TB-Chin-Lushai taʔ “weave” Matisoff 2003 318
F.13.3
TB-Tibetan thágs “texture, web” Jaschke 228
TB-Kiranti-Limbu takpa “rope, string” < Sherpa Starostin, S. Limbu Dict.
Semitic-Arabic tikk-at “kind of string” Militarev, A. Semitic-Etymology #294 15
F.13.4 TB-Tibetan taà “weaving” Goldstein 485
F.13.1 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic t’äqälälä “wind, wrap, wrap up, fold, roll up (a rug), envelop,
bundle up, pack” t’əqəll “rolled up, parcel, bundle, package, reel, roll, ball (of yarn), spool”
Leslau 1976 228
F.13.2 Proto-Afro-Asiatic *-tak- “to stick in, prick” Ehret 1995 #167 140
NS-Nuer tak “to braid” Huffman 44
F.13.3 W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Pa’a takwi- “plait (hair)” Skinner 260
NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] tagga “wind round or up, coil” 187
F.13.4 E. Cushitic-Oromo daa v. “weave” Foot 11
NS-Songhay (Djenne) taa “sew (clothing, shoes) Heath v.2 177 (Gao) tá coudre” [sew]
Ducroz 210
Semitic-Arabic tʕayya (IPA “braid” n. Merriam-Webster Arabic 11
NS-Maba Group-Maba dafi “mat” daffaarik “mat-braider” tafii / tafi-k “mat” “plait” Edgar 208
F.13.1 IE-Armenian thekhem “flechte” “wickle”f. (Ger.) [plait, curl (hair)]
F.13.3
IE-Hindi tāgā m. “thread” Scudiere 256 dhāgā m. “string” Scudiere 267
South Daic-Lao ta:k3 v. “knit” Marcus 118
N. Iranian- Ossetian taxun “weben” (Ger.) [weave] an-dax “Faden” [thread]
↓↓
F.14 Afro-Asiatic – Afro-Asiatic - AA- Nilo- Niger-Congo
Chadic Cushitic Sem. Saharan
F.14.1TB- Burmese Chadic root E. Cushitic- Kanuri N. Khoisan-
ʔap “needle” xava Gedeo káfí arrow” ‖Kh’au-‖’e
derived from “arrow” gabe Jungraith- ‖kaba
Benedict 25 Jungraithmayr “arrow, bow mayr “arrowhead
TB-rGyalrong- 1994 v.1 1 and arrow” 1994 v.1 1 (bone)”
Gyarong tekyep Hudson 21, 240 “bow”
“needle” Benedict 25 Cyffer 73
585
TB-Tibetan Cushitic- Proto- C. Khoisan-Naro

khab “a needle” Boni ‖gaba
Jaschke 38 *kabū- “arrowhead
Das 139 TB- “arrow shaft” (bone)”
Burmese-Lolo Skinner 143 Ruhlen 1994
*(t-)ɣap “needle” #133 47
Benedict 25
F.14.2 W. Chadic- NC-Mende
TB-Tibetan Hausa kpa “spear”
kəp kíbíyàà Greenberg 1966
“needle” “arrow” 158
Goldstein 114 316 Jungraithmayr
1994 v.2 3
Skinner 143
F.14.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *kap “needle”
< Cushitic- Proto-Boni *kabū- “arrow shaft” / NC-Benue-Congo (Kwoll) (Irigwe) kappa “arrow” /
N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e ‖kaba “arrowhead (bone)”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *kap- “arrow” ~ *‖gaba “arrowhead
F. 14.1
TB-Burmish-Hpun-Phön təget < *təɣap “needle” Benedict 25
F. 14.2 TB-Tibetan
mogəb “small needle” Goldstein 819
kəbdzaa “needle, lancet” Goldstein 115
TB-Kanauri kheb “needle” Benedict 25 Matisoff 2003 251
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *kap = *kəp “needle” Benedict #52 25,183, 201
F. 14.1
NC-Benue-Congo (Kwoll) (Irigwe) (Plateau 2 Group) kappa “arrow”
Williamson / Shimizu v.1 17
C. Chadic–Dghwede xávà / xávrà “arrow” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 3
C. Chadic-Lamang xava “arrow” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 2
NC-Benue Congo (Horom 9) (Plateau 6) -gaba “arrow” Williamson/Shimizu v.1 17
C. Chadic-Tera ɣàfà “arrow” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 2
Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova 1995) *gab- “weapon” Skinner 143
NC-Kagoma kyap “arrow” Greenberg 1966 158
NS- Tubu [Teda] kapí “Bogen” [“bow” of bow and arrow] Lukas 1953 186
NS- Daza kapí “arc” (Fre.) [bow] Jourdan 32
C. Chadic-Kilba-Pela hafa “arrow” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 3
316
Note- F.14.1-2
Jungraithmayr posits the Chadic root for arrow as *xava. “Root C xava “arrow” is considered to have come
from Kanuri káfi.” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.11. The ultimate source of the root, however, is probably Khoisan. The
Khoisan people very early used the bow and arrow in their hunting. (Ehret 2002 51) and the (ʔ and t-) initials in
the F.14.1 TB- Burmese and rGyalrong entries may be remnants of the Khoisan alveolar or lateral click.
See Chapter 10 Section 10.2 and Supplementary table 3 Khoisan Table 1.1.1
The Tibetan F.14.1-2 variants khab / khəp are discussed by Matisoff . He considers this variance to be the
product of a proto- Sino-Tibetan/Tibeto-Burman vowel *ə which in Tibetan alternates a ~ e. Benedict/ Matisoff
#344 126, # 82 2 , # 482 183. The Niger-Congo F.14.1-2 morphemes also attest this variance.
586
NC-Kpelle kpala “spear” Greenberg 1966 158

F.14.2 NC- Common Bantu *-cebe “arrow” Skinner 143
F.14.1
IE-Sanskrit ajakava “Šiva’s bow” “etymology unknown” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Old Indian cāpa- m. n. “bow, arc” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
Altaic-Mongolian-Khalkha xarva “to shoot from a bow” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
-Mongolian-Ordos xarwa-, xarwu- “to shoot from a bow” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
-Mongolian-Kalmuck xarwə- “to shoot from a bow” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *karbu “to shoot from a bow” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
↓↓
F.15a-b Afro-Asiatic – AA –Cush. AA- Nilo- Niger-
Chadic Sem. Saharan Congo
F.15a.1 W. Chadic – Proto-AA
S. Chinese-Yue Hausa *gin-
(Cantonese) ginàa “build, “build”
gin “to establish, make pottery” Militarev, A.
to build” Skinner 84 Afroasiatic
gin chit “to construct, “build (with mud, Etymology
to build, to develop” cement or bricks),
Chik / Ng Lam 131 “make pottery”
gini “building
made of mud or
cement” vn. of
ginàa Newman,
P. 2007 74
F.15a.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – Songhay NC-Swahili
bzheng “erect, Gwandara (Gao) -jenga
compose” Hodge 121 (Cancara, Gitata) cín “to build”
S. Chinese-Yue jína “build” “bâtir” -jengewa
(Cantonese) (Karshi, Koro) [build] “to be built
jíng “make (construct)” gyína “to build” Ducroz 60 for”
Kwan 282 Matsushita kyin Awde
N. Chinese-MSC 1974 75 “construire” 2000 74
xīngjiàn “build, E. Chadic- Misme, Skinner 84
construct” Wu, J. 771 Peve cina
S. Chinese-Kejia šin “work” (house)
[Hakka] (MacIver) Plateau Chadic be built”
chin1 “make pottery *cin “make, do” Heath
ware” Hakka Dict Skinner 84 v.3 69
F.15a.3 C. Chadic – Bura
S. Chinese-Kejia xənta
[Hakka] ken5 “build, “build with mud”
establish, erect, found, Skinner 84
construct”
(Meixian) giên5 / gen5
“build, establish”
Hakka Dict.
587

F.15a.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gin “to establish, to build”
< C. Chadic–Gude ɣin “build with mud” / W. Chadic-Hausa ginàa “to build, make pottery”
F.15a.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jíng “make (construct)” / Chinese- Hakka chin1 “make
pottery ware”
< W. Chadic – Gwandara jína “build” / Plateau Chadic cin “make, do”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *ɣin ~ *jín- / *cin “to build (house), to build with mud, make pottery”
F.15a.2
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) jen n. “make pottery ware” “potter’s wheel” Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC chéngli “set up, establish” Wang, F. 64
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] tšēn “do” Matisoff 2003 129
N. Chinese-MSC jiàn “build, construct, erect” Wu, J. 332 Merriam-Webster Chinese “build“ 66
TB-Tibetan b’shen-wa “to raise, to erect, to manufacture” Das 1086 Jaschke 484
F.15a.3
TB-Tibetan pumgεn “potter” Goldstein 723 pumbə “vase”
S.Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian) kian1 / gian1 “establish, erect, construct” Hakka Dict.
F.15a.1
C. Chadic– Gude ɣin / ɣən “build with mud” Skinner 84
Proto-Chadic *g-n “build (house)” “found in all three branches of Chadic”.
W. Chadic-Hausa magìni “builder, potter” Newman / Ma 1979 84 Newman, P. 2000 53
ma agential prefix See Chapter 10 section 10.3.4
E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] , Bidiya gín “faire” [make, do] Fédry 111
E. Chadic- Bidiya gíne “faire” [make, do] Skinner 84
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage kin “art, craft, handicraft” Skinner 84
W., C., E. Chadic *gy-n “build, make” Skinner 84
F.15a.2 E. Chadic- Peve šin “work” Skinner 36
NS- Kanuri njemá “potter” Cyffer 140
F.15a.3
W. Chadic S. Bauci Group-Zaar ŋge:n “build (house)” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 52
NC- Mande kene “work, cultivate” Skinner 84
W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Miya ɣan- “build (house)” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 52
W. Chadic- S. Bauci Group-Boghom ka:n. “build (house)” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 52
W. Chadic- Hausa k’ank’àra “make something very well” Newman, P. 2007 127
Nilo-Saharan-Temein gany “to build” Greenberg 1963 #24 97
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic ganabba. “build a wall with stones, cement or mortar” Leslau 1976 213
/
F.15b.1 W. Chadic- N. E. Cushitic- Written NS-Masai NC-
TB-Tibetan Bauci- Pa’a Oromo Arabic (enk)aŋ Common
kháng-pa kani “hut ganda xan “home, Bantu
“house” (house)” “village” “hostel, kraal” ganda
“in compounds also Jungraithmayr Sasse caravansary, Greenberg “chief’s
room, story, floor” 1994 v.2 202 1982 77 inn” 1966 99 enclosure”
Jaschke 38 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Wehr 26 Skinner
Das 137 Ngizim Afar 83
káŋ gándə̀řvú ganta /
“house, home” “area (within ganda
Goldstein 11 compound)” “village”
Schuh 68, 188
588
S. Chinese-Kejia “encampment Semitic-

[Hakka] of nomad Arabic
(MacIver) houses” (Iraqi)
kan1 / kan3 Parker / makaan,
(Lau Chunfat) Hayward mukaan
gan1 / gan3 106 “room,
“a numerical classifier Sasse 1982 77 space”
for rooms” Dict. of
Hakka Dict. Iraqi Arabic
part 2 413
F.15b.2 W. Chadic- N.
S. Chinese–Min cân Bauci- Tsagu
“floor, storey” k’an
Bodman 1987 “room”
v.2 124 Jungraithmayr
N. Chinese-MSC 1994 v.2 202
jiān measure word Proto-Chadic
“for room” Wang 225 k’an “hut
S. Chinese-Yue (house)”
(Cantonese) Jungraithmayr
chàhng “a story v.1 99317
(of a building)”
Chik / Ng Lam 114
classifier “story”
F.15b.3 W. Chadic- Egyptian NS-Kanuri NC- N.
Chinese- Hakka Ron (Kulere) khen / kən- Mande-Vai
(MacIver, Hailu) cyèn / cèn khenu dəgarám keŋ
kien1 / kien3 / “Haus, Gehoft” “a khân in “dwelling “house,
1
ken “a numerical [house, the desert” place” hut”
classifier for rooms” farmstead] Budge Lukas 214 Muka-
Hakka Dict. Jungraithmayr v.1 549 Cyffer rovsky
S. Chinese–Min 1970 351318 91 220
kiêng “classifier for
buildings, etc.”
Bodman v.2 148
F.15b.1
TB-Tibetan kháng-pa “house”“in compounds also as part of the house: room, storey, floor”
< W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Pa’a kani “hut (house)” / Egyptian khanu “private part of a building,
most sacred part of a temple”
F.15b.2 N. Chinese-MSC jiān measure word “for room”
< W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Tsagu k’an “room” / Proto-Chadic k’an “hut (house)”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *kan- / *k’an “hut (house)” “room” “dwelling area”
317
Note- F.15b.1-4 (Tibetan, Chinese, All AA subfamilies, NS , NC) Jungraithmayr states that this is “a cultural
word highly susceptible to borrowing”. Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 99. The root is indeed widespread, present in three
African language superfamilies and both ST subfamilies.
318
Note- F.15b.2 (Chadic and etymon)
Many Chadic, Semitic, Cushitic and Niger-Congo correspondences denote a larger area than the individual
house, i.e. the whole living compound etc. Hence the kan- root has a general meaning of “dwelling area” which can
signify smaller or larger areas such as a room, the story of a house, a house or the entire housing area.
589

F.15b.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gàan classifier (measure word) for “house, hut, room” etc.
Kwan 225, 227, 443 Po-fei Huang 382
ST Proto-Form kān “dwelling” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Kiranti-Kaling kam “house” Starostin, S Kiranti Etymology
F.15b.2 S. Chinese-Min càn-kiêng “storeroom” Bodman 1983 104, 149
càn-pang “storeroom” Bodman 1987 v.2 111
N. Chinese-MSC cāng “storehouse, warehouse” Wu, J. 64
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian, Lau Chunfat, MacIver) kian1 / gian1 / gian5 / gian4
“a numerical classifier for rooms” Hakka Dict.
Old Chinese kiôŋ “dwelling house, palace, apartment, temple” Karlgren GSR #1006a-d
Matisoff 2003 504
F.15b.3 S. Chinese-Min (Taiwanese) pàng-kiêng “room” Bodman 1983 184
TB-Burmese kwánh “temporary building for royal abode, temple” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
N. Chinese-MSC céng meas. for “layer, storey, floor (of a building)” Wang, F. 52 DeFrancis 1360
F.15b.1
E. Chadic-Migama kankama “compound” Militarev / Stolbova
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Wolane) gända “section of a village” Leslau 1963 73 1979 v.3 282
Semitic-Hebrew khan n. m. “old-fashioned inn in Arabic or Near Eastern tradition” Baltsan 196
Semitic-Arabic xa:na (IPA) “inn” n. Merriam-Webster Arabic 78 (Iraqi) xaan “old-fashioned inn,
hostelry” “warehouse, storehouse” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 127-8
W. Chadic- Hausa gandu “farm, farm of the head of the house or area” Skinner 76
NC-S.E. Mande-Samo Wowara, Nyankoro gáná / gáná(nέε) “village” Mukarovsky 387
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari gända “village” Leslau 1963 73
E. Cushitic-Gidole kant-a “village, area” Sasse 1982 77
E. Cushitic-Burji gánd-i “enclosure for cattle and settlement outside the village” Sasse 1982 77
E. Cushitic-Oromo ganda “village, community” Gragg 166 ; ganda “villaggio, borgata, abitato,
borgo, casale, località” [village, scattered group of houses, inhabited district, small country town,
hamlet, place] Borello 165
genda n. “villaggio, paese” [village, country, land] Borello 173
W. Chadic-N. Bauci Group- Karya k’am / kam -Mburke k’am “room” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 9
F.15b.2
W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Warji k’an-na “hut (house)” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 202
See also G.13b.1 (Iraqi) ‫ع‬anbar “warehouse, storehouse”
Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 325.
F.15b.3
C. Chadic-Tera Group *kənda “house, hut” Skinner 83
NC- N. Mande- Kono-Vai keŋ “house, hut” Mukarovsky 220
NS-Daza kendira “enclos” Skinner 83
W. Chadic- Polci keen “house, hut” Mukarovsk y 220
Egyptian khen “walled enclosure” Budge v.1 575
F.15b.1 IE-Sanskrit
kanana “a house”
gändagrama “any large village”
kanthA “a wall, a town”
Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2 F.15b.1
IE-Hindi kamra n. “room” “chamber” Scudiere 139, 27
↓↓
590

F.16 AA – Chadic AA –Cush. AA-Semitic NS NC
F.16.1 W. Chadic- Semitic-Akkadian Songhay
S. Chinese-Yue Hausa sākaku “stop (Gao)
(Cantonese) sák’èe up” Militarev / sákám
sák “to block, “cram, stuff” Stolbova “com-
to stop up, Newman, R. West Semitic- presser,
“to stuff, to 1990 55 Ethiopian- étouffer en
fill” “to seal, “throttle, Amharic serrant”
a cork or choke, sakasaka (Fr.)
stopper, strangle” “stuff, cram” [compress,
Chik / Ng Lam “to cram” aššägā vt. stuff by
82 “plug” Newman/ Ma “seal pressing in]
Kwan 356 1979 109 (close tightly)” sákiláalà
TB-Kiranti- C. Chadic- aĉ’ĉ’äqä vt. “entonnoir”
Limbu Buduma “stuff [funnel]
sakmaʔ cágali (push, thrust), Ducroz 199
“shut up, lock “schliessen” cram”
up” van Driem [to close] Leslau 1976 57,
1987 505 Skinner 225 132, 153
F.16.2 W. Chadic- High NC-
C. Chinese-Wu Sura šəɣat E. Cushitic Fulfulde
sɤʔ “stop up, “schliessen” Burji cuk- “close [Fulani]
clog” “stuff, [to close] (with a lid” sukka
squeeze in, fill” Skinner 225 Militarev / “stop up,
“seal, cork, Stolbova close”
stopper” AA-Etymology Taylor
F.16.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sák “to block, to stop up, “to stuff, to fill” “to seal, a cork or
stopper, to cork”
< West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic aššäggä “seal, close tightly, glue”, zāgga “close, bar, block,
shut off, obstruct”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *-šäg- “seal, close tightly, glue” / *zāg “close, bar, block, shut off”
F.16.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dóusák ”to stop up, to gag, blocked” Chik / Ng Lam 80
[compound of this morpheme and that of F.17a.2 below] sāk n. and v. “plug” Kwan 356,
n. “stopper” Kwan 507, “stuff” Kwan 510 sākjiu v. “stop (close up)” Kwan 507
F16.2
S. Chinese-Min suêq “to fill up a crack or chink by pressing something in” Bodman 1987 v.2 204
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sakche “traffic jam” Chik / Ng Lam 82
F.16.1
C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur -sàsəkw- “stop up” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic aššäggä “seal (close tightly)”, glue” Leslau 1976 132
zāgga “close, bar, block, shut off, obstruct” Leslau 1976 184
Semitic-Arabic jakulabu (IPA) “block ”v. jaʕu:ku “obstruct” v. Merriam-Webster Arabic 17, 106
(Iraqi) s̟akk “clench, close tight”
šakkal “to plug in” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 134, 267
Semitic-Hebrew sagar v. “closed, shut” sagoor adj. “closed, shut” Baltsan 365
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Ge’ez zagh̟a “shut in, enclose” Skinner 294
591
NS-Kanuri zanggîn, zakcîn zaktə̀ vn. “close, shut” “cover, cover up”
zaktə̀ram “lid, top, cover” –ram suffix “marker of place or instrument” Cyffer 194-195
F16.2 Proto-AA *cuk- “close” Militarev / Stolbova AA-Etymology 2007
E. Cushitic-Burji c’ukka “cover, stopper e.g cork” Hudson 184
c’ukka “close with a lid” Militarev / Stolbova
E. Cushitic-Oromo c’uqqaala “stop up, cover tightly” Gragg 88
E. Cushitic-Sidamo çuqqaala “to cram, squeeze into” Gasparini 24
C. Chadic-Munjuk suki “knead, stuff with” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *-šok- “to cover” Ehret 1995 “#512 277
NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] sokka “ram, beat down” “stuff in” Taylor 178
F.16.1
Proto-Altaic *zage “prevent, obstruct”
Altaic-ProtoTungus-Manchu *sagi “prevent, obstruct”
Altaic-Proto Mongolian *seg “prevent, obstruct” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
↓↓
F.17a-c Afro-Asiatic – AA-Cushitic AA-- Nilo-Saharan NC
Chadic Sem.
F.17a.1 S.Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] E. Chadic- Bidiya E. Cushitic- Kanuri
(MacIver) tu3 tūd’y- Sidamo tunngîn,
(Lau Chunfat) du2 / du3 “boucher, tu’- tutcîn
“stop up, block up, shut off” sceller” “stop up, “stop, block
(Meixian) tu5 [stop up, seal] plug up” or dam”
(Lau Chunfat) tu4 Skinner 259 Skinner 259 “stuff or fill
“plug (a hole, leak etc.), with stuffing”
“stop, prevent” Hakka Dict. Cyffer 259
F.17a.2 W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic-
S. Chinese–Min tokàrē Sidamo
“stop, stop up, block up, “block a doorway” tu’a “to plug
shut off” Newman, P. an opening,
Hakka Dict. 2007 203 stop up, seal”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) Gasparini 31
dóu
“to stop, to block up,
to shut off” Chik / Ng Lam 80
douh “to plug a hole, a leak etc.,
to stop, to prevent”
Chik / Ng Lam 215
F.17a.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] tu3 / du2 / du3 “stop up, block up, shut off” “plug (a hole, leak
etc.)”
< NS-Kanuri tunngîn “stop, block or dam” “stuff or fill with stuffing” /
E. Chadic- Bidiya tūd’y- “stop up, seal”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *du- “stop up, block up, “plug (a hole, leak etc.)
F.17a.1
N. Chinese-MSC dû “plug up or stop up a hole or gap” Wang, F. 116 “stop up, block up” Wu, J. 166
F.17a.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dóusák ” to stop up, to gag, blocked” Chik / Ng Lam 80
[compound of this morpheme and that of F.16.1 above]
592

F.17a.1 Semitic-Arabic masdu:dun (IPA) ”blocked” adj. Merriam-Webster Arabic 17
W. Chadic-Angas dūr “stop up, plug up” Skinner 259
C. Chadic-Bacama tund’- “stop up, plug up” Skinner 259
/
F.17b.1 W. Chadic–Hausa tōshèe / taushe E. Cushitic-
N. Chinese-MSC verb grade 4 vt. (completive) Oromo
dûsè “stop up, plug up” Skinner 259 dūcc- “stop up,
“stop up, block Newman P. 2000 704-70 plug up”
up” “stop up (e.g. a drain)” “block (clog an opening, Skinner 259
Wu, J. 166 hole” “be(come) stopped up” Newman, P. 2007 dūcc-u
[Disyllabic 203 “seal up an opening” Newman, R. 1990 26, “turare, tappare”
corresp.] 237, 262. matōshii “stopper, cork” [to stop up, to
Newman / Ma 1992 89 plug] Borello 124
F.17b.1 N. Chinese-MSC dûsè “stop up, block up”
< E. Cushitic- Oromo dūcc- “stop up, plug up”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *duts- “to plug an opening, stop up, seal”
F.17b.1 Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) dačč “to tamp, pack” “to stuff, pack” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 153
C. Chadic- Gisiga d’op- / d’up- “schliessen, bedecken” [close, cover]
E. Chadic- Masa Group- Lame ndub’ “boucher, colmater” [stop up] Skinner 260
W. Chadic- Ngizim dàasú “stop up (hole, etc.), plug up” Schuh 43, 221
Egyptian tchebā “to seal, to be sealed” “seal” tcheb “to block up, to obstruct, to stop (a canal)”
Budge v.2 905-906 Skinner 259
/
F.17c.1 TB-Proto- W. Chadic – Hausa E. Cushitic-
Lolo-Burmese *tsew cūsàa vt. Oromo c’ufu
“stop up, plug up” “to stuff something “chiudere, turare,
TB- Nung sü into something” tappare”,
“to cork” Newman, P. [to close, to stop
Benedict 101, 119 2007 36 up, to plug]
Matisoff 2003 109, Borello 82
367, 461
F.17c.2 TB-Jingpho Hebrew NS-Anywa
[Kachin] tsut “stop, satoom [Anuak]
plug, cork, as a “corked, closed” cùdi
bottle” satam pl. cúte
Benedict 1014 “filled “stopper for
Matisoff 2003 367 (hole, tooth, milk
mətsút “stopper” mouth)” gourds”
Matisoff 2003 Baltsan 368 Reh 127
367,461 Egyptian
S. Chinese-Kejia shatab
[Hakka] (MacIver) “to gag,
tsut7 “plug, cork” to shut up”
Hakka Dict. Budge v. 2 729
593
F.17c.3 W. Chadic – Hausa

N. Chinese-MSC cūshèe vg.4
cù “be(come)
“pressed, cramped” completely stuffed”
Wu, J. 116 Newman, P.
2007 36
F.17c.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *tsuw = tsew “stop up” / TB- Nung sü “to cork”
< W. Chadic – Hausa cūsa “to stuff something into something” / E. Cushitic- Oromo
c̟ufu “to close, to stop up, to plug”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *cū- “to close, to stop up, to plug” “to be stopped up, plugged”
F.17c.1
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *tsuw = tsew “stop up” Benedict #422 101, 208
TB- Burmese tshui “stop up” atshui “stopper, plug” Benedict 101
TB-Written Burmese chui’ “stop up” ʔəchui’ “stopper, plug” Matisoff 2003 367, 461
F.17c.2
TB-Jingpho tsut “stop up, plug, cork” Matisoff 2003 109, 367
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sēut n. “bolt for the door” Kwan 44
F.17c.3 TB-Nung əŋsü “stopper” Matisoff 2003 109, 367
TB-Tibetan súb-pa “to stop up, to plug, close, cork” “to cover, close shut up” Jaschke 57
Proto-Tibeto-Burman tsu(w)t ~ tsəy “stop up, plug up”Matisoff 2003 367
F.17c.1 Semitic-Arabic maħʃuwwun (IPA) ”crammed”adj. jaħʃu (IPA) ”cram” v.
F.17c.2 Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) sadd “to plug, close off, stop up” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 216
NS- Kanuri tunngîn, tutcîn “stop, block or dam” “stuff or fill with stuffing” Cyffer 259
↓↓
F.18a-b AA –Chadic AA -Cushitic AA-Semitic Nilo-Sah. NC
F.18a.1 E. Cushitic- W. Semitic- Songhay
TB-Tibetan Oromo Ethiopian- (Gao)
tshar-tshar s’as’ara Amharic zärf záarà
“ends of threads, “frangia” “fringe, ruffle “tissu, toile”
fringes” [fringe] (of skirt), [fabric,
Jaschke 447 Borello 370 border” cloth]
Leslau 1976 182 Ducroz 241
F.18a.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Hausa Proto-Afro-
saadaa “rope for zàarē “thread, Asiatic
hanging something, string” *saraar-
clothesline” Newman, P. “muscle,
saa “fringe, tassel” 2007 231 sinew”
Goldstein 968 “spin, thread” Ehret 1995
S. Chinese-Yue Skinner 297 #231 164
(Cantonese) zaare > zàariyàa”
sā “yarn (thread)” “trouser string”
Kwan 577 Newman, P. 2000
“yarn, as cotton 214 See also Notes
yarn” C.24b.1,3 (Hausa)
“gauze, thin silk” and F.5.1 for sound
Chik / Ng Lam 352 change rule
594
F.18a.3 Proto-W. Chadic Berber-Tuareg

S. Chinese-Yue *tsarak ạzərki
(Cantonese) “vein, tendon, “ficelle,
saak string” cordelette” (Fr.)
“a thick rope” Skinner 274 [string, thin
Chik / Ng Lam 353 See also B.8.1 rope]
Extended Skinner 274
C. Chadic-Padoko
saka, zaka
“corde” (Fr.) [rope]
F.18a.4 S. Chinese C. Chadic-Bura
(Cantonese) su’wi “rope”
seui “fringe” Skinner 297
Chen132 Kwan 197 Proto-Chadic
N. Chinese-MSC *zawi “rope”
swéi “fringe” Newman, P.
Chen 132 1977 31
F.18a.5 Proto-W. Chadic Proto-Afro- Proto-Berber
S. Chinese *caw- “plaited Asiatic *zaw “cord”
(Cantonese) cover for a door” *cahVw- Militarev, A.
sau, saufa Stolbova, Olga “plaited Afroasiatic
“embroider” W. Chadic Etymology object” Etmology,
Chen 132 Kwan 160 2006 Militarev / Semitic-Arabic
E. Chadic- Bidiya Stolbova sahw “curtain”
caway “filer” [spin] Afroasiatic Militarev, A.
Skinner 297 Etymology Semitic
2007 Etymology
2006 #324 17
F.18a.1
N. Chinese-MSC shā “yarn (thread)” “gauze, thin silk, untwisted thread, yarn” /
TB-Tibetan tshar-tshar “ends of threads, fringes”
< W. Chadic- Hausa zàare “thread, string” / E. Cushitic- Oromo s’as’ara “frangia” [fringe] /
Proto-W. Chadic *tsarak “vein, tendon, string”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *tsar- “thread, string” “tendon, vein”
F.18a.1
TB-Tibetan kha-tshar “fringes, threads, such as threads at the end of a web or cloth, or rug, scarf or
sash” Jaschke 37, Das 447 kā-tsaa “a fringe, a tassel” Goldstein 105
F.18a.2 N. Chinese-MSC shā “yarn (thread)” Wu, J. 591 “gauze, thin silk, untwisted thread, yarn”
Mathews #5611 772 Goldstein 877 saadaa “rope for hanging something, clothesline”
TB- Jingpho [Kachin] ləsá “tendon, sinew, vein” Benedict 109 Matisoff 2003 129
F.18a.1
W. Chadic-Gwandara (Garuku) zàré’ “thread” (Karshi) jàré’ “thread” Matsushita 1972 54
NC-Fulfulde (Fulani) sarfa “embroider” charfal / charfe “embroidery” Taylor 168
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Ge’ez šərw / šur / šər “sinew, tendon, nerve” Militarev / Stolbova
See also B.8.1 Extended
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) sarkaš “to embroider, decorate with brocade embroidery” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
part 2 203 t’arraz “to embroider, embroidered” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 288
Semitic-Ge’ez safaya “plait” Skinner 297
595
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic masãriya “something to tie with (string, chain), thong, strap
(of sandals, leash (for the dog)” Leslau 1976 23
F.18a.3
W. Chadic–Hausa zargo “embroidery” zarciya “line of embroidery on a gown”
Newman, P. 2007 231 zargèe “ensnare with a rope” Newman, P. 2007 231
sark’a “chain, chain necklace” Newman, P. 2007 180
tsirkiya / tsarkiya “string (of bow, musical instrument”) Skinner 274
Proto-Afroasiatic *carVyʔ “tendon, sinew, vein” Militarev / Stolbova Afroasiatic Etymology
2007
E. Cushitic-Oromo wayanke s’as’ara hinqabu “Il tuo manto non ha le frange” [your cape doesn’t
have fringes] Borello 370
Berber-Tuareg àzərki “ficelle, cordelette” [thread, string] Skinner 274
F.18a.4
C. Chadic-Mafa-Mada Group *zawi(d’) “rope” Skinner 274
W. Chadic- Ngizim zàyí “rope” Schuh 182
C. Chadic- Muktele tsay “spin” Skinner 297
F.18a.5
W. Chadic-Hausa (Hadejia) tsawo “three-ply rope” Matsushita 1993 222
F.18a.1
IE-Pashto
sar-rishta “the end of a cord, a rope, a thread” sar-mal “a rope for fastening a load on a camel”
Raverty 600 sar-bānddey “rope made of strips of leather” Raverty 599
charanak “strips of rawhide twisted together and made into rope” Raverty 361
IE-Sanskrit sara “a cord, string” sarat “thread” sarit “thread, string” Cologne Lexicon. See also
Supplementary Table 2 F.18a.1
IE-Old Indian sarat “thread” da-śa f. “fringe of a garment, loose ends of any piece of cloth, skirt
or hem” Starostin, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 119, 30
Proto-IE *ser- “to wind, to weave” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 119
F.18a.3
IE-Tokharian sarki “warp, woof” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 119
Kartvelian-Megrel ʒerɣw “sinew” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 63
Kartvelian-Svan ʒārɣw “sinew” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 63
Kartvelian-Georgian ʒārɣv “sinew” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 63
IE-Pashto tsakay “a rope or line suspended from from the roof of the house for hanging the clothes
on” Raverty 313
↓↓
F.18b AA –Chadic AA-Cush. AASem. NS NC
18b.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Ron-Bokkos E. Cushitic- Semitic- Songhay
sí-ri sîr “Sehne” [sinew, Somali Arabic (Koyra)
(C. and W. Tibet) tendon, string (of bow)] silig “wire” (Iraqi) síllí
“pack-thread, Jungraithmayr Awde sílliíla “a “thread”
twine” Jaschke 572 1970 145 1999 hank of Heath v.1
Das 1268 E. Chadic-Somrai 47, 79 yarn” Dict. 220
[Disyllabic corresp.] šìre “thread” siisilad of Iraqi (Gao)
sílli (W. Tibet) Stolbova, Olga “chain, Arabic “fil”
“a gauze-like E. Chadic-Mubi necklace” part 2 248 (Fr.)
texture” sèrí “rope” Awde 1999 [thread]
Jaschke 559 E. Chadic Etymology 47, 58 Ducroz 204
596
TB- Nung W. Chadic- Hausa (Koroboro)

səri sìlī m. šíllí
“thread” “two-ply thread” “thread”
Benedict 137 Newman, P. 2007 187 Heath
N. Chinese-MSC (Gobir dial.) v.1 220
sī(r) n. siillíya m. šíllei
“thread-shaped “a silken cord used as “rope”
object” a neck ornament” Greenberg
Wang, F. 438 Matsushita 1993 1797 1966 144
See also Notes
E.33.1 and
B.14d.2
on “erisation”.
F.18b.1 TB-Tibetan sí-ri “pack-thread, twine”
< W. Chadic-Hausa sìli “two-ply thread” / NS-Songhay (Koyra) síllí “thread” /
W. Chadic-Ron –Bokkos sîr “sinew, tendon, string (of bow)”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *silli “thread, yarn”
F.18b.1
N. Chinese-MSC sī n. “silk (before weaving)” Wang, F. 438 “silk” “a thread-like thing”
Wu, J. 647
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sì “silk” “very fine thread” Chik / Ng Lam 355
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) síi1 (Lau Chunfat) si1 “silk” “very fine thread”
“strings of a musical instrument”
F.18b.1
C. Chadic-Wamdiu, West Margi (Margi Putai) siʔi “cord” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006
W. Chadic-Hausa tsirkìyā “hair from a horse’s tail” “bowstring” “string of musical instrument”
Newman, P. 2007 208
Proto-W. Chadic *cir- “rope, tendon” W. Chadic Etymology Stolbova, Olga 2006
silk “thread, string, line, wire” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 494
siim “wire” “stitches (surgical)” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 1 200, part 2 232
E. Cushitic-Sidamo sisilla “to plait, twist (thread)” Gasparini 291
W. Chadic–Gwandara (Newman) širi “spin” Skinner 297
C. Chadic–Gisiga sir “spin” Skinner 297
E. Chadic–Lele sirbi “tordre sur la cuisse, dans les mains”[twist on the thigh in the hands] Skinner 297
E. Chadic–Mokulu sibira “filer” [to thread] Skinner 297
Proto-East Chadic *siiB- “corde, fil” [rope, thread] Skinner 297
F.18b.1
IE-Pashto sīla’i “rope made from the hair of goats, camels etc.” Raverty 635
IE-Hindi silāī “sewing” f. silāī karna “tailor” Scudiere 338
IE-Bengali shelai kɔra “sew” vb. Thompson124
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *sɨrɨ- “to sew tightly”
Altaic-Turkic-Azerbaidzhan sɨirɨ- “to sew tightly”
Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh sɨirɨ- / Altaic-Turkic-Karakalpak sɨrɨ- “to sew tightly”
Altaic-Turkic-Khakassian sɨrɨ- “to sew tightly”
Altaic-Turkic-Tuva *sɨrɨ- “to sew tightly” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
↓↓
597

F.19 AA–Chad. AA-Cushitic AA-Semitic Nilo-Saharan NC
F.19.1 TB-Tibetan Semitic–Arabic Songhay
ltáb-pa “to fold or (Iraqi) t’abbag (Gao)
gather up, to lay or “to fold” táab-táabú
put together” “to place a “plier
Das 543 Jaschke 218 covering, plusieurs
[Disyllabic corresp.] layer over” fois”
ldáb-pa “to do Dict. of Iraqi [fold several
again, repeat” Arabic part 2 times]
“repeatedly, anew, 286 Ducroz 213
afresh, again” W. Semitic- Maba Group-
Jaschke 290 Ethiopian- Maba
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] Gurage (Čaha) tabakaroŋ
kəthàp “add, place atäfäm “fold” “fold
one upon another, Leslau 78 v.1 24 (cloth etc.)”
again and again” Edgar 209
Matisoff 2003336
F.19.2 TB-Tibetan E. Cushitic-
deb “to fold” / Oromo
dəb “to repeat” deebi’a
Goldstein 467, 590 “do again,
Old Chinese d’əp repeat”
“pile on, duplicate, Gragg 101
repeat” “double-lined deeb-iʔa
garment” Karlgren “repeat”
GSR #1255a-b, Hudson 123
#690g See also note
Matisoff 2003 341 H.3b.1-3
F.19.3 W. Semitic-
S. Chinese-Kejia Ethiopian-
[Hakka] (Meixian, Amharic
Hailu) t’iap8 at’t’äfä vt.
(Lau Chunfat) “double,
t’iab6 “repeat, fold, bend”
duplicate, repetitious” at’äfeta
“fold up” Hakka Dict. “double
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] (twice as much),
thàp “fold, layer” twofold”
Matisoff 2003 336 Leslau 1976
153
F.19.4 W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic- West Semitic-
TB-Tibetan tufkä / tubkä Oromo dabsa Ethiopian-
ltab-ma “plait, braid, “twist, bend” Amharic
“a fold, crease, plait” twist” Foot 12 täbätäbä
Das 543 Skinner 260 “twist, tie
C. Chadic-Gude (baggage),
tabəd’ “twist “wind around”
ropes together, Leslau
make string” 1976 103
Skinner 260
598
F.19.5 E. Cushitic- Semitic-Arabic

S. Chinese-Yue Oromo (Iraqi)
(Cantonese) cau vi. t’awwa
chàauh / “piegarsi, “to fold,
binchàauh / attorcigliarsi” fold up,
jingchàauh v. [to become roll up”
“to crease” folded, creased or t’awya
Kwan 112 bent] “fold, pleat”
N. Chinese-MSC Borello 76 “hem (of a
chāo garment)”
“fold (one’s arms)” Dict. of Iraqi
chāojiàn Arabic
“duplicate, copy” part 2 297
Wu, J. 78
F.19.1
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *tap = *təp ~ *dəp “fold, repeat” / TB-Tibetan ltab-pa “to fold”
< Semitic–Arabic t’abbag “to fold, make layers of”
F.19.2 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *tap = *təp ~ *dəp “fold, repeat” Benedict #493 183, 184, 207
/ TB-Tibetan deb “to fold”, dəb “to repeat”
< W. Chadic–Cip təpka “plait” / E. Cushitic- Oromo deebi’a “return” “do again, repeat”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *tap “to fold, make layers of” ~ *deep “do again, repeat” “plait”
F.19.1
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] thàp “fold, layer” Matisoff 2003 336
TB-Burmese thap “place one on another, add to, repeat, do again” Benedict 184
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) daahp “repeated, reiterated, joined, connected” Chik / Ng Lam 250
F.19.2
TB-Tibetan dəb “double” “times” Goldstein 590 dəbma “a fold, a plait” Goldstein 466
ltéb-pa “to double down, turn in” Jaschke 219 Goldstein 173 ;
ldéb-pa “bend round or back, to turn round, to double down” Jaschke 291 Benedict 184
thebs “series, order, succession” Jaschke 236 Das 587 Benedict 184
F.19.3
TB-Nung məthip “to fold” Benedict 119 əŋməthip “to fold” Matisoff 2003 109
Middle Chinese diep “stack up” Norman 229
F.19.1 Semitic-Arabic tʕabaqa (IPA) “layer” Merriam-Webster Arabic 85
(Iraqi) t’abaqa “layer, stratum” “class (of society” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 286
F.19.2 E. Cushitic-Oromo debi-u “ritornare, tornare indietro, ripiegare, indietreggiare, voltarsi indietro”
[to return, to turn around, to fold up, to fold again, to draw back, to roll over] Borello 104
dedebi-u “reiterare, ripitere, andare e venire” [to reiterate, to repeat, to come and go] Borello 105
F.19.3 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic ətəf “double, fold, times” Leslau 1976 153
F.19.4
W. Chadic–Hausa tabarma “mat (plaited)” Skinner 247 tufka “braiding (of rope), strand, ply”
Newman, P. 2007 210 matùfki n.m. “rope maker” Newman / Ma 1992 90
W. Chadic-Gwandara (Newman, P.) taburuma “mat (plaited)” Skinner 247
C. Chadic-Gude tabəd’ “twist ropes together, make string” Skinner 260
W. Chadic-Cip tepkä “plait” Skinner 260
F.19.1 IE-Hindi f. ta “fold” tahana f. / vt. “fold” Scudiere 256
↓↓
599

F.20 Afro-Asiatic– Afro-Asiatic- Afro-Asiatic- Nilo- NC
Chadic Cushitic Semitic Saharan
F.20.1 W. Chadic– E. Cushitic- Semitic-Akkadian Songhay
S. Chinese-Yue Hausa Oromo xat’t’u (Gao)
(Cantonese) gàatarī gatano “stick, branch” gàtálà
gaat “axe” “bastone lungo” Greenberg 1966 63 “long
“a lance” Newman, P. [long stick, staff] W. Semitic-Ethiopian- baton”
Chik / Ng Lam 2007 72 Borello 170 Amharic [long
162 aikin kātākō gattano əğğäta stick,
TB-Tibetan “woodwork” “heavy elephant “handle, staff]
gá-da Newman, R. spear” haft (of spear)” Ducroz
“club, mace” 1990 308 Foot 22 Leslau 1976 150 100
Jaschke 63 kātākō Borello 171 Egyptian
Das 204 “plank of wood” Proto-Highland m’ga-t
[Disyllabic “timber” E. Cushitic- “arrow, weapon”
corresp.] Newman, P. *agada “stalk” “stick for beating the
2007 222 Skinner 13 hands”
Budge v.1 290 459
F.20.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gaat “a lance” / TB-Tibetan gá-da “club, mace”
< Cushitic-Oromo gatano “long stick, staff” / NS-Songhay (Gao) gàtálà “long baton”
[long stick, staff]
Approximate Tibetan etymon *gat- “long stick, staff” “handle (of spear)”
F.20.1
W. Chadic–Ron (Daffo) gàât m. “Stock” [stick, staff] Jungraithmayr 1970 214 Skinner 88
W. Chadic-Hausa màk’atàa f. “hooked stick, crook” Newman, P. 2007 148
ma- [prefix designating an instrumental noun, i.e. a noun which denotes a tool or implement.]
Newman / Ma 1979 151 See also Chapter 10 section 10.3.4.
NS-Kanuri kátákó “timber” “wooden plank” “any wooden furniture, etc. made of wooden planks”
Cyffer 83 < Hausa”
C. Chadic-Mafa (Matakam) gáda “stick” Stolbova, Olga C.Chadic Etymology
Egyptian m’kata-t “a thin piece of wood” Budge v.1 283 khet “wood, tree, branch of a tree, staff,
scepter, stick, board, timber, pole” m’kat “bench, stand, seat, bed,” Budge v.1 566
E. Cushitic-Gedeo, Kambata, Sidamo agada “stalk (of maize etc.)” Hudson 142, 230, 306, 349
Skinner 137
E Cushitic-Oromo gadā “sugar cane” Skinner 137
E. Cushitic-Sidamo qatawarco m. “a stick that is lighted as a torch” Gasparini p. 259
S. Cushitic-Mbugu (m)xatu “tree” Greenberg 1966 63
C. Chadic-Gamergu xatta “tree” Greenberg 1966 63
C. Chadic-Bata kade: “tree” Greenberg 1966 63
C. Chadic-Njei [Nzanyi] kadi “tree” Greenberg 1966 63
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic agäda “stalk (of sugar cane, maize” Leslau 1976 151
magädo “firewood, fuel” Leslau 1976 38
600
W. Chadic-Hausa k’otàa “shaft (of axe)” Newman, R. 1990 241 “tool handle” Newman P. 2000 228
Proto-Chadic (Jungraithmayr) *gwad- “stick, spear” Ehret 1995 #295 189 319
Proto-AA *guʔad- “stick” Militarev, A. Afroasiatic Etymology 2007
C. Chadic-Padoko gwadama “arrow” Skinner 90
F.20.1 IE-Sanskrit gada “a mace, a club, a bludgeon” gadAhasta “armed with a mace”
gadAdhara “bearing a club” gadu “a javelin, spear” kadamba “an arrow”
katVAGga “a club shaped like the foot of a bedstead” Several Sanskrit words for different species of
trees contain the kad- root, e.g. kadala “the plantain or banana tree”
See Supplementary Table 2- F.20.1 for other kad- “tree” lexemes.
↓↓
F.21a-b AA – Chadic AA –Cushitic AA-Egyptian NS NC
F.21a.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Egyptian maqar Nuer
karwa “a stick” Ngizim “stick, staff” kar
Goldstein 158 takārwa Budge v.1 276 “branch or
mkar-ba / kara “long skhar “a kind of bough of
“a tent pole” Das 9 bamboo tree, log” tree”
[Disyllabic corresp.] pole“ Budge v.2 615 Huffman
garashiŋ “sugar Schuh Semitic-Hebrew 23
cane” shiŋ “tree” 155, 213 kardom n.m.
Goldstein 2 “axe” Baltsan 165
F.21a.2 Proto-E. Semitic-Hebrew
TB-Tibetan Cushitic sharveet
‘kar-ba “staff” *carb- “baton, sceptre”
Jaschke 54, 55 “thin stick” Baltsan 387
‘kār-wa (stem + b Egyptian
“a walking stick, animate tshar-t
staff, clutcheon” suffix) “a twig,
Das 186 Ehret 1995 a branch”
#460 257 Budge v.2 903
F.21a.3 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Egyptian NC-Fulani
N. Chinese-MSC Bolewa Oromo sau sauru
qiáo “firewood” câwa / c’aròo “beam of wood, “stick,
Wu, J. 548 zâwa “very long pillar, post, pole” staff of
ch’iáo “a club, “walking stick for Budge v.2 635 office”
a baton” stick” driving oxen” Semitic-Arabic Taylor
Mathews #735 100 Schuh 30 Gragg 80 (Iraqi) saru 169
ch’iáo / ts’iāo W. Chadic- “(evergreen)
(WG) “fuel” Ngizim cypress”
Mathews #757102 càcáawà Dict. of Iraqi
TB-Tibetan cha-ru “twigs for Arabic pt. 2 218
“a peg to fix the fire, See also B.8.1-2
ropes of a tent” kindling”
Das 404 {Disyllabic Schuh 30
corresp.}
319 w
Note- F.20.1 (Chadic) Ehret considers the Proto-Chadic *g ad- “stick, spear” to be a reflex of the Proto-AA
w
root *-g ad- “to cut”. See set H.32.4. The present table supports *gat- “long stick or “long staff made of wood”
“handle of spear” as the proximate etymon.
601

F.21a.1
TB-Tibetan karwa “a stick” “a walking stick, staff”
< W. Chadic-Ngizim takārwa “long bamboo pole“ / Kanuri kərwúda “shaft (usually of a spear)”
Egyptian skhar “a kind of tree, log”
F.21a.4 N. Chinese-MSC qiáo “firewood” / ch’iáo “a club, a baton”
< W. Chadic-Bolewa câwa / zâwa “walking stick” / W. Chadic-Ngizim càcáawà “twigs for fire,
kindling”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma *khar- ~ *câwa “branch, pole, stick, staff”
F.21a.1
TB-Tibetan (Central Tibet and Balti Province) mkhár-ba “staff, stick” Jaschke. 54 ;
mkhár-wa / ‘khár-wa “staff, stick” “a walking stick” Das 182, 186
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] kəwa ~ wa “bamboo” Benedict 24
F.21a.2 S. Chinese-Min chá “wood, firewood” Bodman 1987 v.2 130
F.21a.3
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chyúji “a pillar, a post” Chik / Ng Lam 218
N. Chinese-MSC) tiáo “twig” Wu, J. 680
F.21a.1
C. Chadic-Gude kāra “stalk, straw, arrow shaft” Skinner 137
E. Cushitic-Somali kori “wood” Awde 1999 44
NS-Anywa āgàar “hunting spear with a long blade” Reh 3
W. Chadic-Hausa karā / kare “stalk (usu. cornstalk), reed” Newman, P. 2007 109 “cane (of
cornstalk), sugar cane” Newman R. 1990 35
kařgō “a tree whose bark is used as rope” Newman, P. 2007 109 “a common tree of uncultivated
land” Matsushita 1993 276
kàřagàa “bed of sticks or corn stalks” Newman, P. 2007 108 (Daura) karauki “a light pole for a
fence” Matsushita 1993 36
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic qarkaha “wicker cane (plant)” Leslau 1976 73
E. Cushitic-Afar garīda “stalks” Skinner 137
Proto-E. Cushitic *kor- “wood” Sasse 1982 127
Proto- S. Cushitic *k’or- “stick, tree, wood” Skinner 88 See also Note F.5.2
E. Cushitic-Oromo korani “firewood, fuel” Foot 37
Semitic-Hebrew kora n. f. “log” Baltsan 643
For species of acacia trees attesting the kar- root see the B.32.1-2 Extended section.
NS-Kanuri kərwúdə “shaft (usually of a spear)” Cyffer 95
F.21a.2 Semitic-Arabic sariyya “column, pole” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 218
N. Omotic *žar- “pole” Ehret 1995 #458 257
Egyptian tchaātit “stick, staff” Budge v.2 896 tchā “stick, staff, stalk” Budge v.2 902
tcha “fire-stick, a wooden tool or instrument” Budge v.2 894
NC-Fulfulde (Fulani) chārmalle “wood for kindling” Taylor 24
F.21a.3
C. Chadic-Logone zâwa “stick” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic-Etymology
záwâ záwáwin pl. “stick, staff” Schuh 182
W. Chadic-Hausa kyaurō “reed, arrow shaft” Newman P. 2007 124 (Gumel, Kano dial.)
k’iraruwa “small sticks or twigs for kindling” Matsushita 1993 102 , 278
Proto-C. Chadic *čyar- “reed from which an arrow shaft is secured; arrow shaft” Stolbova, Olga
Proto-Chadic Etymology 2006
E. Cushitic-Oromo c’aròo “virgulto, pertica, verga, ramaglia” [shrub, pole, small branch, dead
branches] Borello 80
602
E. Chadic-Bidiya čaro “kind of bush” Militarev / Stolbova

West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Ennemor) ĉ’arära (Muher) ĉ’arraro
(Soddo) ĉ’arrarä “branches of a tree tied together and serving as a torch” Leslau 1979 v.3 189̣
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic ĉəräro “small sticks tied together to make a torch, dry sticks,
deadwood” Leslau 1976 238
F.21a.1 IE-Sanskrit
karAlika “a tree, a sword”
karapAlaka “a cudgel, short club or wooden sword”
karanda “a piece of wood, block” karavira “name of a wood” karaka the pomegranate tree,
karkotaka “the sugar cane” kakardu “wooden stick” Witzel 1999b 7, 2009 7
Proto-IE koret “twig, pole” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 125
Proto-Altaic *kara(ma) “thin stick, rod” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *karmak “thin stick, rod” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *kar- “thin stick, rod” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
F.21a.2 IE-Sanskrit zara “an arrow shaft” zari “an arrow” Cologne Lexicon.
śárá - / śáru- / śáryā- “arrow” Kuiper 1955 sarala “a species of pine tree”
saralakASTha “the wood of the pine” saraNa “a kind of tree” sarada “a tree” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Hindi charī “wand” f. char̝ “rod” f. Scudiere 241
See also Supplementary Table 2 F.21a.1,3
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *s(i)ar-ča “tethering post” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Middle Turkic *sarča “tethering post”
Altaic-Turkic-Tuvan sarčin “tethering post” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Austro-Asiatic-Munda sahar “arrow” Kuiper 1955 167
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho sar / sɛr “arrow” Kobayashi Table 1 #75 2
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari, Santali sa:r “arrow” Kobayashi Tables 2,3 #75 8, 14
/
F.21b.1 W. Chadic- N. Khoisan- !Kung
N. Chinese-MSC Ngizim ‖gao
găo “pick, pick axe” gáwâ “axe” “walking stick”
“stalk of grain, straw” Schuh 71, 189 Greenberg 1966 82
gāo “punt-pole” W. Chadic- N. Khoisan-!Kung
Wu, J. 225 DeFrancis 291 Hausa ‖kã�
S. Chinese-Yue kàaràuki “branch”
(Cantonese) “slender post for Ruhlen 1994 49
gaau “leveling stick (used in fence” Khoisan-Hadza
measuring volume of grain etc.) Newman, P. ‖kau
Chik / Ng Lam 199 2000 463 “stick for carrying
gáu “fishing pole” poison”
Chik / Ng Lam 342 Greenberg 1966 82
F.21b.2 S. Chinese-Yue W. Chadic- NS-Songhay S. Khoisan-ǀAuni
(Cantonese) Ngizim (Gao) ‖kowa, ‖k‫כ‬wa “arrow”
gòu “pole for punting a boat” gùvú gòbù / gobò ʘhőä “stick” n.
Chik / Ng Lam 345 gùvàvin pl. “bâton, canne” Khoisan-Hadza
Chinese- Wu “stem of a [stick, cane] hikowa, ‖k’owako
kø5 “wooden pole, stick, club” plant” Ducroz 102 “arrowshaft”
Hakka Dict. Schuh 76 Greenberg 1966 75
F.21b.1 N. Chinese-MSC găo “pick, pick axe” “stalk of grain, straw” gāo “punt-pole” /
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gáu “fishing pole” / N. Khoisan- !Kung ‖gao “walking stick
603
< W. Chadic-Ngizim gáwâ “axe” / N. Khoisan- !Kung ‖gao “walking stick”, ‖kã� “branch”
F.21b.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gòu “pole for punting a boat” / Chinese- Wu kø5 “wooden pole,
stick, club”
< NS-Songhay gòbù / gobò “stick, cane” / S. Khoisan-ǀAuni ‖kowa, ‖k‫כ‬wa “arrow”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *gáw- “stick, staff” ~ *‖gao “stick”
F.21b.1
Egyptian tchâb-t “fuel, material for a fire” Budge v.2 903
F.21b.2 W. Chadic-Gwandara gwara “stick, pole” Matsushita 1972 46
W. Chadic-Seya gwar “spear” Skinner 88
Egyptian gbw “stick” Ehret #264 179
S. Khoisan-‖Khegwi ʘhowa “stick”n. Ruhlen 1994 64
F.21b.2 Proto-Altaic *kúbù / *kobù “pole, shaft” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *kúbak “pole, shaft” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
↓↓
F.22 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic Afro-Asiatic - AA- Nilo- NC
Cushitic Sem. Sah.
F.22.1 W. Chadic-S. Bauci Group-
TB-Tibetan Boghom
dün d’ùn “mortar”
“pestle and mortar” Jungraithmayr 1994
düngung v.2 240
“a mortar for E. Chadic- Kabalai
grinding” tundu “mortar”
dundo Jungraithmayr 1994
“pestle” v.2 240
Goldstein 452
F.22.2 W. Chadic – Bole E. Cushitic- Gedeo
TB-Jingpho tuma “mortar” tum-is-anjo
[Kachin] Skinner 264 “pestle”
thum W. Chadic – Ngizim Hudson 112
“mortar” tə́ma “mortar” Proto-AA
Benedict 29 Schuh 152 *-tum- “to beat”
Matisoff 2003 275 Chadic root *tm- Ehret 1995 #173
“to beat” 142
Jungraithmayr See also H.29c.1
1994 v.1 7 and A.11.1
Ehret 1995 #173 142 (Extended)
See also A.11.1
F.22.2 TB-Jingpho thum “mortar”
< W. Chadic–Bole tuma “mortar”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *tuma “mortar”
F.22.2
TB-Tibetan
gtun “a pestle, also a stone ball or club” “the nether mill stone” Das 523 “pestle, mallet, knocker”
gtun-po “mortar” Jaschke 207 ; dodün “stone mortar” Goldstein 587 do “stone”
604

F.22.1
NS- Kanuri tə́ndenggin, tə́ndekcin ”grind or pound for the second time into fine flower (guinea
corn, etc, in a mortar or on a stone)” tə́mtə́mngin ”pound (grain) in a mortar heavily” Cyffer 174
NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] tunkur “the sound of pounding in a mortar” Taylor 198
NS- Nuer thoŋ “place where dura is pounded” Huffman 48
F.22.2
E. Cushitic-Burji tum- “churn, thresh, hit” Hudson 116
E. Cushitic-Gedeo, Kambata tum- “pound” Hudson 116
E. Cushitic-Sidamo tum- “hit, strike” Hudson 116
E. Cushitic- Rendille tuma “grind, beat, thrash” Pillinger 281
Cushitic-Oromo tuma “beat, hammer” Gragg 379
W. Chadic- Hausa guduma “hammer” Skinner 90 túrmī “mortar” Newman, P. 2000 201
Skinner 240 ;
Proto-Afro-Asiatic,Proto-E. Cushitic *tum- ”to beat, pound” Ehret 1995 #173 142
NS- Songhay (Djenne) tútúú “grind roughly with small stone, mortar and pestle” Heath v.2 190
↓↓
F.23 AA – AA –Cushitic AA -Semitic Nilo- NC
Chad. Sah.
F.23.1 N. Chinese-MSC E. Cushitic-Sidamo Semitic- Amharic
fāng fâna fana “trace,
“lane (usually as part of a “way, direction, footprint” trail (track)”
street name)” Gasparini 95 Leslau
fāngxiàng E. Cushitic- Burji 1976 249
“direction, orientation” fáana “trace, footprint”
fāngfă “method, way, Sasse 1982 69
means” faano / faana
Wang, F. 136 Wu, J. 190 “track of animal”
fangshì “way, fashion, Hudson 157, 190
pattern” Wu, J. 190 E. Cushitic- Oromo
“format or method of doing fan-a “passo, vestigia,
something” traccia, pista”
Wang, F. 137 [step, track, trail,
shì “show, notify, instruct” footprints] Borello 142
Wu, J. 623
F.23.1 N. Chinese-MSC fāng “lane (usually as part of a street name)”, fāngsyàng (Y) “direction”
< E. Cushitic- Sidamo fâna “way, direction, footprint” / E. Cushitic-Burji fáana “trace, footprint”,
faano / faana “track of animal”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *fâna “way, direction” “footprint, track of animal”
F.23.1
S. Chinese–Min hâng “lane, alley” Bodman 1987 v.2 136
N. Chinese-MSC fān “pattern,” “model, example” ; fāŋàn “scheme, plan, programme” Wu, J.189
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) faahn “model, form, rule, example, pattern” Chik / Ng Lam 345
fòngheung “direction” Kwan 137
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) hohngjai, hóng “alley” Kwan 13 hóng “lane” Kwan 265
F.23.1 E. Cushitic-Gedeo fana “track of animal” Hudson 157, 239
E. Cushitic-Oromo faana “sole, paw” Hudson 157
605
Proto-Highland E. Cushitic *fáana “track of animal” Hudson 157

Semitic-Amharic fina “direction” Leslau 1976 249
Semitic-Hebrew pānā “head in a particular direction” Militarev, A. Semitic Etymology #471 24
↓↓
ST Languages African/AA languages-
Close correspondences
F.24 AA – Chadic AA- AA- NS NC
Cush. Sem.
F.24.1 W. Chadic–Ron (Bokkos)
TB-Tibetan sman mandá
“benefit, use good” “medicine, charm”
“the common term for medicine, Jungraithmayr 1994
physic, drug” Das 989 v.2 234-5
W. Tibetan, C. Tibetan “Arznei, Medizin”
man / sman “medicine, physic, [medicine]
remedy, medicinal herb, drug” Jungraithmayr 1970 144
Jaschke xix, 426
F.24.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – Gwandara NS-Nuer
mɛ̄n “medicine” (Toni) mɔny
“to be beneficial, helpful” mə́ngə̀ni “a work of
mɛ̄ngu “extracting medicine “medicine” the
(from herbs etc.) by boiling” Matsushita 1974 #403 96 medicine
mɛ̄nna “medicines, spices” man”
Goldstein 837-838 Huffman
mi̱mε̄n “doctor, physician” 32
[lit. “medicine person]
Goldstein 800
F.24.3 W. Chadic – Hausa
TB-Tibetan māgànī “remedy, good or
smag bad magic, medicine”
“a sort of medicine of an astringent Skinner 192
taste”. “medicine for treating fever”
Jaschke 426 Das 988 “means against, protection
against”
“magical spell or charms”
Newman, P. 2007 144 84
See also D.27b.1
Hausa “bewitch”
F.24.1 man “medicine, physic, remedy”
< W. Chadic–Ron Bokos mandá “medicine, charm” / W. Chadic–Hausa māgànī “remedy, good or
bad magic, medicine”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *man- / *mag- “medicine, charm”
F.24.1 TB-Tibetan sngo-sman “a medicinal herb” [compound of B.2b.1 and this root]
F.24.2 TB-Tibetan shumε̄n “solvent, a substance that helps to melt something” shu “melt” Goldstein 933
[Compound of B.15b.1 (Extended ST ) and this root] ; mi̱mε̄n “doctor, physician”
[lit. “medicine person] Goldstein 800
F.24.2 C. Chadic–Gude mənganə “poison (in food)” Skinner 192. See also Note D.27a.2-3.
606
Proto-TB *s-man “medicine” Matisoff 2003 37

F.24.3 W. Chadic–Hausa mākari “antidote” mākařù “charm” Newman / Ma 1979 86
magàntā vt. “treat, cure a person” màgirō “pagan Hausa fetish” Newman, P. 2007 144
W. Chadic–Gwandara (Cancara) mə́gə̀ŋ “medicine” (Karshi) mágàni “medicine”
(Koro) mágə̀ni “medicine” Matsushita 1974 #403 96 See also D.27b.1 and Note E.4b.1 (Tibetan)
NC-Yoruba māgun “magic drug with ill effects on the adulterer” Skinner 192
NC-Swahili mgango “remedy” Awde 2000 145
F.24.3 IE-Sanskrit magha “a particular drug or medicine” Cologne Lexicon.
↓↓
F.25 AA – Chadic AA – AA- NS. Niger-Congo
Cush. Sem.
F.25.1 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic- Bura
lam-ka “a road, the way, lamka
passage, course, track” “great road”
Das 1208 Jaschke 544 lambata
lamkhag “path, road” “broad road”
Goldstein 373 Dict. of Bura
lam “way, road,
highway, main road”
Das 120, 129 Jaschke 545
Proto-Tibeto-Burman
*lam “road, direction”
Benedict #87 32, 203
Matisoff 2003 48
Swadesh “path” W. Chadic-Hausa NC- Fulfulde
F.25.2 lābìi m. “track, [Fulani]
TB-Meithei lambi “road” cattle path through lābi “roads”
Matisoff 2003 48 bush” Newman, P. Taylor 121
2007 137 < Fulani Skinner 183
F.25.3 Maba
TB-Tibetan Group-
laŋaà Mimi
“road” lanyak
Goldstein 1064 “road,
path”
Edgar 353
F.25.1, 3 Tibetan lam-ka “a road, the way” / TB-Tibetan laŋaà “road”
< C. Chadic-Bura lamka- “broad road” / Maba Group- Mimi lanyak “road, path”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma *lam- ~ laŋ- “road, path”
F.25.1
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] làm1 “road, path” Benedict 32 “road, path” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB- Burmese làm “road” Benedict 32 lam “road” Matisoff 2003 250
TB-Kiranti-Limbu lam “road, way” van Driem 1987 452
TB-Chin-Lushai lam-lian “road” lian “place” lam “way, direction, place” Benedict 32
“road, path” Matisoff 2003 250 Starostin, S. ST Etymology
607
TB-Tibetan lam “road, path, way” “way, means, method” Goldstein 1066
TB-Bodo/Garo ram-a “road” Matisoff 2003 250
TB-Tibetan la “mountain pass, road or passage” Jaschke 539
TB-Proto-Kiranti *lā “road” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
F.25.2 W. Chadic–Hausa lāwàlī m. “cattle path” Skinner 187 “bordered cattle path”
Newman, P. 2007 140
NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] lāwol “roads” Taylor 121 lāwol “cattle path” Skinner 187
NC-Poular lāw- / lāb- “sentier, chemin” [path] way] Skinner 263
F.25.3
W. Chadic-Gwandara hanŋya “road, way” Skinner 106
W. Chadic-Hausa hanya “road, way” Skinner 106
Maba Group- Maba linga-k “road, path” Edgar 353
C. Chadic-Kilba lākù “road” Starostin, Olga C. Chadic-Etymology 2006
↓↓
F.26 AA—Chadic AA –Cush. AA- Nilo-Sah. Niger-
Sem. Congo
F.26.1 C. Chadic- Bura Songhay NC-
TB-Tibetan ɬibu “bag” (Djenne) Fulfulde
lebo “large basket” Dict. of Bura lɛfɛ “bowl or pot [Fulani]
Goldstein 211 W. Chadic- cover lēfēre
[Disyllabic corresp.] Hausa (round, woven “basket
leebo / lebo lèefē m. without a handle, with
“basket “basket also used as a rimmed,
(for carrying things (made of palm fan)” narrow
on one’s back)” fronds)” Heath v.2 140 mouth”
Goldstein 1147 Newman, P. Taylor 122
(Cantonese) lei Skinner 187
“basket” Kwan 34
F.26.2 E. Cushitic-
Middle Chinese Oromo
lam lemat
“basket” ”large basket”
Norman 233 E. Cushitic-
Sidamo lemata
”large basket”
Leslau 1963 100
F.26.3 TB-Tibetan NS-Kanuri
slé-ba / slé-wa lewangin
“to twist, plait, “plait or tie up
braid the hair, (a woman’s hair)
(to make) a basket temporarily until
etc., to knit” properly plaited”
Jaschke 586 Cyffer 112
Das 1300
TB-Kuki-Chin-
Mikir aklei
“plaited hair”
Walker 3
608

F.26.1 TB-Tibetan leebo / lebo / leèbo “basket (for carrying things on one’s back)”
< C. Chadic-Bura ɬibu “bag”
F.26.3 TB-Tibetan slé-wa “to twist, plait, braid the hair, (to make) a basket etc., to knit”
< NS-Kanuri lewangin “plait or tie up (a woman’s hair) temporarily until properly plaited”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *lebu “a woven basket” ~ *lewa- “to plait, braid hair”
F.26.1 TB-Tibetan lhe “twist, braid” l�daà “knitting and weaving” daà “weaving” Goldstein 1146
slé-po / slé-ba / slé-bo (Central Tibet) “a flat basket” Jaschke 586.
sle-wo “a bamboo basket to carry loads” Das 1300 See also Note G.3.1.
lewu “a tightly woven wool blanket often used as a rain poncho” Goldstein 1147
F.26.2 TB-Tibetan lembu “a braid of hair” Goldstein 1065 l�� ba / l�ma “braided” Goldstein 1146
F.26.1 NS- Songhay lefe “plateau” [ tray] Zima 133 (Djenne) lefa “paillasson pour couvrir un vase”
Skinner 187
NC-Mandara lefe / lefa “plateau en paille tressée servant de dessous de plat etc.”
[tray made of plaited straw used as base of a plate etc.] Skinner 187
C. Chadic-Buduma lebi “Dumpalmblatter” [leaves of the doum palm”] Skinner 187
C. Chadic-Logone lefi “Palmblatt” [palm leaf] Skinner 187
N. Cushitic-Beja [Bedauye] láfe f. “Korb” [basket] Reinisch 179
F.26.2 W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (6 dialects) lemat “low wicker basket” Leslau 1979 v.2 45, 47
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic lemat “wickerwork basket” Leslau 1976 7
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari lēmat ”large basket” “from Galla [Oromo]” Leslau 1963 100
↓↓
F.27.1-2 AA-Chadic AA- AA- NS Niger-Congo
Cush. Sem.
F.27.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Hausa NC- Swahili
kaŋro kangö n.m. “old deserted gango
“a ruined house, building in ruined condition” “ghost town”
the rubble of a house” Newman / Ma 1979 62 Awde
kāŋba / gyāng‫̀ככ‬ “deserted, dilapidated building” 2000 56
“dilapidated house” Newman, P. 2007 107
Goldstein 113-114 “uninhabited, house, town”
Skinner 135
(Dangaram) “an uninhabited
house, compound, town, etc.”320
Matsushita 1993 68
F.27.2 N. Chinese– E. Chadic- Dangaleat NC-Gbaya
MSC kōngcheng [Dangla] k‫כ‬ŋ‫כ‬r‫כ‬m koŋoŋo ideo.
“deserted city” “vide (pour un récipient)” “désigne des
kōngdàng [empty (of a container)]” ruines
“deserted, empty” Fédry 290 abandonees”
De Francis 510 kongorom “empty” Skinner 135 [denotes
kōng “empty, See also C.18b.1 abandoned ruins]
hollow” Wu J. 391 Skinner 135
320
Note- F.27.1 (Tibetan Hausa) The kaŋ- root might appear to be inherited from kán- “hut, house” (as in
F.15b.1-2) since it appears in Tibetan compounds such as káŋ-rúl “a house in ruins” Jaschke 38 rúl “rot,
decompose” ( G.2.1). But as the present table indicates, the above kaŋ / kong- morphemes are variants of an
AA root (C.18b.1) whose basic meaning is “vacant, empty”. It is applicable to objects other than houses.
609

F.27.1 TB-Tibetan kaŋro n. m. “a ruined house, the rubble of a house”
< W. Chadic- Hausa kangö “old deserted building in ruined condition” “uninhabited, house, town”
F.27.2 N. Chinese -MSC kòng- “unoccupied, vacant” “empty space”
< E. Chadic- Dangaleat kongorom “empty” / NC-Gbaya koŋoŋo “denotes abandoned ruins”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *koŋo- “empty” / koŋo- “abandoned ruins” ~ kangö- n.m.
“old deserted building in ruined condition” “uninhabited, house, town”
F.27.1 TB-Tibetan káŋro gyaŋg‫“ ̀ככ‬dilapidated, in ruins (buildings)” káŋ-rüü “an old or dilapidated
house/building.” Goldstein 114 rüü “rotten, spoiled” (G.2.2)
kyáŋro “ruins” Goldstein 194
S. Chinese-Min khâng “vacant, empty, unoccupied” “empty, hollow, void” “empty, exhaust, reduce
to extremity” Bodman 1987 v.1 285 v.2 91, 115, 152 Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC gān “empty, hollow, dry” Wu, J. 217
F.27.1 NS-Anywa [Anuak] ökăŋ / káŋ “deserted farmland” [originally forest, after a few years of
cultivation when grass overtakes it, it is deserted]” Reh 35, 61
F.27.2 NC-Mande kongo / konko “brousse” [bush, wild area] Skinner 135
↓↓
F.28 AA – Chadic AA-Cushitic AA-Semitic Nilo-Saharan NC
F.28.1 W. Chadic – E. Cushitic- West Semitic- Songhay (Gao)
TB-Tibetan Hausa Sidamo Ethiopian-Gurage kúlli
(Ladakhi) makullī n.m. qulfa (Soddo) “cadennaser,
ku-lig “key, lock” “to lock, to qulf “locked” fermer à clef ”
“key, lock” Newman, P. close, to (Zway) [to padlock, to lock
In Ladak 2007 147 button” qūlläfä “lock” with key]
province a kullèe vt. “lock” Gasparini 270 Leslau 1979 Ducroz 161
contrivance “lock up” “lock N. Omotic- v.3 476 guli “knot”
used instead of in (e.g. keep in Yem kulf- -Amharic Heath v.3 135
a door latch” purdah)” “to close” qulf “key, button, kuli “to knot, tie”
Jaschke 3 Newman, P. Ehret 1995 snap (of dress)” Greenberg
[Disyllabic 2007 117 #445 246 Leslau 1976 68 1966 141
corresp.] Skinner 175
F.28.1 TB-Tibetan ku-lig “key, lock”
< W. Chadic–Hausa makullī n. m. “key, lock”
Approximate Tibetan etymon: *-kullī n. m. “key, lock”
F.28.1 W. Chadic–Gwandara kúlle “to lock” Matsushita 1972 68
NS-Songhay (Koyra, Djenne ) gulli “tie (knot)” Heath v.1 111, v. 2 80
F.28.1
IE-Pashto kulf m. “a lock or bolt” “to lock or bolt” Raverty 573
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek qulf “lock” “something used for fastening” English-Uzbek Dictionary.
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek kalit “key” “device designed to pen and close a lock” English-Uzbek Dictionary
Altaic-Turkic-Turkic kilit “lock” “device designed to open and close a lock” Tureng 732
610
Chapter 2G
Qualities, Time, Numerals and other quantifiers, Particles, Pronouns:
Semantically heterogeneous word families
This section has no thematic unity since it contains words whose semantic content comprises different
semantic domains and syntactic functions such as those described in the above title.
2G Domain statistics
Individual Word families = There are 40 word families (Each of the word families within a generic
word family is counted as a separate unit).
Single independent large word families = 9

“red” G.5.1-4
“long, “linear measure” G.12.1-4
“time” “hour, moment” G.14.1-5
“sun, day” G.15.1-4
“one, single” G.16.1-4
“one, single” G.171-4
“six” G.18.1-4
“ten” G.28.1-4
“I, me” G.30.1-4
“bitter” “hard” “strong” “thick (of liquids)” G.1.a-b
“small” G.8a-b
“high, tall” “huge, big” G.11a-b
“night, staying overnight, place to stay overnight” “sleep, tired” “day, day break, sun” G.13.a-c
Basic-vocabulary-Swadesh list:
The G semantic fields contain 19 word families with one or more sets of ST ↔ African/Afroasiatic
language correspondences which match the English glosses of the 100 word Swadesh list. Three of these
basic language terms are found in the generic word families listed above.
Due to the inclusion of number words, the section contains relatively the highest proportion of basic
vocabulary as measured against the basic vocabulary list. There are 15 word families containing matching
ST ↔ African/Afroasiatic number words.
Tibeto-Burman ↔ Chinese cognates: = 25
Proto-Afro-Asiatic ↔ Sino-Tibetan (TB and/or Sinitic) root correspondences) = 8
Polysyllabic correspondences: = 6 (Only one polysyllabic correspondence per word family is counted)
Etymologies:
Tibeto-Burman only etymologies 6 including 2 Tibetan only etymologies
Sinitic only etymologies 11 including 2 Cantonese only and 2 MSC only etymologies
611

G.1.a-b Afro-Asiatic Afro-Asiatic - Afro-Asiatic - Nilo-Saharan NC
– Chadic Cushitic Semitic etc.
G.1a.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic– Proto-South W. Semitic- Kanuri
ŋar-ba Hausa Cushitic Ethiopian-Semitic kér ideo.
“strength, force, (Kano) *karah Amharic “of something
hardness (of steel)” k’arak’auji “dry, hard” t’änäkärrä very hard /
Jaschke 127 “anything Skinner 180 “be hard, be solid”
karru dro hard and dry” E. Cushitic- strong, be solid” Hutchison 1981
“to become stronger / Matsushita Kembata Leslau 1976 233 350
thicker” 1993 275 k’àara Berber-Tuareg cár
Goldstein 181 k’arko “hard iɣar “describes
TB-Kiranti-Limbu “durability” (not soft)” “être dur” hardness”
kha.kkha.kwa Awde 1996 Hudson 76 [be hard] Cyffer 1990 25
“hard (consistency)” 98 “stiff, hard, Skinner 228
kha.kma vt. k’arfèe strong” See also D.4b.2
“harden, solidify, “metal” Skinner180
congeal, coagulate” Newman, P.
van Driem 1987 441 2007 127
G.1a.2 E. Chadic- N. Cushitic- Semitic-Hebrew Kanuri
TB-Chin-Lushai Dangaleat Beja [Bedawi] karam v. kərkərjîn
khar [Dangla] kar . “crusted, covered vi. “become
“congeal, crust over” gârkè “frische, nicht with crust” lumpy or
TB- Burmese “cailler, geschmolzene karosh adj. curdled
khai “congeal, crust tourner (lait)” butter” (Ger.) “jellied, (usually of
over” [curdled [cool, unmelted coagulated” milk)”
Benedict 15 (milk)], butter] Baltsan165 kərngîn,
Matisoff 2003 622 “se figer Reinisch144 Semitic-Written kərjîn vi.
TB-Tibetan (sang)” (Fr.) E. Cushitic- Arabic “solidify,
garru [coagulate, Oromo qārisa v. thicken”
“to make thicker, clot (blood)] kora “get dry, “to freeze, make “freeze”
to make stronger” Fédry 316 congeal” torpid” Cyffer
Goldstein 181 Foot 37 Wehr 885 1990 95
G.1a.3 Proto-Cushitic Proto-Berber
TB-Tibetan (Ehret) *ɣɣur
k‫כ‬rba “hard, tough, *gâb “be dry, hard”
solid” “stout, strong, Skinner180
Goldstein 192 thick”
TB-Tibetan Ehret 1995
gár-bu “solid #262 179
(not hollow)”
Jaschke 67
ska-ba “thick
(of fluids)”
Jaschke 18
G.1a.1 TB-Tibetan ŋar-ba “strength, force, hardness / TB-Kiranti-Limbu kha: / kkha: / kwa “hard
(consistency)” / Proto-Tibeto-Burman *kar ~ *gar “solid, frozen” “congeal, crust over”
< Proto-South Cushitic *karah “dry, hard”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *karah “dry, hard”
612

G.1a.1
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ka:r ~ *ga:r “solid, frozen” “congeal, crust over” Matisoff 2003 392, 426,
590; *kar “lead, bronze” Matisoff 2003 390
TB-Tibetan gar-mo “thick” Jaschke 67 “thick (for soups. broths, stews)”
Goldstein 181
G.1a.2
TB-Tibetan gawa thick (for fluids)” Goldstein 46 “thick (for broth, soup” Goldstein 84 ;
ska-ba “thick (of fluids)” Jaschke 18
Tibetan oŋar “milk before the butter is removed” [lit. thick milk] “milk” Goldstein 981
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *kal “congeal” Matisoff 2003 404,594
TB- Burmese khai “congeal, crust over” Benedict 15
G.1a.1
W. Chadic–Hausa k’arko “durability” Skinner 167 k’arfĩ “strength, power, potency (of medicine)”
k’arfàfà “become strong or encouraged” k’arfàfā “strengthen, make strong” Newman, P. 2007 127
E. Cushitic-Rendille angaga “be dry, dry out” Pillinger 65
Egyptian qah̟a “parched, dried” Budge 1978 v.2 764
NS-Swahili -kali “strong, severe, fierce” Awde 2000 82
NS-Kanuri kér ideo. “of something very hard / solid, immovable” Hutchison 1981 350
G.1a.1
IE-Sanskrit khara “solid (opposed to fluid)” “hard, solid” karkara “hard, firm” karkaza “hard, firm,
rough” khakkhata “hard, solid” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Hindi karā “hard” “tough” adj. Scudiere 72, 174
G.1a.3 IE-Sanskrit kUrca “hardness, solidity”
Cologne Lexicon See also Supplementary Table2 G.1a.1,3
/
G.1b.1 E. Chadic – E. Cushitic- West Semitic- NC-Swahili
TB-Tibetan Dangaleat Sidamo Ethiopian- kali
gar-wa [Dangla] qarara Amharic “bitter, hot,
“astringent, strong” gàrdìkàw “to be bitter, käräkkär’ä sharp,
Das 217 “saveur âpre ou acid, sour” “be acrid spicy, sour”
kha-wa âcre” [acrid, Gasparini 257 (sharp)” Awde
“bitter” bitter taste] Leslau 1976 2000 82
Das 131 Fédry 276 158
G.1b.2 E. Cushitic-
TB-Jingpho Burji
ʔəkhà ‘karaar-aa
“bitter” “bitter”
Matisoff 2003 107 Sasse 1982
TB-S. Loloish-Bisu 125
ʔaŋ-khà “be bitter”
“bitter” Hudson 207
Matisoff 2003 109
G.1b.3 TB-Written Didinga NC-S.E.
Burmese xaxat Mande-
khà “bitter” “be bitter” Tura
/ khá-kha Greenberg káká-ye
“bitterish” 1966 “bitter”
Benedict 18, 88 #15 96
613
[Disyllabic NC- N.
corresp.] Mande-
TB-Qiangic- Soninke
Pumi Dayang xaxacce
qhɐ‫“ כ‬bitter “bitter”
Matisoff 2003 170 Mukarovsky
96
G.1b.4 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – E. Cushitic- W. Semitic- Nuer ŋar
gar-chang Ngizim Oromo Ethiopian- “sour”
“strong beer” gártlà qaraari Semitic Huffman
Jaschke 67 “strong in taste, “inferior type Amharic 36
Das 217 bitter or sour” of beer” q’arari Kanuri
chang-karma [e.g. of beer] Hudson 27 “inferior type ngarngar
“strong chang” Schuh 69 karari of beer” adj.
Goldstein 353 “birra Hudson 27 “soured
chang leggera” (of milk)”
“alcoholic drink” [light beer] Cyffer
Borello 228 1990135
G.1b.5 West Semitic- NS-
TB-Pattani Ethiopian- Longarim
kəteg Amharic akate
“bitter” katikula “bitter”
Matisoff 2003 136 “kind of strong Greenberg
drink” 1966 #15
Leslau 1976 96
162
G.1b.1 TB-Tibetan gar-wa “astringent, strong”, kha-wa “bitter”, kha “bitter”
< Proto-Highland E. Cushitic *k’araar- “bitter” / NS-Nuer ŋar “sour”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma *k’araar- “bitter” ~ *ŋar “sour”
G.1b.1
TB-Tibetan gawa “bitter in taste,. astringent” Goldstein 84 gawa “strong (usually for tea or coffee)”
Goldstein 46 khá-po / khá-ba col. “bitter”Jaschke 37
Middle Chinese khuo “bitter” Norman 1988a Table 1.2 13
G.1b.3 TB-Bodo/Garo-Kokborok kəkha “bitter” Matisoff 2003 137
TB-Karenic-Pwo, Sgaw khà “bitter” Benedict 148, 151
TB-Chin-Lushai khaa “bitter” Benedict 18, 34 Matisoff 2003 75
TB-Chin-Tiddim xaa “bitter” Matisoff 2003 75
TB- Jingpho [Kachin] kha “bitter” Benedict 18 Matisoff 2003 451 əkha “bitter” Benedict 122
Written Burmese kha “bitter” Norman 1988a Table 1.2 13
TB-Tibetan kha “bitter” khakha “bitter mouth” Jaschke 33, 37 kamo “bitter” Goldstein 104
TB-Garo kha “bitter” Matisoff 2003 451
TB-Proto-Kiranti *ka(-s) “bitter” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
TB-Trung kha “salty” Norman 1988a Table 1.2 13
Old Chinese khag “bitter” Norman 1988a Table 1.2 13
G.1b.5 Chinese-MSC kûtóu “bitter taste” Wu, J 395
G.1b.1
E. Cushitic-Hadiyya ʔkaraar’ee “bitter, poison” Sasse 1982 125
E. Cushitic-C. Somali qaraar “bitter” Sasse 1982 125
614
Semitic-Written Arabic qārisa v. “to be severe, fierce, biting” Wehr 885

West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (4 dialects.)
qar / qār “acidity of the stomach”
Leslau 1979 v.3 494
E. Cushitic- Sidamo qararo “bitterness, vinegar” Gasparini 257
Semitic-Hebrew khareef “acute, pungent” Baltsan 198
E. Cushitic-Somali khal “vinegar”Awde1999 38
G.1b.2
Proto-Highland E. Cushitic *‘karaar- “bitter” Hudson 207
G.1b.3
W. Chadic-Hausa (Gobir dial.) mak’ak’i “the feeling in the throat after swallowing something very
bitter” Matsushita 1993166
NC- Swahili kaka “acid” “bitter” Awde 2000 81
Egyptian kaka “plant with a bitter taste” Budge 1978 v.2 791
G.1b.4
Semitic-Hebrew khareefeem “intoxicating liquor, alcoholic drink” Baltsan 198
G.1b.1
IE-Sanskrit khara “sharp, pungent, acid” Cologne Lexicon
G.1b.5 IE-Sanskrit
katu “pungent, acrid, sharp (one of the kinds of flavour)”“bitter”
katuka “sharp, pungent, bitter” Cologne Lexicon. Kuiper 1955 135
IE-Hindi
katu “astringent” “bitter” adj. Scudiere 14, 20, 170
katta “sour” Scudiere 224
See also Supplementary Table 2 G.1b.1, 5
↓↓
G.2 Afro-Asiatic – AA - Afro-Asiatic Nilo- Niger-
Chadic Cushitic, -Semitic etc. Saharan Congo
Proto-AA
G.2.1 W. Chadic –Hausa Semitic- Maba
TB-Tibetan ru’bàa vg. 1 Arabic Group-
rúl-ba vt. & vi. (Iraqi) Masalit
“to rot, “ferment” rooba ruaba
get rotten, ru’bar (dà) “curdled “bitter, sour”
to become vg.5 efferential milk, curds” ji ruaba
putrid” vt. . “thick “sour milk”
Jaschke 532 “ferment” yoghurt” Edgar 346
rul-wa adj. Newman, R. Dict. of Iraqi Maba
“broken, putrid” 1990 95 Arabic Group-
Das 1186 E. Chadic- Migama part 2 197 Maba
v. “to go bad, rùwáàbà / lul
to get rotten, rùbáaba “smell
to turn rancid “lait acide” rotten”
etc.” [sour milk] Edgar 342
Das 1188 Jungraithmayr /
Adams 119
615
G.2.2 W. Chadic–Hausa
TB-Tibetan rub’èe vg.4
rüübə / rüübu (completive)
“rotten” “rot, go bad, become
Goldstein1044 fermented” 321
[Disyllabic Newman, P.
corresp.] 2007 170
TB-Kiranti- W. Chadic-
Yamphu Gwandara
robatto rùbu “to decay,
“decayed, to get rotten”
spoilt” Matsushita 1972 100
Starostin, S.
Yamphu Dict.
G.2.3 C. Cushitic- Berber – NC- Benue-
TB-Tibetan Afar rùma Tuareg Congo-
rūmə “rottenness” [Tamasheq] Mama
“fermenting Parker / *rummet (Jarawan
agent / yeast for Hayward “se gater” Bantu
making beer and 183 [to spoil] Group)
yoghurt”. Proto-AA Skinner 221 rumu “rot”
Goldstein 1043 (Orel/Stolbov Williamson /
a 1995) Shimizu
*rüm- v.2 1973
“be rotten” #75 299
Skinner 221
G.2.1 TB-Tibetan rüübə / rüübu “rotten”
< W. Chadic- Gwandara rùbu “to decay, to get rotten” / W. Chadic–Hausa rub’è “be rotten”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma *ru’bàa “to decay, to get rotten” / rub’èe “be rotten”
G.2.1 TB-Tibetan rüü “to rot, spoil / decay / decompose” Goldstein 1044 srúl-ba “to be corrupted,
decomposed” Jaschke 583
G.2.3
TB-Tibetan rú-ma “curdled milk, used as a ferment” Jaschke 531
TB-Chin-Lushai ru “strong, fierce (as alcoholic drinks” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
G.2.1 E. Cushitic-Afar aruc “rot” Skinner 221
E. Chadic-Dangaleat [Dangla] róbé “s’affaiser” [to collapse, to sink, to crumble] Fédry 349
NC- Poular lub’- “puer” [to stink] Skinner 221
G.2.2 NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] rusmita “become soft, tender in cooking, be overripe” Taylor 161
G.2.3 NC-Wurkum (Jarawan Bantu Group) rumo / rumne “rot” Williamson / Shimizu v.2 1973 #75
299
E. Chadic–Dangaleat [Dangla] rọme “se deteriorer” [to deteriorate] Skinner 221
321
Note- G.2.1-2 The Hausa verb root ru’b- “rot” is a grade 3 basic intransitive form , i.e. rub’àa “ferment”
which denotes the process of rotting. This matches the Tibetan G.2.1 rúl-ba “to rot, get rotten, to become
putrid”. The grade 4 completive form (denoting the final result/completed state of the action) is rub’èe “rot, go
bad, become fermented” which matches the Tibetan G.2.2 rüübə. See chapter 10 section 10.2.1.2 for other
examples of grade 4 Hausa completive verb forms.
616
↓↓
G.3 AA – Chadic AA- AA- NS NC
Cush. Sem.
G.3.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Hausa
lhebbe “flat” leebùř adj. “level, flat”
Goldstein 1184 Newman, R. 1990 98
leb-léb la bor “lay it Newman, P. 2007 140
down flat” Jaschke 551 Skinner 187
léb-mo “flat” yi lēbùř “level, even” “be level”
Das 1220 Jaschke 551 v. and adj. Newman, R. 1990 98,
TB-Tibetan leb-leb 152
“flat like the top of a table” (mài) lēbùř “flat” adj.
Das 1220 ləbləb “flat” Newman, R. 1990 98
322
G.3.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *lep “flat / flat object” / TB-Tibetan lhebbe “flat”
< W. Chadic–Hausa leebùř “level” “be level”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *leb- “flat”
G.3.1 TB-Tibetan gleb-pa “to make flat, plain” Das 261 Jaschke 551 ljab “flat, plain, even”
ljab-ljab ba bor “lay or put it flat or even” Jaschke 183 lebshiŋ “a flat board, a plank”
Goldstein 1083 mɛ� nleb “flat tablet (medicine) Goldstein 839 śiŋ-leb “board, plank”
bhag-leb “flat loaf of bread” Matisoff 2003 377 ruleb “flat horn” Goldstein 1043
TB-Jinghpo [Kachin] lyap “thin / flat” Matisoff 2003 339
TB-Lepcha lep “to press down, to flatten, flat” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *lep “flat / flat object” Matisoff 2003377
W. Chadic-Tangale loblob “broad and flat” Jungraithmayr 1991 115
↓↓
G.4 Afro-Asiatic – AA – AA – Nilo-Saharan NC
Chadic Cush. Sem.
Swadesh “white” E. Chadic- Songhay (Koyra)
G.4.1 TB-Tibetan Dangaleat kàaréy
dkár-ba / dkar-wa [Dangla] “be white”
“white, whiteness” kar “très blanc” Heath v.1170
Jaschke 9 Das 52 [very white] (Gao)
dkar-po “white, pure, fair” Fédry 272 “être blanc”
Das 50 E. Chadic- Mokilko [be white]
gār / gārru “white” kàrkár “white” kàaró
Goldstein 19, 21 Jungraithmayr 1994 “blanc” [white]
[Disyllabic corresp.] v.2 345 Ducroz 141
322
Note- G.3.1. The *leb- root might appear to be derived from the similar *lebu root of F.26.1-2. In that word
family the presence of morphemes meaning “flat basket” could support such a position. However, it has been included
here as a separate word family since the verb forms indicate a different proximate origin. In this word family the
verb means “lay flat” or “flatten”, whereas the noun forms meaning “basket” in F.26 give evidence of being
derived from verbs meaning “plaiting” or “braiding”. Also in F.26 the words meaning “basket” refer also to baskets
which are not necessarily flat, e.g. “baskets for carrying loads”, “basket for eating”.
617

G.4.1 TB-Tibetan dkár-ba “white”
< E. Chadic-Dangaleat kar “very white” / Songhay kàaréy “be white”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *kar- “to be white”
G.4.1
TB-Tibetan garsaŋ / gardzang “completely white” Goldstein 21- 22. [compound of this root and
that of H.23a.3], gaaraà “lime, whitewash” Goldstein 2
G.4.1
NS-Songhay (Djenne) k‫כ‬ray “be white” Heath v.2 27
E. Cushitic-Rendille dakhán “white (like milk)” Pillinger 90
G.4.1 IE-E. Iran–Avestan kharu “white” kharka “white” AV Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2 G.4.1
↓↓
G.5 Afro-Asiatic – AA- AA -Semitic NS NC
Chadic Cush.
Swadesh “red” C. Chadic-Bura Semitic-Arabic
G.5.1 TB-Tibetan Group (Iraqi)
dzāà “red ochre” -za “red” s’adda
Goldstein 850 Skinner 119 “to rust, oxidize”
tsha-lu “red” Das 1018 msha Dict. of Iraqi
mtshal “red ochre soil” Arabic
“Chinese vermilion, used instead Dict. of Bura part 2 259
of red ink” Skinner 270
btsah “rust, blight” Das 1001
G.5.2 Written Burmese W. Chadic- Hausa
*ta ~ *t(y)a jā “red, reddish
“very red, flaming red” brown“
Benedict 159 Newman, P. 2007 96
Matisoff 2003 452, 616 Skinner 119
G.5.3 S. Chinese- Yue Semitic-Hebrew
(Cantonese) shanee “red,
jan / jàn “red” scarlet, crimson”
Chik / Ng Lam 304 Baltsan 386
G.5.4 C. Chadic- Mandara, West Semitic-
TB-Tibetan Padoko Ethiopian-Amharic
btsag *žagana zägä vi.
“red ochre” “red” “corrode, rust”
Jaschke 434 Skinner 119 yazäga “rusty”
Das 1003 zəgät n. “rust”
dzāgmaa Leslau 1976
“red dye, ochre” 184-5, 465
Goldstein 850
TB-Chin-Lushai
raŋ-ka-tśak
“red, gold”
Matisoff 2003 323
618
G.5.5 S. Chinese-Yue W. Chadic- Angas

(Cantonese) jelaŋ “red, rust”
jê “red” “hematite” C. Chadic- Gude
jê sehk “red” “hematite” ndze
[red ochre soil]323 “paint red”
jê mihn “to dye the face red”324 C. Chadic-Kotoko,
Chik /Ng Lam 438 mìhn “face” Logone zey “red”
(C.41a.1) W. Chadic-Seya
zhê “reddish brown, žel- “red”
burnt ochre” Wu, J. 887 Skinner 119
G.5.1 TB-Tibetan dzāà “red ochre”, tsha-lu “red”
< W. Chadic- Gwandara zā “red” / C. Chadic- Bura Group msha “red ochre soil”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *zā “red” ~ *msha “red ochre soil”
G.5.1 TB-Tibetan jaà “iron, metal” Goldstein 342 jaà gyee “the eight types of metal : gold, silver,
copper, iron, tin, brass, lead, bronze” Goldstein 343
TB- Jingpho [Kachin] dzha “gold” Benedict 46
G.5.4
S. Chinese-Kejia (Hakka) (MacIver) ch’ak7 “red” (Lau Chunfat) cag5 “red” Hakka Dict.
TB-Tibetan lchags “iron” Jaschke 148 jagmar “copper, red-hot iron” Goldstein 344
TB-Bodo/Garo-Dimasa gadzhau < gadzhak “red, gold” Benedict 46
S. Chinese-Min chiăq “red, bare” Bodman 1987 v.2 105, 132
Old Chinese t’iăk “red” Karlgren GSR793a-c Matisoff 2003 328
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *tsyak = *tshak “red, gold” Benedict 208
G.5.1
W. Chadic-Gwandara (Toni, Gitata) zā “red” Matsushita 1974 125 (Karshi, Koro)
jã “red” Matsushita 1974 #411 97
C. Chadic-Bura cahira “laterite soil, fine stone” Dict. of Bura
G.5.3
W. Chadic-Hausa jān-k’arfèe “bronze” Newman, P. 2007 97 k’arfèe “metal”
C. Chadic-Gude ndzena “red metal, brass” Skinner 119
G.5.4
C. Chadic-Glavda āsə̀gha “ocro” [ochre] Rapp / Benzing 1976 80 6
Proto-Omotic *zok’- “red” Skinner 119
323
Note- G.5.1-5 (Chadic) Red ochre is a mineral oxide of iron found as a type of earth called laterite.
Technically it is an aggregate (red iron ochre) of hematite (Fe2O3) which occurs as a crumbly powdery substance.
Schumann, Walter Minerals of the world,. N.Y.: Sterling Pub., c1992 186.
This soil is common in the tropics including most of sub-Saharan Africa and South China
324
Note- G.5.3 (Tibetan) Red ochre was being used by the Tibetans when observed by the emissaries of the Tang
dynasty to Tibet in the 8th century CE. “They like to paint themselves with red ochre” The practice was stopped
only when the Tibetan king married a Chinese princess who disliked it intensely. Snellgrove 29. The Tibetans were
called the “red faces” by the inhabitants of Khotan (N.W. China) who were invaded by the Tibetans in 665 CE.
(Snellgrove 30). The above text suggests that the practice was not widespread in China at that time, although the
G.5.5 Cantonese je mihn indicates an awareness of it.
Throughout Africa red body decoration has been one of the forms of the use of the color red to increase one’s
power. “---time and again accounts of all sorts juxtapose copper with red body decoration (camwood, ochre, even
red clay), red cloth, red beads, red feathers. ---Ritual objects themselves may be rubbed or painted with red to
augment their force”. Herbert 279
619
Proto-Berber *azwwaɣ “color with red ochre” Skinner 119

G.5.5
Proto-Cushitic (Ehret) *ts’ed- “red”
Proto-S. Cushitic *ts’ed “red, blood” Skinner 119
G.5.1 IE-Sanskrit
sara “salts of iron”
saraNa “iron rust or filings”
sarAga “reddened, redness” “iron rust or filings”
sArAgavastna “wearing red garments”
Cologne Lexicon See also Supplementary Table 2 G.5.1-3
G.5.3 IE-Hindi zang n.m “rust” Scudiere 243
↓↓
G.6 Afro-Asiatic - Chadic AA – Afro-Asiatic- Nilo- NC
Cush. Semitic Saharan
G.6.1 W. Chadic- Hausa Semitic-Arabic Zaghawa
TB-Tibetan marmarā f. < (Iraqi) marai /
marŋo “red color” mar(a)-marā smarr mara
marseŋ “laterite” “to turn brown” “red”
“light red (color)” Newman, P. 2000 240 samaar Goraan
Goldstein 830, 832 Newman, P. 2007 151 “brownness” maro “red”
samar “stone (esp. from Dict. of Iraqi Edgar 176
“red earth/soil” laterite soil)” Arabic
sa “earth/ soil” Newman, R. 1990 261 part 2 225
saŋmar “copper”
Goldstein 995, 1118
G.6.2 Semitic-Arabic
TB-Tibetan (Iraqi)
ḏmár-po “red” ma‫ح‬mar
Jaschke 422 “red”
Das 982 ‫ح‬marr
ḏmár-ba “red” “to turn red,
“redness” become red,
“to be red” redden”
Jaschke 422 Dict. of Iraqi
Arabic part 2 118
G.6.1-2 TB-Tibetan marŋo “red color”, samar “red earth/soil”
< W. Chadic–Hausa marmarā “laterite” / Semitic-Arabic ‫ح‬amar “redness, red coloration”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *marmarā “laterite” “red coloration”
G.6.1 TB-Tibetan jagmar “copper, red-hot iron” Goldstein 344
G.6.1
Egyptian marsh (?) “red ochre” Budge 1978 v.1 283
NS-Nuer yang mi mar “dark red cow” Huffman 51
G.6.2 Semitic-Arabic ʔahmarun (IPA) “red” adj. Merriam-Webster Arabic 127
NS-Maba Group-Maba asmar “brown” Edgar 156
↓↓
620

G.7 AA –Chadic AA –Cush. AA-Semitic Nilo-Sah. NC,
Kordofanian
G.7.1 TB- W. Chadic– Proto-Afro- West Semitic- Songhay
Tibetan Hausa Asiatic Ethiopian-Tigre, (Djenne)
thúŋ-ŋu coll. dùngū ding- / Amharic dùŋùrà
“short” “stump of dink- dənk “be short”
Jaschke 233 an arm” “dwarf” “midget” Heath
tuŋ-ŋu / thuŋ Newman, P. Militarev/ Leslau 1979 v.2 57,
“short” 200748 Stolbova v.3 214 v.3 96.
Goldstein 497 “stump of AA 1976 197, 328 Skinner 52
[Disyllabic maimed arm Etymology Egyptian (Gao)
corresp.] Newman / 2007 ṭeng “dwarf, “être court”
S. Chinese-Yue Ma 1979 29 E. Cushitic- pygmy” [be short]
(Cantonese) C. Chadic – Sidamo Budge 1978 Ducroz 77
dyún “short, Kotoko dinke v.1 lxix,
to be deficient” dungu “dwarf” v.2 867
Chik / Ng Lam “leper” Skinner 52
323 Skinner 52
G.7.2 E. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Egyptian Niger-
TB-Tibetan Mokulu Kambata ̣tang Congo-
tuŋduŋ / tuŋ duŋkilnye dənka “ dwarf” Kpelle
“short” “moignon” “midget, Budge doŋ “small”
Goldstein 497 (stump of dwarf” v.2 883 Niger-
TB-Kiranti- a limb)” Leslau 1963 Congo- Lobi
Limbu Skinner 57 dun “small”
thɔŋ.maʔ 51-2 Leslau Greenberg
“be short” 1979 1966 157
van Driem 527 v.3 214
G.7.3 NC-Swahili
TB-Tibetan dumefo
dum “maimed, “stunted”
limbless, dumaza
amputated” “to stunt”
dumba “short” Awde
Goldstein 585 2000 44
G.7.4 E. Cushitic- Nuer Kordofanian-
N. Chinese –MSC Somali dhuən Tagoi
duân dhuubân “small piece of” oduwan
“short “thin” Huffman 15 “small”
(in length)” Awde Kanuri Greenberg
Boping 32 1999 29 duwân / 1966 157
Chen 356 duwámá
“short, brief” “quickly”
Wu, J 167 Cyffer 1990 39
G.7.1 TB-Tibetan thúŋ-ŋu “short”
< NS-Songhay dùŋùra “be short”
G.7.4 N. Chinese-MSC duân “short (in length)”
< Kordofanian-Tagoi oduwan “small”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *dùŋù- / *- duwan “short, small, brief”
621

G.7.1 TB-Tibetan
thuŋ-ba “short” Jaschke 233
thuŋ-wa “short, low in size, of small dimensions” Das 580 Goldstein 497 ;
rtuŋ-wa “to make less, shorten, contract” Das 536
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] thun “wrinkle, shrink” Matisoff 2003 258
G.7.2
N. Chinese-MSC shùdūn “tree stump” “stump” Wu, J. 637
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dyún “short in length” “short in time” Chen 356 Kwan 475
“short” Po-fei Huang 376 “short in time, distance” Kwan 274 Chik / Ng Lam 323
dyún kyut “to fall short, deficient” Chik / Ng Lam 323
[compound of the present root and that of G.9.2]
S. Chinese-Kejia (Hakka) (MacIver, Lau Chunfat) ton3 “short, brief”
(Lau Chunfat) don3 “short, brief” Hakka Dict.
G.7.3 TB-Jingpho [Kachin] lethum “be amputated, as a limb” Matisoff 2003 130
G.7.4 N. Chinese-MSC duâncù ”of very short duration, very brief” duānwêi “short tail”
duântú “short distance” DeFrancis 215
TB-Written Burmese twan’ “wrinkle, shrink” Matisoff 2003 258
G.7.1
E. Cushitic-Afar ẹdenga “deformity”
NS-Kənzi urtunna “kurz, klein” [short, small] Skinner 176
C. Chadic-Bura dukudum “blunt, stubby” Dict. Of Bura
W. Chadic-Hausa duk’uf “shortness in height” Bargery 2011
NS- Kanuri dungunggin “become lame” Lukas 195 Cyffer 1990 39 Skinner 52 ;
dungulum “hornless, used of an animal belonging to a horned species, e.g. of a cow or goat”
Cyffer 1990 39
G.7.2 C. Chadic-Bura tundung “headless” (beheaded) tundungnga “of a pot, broken off at the
neck” Dict. of Bura
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Masqan, Selti) dənk “midget” Leslau 1979 v.3 214
E. Cushitic- Oromo dinkii “dwarf” Gragg 106 Leslau 1963 57 1
G.7.4 NS-Nuer dwany, dwanyi “born a cripple” Huffman 13
↓↓
G.8a-b Afro-Asiatic – Chadic Afro-Asiatic - AA – Nilo- NC
Cushitic Sem. Sah.
G.8a.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – Hausa
chuŋ-se / k’unci / k’umji
chuŋ-tse “narrowness, smallness”
“little, small” Skinner 176
Jaschke 159 mai k’unci “narrow
[Disyllabic corresp.] (constricted)”
Newman, R. 1990 176
Swadesh “small” E. Cushitic-Somali
G.8a.2 TB-Tibetan cunug
chuŋŋu / chuŋjuŋ “baby, child”
“small, tiny, young” Awde 1999
Goldstein 369 26, 58
chuŋŋu “little, small” See also D.20.1
Jaschke 159 Das 422
“baby” Jaschke 614
622
chung-ba E. Cushitic- Afar

“be small” “little” qunxa
Hodge 176 “be small, be
young” Parker /
Hayward 62
G.8a.3 TB-Proto-Kiranti W. Chadic – Gwandara Proto-E. Cushitic
*cùk “small” chukuri “little” *šuuk’-
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu Matsushita 1972 32 “narrow (of thing)
cùk “small” W. Chadic- Hausa Proto-Afro-
Starostin, S. Kiranti tsùukūkùu adj Asiatic
Etymology “emphasizes smallness, *šuuk’-
TB-Kiranti-Limbu constrictedness” “narrow, slim”
cukma vi. “be small” Newman, P. 2007 209 Ehret 1995 #514
cuksa adj. “tiny” ky’ukut] k’uk’ut ideo. 278
sa is the diminutive “emphasizes shortness” E. Cushitic-
van Driem 1987 413 Newman, P. 2007 132 Rendille
S. Chinese-Yue *júukh
(Cantonese) “narrow “
cūk “narrow, small” Pillinger 168
Chik / Ng Lam 511
G.8a.4 W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic-
S. Chinese-Yue tsūkèe vt. and vi. Rendille
(Cantonese) “draw, become drawn juukhoocha
sūk “to contract, together” vt.
to shorten” “tie closed with “make
“to draw back” drawstrings” (something)
Chik / Ng Lam 360 tsùukakkē adj. narrow”
chūk “to contract, to draw “tight, drawn in, as of Pillinger168
together” modern trousers or skirts”
chūkchūk “drawn Newman, P. 2007 209
together, wrinkled” See also Note H.17a.1
Chik / Ng Lam 443 (Hausa)
G.8a.1 TB-Tibetan chuŋ-tse “little, small”
< W. Chadic – Hausa k’unci “narrowness, smallness” /
W. Chadic-Gwandara (Nimbia) cúncwe’ ni “small”
G.8a.4 TB-Proto-Kiranti *cùk “small”
< W. Chadic– Gwandara chukuri “little” / W. Chadic- Hausa tsugul ideo. “very short”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *cúnci ~ *chuk- “small”
G.8a.2
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chyun “small, tiny, little” Chik / Ng Lam 109
S. Chinese-Min si-cūn “time (a short period)” Bodman 1987 v.1 193
TB-Tibetan chuŋ “a little” Jaschke 141 cung-zad “a little, slightly” Hodge 176
ɣchuŋ-po “a younger brother” Jaschke 146 chuŋ-wa / chuŋ-ba “little, small, young, junior,
inferior” “be small” Das 422 Jaschke 159 Goldstein 369 Hodge 17
N. Chinese -MSC chùn “very little, very short, small” Wu, J. 118
G.8a.3 TB-Kiranti-Kulung cùksipa “small” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
G.8a.4 Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] suk7 / sok5 / sou’k5 “contract, draw in” “reduce” “shorten, shrink”
Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Min siok1 “contract, draw in” “shorten, shrink” Hakka Dict.
623

G.8a.1
W. Chadic-Gwandara (Nimbia) cúncwe’ ni “small” Matsushita 1974 #414 98
NS- Kanuri kúndúk ideo. “describes the shortness of person” Cyffer 1990 101
C. Chadic-Bura kuntinga “short” Dict. Of Bura
NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] ngum “non-personal pronoun for small diminutives”
[as in] bingum ngum “this little child” Taylor 68 kumbo “the second daughter” Taylor 115
Proto-S. Cushitic *k’um- “short” Skinner 152
E. Cushitic-Oromo kumbá “bassotto, nano” [a short man , dwarf, dwarfed”] Borello 242
W. Chadic-Hausa k’umbula “a short girl” Newman, P. 2007 132
NS-Kanuri gə́mgə́m ideo. “describes shortness of a person” Cyffer 1990 58
G.8a.2
Egyptian h̟unu “the young of both sexes” Budge 1978 471
E. Chadic–Krio konce “petit” [small] Skinner 176
G.8a.4 W. Chadic-Hausa tsūkèe baki “purse the lips” baki “mouth” Newman, P. 2007 209
G.8a.1 IE-Sanskrit cūn “to contract, shrink” Cologne Lexicon
G.8a.3 IE-Sanskrit suksma “minute, small, fine, thin, narrow” suksmamana “minute or exact
measurement” Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary table 2 G.8a.3
Hindi sūkśamdarśi “microscope”m. sūkśam “subtle” Scudiere 340
Kartvelian-Georgian cùk-an-a “very small” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 14
Proto-Kartvelian ̣cùk- “small” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 14
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek kichik “minor” “of little significance or importance” English-Uzbek Dictionary
/
G.8b.1 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic-Mofu- West Semitic- C.
gūm “to draw back, to pull in / Gudur Ethiopian-Amharic Khoisan-
contract (limbs)” gum- “deformer, qumt’ana !Naron
Goldstein 60 se ratatiner” “leprosy” !gum ~
“to have a leg / hand contract” [deform, as in qomat’a / ‖kum
Goldstein 238 deformed hands, kwamata “short”
ʔəkhúm-pa “to shrink, to shrivel, become “leper, leprous, Ruhlen 1994
to be contracted, e.g. of the limbs wizened maimed by #505 63
by gout” Jaschke 56 (with age)] leprosy”
See also C.25.1 Skinner 91 Leslau 1976 70
kūm “to shrink, to shrivel, W. Chadic-Hausa akkwämattärä vt.
get reduced in size” k’undùmē “shrink” “contract,
kūmkūmba shriveled up, withered, “be cut off” (shrink)”
shrunk” Goldstein 158, 184 Newman, P. täkwämattara vi.
N. Chinese-MSC 2007 132 “shrink” “shrivel”
kūmù-xiûzhū “withered tree” E. Cushitic- Leslau 1976
“senile/sick person” “weak and Oromo 156-157
powerless” DeFrancis 521 gumcu
N. Chinese-MSC kūn moncone” [stump,
“be stricken” stump of limbs]
Merriam-Webster Chinese 78 Borello 189
G.8b.1 TB-Tibetan gūm “to draw back, to pull in / contract (limbs)” / kūmkūmba “shriveled up,
withered, shrunk”
< C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur gum- “deformer, se ratatiner” [deform, as in deformed hands, to shrivel] /
E. Cushitic-Oromo gumcu “moncone” [stump, stump of limbs]
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *gūm “to have deformed, shriveled limbs”
624

G.8b.1
TB-Tibetan ʔčum(s)-pa “to shrink” Jaschke 170 bskum-(pa) “bent up” Hodge 171
G.8b.1
NC-Swahili jikunyata “to be hunched up” Awde 2000 75
W. Chadic-Hausa gūntú “short (piece of anything) Skinner 92 ; “stub” “something that is stubby, short”
Newman, P. 2007 77
E. Cushitic- Afar gundub “a small stubby tail, a short tail” Parker / Hayward 117
E. Cushitic-Oromo Quba qurca gumcu “Le dita dei lebbrosi sono monconi” [The fingers of lepers are
stumps] Borello 189
NS-Kanuri guntu “stub, butt (e.g. of a cigarette)” Cyffer 1990 63
W. Chadic-Hausa k’untata vi. “be restricted (of area)” Newman, P. 2007 133 “to be restricted in size”
E. Cushitic-Rendille khonnokhsan “crumpled, squeezed up, be hunched up” Pillinger 192
G.8b.1
IE-Bengali kɔm “deficient, short” adj. kɔma v. “decrease” kɔmano v. “reduce”
Thompson 42
IE-Sanskrit kumpa “crooked-armed” kun “having a crooked or shortened arm”
kuNi “having a crooked or withered arm or an arm without a hand” “crooked-armed”
kuNaru “having a withered arm kun “to contract, shrink, shorten” “to draw together, to contract”
cūn “to contract, shrink” kuncitum “to be or become small, to shrink, to contract”
Cologne Lexicon See also C.25.1.
IE-Pashto gūndd “little, small, short in stature, squat, dumpy, dwarfish” Raverty 734
See also Supplementary table 2 G.8b.1
S. Central Asian- Dravidian kúnāru- “lame” Kuiper 1955 140
↓↓
G.9 Afro-Asiatic – Afro-Asiatic Afro-Asiatic Nilo- Niger-Congo
Chadic -Cushitic -Semitic etc. Saharan
Swadesh “small” C. Chadic – Semitic- Kunama NC-N. Mande-
G.9.1 TB-Tibetan Gudu Arabic kura Susu
gu “sign of kul “short” (Iraqi) “small” xuri / xuru
diminutives” C. Chadic – gus’ur Greenberg “small”
e.g. khyi-gu Gude “shortness, 1966 14 S.W. Mande-
“puppy, little dog” kurinya smallness” Bandi, Loko,
Das 219 “youngest Dict. of Iraqi kulo
cuŋ-ngu coll. child” Arabic “small”
“little, small” C. Chadic – part 2 389 Mukarovsky
“the younger or the Musgu 338
youngest son” gulle / gulai NC-
Jaschke 159 “kurz, klein” Yoruba
“baby” Jaschke 614 [short, small] kuru
Goldstein 369 W. Chadic – “short”
rəgu Hausa Skinner 177
“kid (baby goat)” k’ure / k’uru
Goldstein 1017 “be small,
See also set A.12b.4 narrow”
Skinner 177
625
G.9.2 W. Chadic – E. Cushitic- West

S. Chinese-Yue Hausa Sidamo Semitic-
(Cantonese) kùtutturèe qūta Ethiopian-
kyut “tree stump” “short, Amharic
“deficient, lacking, Newman, P. dwarf” gutto
short” 2007 120 Skinner 176 “tree stump,
Chik / Ng Lam 363 E. Chadic – E. Cushitic- short and
S. Chinese-Kejia Masa Group Misme stout
[Hakka] guti guti person”
ngut “short” “short” Leslau 1976
“stump of a tree, tree Skinner 92 Skinner 42 213, 492
without a branch”
Hakka Dict.
G.9.1
TB-Tibetan gu “sign of diminutives“
< C. Chadic–Musgu gulle, gulai “short, small” / NS- Kunama kura “small” /
NC-Mande kuru “short”
G.9.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) kyut “deficient, short”
< E. Cushitic-Sidamo qūta “short, dwarf” / E. Cushitic Misme guti “short”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *gu- / *ku- ~ *gut- “short, small”
G.9.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) kyutfaht “short of” “deficiency” Kwan 475, 126
kyutfahtge “deficient” Kwan 126
G.9.1 West Chadic-Hausa k’uruciya “youthfullness” Skinner 178
E. Cushitic- Sidamo gurde “stub (of a ticket)” Skinner 92
E. Cushitic- Oromo qurcawu vi. “essere troncato, mutilato” [to be cut off, truncated, mutilated]
Borello 353
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic kururu “stumpy” Leslau 1976 157, 492
NS-Nuer kwiye / kwike “few, scant, too small, too young” Huffman 26
G.9.2
W. Chadic–Hausa kùtùb’urb’ùriī “short, thickset, ugly” kùtùrtà vi. “become a leper”
kùtùrū m. “leper” Newman, P. 2007 119-120
E. Cushitic-Rendille gúrtum “tree stump” Pillinger 131
Semitic-Hebrew goots “short, undersized” Baltsan 114
G.9.1
Sanskrit khullu “small, little” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Hindi sikurānā vt. sikurnā vi. “shrink” Scudiere 149
G.9.2
IE-Bengali choto “small” Thompson 125 khato “short” Thompson 45, 125
IE-Old Indian krdhu “shorthened, mutilated, small, deficient”
Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012. See also Supplementary Table 2 G.9.1-2
↓↓
626

G.10 AA – Chadic AA – AA – NS Khoisan
Cush. Sem.
Swadesh W. Chadic- Hausa C. Khoisan-
“small” gàjērē adj. Proto-Non-
G.10.1 “short” Khoekhoe,
S. Chinese-Yue Newman, P. Naro,
(Cantonese) 2007 67 |Gwi
ngái 2000 8, 453 *|kxáré
“short (in height)” W. Chadic-Ngamo “small”
Kwan 475 gəjere Starostin, G.
“a short person” “short” 2003 31
“short, low” Skinner 75
Chik / Ng Lam 323 C. Chadic-Bura
Written Burmese gaji
ngai2 “the smallest of any
“small, little, inferior” class”
TB-Jingpho Dict. of Bura
[Kachin]
ŋai
“child”
Sagart 1999 164
G.10.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ngái “short (in height) “ “a short person” /
Written Burmese *ngai “small, little, inferior” /
< W. Chadic- Hausa gàjērē “short” /
C. Chadic-Bura gaji “the smallest of any class”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *ngài- “short” “small”
G.10.1
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ŋáy “small, little, inferior” Matisoff 2003 209
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) -jai diminutive suffix “little” e.g maaujai “little cat” Kwan 274
See also Note- D.3c.1 (Chinese)
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ngái syu “bushes, low tree” Chik / Ng Lam 323
G.10.1
C. Khoisan-Hiechware kare “a little” Starostin, G.2003 31
W. Chadic-Hausa
gajàrtā vt. “shorten
gaj àrtà “shortness” Newman, P. 2007 67
C. Chadic-Padoko gejele “petit (en stature)” (Fr.) “small (in hight) Skinner 75
E. Chadic-Tumaki goji “court” (Fr.) [short] Skinner 75
C. Chadic- Bura gaji “last born of the family” Dict. of Bura
↓↓
627

G.11a-b Afro-Asiatic – AA - AA -Semitic, NS Khoisan,
Chadic Cushitic Egyptian Niger-Congo
Swadesh W. Chadic-Hausa Proto-Afro- Semitic- C. Khoisan-Ani,
“mountain” tsawo “height, Asiatic Arabic Buga, Naro, Haba,
Swadesh “long” altitude” “length”” *ʔâw šauh Kua, Tsua,
G.11a.1 Newman, P. “tall, high, “to rise !áò “long”
S. Chinese-Kejia 2007 206 long, big” higher” “frequently also
[Hakka] Skinner 271 Ehret 1995 šaul used to denote
k’iau2 / kiaw5 mai tsawo #734 365 “to ascend, ‘tall’ and/or
“tall” Hakka Dict. “tall” “long (of be raised, ‘deep’”
N. Chinese-MSC space or time)” lifted up” Starostin, G.
qiâo “high and Newman, R. 1990 Ehret 1995 2003 23
steep” Manser 271 #863 514 S. Khoisan-!Kwi-
part 2 358 E. Chadic-Mokulu Xam
qiâobì “cliff, ’awwa “haut” !áo “mountain”
precipice, steep” [high] Bleek
Wu, J 548 ’awwika “hauteur, 1956 408, 444
jiâo “a high altitude” (Fr.) Starostin, G.
pointed mountain” [height, altitude] 2012 34
Swadesh “long” W. Chadic-Hausa Proto-Afro- Egyptian C. Khoisan-Deti,
Swadesh “big” gawurta Asiatic kau Tsixa, Damisi
G.11a.2 “become big, *gâw(ʔ) “to be high” káó “long”
N. Chinese -MSC important” “mountain” Budge 1978 “frequently also
gāo “tall, high” Skinner 85 Militarev / v.2 786 used to denote ‘tall’
gāo’ai “height” Stolbova qau and/or ‘deep’ ”
Wu, J. 223-224 Afroasiatic “height of the Starostin, G.
gāu (Y) “tall” Etymology ridges of the 2003 23
Chen 402 land above the Khoisan-Sandawe
S. Chinese-Kejia river ” [Nile] gawa “mountain”
(Hakka) Budge 1978 Greenberg 1966
kau1 / ko1 v. 2 762 #65 79
“high, tall, lofty” Starostin, G.2003
Hakka Dict. 25
G.11a.3 Semitic- C. Khoisan-Hietsho
S. Chinese-Yue Hebrew [Hiechware]
(Cantonese) govah |gowe / |koo
o ngòh “lofty” “height, “big”
Chik / Ng Lam altitude” C. Khoisan-Naro
446 Baltsan 114 ‖go “big”
S. Chinese-Min gāvo’ah Ehret 1982 [173]
koū “high” adj. “tall, S. Khoisan-!Kwi-
Bodman 1987 high” Xam
v.2 150 Baltsan 107 !óu “mountain”
Bleek 1956 408,
444
Starostin, G.
2012 34
628
Swadesh W. Chadic-Hausa S. Khoisan-|Xam

“mountain” k’oli !kou “mountain”
G.11a.4 “the top, summit” S. Khoisan-|Nusan
C. Chinese-Wu Skinner 173 !gou
ŋoʔ8 “high Matsushita 1993 “mountain”
mountain, great 280 Greenberg 1966 79
mountain” k’ōlōluwa C. Khoisan-Hietsho
S. Chinese-Kejia “summit (of [Hiechware]
[Hakka] ngo2 mountain)” !goa
“rocky cliff” Newman, R. “mountain”
Hakka Dict 1990 266 Ehret 1982 [176]
S. Chinese-Min Greenberg 1966 79
koū-guán
“highlands,
plateau”
Bodman 1987
v.2 91, 150.
G.11a.1 N. Chinese-MSC gāo “tall, high”
< Proto-Afro-Asiatic *ʔâw “tall, high, long, big” / Egyptian kau “be high” / C. Khoisan-Deti, Tsixa,
Damisi káò “long” / Khoisan-Sandawe gawa “mountain”
G.11a.2..1
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] k’iau2 / kiaw5 “tall” / N. Chinese -MSC qiâo “high and steep”
jiâo “a high pointed mountain”
< C. Khoisan-Ani, Buga, Naro, #Haba, Kua, Tsua !áò “long” “frequently also used to denote ‘tall’
and/or ‘deep’”
G.11a.4 C. Chinese-Wu ŋoʔ8 “high mountain, great mountain” / S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ngo2
“rocky cliff”
< S. Khoisan-|Xam !kou “mountain” / S. Khoisan-|Nusan !gou “mountain” /
C. Khoisan-Hietsho[Hiechware] !goa “mountain”
Approximate Sinitic etyma: *kau “be high” / goa “mountain”
G.11a.1
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] kau1 / ko1 “high, tall, lofty” Hakka Dict.
C. Chinese-Wu tɕiɔ6 “tall” Hakka Dict.
G.11a.2 N. Chinese-MSC qiâobi “cliff, precipice” Manser part 2 358 qiáo “tall” Wu, J. 547
G.11a.1
C. Khoisan-Cara káó “long” Starostin, G. 2003 23
C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe !áò “long” Starostin, G. 2003 23
Semitic-Hebrew gavah v. “grew tall” Baltsan 106
C. Chadic-Migama ŋwu “mountain” Skinner 173
C. Chadic-Mandara Group ɣw- “mountain” Skinner 173
W. Chadic-Hausa hau vt. “mount, climb” hawā vn. “climbing” “steep place”
hawā da gàngaràa “hilly” Newman, P. 2007 88 Skinner 108 gàngaràa “slope”“slant (incline)”
(B.6.1)
W. Chadic-Ron (Scha) hau “Felsen” [cliffs, crags”] Skinner 108
W. Chadic-Ngizim gàayu “climb, do climbing” “be climbable” Schuh 72, 194
Semitic-Arabic ʒabal (IPA) “mountain” Merriam-Webster Arabic 99
G.11a.2 C. Khoisan-Naro ‖kao “big” Ehret 1982 [173]
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic gara “mountain” n. Leslau 1976 207
629
NS-Songhay (Gao) kàarù “monter sur quelque chose, grimper” [mount something, climb]
Ducroz 142
NS-Kanuri kurúwu “long, tall, deep” Cyffer 1990 103
E. Cushitic-Oromo gara / gari “monte, montagna, collina” [mountain, hill”] Borello 166
C. Khoisan-Naron !gabi “mountain” Greenberg 1966 79
Proto-S. Cushitic *gâbi- “above, up, on” Ehret 1995 #263 179
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *gâb- “top” Ehret 1995 #263 179
Egyptian qaa “hill, high ground, high place” Budge 1978 v.2 761
G.11a.3 Proto-E. Cushitic *ʕal- “mountain” Ehret 1995 #679 347
G.11a.4 E. Cushitic-Somali kor “top, upper” koreeya “high” Awde 1999 38
Asian non-ST languages with correspondences to the African/AA roots:G.13a.2
G.11a.1 IE-E. Iranian-Avestan garayo “mountains” Peterson, J. 1995
↓↓
Swadesh “big” C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-
G.11b.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] Khoekhoe,
gāi5 / kiai5 / giai5 -Proto-Khoekhoe káí “big”
“huge, big, great and honorable” S. Khoisan-Masarwa
S. Chinese-Min kai3 !xai “big”
“huge, big, great and honorable” Hakka Dict. Starostin, G. 2003 9
G.11b.2 S. Chinese-Min ui3 S. Khoisan-Proto-!Wi
“huge, big, great and honorable” !ui “big”
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] S. Khoisan-|Xami
wui3 / wi3 “huge, big” !ui-a “big”
C. Chinese-Wu uE 6 “huge, big” Hakka Dict. Starostin, G. 2003 9
G.11b.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] gāi5 / S. Chinese- Min kai3 “huge, big, great and honorable”
“huge, big, great and honorable”
< S. Khoisan-Masarwa !xa-i “big” C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe *káí “big”
G.11b.2 S. Chinese-Min ui3 “huge, big, great and honorable” / S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] wui3 / wi3
“huge, big”
< S. Khoisan-Proto-!Wi !ui “big”
Approximate Sinitic etyma: *káí / !ui “big”
G.11b.1 Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ngaih “high, lofty” Chik / Ng Lam 47, 480 ngàaih “precipitous,
high and steep” “a cliff, a precipice, brink, verge” Chik / Ng Lam 117
gàaih “great and honorable” Chik / Ng Lam 8
G.11b.1 C. Khoisan-Nama, !Kora kai “big” Ehret 1982 [172].
↓↓
G.12 Afro-Asiatic – Afro-Asiatic - AA - Nilo- NC
Chadic Cushitic Sem. Saharan
Swadesh “long” W. Chadic- E. Cushitic – Tubu [Teda]
G.12.1 S. Chinese-Yue Hausa Sidamo Daza
(Cantonese) dōgō “long, dōgga dogo
douh / dohk tall” Kraft 339 “big, tall” “loin” [far]
“instrument for measuring “tall, long, Gasparini 87 Skinner 48
length” “degree” high” Skinner 48
“number (of times)” Newman, P.
Chik / Ng Lam 128 2007 46
630
“to measure” E. Chadic- dogú /

Matthews, S. 2 Kwan 290 Bidiya doko
S. Chinese-Kejia dōk “loin” “weit”
(Hakka) dōkki “loin, (Ger.)
tok8 / dok7 haut” [distant, far
“degree” “instrument for [far, high] away,
measuring length” Skinner 48 remote]
“number (of times)” Lukas 1953
Hakka Dict. 204
G.12.2 C. Chadic-Bata E. Cushitic- NC -Gbaya
TB-Tibetan nduko Oromo d’uka
tugbu / tuge “thick” “grand” (Fr.) dugduma “profond”
Goldstein 512 [big, great] “braccio ; [deep]
TB-Sho thük “deep” Skinner 48 misura di cm. Skinner 48
Matisoff 2003 360 50” [arm,
S. Chinese-Yue measure
(Cantonese) equalling 50
duk “deep, much, great” cm.]
Chik / Ng Lam 345 Borello 126
G.12.3 Anywa NC-Proto-
TB-Chin-Lushai dòoŋ Benue-
duŋ “length” “largeness” Congo
Benedict 19 “size” *-dong-
Matisoff 2003 288 Reh 24, 123 “depth
Chinese-Min (Shaowu, dòoŋŋò (of water)”
Jiangle) thoŋ2 “long” “to become Williamson
(Fúzhōng) large, /
touŋ2 “long” become big” Shimizu 104
Norman 1988a 230 Reh 24
G.12.4 N. Chinese E. Cushitic-
-MSC dù n. “linear Oromo
measure” “degree of dudduma
intensity” “a unit of “unità di
measure for angles, misura, circa
temperature etc., degree” m. 0.50”
Wu, J. 166 Boping 31 [unit of
dôu “measurement of measurement,
capacity (10 liters) about .50 of a
Manser part 2 107 meter ]
-du grammatical suffix Borello 125
“degree” Packard 174
G.12.2 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *tu.k “thick, deep”
< NC- Gbaya d’uka “deep”
G.12.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dohk “instrument for measuring length” “degree” “number (of
times)”
< W. Chadic-Hausa dōgō “long, tall” “long (of shape or time)”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *d’uk- “deep” ~ dōg- “long, tall”
G.12.1 E. Cushitic-Sidamo dōggima “bulk, bigness” Gasparini 87 Skinner 48
G.12.2 TB-C. Loloish-Lahu thuk “deep” Benedict 77
631
TB-Chin-Sho thȕk “deep” Benedict 77 Matisoff 360

TB-Burmese thuik-thuik “thickly” Benedict 77
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *tuk “thick, deep” Benedict #356 77, 208
Old Chinese dak- “to measure” Norman 1988a 85
G.12.3
TB-Lepcha (a-)thuŋ “height, length” Benedict 19
Written Tibetan mthon-po “be high” Matisoff 2003 204
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *duŋ ~ *tu:ŋ “long, length” Matisoff 2003 288, 587
S. Chinese-Min tng “long (spatial measurement) Bodman 1987 v.2 05
G.12.4 N. Chinese-MSC
dôu “a unit of dry measure for grain, = 1 decaliter” Wu, J. 163
dôu “measurement of capacity (10 liters) Manser part 2 107
TB-Written Burmese thu “thick” Benedict 69 Matisoff 2003 515
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) douh325 / dohk “instrument for measuring length” “degree”
“number (of times)”
G.12.1
E. Chadic-Bidiya dôk “loin” [far] dôkki “loin, haur” [far, high] Skinner 48
W. Chadic- Hausa dòogòntakàa “height, length” Newman, P. 2007 46 ; (Gobir dial.)
Proto-Cushitic *d-g(g)- “height” Skinner 48
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic däga “highland (about 5000 feet up)” Leslau 1976 199
G.12.2 TB-Chin-Lushai thu.k “deep” Benedict 77
G.12.3
NC- Jaba (Plateau 2 Group) duŋ “depth (of water)” Williamson/Shimizu 102
NC-Legbo (Delta Cross) *ε-dôŋo “depth (of water)” Williamson/Shimizu 102
NC- Ekoid Bantu Group é-túná “depth (of water)” Williamson/Shimizu 102
↓↓
G.13a-c Afro-Asiatic – AA –Cush. AA – Nilo- Khoisan
Chadic Sem. Saharan
G.13a.1 S. Chinese-Min E. Chadic- Omotic- NS- Kanuri C. Khoisan-
khûn “to sleep” Lele, Gabri Janjero kənə̂m Proto-
Bodman 1980 89, 173 ; kun “sleep” kuna “sleep” Khoekhoe
1987 v.2 109, 155, 206 Skinner 160 “lie and sleep” Cyffer ‖ʔom
Matisoff 2003 168 C. Chadic- Skinner 160 1990 92 Nama
TB-Qiangic-Pumi Dayang Hwona Omotic-Yem Hutchison ‖om
kəní “rest ” Matisoff 2003 xùnà kún- 1981 65 Starostin, G.
168 “lie down” “to fall 2003 30
N. Chinese -MSC Stolbova, asleep” “[to] sleep”
kùn “tired, fatigued, sleepy” Olga Ehret 1995 C. Khoisan-
Manser part 2 264 Wu, J. 401 C. Chadic- #377 220 Hiechware
Wang, F. 289 Etymology ‖gom
See also C.38c.2 “[to] sleep”
325
Note- G.12.4 (Chinese Extended) In Cantonese –douh is used as a suffix meaning ’degree’ and forms
abstract nouns denoting ‘measurements’ when attached to adjectives. Examples are: gou-douh lit.“tall-degree”,
“height”, cheung-douh lit.“long degree”, “length”. Matthews , S. 34
632
G.13a.2 TB-Tibetan Kanuri NC-Fulfulde

goŋdeb / goŋmεε kuntúshirá [Fulani]
“halting / staying overnight m “resting ngonga
(on a trip)” Goldstein 222 place” “to, nod,
S. Chinese-Kejia (Hakka) kuntúshi sleep and
(MacIver) “rest, nod, be
kwon3 / kon3 / kwan3 repose” drowsy”
“stay, lodge” “house, guest Cyffer ngongol
house, hotel” Hakka Dict. 1990 102 n.
S. Chinese-Min Hutchison “sleep”
khùn-páng “bedroom” 79 Taylor 67
Bodman 1987 v.2 154
G.13a.3 W. Chadic-
TB-Tibetan Goemai
goŋ “evening, night” [Ankwe]
goŋshaà “a night, overnight” goŋ “night”
G.13a.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gún “house, guest house”
< W. Chadic- Ron Kanuri kuntúshirám “resting place”
G.13a.3 TB-Tibetan goŋdeb / goŋmεε “halting / staying overnight (on a trip)” / S. Chinese-Kejia
(Hakka) kon3 “stay, lodge”
< W. Chadic- Ron kon “to spend the night and remain till morning” / C. Khoisan-Hiechware
‖gom “sleep”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *kon “sleep” “to stay overnight and leave in the morning”
G.13a.1 S. Chinese-Min ai khûn “be sleepy, feel sleepy” Bodman 1987 v. 2 154-155
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gyuhn “tired, weary” Chik / Ng Lam 20
G.13a.3 N. Chinese-MSC gõngyù “lodgings” “lodging house” yù “residence” Wu, J. 235
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gùngyu “inn” Po-fei Huang 391 gún “house, guest house”
Chik / Ng Lam 495 léuihgún “inn” Kwan 244
G.13a.4
TB-Tibetan
gongdro “evening” Goldstein 222
goŋmo “the evening” Das 274
goŋja “one of the twelve segments that a day is divided into (in this case, the time around sunset”
gondaa “evening, night” Goldstein 222
G.13a.1
Proto-Omotic *xùn “to lie down” Ehret 1995 #377 220
C. Chadic-Gava xunig “lie down” Skinner 160
NS- Songhay (Gao) kéní “se coucher, être couché” [lie down, be lying down] Ducroz 149
G.13a.2
W. Chadic- Ron (Bokkos) kon “die Nacht verbringen, Beischlaf haben (und sich am Morgen
unterhalten)” [to spend the night, to sleep over (and remain till morning)] Jungraithmayr 1970 143
C. Chadic- Wamdiu gonyu “sleep” Skinner 160
E. Chadic – Mokulu ʔonny “passer la nuit, jour” [pass the night, the day”] Skinner 160
G.13a.4 E. Chadic-Nancere kena “Nacht” [night] Skinner 160
G.13a.2 IE-Bengali ghu:m “sleep” n. ghumano “sleep” vb. Thompson 48,125
/
633
G.13b.1 S. Chinese-Kejia W. Chadic- Hausa kwāna vi. Semitic-Aramaic

(Hakka) “spend the night” “spend a day” ʔawwān /
(MacIver) kwon3 / kon3 / kwan3 (24 hour period)” “stop for a rest” ʔawwānā
“stay, lodge” “house, guest house, Newman, P. 2007 121 “pass night” “house, inn”
hotel” Hakka Dict. Skinner 160 “station where
N. Chinese-MSC wurin kwànciyā “lodging place” one spends the
guân “accommodation for Newman, P. 2007 121 night”
guests” Wu, J. 250 makwancī makwantai pl. Comprehensive
kuân “to lodge” “a tavern, “sleeping place” Aramaic
a restaurant” Mathews #3559 525 Newman, P. 2007 147 Lexicon
See also F.15b.1, 4
G.13b.2 W. Chadic- Gwandara
S. Chinese-Yue (all dialects) kwana “sleep” “day”
(Cantonese) “to spend days”
kwan Matsushita 1972 72
“sleepy, drowsy” Proto-Chadic *xwən- “to lie down”
Chik / Ng Lam 319 Newman, P. 1977 #82 29
Ehret 1995 #377 220
G.13b.1
S. Chinese-Kejia (Hakka) kwon3 / kon3 / kwan3 “stay, lodge” “house, guest house, hotel”
< W. Chadic- Hausa kwānā vi. “spend the night”, makwancī “sleeping place”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *kwānā vi. “spend the night” ~ *-kwan- “sleeping place”
G.13b.1 S. Chinese-Min kuàn bf. “building or institution for public use” Bodman 1987 v.2 151
(Taiwanese) li-kuàn “hotel” Bodman 1980 1, 179 koan2 “house, guesthouse, hotel” “stay, lodge”
Hakka Dict.
G.13b.1 W. Chadic-Ron (Fyer) kwaan “eine Nacht verbringen, schlafen” [to spend a night, to sleep]
NS-Kanuri wángin “pass or spend the night” “reach the morning” Cyffer 1990 182 Lukas 1937 247
W. Chadic-Ngizim wə̀nà “spending the night” wə̀nànú “spend several days” Schuh 169
NS-Songhay (Koyra) hanna vi. “stay up late at night, spend the night doing” Heath v.1 118
(Koroboro) “be or do at night” Heath v.3 146
G.13b.2
W. Chadic-Hausa
kwānā “sleep, lying down”
kwànciyā “lying down in a prone position” vn. of kwântā “lie down” Newman / Ma 1979 71
kwaantā vi. “lie down” Skinner 161 “lie down, be settled or at rest” Newman / Ma 1979 72
NS-Songhay (Djenne) kani “lie down, go to sleep, spend the night” Heath v.2 117
W. Chadic-Ngizim yùwán “sleeping” “spending the night” Schuh 177
C. Chadic–Fali Group *xw-ny- “sleep” Skinner 160
C. Chadic–Musgoy waŋ “sleep” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 299
C. Chadic–Daba wan “sleep” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 299
E. Chadic – Migama wáàni n. “sleep” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 299
NS- Songhay kengyɛɛ “supine, lying on one’s back” Goldstein 179
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *gwîn “to lie down” Ehret 1995 #377 220
C. Chadic- Gude ngwunngyin “sleep” Skinner 160
W. Chadic- Tangale wandan “lie down” Skinner 160-161
NS-Anywa [Anuak] ówɛ‫כ‬ɲɔ‫“ כ‬sleeping house (of king) Reh 63, 124
↓↓
634

G.14 Afro-Asiatic – AA –Cushitic AA- NS NC
Chadic Semitic
G.14.1 W. Chadic-
S. Chinese- Min sèkì Gwandara
“period, šekàrà
stretch of time” “year”
Bodman 1987 v.2 169 Matsushita 1974 107
S. Chinese-Yue W. Chadic- Hausa
(Cantonese) shèekaràa
sìkei “period, n.f. “year” “age”
stretch of time” Newman, P. 2007
Kwan 346 185
N. Chinese-MSC “year, spend rainy
shíkè “time, hour, season”
moment” Wu, J. 619 Skinner 243
G.14.2 C. Chadic–Bura Semitic- Arabic
TB-Tibetan saka “time” (Iraqi)
shag “a day , but not sakanda saa‫ع‬a
in contra-distinction to “at that time” “time, moment”
a night” Das 1065 sakati “hour”
shəgshee “time when, while” Dict. of Iraqi
“a few days and nights” Dict. of Bura Arabic part 1 88
Goldstein 92 part 2 210
zhag “day”
Jaschke 471 92
G.14.3 S. (Ethiopian) NS-Nuer
N. Chinese-MSC Semitic - cyaŋ
tiān Amharic cyaŋ
“day, sky” qän “daily”
Manser 109, 442 “day, date, Huffman
changwu daytime, 11
“day to day business” weather” See also
changchang Leslau 77, 313 Chapter 10
“frequently, often, Section
usually, generally” 10.5 on
Manser 57-58 reduplica-
[Disyllabic corresp.] tion
G.14.4 Semitic- Hebrew
N. Chinese-MSC sha’ah
shà “a very short time, n.f.
moment, instant” “hour”
Wu, J. 592 Baltsan
TB-Tibetan 382, 611
tshar / tsher “time (hour)
“time” “occasion, Baltsan 789
instance”
Jaschke 447
“used in ‘once, twice,
times’ “
Das 1024
635
shaà
“a period including
a day and a night”
Goldstein 921
G.14.5 E. Cushitic- W. Semitic-
S. Chinese-Yue Oromo Ethiopian-
(Cantonese) sa’atii Amharic
saatnah “hour, watch, sä’at /
“a moment, an instant” [loan from säat
Chik / Ng Lam 37 Amharic “hour, clock,
“sa’at”] watch”
Gragg 347 Leslau 1976
E. Cushitic- 57, 372
Sidamo
saate “hour”
Gasparini
286
G.14.6 C. Cushitic- West Semitic-
TB-Tibetan Sidamo Ethiopian-
sa sāsā Gurage
“occasion, opportunity, “opportunity, (Gyeto, Muher,
possibility” suitable Masqan)
Jaschke 569 time” šäk
Das 1255 Gasparini “good fortune,
286 luck”
C. Cushitic- Leslau 1979
Afar saàmi v. 3 576
“chance,
fortune”
Parker /
Hayward 184
G.14.1 S., Chinese- Min sèkì “period, stretch of time” / TB-Tibetan shəgshee “a few days and
nights”
< W. Chadic- Gwandara šekàrà “year”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *shəg- “period of time” ~ sa’ “time, hour”
G.14.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sìh “a season, an era, an age, a period, time, hour” Chik / Ng Lam 206
TB-Tibetan tshe “time in a general sense” Das 1029
she “time, period, era (archaic)” Goldstein 147
G.14.2
TB-Tibetan shag “the period of time from sunrise to sunset” Das 1065 shagjig “one night, one day
and night” jig “one” (C.8b.1) shəgdzuu “a day’s distance on a journey” Goldstein 921
G.14.4 TB-Tibetan tshar ɣchig “one time, once” Jaschke 447
G.14.1
W. Chadic-Ngizim sə̀kòokùyú “pass time, allow time to go by” “spend a long time” Schuh 140
W. Chadic-Hausa sékare n žia “the day before yesterday” sékara nbara “last year”
sékara bana “this year” Barth 24
C. Cushitic-Bilin šiq “rainy season” sik “spend rainy season” Skinner 243
636
Egyptian (Faulkner) ski “pass time” Skinner 24 3

W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Jimbin zəger “pass by” Skinner 243
Cushitic-Agaw cəg “pass rainy season” Skinner 243
G.14.3 S. Chinese-Min siong-siong “often frequently” Bodman 1987 v.2 100
G.14.4
E. Cushitic-Somali sa “a portion of time” Skinner 224
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic zare “today” Leslau 1976 180
NC- Fulfulde [Fulani]
sa’i “time” Taylor 163
sā’a “hour, clock, watch” (< Arabic) Taylor 161
G.14.5
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šatta “to winter, spend the winter” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 235
E. Cushitic-Rendille sahá’d “time, hour” Pillinger 255
S. (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic qän bäqän “daily, day by day, day after day” Leslau 77, 313
Kanuri sártə n. “term, appointed time, deadline” Cyffer 1990 155
G.14.6
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) saacah “time, moment, hour” “watch, clock, timepiece” Qafisheh 323
Semitic–Written Arabic sā’a “time, while, hour” Wehr 515 “hour” “of Aramaic origin”
Leslau 1963 135
G.14.2
IE Sanskrit
zaka “an era, an epoch” “a year of any era”
zAka “a general name for any era”
Cologne Lexicon.
Altaic Proto-Turkic *čiāk “time”
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish *čaɣ “time” “measure”
Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh čāq “time” “measure”
Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz čāq / čāk “time” “measure”
Altaic-Turkic-Bashkir sāq “time” “measure”
Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz, Altaic-Turkic-Tuvan šāk “time” “measure”
Proto-Altaic *c’iāk’e “time” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 17
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *čag “time”
Altaic-Mongolian-Khalkha cag “time”
Altaic-Mongolian-Ordos, Kalmuck čag “time”
Altaic-Mongolian- Buriat sag “time”
Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology http://starling.rinet.ru./c
↓↓
G.15 Afro-Asiatic – Afro-Asiatic - AA – Nilo- NC
Chadic Cushitic Egyptian Saharan
Swadesh “sun” Egyptian Anywa Kordofanian-
G.15.1 TB-Chin-Lushai, uni, unin nìmɛ Tegali, Rashad
TB-Karenic-Pwo, Sgaw “light” “days” ani
ní “sun, day” Budge Reh 51 “sun”
Benedict #81 31 1978 Greenberg
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] v.1 167 1966 158
ní “day”
Matisoff 2003 191
637
G.15.2 W. Chadic- N. Cushitic- Maba

TB-Tibetan Hausa Beja [Bedawi] group-
ñin-(mo) yinì yīn Aiki, Kibet
“the day, “daytime, pass “sonne, tag” anyiŋ
the time lighted or the day” Reinisch 242 “sun”
illuminated by Skinner 292 “sun, day” Edgar 159
the sun” Newman / Ma Skinner 292 Nuer
Das 482 1979 134, 137 Mukarovsky nin
Jaschke 188 “spend a day” 141 “day”
Goldstein Newman P. Huffman 8
415, 416 326 2007 226
ñin “day”
Goldstein 415
S. Chinese-Yue
(Cantonese)
yihndoih
“today”
Kwan 532
G.15.3 Kordofanian-
Middle Chinese Otoro
nien- (a)nyεn
“sunlight” “sun”
Matisoff 2003 464 -Grebo
nyenε
“sun”
Greenberg 1966
158
G.15.4 Maba-
Middle Chinese Kodoi
nyit “sun” anyik
Sagart 1999 159 “sun”
Old Chinese Edgar 160
�jit
“sun, day”
Norman 1988a 13
�i̭�t
“sun, day”
Karlgren GSR 404a-d
Matisoff 2003 201, 464
G.15.2 TB-Tibetan ñin-(mo) “the day, the time lighted or illuminated by the sun” /
Chinese- Wu ɲɪʔ8 “sun” “day”
< NS-Maba group- Aiki, Kibet anyiŋ “sun”
G.15.4 Middle Chinese nyit “sun” / Old Chinese �jit “sun, day”
< NS-Maba group- Maba-Kodoi anyik “sun” / Maba group- Maba ʔenyik / anyik “sun”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *nyiŋ ~ nyik “sun”
326
Note- G.15.1-2 (Tibetan) The G.15.2 ñìŋ / ñin root means both “day” “year” in TB, and “harvest, year” in
Sinitic. The Starostin database gives constructions of these as two separate TB proto-forms *nij “sun., day” *niŋ
“year”. Semantics of “year” appear to be rare in African/Afroasiatic languages, e.g. Chadic –Angas Extended
which is probably a late derived form.
638

G.15.1
TB-Trung ni “sun, day” Norman 1988a 13
TB-Written Burmese ne “sun” ~ ne’ “day” Norman 13 Benedict 88 Matisoff 2003 191
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ni = *nəy “sun, day” Benedict # 81 31, 157, 204 Matisoff 2003 464
G.15.2
Old Chinese anìn “year” Sagart 1999 52
TB-Trung ɲiɲ “year” Norman 1988a 13
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) nìhn, nín “year” Po-fei Huang 428 Chen 463
TB-Tsangla nìŋ “year”
TB-Proto-Kiranti *nìŋ “year”
TB-Kuki-Chin-Mikir nìŋ “year”
TB-Miri nìŋ “year”
G.15.3
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] nyan2 “year” Ramsey 114
N. Chinese –MSC nyán “year” Wu, J. 496
Middle Chinese nien “year” Norman 1988a 13f
G.15.4
TB-Lepcha nji “sun, day”
TB-Namsangiya nyi “sun, day”
TB-Tibetan
nyi-ma “the sun, day” Jaschke 187
ñi-ma “the sun” Das 478 nyi-ma “sun” Hodge 13
G.15.2
W. Chadic-Angas yî / yī “a year counted by moons, time” Foulkes 308
NS-Maba group- Masalit ayiŋge / aiyiŋgo “sun” Edgar 159
G.15.3 S.E. Mande- Mano nyenè “sun, day” Mukarovsky 141
G.15.4 NS-Maba group- Maba ʔenyik / anyik “sun” Edgar 160
↓↓
G.16 AA – Chadic AA –Cush. AA -Sem. NS NC
Swadesh W. Chadic-Hausa
“one” ‘daya n. and adj.
G.16.1 TB-Jingpho “one” “same”
[Kachin] Newman, P. 2007 54
tāi / ‘daya biyu, uku
TB-Bodo/Garo-Bodo “one, two, three”
otay Newman, R.
“single, one” “only” 1990 187
Proto-Sino-Tibetan
*dāy ~ *dān
“single, one, whole, only”
Matisoff 2003 262, 516
639
G.16.2 W. Chadic-Gwandara W. NC- Fulfulde

N. Chinese –MSC danda “alone” Semitic- [Fulani]
dān “single, one, single” Matsushita 1972 34 Ethiopian tan
“singly, alone” “only, alone” W. Chadic-Angas - Amharic “alone, only”
Wu, J.132 Huang 80 dânî “alone, only” andàňňa Taylor 189
Old Chinese Foulkes 168 “first, NC- S.W.
*tân “single, simple” C. Chadic- Padoko firstly, Mande-
Karlgren GSR 147a-d taŋa “un “ [one] unique” Kpelle
Matisoff 2003 516 327 Skinner 57 Leslau taang
Proto-Sino-Tibetan W. Chadic-Ron 1976 139 “one”
*dān ~ *dāy (Daffo) ’dàŋgat “one, Mukarovsky
“single, one, whole, only” alone” 280
Matisoff 2003 262, 516 Skinner 57
TB-Tibetan Jungraithmayr 1994
dang-po v.2 262
“the first with respect to number, C. Chadic--Margi
rank, time” tang “one”
Jaschke. 248 Das 616 Jungraithmayr 1994
taŋbo “first” v.2. 262
Goldstein 525 Mukarovsky 280
G.16.3 E. Chadic-Mokulu N. Cush.-
TB-Chin-Lakher ʔdey Beja
dei “single, one” “seulement” [only] [Bedauye]
TB-C.-Loloish-Lahu Skinner 57 də’i
tě “single, one” “whole, only” “alone”
G.16.1 TB-Jingpho [Kachin] tāi / TB-Bodo-Bodo otay “single, one”
< W. Chadic-Hausa ʔdaya n. and adj. “one” “same” *dāy “single, one, whole, only” /
G.16.3 N. Chinese-MSC dān “one, single” “singly, alone” “only, alone”
< W. Chadic-Angas dânî “alone, only” / C. Chadic- Padoko taŋa “un “ [one]
Approximate-Sino-Tibetan etyma *dāy ~ *dān “one (number used in counting and as adjective
‘single, only’)”
G.16.3
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dàan “single, individual, sole, only” Chik / Ng Lam 66
N. Chinese-MSC budan “not the only” Wu, J, 50 tān “single, alone” “only, simple” Mathews #6030 863
G.16.1 W. Chadic-Hausa ʔdai-‘dai adv. [used in counting] “one each” “one by one, separately, singly”
Newman , P. 2007 50 Kraft 340
G.16.3
S.E. Mande- Samo La dὲnὲ “one” ; S.E. Mande- Lebir dene “one” Mukarovsky 280
C. Chadic--Bura ntang “one, used in counting only” Dict. of Bura
C. Chadic-Gude dyaŋ “alone“, tyanə “one” Skinner 57
W. Chadic-Sura (mi)ndəŋ “one” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 262
327
Note- G.16.2 (Chinese) “For the notion ‘only’, the classical language most commonly employed wéi or dú.
By late Han [25 to 220 CE] a new adverb , dàn, appears used in this sense. Dàn is very common throughout the
Nanbeichao period [CE 420 to 589] and later.” Norman 1988a 128.
See also notes G.24.1, H.35.1-2 and Chapter 9 section 9.9.1 for references to other Chinese words which first
appear during the Han dynasty or later.
640
W. Chadic-Ron (Daffo- W. Chadic-Ron (Daffo) toŋ “zuerst sein, tun” [be first, do first] Jungraithmayr
1970 222
W. Chadic-Ron (Bokkos) toŋ / mutoŋ “zuerst sein, erster sein” [be first, leading] Jungraithmayr 1970 146
C. Chadic- Zime-Dari dongba “one” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 262
W. Chadic-Gwandara da “one” Matsushita 1972 33
W. Chadic-Ron (Daffo, Butura ’dàŋgat “eins” [one], “Einsamkeit” [loneliness] Jungraithmayr 1970 213
↓↓
G.17 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic Afro-Asiatic AA – Nilo-Saharan NC
-Cushitic Semitic
Swadesh C. Chadic- Ngweshe E. Cushitic- Maba Group-For NC- Gur
“one” thekhwù “one” Konso, (Fur) dike
G.17.1 Jungraithmayr 1994 Gawade tek / dik “one” “1”
TB- E. Kiranti- v.2 263 t-k- Maba Group- Ruhlen
Rai C. Chadic- Mofu- “one” Maba 1994 322
tik (-pu) “one” Gudur Skinner 250 teket / teget /
Benedict 94 ték “un (en tekee “one”
comptant)” [one Edgar 206 328
(when counting)]
Barreteau 456
G.17.2 E. Cushitic-
S. Chinese-Yue Burji
(Cantonese) d’ekki
jek “one”
“single, alone” Hudson 107
Chik / Ng Lam
481
G.17.3 W. Chadic- Hausa E. Cushitic-
TB-Written tak ideo. Gedeo
Burmese “(only) one” táakka-
tac “one” Skinner 250 tákkach
Matisoff d’áyáá tak “one (in
2003 346 “one and only one” counting)”
TB-Rangkas Kraft 141 Hudson 261
ta:ka: “one” Newman / Ma 1979
TB-Darmiya 115
taku “one” tak “just (one),
Rosenfelder one (only)” ideo.
http://zompist. Newman, P. 2007 194
com/nu
328
Note- G.17.1 (NS- Maba Group) This root is plausibly of Nilo-Saharan origin although it is widespread in AA
also. It may be derived from the same morpheme as that which denotes the index finger. (See Note C.15.1
(Chadic). It is not clear whether it is distinct from the Afro-Asiatic proto-root *ji / jig “one, someone, somebody
(indefinite pronoun)” which is attested in TB and Sinitic as a number and as an indefinite or reflexive pronoun .
(See set C.8b.1 and its note.)
641
G.17.4 E. Cushitic- Dinka NC- Gwa

S. Chinese- Min Oromo tok “one” dogbo
(Taiwanese) tokko Merarit tok “1”
tǒk-tôk num. “one” Barea Ruhlen
“sole, only” Gragg 377 doko / 1994 322
Bodman 1983 toko “one”
102, 202 Greenberg
1966 103
G.17.1 TB-Bodic-Bumthang t(h)ek “one, only” / TB-Cuona Monpa t’eʔ “one, only”
< C. Chadic- Ngweshe thekhwù “one” / C. Chadic- Mofu-Gudur ték “one (when counting)” /
Maba Group-For (Fur) tek “one”
G.17.3 TB-Rangkas ta:ka “one” / TB-Darmiya taku “one”
< E. Cushitic-Gedeo táakka- “one (in counting)” / Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) takk “one, a single” “
G.17.4 S. Chinese- Min tôk-tôk “sole, only”
< E. Cushitic- Oromo tokko “one” num. / NS-Dinka tok “one”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *tek- / *tak- / *tok- “one, only””
G.17.1
TB-Kiranti-Limbu -thik, -dhik postpositioned number “one, a certain, only” van Driem 1987 533
Proto-Kiranti *tik “one, single” van Driem 1997 475
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *dik “one, only” Matisoff 2003 586
TB-Qiangic-rGyalrong ketεk “one” Matisoff 2003 135
TB-Cuona Monpa t’eʔ “one, only” Matisoff 2003 346
TB-Bodic-Bumthang t(h)ek “one, only” Matisoff 2003 346
TB-Akha tìq “one, only” Matisoff 2003 346; -Rai tik(-pu) “one” Benedict 94
TB-Chaudangsi tig “one” (Byangsi) tige “one” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
TB-Bunan tike “one” (Rai) tik-pu (Athpare) thik “one” Rosenfelder http:/zompist. com/nu
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *g-t(y)ik ~ *tiâk “one, only” Matisoff 2003 346, 507
*t’(y)ik = *(g-)t’(y)ik “one” Benedict 94, 169, 217
G.17.3 TB-Lepcha tâq / ták “what comes first, the first” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *tyak “one, only” Matisoff 2003 346, 507, 616
G.17.1
W. Chadic- Ron (Bokkos) andek “eins” [one, at one] Jungraithmayr 1970 139
NS-Maba Group-Mimi deg “one” Greenberg 1966 143
C. Chadic- Logone (Kotoko-Logone) tekuu “alone” Edgar 206
G.17.3
E. Cushitic-Rendille tákkay / tákkach “one at a time” “one by one” Pillinger 274
W. Chadic- Ngizim ták ideo. “(one) only” Schuh 206, 229
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) takk “one, a single” “alone, only” “one of a pair”
G.17.4 NS- Nyangia odoko “one” Greenberg 1966 103
C. Chadic- Bura dúkù “one, unit” Dict. of Bura
NS-For (Fur) tok “one” Greenberg 1966 143
E. Cushitic- Sidamo tokke “the only one thing that remains, one” Gasparini 316
Cushitic- Tsamai dōkko “one” Ruhlen 1994 322
G.17.1
Altaic-Proto-Turkic tēk ”odd” “only, solitary”
Altaic-Turkic-Old Turkic, Kumyk tēk “only, solitary”
642
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish, Khakassian, Kazakh tek ”odd” “only”

Altaic-Turkic-Bashkir, Tatar tik “only, solitary”
Starotin, Sergei Turkic Etymology http://starling.rinet.ru./c
G.17.3
IE-Pashto tāk “single, unique” Raverty 219
IE-Sanskrit taks “once” Cologne Lexicon.
Altaic-Turkic-Azerbaidzhan täk ”odd” “only, solitary”
G.17.4 Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen tǖk ”odd” “only, solitary”
↓↓
G.18 AA – AA-Cushitic AA – Nilo- NC
Chad. Sem. Sah.
G.18.1 E. Cushitic-Rendille
S. Chinese-Min líh “six” Pillinger 212
(Longan) Proto- E. Cushitic
ly4 “six” *lih’- “six”
Norman 1988a 233 E. Cushitic-Burji
líya “six” Sasse 1982 135
G.18.2 N. Chinese-MSC E. Cushitic- Kambata, Proto-
liù “six” Wu, J. 439 Highland E. Cushitic
Manser part 1 407 *leho “six”
TB Trung khlu “six” Sasse 1982 135
Norman 1988a 13 Hudson 135, 331
G.18.3 S. Omotic-Banna
TB-N. Kuki lo:k “six” lux
Rosenfelder http://zompist. “six”
com/nu Rosenfelder http://zompist.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) com/nu
luhk “six” Chik / Ng Lam 30
Kwan 481
Old Chinese li̭ôk “six”
Karlgren GSR 1032a-d
Matisoff 2003 363
S. Chinese-Min (Taiwanese)
liôk “six”
Bodman 1980 63, 180 329
G.18.4 E. Cushitic-Hadiyya
Chinese- Wu loho “six”
loʔ “six” Sasse 1982 135
Hakka Dict. Hudson 135, 292
G.18.1 S. Chinese- Min ly “six”
< E. Cushitic-Rendille líh “six” / Proto- E. Cushitic *lih’- “six”
G.18.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) luhk “six”
< S. Omotic-Banna lux “six”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *lih’- ~ *lux “six”
329
Note- G.18.3 (TB-N. Kuki) This root is dominant in the TB-Old Kuki and C. Kuki languages as a
*-ruk “six” variant. Rosenfelder http:/ zompist. com/nu
643

G.18.2
TB-Trung khlu “six” Benedict 114
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] kru “six” Benedict 95
G.18.3
Middle Chinese ljuk “six” Norman 1988a 13, 240 ljuwk “six” Sagart 1999 148
S. Chinese-Min liôk “six” (literary form) Bodman 1987 v.2 180 (Fúzhōu) loik “six”
Norman 1988a 13
S. Chinese-Kejia (Hakka) (Lau Chunfat) lug5 (MacIver) liuk7 “six” Hakka Dict.
TB-Chin-Lushai ruk “six” Matisoff 2003 44 357
TB-Magari kruk “six” Benedict 95 krúʔ “six” Matisoff 2003 57
S. Chinese-Min lâk “six” Bodman 1987 v.1 345, v.2 109, 155
lak8 “six” Hakka Dict. Norman 233 Branner 154
G.18.1
E. Cushitic-Gidole leh “six” Rosenfelder http:/ zompist. com/nu
E. Cushitic-Sidamo leye “six” Sasse 1982 135 ; Hudson 135, 383 ; lê “six” ; lelkihu “the sixth”
Gasparini 207 ; Rosenfelder http: zompist. com/nu
N. Omotic-Maklei lehi “six” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
E.. Cushitic-Somali líx “six” líxdan “sixty” Awde 1999 39, 74
E. Cushitic-Tunni líʔ “six” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
G.18.3 E. Cushitic-Afar lixéy-I “six” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
lecey “six” (genitive form = leca / lica) Parker / Hayward 155 [Afar c = voiceless pharyngeal spirant]
E. Cushitic- Saho leeh’ “six” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
↓↓
G.19 AA- AA –Cushitic Afro-Asiatic Nilo-Sah. Niger-Congo
Chad. –Semitic
G.19.1 E. Cushitic- West Semitic- W. Semitic- NC- N. Mande-
TB-Kiranti-Sunwar Gedeo Ethiopian- Ethiopian- Vai
sâ “three” sase “three” Harari Harari sàkpá
Starostin, S. sakka “three sāsa sāsa “thirty” “three”
Kiranti Etymology (in counting)” “thirty” Leslau 1963 Rosenfelder
N. Chinese-MSC Hudson 259 Leslau 1963 143 http://zompist.
sā “three” Wu, J. 584 143 com/nu
G.19.2 S. Cushitic- NS-Datooga Khoisan-Hadza
TB-Lepcha Asa samak sámogu samaka
sam “three” “three” “three” “three”
Matisoff 2003 275 Rosenfelder Rosenfelder Starostin, G.
S. Chinese-Kejia http://zompist. http://zompist. 2008
(Hakka) sam1 “three” com/nu com/nu Macro-Khoisan
Yue 145 Etymology
G.19.1 N. Chinese-MSC sā “three” / S. Chinese-Min sâ “three” / TB-Kiranti-Sunwar sâ “three”
< NC- N. Mande- Kono sawa “three” / E. Cushitic-Gedeo sase “three”
sakka “three (in counting)”
G.19.2 TB-Lepcha sam “three” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sàam “three”
< S. Cushitic-Asa samak “three” / NS- Datooga sámogu “three” /
Khoisan-Hadza samaka “three”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *sa- ~ *sam- “three”
644

G.19.1
S. Chinese-Min sâ “three” Bodman 1987 v.2 168
TB-C. Loloish-Lisu sá “three” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
N. Chinese-Mandarin (Xian, Lingbao) sâ “three” Norman 1988a 194
Middle Chinese-Mandarin (Xian) sa1 “three”
G.19.2
TB-W. Kiranti-Bahing sam “three” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
Old Chinese
ts’əm / səm “three” Karlgren GSR 647a-b
səm “three” Karlgren GSR 648a-c Matisoff 2003 308 Norman 1988a 13
Middle Chinese sâm “three” Norman 1988a 13, 194, 238 Sagart 1999 Table 24 148
TB-Trung ă-sə̀m “three” Norman 1988a 13
TB-Qiangic rGyalrong kəsam “three” Matisoff 2003 135
TB-Written Burmese sûm “three” Norman 1988a 13
TB-Written Tibetan gsûm “three” Matisoff 2003 94
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] məsûm “three” Matisoff 2003 94
N. Chinese-MSC sān “three, “more than two, many” Wu, J. 585
N. Chinese-Mandarin (Chengdu, Beijing) sân1 “three” Norman 1988a 194
G.19.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sàam “three” Kwan 530
G.19.1
E. Cushitic-Oromo sadii “three” Clamons 533
E. Cushitic-Hadiyya saso “three” Hudson 154, 297;
E. Cushitic- Sidamo sase “three” Gasparini 286
E. Cushitic-Kambata sasu / sakki “three” Hudson 154, 336
E. Chadic-Nancere sab “three” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
E. Chadic-Kabalai sabu “three” Rosenfelder http:/zompist. com/nu
E. Cushitic-Somali saddek “three” Awde 1999 45,77
NC-S.W. Mande-Loma sago “three” Rosenfelder http//zompist. com/nu
NC-S.W. Mande-Kpelle saba “three” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
NC-N. Mande- Kono sawa “three” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
NC-S.W. Mande-Mende sawá “three”;
NC-S.W. Mande -Bandi sawa “three”
Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Ge’ez sàlasa “thirty” Leslau 1963 143
Semitic-Hebrew shalosh “three” Baltsan 385
Semitic-Arabic ɵaliɵ “third”(ordinal) Dict.of Iraqi Arabic part 1180 part 2 64
G.19.2
Middle Chinese sâm “three” Norman 1988a 194, 238
NS Maba Group-Kibet kàsánggàl “three” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
NS-Runga kasanga “three” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
S.(Ethiopian) Semitic (Tigre, Beni Tigrinya sälästes “three” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
NC- Mande- Bobo-Fing saa “three” Rosenfelder http:// zompist. com/nu
NC -Mandinka, Xasonke, Malinke, Bambara, Dyula sàba / saba “three” Rosenfelder http://zompist.
com/nu
G.19.2
Kartvelian-Georgian sam- “three” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 48
Kartvelian-Svan sam- / sem- “three” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 48
Kartvelian-Laz sum- “three” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 48
645
↓↓
G.20 AA – AA –Cushitic AA – NS NC
Chadic Sem.
Swadesh “two” E. Cushitic-Gedeo
G.20.1 langa
N. Chinese-MSC “two (in counting)”
liâng “two” “both” Hudson 159, 253
Wu, J. 426 C. Cushitic- Kemant (Falasha), Xamir,
“two, a pair, a couple, Xamta
both” linga “two”
Mathews #3953 574 Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
G.20.2 C. Cushitic- Bilin
S. Chinese-Yue lenga
(Cantonese) “two”
léuhng “two” Rosenfelder
Kwan 542 http://zompist. com/nu
S. Chinese- Min
lòng “both”
Bodman 1987 v.2 78
S. Chinese-Kejia
(Hakka)
liong3 “two” “pair,
couple”
“both, either”
Hakka Dict.
G.20.1 N. Chinese-MSC liâng “two” “both”
< E. Cushitic-Gedeo langa “two (in counting)” / C. Cushitic- Awngi lánga “two”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *langa “two (in counting)”
G.20.1
N. Chinese –MSC liâ “two” Wu J. 421 liáng “measure” Wu, J. 425
S. Chinese-Min liong2 n. “two, pair, couple” Hakka Dict.
G.20.1
E. Cushitic-Sidamo layn-ki / lainki “second” Gasparini 204 Hudson 130
C. Cushitic-Awngi lánga “two” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
S. Cushitic-Dahalo lima “two” http://zompist. com/nu
Proto-Cushitic ɬâ(a)m- “two” Ehret 1995 #877 424
Proto-Omotic *lam- “two” Ehret 1995 #877 424
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *ɬâm- “two” Ehret 1995 #877 424
E. Cushitic-Hadiyya lamo “two” Hudson 159 la’-mane “second” Hudson 130
E. Cushitic-Rendille lámma / láma “two” Pillinger 209
E. Cushitic-Burji láma / lam “two” Hudson 159, 209 Sasse 1982133
E. Cushitic-Somali lába “two” lábanlaab “double” lábaatan “twenty” Awde 1999 39, 77
E. Cushitic-Oromo lama “two” Hudson 159 Clamons 533 ; “due” [two] Borello 276
E. Cushitic-Afar lammay “two” Parker / Hayward 176
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage [8 dialects] lammča “twin” Leslau 1979 v.3 379
G.20.2 N. Omotic-Makle ləm’o “two” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
↓↓
646

G.21 AA – AA –Cushitic AA- NS NC
Chad. Sem.
G.21.1 S. Cushitic- E. Mande- Bisa, Samo Toma
TB-Dimasa dźI “four” Iraqw si “four”
TB-Garo tś́i-kuŋ “four” tsiyáhh NC- S.E. Mande- Busa
Starostin, S. ST Etymology “four” siho “four”
TB-Tibetan shi S. Cushitic- S.E. Mande- Guro
“four” Goldstein 949 Alagwa zìnyɛ / zìyɛ “four”
bshi “four” tsigah “four” NC- E. Mande- Samo-Toma
Das 1084 C. Cushitic- si “four”
bz̀I “four” Jaschke 483 Xamta NC- S.E. Mande- Nwã
TB-Tibetan (Ladakhi) siza “four” siya “four”
zhi “four” Rosenfelder Mukarovsky 183
Rosenfelder http://zompist. http://zompist. siiyá “four”
com/nu com/nu Rosenfelder
N. Chinese-MSC http://zompist. com/nu
sì “four” Wu, J. 649
Wang, F. 439
G.21.2 C. Cushitic- NC- S.E. Mande- Kweni
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) Bilin zie
sei “four” seja “four” “four”
Kwan 196 C. Cushitic- Mukarovsky
Po-fei Huang 436 Awngi 183
Chik / Ng Lam 74 sédza “four”
Rosenfelder
http://zompist.
com/nu
G.21.1 TB-Dimasa dźI “four”
< S. Cushitic-Iraqw tsiyáhh “four”
G.21.2 N. Chinese-MSC sî “four”
< NC- E. Mande- Samo-Toma si “four” /
NC- S.E. Mande- Nwã siya “four”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *tsi- “four”
G.21.1 S.Chinese-Min sî “four” Bodman 1987 v.1 345 sì3 “four, fourth” Hakka Dict.
-(Jianou) si3 “four” Rosenfelder http://www.zompist.com/mide.htm#afro
Middle Chinese sijH Sagart 1999 Table 24 148
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] si5 “four, fourth” Hakka Dict.
TB-Namsangia i-tś́i “four” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Tibetan (Stod Bothi) zhi “four”; (Dzongkha) shi “four” Rosenfelder http:// zompist. com/nu
G.21.2
E. Cushitic- Rendille séyyah “three” Pillinger 259
C. Cushitic- Xamir sezá: “four” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
S.E. Mande- Mwa yiziɛ “four” Mukarovsky 297
S.E. Mande- Be syen “four” Mukarovsky 297
C. Cushitic-Ankwa sesa “four” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
↓↓
647

G.22 AA- AA -Cushitic AA – Nilo-Saharan NC
Chadic Semitic
G.22.1 E. Cushitic-Afar Nuer badak “eight”
N. Chinese-MSC bahar “eight” Huffman [5]
bā “eight” bacaar Maba Group- Aiki
Manser part 2 6 “eight” mbaakidi / bakadi /
Wu, J 9 Parker / Hayward mbakadi “eight”
S. Chinese-Kejia 9, 232 Edgar 167
(Hakka) (Meixian) E. Cushitic-Saho Maba Group-Kibet
bat7 “eight” bahaar “eight” mbakɪt “eight”
C. Chinese-Wu Rosenfelder Edgar 167
paʔ 7 “eight” http://zompist. Anywa [Anuak]
Hakka Dict. com/nu abʌ‫כ‬rʌ “eight” Reh 1,99.
G.22.1 N. Chinese-MSC bā “eight”
< E. Cushitic- Afar bahar “eight” / Nuer badak “eight”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *bā- “eight”
G.22.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) baat “eight” Kwan 157, Chen 88
S. Chinese- Min pât “eight (literary form)” Bodman 1983 63, 184 ; 1987 v.2 85, 164
G.22.1.
NS-Maba Group-Runga bakadi “eight” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
W. Chadic-Hausa bakwài “seven” Skinner 14 Rosenfelder http://wwwzompist.com/mide.htm#afro
W. Chadic-Gwandara bákwè / -Bole bákwè “seven” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
W. Chadic-Bele báawùló “seven” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
W. Chadic-Ngamo babìlò “seven” Rosenfelder http://zompist. com/nu
↓↓
G.23 AA- AA -Cushitic, Afro-Asiatic - Nilo- Khoisan
Chad. Proto-AA Semitic Saharan
Swadesh “all” S. Omotic Semitic- Arabic Songhay S. Khoisan-
G.23.1 *kull- (Iraqi) (Gao) ǀXam
TB-Meithei “all” kull “all” “whole, kúlú “tous, ku:
kul / Proto-AA entire” tous entier” “all”
TB-Siyin *-kal- / Dict. of Iraqi Arabic [all, the Starostin,
kul / *-kull- “all” part1 6 part 2 409 whole] G.
TB-Chin-Lai Ehret 1995 Ehret 1995 #317 197 Ducroz 161 2012 1
kul #317 197 West Semitic- ce kúlú
“twenty, all” E. Cushitic-Afar Ethiopian-Amharic “toutes les
Matisoff 2003 416 kùlli “every” hullum fois”
N. Chinese-MSC “tout” (Fr.) “all of them, [all the
húlún “whole, Parker / everything” times]
entire” Hayward 151 hullu Ducroz 54
húlún tūnxia “every, all,
“swallow wholesale” everybody”
DeFrancis 396 Leslau 1976 1
648
G.23.2 E. Cushitic- S. Khoisan-

TB-Tibetan Oromo ǂKhomani
kun “all, every, each, hundaa / huni-ɕe
whole” hundumaa S. Khoisan-
Jaschke 4 “all” Nǀuu
Written Burmese Hudson 19 huni-ki
ăkun “all” E. Cushitic- “all”
Benedict 1972 15 Hadiyya Starostin,
TB-Lepcha hunda(m) / G.
gǔn “all” gu’ma “all” 2012 1
Matisoff 2003 278 Hudson 19
G.23.3 TB- Jingpho Semitic- Hebrew
[Kachin] -Garo kol “all, every,
khol ~ khal entire”
“twenty, all” Baltsan 185
Matisoff 2003 “all, whole”
388, 416 Leslau v.3 341
G.23.1 TB-Meithei kul “twenty / all” / Proto-Tibeto-Burman- *(m-) kul- “all, twenty”
< S. Omotic *kull- “all” / Proto-Afro-Asiatic *-kull- “all”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon: *kull- “all”
G.23.1
TB- Jingpho [Kachin] khun “twenty” Benedict 1972 83
Written Burmese kun “come to an end, used up” Matisoff 2003 278-9.
Proto-TB *(m-) kul- “all, twenty”330 Benedict 1972 #397 202 Matisoff 2003 388, 416
G.23.1
Proto-Semitic *kl(l)- “all” Ehret 1995 #317 197 *kull- “all” Leslau 1963 173
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Soddo) kullem “all” Leslau 1979 v.2 15
W. Chadic-Hausa kullum “always, every day” “every (followed by noun indicating unit or period of
time)” Newman, P. 2007 117
Semitic-Aramaic kullānāʔit “in general, on the whole” Comprehensive Aramaic Etymology
E. Cushitic-Rendille adv. kùllanna “(all) be present, gather together”
W. Chadic-Ngizim kúlúm “always” [considered to be a borrowing from Hausa which is eventually
from Arabic] Schuh 98
330
Note- G.23.1 (Proto-TB Extended) “Only a single etymon with final *-un was reconstructed in the first
version of STC [Benedict/Matisoff Sino-Tibetan, a Conspectus 1972 #10 18, 83. 202 ] ---However the discovery
of a pair of Mikir forms koi “all”, inkoi “twenty” made it clear that these are all reflexes of a much more
widespread etymon with a liquid final *m-kull- “twenty”, with an original meaning like ‘such a large number that
one has to use all the fingers and toes to count up to it’, which still means “twenty, a score, in many TB languages”.
Matisoff 2003 278-9.
As compared to the Afro-Asiatic and NS meanings of the root, the semantics of “twenty” seem to be an
innovation of TB, unless the root can be found in AA, NS or Khoisan with this meaning. The identified
Khoisan, NS and AA forms which appear to be related mean “all”, not “twenty”, e.g. S. Khoisan –Xam and
ŋ
S. Khoisan –Seroa ku “all”. Variant S. Khoisan forms are Masarwa kuka, ‖Ng kwa and !Xoo koo / kaʔà .
See Starostin, G. 2003 8. However the Hausa root goma “ten” could be related. to these G.23.2 lexemes
especially E. Cushitic- Hadiyya hunda(m) / gu’ma “all”. See Skinner 87-88 and Note- D.32.4 (Chadic-
Hausa).
649
NS-Kanuri kúllúm adv. “always”331 < Arabic Cyffer 1990 100

G.23.3
Kartvelian-Georgian qovl- “all” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 45
Proto-Kartvelian *qowl- “all” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 45
↓↓
G.24 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA - AA – Nilo- NC
Cushitic Sem. Sah.
Swadesh “all” W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic-
G.24.1 du / duk Oromo
S. Chinese-Min “all” duma adv.
tôu quantifier “tutto,
“all, both” “all, the whole” completo,
Bodman 1987 Newman, P. 2007 47 finito”
v.2 181 C. Chadic-Kilba [all,
S. Chinese-Yue duhu “all” complete,
(Cantonese) Skinner 50 finished]
dōu ‘dàukacin Borello 128
“all, every, each” “any” “the entirety of”
“also, too” Newman, P. 2007 53
Matthews, S. 188, 262-270 ‘dàukaci m.
N. Chinese-MSC “the whole of”
dōu Newman / Ma 1979 31
“all”
Wu, J. 163
“all, both”
Manser part 2 106
“completely”
Norman 1988a 127 332
G.24.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dōu “all, every, each” “any”
< C. Chadic-Kilba duhu “all” / W. Chadic-Gwandara dú “whole”
Approximate Sinitic etymon: *duhu “all”
331
Note- G.23.1 (Ngizim, Kanuri Extended) As observed by Schuh, the form and semantics of the Kanuri and
Ngizim lexemes suggest that the root in these languages has been immediately derived from Hausa which borrowed
it from Arabic. This may be the case; however Hausa is more closely related to the South Semitic-Amharic form
which is also disyllabic as opposed to the Arabic basic form which is monosyllabic. The existence of an Afro-
Asiatic proto-root and Cushitic/Omotic forms also provide evidence that Arabic is probably not the source of the
root in all AA languages. Therefore the Omotic kull-root could well be the ultimate source of the TB ones.
332
Note- G.24.1 (Chinese) “The adverb dōu which in modern Chinese means ‘completely’, ‘all’ first appears
in the late Han and Nanbeichao sources.” By the Nánbeicháo period, dōu is used adverbially in the sense of
“completely, alltogether, in totality”: dōu jin ’completely exhausted’. Norman 1988a 127. [Late Han period, 25
CE to 220 CE; Nanbeichao period, 420 CE to 589 CE]. See also note H.35.1-2 and Chapter 9 section 9.9.2.
These dates suggest a relatively late migraton of Chadic speakers into the Sinitic language area, though discovery of
TB instances of this root would militate against this hypothesis.
650

G.24.1
W. Chadic-Hausa du-dù-du “all in all” Newman / Ma 1979 28
W. Chadic-Gwandara
dú “whole” “also, too”
dúdú “all” “both”
Matsushita 1972 38
(Karshi, Cancara, Koro)
dúdú “all” Matsushita #416 1974 98
W. Chadic-Pero d’we “all” Skinner 50
W. Chadic-Buli d’ok “all” Skinner 50; -Angas dûk “all” Foulkes 129
E. Chadic-Masa Group-Lame dukuku “en grand nombre” [in great numbers] Skinner 50
↓↓
G.25 AA – Chadic AA–Cushitic Afro-Asiatic- Nilo-Saharan NC
Semitic
Swadesh “not” E. Cushitic- Semitic- Arabic Nubian
G.25.1 Rendille mā “not” m- e.g.
TB-Tibetan má “(is) not” Dict. of Nile Nubian
ma “a negative and mala Iraqi Arabic mesk
prohibitive particle” “there is not” part 1 119 “not to be able”
Das 945 Pillimger. ma- “negating esk “to be able”
“verbal negative 214, 218 prefix used with Barea
particle” verbs, ma
Goldstein 783 participles and “verbal negative”
TB-Trung mà prepositions in Didinga
“not” equational ma
Norman 1988a 13 phrases” “prohibitive”
S. Chinese-Yue Dict. of Merarit
(Cantonese) m̀ Iraqi Arabic m-
“not” part 2 431 “verbal negative”
m̀hou imperative Egyptian Greenberg
“do not” Kwan 315 m “negative 1966 117
imperative,
‘do not’ ”
Ehret 1995
#572 301
“mark of
negation used
with the
imperative”
Budge 1978
v.1 266
G.25.2 N. Chinese – C. Chadic– E. Cushitic-
MSC Bura Rendille
méi mai mee
has function of “not” “not
negation in many Dict. of Bura (someone or
phrases, e.g. Chadic – something)”
méi yôu “not have” Glavda mây Pillinger 222
“there is not” “there is not”
651
méi shénme máay / E. Cushitic-

“it doesn’t matter, mây Somali
it’s nothing” “no, maya / may
Wu, J. 462-3 not to be, ”no”
TB-Tibetan mi not to have” Awde 1999
negative adverb Rapp / 41, 68
“not” e.g. Benzing 64
Jaschke 413 645
e.g. H.36.1
TB-Tibetan
mi-yod-pa
“to be not,
to exist not”
G.25.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ma “not”
< E. Cushitic-Rendille má “(is) not” / Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) mā “not”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *mā “not”
G.25.1
IE-Old Indian ma “prohibitive particle” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 87
IE-Tokharian ma “not, no” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 87
IE-E.Iranian-Avestan mâ “negative particle, prohibitive” Peterson J. 1995
↓↓
G.26 AA – Chadic AA-Cushitic AA-Semitic, NS Khoisan
Proto-AA Berber
Swadesh Proto- Proto-AA Semitic- Arabic Songhay C. Khoisan
“what?” Chadic *ma (Iraqi) (Djenne) -‖Gana
G.26.1 *mi / *ma “what?” mā “what?” maa mâ “what”
TB-Bodo/Garo- “what?” Ehret 1995 Ehret 1995 “what?” C. Khoisan -
Bodo Ehret 1995 #571 301 #571 301 Heath Deti, Cara
ma #571 301 Proto- ma- “what?” v.2 142 má “who”
“interrogative” E. Chadic- Cushitic Dict. of Iraqi (Koyra) C. Khoisan –
Matisoff Dangaleat *mi / *ma Arabic maa se Gwi
2003 488 màà “interrogative part 2 43 “what?” mâŋ “what”
N. Chinese – “(en finale) root” Semitic- Hebrew Heath v.1 Starostin, G.
MSC má quoi?” (Fr.) Ehret 1995 ma “what?” 192 2003 37
“what?” kì gìnà #571 301 Greenberg 1966 Proto-Khoisan
Wu, J. 452 màà E. Cushitic- 64 *ma
ma “Tu fais Afar mah “what?” Interrogative
used at the end of quoi?” maa / ma Baltzan 228 pron.
a sentence to [what are you “what?, Egyptian mā Starostin, G.
transform it into a doing?] which?” “who?” “what?” Macro-Khoisan
question” Fédry 108 Parker / Budge 1978 v.1 Etymology
Manser 297 Hayward 157 279 Greenberg 2008
1966 64
G.26.1 N. Chinese-MSC má “what?” ma “used at the end of a sentence to transform it into a
question”
< Proto-AA *ma “what?” / Proto-Cushitic *ma “interrogative root” / C. Khoisan-‖Gana mâ “what”
-Deti, Cara má “who” -Gwi mâŋ “what” / Proto-Khoisan *ma interrogative pron.
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *ma “what?” “interrogative root”
652

S. Chinese-Kejia (Hakka) ma1 “final interrogative particle used in questions” Hakka Dict.
G.26.1
Omotic-N. Branch ma “what?” Ehret 1995 #571 301
E. Chadic-Sokoro mà “question word” Greenberg 1966 63
W. Chadic-Ron (Fyer) mà “Was?” (Ger.) [what?] Jungraithmayr 1970 286
Proto-Kartvelian *ma “what” Starostin, S. Karvelian Etymology
↓↓
G.27 Afro-Asiatic – AA - Afro-Asiatic- NS NC
Chadic Cush. Semitic etc.
G.27.1 S. Chinese- W. Chadic- Semitic-Hebrew NC-Swahili
Yue (Cantonese) Hausa kamoha “like her / him” kama
gám “so, thus” kàmař kamonee “like myself” conj.
“and so” 489, 530 prep. “like “me too, the same as you” “(such) as”
[used in equal (similar to)” kamokha “like you” “like”
comparison] Newman, R. Baltsan 163 “the same”
keuih houchich 1990 154 [basic form is kemo kama
gaje gam leng’ 2007 106 conj. “as, like”]. pasavyo
[lit. “she just like kamā da prep. See Extended section “as it should
sister as pretty” “like” below be”
“she is just as pretty kaman / kamar West Semitic-Ethiopian- Awde
as her sister”] prep. “like, as” Gurage 2000 82
Matthews, S. 169 Newman, R. (Čaha, Eža, Muher)
“in this way” “thus” 1990 154 (yä) xäma prep.
“as predicate- makàmànci (Gogot) (yä) käma /
‘be like that’ ” n. and adj. (yä) häma prep.
sailoujái haih “similarity, “like”
gám gelaak likeness” Leslau 1979 v.2.372
“children are like Newman / Ma Egyptian (Faulkner)
that” 1992 85 kamā “as, like”
Matthews, S. 181 W. Chadic- Skinner 134
gámyeuhng Gwandara Budge v.2 788
“thus, in this way” kama “like” Semitic-Arabic
Kwan 530, Chen 413 kamu “like this” kama (IPA) “as”
gam “same as” Skinner 134 prep. Merriam-Webster
Chik / Ng Lam 279 Arabic 8
G.27.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gám “as predicate- ‘be like that’”
< W. Chadic-Hausa kamar prep. “like (similar to)” /
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage(yä) käma “like” prep.
Approximate Cantonese etymon *kam- “like (similar to)”
G.27.1 W. Chadic-Hausa kàmā “similarity, resemblance looking alike”
kamàntā “to compare” Newman, P. 2007 106
C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur kab’a “comme (comparaison)” [like (as in comparisons)] Skinner 134
C. Chadic-Gisiga ka / kaba / kab’a “wie “[Ger.] “like, as” Skinner 134
Semitic-Hebrew kemo conj. “as, like” Baltsan 178
C. Chadic- Gisiga kaba / kab’a “wie” [like, as] Skinner 134
653
↓↓
G.28 AA – Chadic AA – AA – NS Niger-Congo
Cushitic Sem.
G.28.1 W. Chadic-N. Bauci-
TB-Maring tśip “ten” Warji
TB-Yawdwin (S. Kukish) jíp / ji’b
gyip “ten (in compounds)” “ten”
Benedict 19 Jungraithmayr
Matisoff 2003 353 1994
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] v.2 320
ship8 “ten, tenth”
Hakka Dict.
G.28.2 W. Chadic-S. Bauci-

Middle Chinese Buli
źjəp “ten” su(p) / zəp / zup
Norman 1988a 238 “ten”
dzyip “ten” W. Chadic-S. Bauci-
Sagart 1999 149 Tala sup
S. Chinese-Min “ten”
(Ningde) Jungraithmayr
sep8 “ten” 1994 v.2 320
Norman 1988a 238
G.28.3 NC- Fulfulde
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) [Fulani]
sahp “ten” Kwan 526 sappo “ten”
Mathews, S. 385 Taylor 167
S. Chinese-Min Barth 10
chap8 “ten, tenth” NC- Maasina
Hakka Dict. sappo “ten”
(Taiwanese) NC- Falor
cap “ten” sabo “ten”
Bodman 1983 4, 149 Rosenfelder http://
zompist. com/nu
G.28.4 W. Chadic-N. Bauci-
Old Chinese Burku
di̭əp “ten” díí’b “ten”
Karlgren GSR #686a-d W. Chadic-N. Bauci-
Matisoff 2003 198, 356 Jimbu
di’b / dip “ten”
Jungraithmayr
1994 v.2 320
G.28.1 TB-Yawdwin (S. Kukish) gyip “ten (in compounds)” / Old Chinese di̭əp “ten”
< W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Burku díí’b “ten” / W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Warji ji’b “ten”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *ji’b / díí’b “ten”
654

G.28.1
TB-Burmese ăkyip “ten” Benedict 19 (ʔə)kyip “ten” Matisoff 2003 353
Proto-TB *gip “ten” Benedict #16 19, 200 Matisoff 2003 353
G.28.4 W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Kariya di’b “ten” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 320
↓↓
G.29 AA – Chadic AA – AA – NS NC
Cush. Sem.
Swadesh “black” W. Chadic- Hausa
G.29.1 bak’i n. and adj.
S. Chinese-Min “black, dark”
bâk “black, dark” Newman, P. 2007 15
“a black dye” Skinner 14
Hakka Dict. “black (thing)”
bâk “(solid) Chinese ink” Kraft 335
bâk-cuì “(liquid) ink” bak’i bak’I
cuì “water” “blackish, faded black”
Bodman 1987 v. 2 92, 120, 130 Newman, P. 2007 15
G.29.2 W. Chadic-Gera
TB-Kiranti-Limbu makina
mak adj. “black” “black, darkness”
van Driem 1987 462 Skinner 14
S. Chinese-Yue Mukarovsky 140
(Cantonese)
mahk “black, dark, a black dye”
Chik / Ng Lam 82
Old Chinese xmək
“black”
Karlgren GSR #904c
Matisoff 2003 522
C. Chinese-Wu
mɤʔ
“black, dark” “a black dye”
Hakka Dict.
G.29.1 S. Chinese-Min bâk “black, dark”
< W. Chadic–Hausa bak’i n. and adj. “black, dark”
G.29.2 TB-Kiranti-Limbu mak adj. “black”
< W. Chadic-Gera makina “black, darkness”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *bak- ~ mak- “black”
655

G.29.2
Proto-TB/Proto-Lolo-Burmese *s-mak “black” “ink” Matisoff 2003 317, 522
Old Chinese xmək “black” Karlgren GSR #904a-b mək “ink” Karlgren GSR #904c
Matisoff 2003 324, 522
TB-Tibetan smag-rum “dark, darkness” Jaschke 426
TB-Kiranti-Limbu khamakma vi. “get dark” van Driem 1987 441
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) mahkyùh “ink fish” mâkseui “ink” Kwan 244
TB-Batang Tibetan məʔ “ink” Sagart 1999 214
TB-Tangkhul măŋ “black” Matisoff 2003 268
TB-Chin-Lushai màaŋ “black” Matisoff 2003 268
G.29.1
W. Chadic-Hausa
bák’áa (Zea mays) “maize, black”
bák’in gumbi (Acacia macrostachya) “black, thorny plant” Blench Hausa names for plants 2011333
C. Chadic-Gude bakwabakwa “black species of fish” Skinner 14
G.29.2 N. Mande-Bozo miga / migɔ “darkness” Mukarovsky 140
G.29.1 Sanskrit pâk “quite black” Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary table 2 G.29.1
↓↓
G.30 AA – Chadic AA –Cushitic AA-Semitic NS Khoisan
G.30.1 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Egyptian S. Khoisan-
TB-Tibetan ŋa Ngizim Oromo ná Masarwa, |Nu‖en
personal pron. na(a) na direct “I, me, my” na “I”
first person sing. pron. object form Budge 1978 Khoisan-Hadza
and pl. 1st pers. of the pron. v.1 344 (o)na “I”
“I, we ” sing. used as “me, mi” W. Semitic- Starostin, G. 2003
Jaschke124 subject (Italian) Ethiopian- 21
Old Chinese “I” [to me, Amharic
ŋâ Schuh for me ] əňňa “we”
“I, me” xxi, 120 Borello 315 Leslau 1976
Karlgren 525
GSR #2a-g334
333
Note- G.30.1 Hausa. In his Hausa names for plants Blench lists eight Hausa names of black plants which
attest the bak- root.
334
Note- G.30.1 (Tibetan , Old Chinese) Sagart reports that ŋâ “I, me” did not exist in Chinese before 700 BCE as
b
far as written records are concerned. The * la “I” lexeme is found in over one hundred of the Shang and Western
2
Zhou inscriptions, but no instance of wu or ŋa is attested in this period (1600 –1100 BCE). ŋa disappears in the
Han period (206 BCE-220 CE) being replaced by wu2. (G.32.1) Sagart 1999 143-144. Sagart considers that ŋa is
b
not derived from * la as some researchers have held, but was created by analogy to make the Eastern Zhou
pronoun system entirely symmetrical. However, Sagart’s data combined with the above-cited AA and Khoisan
correspondences suggest that it was introduced into the Tibeto-Burman linguistic area through a migration from the
2
west in a possibly early Neolithic migration but did not completely dominate its G.32 wu competitors in both the
north and south Sinitic speaking areas later. This is supported by the presence of the word ŋə for “I” in the
ancient capital of Xian which lies on the traditional entrance into China from the northwest. See following G.30.2
Norman 1988 Table 8 196. Both forms are found in Tibetan.which also supports a multiple migrations hypothesis.
656
Swadesh “I, me” S. Khoisan-Proto-

G.30.2 !Wi,
C. Chinese-Wu Proto-Taa,
(Wēnzhōu) *n / *ŋ “I”
ŋ4 “I, me” pron.
Norman 190, 203 Starostin, G.
(Cantonese) Khoisan-‖N!k’e
ǹgh ŋ ~ n ~ ni
“I, me, us “I”
(in literary usage)” Ruhlen 1994
“my, our” #333 56
Chik / Ng Lam 55
N. Chinese-Xiān
ŋə3 “I”
ŋə3ti “my”
Norman 196
G.30.3 W. Chadic– Proto-AA Semitic- Kakwa, NC-Fulfulde
TB-Bodo/Garo- Dyarim ʔân- / Arabic Shilluk [Fulani]
Garo aŋ “I” aŋkə ân- “I” ʔaani an “I” am “my”
Benedict 93 “independent Ehret 1995 “I” Greenberg “after prepositions
TB-Kiranti-Limbu form of #723 362 Dict. of Iraqi 1966 86 ‘me’”
aŋga “I” ŋgam ‘I’ ” Oromo Arabic e.g. b̝āwo am
van Driem Blench ana part 1 89 “after me”
1987 25 2007 48 pron. part 2 1 Taylor 4
S. Chinese-Min “Io”
haŋ “I” [“I”]
Norman 234 Borello 21
G.30.4 W. Chadic- Proto- West Semitic- Kanuri S. Khoisan-
TB-Tibetan Hausa Cushitic Ethiopian- -nyí ‖N! !ke
nyíd ni “I, me” *ʔâni Amharic suffixed ŋ ~ n ~ ni
“I myself, pron. “I” əne “I” 1st pers. “I”
we ourselves” Newman, P. Ehret 1995 Leslau 1976 sing. Ruhlen 1994
Jaschke 128 2007 162 #724 362 136, 374 possessive #333 56
nyiŋ “oneself” nii “1st E. Cushitic- ənen pron.
Goldstein 415 person Oromo aní “me” “my”
N. Chinese- singular pron. Leslau 1976 Cyffer
Chengdu pron.” “I, me” 405 1990
ŋo 3 ni2 “my” ni “1st pers. Greenberg Semitic- xix, 143
Norman 196 sing. 1966 87 Hebrew Alur, Luo
independent anee ani
pron.” 1st pers. “I”
Newman, P. pron. “I” Greenberg
2000 476 Baltsan 15, 1966 86
614
G.30.1 Old Chinese ŋâ “I, me” / Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ŋa
< S. Khoisan- Masarwa, |Nu‖en na “I”
G.30.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ǹgh “I, me, us (in literary usage” “my, our”
< S. Khoisan-Proto-!Wi *ŋ “I”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *na / *ŋ “I”
657

G.30.1
Middle Chinese ŋá “I” Norman 1988a 89 Sagart 144-145
S. Chinese-Kejia (Hakka) ng2 / ng3 “I, me” “we, us” Hakka Dict.
-(Méixián, Hȃilu, Huáyáng) ŋai “I, me” Norman
TB-Written Burmese ŋa Norman 1988a 13
TB-Nung ŋa , TB-Lahu ŋà “1st person pronoun” Benedict 93 Matisoff 2003 487
TB-Trung ŋa “I” Norman 13
C. Chinese-Wu ŋa2 “I” Ramsey 91
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ŋa “1st person pronoun” Matisoff 2003 487
TB-Tibetan ŋai “my, our, mine” Jaschke 124
G.30.2 TB-Lushai ŋei “I” Benedict #285 65
G.30.4 TB-Tibetan ambu “I” Goldstein 980
G.30.1
E. Cushitic-Rendille nah pron. “we” “exclusive, excludes the addressee(s)” Pillinger 231, 410
Semitic-Amharic əññä “we” Leslau 1976 136, 525
G.30.2
NS-Anywa [Anuak] ā personal and possessive pron. “I, me, my” Reh 1, 107
Semitic-Arabic ʔana “I” pron. Merriam-Webster Arabic 74
G.30.2 S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa *ñ “I” Starostin, G. 2003 21
G.30.4 NS-Anywa [Anuak] áani “I” Reh 1, 107
Semitic-Arabic ʔaani “I” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 1
E. Cushitic-Rendille an / aní pron. “I, me” Pillinger 65, 352
G.30.1
Proto-Altaic ŋa “1st person pronoun” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan *nə / *n / *nō “I”
Austro-Asiatic-Khasi ŋa “I” Sagart 1999 145
G.30.4 IE-Bengali nij / nije n. “self” Thompson 123
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali i:ɲ “I” Kobayashi Table 3 #227 18
↓↓
Swadesh “I” N.Khoisan-!’O-!Kung
G.31.1 m, me, mi
S. Chinese-Kejia Starostin, G. 2003 21
(Hakka) Proto-N.Khoisan
mi2 / mi3 *mV “I”
“a polite expression for NC-Fulfulde [Fulani]
‘I, my, me’” mi pron. 1st person
Hakka Dictionary “I”
Taylor 138
G.31.1 S. Chinese-Kejia mi2 / mi3 ‘I, my, me’”
< N.Khoisan -!’O-!Kung m, me, mi “I”
N. Chinese-Mandarin (Chinghao) ŋɣ3 mɛ “we” Norman 1988a 146
See also G.33.1 Extended.
G.31 IE-Bengali ami “I” pron. Thompson 37, 105
IE-Pashto mi “I, mine, of me” Raverty 950
658
↓↓
Sino-Tibetan Languages African/AA languages-Close correspondences
G.32 Afro-Asiatic – AA – AA- Nilo- NC
Swadesh “I” C. Chadic- Kanuri
G.32.1 N. Chinese-MSC / Logone wú
Beijing wú-senā pron.
wô “I” Wu, J. 725 “I know” “I”
wú “I or we” Wu, J. 730 senā Cyffer 1990
uo1 “I” Norman 196 “know” 184
TB-Tibetan wūbu “I” Barth 55
Goldstein 980
Middle Chinese nguo “I”
Norman 13, 89, 234
G.32.2 Egyptian
S. Chinese-Min-Zherong nua
ŋua3 ”I, me” “ I, me”
Norman 190 Budge 1978
N. Chinese-Chengdu v.1 352
ŋo 3 ni2 “my”
Norman 196
G.32.1 N. Chinese-MSC wô “I” (1st pers. sing. pron.)”
< NS-Kanuri wú “I”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *wú “I”
G.32.1
N. Chinese-MSC / Beijing wôde “my” [1st pers. possessive pronoun] Manser part 1 289
S. Chinese-Min (Yŏngān) ŋuo1 “I” (Fuān) ŋo3 “I” (Jiēyáng) uà3 “I” Norman 234
S Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ngó “I” [1st pers. pronoun] Kwan 228 ngóge “my” [1st pers.
possessive pronoun] Kwan 308
G.32.1 NS-Songhay (Gao) wó pronom substitutif jouant le role de demonstratif [a pronoun
which serves as a demonstrative] “ce, cet, cette, celui-ci, cell-ci [this, this one] wónè / wónò
“pronominal, à valeur de possession” [pronominal form as possessive] Ducroz 234
e wónó “le mien” “de moi” [mine] Ducroz 79
↓↓
G.33 AA– Chadic AA – AA- NS NC
Cush. Sem.
Swadesh “we” W. Chadic- Maba- NC-Fulfulde
G.33.1 N. Chinese-MSC Gwandara Maba (Fulani)
wômen “we” Wu, J. 725 múǹ / mún maŋ / min
uômən “we” (exclusive) “1st pers. mʌŋ “conjunctive
Norman 1988a 196 plural pron.” Maba- personal
N. Chinese-MSC zámen “we” Matsushita Kodoi pronoun”
(inclusive) Norman 121 1972 83 mʌŋ “we, us”
-men grammatical suffix “we”
which functions as the human plural Edgar
marker Packard 174 303
659
-men bf. Proto-Chadic minin

“used after a personal noun or pronoun mu(n) “disjunctive
to denote an indefinite plural number” “1st person personal
Wang , F. 330 plural pronoun”
N. Chinese-Chengdu inclusive “we, us”
ŋo3mən2 “we” Norman 196 pron.” Taylor 138
zánmen “we, us” “you and I” Ehret 1995
“we (inclusive)” #568 300 335
Norman 1988 158
G.33.1
N. Chinese-MSC -men grammatical suffix which functions as the human plural marker
< W. Chadic-Gwandara mûn “we”1st pers. plural pron.] / E. Sudanic-Maba mʌŋ “we”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *mún ~ mʌŋ “we” [1st pers. plural pron.]
G.33.1
N. Chinese-Chéngdū ŋo3 mən “we” Norman 1988a 196
N. Chinese-Yángzhōu o3 mən “we” Norman 1988a 196
TB-Tibetan mang-po “much, many” “most people” “the majority of the people” Jaschke 410
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) néihmùn “you” pl. Chik / Ng Lam 11
Extended African/AA language family:
G.33.1
W. Chadic-Hausa
mun “we 1st pers. pl. pron. mun dakà hatsi “we pounded the corn” Newman, R. 1990 316
munàa pron. “continuous” “we” Awde 1996 121
W. Chadic-Angas mûn “we, us, to us, for us” [1st pers. plural pron.] Foulkes 248
W. Chadic-Kir mun “we (inclusive)” Mukarovsky 398
W. Chadic-Karekare men “people” Ruhlen 1994 311
E. Cushitic-Burji méen-a “people” Ruhlen 1994 310
NS-East Sudanic mεʔεn “person” Ruhlen 1994 310
E. Cushitic-Somali niman “men” Awde 1999 42
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic mannəm “any, any man, anyone, everyone”
Leslau 1976 29
G.33.1
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *min- / *man- “we”
-Mongolian-Ordos mini-, man- “we”
-Mongolian-Dongxian *mini- “we”
335
Note- G.33.1 (Chadic) Men functions as a true plural suffix in standard Chinese. It is used solely to designate
groups of people. It is also used for the plural forms of the pronouns ni “you”, nimen [you all],
ta “he, she, it”, tamen “they” and also for other groups of persons, e.g. hai “child” háizimen “group of
children”, ke “guest” kerenmen “the guests” etc. Ramsey 64 Yip Po-Ching 2004 10.
The table gives evidence that the Chadic or NS 1st pers. plural pronouns have been grammaticalized into suffixes
in Beijing Chinese. “Classical Chinese [the written form of Old Chinese] knew no distinctions between singular and
plural forms for either nouns or pronouns. When context required a distinction, various devices could be resorted to.
These included addition of a word meaning “group”or “associates”. Norman 89. See also G.35.1
Given the absence of plural forms in classical Chinese, the use of the men suffix must have entered northern
Chinese later. “Forms ancestral to the plural suffix men (used in almost all Mandarin dialects as well as in the
standard language) do not appear in this form until the Song dynasty” (960 to 1279 CE). Norman 120-121. See also
Note H.35.1-2 and Chapter 9 section 9.9.2.
660
-Mongolian-Dagur minī-, mān- “we”

-Mongolian-Baoan mene, man- “we”
-Mongolian-Buriat menī, man- “we”
↓↓
G.34 AA– AA – AA- Nilo-Saharan NC
Chad. Cush. Sem.
G.34.1 NS-Kanuri
C. Chinese-Wu ní “you” [2d pers. sing. pron.]
(Hángzhōu) Cyffer 1990 xix, 143
ni4 “you” Lukas 1937 13, 26
Norman 203 NS-Songhay (Djenne, Gao)
N. Chinese-MSC / Beijing ní “toi, tu” Ducroz 186
nî “you” 2d pers. sing. pron. “you” (pronom locutif récepteur)”
Norman 158336 [2d pers. sing. pron.] Heath v.2 155
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Koyra) “you” “2d sing. pron.”
ni3 2d pers. sing. pron. Heath v.1 204
(MacIver) n2 ngi2 ni1 ní / n “you” “2d sing. pron.”
“you, your” Hakka Dict. Heath v.3 255
Middle Chinese Anywa [Anuak] iinì “you”
ā-ni “you” Norman 113 2d pers. sing. pron. Reh 29 337
G.34.2 S. Chinese-Yue NS-Maba-Group-Masalit
(Cantonese) naiyε
néîh “you (one person)” 2d pers. possessive pron.
Kwan 578 “yours, your thing, your”
néihmùn “you (plural)” Edgar 495
Chik / Ng Lam 11
S. Chinese-Min
(Jiangle)
ne9 “you” Norman 234
G.34.3 NS-Suk nyí,
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] NS-Nandi inye 2d person pron.
(Méixian, Hȃilu) Greenberg 1966 86
ɲi2 “you” Norman 227 NS-Anywa [Anuak]
C. Chinese-Wu (Wēnzhōu) ɲὲ “you there (calling a man of
ɲi4 “you” Norman 203 same age group or younger,
C. Chinese-Gan (Fèngxin) otherwise impolite)”
ɲi6 “you” Norman 205 Reh 53, 134 Greenberg 1966 131
336
Note- G.34.1 (Chinese) There are two varieties of Beijing Chinese pronunciation of the nî “you” morpheme.
j j
These are variety A [n i] and variety B [ɲ i] . For variety B speakers palatals are used before front vowels.
Duanmu 2000 34 A similar shift occurs between the NS languages cited in the record (G.34.1 and G.34.3)
(See also sets G.15.1-2)
337
Note- G.34.1 (NS) The NS examples in G.34.1,3 are instances of what Greenberg states to be a common
grammatical feature of the Nilo-Saharan superfamily, i.e. the second person singular pronoun is in i, “often
strengthened by a nasal consonant prefix: Songhai ni; Kanuri nyi; Maba mi; For (Fur) dyi; Koma i-.”
Greenberg 1966 131 note 2.
661
Middle Chinese (See also sets G.15.1-2)

*nzje pron. 2d pers.
TB-Tibetan nyid-ran
“thou, you” Jaschke 188
S. Chinese-Yue (Zhongshan)
ni3 “you” Norman 220
G.34.4 N. Chinese –MSC / Maba Group-Maba
Beijing nín “you” n� n�-gu
2d pers. sing. pron. “your (singular)”
(polite) Norman 158 Edgar 495
Wang, F. 352
G.34.1 N. Chinese-MSC ni “you (2d pers. sing. pron.)”
< Songhay (Djenne) ní “toi, tu” [“you” 2d pers. singular pron.]
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *ni “you”
G.34.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Zhongshan) ni3 “you” (Táishān) ni1 “ you” Norman 220
S. Chinese-Min (Zhèróng) ny3 “you” Norman 190
N. Chinese- Xian, Chéngdū, Lingbăo ni3 “you” Norman 196
Old Chinese *njidx pron. 2d pers. Norman 89
TB-Tibetan nyid-kyi “thy, your” Jaschke 188
G.34.1
E. Chadic-Dangaleat [Dangla] -ny “pronom personnel suffixé à un nominal, 2ème personne masculine
singuliere” 2d person masc. singular pron. suffixed to a noun] e.g. boora-ny “jument de toi”
[your donkey] Fédry 253
NS-Anywa yīinī pers. pron. “you” also ī i (ni) Reh 83, 134
E. Cushitic -Somalii nin “man, husband”. Awde 1999 42
G.34.2 E. Cushitic -Somali niman “men” pl. Awde 1999 42
G.34.2
Proto-Altaic *ná “thou”
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *-ŋ “thou”
↓↓
G.35 AA– AA –Cush. AA-Sem. NS NC
Chad.
G.35.1 Old Chinese êr W. Semitic-
pronoun 2nd person Amharic
“Classical Chinese knew no ərsāwo “you”
distinction between singular ərsəwo “you”
and plural forms for nouns (respectful)
or pronouns” Leslau 1976 126,
Norman 89 338 534
338 3
Note G.35.1 (Old Chinese) The first occurrences of the second- person pronoun êr are found in the Western
Zhou period. “Its earliest examples are plural.” Sagart 142. See also note G.33.1
662
N. Chinese-MSC / Beijing yarsəwo pron.

êr “you” “your”
êrcao [vocative] “Respectful form”
“you people, you and your Leslau 1976 535
kind” Wu. J. 177
↓↓
Sino-Tibetan African/AA languages- Close correspondences
Languages
G.36 AA– AA –Cushitic AA- NS Khoi.
Chadic Semitic
G.36.1 W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic- Egyptian
N. Chinese-MSC tā Rendille taá
tā pron. “he, she, it, him, her” t-
“she, her, it, its” demonstra
Norman 157-158 Newman, P. “she, it” -tive
“he, she, it, him, her” Wang, F. 449 2007 192 (third person pronoun,
N. Chinese- Peking (Beijing), ta / tà singular feminine
Xiān, Yangzhou, [as] Direct objectfeminine “this”
Chengdu, Lingbao of verb Ita prefix) Budge v.2
tha1 “he / she” Norman 196 3d pers. f. Pillinger 272 818
C. Chinese-Wu tha1 Non-tense aspect
“he / she” Norman 203 pronoun
C. Chinese- Hángzhōu Newman, R.
tha1 “he / she” Norman 203339 1990
TB-Qiang tha 313-314
third-person singular pronoun
Sagart 147
Extended African/AA language family:
Egyptian ta demonstrative pronoun “this” “later the feminine article” Budge v.2 81
G.36.1
IE-Bengali ta: pronoun. “it” “that” Thompson 55, 106
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan ta this “that” “he, she, it” Peterson, J. 1995
For the reflexive pronoun dzi “self” see C.9a.1 Middle Chinese etc.
The second person pronoun êr is found commonly in Nanbeichao texts in all syntactic positions. Norman 118.
[Nanbeichao period (420-589 CE)]
339
Note- G.36.1 C. Chinese-Wu “The Central dialects employ pronouns of the southern type, except where
1
Mandarin influence is strong and tha has been imported.” Norman 1988a 198.
663
Chapter 2H Verbs.
Word families based on common syntactic type.
The selection of vocabulary for this domain includes ST ↔ AA correspondences of verbs which are not
primarily associated with the nouns or adjectives etc. listed in the A-G domains. These latter are:
1-verbs which express human communication, cognition and volition which were included under
Semantic domain E. These are mainly intransitive verbs.
2-verbs which correspond closely to noun roots for artifacts or actions involved in their creation. These
were included in Semantic domain F. They are mainly transitive.
3-verbs from the other semantic groups. These contain fewer verbs. Those associated with bodily
positions or functions such as sitting, eating were placed in Section C. Very few verbal lexemes are found
in Sections A, B, D and G.
The H domain also contains a number of correspondences ultimately based on affix morphology. They
are found in ST morphemes which correspond to Chadic-Hausa, verb root + aspect suffix endings, i.e
ventive, completive and sustentative / passive, i.e. these Hausa verb aspect suffixes give evidence of
being the source of certain ST verbs which on the surface appear to have independent origins. However
the Hausa basic form of the verb establishes the root, but a suffixed aspect form is reflected in the ST
etymon. See notes H.1.2 and H.2.1 (Chinese, Hausa) below. (See also Chapter 10, sections 10.1-2 for
statistics and discussion showing the impact of Hausa morphology and grammar on Sinitic languages.).
For example the discussion in Chapter 10 section 10.2.1.2 grade 6 lists examples in which the
Chinese roots reflect the Hausa ventive aspect. Other verb root + aspect affixes were mentioned earlier in
Semantic Domains C- Note C.46.1 and E- Notes E.7c.1, E.13e.3 and E.13e 4. The present H domain
contains others. (Besides notes H.1.2 and H.2.1 Hausa, see Notes H.3a.2 Hausa, H.6a.2 Tibetan, Hausa,
H.25b.1 Hausa and CC sets H.30a.3 and H.39a.4).
There are also cases of Sinitic language grammar developed from a Hausa verb. For example the Note-
H.3a.2 presents evidence that a verb aspect of Hausa origin has been grammaticalized so as to form a
Chinese verbal compound denoting the direction of a verb of motion. In this case the Hausa tahō vg.6
ventive aspect “arrive, come” “come this way” generated the Standard Chinese coverb dào “arrive,
attain” which is now independently productive as an “attainment resultative” particle. Another case is
the simple “resultative”, i.e. the verb complement -chu denoting ”movement away from” of note
H.6a.2. These morphemes are quite unlike the Hausa verb aspect affix correspondences described above.
They first existed as independent roots and now provide a new syntactic function for them. See Chapter
10 section 10.6 for those which have been identified in the study.
2H Domain statistics
Tables = 43 numbered tables which represent an individual or generic word family.
Individual word families = 80. Each of the word families within a generic word family is counted as a
separate unit.
Single independent large word families: 4
“to arrive, to reach, to bring” “enough” H.2.1-4
“give” H.22.1-5
“cut, chop” H.31.1-4
“to dig, to scrape” H.32.1-4
Multiple related (Generic) word families: 19
“to turn around, to be turned around” “to move” “to move back” H.3a-c
“to go, come” “to travel, roam, migrate” “to wander” H.4a-d
“to enter, to go across” “to cross a stream, a ford” “to go out” H.6a-b
“to tread, to trample, to stamp on” “to measure by pacing, to survey”H.7a-b
“to tread, to walk” “road, way” “method” H.8a-b
“to crowd together, fill up” “to be full of, to be filled up” H.13a-b
“to sit, to squat” “to descend, to get down, to go down” “to be lodged” H.17a-c
664
“to stand up” “to be erect” “to carry” H.19a-b

“a load, a burden” “to carry” H.20a-b
“clean” “completely” “holy, sacred. good” good, chaste, pure” H.23a-c
“clean” “clear” “new” “to rub, wipe” “to shave, scrape” “to sweep, to comb” “to wash, bathe” “to strain,
“to filter, to sift” H.24a-f
“to hunt, chase” “to escape, to flee” “to compete, a race, a competition” “to excel, surpass” H.25a-c
“to prop up” “to support, raise up” “lean on” “shelf, support” H.26a-b
“to beat, to knock” “to strike” “to grind, crush” “to poke, to pull, to touch” H.29a-c
“to break, to split” “cracked” “to cut to pieces” “carve” “scrape, cut” H.30a-d
“to scoop out, to dig out” “to scrape, hoe” H.33a-b
“to fall” H.34a-c
“to send, to work, job” “to send, drive off” H.38.a-b
“to exchange, buy, sell” “to confer, to consult” “to converse” H.39a-b
Basic vocabulary: There are 12 word families which contain one or more sets of ST ↔ African/AA
language close correspondences which match lexemes of the 100 word Swadesh list. 4 of these
correspondences are found in the multiple related word families listed above.
(Only one correspondence per word family is counted)
Polysyllabic correspondences: 20 (Only one per word family is counted)
Etymologies

H.1 AA– Chadic AA- AA-Sem. NS NC
Cush.
H.1.1 C. Chinese- W. Chadic – Hausa, Semitic-Arabic
Wu tsha5 Gwandara jā vt. (Iraqi) jarr
“to pull, drag, haul” “pull, drag” “pulling, towing,
Hakka Dict. “draw (water from tugging, drawing”
TB-Tibetan dzaa well)” jarjar
“draw out/extract Newman, P. 2007 96 “to pull, drag”
blood” Newman, R. 1990 211 Dict. of Iraqi
Goldstein 847 Skinner 119 Arabic pt.2 69-70
H.1.2 W. Chadic–Hausa NS-Anywa
S. Chinese-Yue jāwō vg.6 ventive jʌ‫כ‬ʌo
(Cantonese) (< ja) “pull (here), vt.
chàu “to draw out” drag (toward speaker)” “to pull off
“to pull out or open” Kraft 346 Newman, P. something”
Chik / Ng Lam 169 2000 627, 662 Reh 30
“pull this way”
Newman, P. 2007 96340
340
Note- H.1.2 (Chinese, Hausa) As previously mentioned in Note- E.13e.3 , the H.1.2 Chinese (Cantonese
and Wu) attest correspondences to the H.1.2 Hausa Grade 6 “ventive” (= -ō type) verb aspect form.. The -ō
suffix denotes direction to the speaker or place referred to. This and other verb grades are derived forms of a
basic form which in this case is H.1.1 jā / ca- “to pull, to draw” “to drag”. Hence ja (grade 0) “pull” is the
665
C. Chinese-Wu
tshɤw2
“to draw out”
“to pull out or open”
Hakka Dict.
H.1.3 W. Chadic–Hausa
N. Chinese-MSC cire vt.
jí “draw (water)” “pull out”
Wu, J. 312 341 Kraft 337
H.1.1
C. Chinese-W tsha5 “to pull, drag, haul”
< W. Chadic–Hausa, Gwandara jā vt. “pull, drag” “draw (water from well)” /
H.1.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chàu “to draw out” “to pull out or open”
< W. Chadic- Hausa W. Chadic – Hausa jāwō “pull (here)”
drag (toward speaker)”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *ja “to “to pull, drag” ~ jāwō “pull (here)”
basic form and it adds –wo to show the direction of the action jāwo “pull this way (toward the speaker or
scene of the topic being discussed)”. Newman, P. 2000 627.
Other examples are:
Basic form: (grade 0, 1 or 3) Grade 6 ventive -ō form:
kama “catch” (grade 1) kamo “catch and bring here” Kraft 152
kai “carry, convey, reach there” kawo “bring, reach here” Kraft 152 (H.2.1)
sauka “arrive (there) (grade 3) sauko “arrive here (come down) Kraft 153
shiga “enter (there) (grade 3) shigo “enter (here) Kraft 153
or shìga “enter (go in”(grade 3) or shìgo “enter (come in)” Newman, R. 1990 83
H.1.2 Cantonese and Wu give evidence that the grade 6 form survives in Chinese under the condition that the
root stem of the basic form in Hausa ends in a vowel as in jā. In Hausa the suffix becomes -wō and in Cantonese
2
or Wu it is retained as final –u. The H.1.2 Wu morpheme shɤw “to draw out” “to pull out” [pull something
h 5
toward oneself] contrasts with the H.1.1 Wu morpheme ts a “to pull, drag, haul” which matches the H.1.1 basic
West Chadic- Hausa form. (See also E.13e.7 Cantonese giu, notes H.2.1 (Hausa), the H.3a.2 (Hausa) below
and Chapter 10 section 10.2.1.2 grade 6 ventives)
In other cases when the root stem ends in a consonant, e.g. Hausa kama “catch” > kamo “catch and bring
here”, the final vowel of the Hausa form is simply omitted in the Chinese morpheme, e.g. (F.1.1 Hausa kāmàa
vg.1 vt. “catch, seize, take hold of” > Chinese-Yuè (Cantonese) kàhm “to capture, to catch”) so the Hausa
Grade 6 verb -ō form does not affect the Sinitic morphology. (For a similar case in Tibetan see Note- H.6b.1.)
These cases show that although Hausa derived verb aspect morphemes which though rare in Chinese morphology,
attest an interesting instance of Chinese ↔ Hausa phonetic/semantic matching and of the usefulness of comparing
single languages. Sometimes the contrasting forms may be attested in different Chinese languages, e.g H.1.1 C.
h 5 3 1
Chinese-Wu ts a and S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] cha / cha “to pull, drag, haul” reflect the basic Hausa form
2
and H.1.2 S. Chinese- Yuè (Cantonese) chàu “to draw out” “to pull out or open” and Chinese- Wu tshɤw “to
draw out” “to pull out or open” reflect the derived Hausa ventive form.
341
Note- H.1.3 (Beijing, Chadic) The H.1.3 morphemes are closely related to TB, Chinese and AA forms which
are reported in H.19a.1 below as in :
C. Chadic –Buduma ci “lift” W. Chadic- Hausa cira vg.1 vt. “lift up, move away” In the Beijing jí “drawing water”
is, of course, “lifting up” or “pulling out” the water. The Sino-Tibetan forms related to these are:
N. Chinese (Beijing) ch’î (WG) “to rise, to raise” shí “pick up from the ground”
TB-Baic-Dali tsi “lift up, raise” TB-Qiang (Taoping) tsi “lift up, raise”
1
N. Chinese (Beijing) chi “to pick up things with chopsticks or pincers”
1
S. Chinese-Min chhia “lift water by water wheel”
666

H.1.1 Proto-W. Chadic *ca- “pull” Stolbova, Olga W. Chadic Etymology
H.1.2 W. Chadic-Hausa tsaurara vt. “pull taut (e.g. bowstring or rope” Newman / Ma 1994 124
E. Chadic–Bidiya d’yaw “traire” (Fr.) [to draw, to milk] Skinner 119
H.1.3 E. Cushitic-Rendille jiita vt. “(to) pull, drag” Pillinger 166, 378
↓↓
H.2 AA – Chadic Afro-Asiatic – AA- NS NC
Cushitic Sem.
H.2.1 W. Chadic- Hausa Cushitic-
S. Chinese-Min kau v. kai “take, take to” Oromo
“to arrive, reach, direction, kāwō vg.6 gau “pervenire,
to, up to, until” ventive of kai vt. , giungere,
“arrive, go to, been to” “bring” vi. “reach here, arrive” arrivare, essere
Hakka Dict. Newman / Ma 1979 65 sul punto di” [to
“arrive, reach” “bring, reach here” arrive, to reach,
Bodman 1987 v.2 145 Kraft 152 to get to the
N. Chinese-MSC “take to” point of,
kào “keep to, get near, Newman, P. 2007 104 be about to]
come up to” “near, by” kāwō ya Kano Borello 172
kàolông “he has arrived in Kano
“draw close, close up” (travelling toward the speaker)”
kào’an “pull into shore, Bargery 2002342
draw aside” Wu, J. 386
H.2.2 Proto-Cushitic
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] *kaw-
gāu “cross over, move” “to advance”
Matisoff 2003 515 Ehret 1995 #335
202
H.2.1 S. Chinese-Min kau3 v. “to arrive, reach, direction, to, up to, until” “arrive, go to, been to” /
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gàau “to arrive, reach, direction to, up to, till”
< W. Chadic- Hausa kāwō “bring” “reach (here)” “bring” vt. “reach, arrive” / Cushitic- Oromo ga-u
“to arrive, to reach, to get to a point”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *gau “to arrive, to reach, to get to a point”
342
Note- H.2.1 (Hausa) The basic form in Hausa is kai “carry, convey, reach (there)” See H.19a.2
(Hausa Extended) below. As cited above, the verb grade 6 or -ō (ventive) form of this is kāwō “bring” “reach
(here)” (Kraft 152 Newman, P. 2000 662.) Both forms mean “reach, arrive”, but kai and kaiwa denote
completion of a movement away from the speaker, and kawo denotes completion of motion toward the speaker,
hence “bring, arrive here”. The basic form and its derived ventive are exemplified in the Hausa phrase “Suna
kaiwa suna kawowa.” “They are carrying things back and forth” (Newman, R. 1990 36). kaiwa and kawowa
are verbal nouns of kai and kawo respectively. Another way of expressing this is kai dà kàawo or kâiwa dà
kāwôwā “going back and forth, shuttling”. (Newman, P. 2007 104). For other ventive forms see Notes H.3a.1-2,
H.6b.2 (Extended) and Chapter 10 Section 10.2.1.2. grade 6 (ventives.)
In the related Cushitic-Oromo gau the root also has the denotation of “being at the point of (doing something)”,
“being about to” as in Sani duu gae gadoda gau “La vacca sta per morire” [the cow is about to die]. These
semantics show its relationship to the Hausa kāwō “reach, arrive” and especially the phrase kawo kai “be at
hand, be just about to happen”. See Newman, P. 2007 104. The morphemes are also plausible sources of the
Cantonese meanings of gau “finally, in the end”. Chik / Ng Lam 337 and gàaudou “to a point that …, to such an
extent” Po-fei Huang 383
667

H.2.1
E. Cushitic-Oromo gawu vi. “raggiungere” [to reach, to get to, to arrive at] Borello 172
gao “arrival” Foot 61
H.2.2
N. Chinese-MSC jiāo “reach (a certain hour or season)” Wu, J. 337.
Semitic-Arabic jazaru “show up” Merriam-Webster Arabic 142
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amhari qärräbä “approach, come close, come near, come forward”
Leslau 1976 72
H.2.2
Altaic-Turkic-Middle Turkic javu “draw near”(dialectical) jovug “near”
Altaic-Turkic-Tatar jawuk “near” (dialectical) Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish javuk “near” (dialectical)
Altaic-Turkic-Karakalpak žuw- “draw near” žuwiq- “near” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
↓↓
H.3a-c AA – Chadic AA-Cushitic, AA- NS Niger-
Proto-AA Sem. Congo
Swadesh “walk” W. Chadic-N. Bauci- Proto-AA NC- S.E.
H.3a.1 Warji tau “go, walk” *-daw- Mande-Guro,
N. Chinese-MSC Mukarovsky 190 “to walk” Yaure, Nwa
dào “go to, leave for” Chadic root Ehret 1995 táwó
Wu, J. 139 (Jungraithmayr) #153 136344 “go, walk”
coverb *dw “to go” E. Cushitic- Mukarovsky
“move/travel to a place” Ehret 1995 #153 136 Somali 190
Wang, F. 92343 C. Chadic-Mofu- daw
pàodao Gudur -daw- “walk” “go, walk”
“run to” Stolbova, Olga Mukarovsky
DeFrancis 675 C. Chadic Etymology 190
H.3a.2 N. Chinese-MSC W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic-
dào vi. “come” tahō vg.6 Somali
Wu J.139 ventive aspect soo dhowow
chūntiān dào le “arrive, come” “come in!”
“Spring has come” “come this way” soo “towards
Yip, Po-Ching 2004 89 Kraft 153345 here”
343
Note- H.3a.1 (Beijing) F. Wang labels this function as a coverb whereas Norman calls it a preposition derived
from a verb. “Destination is expressed with the preposition dào, e.g. dào Beijing qu [lit.] ‘to Beijing go’
Norman 1988a 163.
344
Note- H.3a.1-2 (Proto-AA, Chadic, Beijing) The Wu J. 139 Beijing dào citation in H.3a.1 means “go” and in
H.3a.2 “come, arrive.” Hence the H.3a.1 and H.3a.2 homonyms seem to contain contradictory denotations
(opposite directions of movement).
This semantic opposition can be accounted for by the existence of different AA proximate roots for the two
morphemes. They are plausibly derived by different routes from the Proto-AA *-daw-“to walk” which is
neutral as to direction. The evidence suggests that the H.3a.1 dao “go” meaning has been inherited from the AA
proto-root probably through the similar Chadic forms, but the H.3a.2 dao “come, arrive” semantics have been
transmitted by way of the Hausa ventive aspect of this root. See also Notes- H.1.2 (Chinese, Hausa) and H.6b.1
(Tibetan, Hausa).
668
dào “arrive, reach” Proto-C. Chadic dhowow

as coverb “up until” *dVʔ- “go” “go in” “to approach”
-dào verb complement “come” Awde
[denotes] “completion of Stolbova, Olga 1999 29
verbal action” C. Chadic Etymology Proto-Afro-
DeFrancis 172 2006 Asiatic
-dào “arrive, attain” C. Chadic-Gude *dʔw
“an attainment dàʔú “move”
resultative” Packard 98-99 “going in Militarev, A.
meaning as full verb [is] and out” Afro-Asiatic
‘arrive’. Stolbova, Olga Etymology
As preposition has case C. Chadic Etymology 2007
function of ‘terminal’ 2006
Norman 1988a 163
S. Chinese-Yue
(Cantonese) dou n.
“arrival” vt. “reach”
Chen 12, 316
H.3a.3 E. Cushitic-
S. Chinese-Yue Oromo
(Cantonese) tawu
dauh “stay, linger” “fermarsi,
Chik / Ng Lam 453 rimanere,
dauhlauh “stay abitare,
(for a short period)” vivere”
Kwan 504 [to stop/halt, to
tàu “to lodge, to stay” stay, to remain,
Chik / Ng Lam 167 to reside, live]
Borello 293
H.3a.1 N. Chinese-MSC dào “go to, leave for”
< W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Warji tau “go, walk” / Proto-AA *-daw- “to walk”
H.3a.2 N. Chinese-MSC dào “come, arrive”
< W. Chadic-Hausa taho / dawo grade 6 ventive aspect “come (here), arrive (here)”
Approximate Sinitic etyma: *-daw- “to go (there) ~ taho / dawo “to come (here).
H.3a.1 N. Chinese-MSC dào “go” dàodî “keep going to the end” v. “after all” “at last”adv.
Merriam-Webster Chinese 29 “to the end, to the finish” Wu, J. 139
H.3a.2 N. Chinese-MSC dàu (Y) n. “arrival” vt. “reach” Chen 12, 316 dào v. “arrive”
345
Note- H.3a.2 (Hausa) The full citation from Kraft (153) is tafi “go (away) [grade 1 basic form], tafo / taho
“arrive, come” [verb grade 6 the -ō “ventive” form]. P. Newman explains the phonology of this. The basic form
is tafi “go” in Hausa-Kano dialect,. (standard Hausa). In W. Hausa dialects this is pronounced tahi. In this case
the Kano dialect is not typical. The general Hausa rule is that before back-rounded vowels u(u) and o(o), the
phoneme / f / is often pronounced (and, if so, written) as / h /). The ventive marker -o is the result of this regular
sound change, hence the basic tàfi “go” changes to ventive tahō “come this way”. (Newman, P. 2000 393). See
this sound change also between B.10.1 fun and B.10.2 hun as described in Note B.10.2 (Hausa). See also Notes
B.14d.1 and E.30.1 )
Further, “Orthographic h is used both for the independent phoneme /h/, e.g. hatsi “grain” and for the pseudo-
allophone of / f /, e.g. tahō “come here” < (tàfi “go”+ o “ventive marker”)” Newman, P. 2000 395.
669
dào vi. “arrive, reach”, as resultative ending -dào “arrive at a place” “reach a point”,
as postverb “to a place, a certain time, or degree” Wang, F. 90
dàoda “to come to a place” “reach” Merriam-Webster Chinese 218
H.3a.1 C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur -dàw- “walk” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic-Etymology 2006
madaw “marcher” [march] Barreteau 381
H.3a.2 E. Cushitic-Rendille dowwaada “approach, come close to”
dów “near, nearby” Pillinger 97-98
E. Cushitic-Somali dhaw / dhow “near” Awde 1999 29, 47, 172
/
H.3b.1 N. Chinese - W. Chadic- E. Cushitic-Rendille Semitic-Arabic Anywa
MSC dào “move Hausa tabar dowa (Iraqi) [Anuak]
backward” “pour, tip” dāwō “go in an opposite daawar dúuó
“upside down, inverted, “return here” direction to “to alternate, “to come
inverse” Wu, J. 139 Stolbova, Olga someone” vary, change, back”
-dào resultative W. Chadic Pillinger 273 exchange” Reh 24
ending “be inverted” Etymology E. Cushitic- Sidamo Dict. of Iraqi
Wang, F. 92 2006 dawara “to give an Arabic
S. Chinese-Yue Newman, P. answer, come back” part 2 169
(Cantonese) dóu / dou 2007 44 Gasparini 71 (Yemeni)
“to inverse, to place Skinner 47 Proto-Afro-Asiatic dawra
upside down” Bargery 2002 *dVwV-r- “one
Chik / Ng Lam 19 dāwōwā “turn” Militarev / revolution,
dindou “reverse “returning here” Stolbova rotation,
(order)” Kwan 435 Kraft 339 Afro-Asiatic circulation”
Etymology 2007 Qafisheh 216
H.3b.2 S. Chinese-Yue E. Cushitic-Rendille Kanuri
(Cantonese) tabardow dùwô
dóu / dou “(the) opposite” conj.
“on the contrary” “a contradiction” “though,
“but” “yet” tabar “opposite although”
“nevertheless” direction” Cyffer
Chik / Ng Lam 19 Pillinger 273346 1990 39347
346
Note- H.3b.1-3 (Chinese-Beijing, Cantonese, Cushitic-Rendille) The same Beijing morpheme dào as in
H.3a.2 here shows a meaning of “going back” or “inverted, upside down, opposite direction”.
The H.3b.1-3 (Rendille) tabar “opposite direction” “occurs only in phrasal verbs with dow-: i.e. tabar dowa,
tabar dowcha, tabar dowsada. The fact that tabar can receive the nominal phrase marker -e (tabare
dowaan) shows that these are phrasal verbs consisting of two words, rather than single verbs.” The tabar
morpheme is derived from the basic form taba “go through, travel through, pass by (some place). (Pillinger 273)
The verb dowa means “go over repeatedly” (Pillinger 97) [also expressed in English by the transitive ‘go back
over (a job etc.)’ or the intransitive ‘go back and forth’ (something swinging or a person walking).] The tabar
morpheme is plausibly related to the H.3b.2 (Extended) lexemes C. Chadic-Gude tawurə “go repeatedly”, Chadic
and Semitic dawar- “turning around”and ultimately to the H.3b.2 Proto-AA *d-w-r- “turn”. Hence this root is used
to expresses relationships of reciprocity (mentioned in Note- D.5a.1). It is plausibly also the source of the semantic
opposition between “come” and “go” expressed by the basic and ventive forms of the Hausa verb tafi “go (away)
described in note H.3a.1-2 (Proto-AA).
347
Note- H.3b.2 (NS-Kanuri, Cushitic-Rendille,) The grammatical role of dùwô in Kanuri is to contrast or oppose
subordinate verbal clauses to the initial statement. For many examples of this function of explicit phrasal
contrasting see “Dùwô as a subordinator of concessive clauses”. Hutchison section 7, 303-308. This Kanuri usage
accounts for the semantics of the above-cited Cantonese dóu / dou as equivalent to the English
670
N. Chinese-MSC /
Beijing
dàoshi adv.
“’admittedly’, ‘it is”
followed by a phrase
with ‘but’ or ‘and yet’”
Wang, F. 92-93
N. Chinese-MSC
dào “unexpectedly”
“although” adv.
Merriam-Webster
Chinese 29
H.3b.3 S. Chinese-Yue E. Cushitic- Rendille Semitic-Arabic
(Cantonese) tàbar “opposite tàbaj
dàap / wùihdàap v. direction” “contrast”
“answer (question)” tabar dowa Merriam-
Kwan 18 Chen 9 “go in an opposite Webster Arabic
Middle Chinese tap direction to 34
“answer” > someone”
N. Chinese-MSC Pillinger 273
dá “answer”
Ramsey 142
H.3b.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] dau3 “inverse, place upside down, in reverse order” /
N. Chinese –MSC “upside down, inverted, inverse”
< C. Chadic-Bura –tawara “turn” / C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur dəhwrey “to turn round” /
Written Arabic dawarān “to turn, revolve, rotate, move in a circle” “to circulate, go round”
dawra “rotation, turn, orbit, circuit”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *daw- “to turn around, to be turned around” “a rotation”
H.3b.1
N. Chinese -MSC dàodêng “turn something over and over” dàodòng “turn something over”
DeFrancis 173 dòng “move” (H.9.1)
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian, MacIver) dau3 “inverse, place upside down, in reverse order”
Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Min to2 “inverse, place upside down, in reverse order” Hakka Dict. ;
toû “to return” Bodman 1987 v.2 18
C. Chinese-Wu tɔ5 “inverse, place upside down, in reverse order” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dou “to repeat a mistake somebody else has made” Chik / Ng Lam 443
N. Chinese-MSC dâo “move around” “change, exchange” Wu, J. 138
S. Chinese-Min toû “to return” Bodman 1987 v.2 182
adverbial/conjunctions “on the contrary” “but”, “yet” and “nevertheless”. The dóu / dou morpheme also means
“to inverse, place upside down” Chik / Ng Lam 19
The related H.3b.2 Beijing dào or dàoshi “but, still, nevertheless” “contrary to what was said or thought”
functions in a similar way, though the opposition marker occurs in the first statement and can be translated as
“admittedly---it is ---but”. A full example shows the contrast this way: Hăo-dào(shi) hăo, kêshi guì “Sure it’s
good, but its expensive” or Hăo-dào(shi)bù hăo, kêshi pianyi “Sure it isn’t good, but its cheap”. Wang, F. 93
The compound dàozhuan can denote “turn the other way around, reverse” or “contrary to reason or one’s
expectation”. See Merriam-Webster Chinese 29 for more examples. See also Chapter 10 section 10.6.3 Marker of
opposition.
671
H.3b.2 N. Chinese-MSC diàotóu “turn round, turn about” Wu, J.156

waidiao “transfer (sb. / sth.) to another locality” De Francis 968 [compound of this root and that of Note-
F.6a.4] .
diàohuan “exchange, change, swap” Wu J. 156 dào “change, exchange” Wu J. 138
dàozhuan “turn the other way around, “reverse” Wu J. 140
H.3b.3
Old Chinese *təp “to reply (to a greeting” Norman 1988a 85
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) boudàap n. “return” Kwan 434 dàapfūk “to reply to, to answer”
Chik / Ng Lam 343 Kwan 18 mei dàapfūkge “unanswered” Kwan 543
H.3b.1 E. Cushitic-Rendille dowa “go over repeatedly” Pillinger 97
dawarsisa vt. causative “to return” Gasparini 71 See also F.19.1. “fold, repeat”
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) dawwar “to turn” Qafisheh 217
C. Chadic-Bura -tawara “turn” Dict. of Bura
Written Arabic dawarān “to turn, revolve, rotate, move in a circle” Wehr 343
H.3b.2 W. ChadicHausa tikitin zuwaa da dàwowa “round trip” Newman, R. 226 dàwara vt.
“going around in a circle” Newman / Ma 1979 26
dawō da “return something, restore” Newman, P. 2007 44
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) daawwār “to alternate, change, exchange” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 169
dawwār “peddler, roving vendor” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 129, 170 Skinner 122
Modern Arabic (Lebanon) m-dawar “turn, rotate” Militarev, A. Semitic-Etymology 2006
Semitic-Akkadian) tawǔ “spin” Militarev, A. Semitic Etymology #303 16
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic adawwara “wind on the spool” Leslau 1976 199
C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur dəhwrey “se tourner” [to turn round] Skinner 47
C. Chadic-Gude tawurə “go repeatedly” Skinner 47
E. Chadic-Mokulu d’ole “entourer, répéter” [to surround, to circle, to repeat] Skinner 47
E. Cushitic-Rendille dowdowa “recount, retell” Pillinger 97
H.3b.3 Cushitic-Rendille istabar dowa “pass one another (travelling in opposite directions)”
“contradict each other” Pillinger 163
E. Cushitic- Haddiya dàbar- “answer, change, return” Hudson 21, 274
E. Cushitic-Oromo dabaru vi. “alternare, cambiare” vn. “cambio, turno” [alternate, change;
a change, exchange, turn, rotation] Borello 85
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) tabaayun n. “contrast” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic v.1 44.
H.3b.3 IE-Bengali tobu / tobuo conj. “in spite of, yet, still” tɔbe “but”
/
H.3c.1 TB-Tibetan ldog-pa Proto-South Anywa
“to come back, to return, to go home, Cushitic dɔ‫כ‬ɔk “to go back”
to depart, to come again” “opposed, *dokwar- “to go down (river)”
contrary” “turn around, dūok
Jaschke 292 “to come back, to return, revolve” “to answer something”
to go home, to send back” Das 712 Skinner 47 Reh 24
H.3c.1 TB-Tibetan ldog-pa “to come back, to return, to go home, to depart, to come again” /”
< Proto-South Cushitic *dokwar- “turn around, revolve” / Anywa dɔ‫כ‬ɔk “to go back” “to go down
(river)”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *dok- “turn around, to go back”
H.3c.1 TB-Tibetan dag-ləə “retreating, going, turning back (to where one came),
dag-lam “a way, road for retreat” Goldstein 465 lam “road” (F.25.1) dogyɔɔ lɔɔ “to cause to turn
upside down” Goldstein 467
672

H.3c.1 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic däggämä “repeat, do again, recite prayers, review a lesson,
give a second time” Leslau 1976 199
↓↓
H.4a-d Afro-Asiatic – AA – AA-Semitic, NS NC,
Chadic Cushitic Egyptian Khoisan
Swadesh “come” W. Chadic- Hausa Proto-AA Semitic-Arabic-- Proto-N.
H.4a.1 TB-Tibetan zâ “future tense- (Orel Yemeni Khoisan
(W. Tibet) aspect marker /Stolbova ša + imperf. *ča
cha-ba “go to (with a 1995) “denotes future time “to go to and
“the usual word for following weak *dza’ / and intention” fetch”
‘go’ ” subject pronoun *dzaw- Qafisheh 329 Starostin, G.
“to be about, to be and a verb “go, come” Berber – Tuareg Macro-
on the point, to be typically in the Skinner 293 [Tamasheq] Khoisan
going” “to intend, verbal noun za “marks future in Etymology
to purpose” form)” relative and negative
Jaschke 152 zâ ta sàyen sentences”
TB-C. Loloish- zanèe Skinner 293
Lahu ša “particle “She is going to Egyptian sa “to go”
indicating intended buy a wrapper.” Budge v.2 640
action of Newman, P. m’shā “to march,
the first person” 2007 228 to go, to travel”
Matisoff 2003 488 Budge v.1 287
Swadesh “walk” W. Chadic- Hausa Proto-AA Egyptian
H.4a.2 TB-Tibetan zâka / zakka *-dzaʔ- saga
h’chag-pa “come, go” “to walk” “to march, to walk,
“to tread, to walk, Skinner 294 N. Omotic- to wander”
to move” Mocha Budge v.2 640
h’chag “to walk, *žaʔ-
to move about” “to travel”
“constitutional Ehret 1995
walk” Das 440-441 #462 257
čags-pa pf. Proto-AA
bċags fut. bcag (Orel /
“to tread, to walk, Stolbova
to move” 1995)
‘čag-tu “to take a *dzak- /
walk” Jaschke 167 *dzik-
See also H.7a.3 “go, come”
Skinner 294
H.4a.1
TB-Tibetan cha-ba “the usual word for ‘go’ ” “to be about, to be on the point, to be going”
< W. Chadic-Hausa zâ (followed by pronoun) “go to” Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) ša + imperf.
“denotes future time and intention” / Proto-N. Khoisan *ča “to go to and fetch”
ApproximateTibetan etyma *ča “go to” / “future tense marker”
H.4a.1 TB-Tibetan nam lug sad-ce câ dug “when are you going to kill the sheep” Jaschke 152
H.4a.2 TB-Tibetan h’chag-sa “a place for walking in” h’chag-par-byed “takes constitutional walk
after dinner; also the place for this purpose” Das 441
673

H.4a.1 E. Chadic-Mubi njā(u) “go” Skinner 293
Egyptian tcha “to set out on a journey, to make a passage, to travel” Budge v.2 894
utcha “to go, to go forth, to come, to betake oneself to a place” Budge v.1 193
Semitic-Written Arabic sa’a “move forward, to head, be headed” Wehr 480
(Iraqi) jaa / ija “to come, come to” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic 40, 81
C. Chadic- Gude dzə “go” Skinner 293
NS-Anywa [Anuak] cɔ‫כ‬ɔ vi. “to go (somewhere)” Reh 16
NC-Swahili -ja “to come” kuja “coming” Awde 2000 72
Khoisan-ǂHoan ča “come” Starostin, G. 2003 13;
N. Khoisan-!Kung, !O!Kung ca “to come” Greenberg 1966 76 ;
S. Khoisan-!Kwi-Nǀuu sa: ~ ca: “come” Starostin, G. 2012 16
Chadic- N. Bauci- Group * za-, *zau ”enter” Skinner 293
Khoisan-Hadza dza “to come” Greenberg 1966 76
C. Khoisan-Hiechware, Hukwe ja “to come” Greenberg 1966 76
H.4a.2 Proto-Omotic *žaʔ “to travel” Ehret 1995 #462 257
H.4a.1
South Daic-Lao cha:3 si:2 v. “going to” Marcus 94
Proto-Altaic *àja “to go, walk” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic Proto-Mongolian *aja “to go, walk” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology ;
*aja “journey, travel” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology http://starling.rinet.ru./c
H.4a.2 IE-Sanskrit cagkrama “going about, a walk” caGkramaNa “going about, walking”
Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 H.4a.2
/
Swadesh “walk” E. Chadic- Mubi Proto-AA West. Semitic- Khoisan-
H.4b.1 S. Chinese-Yue njā(u) *sau- / *su- Ethiopian- Amharic ǂHoan
(Cantonese) jáu “go” “go” “go, run” täzäwawwra ćao
“leave” Kwan 206, 269 E. Chadic- Skinner 293 vi. “move to “walk
“to walk, go on foot” Kajakse Proto-AA another place, (go)”
“to leave, to depart” jauw (Orel/ transfer” Starostin,
Chik / Ng Lam 438 “go” Stolbova zäwari “wanderer, G. 2003
“walk” vi. Chen 449 Skinner 293 1995) vagabond” 35
TB-Tibetan *dza’ / Leslau 1976 181,
cha-wa “to go away, *dzaw- 184
to start to leave a place” “go, come”
Das 403 Skinner 122
H.4b.2 N. Chinese-MSC W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Semitic-Arabic
qiáo “live abroad, away Hausa Sidamo (Iraqi) tjawwal
from one’s native land” k’aurā hōyyāwa “to wander around,
“a person living abroad” “move to another “move here roam, rove about”
Wu, J. 547 town, emigrate” and there” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
qiáomín n. “people Newman, P. Skinner 291 part 2 81
overseas” Wang, F. 376 2007 128 Semitic-Written
S. Chinese–Min “migration, Arabic jaula “to
chau1 “move, advance” emigration” rove, roam, wander
Hakka Dict. hua-kiáu Newman, R. about” Wehr 176
“overseas Chinese” 1990 168 xawwar “to run
Bodman 1987 v.2 148 [pronounced around, wander”
1983 164 k’yaurā n. f. Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
huā “Chinese” See note A.33.1 part 2 148
674
H.4b.3 W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic-

S. Chinese-Yue yāwòo Oromo
(Cantonese) “walking about, yàwu
yàuh “to travel, wandering” “marciare,
to roam” Skinner 291 uscire,
Chik / Ng Lam 455 percorrare”
yauhdong “wander” [to march,
Kwan 564 to come/go
yauh “tour” out, leave,
Po-fei Huang 454 wander]
Borello 429
H.4b.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jáu “go (leave)”
< E. Chadic- Kajakse jauw “go” / Khoisan-ǂHoan ćao “walk (go)”
H.4b.2 N. Chinese-MSC qiáo “live abroad, away from one’s native land” “a person living abroad”
< W. Chadic-Hausa k’yaura vi. “move to another town, emigrate”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *k’yaura (vi.) “move to another town, emigrate” ~ *‫כ‬ćao “walk (go)
H.4b.1
C. Chinese-Wu (Wēnzhōu) tsau3 “walk” Norman 1988a 190
N. Chinese-MSC, Beijing zǒu “walk” “go” Wu, J. 937 dzǒu “walk” Chen 449
H.4b.2 N. Chinese-MSC qiáoqiān “move to a better place or have a promotion” Wu, J. 547
zhāo “a move in chess” Wu, J. 880
N. Chinese-MSC dyàu (Y) / diào vt. “transfer (as persons)” “transfer, move” Chen 421 Wu J. 155
-diào resultative verb suffix “go away” Packard 98-99 “away, down, out" DeFrancis 193
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) diuh (Y) “transfer (as persons)” Chen 421
Swadesh “to swim”
H.4b.3 S. Chinese-Kejia (Cantonese) yàuhmuHk adj. “nomad” Chen 248 yàuh “swim, float”
“wander” Chik / Ng Lam 265 yàuséui “swim” Kwan 520
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) ju2 (Lau Chunfat) yiu2 “swim, float” “travel, tour, “roving,
itinerant” Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC you “swim” “rove around, “wander” “travel” Wu, J. 840
yú “to swim, to float” Mathews #7522 1127
Middle Chinese bjəu “float” Norman 1988a 11 bjuw “float” Sagart 1999 59
H.4b.1 C. Cushitic-Bilin ajáu “ohne Ziel und Zweck herumziehen” [to wander about without goal or
purpose] Skinner 122
Semitic-Written Arabic jawab “traverser (of foreign countries” “someone constantly underway,
travelling through the world” Wehr 172
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) tijawwal “to wander around, move around” Qafisheh 93
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic zäwwwärä vt. “change around”
azzäwäwwrära “make move around, move, shuttle, shift (several things, persons)”
Leslau 1976 181, 184
NS-Kanuri kazúwúro “migration” Hutchison 78
Berber-Mozabite-Wargli əz’wa “s’en aller, partir” [to leave, go away] Skinner 293
W. Chadic-Hausa sàràrà ideo. “walking aimlessly” Newman, P. 2007 179
zàřyā “hurrying to and fro” zařā “movng from side to side” Newman, P. 2007 231
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) tsarbat (IPA) “to wander away” sarsari “tramp, vagabond, bum”
Dict. of Iraqi Arabic pt. 2 216-217
South (Ethiopic) Semitic-Amharic tänšäräššärä vt. “take a walk”
änšäräššärä Leslau 1976 63, 523
675
H.4b.2
Semitic-Written Arabic t’awwaf “ambulant, itinerant, migrant, roving, wandering” Wehr 671
NS-Coman-Gule kauo “go!” Greenberg 1966 139
W. Chadic- Hausa mak’àuràci “migrant” Awde 1996 113 kau, kawa v. “to move away”
Skinner 140 Awde 1996 84
H.4b.3 W. Chadic-Hausa (Gobir dial.) yāwòo “a journey on foot for any purpose other than trade”
Matsushita 1993 191 (For cognates meaning “trade, exchange etc. see H.39a.1-3) “walk (esp. for
relaxation), stroll” Newman, R. 1990 298, 264 yàwaitàa “stroll, wander” Newman, P. 2007 225
mayàawàcī “stroller, wanderer” Newman, P. 2007154
C. Chadic–Bacama weyo v. “walk” Skinner 291
C. Chadic-Buduma wiyou “den Weg verlieren” [leave the path / way]” Skinner 291
H.4b.1 IE-Bengali jaowa “go, move, proceed, advance, leave” vb. Thompson 74, 101
IE-Bengali chara “leave, depart” Thompson 50
IE- Sanskrit car “to move oneself, go, walk, stir, roam about, wander” RV AV “to move or travel
through” cara “going, walking” “wandering” “wandering about, traveling”
carana “going round, or about” Cologne Lexicon. See also Sanskrit table H.4b.1-2
Old Indian cárati “to move, go, walk, act” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
/
Swadesh “go” Cushitic- Proto- S. Khoisan-
H.4c.1 Boni *kūr |Nu-‖’e
Old Chinese “emigrate” kū
*k’ər “go” Skinner 168 “to go away”
Karlgren GSR E. Cushitic- S. Khoisan-ǀKham
#317a-c Rendille !û “to go out”
Matisoff 2003 484 guura “(to) Ruhlen 1994 54
S. Chinese-Yue move to a new C. Khoisan- Nama
[Cantonese] dwelling-place” !gû
kìuh “to sojourn” Pillinger 131 “walk, go”
kìuh màhn Cushitic-Abo Starostin, G. 2003 35
“persons who reside gur- “migrate”
in a country other Skinner 168
than their own” Cushitic-Proto
kìuh bàau Sam *gur
“overseas Chinese” “move house”
kìuhgèui “emigrate”
Kwan 160
H.4c.2 E. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Songhay NC- N. Mande- Bozo
TB-Tibetan Lele Oromo (Koyra, yaare
kyār vi. jarwi jora Djenne) “go, walk”
“to stray, wander, “voyager “wander” yaara Mukarovsky 192
roam” Goldstein 165 beaucoup” Skinner 122 “take a walk” NC-Mande
h’khyár-wa [travel a lot] “travel, yala / yára
“to err, to go astray, Skinner go on a trip” “promenade,
to deviate from” 122 yaara-yaara se promener, errer,
Das 194 Jaschke59 “go around, nomadiser”
yár-ba hike” [“a walk /a stroll,
(Central Tibet) Heath to stroll,
“to disperse, ramble, v.1 259, to live as nomads]
stray” Jaschke 508 v.2 199 Skinner 291
676
H.4c.3 TB-Tibetan Proto- S. NC- N. Mande-

gyál-la Cushitic Bambara, Malinke,
“to travel” *kwâaɬ- Jula
Jaschke 152 “to go, travel” yáalá / yaala /
TB-Deng-Geman yáala
gyal “march, walk”
“run” Mukarovsky 192
Matisoff 2003 391
H.4c.1 Old Chinese *k’ər “go” ,
< Cushitic- Proto-Boni *kūr “emigrate, change settlement”
H.4c.2 TB-Tibetan kyar vi. “to stray, wander, roam”
< NS- Songhay yaara “take a walk” “travel, go on a trip” / NC- N. Mande-Bozo yaare “go, walk”,
NC-Mande yára “a walk /a stroll, to stroll, to live as nomads.”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *kyara “take a walk, take a stroll, travel, go on a trip” ~
*kūr “emigrate, change settlement”
H.4c.2
TB-Tibetan
yar-wa “to disperse, scatter, send adrift” “to ramble, be scattered” Das 1130 ;
kyar vi. “to go astray” “to become separated (from a group/ herd etc.)” Goldstein 194 ;
ka gyar vi. “to go astray, to become separated (from a group/ herd etc.)” Goldstein 90
yaa ding vi. “to float / soar” Goldstein 993
TB-Tamang yarh “run” Matisoff 2003 391
H.4c.3 TB-Tibetan rkyál-ba “to swim” Jaschke 17
H4c.1
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) sayyar “moving about, roving” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 231
NC-Bantu-Swahili gura “go” Swahili-English dictionary
H.4c.2 E. Chadic-Dangaleat dyōre “aller á l’aventure” [roam around] Skinner 122
Proto-AA *-kwâaɬ- “to go away” Ehret 1995 #344 207
/
H.4d.1 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur E. Cushitic-Rendille
‘daba -daw- “walk” Stolbova, Olga taba “go through, travel
“to pass over, to travel C. Chadic Etymology through, pass by (some
over” E. Chadic-Dangaleat place)” Pillinger 273
“to go beyond” dyààwe “marcher” E . Cushitic-Somali daw
Jaschke 275 dyàáwo “marcheur” “pass” Awde 1999 27
[Disyllabic corresp.] [to march, one who marches] dhaaf
h’dawa “vagabond (appellation)” “pass by”
“to pass away, to go Fédry 237 “pass” v.
beyond” C. Chadic-Bura d’uwa Awde 1999
Das 679 “change residence” Skinner 56
H.4d.2 C. Chadic-Migama Proto-Afro-Asiatic
N. Chinese-MSC d’u “move to another place” (Orel / Stolbova 1995)
dù “cross (a river, the Skinner 56 *da’(aw)-
sea etc.)” Wu, J. 166 C. Chadic-Gude “move”
S. Chinese-Yue d’ewu Skinner 122
(Cantonese) douh “move (residence)”
“to cross a river or an Skinner 56
ocean” Chik / Ng Lam 263
677

H.4d.1 TB-Tibetan ‘daba “to pass over, to travel over” “to go beyond” / h’dawa “to pass away,
to go beyond”
< E. Cushitic-Rendille taba “go through, travel through, pass by (some place)” /
Proto-Afro-Asiatic (Orel / Stolbova 1995) *da’(aw)- “move”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *taba “go through, travel through ~ *da’(aw)- “move”
↓↓
H.5 AA – AA -Cushitic, AA-Semitic NS NC
Chadic Proto-AA
H.5.1 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic- Proto-AA (Orel / Stolbova West Semitic-
rgálba “to step Zime-Batna 1995) *gal- “go, enter” Ethiopian-Amharic
over (a threshold)” kál Proto-Cushitic gäbba vi.
“to pass or climb “go by” (Dolgopolski 1973) “come in, go in, get
over a mountain, Stolbova, *gal- “enter, go home” home, enter, get in”
to leap over a wall, Olga Skinner 244 Leslau 1976 210
to ford a river” C. Chadic Proto-E. Cushitic- aggäbab vi.
Jaschke 103 Etymology *gal- “enter, come home” “entering”
[Disyllabic Sasse 1982 76 Leslau 1976 210 334
corresp.] E. Cushitic- Burji Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi)
rgalpa “to ford a gal- “enter” tġalġal
river, to travel Sasse 1982 76 Hudson 192 “to penetrate, pass
through, to pass E. Cushitic- Somali through”
over” Das 302 gal “to enter” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
Hodge 117 Awde 1999 32 part 2 338
H.5.1 Tibetan rgál-ba “to step over (a threshold)” “to pass or climb over a mountain, to ford a river”
< Proto-AA *gal- “go, enter”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *gal- “go, enter”
H.5.1 TB-Tibetan (Western Tibet) rgal “a ford” Jaschke 103
H.5.1
E. Chadic-Lele gar “passer à coté” [pass on the side] Skinner 74
E. Cushitic- Somali gal- ~ gel- “enter” Sasse 1982 76
E. Cushitic- Dasenech, Bayso, Sidamo, Darasa, Kambata gal- “enter” Sasse 1982 76
E. Cushitic-Oromo gala vi. “enter ; return home” Gragg 161 gal-u “penetrare, entrare, ritornare al
proprio paese, ritornare a casa” [go into, enter, return to one’s own country, to one’s home]
Borello 162
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic agäbba vt. “bring in, make to enter, insert” Leslau 1976 210, 286
NS-Kanuri gaákin, gayîn vi. “enter, go into” gawo “entry, entrance” Cyffer 1990 54, 57
Semitic-Hebrew karav “approached” karov “near” karov- karov- “very near” Baltsan 165
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic qärräbä “approach, come close, come near, come forward”
Leslau 1976 72
Semitic-Arabic-Iraqi qarrab “to cause or allow to come near or get close” qarriib “about to”
Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 369-370
Egyptian akhā “to enter, to go” Budge v.1 9
H.5.1 IE-Sanskrit karb “go, move, approach” qerb “near” AkarSaNa “pulling, drawing near,
attracting ” gah “penetrate, enter deeply into” Cologne Lexicon See also Supplementary Table
678
↓↓
H.6a-b AA – Chadic AA-Cush. AA- NS NC
Sem.
H.6a.1 S. Chinese-Yue E. Chadic-Dangaleat [Dangla]
(Cantonese) sukkiy “passer au dela de”
cheuk [to go beyond] Skinner 244
“to go across, to go beyond” C. Chadic-Bura sukwa, sikwa
Chik / Ng Lam 442 “go out” Stolbova, Olga C.
Chadic Etymology
W. Chadic-Gwandara
šugu “to cross over”
Matsushita 1972 110
Skinner 244
H.6a.2 Old Chinese W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic-
b
t-khut “to go out” k’ētā “go through, Rendille
Sagart 1999 90, 111 pass through” kuta
S. Chinese-Min Newman, R. 1990 109 “pass by,
(Taiwanese) W. Chadic-Hausa bypass
chǔt “to leave, pass through” k’ētarē v. vg.4 (completive) (someone or
chǔt +khi “to go out” “cross (a road, a river)” something)”
Bodman 1983 153 “traverse” Pillinger 205
Written Burmese Newman, R. 1990
kǔ “cross over” 56-57, 84 284
Matissoff 2003 89, 515
H.6a.3 W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic-
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) shud’èe vg.4 Rendille
chēut “to go out” “go away” vt. middle
“to come out” “to pass by” Awde 1996 144 chooda
Chik / Ng Lam 35 “pass through, pass by” “go through,
chēutheui “to go out” Newman, R. 1990 195 enter”
Kwan 206 variant of completive aspect Pillinger
heui “to go, (generally)” of verb shiga “enter” + d’a 87, 344
Chik / Ng Lam 38 (H.6b.1)
Chen 141 “to go away” Newman, P. 2000 698 2007
cheut muhnhau 187
[lit. out door]
“go out the door”
Mathews, S. 136
S. Chinese-Min
chût “to go out, put out”
chût kieng
“leave the country”
Bodman 1987 v.2 134
H.6a.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) cheuk “to go across, to go beyond”
< W. Chadic-Gwandara šugu “to cross over”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *šug- “to cross over” ~ *shud’- “pass through, pass by”
H.6a.1 Tibetan shugugyee “to complete, conclude” shugudrii “to see things to their conclusion”
”to finish doing the last bit” Goldstein 944
679
H.6a.2 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ts’ut7loi2 “emerge” Ramsey 114

S. Chinese-Min huat-chut “to send out, issue” Bodman 1987 v.2 134 [compound of this root and that
of E.8b.2]
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chēutháu n. “exit” Chen 102
Old Chinese tsut “finish, end, exhaust” van Driem 1987 478.
TB-Kiranti-Limbu -cur- ~ -cut “be finished, be completed” van Driem 1987, 478 348
N. Chinese-MSC chū “go or come out” “exceed, go beyond” Wu J. 98 “(used after a verb to indicate
outward movement or completed action)” Manser part 2 70 DeFrancis 968 ; e.g. liú “flow” → liú-
chū lit. “flow-go out”, i.e. “flows out” Norman 1988a 122 wā “dig, excavate” → wāchū
resultative verb “dig out ; pâo “run” → pâochū resultative verb “run out” ; pāo “throw”→
pâochū resultative verb “throw out” DeFrancis 675 chū “go leave” Wu, J. 562 “ chūqu “go out,
get out” Wu, J. 99 chūlai resultative verb “come out” -chūlai resultative ending “out (here)”
Ba-qiche kai-chulai “Drive the car out here” Wang, F. 75 chyū “go (generally)” Chen 141349
qù vi. “go, leave” “resultative ending used with verbs of motion indicates motion away from the
speaker” Wang, F. 385 chūqǔ resultative verb “go out” Wang, F. 75-76
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) kìuhgèui “emigrate” “emigration” Kwan 160
kìuhmàhn “persons who reside in a country other than their own, alien residents” Chik / Ng Lam 24
“emigrant” Kwan 160 Chik / Ng Lam 24
H.6a.1
W. Chadic-Hausa shigèe ta vg.4 “pass by (a place)” Newman, R. 1990 195
W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Diri ‘cəgu- “go out” Skinner 244
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic mäššägariya “ferry, ford, thing used to cross a river, fording place”
aššägro “across” täshäg-gärä “cross (a river), clear (a ditch)”
Leslau 1976 65, 132
348
Note- H.6a.2 (Old Chinese, Kiranti-Limbu Extended) Van Driem notes the correspondence between Old
Chinese *tsut “finish, end exhaust” and the current Kiranti-Limbu -cur- ~ -cut “be finished, be completed”
van Driem 1987 478. Note also the H.6a.3 (Extended) Tibetan shugugyee “to complete, conclude” which has a
similar meaning.
349
Note- H.6a.2 (Chinese-MSC (Beijing) Extended, Yue) The directional sense- In Beijing Chinese chū
functions as an independent morpheme and a productive adjunct in compounds; thus chū v. “exit” is a
“directional resultative” verb complement. Used after verbs of motion, it denotes the direction of the movement
and its successful completion. (Packard 98). The H.6a.1 Extended Min huat-chut “to send out, issue” exhibits
the same morphology and function. See Bodman 1987 v.2 134.
Cantonese cheut is also in the grammatical class of ‘directional verbs’. Matthews, S. 145. For example
louhcheut “emerge” Kwan 160, teuicheut “make one’s exit” Kwan 168, tòuhcheut “escape” (Kwan 168.)
‘Such verbs may take ‘directional objects’. The root first existed as an independent morpheme in Chinese and was
added after verbs of motion. “In the later history of the language, the link between verbs and their resultative
complements became stronger so that the separation of the verb from its complement was no longer allowed.”
(Norman 1988a 122) Hence verbs of motion which are intransitive in many other languages, may take
directional objects in Chinese and no preposition such as “out of” or “through” is necessary to indicate the
direction. So the AA shud- / chod- root has been grammaticalized into a functional morpheme through which
verbs of motion can be inflected to denote “movement away from the point of reference, outward” (See also
H.34a.5 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) Extended) on lohk as a directional verb denoting downward motion.
The completive sense- Further, the semantics of “go through” are expressed in the Hausa shud’èe
completive aspect of the verb, but the inherited ST cheut / chut / chu forms have been grammaticalized into
verb endings called “resultative” pointing to the result or completion of the verb’s action. Thus the semantics of
“going out” “going across, going beyond” “crossing over” all denote the action as completed. In Hausa this is
productive; in Chinese the ending has been retained along with its semantic value though it is not productive as in
Hausa. See Chapter 10 section 10.2.1.2 verb grade 4 for other examples of the completive form in Hausa.
680
H.6a.2
W. Chadic-Hausa a k’asā”shen k’ētarē adv. ”he is working overseas” [lit. he has gone out of the
country] Newman, R. 1990 191
Egyptian khet “ford, passage” Budge v.1 569
Semitic-Arabic judxilu (IPA) “enter” v. Merriam-Webster Arabic 50
Egyptian m’shetit “ford” Budge v.1 288
H.6a.3 NS-Anywa [Anuak] còot vi. “to come out (blood, sweat)” Reh 16
H.6a.1 South Daic-Lao chak6 bpay1 “leave (go out)” “depart” Marcus 121, 62
/
H.6b.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Hausa E. Cushitic- Sidamo
shīgshii “moving over” shìgèe vg.4 jiga
Goldstein 1096 (completive) vi. “to go, enter, sink”
shēg “to come / go” “pass by, go beyond” Gasparini 182
Goldstein 1108 350 Newman, P. 2007 185
gshēgs “go away, “pass by (a place”
depart” Hodge 122 Newman, Ma R. 1990 195
H.6b.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Hausa C. Cushitic-Bilin
shēg shìga vg. 3 vi. šik n. hineinstegen”
“to come / go” “enter, go in” [entry into]
Goldstein 1108 Newman, P. 2007 185 E. Cushitic-Sidamo
W. Chadic-Buli šiqa “approach, come near”
cegu “go in, go out” Skinner 244
Skinner 244
H.6b.3 TB-Tibetan E. Chadic-Higi-Ghye E. Cushitic-Rendille
tshugs-pa sugəy soókhubdai
“to go into” “come in” ”come
“to enter upon, begin, Stolbova, Olga (from a place)”
commence” E. Chadic-Etymology Pillinger 323
Jaschke 459, Das 1043 soógela
h’jug-pa “enter (towards speaker)”
“to go into, to enter” soókora
“the entering” “climb up (towards speaker)”
shugs perf. Pillinger 264-265
and imperf.
Jaschke 177
TB-Kiranti-Limbu
cukmaʔ vi.
“come out, appear”
van Driem 1987 413
TB-Tibetan juggo
“entrance,
way to enter”
Goldstein 398
350
Note- H.6b.1-2 (Tibetan, Hausa) Tibetan gives evidence of having retained the notion of reversal of motion
mentioned above in Notes H.2.1 and H.3a.1-2 The Tibetan semantics of both “go” and “come” for the same Tibetan
morpheme would reflect the fact that in Hausa the sheg- / shig- root provides multiple etyma based on the different
forms of the Hausa verb grades 4 and 6. The basic form is shìga verb grade 3 vi. “enter (there) / “enter (go in”),
and the ventive shìgo verb grade 6 becomes “enter (here) / “enter (come in)” Kraft 146, 153, Newman, R. 1990
83. See also Chapter 10 section 10.2.1.2. grade 6 ventives).
681

H.6b.1 TB-Tibetan shīgshii “moving over” / N. Chinese-MSC chì “to cross a stream”
< C. Cushitic-Bilin šik “enter into” / W. Chadic- Hausa mashìgī “ford in river” shìge vi. “pass by,
go beyond”
H.6b.2 TB-Tibetan shēg “to come / go”
< W. Chadic-Buli cegu “go in, go out”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *shig- / *šik “enter into” ~ *ceg- “go in, go out””
H.6b.1 N. Chinese-MSC chì “to cross a stream” “to cross a ford” Mathews #459 60
jì “cross a river” Wu, J. 320 shè “to ford a stream” “to pass through” Mathews #5707 788
“wade, ford” Wu, J. 604
H.6b.3 TB-Tibetan ‘jug “enter, undertake” Hodge 36 zhugs-nas “having entered” Hodge 80
‘dzu-ba “to enter” perf. ‘dzus “to enter” Jaschke 465
H.6b.1 E. Chadic-Bidiya tsigig “se frayer un chemin” [make one’s way] Skinner 244
W. Chadic-Hausa mashìgī “ford in river” ma = Locative prefix Skinner 244 [place to cross a
river”] P. Newman and R. Ma Newman 1992 89
H.6b.2 W. Chadic- Hausa shigō vg.6 (ventive) “come into (a place) Newman, R.1990 45, 83

H.6b.1
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *čik- “to go out, come out” / Altaic-Turkic-Turkish čik- “to go out, come out”
Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh čiq- / čɨɣ- / Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek čik- “to go out, come out”
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur čiq- “to go out, come out” / Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz čig- “to go out, come out”
↓↓
H.7a-b Afro-Asiatic – AA-Cushitic Afro-Asiatic- Nilo- NC
Chadic Proto-AA Semitic etc. Saharan
H.7a.1 S. Chinese- W. Chadic-Hausa Proto-AA Semitic-Arabic Kuliak
Min tâq “to step on, tàakāa vt. *dáʔud- takk- “to tread takw-
to tread, to pedal” “to step onto” “trample” under the feet, “step on,
Bodman 1987 Newman, R. 1990 Militarev / crush by tread on”
v.2 176, 206 260 “step on, Stolbova. stamping” Ruhlen
C. Chinese-Wu tread on” AA Ehret 1995 1994 321
daq8 “step on” “measure distance Etymology #168 140
Ramsey 94 by pacing” S. Semitic
taʔ “step on, trample, Newman, P. 2007 (Ethiopic)-
tread on” 194 Amharic
“make an W. Chadic-Ngizim däqädäqä
investigation or tàkd’ú “step on, “stamp (earth with
survey” Hakka Dict. press down on” one’s foot)”
Schuh 156, 220 Leslau 1976 195
H.7a.2 W. Chadic-Ngizim Proto-AA Egyptian
TB-Nepali tə̀kú (Ehret) t’egas
teknu “to step on, “kick *-têk- / “to tread, walk
to tread or trample (cow, donkey etc.)” *-tok- upon”
on” Starostin, S. Schuh 151 “to tread” Budge v.2 891
Yamphu Dict. Skinner Skinner 250
250
682
S. Chinese-Yue Egyptian
(Cantonese) dgdg “press,
tek vt. “to kick” squeeze, trample”
Kwan 260 Militarev,/
Chik / Ng Lam 442 Stolbova.
AA Etymology
H.7a.3 TB-Tibetan West Semitic-
čag-čág-c̀o-c̀e Ethiopian-
“to tread, to trample” Amharic
Jaschke 153 t’äqät’t’äqä
See also H.4a.2 “trample, tread on,
S. Chinese-Yue stuff, press down”
(Cantonese) Leslau 1976 229
chaak leuhng Semitic-Hebrew
“survey, measure” sakar v.
Kwan 518 “surveyed”
chāk “to measure, Baltsan 365
to survey”
Chik / Ng Lam 265
H.7a.4 Egyptian Songhay
N. Chinese-MSC t’át’á “to trample (Djenne)
tà “step on, tread, upon, beat down” tafa
stamp” Budge v.2 868 “kick,
Wu, J. 661 Written Arabic step on”
t’à “to tread, da’asa “to tread Heath
to plant the feet, underfoot, trample v.2 178
to walk” down, crush”
Mathews #5964 854 Wehr 325
H.7a.1 S. Chinese-Min tâq “to tread, to pedal” / C. Chinese-Wu taʔ “step on, trample, tread on”
< W. Chadic-Gwandara táka “to tread on” / Proto-Afro-Asiatic *tákots “trample, pound”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *ták- “to tread on, to trample”
Extended Sino-Tibetan word family
H.7a.1
Proto-Chinese *tiaq “to step, sole, back of foot” Starostin, S. Sino-Tibetan Etymology
ST-Proto-form *tjaq “sole of foot,step” Starostin, S. Sino-Tibetan Etymology
H.7a.2
TB-Proto-Kiranti *the’k “kick” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
TB-Proto-Lolo-Burmese *tek “kick” Matisoff 2003 315, 372
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *dek vt. “kick” Matisoff 2003 586, 315
TB-Bodo-Garo- Garo gatek “kick” Matisoff 2003 372
TB-Naga-Tangkhul kəkətək “kick” “the first kə is a general prefix ocurring before all verbs”
Matisoff 2003 372
Written Tibetan rdeg-pa “to push, thrust, knock, kick” Jaschke 286 rdog-pa “step, footstep, kick”
rdog-pa ‘bor-ba “to step, to pace, to walk” Jaschke 288
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) tek hoi “to kick open, to kick out of the way” Chik /Ng Lam 442
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu thêʔ “kick” Matisoff 2003 315, 372
Old Chinese d’ieg “kick” Karlgren GSR 866q tiek / d’ieg “animal’s foot, hoof” Karlgren 877h,
877o Matisoff 2003 373
H.7a.3 N. Chinese-MSC chā “to tread on, to walk through” Mathews #70 8
TB-Tibetan caà “to step on, walk on” Goldstein 382
683
Extended African language word family

H.7a.1
W. Chadic-Gwandara táka “to tread on” Matsushita 1972 111
W. Chadic-Hausa tattàakā “trample on” Newman, P. 2007 200
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic däqäddäqä “stamp (earth with one’s feet)” “pound (clay, ground)”
Leslau 1976 195
E. Cushitic-Rendille taáko “stride (in walking” Pillinger 396
Semitic-Hebrew daq “level off by pressing down” Leslau 1963 172
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari täxäsa “press or squeeze down to make room for more objects”
Leslau 1963 149
Semitic-Written Arabic dakka “to make flat, level or even, to smooth, level, ram, stamp,
tamp (the earth), beat down” Wehr 333 da’sa “footprint” Wehr 325
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Ennemor, Gyeto, Wolane) təqättäqä “squeeze things together, stuff
in, level the floor of the house by pressing down the ground” Leslau 1976 229
Semitic-Hebrew dakhak n. m. “congestion” Baltsan 52 taqhat adv. “under pressure” Baltsan 409
E. Cushitic- Oromo t’afaltafu “terra o pavimento battuto e consolidato per abitazione” [earth or
pavement trod on and made solid for a habitation] Borello 387
H.7a.2 Semitic-Hebrew dekheesah “compression” Baltsan 56
H.7a.3 W. Chadic-Hausa tāki “step, pace” “measurement of distance by placing one foot right after
the other” Newman / Ma 1979 117 taakun taakalmi “footprint” ; tàakō “hoof, footprint (esp. of a
camel)” Newman, P. 2007 195 tāki “foot as measure” Bargery 2002
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) dah̟s “to beat the ground with the feet” Ehret 1995 129 #130
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) sa‫حح‬ag “to crush, mash, flatten” msa‫حح‬ag “crushed, mashed, flattened,
trampled” sa‫حح‬ag v. “to run over, run down, trample” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 215
Semitic-Arabic jasħaqu “crush” v. Merriam-Webster Arabic 37
H.7a.4 NS-Songhay (Gao) tàamà “piétiner” [to trample, tread on] tàam- tàamà “petrir avec les
pieds” [to knead with the feet] Ducroz 214-5
H.7a.3
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *ciKi- “to stamp, ram, stamped path” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
16
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *cig- “to stamp, ram, stamped path” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 16
Kartvelian-Georgian cqẹcq- “press” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 13
Kartvelian-Megrel cqạcq- “press” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 13
/
H.7b.1 W. Chadic-Hausa Kanuri NC-
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dank’àra vt. dangá Fulfulde
dahng “press down” “step” [Fulani]
“to tread on, to step on” dank’àrē vg.4 “measured pace” tanka
Chik / Ng Lam 444 (completive) vt. dangangîn “to beat
N. Chinese-MSC “compress, put tightly “measure in paces a floor”
dēng together” or strides, pace Taylor 189
“press down with the foot, pedal, Newman, P. 2007 43 off”
treadle” Skinner 44 Cyffer 1990 31
“step on, tread”
Wu, J. 143
H.7b.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dahng “to step on” / N. Chinese-MSC dēng “press down with
the foot”
< W. Chadic-Hausa dank’- “press down” / NS-Kanuri dangá “step”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *dahng “press down (with the foot)”
684

H.7b.1 N. Chinese-MSC (WG) tèng “stone steps” têng “a step of a staircase”
Mathews #6171, #6178 893
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dang “steps on rock” Chik / Ng Lam 328
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] den5 “steps on rock” Hakka Dict.
H.7b.1
NC-Fufulde [Fulani] dampa “to stamp with the foot” Taylor 29
W. Chadic-Hausa dannà vt. “press down, compress” Newman / Ma 1979 26 Skinner 44
↓↓
H.8a-b AA – Chadic AA-Cushitic AA-Semitic NS Khoisan
H.8a.1 N. Chinese - Semitic-
MSC Arabic (Iraqi)
tào “to tread on” dawwas
Mathews #6140 885 “to trample”
dâo “tread, step” Dict. of Iraqi
Wu, J. 139 Arabic
part 2 170
Swadesh “path” W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Semitic- Nduka C. Khoisan-
H.8a.2 N.Bauci- Burji Arabic doro Naro dau
N. Chinese-MSC Jimbin dáwa n. darub “road” -Hietsho
dàor “road, way” daaru “road, way, “road” Greenberg dhau
Wang, F. 94 “road” path” Dict. of Iraqi 1966 144 “path”
dào / tào Mukarovsky Sasse 1982 Arabic Ehret 1982
“road” “way, method, 397 51 Hudson part 2 155 [176]
path” Wu, J. 140 124, 185 S.Khoisan-
Mathews #6136 882 E. Cushitic- Proto-Taa
See also E.33.1 Somali *dào
-(MSC gēr) daw- “road, path”
B.14d.2 -(MSC huār) “road, way, Starostin, G.
and F.18b.1 - path” 2006-2008
(MSC sī(r) on Ehret 1995 28
erisation. #153 136
H.8a.3 E. Cushitic- Dinka Khoisan-
S. Chinese-Yue Sidamo dhõl Western Cape
(Cantonese) dôgo “road” doudou
dou “a road, a path” “road, way” Greenberg “path”
“a method” Gasparini 78 1966 144 Ehret 1982
Chik / Ng Lam 456 [176]
H.8a.1 N. Chinese-MSC dào / tào “road” “way, method, path” / S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] t’au5 /
dau4 / tau4 “path, road, street”
< E. Cushitic-Burji dáw-a n. “road, way, path” / C. Khoisan-Naro dau, -Hietsho dhau “path” /
S.Khoisan-Proto-Taa *dào “road, path”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *dào “road, path”
H.8a.2 S. Chinese-Kejia (MacIver) t’au5 (Lau Chunfat) dau4 / tau4 “path, road” Hakka Dict.
Middle Chinese dawX “way” Sagart 155
H.8a.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) douh “to tread, to trample” Chik / Ng Lam 443 ;
doulouh “path, road, way” Po-fei Huang 375
685
S. Chinese-Min to7 “path, road, street” “method, way” Hakka Dict.

C. Chinese-Wu tɔ6 “path, road, street” Hakka Dict.
H.8a.1
S. Khoisan-Khakhea, |Nu-‖’e dau “path” Ruhlen 1994 60
Proto-Semitic dwz- “to tread, tramp on” “(stem + *z intensive of manner)” Ehret 1995 #153 136
H.8a.2
C. Khoisan-Tati dhau “path” Ruhlen 1994 60
C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe *dáò “road, path” Starostin, G. 2006-2008 28
C.Khoisan-Proto-Khoekhoe *dao “road, path” Starostin, G. 2006-200828 Ruhlen 1994 60
E. Cushitic-Somali daw / dau “way, method, direction” Sasse 1982 51
dhabbo “lane” Awde 1999 28
W. Chadic- Ngizim də̀vú “road, path” “way, means” Schuh 36
W. Chadic-Karekare n- dàrù “road” Stolbova, Olga W. Chadic Etymology
H.8a.2 Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali ‘da’ha:r / ‘hor da’ha:r “road”
Kobayashi Table 3 #132 16.
/
Swadesh “path” W. Chadic-S. Bauci Group C. Khoisan- Naron
H.8b.1 TB-Tibetan *təb- “path, way” Skinner 248 dauba
təb “means, method, W. Chadic-Jimi təbo “path, way” “path”
way” Goldstein 488 W. Chadic-Tangale tībo “trace, track” Ruhlen 1994
Skinner 263 #427 60
H.8b.1 TB-Tibetan təb “means, method, way”
< W. Chadic-S. Bauci Group *təb- “path, way” / W. Chadic-Jimi təbo “path, way”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *təb- “path, way”
H.8b.1 TB-Tibetan thabs “way, manner, mode” “means, measures” Jaschke 229
“means, method” Hodge 16
H.8b.1
C. Chadic-Padoko tive “path, way” Skinner 248
NS-Kanuri diβal “way, street” Skinner 248 ; díwal “road, street, pathway” Cyffer 1990 37, 196
W. Chadic-Ngizim dívàl “road, street” Schuh 36
W. Chadic-Hausa turba “road, path” Skinner 263
↓↓
H.9 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA– AA- NS NC
Cush. Sem.
H.9.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) W. Chadic- Hausa
duhng “to move” Chik / Ng Lam 42 ‘dùngumà vi. “head off
dongyùhn “mobilize” Kwan 299 in a large group”
diuhduhng “move (as troops)” Newman, P. 2007 55
Kwan 305 E. Chadic- Dangaleat
tùng “to go, move” Chik / Ng Lam 453 ‘dùune “mettre
TB-Tibetan h’doŋ-wa ensemble, rassembler”
“to go, to proceed” Das 690 [gather
6
C. Chinese-Wu toŋ “movement, action, (a group of people)
motion”, v. “move, stir” Hakka Dict. together] Fédry 197
686

H.9.1 TB-Tibetan ‘doŋ-wa “to go, to proceed” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) duhng “to move” /
N. Chinese-MSC dòng “move, stir” diàodòng “transfer, shift, move troops, manoevre, muster” /
S. Chinese-Min tông-uan “to mobilize, mobilization”
< W. Chadic- Hausa ‘dùngumà “start off in a large group”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *’dùngumà vi. “move as a group”
H.9.1 N. Chinese-MSC dòng vi. “move, be in motion” Wang, F. 112 “move, stir” Wu, J. 161
diàodòng vt. “transfer, shift, move troops, manoevre” Wu, J. 155 diào “transfer, move” (persons)
H.3b.2 Extended
zìdòhng lit. “self-moving , “automatic” Yip 2004 68 [Compound of this root and that of Note C.9a.1]
dòhngyuán “mobilize” Boping 30
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian, MacIver) t’ung1 / t’ung5 “go, move, flow unobstructedly” “move,
stir” “movement, action, motion” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Min tōng “move, movement” tông-uan “to mobilize” Bodman 1987 v.2 181
↓↓
H.10.1 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA- AA-Semitic Nilo-Sah. NC
Cush.
H.10.1 C. Chadic-Zəgvana West Semitic-
S. Chinese-Min itsa- “squeeze” Ethiopian-Gurage
cha3 “squeeze, press “ Skinner 199 mc’äc’äqa
(for juice), W. Chadic- Hausa “milk cow
extract” Hakka Dict. lātsàa vt. completely dry”
N. Chinese-MSC “squeeze, squash” Skinner 254
zhà “press, extract” Newman, P. 2007 139
Wu, J. 872 tsāfàa vt. “squeeze
TB-Tibetan kā dzāà into a place”
“to press/extract oil Newman, P. 2007 203
from seeds” “squeeze”
H.10.2 Proto-AA *saʔaw Semitic-Hebrew
TB-Tibetan “squeeze, press” sakhoot adj.
‘tsagpa Militarev / Stolbova “squeezed out”
“squeeze, press out” Afroasiatic Etymology sakhat “wrung”
Jaschke 457 2007 Baltsan 365
H.10.3 TB-Tibetan Semitic-Arabic Kanuri
tsāng imp. “to stuff in, xanga nzə́nngin
squeeze in” tsānga “congestion, “wring out
“crowd, crowded, crowding, jam” (clothes etc.)”
packed” “mess, crowded “squeeze out,
Goldstein 898 place” Dict. of press”
[Disyllabic corresp.] Iraqi Arabic Cyffer 1990
N. Chinese -MSC part 2 147 144
zân “press or squeeze
hard” Wu, J. 864
H.10.2 TB-Tibetan ’tsag-pa “squeeze, press out”
< Semitic-Hebrew sakhoot adj. “exhausted, squeezed out”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *ĉaq “squeeze in/out” “stuff”
687

H.10.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ja “to press for (for juice or oil), to extract) Chik / Ng Lam 185
“to squeeze or press (for juice) Chik / Ng Lam 230
N. Chinese-MSC sāi “fill in, squeeze in, stuff” Wu, J. 584
H.10.3 TB-Tibetan ‘tsang-pa “to press into, to stuff” Jaschke 457
H.10.1
W. Chadic-Hausa maatsàa “squeeze, press liquid out” Skinner 198, “squeeze (wring out liquid)” ;
Newman, R. 1990 257, “press closely together” Newman, R. 1990 207
W. Chadic-Ngizim càapú “squeeze out” “press down to reduce bulk” Schuh 31
Semitic-Hebrew tsafoof “crowded” Baltsan 434
W. Chadic-Hausa
H.10.2 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic
aĉ’ĉ’aqa “stuff (push, thrust)” Leslau 1976 153
säkäsäkä “stuff, cram” Leslau 1976 57
Semitic-Arabic jaʕsʕiru (IPA) “squeeze” v. Merriam-WebsterArabic 150
↓↓
H.11 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic Afro-Asiatic - AA- NS NC
Cushitic Semitic
H.11.1 W. Chadic- Hausa E. Cushitic- W. Semitic-
TB-Tibetan sōmàa Rendille Ethiopian-
rtsóm-pa “begin, start” soóuuma vt. Amharic
“to begin, commence Newman, P. 2007 188 “begin, start, žämmärä
a work” Skinner 234 “to found, “begin”
“to be about, set W. Chadic- Bole-Tangale group, establish, Leslau
about an S. Bauci group create” 1976 185
undertaking” som- Pillinger267
Jaschke 441 “begin”
rtsóm-pa Skinner 234
“to begin anything” W. Chadic- Gwandara
Das 1015 šoma / soma
“to begin”
Matsushita 109
H.11.1
TB-Tibetan rtsóm-pa “to begin, commence a work”
< W. Chadic-Hausa sōmàa “begin, start”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *sōm- “begin, start”
H.11.1
W. Chadic-Hausa sōmi “beginning, start” Newman, P. 2007 188 masōmi “origin, beginning”
Newman, P. 2007 152
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic, E. Cushitic-Sidamo šomä “nominate, appoint to an office, invest
with an office” Leslau 1976 62, 268 Gasparini 306
E. Cushitic-Oromo șumu “insediare, nominare capo, dare comando ” [install in office, name as
head of] ; [as reflexive] to be installed, named as head of] Borello 383
somu “far dare il comando” [put in command] Borello 380
688
↓↓
H.12 AA-Chadic AA-Cush., Afro-Asiatic- Nilo-Sah. NC
Proto-AA Semitic etc.
H.12.1 W. Chadic–Hausa Egyptian
TB-Tibetan ‘dāmèe thami
tamjiŋ vg.4 (completive) ”to wind round,
“tying tightly, “tighten, pull to bind”
binding firmly” taught” to wrap up in,
Goldstein 526 “tie body cloth Budge v.2 850
dam securely around
“bound fast” the waist”
dam-du bcing-pa Skinner 54
“well-bound, tam ideo.
bound tightly” “tied tightly”
Das 618 Newman, P.
2007 196
H.12.2 W. Chadic–W. Proto-AA West Semitic-
TB-Tibetan Hausa *-dâm- Ethiopian-
h’tham-pa ‘damara ”to press Amharic
”to join together, “act of tying sth. together” t’ämäda
enlock” Das 606 around waist” Ehret 1995 “yoke, join up
‘tham-pa ‘dàmara #139 132 (the oxen)”
”to join, unite” “belt, act of tying” Leslau 1976
Jaschke 244 Skinner 54351 225352
H.12.3 S. Chinese- W. Chadic- E. Cushitic-. Semitic–Arabic
Yue (Cantonese) Tangale Rendille (Iraqi)
tahng ”to bind, dangle hidán tannag
to tie, to restrict” “to tie, to fix, “tied up, shut “to draw tight,
Chik / Ng Lam 359 to fasten” up” make taut,
TB-Written Jungraithmayr hidánahe stretch”
Burmese tâŋ 1991 78 “be tied up, be Dict. of Iraqi
”tighten” shut up” Arabic
Matisoff 2003 267 Pillinger 140 part 2 60
H.12.4 W. Chadic- Egyptian Kanuri
TB-Tibetan Gwandara t’ema ndə́m-ngin
dem “to tie” (Karshi) “to bind, to tie “tie, knot,
demjiŋ “tying up démbìra “tie” together” splice”
(usually hair)” Matsushita 1974 Budge v.2 878 Cyffer
Goldstein 595353 #682 143 1990 130
351
Note- H.12.2 (Hausa) The dam- form is the basic one for this word family. It is found in Western Hausa. The
standard Hausa (Kano dialect) form is ‘daur- as in ‘daurèe “tie”. (Kraft 392). This is the result of the operation of
Klingenheben’s Law. One of its consequences is the weakening of syllable final /m/ to /u/ when abutting with a
following r or n, and so d’aure “tie” < d’amree “tie”. The damr- root survives in H.12.2 Hausa (Extended)
d’amara “amulet belt”. (Newman, P. 2000 230).
352
Note- H.12.2 (Hausa, Semitic-Amharic) Leslau uses a subscript point to show glottalized consonants, e.g. ṭ, ș.
So the initial ejective dental of Semitic-Amharic is written as ṭ in the Amharic entry of the source publication ; but in
order to regularize the notation of glottals/laryngeals, the present study uses an apostrophe as stop symbol, e.g. p’,
t’, s’, ĉ’, q’. (See Leslau 1976 xiii, and notes B.21.1 NS-Kanuri, Hausa, Tibetan, C.4.2 (Chinese Kejia ↔ (Semitic-
Amharic) and C.5a.4 (Semitic-Amharic).
689
H.12.5 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-

sdom-pa Gwandara
“to bind, fasten, (Toni,Koro)
to tie up,” dómna /
Jaschke 54 dómìna
Das 721 “tie”
Matsushita 1974
#682 143
H.12.1 TB-Tibetan dam “bound fast” dam-du bcing-pa “well-bound, bound tightly”
< W. Chadic–Hausa tam ideo. “firmly tied” / Egyptian thami ”to wrap up in, to enclose, to wind
round, to bind”
H.12.2 TB-Tibetan ‘tham-pa ”to join together, enlock”
< W. Chadic-Hausa ‘damara “act of tying sth. around waist” / Semitic–Arabic d̟amma “unite,
join” / West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic ṭämäda “yoke, join up (the oxen)”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *d̟am- “unite, join” “to tie something together”
H.12.1
TB-Tibetan tambo “tight, firm, close” tamdu doŋ “to tighten, to make stricter” Goldstein 526
dəmdruù “tying” Goldstein 572 dam-po “strong, firm, tight, narrow, of fetters etc.”
dεmba “lock, bolt” Goldstein 448 dám-po ”strong, firm, tight, narrow”
“(of laws, commandments) severe, strict, exact” Jaschke 250
H.12.3
TB-Tibetan thaŋ-po ”tense, tight, firm” Jaschke 228
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *taŋ ~ *daŋ ”tense, tight” Matisoff 2003 267, 586
N. Chinese-MSC téng “to bind, to tie up” Mathews #6182 894
H.12.1
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic dämäda ”wrap (a scarf around the head or neck), tie a package with
a string” Leslau 1976 225
W. Chadic-Ngizim tàmd’ú “press on, press together” Schuh 156
W. Chadic-Hausa d’aurèe shi tam ”they tied it up tightly” Newman, P. 2000 39 Skinner 54
H.12.2
W. Chadic-Hausa ‘damàràa “belt, esp. of amulets sewn together” Newman, P. 2007 50
Semiitic–Ge’ez dämäda ”yoke” Skinner 54
W. Chadic-Ngizim tàmd’ú ”press on, press together” Schuh 156
Semitic-Written Arabic d’amma “to bring together, join, draw together, contract” Wehr 636
Skinner 54
H.12.3 Semitic-Aramaic kdān, kdānā v.n. “yoking” Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon
H.12.4 NS-Kanuri dəmbəlngin, dəmbəljin “tie up, attach, confine (cattle for the night, an insane
person in one’s house)” Cyffer 1990 35 [Disyllabic corresp.]
H.12.2 IE-Sanskrit dAmodara “having a rope round waist” dAman “string, cord, rope, fetter”
“girdle, chaplet, wreath” “large bandage” dAmani “a long rope to which calves are tied by mean of
shorter ropes” Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 H.12.2
353
Note- H.12.4 (Tibetan) The Tibetan morphemes tamjiŋ (H.12.1) and de̱mjiŋ (H.12.4 ) give evidence of
having retained the Kanuri *ngin / jin morpheme as in the above Kanuri ndə́m-ngin “tie, knot, splice”. As a
suffix this morpheme generates the largest class of verbs in the language. (See Hutchison 1981 101-105 and Note
E.28.2.) In Kanuri ngin is also an independent lexeme meaning “say, think, intend” Cyffer 1990 137 See also
Note- E.1b.4 (Beijing).
690
H.12.3
IE-Hindi tang adj. “tight” Scudiere 172
Proto-Altaic *tanŋù “to bind, rope” Starostin, Sergei Altaic etymology
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *daŋ- “to bind, rope” Starostin, Sergei Altaic etymology
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *daŋ- “to bind, rope” Starostin, Sergei Altaic etymology
↓↓
H.13a-b Afro-Asiatic – Chadic Afro-Asiatic - AA- Nilo- NC
Cushitic Sem. Sah.
H.13a.1 W. Chadic – Hausa Cushitic-
N. Chinese-MSC cunkusā v. Oromo
cóng “stuff” c’unfa vt.
“crowd together, Newman, R. 1990 264 “squeeze”
pile up” Wu, J. 114 Newman, P. 2007 35 c’unqursa
S. Chinese-Yue cunkùshē vi. vt. “press,
(Cantonese) “be dense, compressed, oppress”
chùngmuhn crowded” Gragg 88
“congestion” Kwan 92 Newman, P. 2007 35
See also D.32.2
H.13a.1 N. Chinese–MSC cóng “crowd together, pile up” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
chùngmuhn “congestion”
< W. Chadic-Hausa cunkusā “stuff” v. cunkùshee vi. “be dense, compressed, crowded”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *cun- “to stuff” “be dense, compressed, crowded”
/
Swadesh “full” W. Chadic – N. Khoisan-
H.13b.1 Tangale ‖Au‖en
TB-Tibetan kẹndẹ !geŋ
‘kheŋ(s)-pa “fill up” “full”
“to be full” Jungraithmayr Starostin, G.
Jaschke 56 1991 187 2003 17
h’khyeng-wa 1994 v.2 156 S. Khoisan-
“to be filled up” W. Chadic- |‘Auni
Das 196 N. Bauci- Diri ‖kxən-si
gεŋ “to fill up” kə̑nda “full”
Goldstein 238 “fill” Bleek 1956
S. Chinese-Min Jungraithmayr 605
keŋ “eat to the full” 1994 v.2 Starostin, G.
Hakka Dict . 156354 2012 23
H.13b.2 NS-Songhay
TB-Tibetan (Djenne, Gao)
skong-wa / kúŋú “be sated,
skong-pa be full (after a
“to fulfill” meal)”
“to fill up what is Heath v.2 134
open” Das 94 v. 3 220
Jaschke 24 Ducroz 162
354
Note- H.13b.12-3, 5 (Chadic) In Chadic languages the three H.13b.2-3,5 Chadic variant roots are found only
in W. Chadic and are reconstructed by Jungraithmayr as *kende. Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 75, v.2 56.
691
H.13b.3 W. Chadic- NS-Songhay S. Khoisan-

TB-Tibetan Karekare káŋkám ‖Ng!ke
‘gengs-pa, kandzanta (Gao) !xʌŋ
bkaŋ perf., “fill” “serrer, presser, “full”
dgaŋ fut. Jungraithmayr contraindre” Starostin, G.
khoŋ imperf. 1994 v.2 156 [to tighten, 2012 23
“to fill” to pack in tight,
Jaschke 94 to squeeze]
Ducroz 147
H.13b.4 W. Chadic- Proto-AA Semitic-
TB-Kiranti-Limbu Angas *gam Arabic
kha:ma gam “be full” gamla v.
“be satisfied, full” “fill, Militarev / (IPA)
Starostin, S. be full” Stolbova “fill up”
Kiranti Etymology Stolbova, Afro- Merriam-
TB-Chin-Lushai Olga Asiatic Webster
kham “be satiated, W. Chadic Etymology Arabic 56
satisfied” Etymology
Starostin, S. 2006
ST Etymology
H.13b.5 NS- Anywa
N. Chinese-MSC [Anuak]
zhànmán jàŋ
“fill (space, area)” “to be full with
Merriam-Webster food”
Chinese 254 jʌ�
ŋ / jʌ‫כ‬ŋò
“satisfaction”
Reh 30
H.13b.1 TB-Tibetan ‘kheŋ(s)-pa “to be full” / gεŋ “to fill up”
< W. Chadic–Tangale kẹndẹ “fill up” / N. Khoisan-‖Au‖en !geŋ “full”
H.13b.3 TB-Tibetan ‘gengs-pa, bkaŋ perf., dgaŋ fut. “to fill”
< W. Chadic-Karekare kandzanta “fill” / S. Khoisan-Ng-!’e |xaŋ “full”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *kẹn- “fill” ~ *kan- / *|xaŋ “fill, full”
H.13b.1
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] kong3 “be full, extended, as the udder with milk” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Tibetan goŋ “to fulfill, to fill” Goldstein 63 Chinese-MSC chōng “sufficient, full” Wu, J. 94
“to fill up” Huang 56
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian, Hailu) chong5 “full-stomached, glutted”
(MacIver) ch’ung1 “fill” v. “full, sufficient” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chùng “to fill, to be full of” jong “to fill in or up” Chik / Ng Lam 28
411 sèuhng “to fulfill a wish” Chik / Ng Lam 26
H.13b.3 TB-Tibetan yii kēŋ “to be satisfied, fulfilled” Goldstein 997
gadröö keŋ “to be filled with joy and happiness” Goldstein 218 keŋ “to be full of”, “to be filled with”
Goldstein 124
H.13b.2 TB-Tibetan gang-ba “be filled” Hodge 30, 173
skaŋ-ba “satisfaction” Jaschke 19
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) káŋ “be choked with” Po-fei Huang 412
N. Chinese-MSC xiàn “filling, stuffing” Wu, J. 751
H.13b.5 TB-Kiranti-Kulang khama “be satisfied, full” Starostin, S. Kiranti Etymology
692

H.13b.1 NS-Songhay (Dendi) kúŋŋú “être rassasié” (Fr.) [be full] Zima 125
H.13b.2 E. Chadic-Dangaleat [Dangla] ŋɔ‫כ‬nd’yɛ ́ “introduire en pressant, bourrer” [to press into,
to stuff”] Fédry 341
H.13b.3
N. Khoisan-Ng !kVŋ “full” Starostin, G. 2003 17
S. Khoisan-Proto!Wi ǂauŋ “full” Starostin, G. 2003 17
H.13b.4 W. Chadic-Hausa gàmsā “please, satisfy” Newman, P. 2007 68
H.13b.5 NS- Nuer can ε can “entirely full” Huffman 8
NS- Kanuri cámbár ideo. “emphasizes fullness” Cyffer 1990 24
Semitic-Amharic täĉ’äna “be loaded, be encumbered”
täĉ’änannäqä “be crowded (of street), be congested (of street), be populous (of city)
Leslau 1976 239-240
H.13b.3 IE- Sanskrit
kan “to be satisfied with” “to be satisfied or pleased” “to accept with satisfaction” RV
kaNe “satisfying a desire” Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2 H.13b.3-4
IE-Iranian-N. Persian a-gandan “anfullen” a-ganiš “voll” (Ger.) “to fill up” “full”
Proto-Altaic *kāna ”to be satisfied”
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *Kān- “to be satisfied” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *kanu “be satisfied”
Altaic-Mongolian-Khalka xana “be satisfied”
Altaic-Mongolian-Buriat xana- “be satisfied”
Altaic-Mongolian-Kalmuck and Ordos xan-“ be satisfied”
Altaic-Mongolian-Monguor xan- “be satisfied” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
H.13b.5 IE-Sanskrit can “to satisfy, please”
canas “delight, satisfaction” “to delight in be satisfied’
IE-Bengali shɔntushto adj. ”satisfied, content” Thompson 78
/
H.13c.1 C. Chadic- Bura E. Cushitic- Oromo
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gau “enough, gau vi.
gau “enough” “an adverbial expression just right” “essere sufficiente,
used to qualify adjectives” Dict. of Bura bastare”
Matthews, S. 159 [be sufficient, be enough]
gau “enough, satiated” “sufficient” W.Chadic- Ngizim Borello 172
Chik / Ng Lam 86, 134 gáwáyák N. Branch of Omotic-Yem
“have enough” v. Po-fei Huang 385 “sated with food, gāw- “to be satisfied”
S. Chinese-Min kaǔ sv. “be sufficient, well fed” (i.e. not need to do)
enough” Bodman 1987 v.2 145 1983 170 Schuh 71 Ehret 1995 #294 189
H.13c.2 C. Chadic-
N. Chinese-MSC Buduma
gòu sv. koho
“enough, sufficient” “sattwerden”
Wang, F. 171 Wu, J. 240 [to be satisfied]
“enough, quite” Huang 140 Skinner 174
H.13b.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gau “enough”
< C. Chadic- Bura gau “enough, just right” / E. Cushitic- Oromo gau vi. “essere sufficiente, bastare”
[be sufficient, be enough]
Approximate Sinitic etymon *gau “enough, “be enough” adv., sv.
693
Extended Sino-Tibetan word family

S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Lau Chunfat) geu4 “enough, adequate” “sufficient” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese- Min (Taiwanese) kaù-giâq “enough, sufficient amount” Bodman 1983 40, 70,
ciâ + boū kaù láng + thāng cuè kang. “There aren’t enough people here to do the work”
î + ǔ kaù –giâq sâ: + thang chiēng + bou “Does he have enough clothes to wear”
Bodman 1987 v.1 254.
N. Chinese-MSC kòu “enough, fully, quite” Mathews #3419 510
H.13c.2
Chadic-East Hausa ‘osa = Standard Hausa k’osa “satisfy, suffice”,
Chadic East Hausa ‘oshi = Standard Hausa k’oshi “be or become replete” Matsushita 1993 85-86.
↓↓
H.14 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA-Cushitic AA- NS NC
Sem.
H.14.1 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic- Bata group E. Cushitic-Somali
rtol-ba təl- “pierce” Skinner 273 tol “sew”
“to bore, to pierce” W. Chadic- Ron (Bokkos, Daffo) toori “dagger”
“to bore through” toor “stechen, durchboren, Awde 1999 49, 58
Jaschke 215 nähen” [to prick, to pierce, to bore E. Cushitic- Sidamo
rtol-wa through]” tororrisa “to
“to bore, Jungraithmayr 1970 222, 147 transfix, to stab”
to pierce, to 1994 v.2 288 Gasparini 329
perforate” Das 540 Skinner 273 “sew”
H.14.1 TB-Tibetan rtol-ba “to bore, to pierce” “to bore through, to perforate”
< W. Cushitic-Sidamo tororrisa “to transfix, to stab” / E. Cushitic-Rendille tola “sew, weave” /
W. Chadic-Ron toor “to prick, to pierce, to bore through”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *toor / tol- “to prick, to pierce, to bore through” /
H.14.1
E. Cushitic-Somali tolin “sewing” Awde 1999 49, 74
E. Cushitic-Rendille tola “sew, weave” Pillinger 278
tóor “spear” Pillinger 280
C. Chadic-Gude təɬ- “sew” Skinner 273
C. Chadic-Nzangi təle “sew” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 289
E. Chadic-Mokulu (t)ēɬ- “enfiler (aiguille par ext.)” [to thread a needle] Skinner 273
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Gogot etc. t’or “spear, arms, battle, war” Leslau 1979 v.3 630
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic, Argobba t’or “lance, spear, javelin” “war” Leslau 1976 225,
1979 v.3 630
W. Chadic-South Bauci group jol- or tul- “pierce” Skinner 273
E. Cushitic-Burji dul- “bore through, pierce” Skinner 273
N.Cushitic-Beja (Bedawi) til’ “durchboren” Skinner 273
Central and SE Asian non-ST languages with correspondences to the African/AA roots:
H.14.1
IE-Hindi talvār “sword” Scudiere 165 talavāra “sword” Kobayashi Table 1-3 #71 2, 8, 14
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho tora’i / torǝ’i “sword” Kobayashi Table 1 #71 2
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari tarau’ri “sword” Kobayashi Table 2 #71 8
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali tarawa:r / tar’wa’ri “sword” Kobayashi Table 3 #71 14
↓↓
694

H.15 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA – AA- NS NC
Cushitic Semitic
H.15.1 W. Chadic- Ron (Fyer) Proto-S. Semitic- NS-Nuer
TB-Jingpho lèf “schneiden, “fällen” Cushitic Hebrew lep lep
[Kachin] / (Fleisch, Holz) *leʕ or leefros “strips,
TB-Bodo/Garo- [to cut, carve (meat, wood)] *leʔ “to slice” shreds”
Dimasa lep Jungraithmayr 1970 87, 393 “to slice” Baltsan Huffman
“slice, pare, cut off” W. Chadic-Ron Proto-AA 748 28
TB-Chin-Lushai, (Daffo-Butura) *leʕ
Lai Chin lêf “schneiden (Fleisch ; Tau)” “to cut off”
hlep “slice, pare, cut “to cut (meat, rope)” Ehret 1995
off” Benedict 75 Jungraithmayr 1970 217, 393 #890 429
Matisoff 2003 376
H.15.1 TB-Jingpho, Bodo/Garo-Dimasa, Garo *lep =“slice, pare, cut off”
< W. Chadic-Ron *lèf “to cut, carve (meat, wood”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *lef “cut, carve (meat, wood)” “slice”
H.15.1
TB-Kiranti-Limbu lep’u “slice, saw off” Matisoff 2003 376
TB-Lepcha lip “slice, to cut in slices” Benedict 75 Matisoff 2003 376
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *lep = (s-)lep “slice, pare, cut off” Benedict #351 75, 203
H.15.1 W. Chadic- Ron (Bokkos) lêf / lèf “schlachten” [to slaughter, to butcher]
Jungraithmayr 1970 144, 393
↓↓
H.16 Afro-Asiatic – AA –Cushitic AA- Nilo- NC
Chadic Sem. Saharan
H.16.1 S. Chinese-Yue W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic-
(Cantonese) gauràyā Rendille
gáau “mix (stir)” “mix (dry or liquid), káwarsa
Kwan 299, 506 blend” “mix (one
Chen 228 Newman, R. 1990 thing into
“to stir. to agitate” 26, 170 another)”
Chik / Ng Lam 195 “mix, stir together Pillinger 183
S. Chinese-Min-Jian’ou (e.g. liquid or
kau3 lau3 “to stir” grain)” Newman, P.
Sagart 1999120 2007 72
H.16.2 N. Chinese-MSC Semitic-
xiáo “confuse, mix” Arabic
Wu, J. 759 (Iraqi)
chiâo (WG) šawwaš
“to stir up, to mix” “to confuse,
Mathews #699 94 disturb,
hsiáo (WG) upset”
“mixed, muddy, Dict. of Iraqi
confused” Arabic
Mathews #2584 383 part 2 252
695
H.16.3 Anywa
TB-Jingpho jaap vt.
[Kachin] jʌ‫כ‬bó
yau “to be mixed” detransi-
Benedict 48 tivized
S. Chinese-Yue “to mix
[Cantonese] things
yáu “to mix, mixed” together
Chik / Ng Lam 349 (liquids,
masses)”
Reh 29
H.16.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gáau “mix (stir)”
< W. Chadic-Hausa gauràyā “mix (dry or liquid), blend”
H.16.2 N. Chinese-MSC hsiáo “mixed, muddy, confused”
< Semitic Arabic (Iraqi) tšawwaš “to be confused, muddled”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *gau- “mix (dry or liquid)” ~ *tšaw- “to be confused, muddled”
H.16.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) kàu “to mix up” kàuwàhn “to mix evenly” Po-fei Huang 413
gáau “stir up, meddle” Po-fei Huang 383 gáaubuhn “to stir or churn” Chik / Ng Lam 195 “to
stir, to agitate, to disturb” “to stir up, cause trouble” Chik / Ng Lam 186, 195
H.16.2 N. Chinese-MSC jyâu (Y) “mix, adjust” Chen 228 tiáo “mix, adjust” Wu, J. 681
jiâo “stir, mix” “disturb, annoy” Wu, J. 341
S. Chinese-Min chiâu “to mix by stirring (as of dough) Bodman 1987 v.2 200
S. Chinese-Kejia[Hakka] (Meixian) tiau2 “mix, blend” Hakka Dict.
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] kəyau “mix, intermix” Benedict 48
Chinese-Jin [Shanxi province] kǝʔ-lau8 “to stir” Sagart 1999 120
H.16.3 Proto-Tibeto-Burman ryaw “to mix” Benedict #207 48, 207
H.16.1 W. Chadic-Hausa gauràyā / kaurayā “mix” “mix together” Skinner 81
gwālitsa “mix” Skinner 96 kwāb’à “mix (with liquid)” Skinner 158
“mix into a paste” Newman / Ma 1979 71
NS- Kanuri ngálóngawuli “mixture of different things” Cyffer 1990 133
E. Cushitic-Rendille iskáwarsa “(to)mix (something)” Pillinger 162
C. Chadic-Bura gwart- “mix” Skinner 96
H.16.2 Semitic-Arabic taʃawwuʃ (IPA) “confusion” “mix-up” n. Merriam-Webster Arabic 10, 97
C. Chadic-Gude tsavǝ “dilute” Skinner 270
Asian non-ST languages with correspondences to the African/AA↔ ST roots:
H.16.1 IE-Pashto kawul “to mix, confuse” Raverty 781
H.16.2 Hmong-Mien-White Hmong xyaw “mix” Heimbach 415, 486
H.16.3 Proto-IE *yew(ə) “to mix food, knead” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 159
Old Indian *yavana “mixing” Nikolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 159
The following two tables contain proposed Sino-Tibetan and African language reflexes of Ehret’s
Proto-Cushitic *suk- “to sit / or Proto-Afro-Asiatic*-suk- “to stay” Ehret 1995 #214 157.
The mainly intransitive meanings of the AA *-suk- “sit, stay, dwell” proto-root are attested in the Sino-
Tibetan variants of the H.17a.1-4 sets. All of the forms in this table have semantics which imply “go
down, get down” (intransitive), or “take down, bring down, put down” (transitive).This latter meaning is
explicit and dominant in the 17b.1-2 lexemes.
696
The 17b.2-3 Chinese and Hausa suk- “to lodge, to sojourn” phonetically and semantically match the
Proto-AA / Proto-Cushitic forms meaning “stay, dwell” but in Chadic represent stages of a journey in
which the travellers get down from and unload their animals, and then receive lodging for the night.
H.17a-b Afro-Asiatic – AA-Cushitic, AA- Nilo-Saharan Khoisan
Chadic Proto-AA Sem.
H.17a.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – S. Cushitic- Songhay
tsog-pu / tsog-pa Hausa Irakw (Djenne)
“the posture of tsùgùnā Militarev / joku “squat”
cowering, squatting, “squat” Stolbova Heath v.2 110
crouching” Newman, P. suknunu- Songhay-
Jaschke 432 2007 209 “squat” (Koroboro)
Das 999 Skinner 275 Skinner 275 sokono
bzhùgs-pa / “squat on heels” Proto-AA “bend (leg)”
bzugs-pa “to sit, Newman / Ma suk- “to stay” Heath
to dwell, reside, 1979 126355 Ehret 1995 v.3 282
to remain, stay” W. Chadic – #214 157 zoku
Jaschke 482-3 Tangale, Hausa Proto- “squat
bshùgs-pa sugne Cushitic. (with head up,
“to sit, to dwell, “sit” (Orel / on tiptoe)”
to reside” Skinner 275 Stolbova). Heath
Das 1085 Jungraithmayr *’-suk- v.3 341
1994 147 “dwell”
Skinner 275
Swadesh “sit” W. Chadic- N.
H.17a.2 Gwandara Khoisan-
Chinese-Xiang (Koro) ‖Kh’au-‖’e
6
dzu “sit” jùjùma šú “to sit
Norman 1988a 207 “sit down” down”
N. Chinese-MSC (Cancara) Ruhlen 1994
jù jùjùwã #513 63
“crouch, squat” “sit down” S.
“sit” Matsushita Khoisan-
Wu, J. 372 1974 #487 110 |Nu-‖’en
zhù šu ~ ču
“halt, stay” “to sit”
“be stationed at” Starostin, G.
DeFrancis 1290 2003 30
TB-Naxi-Lijiang
ndzɯ “sit”
Matisoff 2003 522
355
Note- H.17a.1 (Hausa) The Hausa suk- root is also one of the forms of a Chadic/Cushitic root meaning
“small, short” (G.8a.3) as well as the above H.17a. “sit, squat” Hence the Cantonese suksai “lessen” cited in set
H.17b.2 is also most probably related to G.8a.4 Cantonese sūk “to contract, to shorten” “to draw back” or chūk
“to contract, to draw together” Chik / Ng Lam 443. This has the G.8a.4 Hausa equivalent tsūkèe vt. and vi. “draw
together”. Of course squatting with the lower legs turned back involves a shortening or drawing together. Note the
semantics of H.17a.1 NS-Songhay (Gao) [Koroboro] sokona above, i.e. joku “squat” sokono “bend (leg)”.
The data above indicates that Hausa independently developed the following derived H.17b sàuka forms
meaning “unload”, “take lodging”, but also preserved the H.17a.1 original AA sug- “squat down” (sit down)
meaning as well as the G.8a.3 ideophone tsugul “very short”.
697
H.17a.3 W. Chadic-
Middle Chinese Gwandara
dzuã: “sit” (Toni)
Norman 1988a zùzùwã
207, 212 “sit down”
Matsushita
1974 #487 110
H.17a.4 S.
S. Chinese-Kejia Khoisan
[Hakka] ‖Xegwi
(MacIver, šō
Meixian) ts’o1 / ts’o5 / “sit”
ts’o3 Ruhlen
(Lau Chunfat) 1994
co1 “sit, a seat” #513 63
Hakka Dict. S. Khoisan-
S. Chinese-Yue Batwa
(Cantonese) šo
chóh “sit” S. Khoisan-
Kwan 481 |Xam
joh “to sit, a seat” s’ō / š’ō
Chik / Ng Lam 77 “sit”
Middle Chinese Starostin,
djo- “reside” G. 2003 30
Norman 1988a 230
H.17a.1 TB-Tibetan tsog-pu / tsog-pa / “the posture of squatting” / bshùgs-pa “to sit., to dwell,
to reside”,
< Proto-Cushitic *suk- “to sit” / Proto-Afro-Asiatic *-suk- “to stay”
H.17a.2 Chinese-Xiang dzu6 “sit” / N. Chinese-MSC jù “crouch, squat” “sit” / TB-Naxi-Lijiang
ndzɯ “sit” < S. Khoisan-|Nu-‖’en šu ~ ču / C. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e šú “ to sit down”
H.17a.4 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ts’o1 / ts’o5 / ts’o3 / co1 “sit, a seat” /
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chóh “sit” / joh “to sit, a seat”
< S. Khoisan-|Xam s’ō ~ š’ō / S. Khoisan-Batwa šo -‖Xegwi šō “sit”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma: *suk- “to squat” ~ šu / šo “sit”
H.17a.1 TB-Tibetan dzōgdzgōg “squatting down on one’s heels” dzogbur “squatting” Goldstein 846
H.17a.2 Middle Chinese d’ju- “reside” Norman 1988a 242
TB-Tibetan shuù “to sit, to stay, to dwell, to reside” Goldstein 950 ; shuùs “seat” Goldstein 951
N. Chinese-MSC chǜ “to crouch, to squat” Mathews #1539 221 chǖ “to dwell, to remain”
Mathews #1535 219 jū “reside, dwell, live” “occupy (a place)” “residence, house” Wu, J. 369
zhu “live, reside, stay” DeFrancis 129 jūzhù “live, reside, dwell” Wu, J. 369
chù “to dwell, to stop” Mathews #1337 188 , “to dwell temporarily, to halt” Mathews #1344 189
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jyuh “reside (dwell)” Kwan 428 “live (dwell)” Kwan 275 ,
jànjù “to lodge (dwell temporarily)” Chen 206 [compound of this root and that of H.18.1
Cantonese Extended jan-].
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver ch'u5 v. “dwell; inhabit; live (at) v. “stop” Hakka Dict..
S. Chinese-Min chu “dwell; inhabit; to live, to stop, firm, fast”Amoy-English Dict.167 ;
cu “dwell” Bodman 1987 v.2 129 (Fuzhong, Jianyang) tiu6 “reside” Norman 1988a 230
S. Chinese-Min (Fuzhong, Jianyang) tiu6 “reside” Norman 1988a 230
H.17a.3 N. Chinese-MSC tsò / tsuò [Y] “to sit, a seat” Mathews 1966 #6778 995 ;
698
dzwò “sit” Chen 362 zuò “sit” Manser 605 “sit, take a place” “seat, place” Wu, J. 944
H.17a.1
W. Chadic–North Bauci Group *(‘)tsəgw- “sit” Skinner 275
Semiitic-Arabic (Iraqi ) u sukun (stem of imperf.) sukna vn. “to reside, dwell, live”
sukkaan “population” [i.e. dwellers] Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 1 221 part 2 22
E. Cushitic-Afar suge “remain, stay” Parker / Hayward 194
W. Chadic- Warji tsəgə- “sit” Mukarovsky 328
Cushitic-Ma’ -zoko “sit” Skinner 59
W. Chadic-Hausa tsugunař dà vt. “make someone squat down” Newman, P. 2007 209, 153
Proto-Central Chadic *cuxwVr “sit” Stolbova, Olga Central Chadic Etymology 2006
Central Chadic-Glavda caxwar “sit” Stolbova, Olga Central Chadic Etymology 2006
C. Chadic–Mofu-Gudur ndzəgàna “sit (down)” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 295
W. Chadic–S. Bauci group-Wangday, Zodi súk “sit (down)” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 294
C. Chadic–Masa group- Zime Batna súk “sit (down)” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 294
Nilo-Saharan-Songhay (Gao) sokona “replier les jambes, étant couché ou assis” [to fold, to tuck the
legs under oneself when lying down or seated] Skinner 275
E. Chadic-Masa Group-Lame suk dzudzuŋgo “s’accroupir” [to squat, to crouch down] Skinner 275
W. Chadic-Ngizim jòokúlólok “in a squatting position” Schuh 85
Proto-W. Chadic (Jungraithmayr) *s’g “to sit” Ehret 1995 #530 283
H.17a.2 S. Khoisan-!Xoo chû “[to] sit” Starostin, G. 2003 30
S. Khoisan-Khakhea tsū, čū “to sit down” Ruhlen 1994 63
C. Chadic-Bura nzu-nzu “sit” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic-Etymology
H.17a.1 IE-Pashto chok “make to sit or squat” chok- “seated on all fours, particularly a camel
squatting on all fours” Raverty 376
IE-Hindi jhuknā ”crouch, incline vi. jhukānā ”bend” Scudiere 249
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *čok- “to kneel down” “to sink” “to sit”
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish čok- “to kneel down”
Altaic-Turkic-Bashkir sük- / süg- “to kneel down” “to sink”
Altaic-Turkic-Kumyk čök- / čög- “to kneel down” “to sink” “to sit”
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek čuk- “to kneel down” “to sink”
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur čok- “to kneel down” “to sink”
Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz čök- “to kneel down” “to sink”
Altaic-Turkic-Balkar čök- / čög- “to kneel down” “to sink” “to sit”
The following H.17b-c word families contain evidence that the empirical basis for the Hausa sàuk-
morphemes is the process of getting down from and unloading a pack animal when stopping at a place
to pass the night. The Hausa verb grades express these three notions:
-the rider gets down (H.17b.1 verb grade 3 or verb grade 6 both intransitive),
-the load is removed and taken down (H.17b.2 verb grade 5 or verb grade 4 (both transitive), and
-the process is completed by receiving lodging at the way station. (H.17b.3 verb grade 7
passive/sustentative.
The H.17b.1, H.17b.2 and H.17b.3 morphemes all attest the basic Hausa sàuk- root and this
corresponds in each case to a suk- / zuk- root in TB or Chinese. Though the ST forms have not
retained the verb grade aspect suffixes, the semantics of these sets reflect the shifts of meaning
present in the different Hausa verb grades.
Citations from Kraft and the Newmans illustrate these semantic changes.The Grade 2 form is in this
case the basic transitive form and grade 3 the basic intransitive form. The other forms are derived grades:
sàukā grade 2 vt. “help unload something from someone” “lodge someone” Newman, P. 2007 180
699
sàuka grade 3 vi. “descend, get down from, arrive at” Kraft 145-146, 362 “descend, come dow n” “be
lodged” “arrive” Newman, P. 2007 180 “get lodgings” “arrive (especially of plane)”
Newman, R.1990 157
sàukèe grade 4 vt. “put down a load” denotes complete or thorough action Kraft 145-146, 362
“bring down, unload” Newman, P. 2007 180 sàukèe kaya “unload” Newman, R. 1990 291
sàukar (dà) grade 5 vt. “lift down, bring/put down” “lower” “often termed ‘causative’”
Kraft 145,147, 149, 362 “unload” “provide temporary accomodation” Newman, P. 2007 181
“provide lodgings” Newman, R. 1990 157 sàukar dà kaya “unload” Newman, R. 1990 291
sàukō grade 6 vi. “come down (from)” “arrive (here)” “indicates that the action performed had
reference to or was completed in the vicinity of the scene of the conversation” Kraft 145,147,153, 362
sàuku (dà) grade 7 vi. “be comfortably settled in” “typically passive, often with the added
connotation of thoroughness or potentiality” Kraft 145,147
Hence Sino-Tibetan has plausibly inherited both the H.17a.1 original Proto-Cushitic, Proto-AA
suk- “sit, stay” lexemes and also the later H.17b derived Hausa sàuk forms with semantics of
“bring down, get down” “lower” v., and also “stay (overnight), lodge”. Note the H.17b.3 alternative
Cantonese forms sūk / sau. These are derived Hausa forms with denotations which also express the
more abstract concepts of “lessen, bring down” “become smaller”:
Alternative reduplicated second syllable forms are:
Hausa grade 4 (completive) sàuk’ak’e / sawwak’e “reduce completely” Kraft 362 -363
“waive a requirement or obligation” Newman, P. 2007 182
Hausa grade 3 intransitive sàuk’ak’à “to become easy, lessened, reduced” Newman, P. 2007 81
These words as well as those of tables H.17b following and H.39a-40 provide a schematic
description of a Hausa travel pattern which probably emerged after the domestication of the donkey
around 4000 BCE and possibly an eastward movement of Hausa speakers which continued as late as the
caravans of the Silk Road. See also Chapter 6 section 6.4.2.2.
H.17b.1 W. Chadic- Hausa

TB-Chin-Lushai sàuka vg.3 vi. (basic form)
zuk “verbal affix “descend, come down”
indicating motion” “arrive” Newman, P. 2007 180
downward” “go down (from above)”
Matisoff 2003 482 “arrive (esp. of plane)”
S. Chinese-Yue Newman, R. 109, 14 356
(Cantonese) sàukō vg.6 vi. (ventive)
sūk “decline” “come down (from)”
Chik / Ng Lam 49 Kraft 145, 147, 362
Proto-TB *syuk sàuk’àk’à vg.3 vi.
“descend” “become lessened, diminished”
Matisoff 2003 482 Newman, P. 2007 181
H.17b.2 W. Chadic-Hausa
S. Chinese-Yue sàukā vg.2 (basic vt. form)
(Cantonese) “help unload something from
sūksai “lessen (cause someone” “to lodge (someone)”
something to appear sàukar (dà) vg.5
smaller, less important)” efferential vt. “lift down,
Kwan 270 bring/put down” “lower”
356
Note- H.17b.1 (Hausa) The contemporary Hausa meaning of sàuka “arrive” is used especially for arrival of
a plane, i.e. sàuka “arrive (esp. of plane)” Newman, R. 1990 14. This “coming down, descent” of the plane, is
apparently seen as similar to the earlier meaning of coming down (from a mounted position on a transport animal)
on arrival at an appointed stopping place.
700
sūksiu (Y) vt. “diminish, Kraft 145,147, 362 Newman, P. Semitic- NS-Kanuri
make small” Chen 74 2000 653 Written sáakin
sūkgaam “to reduce, “unload” “provide temporary Arabic “lower,
to lessen” accomodation” Newman P. 2007 181 sakata take down,
Chik / Ng Lam 360 sàuk’àk’ā vg.1 vt. “fall” bring down”
S. Chinese-Kejia “reduce, lessen, relieve” “to decline, yirsáakin
[Hakka] Newman, P. 2007 181 sink, drop” “help lower,
suk7 sàukèe vg.4 (completive) vt. “to fall help unload”
“reduce, decrease” “bring down, unload” down, Cyffer 1990
Hakka Dict. Newman P., 2007 180-181 come down, 151
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] C. Chadic- Mandara to arrive
šəyúʔ vt. (causative) tsukw- “abladen” (Ger.) (one by
“let down” [unload] Skinner 231 one)”
Matisoff 2003 482 Wehr 483
H.17b.3 S. Chinese-Yue W. Chadic- Hausa NS-Kanuri
(Cantonese) sūk / sau sàuka vg.3 vi. isəkin
“to stay overnight” “be lodged” “arrive” vi.
“to lodge, to sojourn” Newman, P. 2007 180 “come,
Chik / Ng Lam 107 sàuku vg.7 vi. arrive”
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] sustentative/passive “lodge
(Lau Chunfat) “be comfortably settled in” (a visitor or
sug5 v. “lodge, stay Kraft 145,147 stranger)”
overnight, sojourn” “lodge (get lodgings)” Cyffer 1990
(MacIver) siuk4 siuk7 Newman, R. 1990 157 68, 151
suk7 “lodge, stay
overnight, sojourn”
Hakka Dict.
TB-Tibetan tshùgs-pa masauki n.m. “lodging place”
“caravansary, or a level, “overnight quarters”
open place near a village ma locative prefix
where travelers may Newman / Ma 1992 88
encamp” Das 1028
H.17b.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *s-yuk ~ *ʔ-yuk “descend”
/ C. Chadic- Mandara tsuk- “abladen” [unload] / W. Chadic- Hausa sàuka vi. “descend, come
down” saukè vt. “bring down, unload”
H.17b.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sūksai “lessen (cause something to appear smaller)”
< W. Chadic-Hausa sauk’àk’ā vt. “reduce, lessen, relieve”
H.17b.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sūk “to stay overnight” “to lodge, to sojourn”
< W. Chadic-Hausa sàuka vg.3 vi. “be lodged” “arrive”
Approximate ST etyma *tsuk- “unload” ~ *sauk- “descend, unload” “be lodged”
/
H.17c.1 W. Chadic- Proto-AA Semitic-Hebrew
Proto-TB, Hausa *-dzik’- / shaka’ v. past “sank, settled”
Proto-Lolo- tsagaita vg.1 *-dzak’- Baltsan 383
Burmese vi. “decrease “to throw “sink, sank, sunk”
*zak “descend” (diminish)” down” “fall or come slowly downwards”
Written Burmese “lessen (subside” Ehret 1995 Oxford English-Hebrew Dict.
sak “descend” Newman, R. #458 256 860-861
Matisoff 2003 1990 62, 151
317, 513, 620
701
TB-Tibetan tsagàitā vt. West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic

saà basic form “shorten, lessen” zəqq ala vi. “be low, drop,
sag perf. vi. “become less, decline, sink (of prices)”
“to fall, drop” decrease” Leslau 1976 182
Goldstein 955 Newman, P. Semitic-Arabic jaɣraqu (IPA)
See also B.28.4 2007 203 “drown” “sink” v.
H.17c.1 Written Burmese sak “descend”
< W. Chadic- Hausa tsagaita vg.1 vi. “decrease (diminish)” / Semitic-Written Arabic
sakata “fall” “to decline, sink”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma *tsag / sak- “descend, decease, decline” “fall”
H.17c.1 TB-S. Loloish-Hani zaʔ “descend” Matisoff 2003 513
H.17c.1
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic azäqäzzäqa “go down (of sun)” Leslau 1976 182
W. Chadic-Ngizim zə̀gə̀ràp “fall down slope” Schuh 180
S. Omotic-Ari *žáq- “to throw down” Ehret 1995 #458 256
Semitic-Arabic saux “to sink in the mud” Ehret 1995 #540 506
↓↓
H.18 AA – Chadic AA- AA- NS NC
Cush. Sem.
H.18.1 N. Chinese-MSC W. Chadic- Hausa NC-Fulfulde
zhàn “stop, halt” zangòo “stopover” [Fulani]
“station, stop (e.g. railway Newman, R. 1990 262 sangēre
station, bus station)” “traveler’s camp” changēje
“station or center for “stopover, stage” pl.
rendering services” “stand” “Hausa quarter in a “a military
zhànzhu “stop, halt” non-Hausa town” camp”
Wu, J. 876 Newman, P. 2007 230 “caravanserai
zhàn n. “station, depot, “camp (transitory outside the
stop” Wang, F. 578 during a trip, town”
chàn “a stage of a journey” Fulani type)” sangina
“to stop” Newman, R. “make a
Mathews #128-128b 14 1990 34 camp”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) “camping place,” Taylor 166
jàn “station (as of a bus)” “day’s journey”
Chen 381 Skinner 296357
H.18.2 S. Chinese-Yue W. Chadic- Hausa
(Cantonese) jànjù yā dà zango
“to lodge (dwell “lodge
temporarily)” Chen 206 (especially overnight)”
[compound of this root and Newman, R.
H.17a.2 Extended jù] 1990 157
357
Note- H.18.1
The semantics of “stopover, camp, stay overnight ” indicate origins dating from a period of nomadism in China
and possibly organized trade in the early historical period. See also Chapter 6 section 6.4.2, note D.36.1 (Hausa)
and references to nomadism in tables H.4b-H.4c and travelling traders in H.39a.1.
702
H.18.3 S. Chinese-Kejia W. Chadic- Gwandara Songhay

[Hakka] šoŋk- (Koyra)
(MacIver, Meixian) “descend, alight, lodge” soŋkom
2
ts'un v. Skinner 231 “squat”
“squat, crouch, stay” Heath
Hakka Dict. v.1 224
H.18.1 N. Chinese-MSC zhàn “stop, halt” “station, stop (e.g. railway station, bus station)”
“station or center for rendering certain services”
< Chadic- Hausa zangòo “stopover” “camping ground, lodging place”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon: *zang- “stopover, camp”
H.18.1
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian) ts’am5 / tsan3 v. “station, stop, center for rendering services”
(Lufeng) tsan5 v. “stand” n. “station, stop, center for rendering services” Hakka Dict.
TB-Tibetan tsam cɛɛ̀ “to come to a stop, halt” Goldstein 894
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jaahm thing “to stop, halt or suspend temporarily” Chik / Ng Lam 208
jaahm “to stand” “a station” Chik / Ng Lam 340 “station (railway)” “stop (for bus)” “stand (for taxi)”
Kwan 502, 504
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) cham5 / ts’am5 (Meixian) ts’am5 / tsan3 v. “stand.” “station,
stop, center for rendering services” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Min cām “a station, stop for vehicle” Bodman 1987 v.2 110, 124
“stand” “station, stop, center for rendering services” Hakka Dict.
H.18.2
TB-Chin-Lai tsaam “stay (as a guest)” Matisoff 2003 251
TB-Chin-Lushai cham “remain in a place over a day or night, sojourn, stay for a time”
Matisoff 2003 251
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jaahmjiuh “to lodge (dwell temporarily)” Chen 206
H.18.1 W. Chadic-Hausa mazàuni n.m. “dweller, settler, inhabitant”
Newman / Ma 1992 90 n.m. sànsani “camp, barracks” Newman, P. 2007 178
“war camp” Newman / Ma 1979 106
H.18.2 NS-Kanuri jóngo n. “resting place” “small settlement” Cyffer 1990 71
zongo / jongo n. “traveller’s camp, rest house” Skinner 296
Berber-Tuareg jongo “village Touareg en pays haoussa” [a Tuareg village in Hausa country] Skinner
296
↓↓
The correspondences of the following tables show a semantic and phonetic continuum between the
words representing “lift, raise”, “upright, erect, stand”, and “carry” in parallel ST and African entries.
The H.19a-b entries denote the erect posture assumed by a person standing up to carry or actually
carrying something on the head, an activity still observable in many African rural areas where
many persons, especially women, carry pots of water from a water hole or stream to their home.
H.19a-b Afro-Asiatic – AA – AA-Sem. Nilo-Sah. Khoisan
Chadic Cushitic
H.19a.1 W. Chadic- Hausa E. Cushitic-
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu ciràa vt. Oromo
chî “lift up, raise” “to raise, lift up” c’ir-
TB-Baic tsi cira / cire “pick up”
“lift up, raise” “lift up, move Skinner 36
Matisoff 2003 188 away” Skinner 36
703
N. Chinese-MSC vi. “rise, come up

ch’î (WG) “to rise, high” Newman, P.
to raise” Mathews 1966 2007 35
#548 71
TB-Written Burmese
kyî “lift up, raise”
S. Chinese-Kejia
[Hakka] ki3
“raise, lift” Hakka Dict.
H.19a.2 S. Chinese-Yue W. Chadic- N. E. Egyptian Songhay Khoisan-
(Cantonese) Bauci Gp.- Jimbin Cushitic- khi “to lift, (Gao) Hadza
kéih “stand (not sit)” kír Rendille to raise up, kéỳ eke
Kwan 502 “stand” kíhit to support, ”stand, “rise,
Po-fei Huang 413 Jungraithmayr (act of) to be high, stand up” get up”
C. Chinese-Wu 1994 v.2 304 standing to rise (of Heath v.3 Greenberg
ki2 “begin, start” up” the Nile)” 201 1966 83
”rise, stand up” “departure” Budge v.1 “se tenir
Hakka Dict. Pillinger 536 debout”
209 Ducroz 150
Swadesh “to stand” C. Chadic – E. Kanuri NC-
H.19a.3 Mandara Cushitic- cingīn, cijin,
Fulfulde
S. Chinese-Kejia (Wandala) Oromo “get up, rise,
[Fulani]
[Hakka] ts’ii5 / ts’i3 ci- “stand up” sirrii arise” chir
“stand erect, stand up” Jungraithmayr adj. “set off, start
“stand
S. Chinese-Min 1994 v. 2 306 “straight, off” perfectly
si7 / chi3 “stand C. Chadic- Hwona upright” Cyffer 1990upright”
erect” Hakka Dict. ŝi “stand up” Gragg 359 27 Taylor 25
N. Chinese -MSC Stolbova, Olga Sasse 1982 Lukas 1937
chi “straight, upright” C.Chadic 166 38, 80, 191
Mathews 1966 Etymology
#1006, 139 Proto-Chadic
qî “rise, get up, stand (Jungraithmayr)
up” “rise, grow” *s’ir “to stand”
Wu, J. 534 Ehret 1995 #563
vi. “go or come up, arise, 296
get up” Wang, F. 372
H.19a.1 TB-C. Loloish-Lahu chî “lift up, raise”
< W. Chadic-Hausa ciràa vt. “to raise, lift up” “rise, come up high”
H.19a.2 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] k’i3 / k’i5 “begin,start” ”rise, stand up” “go away, leave, depart”
“get rid of, remove”
< E. Cushitic- Rendille kíhit “(act of) standing up” “departure”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *ci- vt. “to raise, lift up” / *tsìy- “stand up“ ~ *khí- “act of
standing up to leave”
H.19a.1 Proto-Lolo-Burmese *kyi “lift up, raise” Matisoff 2003 598
TB-Tibetan ky‫ככ‬ ‫“ כ‬to lift” Goldstein 167
TB-Baic-Dali / TB-Qiang (Taoping) tsi “lift up, raise” Matisoff 2003 188
N. Chinese-MSC shí “pick up from the ground” Wu, J. 621
S. Chinese-Min chhia1 “lift water by water wheel” Hakka Dict.
H.19a.2 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] k’i3 / k’i5 (MacIver) ”rise, stand up” “go up, get up” Hakka Dict.
704
S. Chinese-Min khì “to go up, arise, start” khì+khi “to go up, climb”
khi2 “begin, start” “rise, go up, get up” Hakka Dict.
khî sîn “to leave, start a trip (of people only)” “to go, go off to” “away from,
off, to, towards (a place)” Bodman 1987 v.2 153
khi-lai “to get up, arise” Bodman 1983 120,172 ;
C. Chinese-Wu khi2 “rise, stand up, go up, get up” “begin, start” Hakka Dict.
khi “to go (away from the point of reference)” Bodman 1987 v.1 64
N. Chinese-MSC khāiwang “(of a train, ship etc.) leave for, be bound for” Wu, J. 381
khāifù “march to, be bound for” Wu, J. 380
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ka:y “pull, drag, lead” Matisoff 2003 210
TB-Chin-Lushai kai “pull, drag, lead” Matisoff 2003 210
H.19a.3
C. Chinese-Wu tɕi2 / ʨhi5 “begin,start” ”rise, stand up” “go up, get up” Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese -MSC zhì “stand erect, tower” Wu, J. 904 zhí “straight”
Hsiung 1320 Wu, J. 898
ch’î (WG) “to stand on tiptoe and look for” “erect” Mathews 1966 #545 71
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sih “to stand erect like a mountain” Chik / Ng Lam 115
C. Chinese-Wu ʨhy5 “raise, lift” “go away, leave, depart” “get rid of, remove” Hakka Dict.
H.19a.1
C. Chadic–Buduma ci “lift” Skinner 36
W. Chadic-Hausa cicci’bàa “lift and carry something heavy” Newman, P. 2007 33
k’ik’am ideo. “standing stiffly or motionlessly” Newman, P. 2000 245
H.19a.2
E. Cushitic-Somali kichi “to raise, to start up” Awde 1999 38 75
Egyptian skhi “to ascend” Budge v.2 689 ka, khai “to rise like the sun, to ascend” Budge v.1 534
khai “to be high, to lift up” Budge v.1 529 skhāi “to make to rise up or appear” Budge v.2 615, 689
NS-Songhay (Koyra) key-nte “standing” Heath v.1 164
W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Warji kiyau / kəy “carry (load)” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 62
W. Chadic-N. Bauci Gp.-Kariya kí “carry (load)” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 62
W.Chadic–Hausa kai vt. “take, take to” Newman, P. 2007 104 “carry, reach (there)” Kraft 152
NS-Songhay (Gao) kóy “partir, aller, quiiter un lieu” [depart, go, leave a place] Ducroz 159
W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Pa’a gey “lift” Skinner 89
H.19a.3
E. Cushitic-Oromo sirrawi adj. “erreto, verticale, diritto” [erect, vertical upright”] Borello 376
C. Chadic–Glavda cī “to rouse, to awake, to raise, to leave, to lift up, to rise, to arise,
to get up” Rapp / Benzing 18 ci-R “stand up” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 307
E. Cushitic-Somali kichi “to raise, to start up” Awde 1999 38.75
NS-Kanuri cìtə “getting up, leaving” Hutchison 1981 57 [vn. of cingīn, cijin above] Cyffer 1990 2
C. Chadic- Gisiga cicideŋ “stand up” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 305
W. Chadic–N. Bauci- Pa’a tsirratsIrro “stand” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 304
/
H.19b.1 W. Chadic- Songhay
TB-Tibetan S. Bauci- (Koroboro)
kyere “upright, Guruntum sherre
erect” “to stand” shè:ri “be straight,
Jaschke 7 “stand” be extended
kyere / kere / Jungraith- (in a line)”
kyere-wa “the act mayr Heath v.3 276
of standing erect” 1994
[Disyllabic corresp.] v.2 306
705
H.19b.2 Proto-AA Songhay

TB-Tibetan *-jer / *-jôr (Koroboro)
khyer “to convey, jere
“to take, make move” “carry
to carry” Proto-E. Cushitic (on head)
Goldstein 166 *cerr / *corr- Heath v.3 176
“to take away, (Koyra)
send away” jeeri “carry”
Ehret 1995 #476 263 Heath v.1 142
H.19b.3 W. Chadic-
TB-Tibetan Jimbin
kyeedro kəy “carry
”to go taking / (load)”
carrying something” Jungraith-
Goldstein 166 mayr
1994 v.2 62
H.19b.4 Proto-AA N.Khoisan-
N. Chinese-MSC *-c’īʔ- or *-c’îiʔ- !’O-Kung
xié “to convey” ‖kē “carry
“carry, take along” Ehret 1995 (in hand)”
Wu, J. 764 #566 297 Ruhlen 1994
#198 50
H.19b.2 TB-Tibetan khyer “to take, to carry”
< Proto-AA *-jer / *-jôr “to convey, make move” / Proto-E. Cushitic *cerr- “to take away”
H.19b.3 TB-Tibetan kyeedro ”to go carrying something” /
N. Chinese -MSC xie “carry, take along”
< N.Khoisan-!’O-Kung ‖kē “carry (in hand)”
Approximate Tibetan etyma *cerr- “to take away” ~ *‖khei “carry (in hand)”
H.19b.1 TB-Tibetan gēre “erect, upright” ger ger vi. “upright” gerre “erect, straight up”
gēr “to raise, to lift” Goldstein 7 gye / gyeè vi. “to sit/stand upright or erect, to hold upright or
erect” Goldstein 226 gyebo ”upright, erect” Goldstein 226
H.19b.2 TB-West Tibetan h’khyer-wa “to carry away, to take away” Das 196
khur-khyer “take away!, carry off!” Jaschke 56 [compound of this root and that of H.20b.2]
ker-wa “to raise, lift up” Das 32
H.19b.1
NS- Songhay (Koroboro) sherey “to straighten out, extend” Heath v.3 275
E. Cushitic-Rendille ilcheerwet “row, queue (of several objects in a straight line)” Pillinger 152
NS-Songhay (Koyra) jeer “lift, raise, hold up” Heath v.1 142
W. Chadic–N. Bauci-Warji tsirre / ‘tserw- “stand” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 304
NS- Songhay (Djenne) serre “be straight, vertical” “form straight line” Heath v.2 168
W. Chadic-Ron-Kulere zyer “stand “ Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 304
W. Chadic-Tangale seri “to stand up, to halt, to stop, to pause” Jungraithmayr 1991143
Skinner 271
E. Cushitic-Afar karer “act of erecting” kareera “upright stance” Parker / Hayward 144
H.19b.2 NS- Songhay (Gao) jèrè “porter sur la tete, transporter” Ducroz 134
jéejè “fardeau pour un animal” [load for an animal] Ducroz 134 jer-ow “carrying” Heath v.3 177
H.19b.3 W. Chadic-Bura kil / kila “to carry, to lift up” Dict. of Bura kila “load (a head load)”
Skinner 141
706
S. Khoisan-‖Khegwi ‖ke “carry (in hand)” Ruhlen 1994 #198 50

S. Khoisan-Khakkea !ke “carry (in hand)” Ruhlen 1994 #198 50
↓↓
H.20a-b Afro-Asiatic – AA – AA-Semitic Nilo- Niger-
Chadic Cush. Saharan Congo
H.20a.1 C. Chadic–Gude E. Semitic-Arabic NS- NC-
TB-Tibetan karya “burden, load” Cushitic- (Iraqi) Kanuri Fulfulde
khal “burden, C. Chadic–Buduma Oromo khallaf kárè [Fulani]
load” “load, kaloe “Ware, qarqaba “to burden” “things, kare
freight” Gefäss” [articles, “carico, Dict. of Iraqi loads, “cloth,
Jaschke 40 goods, vessels] soma” Arabic tools” generally,
Proto-Tibeto- C. Chadic-Padoko [load, part 1 27 Lukas goods,
Burman *sgal kaɬana pack] S. Arabic kara 209 cargo”
“load, burden” “les effets” [things, Borello “burden to be Skinner Taylor 108
Matisoff 2003 personal effects] 337 carried on the 141
416 note f, 423 Skinner 141 back” Biella 252
H.20a.2 W. Chadic-Ngizim Semitic-
TB-Tibetan kákə́râ “load, i.e Hebrew
khag “a task, things which are khagor n. m.
charge, duty, being carried by a “full pack”
responsibility person, animal etc.” “soldier’s
of importance” kàkə̀rú “carry load personal
Das 137 on head or back” equipment”
Jaschke 37 Schuh 91 Baltsan 193
H.20a.1 TB-Tibetan khal “burden, load” “load, freight”
< C. Chadic–Gude kaloe “articles, goods, vessels”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *kal- “articles, goods, commodities,
H.20a.1
Old Chinese g’â “carry, sustain” Karlgren GSR 1o Matisoff 2003 423
S. Chinese-Min chai “load, carry, transport, convey” Hakka Dict.
H.20a.2 TB-Tibetan khag-khur “to take charge of a person or thing, to be responsible for anything”
Das 137
H.20a.1 NS-Kanuri kárè “belongings, baggage, loads, things” Cyffer 1990 80
NS-Anywa [Anuak] kʌ̄ʌr vt. “to carry something (e.g. bag, book, child)” Reh 33
kāar vt. “to carry a child (on one’s hip or back)” Reh 34, 91
Egyptian kar “object, thing, tool, furniture, goods etc.” Budge v.2 789
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) karrab “to overburden” “to load down (someone)” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
part 2 401
W. Chadic–Hausa kāyā “goods, loads, merchandise” Newman, P. 2007 112 “belongings” “cargo”
Newman, R. 1990 21, 36
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic qərqab “load, pack” qəraqenbo “odds and ends” Leslau 1976 72
əqa “things, object, utensil, baggage, goods, stuff, effects” Leslau 1976 132
H.20a.1 IE-Sanskrit kal “to bear, carry” gariman “heaviness, weight”
Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 H.20a.1
/
707
H.20b.1 Proto-Chadic Proto- S. Khoisan-

TB-Tibetan *kərə “carry” Highland- |Xam
h’khurwa Newman, P. E. Cushitic ‖kau:wa
“to carry” 1977 24 *gur “take away”
Das 187 E. Chadic-Masa “carry Khoisan -
[Disyllabic corresp.] Group- Lame away” Hatsa
TB-Proto-Kiranti ku’u “porter sur Skinner 89 ‖kowa
*ku°r “carry” le dos” “to remove”
Starostin, S. [carry on the Greenberg
Kiranti Etymology back] 1965 80
Skinner 89
H.20b.2 C. Chadic– NC-Fulfulde
TB-Tibetan Mwulyen [Fulani]
khur “burden, load” kuro khulle
Jaschke 41 “load” “things”
khur-po “burden, load Skinner 141 Skinner 141
for men” Das 148
H.20b.3 NS- Kanuri
TB-Tibetan kurwówu
kurbo “heavy”
“load, burden (mental)” “important,
Goldstein 122 serious”
kurgεn “responsibility” Cyffer
kursam 1990 104
“sense of responsibility”
khurji
“heavy load,
heavy responsibility”
Goldstein 122, 159
H.20b.1 TB-Tibetan ‘khur-wa “to carry” / TB-Proto-Kiranti *ku°r “carry”
< Proto-Chadic *kərə “carry”/ Khoisan-Hatsa ‖kowa “to remove” / S. Khoisan- /Xam ‖kau:wa
“take away”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *‖kau:wa “take away”
H.20b.1 TB-Tibetan
khur-ba “to carry, convey, to carry a load” khur, khur-khyer pf. and fut. “take away!, carry off!”
khur-du togs-te “taking up in order to carry” “taking on one’s back” Jaschke 56 kūr “to carry, to
take on” Goldstein 159 kūrba “porter, coolie” Goldstein 122
TB-Kiranti-Limbu vt. ku.maʔ “carry on one’s back” van Driem 1987 439
TB-E. Kiranti-Yakha khu “lift up, raise” Benedict 994
H. 20b.1 C. Chadic–Higi Nkafa kulu-tè “lift”
NS-Anywa (Anyuak) kʌ́ʌr “to carry something” Reh 33
E. Cushitic-Rendille khorcha “lift on to (something)” Pillinger 359
Egyptian quru “porters, boatmen” Budge v.2 767 qaur “transport man, carrier” Budge v.2 763
H. 20b.2
E. Cushitic-Rendille khúr “bunch, bundle” Pillinger 195, 317
Egyptian kher “bundle” khert / kherit “goods, objects, possessions” Budge v.1 580 Skinner 141
kheru “possessions, property” Budge v.1 561
708

H.20b.1
IE-Sanskrit gur / gurv “to raise, lift up” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Old Indian gurate “to raise, lift up” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
H.20b.2
IE-Old Indian gurú- “heavy” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
IE-Bengali kuli n. “porter” Thompson 44
H.20b.2-3 IE-Sanskrit guru “heavy, weighty” “important, serious, momentous”
gurutana “heavier, very heavy” “more important, very important or valuable” Cologne Lexicon.
H.20b.3 IE-Bengali gurutto n. “importance, seriousness”n. guruttopurno “important, serious,
weighty” adj. Thompson 47, 105 kɔrtobo “duty” Thompson 96
See also Supplementary Table 2 H.20b.1,3
Proto-IE *gwrw- / *gwrū- “heavy” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
Proto-Altaic *k’iùru “heavy, hard, difficult” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *xur-ge “heavy, hard, difficult” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
/
H.21 Afro-Asiatic- Afro-Asiatic- AA- NS NC
Chadic Cushitic Sem.
H.21.1 W. Chadic- S. Cushitic-
TB-Nung-Rawang, Bauci- Zaar Oromo
Jingpho [Kachin] / b’agi ba’aa n.
Nungish-Matwang “carry” “load, burden”
dialect Jungraithmayr Gragg 24
baʔ “carry” 1994 v.2 62 baad’d’a
Benedict 19358 “carry, hold,
Proto-Tibeto-Burman contain”
*bak “carry on back or baatama
shoulders” “be carried”
Benedict 19 note 71 Gragg 26
H.21.2 Songhay (Koroboro)
TB-Bodo/Garo-Digaro bàbbà
ba “carry (child)” “porter dans le dos”
Benedict 19 [carry on the back]
TB-Tibetan Ducroz 33
‘bába
“to bring,
to carry”
Jaschke 391
H.21.3 C. Chadic- Daba
TB-Tibetan bàw “
h’ba-wa carry (load)”
“bring, carry” Jungraithmayr
Das 918 1990 v.2 62
358
Note- H.21.1 (TB- Rawang, Chadic, Cushitic) Matisoff, author of the note, states that the glottal stop of the
Jingpho and Rawang baʔ reflexes points to an earlier TB *bak rather than Benedict’s original Proto-TB *ba.
Benedict/Matisoff 19 note 71. The above evidence from the H.21.1 W. Chadic- S. Bauci b’agi tends to support
this view. The Cushitic-Oromo ba’aa form also contains a medial glottal stop, and the Sanskrit medial -r- (bara)
or -h-(vahi) can represent simple small openings of the glottis derived from an earlier glottal stop.
709
N. Chinese-MSC W. Chadic-
bào Hausa
“carry in one’s arms” (Daura dial.)
Merriam-Webster bāwō
Chinese 6 “bring”
Matsushita
1993 20
H.21.1
TB-Nung-Rawang, Jingpho [Kachin] (Nungish- Matwang dialect) baʔ “carry”
< E. Cushitic-Oromo baad’d’a “carry, hold, contain” /
ba-accu “addossarsi, caricarsi, portare, sostenere”’ [to load (on the back), to take up a burden,
to carry, to hold up”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *bak- “carry on the back”
H.21.2
Proto-TB
*ba “carry” Benedict #26 19, 199, 210 “carry (on back)” Matisoff 2003 24, 643, 583 ;
*buw = *bəw “carry on back or shoulders” Benedict #28 178, 199
*bəw “carry on back” Matisoff 2003 178, 199
H.21.3 TB-Chin-Lushai pu “carry on back” Matisoff 2003 178
H.21.1 E. Cushitic-Oromo ba-accu “addossarsi, caricarsi, portare, sostenere”’ [to load (on the back),
to take up a burden, to carry, to hold up” Borello 35
H.21.2 E. Cushitic-Sidamo baira “carry on back” Skinner 20.
H.21.1 IE-Sanskrit vahi “carrying, bearing” Cologne Lexicon.
H.21.3
bar “to carry, to bear”
baraiti “tragt, reitet” [carries, bears]
ava-baraiti “to carry, to bring down, to bring to” Peterson, J. 1995
barantiy “to bear” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 16
IE-Sanskrit
bhara “bearing, carrying, bringing”
bhara “a burden, load, weight”
Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Old Indian bhárti / bhárati “to bear”
IE-Hindi
bhār m. “gravity, load”
bhārā m. “freight”
bhārī adj. “heavy” Scudiere 70, 74, 93, 294
IE-Bengali
bhār “weight, gravity, burden”
bhāri “heavy” adj.
bhɔra “be filled, be loaded”
bhɔrano “to fill, fill up, load” Thompson 70, 99. 103
See also Supplementary Table 2 H.21. 1-3
IE-Tocharian pär “bear (away), carry (off)” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 16
710
↓↓
H.22 Afro-Asiatic- AA – AA- Nilo-Sah. NC
Chadic Cush. Sem.
Swadesh E. Chadic-Jegu
“to give” bir “give”
H.22.1 C. Chadic-Dghwede
Proto-Newar bìrè “give”
*bir- “give” Jungraithmayr 1990
TB-Newar v.2 159
*bil- “give” E. Chadic-Dangaleat
Matisoff 2003 442 bērè “donner” [give]
Fédry 85
Jungraithmayr 1990
v.1 76359
H.22.2 E. Chadic- Kabalai
TB- Mir bí “give”
bi “give” W. Chadic-S. Bauci- Buli
TB- Proto-Kiranti bi: “give”
*bi “give” Jungraithmayr 1990
Benedict 102 v.2 158-9360
Starostin, S. Kiranti fi “give” Stolbova, Olga
Etymology C. Chadic Etymology
TB- Burmese
pè “give”
Benedict 102
H.22.3 TB-Dhimal, Mikir W. Chadic-S. Bauci- Tala
pi “give” pi “give”
Benedict 102 Jungraithmayr 1990
Matisoff 2003 480 v.2 158
H.22.4 E. Chadic-Lele
S. Chinese-Yue bè “give”
(Cantonese) Jungraithmayr 1990 v.2 159
béi “give” Kwan 204 W. Chadic-Hausa
“to confer, to bestow” bāyar (da) v.
Chik / Ng Lam 306 “to give”
Proto-Tibeto-Burman Newman, P. 2007 12
biy = bəy “give” Kraft 336
Benedict #427 199
Proto-Lolo-Burmese
bəy2 “give”
Matisoff 2003 19
359
Note- H.22.1 ( Chadic) Jungraithmayr reconstructs a Chadic proto-root *br. This is the most widely attested
form of the variant morphemes meaning “give” in Chadic languages; 46 out of the 77 languages surveyed by
Jungraithmayr contain it. Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 76.
360
Note- H.22.1-2 ( Chadic) For the sound change rule: “change of word final *r > y / i” i.e. E. Chadic-Jegu
bir “give” > E. Chadic- Kabalai, W. Chadic-S. Bauci bí “give” see Newman, P. 2000 227 and Notes
A.16.1 (Hausa), A.30.1 (Hausa), A.34.2 (Hausa) and H.38a.4 (Hausa).
711
H.22.4 W. Chadic-Hausa NS-Kanuri

TB-Chin-Tiddim bīyā / bīya v. bíya
pia / piak “to pay, “payment”
“give” to grant” biyangīn
Matisoff 2003 377 Newman /Ma 1979 14 v. “pay, pay for”
[Disyllabic corresp.] “pay person and/or thing” Cyffer 1990 20
Newman, P. 2007 22
Kraft 336
H.22.1 Proto-Newar *bir- “give”
< E. Chadic-Jegu bir “give”
H.22.5 TB-Chin-Tiddim pia “give”
< W. Chadic-Hausa biyā v. “pay “
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *bir- “give” ~ *biyā “pay”
H.22.2
TB-Kiranti-Dumi bi “give” Matisoff 2003 480
TB-Tibetan sbyin-pa “to give, bestow” Jaschke 405 Das 939 Benedict 102
H.22.3
TB- Written Burmese pê “give” Benedict 102 Matisoff 2003 480
Chinese--MSC pei “compensate, pay for” Wu, J. 511
TB-Chin-Lai pee / peek “give” Matisoff 2003 373
TB-Chepang bəyʔ “give” Matisoff 2003 480
H.22.4 TB-W. Kiranti-Limbu piʔ-ma “give” Matisoff 2003 480
H.22.1 Proto-Central Chadic *bar- / *bir “give”
Stolbova, Olga Proto-Chadic-Etymology 2006
H.22.3
NS-Kanuri biyangȋn “pay, pay for” Cyffer 1990 20 .
W. Chadic-Hausa bīyaa / bīya “to pay, to grant” Newman / Ma 1979 14.
W. Chadic-Gwandara bay “to give” Matsushita 1972 24
W. Chadic-S. Bauci Gp.-Kir pyè “give” Jungraithmayr 1990 v.2 158
↓↓
H.23a-e Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA- AA- NS NC,
Cush. Sem. Khoisan
H.23a.1 W. Chadic-Hausa NC-Fulfulde [Fulani]
TB-Tibetan tsantsamī sena “be clean”
‘tsaŋba / dzaŋ “aversion to filth” senna
“clean” Newman, P. “make clean”
Goldstein 873, 847 2007 205 Taylor 171
gtsang-wa “to be clean, NC-Dyula
pure” “cleanliness, purity” sāni “pureté de l’or”
361
Das 1000-1001 (Fr.) [purity of gold]
TB-Nung “pureté (en general)”
[Rawang] Skinner 269
san “clean, pure”
Matisoff 2003 405
361
Note H.23a.1 (Tibetan) Jaschke states that a verbal form sang-ba to clean” once existed, but is now only
used in the sense of “removing impurities”. (Jaschke 457-458) This is attested in H.24f.3 below.
712
Swadesh “new” Khoisan-Hadza

H.23a.2 Ʒana
Old Chinese “new”
si̭an “fresh, new, fine, Starostin, G. 2003 26
clear” Karlgren #209a-c S.Khoisan-!Kwi-|Xam
Matisoff 2003 401 ‖a:n “new”
S. Chinese-Yue sàn Bleek 1956
“new, fresh” 556, 565, 573
Chik / Ng Lam 200
H.23a.2 Old Chinese si̭an “fresh, new, fine, clear”
< S.Khoisan-!Kwi-|Xam ‖a:n “new”
Approximate Sinitic etymon “new”
H.23a.1
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *(t)syaŋ “clear, pure, clean” Benedict 53, 208
TB-Tibetan dzaŋ / dzaŋba “clean” dzaŋwa “clean, pure” dzaŋ “sweeping, to clean up”
Goldstein 847
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] sàn “clean, pure” Matisoff 2003 405 Benedict 15 note 4
“clear” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
TB-Tibetan saŋ “to cleanse, purify” Goldstein 1163 saŋŋe “bright, light (for a room)” saŋ saŋbo
“clear, bright” Goldstein 1121-2
H.23a.2
N. Chinese-MSC zhǎnxīn “brand-new” Merriam Webster Chinese 167
S. Chinese-Min (Shàowû) sən “new” Norman 1988a 238
N. Chinese-MSC zhēngjie “clean and tidy” Manser pt. 2 575
Middle Chinese tshjeng “clear, pure, bright” dzjeng “to clear during the night, of the weather”
Sagart 77 sjen “new” Norman 1988a 238
Old Chinese ts’i̭êng “clear, pure, bright” dz’i̭êng “quiet, pure” Benedict 160 si̭ən “new”
Karlgren #382k-m Matisoff 2003 401
H.23a.1 Egyptian san “to rub, to rub in an unguent or medicament”
“to anoint” Budge v.2 643
W. Chadic-Hausa tsantsàmē “wash lightly” Newman, P. 2007 205 Newman, P. 2007 205
W. Chadic-Ron (Daffo) sambuwa “be white” Skinner [223]
Asian non-ST languages with close correspondences to the African/AA roots
H.23a.1 IE-Sanskrit sammARjana “the act of sweeping or cleansing thoroughly” “cleansing,
scouring, purifying, brushing” sammArga “wiping off, cleansing” sammRj “sweep clean, rub or
wipe off” “cleanse, strain, filter, purify” samabhiplu “to inundate, wash”
sama bhipluta “inundated, flooded, washed” Cologne Lexicon
/
H.23b.1 TB-Kiranti-Yamphu W. Chadic-Hausa Semitic-Arabic
sāŋ “all, only, nothing but” tsantsā adv. (Iraqi) jamii‫ع‬
Starostin, S. Yamphu Dict. “pure(ly)” “all, entirety”
TB-Tibetan tsaŋ “to be complete/ “sole(ly)” Dict. of Iraqi
whole/ full /entire” saŋma “all, every, “pure state, all and only” Arabic
entire” Goldstein 873 Newman / Ma 1979 123 part 1 6-7
dzaŋdzaŋ “only, entirely, wholly, W. Chadic-Hausa compre-
one hundred percent” Goldstein 848 sam adv. hensive,
tsaŋla manɔɔwaa “complete and “completely” extensive”
without mistakes” Goldstein 873 Awde 1996 137 part 2 76-77
713
dzaŋma “full, complete” “pure” tsambam ideo

Goldstein 847 “in abundance, full”
dzaŋ + verb “doing completely”, Newman, P.
e.g. dzaŋshang “completely clearing 2007 204
something (a path, a canal)” W. Chadic-Hausa
Goldstein 847-848 tsāba
tsaŋj‫“ ככ‬arriving completely, “absolute, unmitigated”
all the people having arrived” Newman, P. 2007 203
Goldstein 873362
Chinese-MSC zhēng
“whole, complete, full, entire”
Manser pt. 2 575
chėngtào “whole (or) complete set”
Manser pt.2 64
TB-Tibetan
tsaŋbo “complete, entire”
Goldstein 873
H.23b.2 W. Chadic-Hausa NC-
S. Chinese-Yue jàn mālàmi nèe Fulfulde
“true, real, actual” tsantsā (Fulani)
chán, ján “very much, deeply” “a scholar through and sanne
Chik / Ng Lam 318, 446 through” “exceed-
TB-Tibetan mālàmi “scholar” ingly”
mtshan-nyid Newman, P. Taylor
“the essential characteristic, sometimes 2007 205 167
even implying the true innermost tsantsā adv.
essence of a thing” “unalloyed, pure,
Jaschke 454 Goldstein 222 undoubted”
jaŋdung “pure, unadulterated” Skinner 269
Goldstein 402
Chinese-MSC
xianglīng “essence”
Manser pt.2 489
zhēnzhī
“genuine (or real) knowledge”
Manser 571 zhī “know”
(E.4d.1 Extended)
zhēn adv. “really”
zhēn yǒnggǎn “he is really brave”
Merram-Webster Chinese 169
362
Note H.23b.1 (Tibetan, Sanskrit) Kiranti,Tibetan and Sanskrit all give evidence of having grammaticalized the
Hausa tsan(tsā) “pure(ly)” “sole(ly)” “pure state, all and only”, sam adv. “completely” or the Arabic jamii‫“ ع‬all”
“comprehensive, extensive” into a function morpheme which, when attached to a verb, means “doing the previously
identified action completely, thoroughly”. Examples are in H.23b.1-2 Sanskrit as well as several of the H.23b.1
Tibetan entries.
714

H.23b.1 TB-Tibetan tsaŋ “to be complete/ whole/ full /entire” / TB-Kiranti-Yamphu
sāŋ “all, only, nothing but”
< W. Chadic-Hausa tsantsa adv. “pure(ly)” “sole(ly)” “all and only”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *tsan- “pure, genuine, unalloyed” /
tsantsā adv. “pure(ly)” “sole(ly)” “pure state, all and only”
TB-Tibetan H.23b.1 tshaŋ-rlon “perfectly wet” Goldstein 22 ; Jaschke 444 gar-saŋ “completely white”
Goldstein 402 garsaŋ / gardzang “completely white” Goldstein 21, 22 [compound of this root and that
of G.4.1]
tsarjöö dzāngdaa “complete annihilation, eradication/ extermination”
tsarjöö “annihilation, extermination:” (H.25c.1) Goldstein 877 Osaŋ “well done” Goldstein 982
sēŋdraa “recovering completely”dzāng̀‫“ ככ‬complete prohibition, total ban” Goldstein 854
N. Chinese-MSC zhĕng “whole, entire” Wu, J. 891 shē̆nru sv. “penetrating, thorough”
Wang, F. 415 ; chún “pure, unmixed” chúnhuà “refine, purify, perfect”
W. Chadic-Hausa zallā adv. “purely, solely, truly” Newman, P. 2007 229.
H.23b.1 IE-Sanskrit
sam “thoroughness, intensity, completeness” sama “full, complete, whole, entire”
samagra “all, entire, whole, complete, each, every” samkSi “to destroy completely, annihilate”
kSi “kill, destroy” sammata “completely intoxicated” mata “intoxicated, drunk”
samachanna “completely covered” channa “covered” (E.25.2)
H.23b.2
IE-Sanskrit samapana “highest degree, perfection” sanemi “complete, perfect” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Hindi sanpūrn “perfect” adj. Scudiere 117, 328
IE-Bengali shɔmpūrno adj. “complete” Thompson 92 See also Supplementary Table H.23a.1-2
↓↓
H.23c.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- E. Cushitic– West Semitic-Ethiopian- NC-
tshar-wa Hausa Oromo Amharic Fulfulde
“to fulfill, sařai adv. carrisu ĉ’arrasa “finish, end, (Fulani)
to finish” “fulfillment, “completely” “finire, terminate, complete, sarai
doing a work Newman, R. completare, accomplish” “completely,
completely” Das 1024 1990 47 ultimare, ĉ’ərraš “end, exactly”
h’tshar-wa “to be portare a altogether, completely, Taylor 167
finished, completed” termini ” entirely” See also
“as an auxiliary to [to finish, Leslau 1976 238 H.23a.3
denote an action that is to complete, Egyptian tcherá
perfectly past or terminate, to “to finish, to complete,
completed” Das 1043 bring to a close] be complete or finished”
See also H.25b.1 Borello 76 Budge v.2 910
H.23c.1
Egyptian tcher “all, the whole” Budge v.2 908
Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova 1995) k’yar- “finish” Skinner 167
W. Chadic-Hausa k’yar- “increase, do again, finish” k’àaru vg.7 “be increased” Kraft 153
k’yarasa “increase” k’yarike “finish“ k’yarshe n. “end“ Skinner 167 See also H.25c.1
H.23c.1 IE-Pashto adj. sarā-sar “all, the whole”adv. “wholly, entirely, from beginning to end”
Raverty 598
IE-Bengali shara v. “finish, accomplish” shara “whole, entire, all” adj. Thompson 79, 99, 134
715
IE-Sanskrit sárva- “whole, entire, all” sarvátha “in every way” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European
Etymology 116
IE-Tokharian salu “ganz (Ger.) ” [all, completely] Nicolayev, Sergei IE Etymology 2012 116
↓↓
H.23d.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – Proto-AA Semitic- Khoisan-
saŋ / saŋbo “good, Tangale *-šeŋ- Akkadian Proto-Non-
fine, kind, well-meaning” sanang “to be shangu Khoekhoe
Goldstein 972-973 “holiness” good” “priest” *žaŋ
mdzaŋs-pa “wise, Jungraith- Proto-E. Olmstead 75 “good”
learned” “gentle, noble” mayr Cushitic N. Khoisan-
Jaschke 462 1991 191 *šen- W. Semitic- Zu|’hoan
N. Chinese-MSC N. Omotic- Ethiopian- žaŋ “good”
tsāng “good, right, Shinasa Amharic Starostin, G.
generous” še:ŋga sənä 2003 18
Mathews #6704 983 “good” megbar“ NC-Fulani
zāng “good, right”. Ehret 1995 “ethical sena
xián “virtuous, worthy” #519 280 behavior” “be clean,
Wu, J. 747, 865 Leslau innocent,
shèng “sage, saint” 1976 holy”
“holy, sacred” 55, 336 sena
Mathews 818 Wu, J. 613 “make clean,
zhèngjing “decent, to hallow”
respectable, honest” Taylor 171
Wu, J. 892
H.23d.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic– Semitic-
sems or sem Tangale Hebrew
“soul, spirit, wisdom” sen tsenee’oot
Jaschke 576 “wisdom, “modesty,
Benedict 51, 84 wise, sense, chastity”
C. Chinese-Wu under- Baltsan 439
zeŋ6 “spirit, god” standing,
“soul, mind” cunning,
Hakka Dict skill”
N. Chinese-MSC Jungraith-
shén “god, deity, mayr
divinity” “spirit, mind” 1991 143
Wu, J. 608.
shen “spirit, god, divine,
soul” Smith 5, 206
See also note D.26b.2
(Chinese)
H.23d.3 NS-Nuer
N. Chinese-MSC cuŋ cuŋ
chún “pure and honest” “good,
chúnhòu straight”
“pure and honest, simple cuŋεpic
and kind” Wu, J. 110 “straight,
hòu “good, fine” perfect,
(E.7b.6 Extended) absolutely
chúnjie “pure, clean and good”
honest” Wu, J. 109 Huffman 10
716

H.23d.1 N. Chinese-MSC shèng “sage, saint” “holy, sacred”
< Proto-AA *-šeŋ- “to be good”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *-šeŋ- “to be good”
H.23d.1
N. Chinese-MSC zhēn “loyal, faithful” “(of women) chastity, virginity” zhēncāo “loyalty, moral
integrity” Wu, J. 885 sēŋ “Buddhist monk” Wu, J. 590
C. Chinese-Wu tsəŋ1 “chastity of a woman” “virtuous, chaste, pure” “be incorruptible” Hakka Dict.
TB-Tibetan tsaŋma “clean” “a virgin” tsaŋjoo “a gelong monk” “monks who have maintained their
vows” Goldstein 873
N. Chinese-MSC xián “virtuous, worthy, able” Wu, J. 717 xiān “celestial being” Wu, J. 745
Tibetan bzāŋ-ba “good” “in every respect answering its purpose, excellent, suited, morally good”
Jaschke 496 saŋ / saŋbo “good, fine, kind, well-meaning” Goldstein 972-973
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sàhnsing “holy” Kwan 223 sèuhn “pure, clean, sincere, honest”
Chik / Ng Lam 262
N. Chinese-MSC shàn “good deed” “good and honest” Mathews #5657 777 “good, charitable, kind”
DeFrancis 798 “good” “satisfactory, good” “make a success of, perfect” Wu, J. 594
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sing “sage” “sacred, holy” Chik / Ng Lam 370
sàhnsing “holy” Kwan 223 sàhn “god, spirit, soul” sihn “good, virtuous, goodness, virtue”
Chik / Ng Lam 67
TB-Tibetan gśin “good, fine” Starostin, S. ST Etymology séng-po “clean, white” Jaschke 576
H. 23d.2 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic sen “beauty” Leslau 1976 55, 336
H.23d.1
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali tʃando βonga “god” Kobayashi Tables 1-3 #245 18.
IE-Sanskrit sAnu “sage, learned man” Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table H.23c1
IE- Hindi sànt “saint” m. Scudiere 328
H.23d.2 IE-Sanskrit sama “just, upright, good, honest” samprakSAla “a kind of hermit or
holy man” samyaggata “behaving rightly, holy” samapradhana “perfectly kind or friendly”
/
Swadesh “good” W. Chadic-N. Bauci- Egyptian sar “to act wisely
H.23e.1 Kariya ‘sarna or honorably, honour”
TB-Tibetan “good, beautiful” Budge v.2 637
gsar-pa / gsar- Skinner 270 tcheser “to hold in honor,
po / sar-pa W. Chadic-Hausa to account holy”
“good” Das 1304 shariftàa “being a holy Budge v.2 912
ɣsál-ba man” Newman, P. 2000 9 Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi)
“pure” “free from tsarki šariif “noble”
faults and “cleanliness, purity, “honorable, respectable,
deficiencies” holiness” honest” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
Jaschke 588 Newman, P. 2007 206 part 2 240
H.23e.2 E. Cushitic- Semitic- Hebrew
C. Chinese-Wu Oromo tsadak v. “be right,
tsa1 “pious, zadeqi be just” Baltsan 433
respectful, chaste, “santo” Semitic- Amharic
pure” [holy, s’adda “be clean, pure”
Hakka Dict. blessed] s’add’aq’a “be just“
Borello 432 Leslau 1976 243
717

H.23e.1
W. Chadic–Hausa tsàrtsarkā “holy, pure” “chaste” Newman, R. 1990 39
shàřîf “holy, noble man” Newman, P. 2007 184
W. Chadic-Angas zare “good, clean, holy” Skinner 270
Egyptian tcheseru “holy things” Budge v.2 912
W. Chadic–Ron (Daffo) sapa “heilig sein, rein sein” [be holy, be pure]
H.23e.2 Semitic-Hebrew tsadek n. m. “a righteous man” Baltsan 433
H.23e.1 IE-Pashto sara’h “genuine, honest, sincere, candid” Raverty 21
IE-Sanskrit
sarala “upright, sincere, candid, honest, artless
saralata “uprightness, honesty, simplicity”
carana “good or moral conduct” caritra “good conduct, good character, reputation”
H.23e.2 IE-Sanskrit sAda “purity, cleanness, clearness” sAdhu “a good or virtuous or honest man”
“a holy man, saint, sage, seer” “a chaste or virtuous woman” “goodness, kindness, benevolence”
Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Bengali shadu “saint” Thompson79 See also Sanskrit table H.23c.1-2
IE-Pashto sādu “respectable man, trustworthy” Raverty 729
↓↓
H.24a-f Afro-Asiatic – AA –Cush. Afro-Asiatic - Nilo-Saharan NC
Chadic Semitic etc.
Swadesh “new” W. Chadic–Hausa Semitic-Hebrew
H.24a.1 TB-Tibetan sābō adj. tsaroof adj.
ɣsár-ba / “new” “pure, refined”
ɣsár-pa Newman, P. 2007 tsaraf
“new, fresh” 173 Skinner 223 “refined”
Jaschke 588 Baltsan 435
Das 1253
H.24a.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – Semitic- Hebrew
ɣsál-ba Tangale tsalool
“to be clear, distinct, salamm / “clear (air,
bright” salam-salam water)”
“pure” “clean, bright” Baltsan 434
Jaschke 588 Jungraithmayr
1991 140
H.24a.3 Semitic- Arabic NS-Kanuri
TB-Tibetan ġassal kasalngin
bshál-ba “to clean up’ v. “bathe, wash
“to wash, “to wash the entire body”
to wash out or thoroughly” n. kasála
off” “to clean by Dict. of Iraqi “bathing”
washing” Arabic NS-Maba
Jaschke 567 part 1 37 Group- Masalit
bsal vt. perf. and part 2 335 sala-n’gi /
fut. forms “cleanse” sali-n’gki
Hodge 122 “clean”
Das 1253 Edgar 377
718
H.24a.4 W. Chadic-Ron Proto-Afro- Egyptian Maba Group-

TB-Tibetan (Daffo-Butura) Asiatic sāb Aiki
ɣzábpa sapa *cap- “to purify, sáapɛ
“clean” “clear” “be clean” “be clean” to cleanse” “pure, proper”
Jaschke 493 Matsushita Militarev / Budge v.2 644 Edgar
saaba “new, fresh” 1972 118 Stolbova Semitic-Arabic 362 198
Goldstein 1154 W. Chadic–Hausa Afroasiatic s’afa
[Disyllabic corresp.] mai tsàbtàa Etymology “to be clear, clear
sár-po “new” adj. “clean” 2007 up”
Jaschke 588 sabu “new” Qafisheh 372
Das 1253 Newman, P. 2000
237 section 2.2
H.24a.3 TB-Tibetan saaba “new, fresh” ɣzáb-pa “clean” “clear” /
< W. Chadic –Tangale salamm / salam-salam “clean, bright” / W. Chadic – Hausa sābo “new” /
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *tsap- “be clean”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma *sāb- / *tsap- “be new, be clean” ~ *sal- “clear, bright”
H.24a.1
TB-Proto-Lolo-Burmese *sa1 “clear, bright, pleasant” Matisoff 2003 428
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu ša “clear, bright, pleasant” Matisoff 2003 428
Proto-Tibeto-Burman sar “new, fresh” Benedict 147, 207
H.24a.2
TB-Tibetan ɣsál-po “bright, light, pure” Jaschke 588
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *sal “clear” Matisoff 2003 405
H.24a.3 TB-Nung-Râwang thi zal “bathe, wash” Benedict 173 thi “water“
H.24a.1 E. Cushitic-Oromo chari “limpido, netto” [clear, clean] Borello76
H.24a.2
E. Chadic-Dangaleat [Dangla] sâlpè “nettoyer à neuf” Fédry 366
sal ideo “emphasizes light complexion” Newman, P. 2007 176, 188
Khoisan-Nama, Naro |asa “new” Ehret 1982 [173]
NS-Maba Group-Maba sasal-ik / sasala(k) “clean” Edgar 377
H.24a.4 W. Chadic–Gwandara šabuwa “new” Matsushita 1972 105 “be white” Skinner 223 ;
tsápta “cleanness” Matsushita 1972 118
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic aṭṭäbä vt.“wash (dishes, clothes, a person), bathe” Leslau 1976 152
W. Chadic–Hausa
shafà “wipe, smear, stroke” Skinner 240 “smear” Newman, R. 1990 250
tsaftà “cleanliness” Newman, P. 2007 203
tsab ~ tsaf “very clean” Skinner 266 “neatly, completely clean” Newman, P. 2007 203
tsàbtàacē / tsaftàacē vg.4 vt. “clean, cleanse” Newman, R. 1990 42 Newman, P. 2007 203
Semitic- Arabic safi “pure” Leslau 1963 137 (Iraqi) s̟affa “to make clear, to purify” Dict. of Iraqi
Arabic part 2 266 masfi n. mas’aafi pl. “filter” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 1 70 part 2 266.
E. Cushitic-Somali safee “refine” Awde 1999 72
E. Chadic-Migama sapid “nettoyer (une surface dure)” Skinner 230
Semitic- Arabic (Yemeni) s̟abban “to wash clothes, dishes etc.) Qafisheh 362 (Iraqi)
s’affa “to make clear, unpolluted, unclouded, pure, to purify” “to refine”
W. Chadic–Gwandara capta “cleanness” Matsushita 1972 30
W. Chadi –Ngizim səpd’ú “comb hair, comb out hair in preparation for plaiting” Schuh 141
E. Chadic–Mokulu sappa “essuyer, balayer” [to wipe, to sweep] Skinner 230
719

H.24a.1 IE-Sanskrit sarasa “fresh, new” sarasatva “freshness, novelty” zArada “new, recent”
Cologne Lexicon.
H.24a.3 IE-Sanskrit
kSal “to wash, wash off, to purify, cleanse, clean”
kSala m. “washing, washing off” [Disyllabic corresp.]
kSalanIya “to be washed or cleansed”
Cologne Lexicon.
H.24a.4 IE-Hindi saf “clean” Scudiere 30
/
H.24b.1 Semitic- Arabic
N. Chinese-Yangqu (Iraqi)
keʔ-tsha gaššar vt.
“to wipe, rub back and “to peel, pare, shell,
forth” Sagart 1999 skin, scale”
101 “scrape off
[On k- prefix see (scales of fish)”
example in Chapter 10 Dict. of Iraqi
section 10.3.2.1 Arabic part 2 389
H.24b.2 W. Chadic- West Semitic- NS-Maba N. Khoisan-
N. Chinese-MSC Bogghom Ethiopian- Amharic Group- Maba !’O-Kung
ts’ā (WG) sār aššä “rub, scrub, (Kodo) ča
“to clean, to rub in, “rub” massage” shashalak “clean” v.
to wipe” Skinner 242 Leslau 1976 “clean” Ruhlen 1994
Mathews #6648 973 W. Chadic–Tangale 131, 464 Edgar 377 #214 50
cā “rub, wipe, spread sāre Egyptian N. Khoisan
on, put on, brush, “to rinse, to clean” tchah’ ‖Kh’au-‖e
shave” Wu, J. 60 Jungraithmayr “to anoint, šɔã
chá “to rub on, 1991 139 to smear” “rub”
to smear” sār- Budge v.2 900 Ruhlen 1994
Mathews #10211 “clean, comb” m’shā #476 62
Skinner 242 “unguent, spice”
Budge v.1 288
H.24b.3 W. Chadic- Hausa Semitic-Hebrew NS-Songhay
TB-Tibetan shàarā vn. f. sarak vt. (Koroboro)
bshar-wa Newman, P. 2007 “combed” caba
“to shave or shear” 184 2000 702 sarook adj. “shave”
Das 1084 Barth v.2 106 “combed” (other
shārèe Baltsan 367 people)
grade 4 vg.4 vt. West Semitic- Heath v.3 6
completive Ethiopian-Amharic
Newman, R. ĉ’arä
1990 268 “scrape, rake,
“sweep” scratch”
C. Chadic – Bura Leslau 1976 238
šar
“comb out”
Skinner 242
720
H.24b.4 Semitic-Arabic NS-Kanuri

S. Chinese-Yue (Iraqi) sayájin
(Cantonese) cayyas “wash away,
sái “wash” “to scrub with a wash out,
Kwan 565 rough cloth” erode
Chen 450 Dict. of Iraqi (of water)”
Arabic part 2 88 Cyffer 1990
156
H24b.1
N. Chinese-MSC ts’ā “to clean, to rub in, to wipe” cā “rub, wipe, spread on, put on, brush, shave”
< West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic aššä / “rub, scrub, massage” /
Khoisan-ǀKham ča “clean” / N. Khoisan-!’O-Kung ča “clean”v.
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *ča “clean” ~ *šar “comb out” / ĉabw- “shave”
H.24b.2
C. Chinese-Wu tsha7 “wipe, scrub, mop, polish” “brush, shave” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian, MacIver) cha2 “rub on (ointrment etc.), smear, anoint”
Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese-MSC chá “put (powder, ointment etc.) on the skin” Wu, J. 70 cāzăo “rub oneself down
with a wet towel, take a sponge bath” Wu, J. 60 [compound of this root and H.24c.1]
H.24b.4 Middle Chinese sejX “to wash” Sagart 21
H.24b.1 Egyptian gas “to smear, to annoint” “embalmng chamber” gata “salve, ointment, unguent”
Budge v.2 803-804
H.24b.2
E. Cushitic-Somali masak “rub” Awde 41, 73
NS-Kanama saki “to wash” Greenberg 1966 #100 127
Semitic-Hebrew mashakh “annointed, smeared” Baltsan 242
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic ašaššä “pat, stroke” Leslau 1976 131 “pat a dog”
Leslau 1976 430
H.24b.3 NS-Daza sarder “balayer” [to sweep] Jourdan 32
C. Chadic-Bura sur shar kir “[a] comb” [lit. thing to brush head] sur “thing” kir “head”
Dict. of Bura
W. Chadic-Tangale sar kii “to comb” Jungraithmayr 1991 139
NS- Tubu [Teda] sárd-erik “clean, sweep” Barth v.2 106
W. Chadic-Manga sār “sweep” Skinner 242
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic t’ärräga “sweep, clean, wipe” Leslau 1976 227
Semitic-Written Arabic t’ahara “to clean, cleanse, purge, purify” “to be clean, pure” Wehr 666
S. Khoisan-|Kham t’àɔ‫“ כ‬clean” v. Ruhlen 1994 #214 50
H.24b.1 Sanskrit kSaura “performed with a razor” “shaving” kSaurika “a barber, a shaver”
H.24b.2 Sanskrit
carciya “smearing the body with unguents”
carcita “smeared with, covered with” “unguent laid on” “rubbed off” Cologne lexicon
S. Daic-Lao sak “wash (clothes)” Marcus 252
H.24b.3
IE-Pashto jarwata vt. “to sweep, to brush out” “a broom” Raverty 323
IE-Hindi jhāru denā “sweep” vt. jharubardār “cleaner” m. jharu “mop” m.
jhārān “duster” m. Scudiere 248-249
IE-Bengali jharu “broom, brush” Thompson 52 See also Supplementary Table 2 H.24c.1-3
721
/
H.24c.1 E. Chadic- Semitic- NS-Kanuri
S. Chinese-Kejia Bidiya Arabic sàw-
[Hakka] sāw- jamsahu class 1 verb
(Meixian, MacIver) “ramasser, (IPA) “winnow”
sau5 nettoyer” “mop up, Hutchison 78
“sweep with a broom” [to pick up, wipe up”
“clear away, clean” to clean, v.
Hakka Dict. to cleanse] Merriam- NS-Songhay
N. Chinese-MSC Skinner 230 Webster (Koroboro)
sâo “sweep, brush/clear Arabic ĉabu
away” 98, 178 “shave
Wu, J. 588 (head or beard)”
Wang, F. 400 Heath v.3 6
tsâo
“to bathe the body”
Mathews #6726 986
sāo “scratch”
Wu, J. 588
N. Chinese-Yangqu
(NW China-Shanxi prov.)
sua
“to brush”
Sagart 1999 101
H.24c.2 Chinese-Jin NS-Kanuri
kəʔ-sua “to brush back and kàsáwò
forth” Sagart 1999 101 “winnowing”
[On the presence of k- prefix Hutchison 78
in this set and its absence in the
preceding and following
Chinese ones see Chapter 10
section 10.3.2.1]
H.24c.3 E. Chadic- Omotic-
S. Chinese-Yue Dangaleat Ometo-Koyra
(Cantonese) [Dangla] šoh-
sou “sweep with a broom” sōye “to wash”
Kwan 520 398 “balayer” Ehret 1995
[sweep] #509 276
Skinner 242
H.24c.1
N. Chinese-MSC sâo “sweep, clear away” tsâo “to bathe the body”
< E. Chadic-Bidiya sāw- “to pick up, to clean, to cleanse”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *sāw- “to clean, to cleanse”
722

H.24c.1
S. Chinese-Min saû “to sweep” Bodman 1987 v.2 169, 204 Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian, MacIver) seu5 / seu4 “gargle, rinse; wash”
Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sàuba (Y) “broom” Chen 24
Middle Chinese sawX “to broom” Sagart 1999 70
N. Chinese-MSC
zao “bath” cāzăo “rub oneself down with a wet towel, take a sponge bath”
“take a bath bathe” Wu, J. 60, 866
H.24c.2
N. Chinese-MSC shû (WG) “to comb, a coarse comb” Mathews #5860 828
S. Chinese-Min suê “to comb” Bodman 1987 v.2 204
H.24c.1 W. Chadic-Hausa
àsawàakī n. m. “chewing stick” “cleaning one’s teeth” Newman, P. 2007 9
Semitic- Arabic (Yemeni)
sawwad “to clean the teeth with a chewed twig” Qafisheh 324
Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi)
sawwak “to brush, scrub the teeth with a chewed twig” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 230
H.24c.3 E. Chadic-Dullay šoh'- “waschen” [wash] Skinner 266
/
H.24d.1 W. Chadic-Hausa NS-Songhay
TB-Chin-Lushai sil / sillèe (Djenne)
TB-Chin-Thado śil / kiśil “wash one’s body silli
“wash, bathe” thoroughly” “rinse”
Matisoff 2003 508 verb grade 4 Heath
TB-Tibetan completive v.2 169
bsil-ba / bsil-wa Newman, P. 2007 187
“to wash” W. Chadic-
Jaschke 593 N. Bauci-Warji
Das 1318 shil-
sel-ba “wash (body)”
“cleansing” Jungraithmayr
Hodge 26 1994 v.2 338
H.24d.1
TB-Tibetan bsil-ba / bsil-wa “to wash” / TB-Chin-Lushai sil /
TB-Thado śil “wash, bathe”
< W. Chadic-Hausa sillè “wash one’s body thoroughly”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *sillè “wash, bathe (the body)”
H.24d.1 E. Cushitic-Burji sil’- “comb” Skinner 242
H.24d.1 Altaic-Turkic–Turkish sil- “to wipe, rub” sili- “clean”
Altaic-Turkic–Azerbaidzhan sil- “to wipe, rub”
Altaic-Turkic–Kazakh sila- “to wipe, rub” / Altaic-Turkic–Turkmen sɨl- “to wipe, rub”
Altaic-Turkic–Kyrgyz sɨla- “to wipe, rub”
Altaic-Turkic–Tuva sili- “to become clean” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
/
723

H.24e AA – Chadic AA– AA-Semitic Nilo- NC
Cush. Saharan
H.24e.1 Semitic-Arabic
TB-Tibetan (Iraqi) maššat’
gshad-pa “to comb”
“to comb” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
Jaschke 565 part 2 439
bshad-pa “to comb” gaššat’ “to scratch,
pf. of shod-pa pick at” “to peel,
Jaschke 567 flake off”
See also Note Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
H.34a.1-2 part 2 389
H.24e.2 S. Chinese-Yue W. Chadic – West Semitic- Songhay
(Cantonese) Hausa shātàa Ethiopian-Amharic (Gao)
chaat “to brush, “comb hair” s’ädda sáatà
to scrub, to clean” Newman, P. “clean (the house), “coiffer avec
Chik / Ng Lam 37 2007 184 clean up” un peigne,
“brush off” “rub out, rub E. Chadic – “be clean, be pure” peigner”
off” chaat gonjehng Padoko sat- Leslau 1976 243 [do hair care
“clean by rubbing” “peigner” (Fr.) with a comb,
“brush” [to comb] to comb]
Kwan 50, 74, 446 Skinner 242 Ducroz 198
H.24e.3 W. Chadic-Ron Semitic-Arabic
Proto-TB (Kulere) jamʃutʕu
*sut šut “fegen, (IPA)
“wipe, sweep” reinigen, reiben” “comb” v.
TB-Jingpho [Kachin} [to sweep, clean, Merriam-Webster
kəsút purify, to rub]” Arabic 31
“wipe, sweep” W. Chadic-Mangas
Matisoff 2003 366 sude “sweep”
Skinner 236
H24.e.1 TB-Tibetan gshad-pa “to comb” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chaat “to brush, to scrub,
to clean” “brush off”
< E. Chadic–Padoko sat- “to comb” / NS-Songhay sáatà “to comb”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *sat- “to comb”
H.24e.1 N. Chinese-MSC cā “rub, wipe, spread on, put on, brush, shave” Wu, J. 60
chá “to rub on, to smear” Mathews #102 11
H.24e.2 S. Chinese-Min chăt “to paint” “polish, rub” Bodman 1987 v.2 131, 200
chăt “to paint, be painted” Bodman 1983 151 chhat1 “wipe, scrub, mop, polish” “brush, shave”
Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] cat7 “wipe, scrub, mop, polish” “brush, shave” Hakka Dict.
TB-Tibetan caàdar “sweeping, cleaning” Goldstein 687
H.24e.1
NS-Kanuri shafengin- “smooth, spread over” < Hausa Cyffer 1990 159
W. Chadic–Gwandara shapa “to smear” Matsushita 1972 106
E. Chadic- Migama sapid’ “nettoyer” Skinner 240
W. Chadic–N. Bauci *š-p- “wipe, sweep, rub” Skinner 240
724
H.24e.2
NS-Anywa cɛ̄t vt. “to wipe something off (drops of water)” Reh 15, 133
W. Chadic–Hausa sart- “comb out” Skinner 242
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) massad “to rub, stroke (esp. an animal)” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic 438
H.24e.2 I
E- Sanskrit utsad “to anoint, rub, chafe” Cologne Lexicon.
See also Supplementary Table 2 H.24e.2.
/
H.24f.1 Egyptian
TB-Tibetan tchār
tsaa “to sift”
“to strain, to filter, tcharu
to sift” “a sieve”
Goldstein 898 Budge v.2 903
tsaà “strainer, sieve, filter”
Goldstein 872
N. Chinese-MSC
shà “to sift”
Mathews #5605a 771
H.24f.2 Kanuri NC-Fulfulde
TB-Tibetan saktə́ [Fulani]
‘tsag-pa tsags perf. (vn. of sanggîn) sāka
“to cause to trickle, “filter, strain” “to strain”
to strain, filter, sift” sakkəkiń chake
Jaschke 457 “filter or strain “strainings”
tsagma “sieve”“anything into a container” Taylor 164
sifted” Cyffer 1990 154
Goldstein 872
H.24f.3 E. Semitic-Hebrew Kanuri
TB-Tibetan Cushitic- seenen sanggîn v.
sangdzaà Somali v. past “filter, strain”
“a sieve, a sifter” shaandho “filtered, Cyffer 1990 154
Goldstein 1121 “sieve, strained”
‘tsang-pa strainer” v. pres.
“to remove impurities” Awde mesanen
Jaschke 457 1999 46 “filters, strains”
See also H. 23a.1 Baltsan 279, 372
H.24f.1
TB-Tibetan tsaa “to strain, to filter, to sift”
< Egyptian tchār “to sift”
H.24f.3
TB-Tibetan ‘tsang-pa “to remove impurities” sangdzaà “a sieve, a sifter”
< NS-Kanuri sanggîn v. “filter, strain”
Approximate Tibetan etyma: *tchār “to sift” ~ sang- “filter, strain”
725

H.24f.1 N. Chinese-MSC shāi “sieve, sifter, screen” “sift, sieve, screen” Wu, J. 592
H.24f.2
TB-Tibetan tsagjεὲ “filter, sieve, sifter, strainer” odzaa milk strainer” Goldstein 898, 982
gro-tshag “sieve for sifting wheat” Das 249 gro “wheat”
krol- tshágs “a sieve” Jaschke 53 Das 1019
H.24f.1
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic at’ärrä “purify, make clear, clean” Leslau 1976 225
E. Chadic-Padoko tasa- “tamiser” [to sift, to sieve] Skinner 254
W. Chadic-Hausa tacèe vg.4 completive “sift, filter” Newman, P. 2007 200
“strain (liquids)” Newman, R. 1990 262
H.24f.2 NS-Songhay (Gao)
sákám “compresser, étouffer en pressant” [compress, stuff by pressing in]
sakiláalà “entonnoir” [funnel] Ducroz 199
Semitic-Hebrew
tsakhoot v. “squeezed out”
tsakhat “wrung” v. Baltsan 365
H.24f.3 Semitic-Hebrew seenon m. “filtration, straining” Baltsan 372
Oxford English-Hebrew Dictionary 323
H.24f.1 Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manch *sāji-ʒa “to filter, ooze”
H.24f.2
Proto-Indo-European *sAuk “to squeeze the juice, to strain” *seik “to pour, to strain”
Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 116-117
Proto-Altaic *sājgo “to filter, ooze” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
IE-Bengali chāka vb. “sieve, strain” Thompson 50
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *sag- “to filter, ooze” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Mongolia *saga- “to filter, ooze” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
H.24f.3
IE-Hindi chānnā vt. “sift” Scudiere 242
IE-Hittite sunnai “füllt, presst, drangt aus” (Ger.) [fills, presses, presses out]
↓↓
H.25a-c AA – AA -Cushitic AA- NS Niger-
Chadic Semitic Congo
H.25a.1 Proto-Highland Egyptian
TB-Tibetan E. Cushitic tchaāri
‘čór-ba shorr- “chase” “to drive away,
“to pursue, chase, Hudson to repulse”
hunt” 38, 260 Budge v.2 896
Jaschke 567 E. Cushitic- Semitic-Arabic
(b)s̀or perf. Sidamo (Iraqi)
ɣs‫כ‬or fut. shorra šarrad
“to pursue, chase, “to drive away, “to cause to flee,
hunt after” chase away, run away”
Jaschke 170 pursue” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
Gasparini 306 part 2 239
726
H.25a.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Semitic-Arabic NC-

h’chór-wa Hausa Hadiyya (Yemeni) Fulfulde
“escape, flee or steal kòorārrē t’or- šuruud (Fulani)
away” Das 446 adjectival ”escape” “to bolt away, fleeing, sorta
chór-wa “to be fled, past Hudson 58 escape” “rush off,
to be lost, to escape, participle . (vn. of šarad) run away
slip” Das 1247 “chased” Qafisheh 338 to a safe
shor / ‘chór-ba “fugitive, Egyptian distance”
perf. and fut. runaway” tchaār Taylor 180
“to escape, slip Newman P. “bolt”
away” Jaschke 170 2007 115 Budge v.2 896
H.25a.1 TB-Tibetan ‘čór-ba “to pursue, chase, hunt” (b)s̀or perf.
< Proto-Highland E. Cushitic shorr- “chase”
H.25a.2 TB-Tibetan shor / ‘chór-ba “to escape, slip, steal away”
< E. Cushitic-Hadiyya t’or- ”escape”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *shorr- “chase, pursue” ~ *t’or- ”escape”
H.25a.2
TB-Tibetan cöö “to run away, to flee, to escape” “to run away” cöödɔɔ “running away”
Goldstein 738 sh‫“ ̄כ̄כ‬to lose” “to get away, escape” Goldstein 1106
S. Chinese-Min caù “run, run away” Bodman 1987 v.2 106
H.25a.1 E. Cushitic-Gedeo, Sidamo shorr- “chase” Hudson 38, 260
E. Cushitic-Sidamo horra / horro “to make a raid, incursion” hordofa “to run after in order to reach
him” Gasparini 166
Proto-E. Cushitic *horr- / *herr- “to run away” Ehret 1995 #789 385
*cerr- / *corr- ”to take away, send away” Ehret 1995 #476 263
Proto-E. Cushitic, Proto-E. Chadic *sawad- / sayad- “chase” “hunt” Stolbova, Olga E. Chadic
Etymology
Egyptian m’tchaau “to hunt” m’tchaiu “nomad hunters” Budge v.1 292
Semitic-Written Arabic šarada “frighten away, chase away, drive away” Wehr 541
E. Cushitic-Somali carar ”to run” Awde 1999 25, 73
Proto-AA (Orel / Stolbova 1995) *kocar “drive away” Skinner 148
W. Chadic-Hausa korē m. “chasing”Awde 1996 88
kòorā vg.2 vt. “drive away, chase away” kòorār-kare “expulsion with humiliation”
kōràa vg.1 vt. “drive (animals) in front” Newman, P. 2007 115363
W. Chadic-Angas kor “drive away” Foulkes 129
363
Note-H.25a.1 (Hausa Extended) In this and the following table Hausa contains semantics which suggest both earlier
and later cultural practices. The basic root involves the notion of running. In the present H.25a.1 set the purpose of the
running is to drive animals or a person away. The root probably first referred to hunting. Prehistoric hunters knew how to
dig a trap, clear a path to it, then go back to drive animals into it. Alternatively the hunters could form a wide circle
around an animal ; one group drove the animal toward the group waiting on the other sides of the circle. Of course, the
animals often escaped. (H.25a.2). H.25a.1 + Extended forms Tibetan ‘čór-, E. Cushitic, Egyptian, C. Chadic-Fali
NS-Kanuri / Anyua and IE-Sanskrit / Tocharian show that the root and its variants can specifically denote hunting.
Modern forms of hunting preserve the practice of driving the animal in the English fox hunt , the French root “la chasse”
means hunting but is also the source of the English word “chase”, i.e “ pursuit”. With the domestication of cattle the
word was applied to the driving of a herd in a direction.. This could involve driving them out of the corral or to
another pasture; this is stiill the job of American, Mexican, Argentinian and other cowboys..
(See also the introduction to word families H.38.a-c and especially set H.38c.1)
727
C. Chadic-Fali Kiria karuwa “hunt” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006

E. Cushitic-Oromo mokorra “trial, race, horse race” Foot 44
C. Chadic-Gude kə‫כ‬rə‫כ‬kə‫כ‬rə‫“כ‬driving animals away” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology 2006
NS-Kanuri karwína / karmíina ”hunter” Cyffer 1990 82
NS-Anywa kʊ̄ r‫“כ‬to drive out something (cattle)” Reh 39
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Endegen) (a)qwranna “chase away by running” Leslau 1979 v.2 498
H.25a.2 NS-Songhay (Gao) zùrù “fuir (en parlant d’un homme), s’enfuir, courir, s’echapper” (Fr.)
[to flee, run, escape] Ducroz 250 “to run” Greenberg 1966 144
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic zur “race (in a contest)” Leslau 1976 180
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic šollaka “slip through, creep through, sneak out” Leslau 1976 61
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šarrid “running, fleeing” šaarid “fugitive” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 239
Semitic-Hebrew sarad v. “escaped” sored v. pres. Baltsan 367 sareed m. “remnant, survivor”
Baltsan 460 “survivor” Oxford English-HebrewDict. 939 ṭarid “expelled, evicted, ousted, outcast,
outlawed, banished, exiled” Wehr 651
H.25a.1 IE-Sanskrit sara “driving away” sarasarin “running courses or races” sarin “going,
running, hastening” “following, pursuing” car “to drive away from” “to hunt” caraka “a driver,
a herdsman” saranya “to run, hasten, speed” sR “to run, flow, speed” “run a race, to run away,
escape” Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 H.25a.1-2
IE-Old Indian sárati “to run, flow, speed, glide, move” sárma “going, running”
IE-Tokharian śaru- / śerwe “hunt” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 47
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *sǖr- “to drive away” / Altaic-Turkic-Turkish, Azerbaidzhan, Turkmen, Kyrygyz,
Tuva sür- “to drive away” Starostin, S. Turkic Etymology
H.25a.2 Proto-Kartvelian cwar- “to run, jump” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 8
Kartvelian-Georgian cvar-cval- “to run quickly” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 8
/
H.25b.1 TB-Tibetan E. Chadic- Mokulu cēre “dépasser” NS-Coman:
ts�lεε ge̱e̱ “to surpass / [pass, go beyond, exceed”] Skinner 272 Koma (Madin)
exceed” (a quota, norm, limit)” W. Chadic-Hausa tsèerēreniya f. zerri “to run”
Goldstein 875 “race” Greenberg
[Disyllabic corresp.] tsērèe “outstrip, outrun someone” 1966 144
dzeè drεn “a sports competition” “escape, flee” Newman, P. 207-20 NS- Songhay
Goldstein 863 [completive grade 4 verb] (Koroboro)
gy� �dzeè “swimming tsērèe wa “outstrip” “ya tsērèe zurey n.
competition” Goldstein 43 mana Newman, R. 1990 191 “running,
gy� �“swimming” sēre “racing” < tsērèe “run away” race”
C. Chinese-Wu sE5 “compete, Newman, P. 2000 199364 Heath v.3
contend for superiority, contest” mai tsēren gudū “runner” 344
“[a] race, [a] match” Hakka Dict. gudū “to run” Awde 1996 160, 55
364
Note-H.25b.1 (Hausa)
The Hausa (Extended) grade 3 verb tsira vi. means both “escape, get away safely” and “be saved”, Newman, P.
2007 208 All the forms suggest a context of avoidance of capture or escape from captivity/slavery. But Grade 4
denotes more complete, extensive or thorough action than the basic form of the verb, in this case completion of and
with indirect object . “outstrip, outrun”, e.g. ya tsira vg.3 means “(he/she) escaped” while tsērèe vg.4 means
“escape, flee” but with indirct object becomes “(he/she) outstripped/ outran (us)”. Newman , P. 2009 208. Hence several
of these Hausa citations imply a pursuit of the escapee who finally frustrates the pursuer by outrunning him. So the
origins of the Tibetan words for “race” “competition” lie in the derived Hausa noun tsèerēniya “racing”.
The semantics of “surpassing” “exceeding” are plausibly based on successful human a voidance of captivity after losing
a battle or successful escape of a runaway slave. It can also refer to animals who escape pursuers.
728
tsērèe “escape from” “break loose and

flee” vg.4 completive Newman, R.
1990 84 Newman, P. 2007 208
tsīra vg.3 “escape, get away safely”
“be saved” Newman, P. 2007 208
Skinner 272
tsīrā “escape, salvation”
Newman, P. 2007 208
E. Chadic- Mokulu cēre “dépasser,
vaincre” [pass, go beyond, exceed”
“ to beat, to overcome]
Skinner 36, 272
H.25b.1 TB-Tibetan tsεε‫ככ‬reè ce̱è “to compete” / tsεὲlεε ge̱e “to surpass / exceed (a quota, norm,
limit)”
< W. Chadic-Hausa tsērèe “outstrip, outrun someone”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *tseere- “to outstrip, surpass (someone)”
Extended Sino-Tibetan w ord family:
H.25b.1 TB-Tibetan dzε̄� don “sports day, sports competition”dzε̄� daŋ “field for playing sports,
athetic playing field” Goldstein 858
N. Chinese-MSC sài “compete, exceed, surpass” “match, game, competition, contest”
sàiguo “overtake, be better than, surpass, exceed” “to rival” W u, J. 585
S. Chinese (Cantonese) choi “to compete, to contest”, “to rival, to surpass” Chik / Ng Lam 437
H.25b.1
E. Chadic-Bidiya ci(i)r “exceller, s’échapper”[to excel, to escape] Skinner 36
C. Chadic- Boka šir “exceed, surpass” Skinner 272
Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi) širad ”to run away, flee” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 239
/
H.25c.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Gedeo Egyptian
tsar-ba Hausa saʔ vt. “exceed, pass ” tchara “to overcome”
“to excel, surpass” zara Hudson 258 Budge v.2 899
tsar perf. “surpassing, E. Cushitic–Somali Semitic-Arabic
Jaschke 458 exceeding” sarrai “be first, go to tsarafa “surpass in rank”
Skinner 297365 the head” Skinner 230 Skinner 229
H.25c.1 W. Chadic-Hausa zarcèe vg.4 (completive) “exceed, surpass” “pass beyond or to a place”
Newman, P. 2007 231
Semitic-Hebrew sarar “prevailed, reigned” Baltsan 367
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Ge’ez ‘azzala “prevail, be superior” Skinner 297
Berber-Tuareg izar “preceder, devancer” [precede, go ahead of] Skinner 297
E. Cushitic-Rendille sorricha vt. (causative) “to defeat, (to) beat someone in a game or competition”
Pillinger 266 issorricha vt. “compete with (someone)” Pillinger 163
W. Chadic-Hausa sařai adv. “very well” “completely, totally” Newman, P. 2007 179
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) saabig “prior, previous, preceding” sàbig “seniority” tsaabaq “to race,
compete” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 212 See also H.24b.1
365
Note- H.25c.1 (Hausa) The Hausa morpheme is phonetically close to the H.25b.1 form but, although in this
word family the semantics of “surpassing, being better than ” again seems to apply etymologically to escaping or
racing, they came also to designate successful competition in any field , i.e the “highest / best” in any group
compared. See also H.23c.1.
729

H.25c.1 IE-Bengali shara v. “finish, accomplish” shera adj. “excellent, best” Thompson 80, 97
IE-Sanskrit sara “good, sound, best, excellent” sArabhUta “being the chief thing, best, most
excellent”n. “the main or best thing” sArabhRt “taking or choosing what is best” sArarUpa “best,
principal, most excellent” sarasara “the good and/or the best” Cologne Lexicon
See also Supplementary Table 2 H.25c.1
IE-Pashto sara’h “pure, prime, best sort” Raverty 21
Kartvelian-Georgian *(s)car / *(s)cor “to be in time, to be first” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian
Etymology 2005 11
IE-Tokharian s ̣ ärk- “to surpass”
Proto-IE *s̝[e]rk- “pass, surpass, go beyond” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 119
IE-Hittite sarku- “erhaben” “machtig” (Ger.) [elevated, lofty / mighty, powerful]
↓↓
H.26a-b AA – Chadic AA-Cush. AA-Egypt. NS NC
H.26a.1 S. Chinese-Min C. Chadic- Egyptian Kanuri
teng2 “push up, prop Gude t’en dəngə-
up” Hakka Dict. ndənwa “to raise səngin,
TB–Tibetan “lean against, up, raised” dəngə-
rten “a hold, support” prop, support” Budge shin
rten-pa “to keep, C. Chadic- v.2 880 “prop up,
hold, to lean on” Padoko support,
Jaschke 213 Das 536 dəŋa wedge”
[Disyllabic corresp.] “support Cyffer
Old Chinese principal du 1990 35
di̭ aŋ “lift, raise” toit” Skinner
Karlgren GSR #720j 252 [main
Matisoff 2003 303366 support for roof]
H.26a.2 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Kanuri NC-
N. Chinese-MSC Hausa tànkā f. Sidamo dangarma Fulfulde
dàng “cross-piece “support for tānqa “a shelf [Fulani]
(of a table), etc.” roof or fence” “supports for made of dan-
Wu, J. 137 Skinner 252 sliding door” mud” rangal
dàngtuqiang C. Chadic- Skinner 252 Cyffer 31 “pole,
“retaining wall” Musgu dàng prop,
Wu, J. 136 “mud wall” column”
Skinner 43 Taylor30
H.26a.1 S. Chinese-Min teng2 “push up, prop up” / TB-Tibetan rten “a hold, support”
rten-pa brten pf. and fut. “to keep, to hold, to adhere to, to lean on”
< NS-Kanuri dəngəsəngin “prop up, support” / C. Chadic- Gude ndənwa “prop, support”
Approximate ST etymon *dəng- “prop up, support” “shelf, reinforcing wall, roof support etc.”
H.26a.1 TB-Tibetan rkang-rten “footstool” rkang “foot, leg” Das 73 ; sten-pa, bsten perf. and
366
Note- H.26a.1 Old Chinese di̭ aŋ “lift, raise”. Matisoff considers this form to be cognate to the *tak / *dak-
morphemes of H.26b following. Matisoff 2003 303 and 318 note a. The “lift, raise” semantics indeed correspond
closely to those of the H.26b.2 set and the phonetics differ only in what appears to be a reduction of the H.26a.2-3
dàng / tangg root to the H.26b.2 d‘ag- / dag- forms.
.
730
fut. “to keep, to hold, to adhere to, to stick to, to rely or depend upon” Jaschke 222
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dang “a stool, a bench” Chik / Ng Lam 34
dóng “shelves” “a wooden cross-piece as rung of a ladder etc.” Chik / Ng Lam 31
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] tong5 / dong3 (Meixian, MacIver) “shelf” “ a wooden cross-piece as a
rung of a ladder” Hakka Dict.
TB-Proto-form *tung “pole, beam” / TB-Trung dung1-ma1 “post” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
H.26a.2 TB-Tibetan daŋ “stand, frame, trestle” Jaschke 289
N. Chinese-MSC dànzi “load carried by a pole across the shouilders” Wang, F. 91
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu thangdok “the shelf in the house on which the crockery and other utensils are
kept” Starostin, S. Yamphu Dict.
H.26a.1 W. Chadic-Hausa (Gumel dial.) ‘dàngo “a three-pronged stick used as a rest for a pot,
calabash or other vessel” Matsushita 1993 95 tàngàlē “prop up, support” Matsushita 1993 183
H.26a.2 W. Chadic-Ngizim tànkú “put purlins inside roof for support” Schuh 157
E. Chadic- Dangaleat deŋle s’appuyer contre quelque chose dans le dos” [lean against a back support]
Skinner 43, 48
H.26a.1 Altaic-Mongolian-Kalmuck *döŋ “prop, support” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
Altaic-Mongolian-Khalkha *döngö “prop, support” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
Altaic-Mongolian-Buriat *dunge “prop, support” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
Altaic-Mongolian-Dagur *duŋgu “prop, support” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
/
H.26b.1 W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic-- West Semitic-
TB-Kiranti-Limbu dogara “lean on, Oromo Ethiopian-
th‫כ‬kma “hold up, rely on” Skinner tuggawu vi. Amharic
support, keep up 48 “sostenere däggäfä
straight, e.g. the tokàrā “prop con pali” vt. “support,
pillars support the against” [hold up with sustain,
house.” van Driem tokàrē “prop all poles, prop up” up”
1987 525 up” vg.4 to shore up] Leslau
completive Borello 402 1976 200
Newman, P.
2007 203
H.26b.2 W. Chadic– Hausa Proto South Kanuri
TB-Tibetan-Purik d‘agàa vt. Cushitic yita-
thyak “lift” “raise, lift” *dâk’- or dagəkin
Benedict 52 d‘agèe vt. *dâak’- “erect,
Matisoff 2003 323 “raise up” “to lift up” raise”
TB-Garo dak Newman, R. Ehret 1995 Cyffer
“ascend, lift, raise” 2007 50 #194 149 1990
Matisoff 2003 326 31
H.26b.3 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic- Semitic-
h’deg-pa dogara / Oromo Arabic
“to lift, to raise, hold (Hadejia dial.) deggera (Iraqi)
up, hoist” dogari n. m. “support” tikma
Jaschke 278 Das 688 “a buttress outside “shore up” “pillar”
stegs “any a house, or a pillar Gragg 102 “brace,
contrivance for inside” Skinner 48 support”
putting things on; Matsushita 1993 Dict. of Iraqi
a stand, stool etc.” 205 Arabic 58
Jaschke 221
731
H.26b.4 W. Chadic-Ron Egyptian Anywa NC-

TB-Tibetan (Daffo) tegas [Anuak] Gbaya
‘teg-pa / tyêk “to remove, vi. dàk dak
degs-pa “nehmen, to carry on” “to move “enlever”
“to lift, raise, aufheben” Budge away” [to carry
take up” “to change [to lift, to take v.2 846 Reh away,
lodgings, to remove” away] 19, 113 to
Jaschke 245 Jungraithmayr remove]
tegba kur “to carry 1970 222 Skinner
something” 54
Goldstein 500
H.26b.5 W. Chadic- Hausa
N. Chinese-MSC tāyar (dà)
tái vg.5 vt.
“lift, carry” efferential
Wang, F. 449 “lift, raise”
“lift, raise” “set in motion”
Wu, J. 661 Newman, P.
“lift (with both 2007 192 “raise”
hands)” Newman, R.
Chen 201 1990 216
H.26b.1 TB-Garo dak “ascend, lift, raise”
< Proto South Cushitic *dâk’- or *dâak’- “to lift up”
H.26b.4 TB-Tibetan ‘deg-pa “to lift, raise, hold up, hoist” ‘thegs-pa “to set out on a journey”
“to pack up, to depart”
< W. Chadic-Ron (Scha) tək “to lift, to take away”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *tək “to lift up, hold up” “to take away, carry"”
H.26b.1 TB-Lahu taʔ / Written Burmese tak /
TB-Garo dak “ascend, lift, raise” van Driem 1987 525
TB-Tibetan-Ladakhi thag “bear” Benedict 52 Matisoff 2003 323
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dagip “hold up” Kwan 222
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] ləthak “ascend, lift, raise” Matisoff 2003 326
N. Chinese-MSC dākai “lift (as a lid)” Chen 201 Wu, J. 122 dā “lift something together”
Wu, J. 120 dā “carry” Manser part 2 82
Proto-TB *tak “ascend, lift, raise” Matisoff 2003 614
H.26b.2 Old Chinese tiək “mount, advance” Karlgren GSR #916a-c Matisoff 2003 326367
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *tyak “bear” Matisoff 2003 326
TB-Written Burmese ʔəthak “ascend, lift” Matisoff 2003 326
H.26b.3 TB-Tibetan degbu “support, stand, rest, shelf” Goldstein 576 kà-stegs “the pedestal or base
of a pillar, “a bench” Jaschke 221
S. Chinese-Min thok “to hold on the palm, lift on the palm” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) tokjyuh “carry on the palm” Kwan 60
ttok “to hold or lift on the palm” Chik / Ng Lam 165
H.26b.4 TB-Tibetan deg “to lift, raise up” “to support, to prop/shore up” teg “to be able to carry a
load” Goldstein 500 tógs-pa “to take, to take up” “to carry” Jaschke 245
H.26b.5 N. Chinese-MSC tái-tóu “raise one’s head” Wang, F. 450
367
Note- H.26b.5 Matisoff considers the Old Chinese ti̭ək “mount, advance, promote” to be cognate to the
H.26b.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman tak “ascend, lift, raise”. Matisoff 2003 326 < Karlgren GSR #916a-c.
732
N. Chinese-MSC t’ái “to carry between two or more persons” “to raise” Mathews #6018 861
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ti2 / ti3 “lift by hand” “pull up”“raise, carry” “cause to rise” Hakka Dict.
H.26b.1 W. Chadic-Hausa madogari n.m. “prop, support” Newman / Ma 1992 83
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] dakka “be in touch with, lean against, rely on” Taylor 28
See also D.10a.2 Extended
H.26b.2 Proto-Afro-Asiatic *zak’- “to raise, make rise” > (Cush., Chad., Egypt., Sem.) shared
innovation “lift, pick up” (probably also Chad., Egypt, Sem. innovation) “lift” > “carry”
Ehret 1995 #194 149
H.26b.3 E. Cushitic-Oromo dogara doki “ridge pole of roof” Bargery 2002
NS-Songhay (Gao) téké “placer un objet pour empêcher quelque chose de tomber”[place an object
to stop something from falling” Ducroz 219
E. Cushitic-Somali taageero “support” Awde 1999 48
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic mäddäggäfiya n. “brace” “buttress, railing” Leslau 1976 200
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) t‫ع‬akkaz “to lean, support oneself” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 318
NS-Maba Group-Maba nd� k� l-ŋ “lean on” ndì ́kì ́lŋ “lean on oneself” Edgar 219
E. Cushitic-Kembata dikka’- ”lean on” dikk+ is- “support” Skinner 48
H.26b.4
NS-Anywa [Anuak] dáak vt. “to move something away” Reh 19
W. Chadic–Hausa dakō m. “work of carrying loads” Newman, P. 2007 41
Proto-Chadic (Jungraithmayr) *‘dk “to carry” Ehret 1995 #194 149
C. Chadic–Gude ‘dagəna “carry load on head without holding with hands” Skinner 54
NS-Kanuri yadekin “carry, take away” Cyffer 187
H.26b.1 IE-Bengali tak “shelf” Thompson 124 tha:k n. “tier, layer, shelf” Thompson 56
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *tAkan “trestle, rack ” “tripod” / Altaic-Turkic-Turkish daɣan “tripod”
Altaic-Turkic-Bashkir taɣan “trestle, rack” / Altaic-Turkic-Tatar taɣan “tripod” /
Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen tāGan “tripod” / Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh taɣan “tripod” /
Altaic-Mongolian-Ordos daGa “horizontal bar in a yurt” /
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian daɣaga(n) “horizontal bar in a yurt” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
H.26b.3 IE-Hindi tekan m. “support” http://starling.rinet.ru./
↓↓ _
H.27 Afro-Asiatic – Afro-Asiatic AA- Nilo-Saharan NC
Chadic -Cushitic Sem.
H.27.1 Chinese-Cantonese W. Chadic- Hausa C. Cushitic- NS-Kanuri
faan “to spread” fantsara vt. Bilin fáfángin
faanlaahm “to overflow, fantsàmā fäntar “grow by creeping
to spread far and wide “splash, scatter, “zerstreuen” and spreading over
Chik / Ng Lam 247 spread (liquid, (Ger.) the ground
fàahnjihk “multiply flour, crowd of [to disperse, (of e.g. cucumbers,
(by propagation) people etc.) scatter, melons)”
Kwan 306 “to breed, Newman, P. disseminate] Cyffer 1990 40
to multiply, to reproduce” 2000 58 Skinner 64
Chik / Ng Lam 396 fàntsamà vi.
N. Chinese-MSC “be scattered, E. Cushitic-
fán “luxurious growth of spread” Sidamo
vegetation” Newman, P. fänt̝̝ar
Mathews #1798 258 2007 59 “split, break
“propagate, multiply, “proliferate” into pieces”
proliferate” Wu, J. 185 Skinner 64 Skinner 6
733
H.27.2 NS-Kanuri
S. Chinese-Cantonese fáfángin
pánfu “develop a network
“attach oneself to someone of influence
very powerful” (of e.g. a wealthy
“climb (of an attached plant)” or influential
De Francis 674 person)”
Cyffer 1990 40368
H.27.1 Chinese-Cantonese faan “to spread, to fill everywhere” / N. Chinese-MSC fán “luxurious
growth of vegetation”
< W. Chadic-Hausa fantsara “proliferate” / NS-Kanuri fáfángin “grow by creeping and spreading
over the ground (of e.g. cucumbers, melons)”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *fan- “to spread, grow rapidly”
H.27.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] fán1 “luxuriant, flourishing, increase, propagate” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) faanjihk “reproduce (biological) Kwan 426
fājī “(of a poor man) gain fame and fortune, to power and position” Wu, J. 181
fàahn “flourishing, luxuriant growth” “to increase, to multiply” Chik Ng / Lam 396
N. Chinese MSC fánzhí “breed, reproduce, propagate” Wu, J. 186 Hsiung 267
H.27.2 N. Chinese–MSC pānlóng-fùfèng “play up to people of power and influence; put oneself
under the patronage of a bigwig” pānyuán “climb, clamber” e.g. “climb the social ladder through
pull” Wu, J. 507
H.27.1 .
NS-Kanuri fálálá “flow or spill over, creep (of a plant) Hutchison 1981 107.
W. (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amhari täfäläffälä “hatch (of chicks, eggs)” vi. “breed” vi. (of birds),
incubate” Leslau 1976 245, 285
Semitic-Hebrew hafátsa “dissemination, spreading” Baltsan 116
↓↓
H.28 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA- AA- NS NC
Cush. Sem.
H.28.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-N. Bauci-
bdár-ba / rdár-ba “to grind, to whet” Tsagu dàr “grind”
“to grind, to pulverize” W. Chadic-N. Bauci-
“a file, a rasp” Jaschke 269 Warji də̇r “grind”
bdár-wa “to grind, to polish, rub, file” W. Chadic-N. Bauci-
Das 269 Kariya, Mburke
dardeg “grinding something” dər- “grind”
Goldstein 598 Jungraithmayr 1994
v.2 170
H.28.1 TB-Tibetan bdár-ba / rdár-ba “to grind, to whet” “to grind, to pulverize”
< W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Tsagu dàr “grind”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *dàr “grind”
368
Note- H.27.1 (NS-Kanuri, Chinese Cantonese, Chinese–Beijing + Extended) Both the S. Chinese (Cantonese)
and the N. Chinese (Beijing Extended) morphemes fan- and pan- attest close correspondences to the H.27.1
main section Kanuri direct and derived abstract meanings of this root.
734

H.28.1 TB-Tibetan dár-rdo “grinding stone” Jaschke 251
H.28.1 Proto-AA (Orel / Stolbova 1995) *dabadz- “pound, grind” Skinner 38
W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Miya də̀r “grind” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 170
W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Jimbin dira “grind” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 170
Proto–Chadic *d2rd “grind” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.1 82369
↓↓
H.29a-c AA – Chadic AA -Cushitic, AA-Semitic Nilo- NC
Proto-AA Saharan
H.29a.1 TB-Tibetan C. Chadic- Kilba Proto-AA
rdígs-pa “to beat” digga *-dîk-
Jaschke 285 “to beat” “to pound”
dígdig “thumping, Greenberg Ehret 1995
pounding” 1966 52 #132 129
H.29a.2 Proto- Chadic Omotic-Bencho
TB-Tibetan (Newman) dekn “hit”
rdeg(s)-pa *dək “to pound Ehret 1995
“to beat, strike, smite” (in mortar)” #132 129
Jaschke 286 Ehret 1995 #132 Skinner 40
Das 701 129 Skinner 40
H.29a.3 W. Chadic- Proto-AA Semitic- Arabic Maba
TB-Bodo/Garo-Garo Hausa, *dak- “beat, (Iraqi) Group-
dok ~ dak Gwandara pound” dagdag Aiki
“knock, pound” dakà Militarev, A. “to bang, d‫ככ‬k
Benedict 82 “to pound, to AA-Etymology pound” “beat,
TB-Tibetan beat, knock at E. Cushitic– Dict. of Iraqi pound”
thag-thag the door” Saho, Afar Arabic Edgar 215
“to knock” Matsushita dagdag pt. 2 162
Jaschke 227 1972 34 “pounding West Semitic-
dag-daà (grain)” Ethiopian-
“knocking Skinner 40 Amharic
(e.g. on door)” tak “to beat” ṭäqqa “beat,
Goldstein 584 Greenberg knock” Leslau
1966 52 1976 228
H.29a.4 E. Cushitic- Proto– Semitic
TB-Tibetan Sidamo *dakk
‘thag-pa / daaka “grind” “to grind,
bthag-pa Hudson 74, 357 pound,
“to grind, crush” Skinner 40 pulverize”
Das 605 E. Cushitic- Ehret 1995
“to grind, Oromo #132 129
to pulverize, to mash” daaka vt. “grind”
Jaschke 243 Gragg 91
Hudson 74
369
Note- H.28.1 (Chadic)
9 of the 77 reflexes of Chadic roots listed by Jungraithmayr have *d2rd as the root. The 6 closest Tibetan ↔
Chadic correspondences lack the final –d and are listed here. All are W. Chadic and all except Ngizim are part of
the North Bauci group. (See Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 170 for the others.)
735
H.29a.5 N. Chinese - Proto-Afro-Asiatic

MSC dâ “strike, hit, *-dâh’-
knock” “break, smash” “to strike”
Wu, J. 121 Ehret 1995 129
Huang 74 #130
S. Chinese-Yue Proto-S. Cushitic
(Cantonese) *d’âh’-
dâ “hit” “to knock”
Po-fei Huang 369 Ehret 1995
129 #130
H.29a.2 TB-Tibetan rdeg(s)-pa “to beat, strike, smite”
< Proto- Chadic *dək / “to pound (in mortar)”
H.29.a.3 TB-Garo dak “knock, pound”
< W. Chadic- Hausa, Gwandara dakà “to pound, to beat, knock at the door”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *dək / *dak- “to pound (in mortar)” “to pound, to beat,
to knock at the door”
H.29a.1 TB-Tibetan digdig “pounding, beating on something (e.g. a door)” Goldstein 592
H.29a.3 TB-Tibetan tag-daà “knocking, tapping on a door” Goldstein 484
H.29a.4 TB-Tibetan (Khams prov.) nthag-pa “to grind, to pulverize, to mash” Jaschke xx, 243
‘thag “a mill, mill-stone” Das 605
H.29a.1 E. Cushitic- Somali dig “pulse (of blood)” Ehret 1995 #132 129
H.29a.2
W. Chadic-Tangale daage “to push, to knock over, to overthrow” Jungraithmayr 1991 77
C. Chadic–Bura dəki “pound” Skinner 40
NS-Kanuri də̀gdə̀gá “beat (of the heart)” Hutchison 1981 107 Cyffer 1990 10, 34
H.29a.3
C. Cushitic–Bilin dagah “stossen, schlagen” Skinner 40
Proto W. Chadic *dak- “pound” Stolbova, Olga W. Chadic Etymology
W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Warji tak’ən “beat (drum)” Jungraithmayr1994 v.2 268
W. Chadic-Ron (Sha) təkây “Kastrieren” [castrate] Jungraithmayr 1970 265, 289
See also H.29b.1 and A.11.1 TB-Tibetan including extended forms.
E. Cushitic-Oromo [Galla] daku “pound” Greenberg 1966 52
W. Chadic-Hausa dakàa vt. grade 1 verb “pound (final pounding of grain into flour)”
Newman, R. 1990 205 “pound (grain)” “beat person or thing” Newman, P. 2007 40
Proto-C. Chadic *dak / *dik “strike” “pound with a club” Starostin, Olga C. Chadic-Etymology
H.29a.4
Semitic-Akkadian daqa:qu “break in fine pieces” Greenberg 1966 52
Berber–Tuareg [Tamasheq] dəgdəg “écraser” [crush] Skinner 40
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic däqqwäsä “crush to a fine powder, pulverize” Leslau 1976 195
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) dagg “to grind, crush, pulverize” “to knock, rasp, bang, pound, hammer”
(Written Arabic) daqq “crushing, bruising, pounding, pulverization, grinding (down)” Wehr 331
dakk“to grind, pound, pulverize, crumble, beat flat” Ehret 1995129 #132
Semitic-Hebrew takhan v. “milled, ground” takhoon adj. “ground, milled” Baltsan 409
daq “crush” Leslau 1963 54
H.29a.3 IE-Pashto ttak “to strike, to beat, to thump, to crack, to split” Raverty 290
IE-Hindi dhakkā m. “shock, jog” dhakelnā vt. “push” Scudiere 266
736
IE-Bengali dhakka deowa “knock” vb. Thompson 107

IE-Old Indian taḳsati “to form by cutting” “chisel, fashion, form“ táḳsan “woodcutter, carpenter”
Kartvelian-Georgian ̣tak-un “to knock, hit” Starostin, Sergei Kartelian Etymology 2005 55
Kartvelian-Megrel tok(-un ) “to knock, hit” Starostin, Sergei Kartelian Etymology 2005 55
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *daɣa-ri- “to hit in passing, offend” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
H.29a.4 IE-Tokharian taks- “chop up, grind up” Nicolayev, Sergei IE Etymology 2012 142
/
H.29b.1 W. Chadic- Proto-AA Semitic- Songhay NC-Fulfulde
S. Chinese-Yue Hausa.dūkàa *duk- Hebrew (Djenne, [Fulani]
(Cantonese) “strike” “beat, d‫כ‬qaq Koyra) dukka
deuk “to strike, dūkàa “a blow, pound” “pound” duku / “knock,
to hammer” thrashing” m. vn. Militarev / Egyptian duka strike”
Chik / Ng Lam 228 of dòokā Stolbova dk’w “ram, Taylor 41
Old Chinese Newman, P. AA- “flour butt with NC-S.W.
tǔk “beat/strike” 2007 47 Etymology pounder” head” Mande-
“castrate” Chadic root. 2007 Berber- Heath Kpelle
Karlgren GSR 1218c *dwk “kill, pound *-duk’- Tuareg v.1 77 dukwa /
See also A.11.1 (in mortar), beat” “break into dəgdəg v.2 93 dokwa
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu Jungraithmayr pieces by “pound” “hit, beat”
dɔ̂ʔ “hit/strike/ beat” 1994 v.1 7370 hitting” Greenberg Mukarovsky
nī šī dɔ̂ʔ ve W. Chadic-Ron Ehret 1995 1966 52 209
“castrate (cattle) by (Scha) #135130
beating the testicles to təkai “Kastrieren”
a pulp” Matisoff 2003 [castrate]
363 note h Jungraithmayr
1970 289
H.29b.2 W. Chadic Ron Proto-N. Songhay
S. Chinese-Min (Daffo) Omotic (Gao)
thûq “to poke, tuk “stossen” *t’uk’- túkù
to make a hole [to thrust, to push] “to push” “toucher”
larger”, as with the Jungraithmayr Ehret 1995 [touch]
point of a knife” 1970 222 #850 414 Ducroz
Bodman 1987 W. Chadic-Tangale 226
v.2 205 tuugde
TB-Tibetan “drive, push, send”
gthug-pa / Skinner 262
thug-pa “to touch,
to hit or strike
against” Jaschke 232
“to reach, to meet
with, to touch”
Das 523
H.29b.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) deuk “to strike, to hammer” / Old Chinese tǔk “beat/strike” /
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *tuk “cut, knock, pound”
< W. Chadic-Hausa dūkàa “strike”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *dūk- “to strike, to beat”
370
Note- H.29b.1 (Chadic) Jungraithmayr classifies this is an A root, i.e. found in all branches of Chadic.
737

H.29b.1 TB-Kiranti-Limbu tɔk the root is -th‫כ‬kt- / -th‫כ‬k- “clash, come to blows” van Driem 1987 535
TB-Tibetan r-dúg-pa “to strike against, to stumble at” Jaschke 285 ;
tugdzam vn. “pulling, tugging, touching” tugduù dong “to poke, pull, tug at somebody or
something” Goldstein 494 / Proto-E. Cushitic *tuk- “touch, push, strike” Skinner 260
TB-Chin-Lushai tuk “cut, knock” Matisoff 2003 357 “cut, chop” Benedict 82
TB-Lepcha tuk-sam “mortar” Matisoff 2003 275
H.29b.2 TB-Kiranti-Limbu t‫כ‬kmaʔ < -theg- -thɔk- vt. “forge, weld, pound” van Driem 1987 535
TB-Tibetan togdzaŋ ceè “to jostle, push for something” Goldstein 543
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) tok “to push with hand” Chik / Ng Lam 170
H.29b.1 Maba Group-Masalit idu-k -Aiki d‫ככ‬k “beat, pound” Edgar 203
W. Chadic-Tangale tuge “pound (in mortar), kill” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 136, 212, 268
W. Chadic-Karekare duku “strike” Newman. R. 263
W. Chadic-S. Bauci-Boghom tuk “pound” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 268
C. Chadic-Gude dəgə “hit, strike” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic-Etymology 2006
W. Chadic-Ron (Sha) duk “schlagen” [to strike] dukáy “töten” [to kill] Jungraithmayr 1970 284
Proto-W. Chadic *dukw “kill” Skinner 258
Proto-South Cushitic *duk’ “to be broken into pieces by hitting” Ehret 1995 #135 130
H.29b.2 Berber-Qabyle (Ayt Mangellat) duqq “strike, pound” Militarev / Stolbova
NS-Kənzi tukke / tukki “to beat, to whip” Hofmann 174 tukki “schlagen” [hit, strike] Skinner 256
W. Chadic-Dwot tukn “push” Skinner 262
Omotic-Janjero *tugu “push” Skinner 262
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari dugdug aša “push someone repeatedly with the fingers”
Leslau 1963 54
H.29b.1
Austo-Asiatic-Munda-Ho-Korku tūk / tok “a wooden pestle” Kuiper 1955 151
IE-Sanskrit udūkkala “wooden pestle, pounder” Kuiper 1955 151
IE-Pashto ttukrr “to butt, to knock, to knock against, to shove” vb. Raverty 291
IE-Bengali toka deowa “knock” vb. Thompson 107
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Santali tok “a wooden pestle” Kuiper 1955 151
Proto-Altaic *tugi “to pound” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *düg- “to pound” / *tokɨ “to hit, knock, strike” / toqɨmak “mallet” /
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *dug- “to pound” /
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *tügsi- “to pound” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Proto-IE *(s)tūg- “to strike, to beat” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
Altaic-Turkic-Tuva toqqu-la “to hit, knock, strike” / -Kazakh dtoqil-da “to hit, knock, strike”
Altaic-Turkic-Bashkir tükilda “to hit, knock, strike” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
/
H.29c.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Hausa NS-Anywa dʊ‫כ‬ɔŋ NC-Swahili
dung “to beat, to strike, tùnkuyàa vt. “to knock at something” dunda
to hit” Goldstein 585 “butt, gore (by horned “to hit somebody on the “to knock
Old Chinese animal)” Newman, P. head (with fist)” on”
d’uŋ “beat, strike” 2007 212 dhōoŋ “to box “to beat”
Karlgren GSR #1188f tunkù’dā vg.1 vt. someone’s ears” Awde
S. Chinese-Min “push towards” Reh 21, 24 2000 44
tong “to dash or strike tunkù’dee vg.4 vt. NS-Nuer d̀ɔŋ- “to rap”
against” “to push aside” dɔŋ n. “knock, rap”
Bodman 1987 v.2 205 Newman, P. 2000 698 Huffman 13
738

Old Chinese d’uŋ “beat, strike” / TB-Tibetan dung “to beat, to strike”
< NS- Anywa / Nuer dʊ‫כ‬ɔŋ / d̀ɔŋ- “to knock”
Approximate Sinitic etyma dʊ‫כ‬ɔŋ / *dɔŋ- “to rap, knock, butt”
N. Chinese-MSC tông “poke, stab” Wu, J. 690
Proto-TB *r-dung “beat, strike” Matisoff 2003 309, 587
H.29c.1 NS-Maba-Maba udduŋg “beat, flog” idun “beat, pound” Edgar 203
E. Cushitic-Somali tun ”to hit, to grind” Awde 1999 49, 63
NS-Nuer deng “knock, rap” Huffman 13 tum ”to butt into” Huffman 46
H.29c.1 IE-Sanskrit tunna “struck, goaded, hurt, cut” Cologne Lexicon. .
IE-Old Indian tunjati, tunakti “to strike, hit, push”
Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 137 See also Sanskrit Table H.29c.1
↓↓
H.30a-d AA –Chadic AA–Cush. AA-Semitic NS Khoisan
H.30a.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic–Hausa E. Semitic-Arabic N.
ɣśág-pa / ‘ĉég-pa tsāgàa Cush.- (Yemeni, Iraqi) Khoisan–
/ ‘ĉág(s)-pa / vg.1 Sidamo šagg “to rip, !O Kung
ɣśags, bśags perf. vt. “split, crack, c’akkawa tear something” ‖kaʔa
“to cleave, to split” rip” “tear off vi. “to “to cut “cut,
“to break or pierce through” (e.g. a piece of crack through” chop”
“to rend, to tear” cloth)” (a wall)” Qafisheh Greenberg
Jaschke 564, 566, 170 Newman, P. c’akka 347-8 1966 77
2007 203 “to be torn “to tear”
“split, cut, tear” (clothes)” Dict. of Iraqi
Skinner 266 Gasparini Arabic
54 part 2 177
H.30a.2 E. Chadic- Ndam N. Egyptian
N. Chinese Yanqu chəgə Cushitic- sekh
(NW-China-Henan and “cut, chop” Beja “to cut,
eastern Shanxi provinces) Jungraithmayr (Bedawi) to cut off,
tshɣ “to tear” 1991 v.2 99 segua to reap”
Sagart 1999 101 “cut (hair)” Budge v.2 685
Mukarovsk
y 137
H.30a.3 W. Chadic- Hausa Semitic-
TB-Tibetan tsāgèe vg.4 Arabic
chaàgεε (completive) (Yemeni)
“cracked” of tsāgàa above) tšaggag
Jaschke 167371 “be split, cracked” “to be torn up”
[Disyllabic corresp.] Newman, P. Qafisheh 348
2000 650
2007 203
371
Note- H.30a.3 (Tibetan, Hausa) The Tibetan morpheme matches the disyllabic Grade 4 completive form of the Hausa
verb in form and meaning. Other instances of this are found in Chapter 10 section 10.2.1.2, notes C.46.1., G.2.1-2,
H.25b.1 and set H.6a.3
739

H.30a.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chaak “to split, to break or rip open”
< W. Chadic-Hausa tsāgàa vt. “split, crack, rip” “make cut or incision in something” “split, cut, tear”
/ Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni, Iraqi) šagg “to rip, tear something” “to cut through” /
Proto-AA *šakw- “to cut repeatedly”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *tsag- “break, split”
H.30a.1 TB-Tibetan ‘chag-pa “to break, to be broken off” Jaschke 167 ‘chég-pa “cut in twain, cleave,
split” Das 445 “to cleave, to split” Jaschke 17
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chaak “to split, to break or rip open” “to crack, to tear”
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu cakma “to cut, chop, hack with a ---knife” Starostin, S. Limbu Dict.
C. Chinese-Wu tshaʔ7 “break, split, rip open” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Min châk “to cut with a chisel” Bodman 1987 v.2 199
TB-Tibetan shaglee “cutting open, dissecting” Goldstein 1106
cagöö “dividing into parts/groups” Goldstein 349 chaggyön “damage, breakage” Goldstein 351
H.30a.2 N. Chinese-Yanqu (NW-China-Henan and E. Shangxi provinces) kəʔ-tshɣ “tear repeatedly”
Sagart 1999 101372
TB-Tibetan bcag “cut, ground or divided” Das 390 chag-dum “fragment, scrap, bit”
chag-chag colloq. “anything broken” Das 405 çag “broke, it burst asunder” Das 1229
shagma “wood cut for firewood” Goldstein 1107 ‘cag-pa perf. cags “to be broken off, abated,
beaten down from the price” Jaschke 167
TB-Naga-Ao tshak-ma “to crack” Benedict 114
G.30a.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sík “to split, break apart” “to divide, to separate”
Chik / Ng Lam 217
TB-Tibetan cheg “to split (wood etc.) Goldstein 385
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu chěʔ “break, cut” Matisoff 2003 330
TB-Kiranti-Limbu cekma “to break” Starostin, S. Limbu Dict.
TB-Chin-Lushai, Lai tsik “split, cut” Matisoff 2003 502
Proto-TB *dzik “split, mince” Matisoff 2003 502, 588
H.30a.1
E. Cushitic-Oromo saku “spartire, spaccare” [to divide, to separate, to split, to crack] Borello 364
Egyptian sāq “to cut, to destroy” Budge v.2 647 See also set A.7a.2
Proto-AA *šakw- “to cut repeatedly” Ehret 1995 #513 277
W. Chadic–N. Baiuci-Mburku tsakum “divide” Skinner 266
E. Chadic–Migama, Bidiya *jag- “hacher, desunir, separer” [chop up, split, separate] Skinner 267
Omotic (North Branch- Zayse) šag “to separate” Ehret 1995 #490 269
C. Chadic–Tera group *TS-K- “divide” Skinner 267
W. Chadic-Tera Group *ts-k “divide” Skinner 266
East Chadic–Lame *dz-k “diviser, separer” Skinner 266
Proto-AA *-cag- “to separate, set apart” Ehret 1995 #490 269
Semitic-Jibbali ṣhạk “ break, crush” Militarev, A. Semitic Etymology
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) t’agg “to crack, split, break” tša‫حح‬ab “to separate, split, diverge”
šaqq “to split off, break away, separate” “to tear, rip, rend” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 245, 291
372
Note H.30a.1-2 Chinese-Yanqu (NW-China Henan and eastern Shanxi provinces). Sagart cites the Chinese-
Yanqu H.30a.1 kəʔ-tshɣ and H.30a.2 tshɣ “to tear” as instances of a prefixed and non-prefixed “disappearing
k”. “The [H.30a.1] meanings ‘momentary action’ and ‘repeated action’ are not mutually exclusive. Some verbs
can receive either meaning, and these meanings therefore appear more like two poles of a semantic continuum than
discrete and opposing values” Sagart 1999 101. On the “disappearing k-“ prefix” see Chapter 10 section 10.3
740
Egyptian sáq “to carve, to model” Budge v.2 644

N. Mande-Soninke jaga “dig” Mukarovsky 143
H.30a.2
W. Chadic–Gwandara cága “to be cracked” “to cut” “to tear” Matsushita 1972 29
W. Chadic-Hausa tsāgā f. “crack (in wood, a wall)” Newman, R. 1990 55, 272 “crack, slit”
tsāgìi f. “bits of cloth discarded by tailor” Newman, P. 2007 203-204
Egyptian asekh “to reap, sickle” Budge v.1 10
NC-N. Mande sεgε “cut” Mukarovsky 137
H.30a.3
Semitic-Hebrew shakhook adj. “worn, tattered” Baltsan 384
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] sēka “tear, rend, cleave, split” Taylor 170
W. Chadic- Ngizim sə̀kwái “small sickle” Schuh 141
H.30a.1
Kartvelian-Megrel chack “to break apart, split” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 6
Kartvelian-Georgian ceck “to break, tear” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 6
Kartvelian-Laz čačk “to peck, split” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 9
IE-Pashto chak kuwal “to split, to crack, to gash”
chak-unak adj. “rent, torn, slit, gashed, cracked”
chak- chak “rent and torn” Raverty 353
IE-Sanskrit zaka “to separate, to divide” “chip, fragment” zakalaya “to break into pieces”
zakalita “broken into pieces” Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 Sanskrit H.30a.1
Proto-Altaic *sak’a “to cut, split, sharp instrument” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *sak-pi “to cut, split, sharp instrument” Starostin, Sergei
Altaic Etymology http://starling.rinet.ru./c
/
H.30b.1 C. Chadic- Proto-Cushitic West Semitic-Ethiopian-
TB-Chin-Lushai Mofu-Gudur *ts’at- Amharic
tśat “break, cut” cha’dw- “to cut up” ac’c’ädä
Benedict 47 “cut, chop” Ehret 1995 “mow, cut with a sickle”
Matisoff 2003 330 #538 286 Leslau 1976 15
TB-Chin-Lai E. Chadic– See also Egyptian ashā “to cut”
tsat / tsaʔ “be split” Migama A.7b.1-2 ashāt “piece, something cut
tshat / tshaʔ ca’dó Proto-AA off” Budge v.1 79
causative “cut, chop” Egyptian Semitic–Arabic-Written
“split something” Jungraithmayr *c’adaʕ Arabic šat’aba
Matisoff 2003 473 1991 v.2 99 “cut, grind, “to cut into slices or strips”
TB-Tibetan pound” Wehr 550
ɣchod -pa bcad perf. Militarev / (Yemeni) šat’t’ “to tear”
ɣcad fut. “to cut” Stolbova šat’t’at’ “to tear to pieces”
‘chad-pa “to be cut into 2005, 2007 Qafisheh 343
pieces, to be cut off” Egyptian ashat “piece,
‘chad perf. something cut off”
Jaschke 145,168 Budge v.1 91
H.30b.1 TB-Tibetan ‘chad-pa “to be cut into pieces, to be cut off” perf. ‘chad /
TB-Chin-Lushai tśat “break, cut”
< C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur cha’dw- “cut, chop” / Proto-Cushitic *ts’at- “to cut up”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma *cha’d- / *ts’at- “cut, chop” “cut up”
741

H.30b.1
TB-Tibetan chad-po “rent, torn, worn out” Jaschke 155
Old Chinese dz’iwat “cut off, break off” Karlgren GSR 287a-b ťiat “cut off, break off”
Karlgren GSR 296a
H.30b.1
E. Chadic-Tumak sād “cut, chop” Militarev / Stolbova
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic qät’t’ätä “cut (grass, bushes), shear (sheep)” Leslau 1976 84
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari, Tigrinya qädädä / qäṭṭätä “tear, cut through” Leslau 1963 122
Semitic-Written Arabic šadaba “to cut off, sever” Wehr 539
Egyptian utcha “to cut, to cleave, to split” Budge v.1 195
H.30b.1
Old Indian chyati “to cut off” Nicolayev, Sergei 2012 Indo-European Etymology 2012 123
Old Indian ḳsatá “to hurt, injure, wound” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 145
IE-Sanskrit ksad “to cut, dissect, divide, kill” “to carve (meat)”
ksadana “carving, dividing”
kSattR “one who cuts or carves or distributes anything”
kSata “broken, torn, rent” “wounded, hurt” Cologne Lexicon. See also Sanskrit table H.30b.1
/
H.30c.1 Chadic– Omotic- Semitic- Kanuri NC-Swahili
TB-Kiranti kātnu Hausa Mocha Hebrew kát ideo. kata v.
“to chop, katsèe ka:t- “to tear” khatakh “describes “to cut”
cut with a knife” vt. verb Ehret 1995 v. past tense something “to cut across”
Starostin, S. grade 4 # 406 232 “cut, cut off” breaking n. “cut”
Yamphu Dict. (completive) Proto-AA Baltsan clean in “piece”
TB-Tibetan “cut off ” gad- 200, 214 two” “part”
katrεε / “be cut in “split, cut, katoo’a Cyffer Awde 2000 85
katrεεtu doŋ two” chop” “truncated, 1990 Khoisan-Hadza
“to separate, Newman, P. Militarev / cut” 82-83 ‖ka:ata
to split up, 2007 111 Stolbova Baltsan 167 “to cut open”
to take apart” Skinner 140 AA-Etymology Greenberg
Goldstein 102 2007 1966 77
H.30c.2 Egyptian NS- Anywa
TB-Kiranti-Limbu khaaq [Anuak]
kakma “to cut, kák
“crack, bust” to shave” “to split,
Starostin, S. Budge cut
Limbu Dict v.1 571 something”
Reh 35, 126
H.30c.1 TB-Nepali kātnu “to chop, cut with a knife”
< W. Semitic-Hebrew v. past tense khatakh “cut, cut off” katoo’a “truncated, cut”
katsoots “chopped, cut-off” /
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic qäṭṭätä “cut (grass, bushes)”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *kāt- “cut, cut off”
H.30c.1
TB-Tibetan kadrεε “split, separated, parted” Goldstein 103
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] gat3 “cut off” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
742

H. 30c.1
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic kätäkkäta “cut in little pieces, mince” Leslau 1976 162
Proto-Afro-Asiatic -gwad- “to cut” Ehret 1995 #295 189
Semitic-Hebrew khatsah “divided in two” khatsooy “halved, divided in two” Baltsan 201
katsats v. “chopped, cut off” katsoots adj. “chopped, cut off” Baltsan 167
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) gat’t’a “to cut off, break off” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic 391
Egyptian qatchah “to smash, to break, to shatter” Budge v.2 765
W. Chadic–Ngizim gàdú “snap in two (flexible object such as rope)”, “snap off (fruit (off tree etc.)”,
“break loose (something tied)” Schuh 64
E.Chadic–Dangaleat kad’aak “èvoque mouvement sec et brutal du couteau qui tranche d’un coup”
[connotes the rapid rough movement of a knife which cuts with one blow] Fédry 268
Egyptian khateb “butcher’s knife” “sacrificial knife” Budge v.1 575
H.30c.2
NS- Nuer kage “to split” Greenberg 1966 102
NS- Bari kagu “to split” Greenberg 1966 102
NS- Shilluk ka:go “to split” Greenberg 1966 102
NS-Lango kako “to split” Greenberg 1966 102
Khoisan-Masarwa ‖kaʔa “cut, chop” Greenberg 1966 77
Khoisan-Hatsa ‖kaka “to divide” Greenberg 1966 77
NS- Anywa [Anuak] kák “to split something” “cut something”
ʌò kʌ‫כ‬ʌk pl. “crack, e.g. in a wall, in the soil” Reh 33, 35, 126
kʌ�
H.30c.1 IE-Sanskrit kad “to break off a part, separate, divide”
khad “to divide, break”
khaddala “a sort of spade or hoe”
skhadana “cutting or tearing to pieces” khata “an axe, hatchet, chisel” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Bengali kata “cut” vb. Thompson 43
IE-Hindi kātna “cut” “chop” vt. Scudiere 29, 40. See also Sanskrit Table H.30c.1
Old Indian skhadate “to cut, split” Starostin, Sergei Indo-European Etymology
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho,Mundari,Santali ka’tu “knife”
Kobayashi Tables 1-3 #70 2, 8, 14.
Proto-IE *skeda- “to split” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
/
H.30d.1 W. Chadic –Ngizim E. Cushitic-Oromo NS-Nuer
TB-Lepcha gùutú vn. gùuta kut-u “rompere, tagliare, ŋu‫כ‬t “to cut off,
kut “scrape, carve” “scrape an troncare, affetare” to cut”
Matisoff impression in the [break, cut, break in two, Huffman 36
2003 364 ground” slice] Borello 243 NS-Anywa [Anuak]
TB- Burmese Schuh 76 E. Cushitic-Rendille ŋ̄̄‫כ‬t vt.
kut “scratch” C. Chadic – Gudu khuta “dig” Pillinger 195 “to cut something”
khut “gash, chop, gùdà “dig” E. Cushitic-Gedeo ŋùdò
cut” Stolbova, Olga kut- “cut” detransitivized
Benedict 18 C. Chadic Hudson 48, 250 Reh 58
Etymology
H.30d.2 TB-Tibetan NS-Anywa [Anuak]
chod-po cōot vt.
“split, cut through” còodò “to tear
“to be cut off, to be something
decided, settled” (rope, plastics)”
Jaschke 162 Reh 16
743
ɣchod–pa
bcad
perf. ɣcad
fut. c‫כ‬od imp.
“to cut”
“to decide”
Jaschke 145
H.30d.3 W. Chadic–Hausa E. Cushitic-Gedeo
S. Chinese-Yue k’ùdurā vt. kut-
(Cantonese) “make up one’s “cut, decide”
kyut mind to do Hudson 48, 250
“to decide, somehing” E. Cushitic-Oromo
to conclude, “settle on” kut-add’a
to judge” Newman, P. 2007 “decide”
Chik / Ng Lam 32 132 Hudson 48
Po-fei Huang 414
kyutding
“decision”
Kwan 124 Chen 64
H.30d.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ku(:)t “scrape, scratch, itch, cut, carve”
< E. Cushitic-Oromo kut-u “break, carve, cut, cut off”
H.30d.3
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) kyut “to decide, to conclude, to judge”
< W. Chadic–Hausa k’ùdura vt.“decide” “tie knot”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *kut- “break, carve, cut, cut off” ~ *k’ut- “to decide”
H.30d.1
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu kodra “scoop or shovel” Starostin, S. Yamphu Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) got “cut” (with a knife) ” Kwan 119
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] lekhot “scoop” Matisoff 2003 129
Proto-TB *ku(:)t “scrape, scratch, itch, cut, carve” Benedict 81, 202 Matisoff 2003 364
H.30d.2
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] šòt “scrape” Matisoff 2003 129
TB-Tibetan
cöödra “judgement, verdict”
chod “a decision” Goldstein 375 ;
chod-pa “decided, settled, fixed” Das 427
chod-so “to promise, to undertake to do a thing” Das 428
TB-Written Burmese chut “tear, sever something” cut “be torn” Matisoff 2003 502
H.30d.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
kyutsam “resoluteness” “determination” Kwan 132, 429
meikyutdihng ge “undecided” Kwan 544
N. Chinese-MSC jue “decide, determine”
jueding “decide, resolve, make up one’s mind” Wu, J. 373
744

H.30d.1
E. Cushitic- Sidamo qutuff assa “to cut with a single blow” Gasparini 273
W. Chadic–Hausa gutsùrā vt. “break piece off” gutsùree vi. “become broken off”
Newman, P. 2007 78
H.30d.3
E. Cushitic-Oromo kut-u v. “decidere, sentenziare” [decide, sentence v. ] Borello 243
Semitic-Hebrew khotekh adj. “decisive” Baltsan 214
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic qurṭ “cut, definite, decided” Leslau 1976 73
E. Cushitic-Sidamo qurtira “to make up one’s mind, to decide on something” Gasparini 272
E. Cushitic-Oromo kurtí “deciso” [decided, settled, determined] Borello 243
Egyptian kheti “to engrave, cut into, something carved, or inscribed or engraved” Budge v.1 567
H.30d.1 Sanskrit kuT “to break into pieces, tear asunder, divide” Cologne Lexicon
kuta “mallet” Kuiper 1955 161
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Santali kutam “to beat, hammer” Kuiper 1955 161
Dravidian-Tamil kottu “to beat, strike, pound” Kuiper 1955 161
Hindi khodna “engrave” Scudiere 227 kuta “mallet” Kuiper 1955 161
See also Suppl. Table 2 Sanskrit H.30d.1
H.30.2 S. Daic-Lao ku:t “dig” Marcus 64
↓↓
H.31 Afro-Asiatic – AA -Cushitic, Afro-Asiatic- Nilo-Saharan NC
Chadic Proto-AA Semitic etc.
H.31.1 C. Chadic- Semitic-
TB-W. Kiranti- Bacama Arabic
Bahing səwər- s’wr
tśwar “cut with a “chop “cut, split”
knife by one (in small pieces)” Militarev /
stroke” Skinner 229 Stolbova
Benedict 56
H.31.2 W. Chadic- Jimi E. Cushitic-
TB-Qiang šewiī “cut” Sidamo
(Taoping) W. Chadic- šula
tshua Burma šuwe “cut in pieces”
“cut, chop” “cut” Skinner
Matisoff 2003 393 Militarev / 229, 240
Stolbova
H.31.3 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- West Semitic- Kanuri
TB-Tibtan-Amdo Gwandara Afar saloote Ethiopian- sálngin,
(Bla-brang) sal- “cut” “circumcise” Amharic sáljin “chop, cut
tɕal (Karshi) Parker / zäläzzälä (with an axe,
(Zeku) šára “cut (with Hayward 187 “cut meat sword, matchet,
pɕal machete)” Proto-Afro- into strips” etc.)” “cut down,
“cut, chop” Matsushita 1974 Asiatic Leslau 1976 harvest”
Matisoff 2003 #660 106. *-zăl- “to cut 179 Cyffer 1990 152
393 C. Chadic-Tera (into, off)” “cut with an axe,
caɬ- “axe” Ehret 1995 cut through with a
Skinner 229 #196 150 sword”
Lukas 237
745
H.31.4 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic-

TB- Mikir Mofu-Gudur. Rendille
tšor cərh- “tailler, churra
“cut, chop” couper d’un coup “cut girl’s hair”
Benedict 56 sec” Pillinger
Matisoff 2003 393 [cut, chop] 87, 327
Skinner 229
H.31.1 TB-Kiranti- Bahing tśwar “cut with a knife by one stroke”
< Omotic-Proto Boni c’ar- “cut smoothly, carve” / Proto-AA *-sar “to cut”
H.31.2 TB- Amdo tɕal “cut, chop”
< Proto-AA *-zăl- “to cut (into, off)” /
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *-sar “to cut” ~ *-zăl- “to cut (into, off)”
H.31.1
Proto-TB *tsywar = *tśwar “cut, chop” Benedict #240 56, 209
TB-Daofu (Ergong) xtsa-xtsə “to chop” Matisoff 2003 393
TB-Tibetan btsab-pa “to cut small, to chop (wood)” “to hash, to mince” Jaschke 435
H.31.2 Middle Chinese tshwaX “cut small, minute” Sagart 1999 67
H.31.1 Semitic-Hebrew shover “breaks” Baltsan 404
H.31.3
Semitic-Akkadian šalāq- / šarāt’- “cut off” Skinner 240
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic šärräfä “chip” vt. “notch, break something at the edge”
Leslau 1976 63
Proto-AA *-sar “to cut” Ehret 1995 #22 163
Proto-South Cushitic *sar “to cut with repeated knife strokes” Ehret 1995 #228 163 Skinner 229
C. Chadic-Gisiga šar “to saw” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology
W. Chadic- Hausa sàarā “chop up (wood).” Newman, P. 2007 205
W. Chadic-N. Bauci Group *sər “circumcise” Skinner 229
C. Chadic-Bacama šurey “axe” Skinner 229
Semitic Arabic (Iraqi) šarrat “to make an incision, cut into, lance”
šarra ‫“ح‬to cut up, cut in strips” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 1 162, part 2 239 “slice”
Omotic-Proto Boni c’ar- “cut smoothly, carve” Skinner 229
E. Cushitic-Somali sar “cut, incise” Skinner 229 Militarev / Stolbova
W. Chadic-Hausa tsařgèe v. “slit” Newman, P. 2007 205
tsaràa “lance, make a small cut to remove sth.”
sāràa “cut an opening through a place”
sarèe “slash, hack, cut down” Newman, P. 2007 179
Semitic-Hebrew saretet̟ “scratch” Baltsan 367
C. Cushitic-Bilin šar “stutzen, hacken” Skinner 229
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šarrag “to split, crack repeatedly” šarig “split, crack, fissure” Dict. of Iraqi
Arabic part 2 240
Semitic-Arabic ʃari:ħa “slice” n. Merriam-Webster Arabic 144
S. (Ethiopic) Semitic-Amharic məssar “large axe” Leslau 1976 274
W. Chadic-Gwandara šâ “to chop” Matsushita 1972 105
C. Chadic-Gude tsa “tear, crack, separate” Skinner 267
W. Chadic- Gwandara (Koro) sára “cut (with machete) Matsushita 1974 #660 139
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage sãrrãtã “make decorative incisions on pot, brand cattle”
Skinner 242
H.31.2 Proto-W. Chadic *ĉaHw- “cut, chop” Militarev / Stolbova
746

H.31.3 IE-Sanskrit sahr “one who cuts or carves or distributes anything” sAraNa “cracked, split”
jarjarIkRta “torn to pieces, split” Cologne Lexicon. See also Sanskrit table H.31.1
H.31.4 IE-Sanskrit kSur “to cut, dig, scratch” chur “to cut off, cut, incise”
↓↓
H.32 AA- Chadic AA –Cush., AA- Nilo- Khoisan
Proto-AA Semitic Saharan
H.32.1 S. Chinese- C. West Nuer
Yue (Cantonese) Chadic- Semitic- wat
gwaht “to dig, Glavda Ethiopian- “to take
to excavate, to make a kwad Amharic dirt out of
hole or cave” “to hew, agwädäg- a hole”
Chik / Ng Lam 179 to dig” gwädä Huffman 49
“dig” Kwan 135 Rapp / “hollow gwεt
Old Chinese Benzing out, dig “to scrape
g’i̭ wət “dig out 56 out, out”
(earth)” k’wət “dig in excavate” ŋwεt
the ground ” Leslau “scratch”
Karlgren GSR 496s 1976 219 Huffman
Matisoff 2003 463 18, 38
H.32.2 S. Chinese- W. Chadic- Proto-AA Anywa
Yue (Cantonese) Ngizim *-xwaat- [Anuak]
gwaat “to pare, kwàatlú “to remove gwàar vt.
to shave, to scrape” “scratch, (from gwʌ‫כ‬d�
Chik / Ng Lam 37 claw” surface), detransiti-
Middle Chinese Schuh 101 tear or scrape vized
kwæt “to scrape” off” “to scratch
Sagart 1999 68 Ehret 1995 (deeply)”
#406 232 Reh 28
H.32.3 N. Chinese W. Chadic- West Anywa Khoisan-
-MSC guā vt. Hausa Semitic- [Anuak] Sandawe,
“to scrape, to shave” k’wāk’ùlē Ethiopian- gwàar vt. C. Khoisan-
Hwang 144 “scrape out Amharic “to scratch Nama
Wu, J. 246 from a gwäffärä (deeply)” xoa
kuā / kuāh (WG) narrow “dig, Reh 28 “to scratch”
“to pare away, opening” excavate” Greenberg
to scrape, to shave” Newman, R. Leslau 1966 81
Mathews #3518 521 1990 236 1976 85
H.32.4 Proto-Afro- S. Khoisan-
N. Chinese-MSC Asiatic |Xam !kwā ~
w
guâ g âa “to cut” !gwa “break”
“cut to pieces” Ehret 1995 Ruhlen
“cut, slit” Wu, J. 245 #293 188 #179 49
H.32.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gwaht “to dig, to excavate, to make a hole or cave”
< West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic agwädäggwädä “hollow out, dig out, excavate”
H.32.3-4 N. Chinese-MSC guā vt. “to scrape, to shave”, kuā / kuāh (WG) “to pare away,
to scrape, to shave, to brush away”
747
< W. Chadic-Hausa k’wāk’ùlē “scrape something out” / Proto-Afro-Asiatic gwâa “to cut” /
NS-Anywa [Anuak] gwàar vt. “to scratch (deeply)” / Khoisan-Sandawe, C. Khoisan-Nama
xoa “to scratch”
Approximate Sinitic etyma *gwäd- “to dig out” “to scrape, scratch” ~ *!kwā “to scratch, break”
H.32a.2 C. Chadic- Gude hwátə “scrape” hwátə- hwátá “hoeing”
Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology
↓↓
H.33a-b Afro-Asiatic – AA –Cush., AA- Nilo-Saharan Khoisan
Chadic Proto-AA Semitic
H.33a.1 C. Chadic– Proto-AA Egyptian Kanuri C.
TB-Karenic-Sgaw Lame kura *-kûr- aqh’u kurúm-ngin Khoisan-
khu “dig up, “to hoe” “to dig out” “to work “scoop out” Nama
scoop out” Stolbova, Ehret 1995 in wood, Hutchison xoro
TB-Taungthu Olga #329 200 to be a 1981 142 “dig”
khu “dig” C.Chadic E. Cushitic- carpenter, NS- Anywa Ruhlen
Benedict 135 Etymology Afar to hollow out a [Anuak] 1994
N. Chinese W. Chadic- kumuse boat” kʊ‫כ‬ʊr “to dig #233 51
-MSC kū Bole “scoop up” “carpenter’s a hole, to bury
“hollow out” gur “dig” Parker / adze, axe” someone”
Wu, J. 394 Skinner 113 Hayward 151 Budge v.1 11 Reh 39
H.33a.2 Proto-Cushitic West Semitic-
TB-Tibetan *xwâr- Ethiopian-
rko-wa “to dig, “to split, Gurage
dig out, to hoe” make a hole (Masqan etc.)
Das 77 in” qoffärä
rko-ba ~ rkod-ba Ehret 1995 “dig a hole,
“to dig, dig out” #402 519 dig (for
Jaschke 16-17 farming)”
Benedict 101 Leslau 1979
v. 3 473, 487
H.33a.3 W. Chadic – NS- Songhay
TB-Tibetan Hausa (Koroboro)
goma “hoe” korame kuumu
gojee “excavating, “hoe (long- “native hoe
digging tools” handled)” (with short
Goldstein 42 Skinner 148 handle and
large blade)
Heath v.3 219
H.33a.1 N. Chinese-MSC kū “hollow out” / TB-Karenic-Sgaw khu “dig up, scoop out”
< Proto-AA *-kûr- “to dig out” / W. Chadic – Hausa gūre “scrape, hollow out” /
NS- Anywa [Anuak] kʊ̀ʊr “to dig a hole, to bury / Semitic- Amharic qufärra “excavation” /
Egyptian aqh̟u “to hollow out a boat” / C. Khoisan-Nama xoro “dig”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *kur- “dig out, scoop out” ~ xoro “dig”
H.33a.1
N. Chinese-MSC kōu “dig or dig out with a finger or something pointed” Wu, J. 393
TB-Proto-Kiranti *kòr “scoop” Starostin. S. ST Etymology
748
TB-Bodo/Garo-Dimasa ku “scrape, scratch” Matisoff 2003 496

TB-Tibetan go “to dig out” Goldstein 42
S. Chinese-Min khaû “to plane, to scrape” Bodman 1987 v.2 201
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *d-kew = *d-k(h)ew “pick, dig out, scratch” Benedict #420 68, 201
H.33a.2 E. Chadic–Dangaleat [Dangla] ko(gi)nye “creuser” [to dig] Skinner 103
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *go “dig out, scoop up” Matisoff 2003 590
H.33a.3 TB-Tibetan rko-ma “a kind of small hoe for digging earth” Das 77
H.33a.1
C. Chadic–Wamdiu kùl “hoe” Stolbova, Olga C.Chadic Etymology 2006
NS- Kanuri kuraingin “scrape off gradually”
kurenngin “scratch, inflict a scratch to (e.g. with a fingernail, claw or sharp instrument)”
Cyffer 1990 102
kúwárngin “scrape off, scratch away at (e.g. the hard ground with a hoe)” Cyffer 1990 105
Proto-AA *ʔakul- “scratch” Militarev/ Stolbova 2007
W. Chadic–Hausa gūre / hūre “scrape, hollow out” Skinner 113 k’urk’uràa “cut grass short (with a
small sickle” Newman, P. 2007 133
W. Chadic-Hausa kuràadā “chopper, small axe” Newman, P. 2000 463 2007118
C. Khoisan-|Nu‖e xaro “dig” Ruhlen 1994 #233 51
S. Cushitic-Alagwa kuromo “hoe (long-handled) /
S. Cushitic-Irakwe kurumo “hoe (long-handled) Skinner 148
Proto-South Cushitic *kûr- or *kûur- “to cultivate” Ehret 1995 #329 200
C. Chadic–Hwona kura “hoe” Skinner 148
W. Chadic-Ngizim kuram “short-handled hoe” Skinner 148
H.33a.2 NS- Songhay (Gao) guru “puiser” [dig a well] Ducroz 109
gúr-bundu “a long-handled, heavy duty hoe” Heath v.3 138 ;
Semitic-Amharic qufärra “excavation” Leslau 1976 85
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Wolane, Selti) qoffārro “kind of hoe” Leslau 1979 v.3 473, 487
H.33a.3 E. Chadic–Migama kòróólu “houe” [hoe] Jungraithmayr / Adams 101
H.33a.1
Proto-Altaic *āk’ú “to dig, delve” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology 1
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *küle- mzi- “to dig / *gur- “carving” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *xülē- “to dig”
Altaic-Proto-Altaic *k’ǔle “to dig” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
H.33a.1
Altaic-Mongolian-Khalka gurvi- , guranʒ “carving”
Altaic-Mongolian-Buriat gurba “carving” /
Altaic-Mongolian-Kalmuck gorwə, gorwə “carving” Starostin, Sergei Mongolian Etymology
/
H.33b.1 TB-Tibetan rkod-pa Proto-E. Cushitic Anywa [Anuak]
“to dig, dig out, to hoe” *k’ot- “dig” Sasse 1982 127 gool vt.
Jaschke 17 E. Cushitic-Burji gòodò
Middle Chinese khwot “dig k’ot- “dig, plow” detransitivized
out” Sagart 1999 77 Sasse 1982 127 “to dig (with hands or
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] Hudson 59, 208 paws)”
legót / lekhót ~ šegót k’otto / k’ottoo Reh 27
“scoop,dig out, scoop up” “digging stick, hoe”
gót “be scooped up” Hudson 50, 208
Matisoff 2003 380, 461, 463
749
E. Cushitic-Oromo
qota vt.
“dig, plow,
farm, plant”
Gragg 333
H.33b.2 Proto-S. Cushitic
S. Chinese-Kejia *kut “dig, plow”
[Hakka] Skinner 112
(Lau Chunfat) E. Cushitic- Rendille
kud6 khuta vt. “dig”
(Meixian, MacIver) Pillinger 195
k’ut8 / k’wut8
“dig, make a hole or cave”
Hakka Dict.
Old Chinese
a
kut “dig out”
Sagart 1999 77
H.33b.1 Proto-Tibeto-Burman *r-ko-t = *r-got ~ *r-ko-t “dig up, scoop out”
< Proto-E.Cushitic *k’ot- “dig”
H.33b.2 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] k’ut8 / k’wut8 “dig, excavate, make a hole or cave”
< E. Cushitic- Rendille khuta “dig” vt.
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *k’ot- ~ *k’ut- “dig”
H.33b.1
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *r-ko-t = *r-got ~ *r-ko-t “dig up, scoop out” Benedict #420 101, 202
“dig out” Matisoff 2003 463
H.33b.2 S. Chinese-Min kût “to dig” Bodman 1987 v.2 202 kut8 “dig, excavate, make a hole or cave”
Hakka Dict.
Extended African / AA language word family:
H.33b.1
E. Cushitic-Gedeo k’ot- / koʔ “dig, plow” k’ote “farm” Hudson 50, 252
E.Cushitic-Somali qod- “dig” Sasse 1982 127
E. Cushitic-Rendille khóto “hoe-like instrument for hollowing out wood” Pillinger 194
H.33b.1 IE-Sanskrit khutAra “axe or hatchet” “a sort of hoe or spade” “an axe” Kuiper 163
khutAraka “an axe” kuddãla “a kind of spade or hoe” Cologne Lexicon.
kudalaka “a kind of spade or hoe” Kuiper 163 Witzel 1999b 8
IE-Hindi khodnā “dig’ vt. Scudiere 46 See also Sanskrit Supplementary table 2 H.33b.1
↓↓
H.34a-c AA – AA –Cush. AA-Sem. NS NC
Chadic
H.34a.1 E. Chadic- W. (Ethiopian)
S. Chinese-Min Migama Semitic-Amharic
(Xiamen) gáláw aqwäläqwälä vi.
ka-lauʔ / ka-lauh “fall” “slope down,
“to fall, to drop” Jungraith- decline, lower
Sagart 99, 102, 127 mayr 1994 (of sun)”
[Disyllabic corresp.] v.2 131 Leslau 1976 67
750
H.34a.2 E. Chadic- W. (Ethiopian) NC-SW

TB- Written Burmese Sokoro Semitic-Amharic Mande-
kla / khja gɔ‫כ‬lɔ‫כ‬ täqwäla-qwälä Mende
“to throw or cast down, “fall” “descend kùlá
put down” Mukarovsky a slope” “fall”
Starostin, S. 161 Leslau Muka-
ST Etymology 1976 67 rovsky
TB-Lepcha, 161
Mikir
klo / kla
“fall” Benedict #213 39
H.34a.3 Old Chinese E. Cushitic-
kəlak “to fall” Rendille
Sagart 18, 127 kálug’da
glâk “to fall” “drop (thing)
Karlgren GSR #766q in, on”
Chinese-Jin-Pingyao Pillinger 178
kʌʔlʌʔ
“to fall in small quantities”
Sagart 1999 99
H.34a.4 C. Chadic- W. Semitic- NS-Kanuri
TB-Chin-Lushai Margi Ethiopian- tə́lák-
tlaak vi. “fall” dlà Amharic kəkin v.
thlaak vt. “let fall” “fall” ţälläqä “let fall in
Benedict #213 39 Jungraith- “dive, sink, set drops, drip
Matisoff 2003 mayr (of sun), into”
34, 75, 480 1994 submerge” Cyffer
N. Chinese-Jin v.2 131 Leslau 1976 223 1990 173
thəʔlaʔ “to fail,
collapse”
Sagart 1999 120373
H.34a.5 Middle Chinese E. Cushitic-
lak “drop” Norman 194 Rendille
S. Chinese-Min lug’da
loûq “fall (drop), “drop
fall down, fall over, (something)”
collapse” Bodman 1987 Pillinger 213
v.1 112. v.2 86, 159
373
Note- H.34a.3, 5 Old Chinese, Chinese-Jin-Pingyao) Sagart cites these lexemes to confirm the existence of a
prefix k- in Old Chinese, as posited by Maspero and others. His hypothesis holds that the ke- initial of Old Chinese
*kəlak posited by Karlgren has been lost in the Middle Chinese lak “fall”. [H.34a.5] (Sagart 1999 18, 99, 126 and
129 Table 19.), The H.34a.1-3 African correspondences are all disyllabic with kV, gV or qV initial syllables. This
suggests a disyllabic etymon with a velar initial consonant since only the H.34a.5 set thus far attests a Cushitic-
Rendille variant monosyllabic root lug- “to fall, to drop”. Hence the data suggests that the ga- / ge- initial is
originally not a prefix but the first radical of an Afro-Asiatic root. However the k- initial has been lost in H.34a.5
Rendille. The same oppositon occurs between the H.34a.3, H.34a.5 Rendille forms. This also occurs between the
H.34a.1 Extended N. Chinese-MSC (Beijing) lào “go or come down” and the H.34a.1
S. Chinese-Min (Xiamen) ka-lauʔ but there seems to be no African correspondence to the Beijing lào form. (See
Chapter 10 section 10.3.2 for other examples of the “moveable k-”)
751
(Xiamen, Fujou) lág’da

loʔ8 “fall” “wrestle
Norman 1988a 233 (a person)
S. Chinese-Yue to the
(Cantonese) ground”
lohk “to fall, Pillinger 207
to descend”
Chik / Ng Lam 392
Hakka Dict.
H.34a.1, 3 S. Chinese-Min (Xiamen) ka-lauh “to fall, to drop” /
Chinese-Jin-Pingyao kʌʔlʌʔ “to fall in small quantities”
< E. Chadic- Migama gáláw “fall” / TB-Lepcha, Mikir klo / kla “fall”
H.34a.3 Old Chinese kəlak “to fall” /
< E. Cushitic-Rendille kálug’da “drop (something) in, on” /
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *gáláw ~ * kálug’ “fall”
H.34a.1
N. Chinese-MSC (Beijing) lào “go or come down” Wang, F. 296
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gáau “a stumble, a fall” Chik / Ng Lam 441
H.34a.2
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *kla / *klay ~ *gla / *glay “fall” Matisoff 2003 165, 231, 462
TB- Written Burmese kla / khja “to throw or cast down, put down”
Starostin, S. ST EtymologyTB-Jingpho [Kachin] khràt “fall” Matisoff 2003 462
TB-Mikir keklo “fall” Matisoff 2003 137
H.34a.3 TB-Gyarong kəŋglɒk “to fall” Sagart 75
Proto-Sino-Tibetan glak ~ klak “fall” Matisoff 2003 480
H.34a.4
TB-Chin-Tiddim tluuk “fell” vt. Matisoff 2003 75
S. Chinese-Min (Fuzhou), Chinese-Jin-Ih Ju [Shanxi province] tha11-la13 “to collapse in an irregular
non-homogeneous way” Sagart 1999 120
H.34a.5
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) lohk gei “get off a plane”directional verb Matthews, S. 145.
See also Note- H.6a.2-3 (Extended Min, MSC and Cantonese) above for another case of a
directional verb
Proto-TB ʔohk “below, under” Matisoff 2003 583
Old Chinese, Middle Chinese lak “fall” Norman 1988a 233 Sagart 1999 18, 127
TB-Gyarong la1 “fall, drop (in prices etc.), land, perch (birds)” Hakka Dict.
H.34a.1 E. Cushitic-Oromo qáru “precipitare, declinare” [to cast down headlong, to throw down,
to sink] Borello 338
Semitic-Arabic jaqaʕu (IPA) “fall” v. Merriam-Webster Arabic 54
W. (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic qulqul downward” qulqulát “descent, downhill slope”
Leslau 1976 67
H.34a.2 C. Chadic-Mafa (Matakam) kal “fall” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology
H.34a.3 C. Chadic-Gude kel “fall” “drop down” Stolbova, Olga C. Chadic Etymology
H.34a.4 W. (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic ţalä “throw down, discard, drop, fell (a tree)”
Leslau 1976 222-223 “fall (of prices)” Leslau 1976 342
H.34a.1-2
Indo-European-Tokharian klā(w)- “to fall” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012
752
/
H.34b.1 TB-Tibetan ’gyél-ba / ’gyel W. Chadic-Kofyar taŋgyíl “fall down”
perf. “to fall” Jaschke 98 Skinner 252
h’gyél-wa “to fall, to tumble” C. Chadic-Sukur ŋgílzi “fall (tomber) ”
“to tumble down” Das 295 E. Chadic-Sokoro agéle / gə́lé “fall”
H.34b.2 TB-Bodo-Boro E. Chadic-Dangaleat
gəgləy v. basic form “fall, lie down” gál- “tomber” (Fr.) [fall] Skinner 252
kəkləy v. causative “to fell” E. Chadic-Birgit
Verb + klay = “downward” e.g.: gàali “fall (tomber)”
kam-klay “burn down”, bar-klay Jungraithmayr1994 v.2 131
“jump down” za-klay “eat from top C. Chadic- Matakam
to bottom” Matisoff 2003 483 k’elahay “fall” Mukarovsky 161
H.34b.1 TB-Tibetan ’gyél-ba / ’gyel perf. “to fall” h’gyél-wa “to fall, to tumble”
< E. Chadic- Sokoro agéle / W. Chadic-Kofyar taŋgyíl “fall down”
H.34b.2 TB-Bodo-Boro gəgləy
< E. Chadic-Dangaleat gálè “fall”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etyma *-ŋgyíl “fall down” ~ gálè “fall”
Extended Tibeto-Burman language word family:
H.34.b.1 TB-Tibetan h’gyer-wa “to drop or let fall” “to throw down” Das 295
gyee vi. “to fall, to collapse” Goldstein 243
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) lai “fall” Chik / Ng Lam 392
Proto-TB *kla / *klay ~ *gla / *glay “fall” Matisoff 2003 231,483, 595
H.34b.1 C. Chadic-Glavda ngadl- “fall (tomber)” Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 131
H.34b.2 E Cushitic-Burji k’oliy “fall” Mukarovsky161
H.34b.2 Indo-European-Tokharian klāy “to fall” Nicolayev, Sergei IE Etymology 2012
/
H.34c.1 C. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi)
TB-C. Loloish- Matakam Oromo xarr “to fall, fall down,
Lahu qa kal “fall ” qara vn. drop” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
“fall (of dew, frost, Jungraithma “caduta” part 2 132
snow, hail, leaves)” yr 1994 v.2 [a fall, drop, Egyptian ukha
Matisoff 131 collapse] “to let fall, to set down
2003 462 Borello 338 something”
Budge v.1 180
H.34c.2 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic- Egyptian Khoisan-
TB- Written N. Bauci Rendille khai Hatsa
Burmese kya’ “fall” Group–Diri kayagcha “to descend, to go down” ‖kʔʔaiya
khya’ “let fall, ngyáà “take Budge v.1 528 “to fall”
drop” “fall (something) Greenberg
Benedict #213 39 (tomber)” down, 1966 77
Matisoff 2003 Jungraithma get (something S. Khoisan-
70, 462, 480 yr 1994 ) down from Hiechware
kla / khja v.2 130 somewhere” |xaiye
“to throw or cast Pillinger 183 “to fall”
down, put down” Greenberg
ST Etymology
753

H.34c.2 TB- Written Burmese kya’ “fall” khya’ “let fall, drop”
< W. Chadic-N. Bauci Gp.–Diri ngyáà “fall (tomber)” /
C. Chadic-Dghwede ʔya “fall” / Khoisan-Hatsa ‖kʔʔaiya “to fall”
Approximate Tibeto-Burman etymon *ngya’ “let fall, drop”
H.34c.2
N. Chinese-MSC xià v. “go downward, descend, alight”, as bound form “below, under”
e.g. xiàdêng “lower, inferior” xiàmiàn, dîxià “below, under” DeFrancis 1016 xialái “come down”
-xia “[used after a verb as a complement indicating movement from a higher position to a lower one]
Manser 483 lwòsyà “fall downward “ Chen 108374
TB-Tibetan kyar “to get / fall into a state or situation” Goldstein 194
H.34c.1 E. Chadic-Migama, Bidiya, Dangaleat gal “tomber” [fall] Skinner 252
E. Chadic-Jegu gal “fall“ Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 131
H.34c.2 C. Chadic-Dghwede ʔya “fall” Jungraithmayr1994 v. 2 131
S. Khoisan-Xam |kai’tən “to fall” Greenberg 1966 77
H.34c.1 IE-Sanskrit gal “to fall down or off” “to cause to drop” “to drip, drop, trickle”
Cologne Lexicon. See also Supplementary Table 2 H.34c.1
↓↓
H.35 AA- Chadic AA- AA-Semitic Nilo-Saharan NC
Cush.
H.35.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Semitic- Arabic Songhay (Koyra)
chiì “existential Ngizim sîi (Yemeni) či “be (equational
verb” “(pointing out šii interrogative copula)”
Goldstein 380 or referring to “Is there?” (Djenné)
N. Chinese –MSC / an event in the “Are there” či / si
Beijing past) maa ši “be (something)”
shì “yes,“right” “there it is” “there isn’t, Heath v.1 59,
“the verb ‘to be’” Schuh 149 there aren’t” v.2 42, 168
Mathews 811 id’a ši
#5794375 “if there is, if there
TB-Lepcha śi “be” are”
Matisoff 2003 444 Qafisheh 357
H.35.2 West Semitic- Kanuri áte-ma ši
S. Chinese-Min sī Ethiopian-Amharic “yes, so it is”
“yes, there is” əšši “yes, Barth 30
Bodman 1987 all right” she “an emphatic
v.2 118 yäəššəta particle” e.g.
“be (equational use)” “positive nongə́na
Bodman 1987 (affirmative)” she “Of course,
v.2 77 Leslau 1976 I know it”
131, 439 Cyffer 1990 160
374
Note- H.34c.2 (N. Chinese (Beijing) Extended) xià “’under, beneath’, a bound root “typically used to indicate
location” as in xiàshui lit. “under, down water” i.e.“downriver” Packard 74
375
Note- H.35.1 (Beijing) “Shi is used to indicate both ‘existence’ and ‘be in possession of”. In this it resembles
[Beijing] yôu ‘to have, there is/are’ , but in this case the kind of existence expressed is more permanent than that
of yôu, such as being more permanently located in a place. (Yip, Po-Ching 2004 248)
754
S. Chinese-Yue
(Cantonese) sìh
“yes, right!”
the verb ‘to be’”
Chik / Ng Lam 205
Old Chinese
dzyi “yes”
Branner 137376
H.35.1 TB-Tibetan chiì “existential verb” / N. Chinese-MSC shì “used as the verb ‘to be’ when the
predicate is a noun” “used to indicate existence”
< NS-Songhay či “be (equational copula)” “be (something)”
H.35.2 Old Chinese dzyi “yes” / S. Chinese-Min sī “yes, there is” / S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] s’i5 /
shi5 “indeed, yes, right!”
< West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic əšši “yes, all right”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *či “be (equational copula)” “be (something)” /
* -ši “yes, all right” “positive (affirmative)”.
H.35.1 S. Chinese-Min sī “is” ; sī+o “oh, yes; yes, indeed” Bodman 1983 169, 190
“indeed, yes, right” “be” Hakka Dict.
N. Chinese -MSC shì “used as the verb ‘to be’ when the predicate is a noun” Mathews 811 #5794
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] shìshí “fact” Wu, J. 625
TB-Lolo-Burmese-Naxi-Lijiang džy “be there, have” Matisoff 2003 267
TB-Baic-Bijiang dži “be there, have” Matisoff 2003 267
H.35.2 N. Chinese-MSC shì “correct, right” Wu, J. 627 “used for an affirmative response, yes”
shì “used before an element of a sentence to emphasize it” Ta shì shangibai-qude. “It was indeed
last week that he went” Wang 417
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] s’i5 / shi5 v. “indeed, yes, right!” “be” Hakka Dict.
Wang, F, 417
shi5 “Used to give emphasis to a word in a sentence as in English “It was I who traveled to London
last year by plane” Yip, Po-Ching 2004 250
376
Note- H.35.1-2 (Chinese) The existence in Chinese of multiple meanings of a root realized in Chinese
languages as shì or sī has generated much discussion as to the origin of its usages. As the table shows, it can be a
copular verb considered simply to state a linkage (equative, classificatory or explanatory) between two or more
perceived objects expressed as nouns, but in the H.35.2 attestations it expresses emphatically that something exists
or is the case (the statement about the object conforms to perceived reality). In this latter sense it seems to function
the same as the ST roots t� ʔ, jed-, tchet etc. quotative particles which attest to the truth or exactness of what has
been said. (See Note E.9b.1).
Classical Chinese had no copular verb, and affirmation or negation of existence was expressed with the verb you
(H.36.1-2 following) or its negative wu. (Norman 1988a 125, 97). So the modern usages have been thought to
be derived from the Old Chinese djigx → Middle Chinese zje demonstratives meaning “this”. Norman cites the
rather complex basis of the hypothesis which uses this explanation. (Norman 1988a 90, 125).
The relevant fact for the migration hypothesis is that the copular verb appears for the first time in postclassical
Chinese during the Han dynasty. (Norman 1988a 125). Hence the postulation of the H.35.1-2 Semitic and/or Nilo-
Saharan forms as late sources of both the copular and existential meanings of shì / sī is at least equally plausible,
given the evidence in this study of a later migration. See Chapter 9 section 9.9.2 and notes B.33b.1-2, G.16.3,
G.24.1, G.29.1 (N. Chinese (Beijing, Hausa) G.33.1 (Beijing,), G.33.1 ( Chadic). Ockham’s razor, the principle
that the simplest explanation is most likely to be the correct one, may apply here. If so, the hypothesis of a later
migration out of Africa and the Middle East into China in the early historical period is the valid one for this case
also.
755

H.35.1 NS-Tubu [Teda] chek “sein” [be] Lukas 1953 200
H.35.2 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic əššəta n. “consent (permission)”Leslau 1976 131-132, 304
aššəta / əšši alä v. “consent (permit)” Leslau 1976 132, 304
↓↓
H.36 AA- Chadic AA –Cushitic AA- NS NC
Sem.
H.36.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Ron
yöö “existential verb (Daffo-Butura)
(there is …, there are…”) yò “sein”
Goldstein 1007 [be]
yod-pa “to be, a yo naafaraha
to exist, to be present” “Du willst ein
Das 417 Mann sein?”
S. Chinese-Yue [Do you want
yáuh “to have, to be to be a man?]
present, to exist, there is” Jungraithmayr
Chik / Ng Lam 211 1970 223
H.36.2 TB-S. Loloish- Proto-Highland
Akha E. Cushitic
jó “be there, have” yooʔ “have”
Matisoff 2003 267 Hudson 77
N. Chinese-MSC E.Cushitic-
yôu “have, possess” Kambata
Wu, J. 841 yooʔ “have”
yööbe “do you have, impersonal
are there?” verb
Goldstein 1008 Hudson 77
H.36.3 W. Chadic- NS-Songhay
TB-Tibetan Ngizim (Koyra) goo
köö “to exist, to be goo “be (in a place)”
situated, “there is / “be present, exist”
to be present” there are / was / “have something in
Goldstein 159 were” one’s possession”
Schuh 74 Heath v.1 106
H.36.1 TB-Tibetan yöö “existential verb (there is …, there are…”) yod-pa “to be, to exist, to be
present”
< W. Chadic-Ron yò “be”
H.36.3 N. Chinese-MSC yôu “have, possess” / TB-S. Loloish-Akha jó “be there, have”
< E. Cushitic-Kambata yooʔ “have (impersonal verb)”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *yò “to be” ~ *yooʔ “have (impersonal verb), “be there”
H.36.1
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian, MacIver) yiu1 / yiu4 / ju1/ ju3 / jiu1 “have, be present, own,
possess” “exist, there is” Hakka Dict.
TB-Tibetan mi-yod-pa “to be not, to exist not” Jaschke 417 mi “not”
TB-Tibetan jo-d “to be, exist” Starostin, S. ST Etymology
H.36.2 N. Chinese-MSC yu “have, possess” Mathews #7533 1130
756
S. Chinese-Min iu2 “have, be present, own, possess” “exist, there is” Hakka Dict.
TB-N. Loloish-Lalo dju “be there, have” Matisoff 2003 267
TB-C. Loloish-Lisu jaw “be there, have” Matisoff 2003 267
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) yau “have” Kwan 216 “possess” Kwan 361
TB-N. Loloish-Xide ʥo “be there, have” Matisoff 2003 267
H.36.2 E. Cushitic-Rendille oóyo “owner” “father” Pillinger 242
H.36.3 NS-Kanuri ngô “here it is, there it is” particle Cyffer 1990 137
↓↓
H.37 AA- AA– AA-Semitic etc. Nilo-Sah. Niger-
Chad. Cush. Congo
H.37.1 N. Chinese-MSC Semitic-Arabic N.
shì “matter, affair, thing, (Iraqi) šìi “thing” Khoisan-
business” Wu, J. 625 “something” !Kung
shìye “enterprise, task” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic či / ši-
Wang, F. 424 part 1 180 “thing”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) part 2 254 “object” Ruhlen
sih “business (matter)” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic 1994
Kwan 53 See also H.38a.2 part 1 120 #572 65
H.37.2 Kanuri
S. Chinese-Min cída
cît “occupation, work” “work, job”
Bodman 1987 v.2 . 128 cídama
“worker”
Cyffer
1990 26
H.37.2 N. Chinese-MSC shì “matter, affair, thing, business”
< Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šìi “thing” “something” / N. Khoisan-!Kung či / ši- “thing”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *či - “object of discussion / reference” ~ či / ši- “thing”
H.37.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sih “affair” Kwan 8 chàai sih “a job” Chik / Ng Lam 121
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] sii5 “affair, matter, business” “job, occupation, task” “duties, functions”
Hakka Dict.
H.37.1
C. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e [Khoi] či ~ ča- “thing” Ruhlen 1994 #572 65
C. Khoisan- !’O-!Kung či “thing” Ruhlen 1994 #572 65
↓↓
The following two tables give evidence of reflecting a long history of human occupations.The
Khoisan H.38a.5 !xăĭ root with semantics of “drive” seem to be the oldest. They reflect an old hunting
practice involving a controlled pursuit of animals using a group of men to form a circle and drive them
into a smaller space where they are tightly surrounded by hunters or driven into a trap. (See Note H.25a.1
above and section F.9b.1 Extended and set F.9b.1.)
With the domestication of animals the word families continued to refer to hunters’ driving of wild
animals, but was also applied to the driving of cattle into enclosures or from one grazing area to another.
In a cattle-based culture the herdsmen often worked for a senior family member or employer. The work
could be divided up and assigned to various persons sent to different areas. In this context the root took
on three additional notions “sending, being sent” “working as an employee or servant” and “being
757
entrusted with a task, a job”. So the three concepts reflect a social practice developed in a pre-agricultural
society in which a subordinate person could be sent out and trusted to carry out an assignment.
Chadic-Hausa has many terms suggesting a history of traveling with entrusted goods. This, as
mentioned, can be attributed first to the practice of delegating the tasks of pastoral nomadism in the
African Sahel and later its extension to trading which involved travelling longer distances giving the
entrusted person goods for barter. See H.39a.3 sautù which means “giving money to someone going on
a journey to buy and bring something back”. Chinese correspondences are jiaofu “hand over, deliver,
consign” jiaocun “hand in for safekeeping” “consign”. Modern Hausa also retains forms of the aik-
“send” root which denote distant traveling or sending for a designated purpose, e.g. aikē n. m. “money
or things sent home to parents or family from abroad”, aikēkeniya “sending one another to places for
some mission”. (Newman, P. 2007 3).
Hence the “entrusting”or “consigning” of property to another person by the late pre-historic period had
acquired wider functions which could involve the person’s exchanging the goods and returning with the
bartered material. This still occurs along the African Sahel where cattle keepers trade their meat and milk
for the grain and vegetables of the agriculturalists, just as Tibetan high altitude dwellers with access to
salt travel south to trade it with valley dwellers for grains.
Note also that the lexemes of sets H.38a.3-4 show semantics of sending, consigning which
have correspondences with verbs meaning “escort, protect, accompany”, and “drive” in the H.38c
word family whose lexicon refers almost exclusively to taking care of animals, i.e. being entrusted with
the care of animals.
These semantics also appear in the Chinese- Cantonese yik6 “guard the frontier” “shelter, protect”
(Chik / Ng Lam) and in some of the H.38c.2 Sanskrit -rak- roots which in African language
correspondences mean “to herd, accompany, guard”.
H.38a-c Afro-Asiatic – AA – AA- NS Niger-
Chadic Cush. Sem. Congo
H.38a.1 W. Chadic- Hausa Semitic- NS-Anywa NC-Fulfulde
S. Chinese-Yue jekada Arabic cek2 vt. [Fulani]
(Cantonese) (Hadejia dial.) (Yemeni) “to send a jaggana
jik6 “dispatch” “a messenger” šigi message “to serve”
“servant, laborer” Matsushita 1993 “to work” (through jaggotodo
“employ as a servant” 210 Qafisheh 34 a person)” “servant
Hakka Dict. (Kano dial.) ciek n. njaggu /
jīk “profession, post” jàkādaà “message” jagganaki
Chik / Ng Lam 371 “a messenger” Reh 14-15 “service”
yīhk “to work on Newman, R. Taylor 94
official duties, dispatch” 1990 167
Chik / Ng Lam 136
H.38a.2 NC-Mande
N. Chinese- MSC kyi / cyi
jì “send, post, mail” “work, send”
“mail, send by mail” S. Khoisan-
Wang 223 |Nu‖en, N.
shî Khoisan-
“send, tell sb. ‖Kh’au‖’e
to do something” sîsî “work”
“use, employ, apply” Ruhlen 1994
shì “job, work” #634 68
Wu, J. 622
758
H.38a.3 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Hausa E. NS-Anywa NC-Fulfulde

‘jug vt. “employ [as], jakadanci Cushitic- jʌʌk vt. [Fulani]
enter, “the work Somali “to send jagga
undertake, engage in, of a messenger” shaqo somebody “to employ”
apply [to], Bargery 2011 “work, on an Taylor 94
use [as] labor, job” errand”
Hodge 99, 177 Awde Reh 29
1999 47
H.38a.4 W. Chadic- E. Cush.
Chinese-Min Hausa àikē Rendille
ek8 v. “dispatch“ send someone erga vt.
“servant, laborer” (often on an “send
“employ as a servant” errand)” (someone
“do, undertake” ‘aikiì ʔayyukaà or some-
Hakka Dict. pl. “work(ing), thing)”
S. Chinese-Kejia job” Newman, P. Pillinger
[Hakka] gì5 2007 3377 110, 385
S. Chinese-Min ma‘aiki
kì3 “send, entrust, “messenger”
consign” Hakka Dict. Skinner 19
H.38a.5 E. Chadic- E. Egyptian Khoisan-
S. Chinese-Yue Mokulu Cushitic. m’ki Khakhea
(Cantonese) ‘igi / ‘akki -Somali “defend, !xai
gàai “envoyer” [send] kexee protect” “drive”
“to accompany” “accompagner “to drive, m’kiu Ruhlen
Chik / Ng Lam 417 [accompany] lead “protec- 1994 52
gei “send (letter)” Skinner 3 animals” tors”
Chen 350 W. Chadic- Awde 1999 Budge
S. Chinese-Kejia Hausa kiyāyàa 38, 59 v.1 288
[Hakka] “be on guard
kie5 / ge3 against, avoid”
“send someone in kiyàayē vg.4
custody, to dispatch” completive
“escort (prisoners, “protect, take care
goods etc.) from one of, look after”
place to another, “observe, take
forward” notice of, pay
Hakka Dict. attention to”
Newman, P. 2007
114
377
Note- H.38a.4 (Hausa) Skinner and Paul Newman consider the H.38a.4 (Hausa) ‘aiki “work, send” to be .a
variant of the H.38c.2 Hausa raka “escort, accompany” (Skinner 214 Matsushita 1993 171). Note that this is also
a meaning of the H.38a.5 E.Chadic-Mokulu ‘agi / ‘akki and the H.38c.1-2 Proto-Cushitic/ Somali *raaʕ / raac.
Thus Paul Newman’s proto-Chadic root *rəkə “send” is the result of his reconstruction: ʔaikìi “send” < *øaiki
(< *øarki < *rəkə “send”) Newman, P. 2000 228. The (*øarki < *øaiki change occurred under the rule that
“non-initial *r regularly changed to y / i. Newman, P. 2000 227. The transitional root form *øarki corresponds
closely to the H.38a.4 Proto-E. Cushitic Extended *’erg- “send” and the non-ST Asian H.38a.4 Extended IE-
Iranian-Middle Persian ark- “Arbeit” [work]; so H.40.3 Proto-Chadic (Newman, P.) *şəna “work”and H.38a.4
W. Chadic-Hausa cìnikī “trading”. cìnikī is probably the result of compounding of the H.38a.5 Chadic ‘igi “to
send” with the Proto-West Chadic *cin- “send”. Skinner 36.
759

H.38a.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] gì5 / S. Chinese-Min kì3 “send, transmit” “entrust, consign”
< E. Chadic-Mokulu ‘akki “send” “accompany”
H.38a.2 S. Chinese-Min ek8 n. “servant, laborer” v. “dispatch“ v. “employ as a servant”
v. “do, undertake”
< E. Chadic-Mokulu ‘akki “send” “accompany”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *‘akki “send” “accompany”
H.38a.1
Chinese- Cantonese yihk fù “a laborer, a servant” Chik / Ng Lam 136, 371
jīkyihp “profession, occupation” Chik / Ng Lam 136, 371 “job” “employment” Kwan 161, 257
H.38a.2
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chì “one’s duty or job, one’s official business or assignment”
chì “a messenger, errand man” “to dispatch, to send (a person)” Chik / Ng Lam 120
sì “a servant, a person who performs mean labor” Chik / Ng Lam 130
N. Chinese-MSC chì (WG) “to send, to deposit” Mathews #419a 55
zhí “dispatch, send away” DeFrancis 789
TB-Lahu cɪ “send on business, employ” “causative auxiliary” Matisoff 2003 199
Middle Chinese dzyiH “accompany, wait upon” Sagart 1999 64
H.38a.1 NS-Nuer jʌk ”to send a person)” Huffman 19
Semitic-Hebrew sekheer “hireling of” Baltsan 375
ši‫ح‬an “to ship, freight, consign” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 236
si‫ع‬a “to work, endeavor, try” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 219
Semitic-Hebrew ‘esek “business, occupation” Baltsan 70, 499 ‘eesook “occupation, job”
Baltsan 84, 499
H.38a.2 Proto-West Chadic *cin- “send” Skinner 36.
E. Chadic-Masa Group-Lame si(i)n “send, work” Skinner 36.378
H.38a.3 NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] jaggowo “employer” Taylor 94
E. Cushitic-Somali shaqee “to work” shakale “worker, laborer” Awde 1999 47
H.38a.4
W. Chadic-Hausa cìnikī “trading” Bargery 2002. On cìn- root see also F.15a.2
‘aikatā vt. “do, perform, act” Newman, P. 2007 3 aikē n. m. “errand”
Newman, P. 2000 228 ma‘aikatā “place of work, factory” ma locative prefix Skinner 190
ma‘àikaci “worker” ma agential prefix Newman / Ma 1992 [83] See also Chapter 10 section 10.3.4
E. Cushitic-Oromo ergu vi. “recapitare, inviare, mandare, spedire, delegare” [to deliver, to send,
to drive, to delegate] Borello 137
The association of “sending” with “work’ is clear in the present H.38a table. The cìn- /si(i)n- roots also appear
to be present in the NC-Fulani senga “to herd, look after for” and NS-Kanuri sunggin “drive or chase away
(usually a group of animals)”. (Cyffer 1990 165.) Taylor lists the Fulani forms in the same entry with chengido /
sengibe “hireling, herdsman hired for a period” (sen + gi-. Taylor 172). The NC-Kanuri senga form with
semantics of herding is closely similar to those of F.15a.2 NC-Swahili –jenga “to build (a dwelling), make
pottery” which has similar Chadic attetations also found in F.15a.
Human beings certainly constructed dwellings in Africa well before the domestication of cattle. Hence the oldest
denotation of the activity of working is probably that of the F.15a.2 Niger-Congo cheng / jeng- “build” root
cited above. This came to mean more generically “work / make things” (Again see F.15a.1-2 Extended); later the
word expressed the notions “be employed as ” or “being an employee of”. The iki / aiki root seems to have
appeared with the domestication of cattle in Africa and is plausibly of Chadic origin, as indicated in the H.38a.4-5
correspondences.
760
Proto-E. Cushitic *’erg- “send” Skinner 3

H.38a.5 W. Chadic-Hausa makiyàayi n.m. “herdsman” ma agential prefix Newman / Ma 1992 [86]
C. Khoisan-Naro !kaii “to drive on” Ruhlen 1994 52
H.38a.1
Kartvelian-Georgian (Old Georgian) *ćik(w) ”to send” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 7
Kartvelian-Laz čk(w)- / šk(w)- ”to send” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 7
Kartvelian-Megrel čk(w)- ”to send” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 7
Proto-Kartvelian *ćik(w) ”to send”
H.38a.2 IE-Bengali jhi “maid” Thompson 110
H.38a.3 IE-Bengali cakri “job, employment” cakor “servant” Thompson 48
H.38a.4 IE-Iranian-Middle Persian ark- “Arbeit, Anstrenung, Muhe” [work, exertion, effort]
http.//starling.rinet.ru H.40.3
H.38a.5 IE-Bengali kaj n. kaj kara v. “work” Thompson 43, 135
/
H.38b.1 Old Chinese C. Chadic- Semitic-Hebrew
sli̭əg “command, cause, send” Gude shole’ak v. present
Karlgren GSR #975n ɬəkē “send” “send, dispatch”
Matisoff 2003 199379 Skinner 3 leshale’ak inf.
TB-Tibetan zlog-pa C. Chadic- “to send away” Baltsan 390, 735
“to send, dispatch” Glavda shalee’ak
Jaschke 492 lagw- “emissary, messenger, apostle”
TB-Tibetan ‘u-lág “compulsory “send” Baltsan 385,479, 656
post-service” Skinner 3 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic
“the gratuitous forwarding of Proto-Chadic lakä “send, remit, ship off”
letters, luggage and persons, the *rəkə Leslau 1976 10, 471
supply of the requisite porters and “send” *l-‘-k “send” Skinner 3
beasts of burden, originally a Newman, P. Leslau 1976 10
socage service tendered to lords 2000 228381 māl’əkt
and proprieters, governors, “message, mission, errand”
officers and priests.; Leslau 1976 10
in more recent times remunerated talalaki “messenger, messenger
and legally regulated in those boy, errand boy”
parts that are visited by European Leslau 1976 16, 335
travelers.” Jaschke 499380
H.38b.1 Old Chinese sli̭əg “command, cause, send” / TB-Tibetan zlóg-pa “to send, dispatch”
< C. Chadic-Gude ɬəkē “send”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *ɬək- “send”
379
Note- H.38b.1 (Old Chinese, Etyma)
The Chadic-Gude form corresponds most closely to the Old Chinese form. The initial sl- of Old Chinese and zl-
of Tibetan are plausible ways of representing the sound of the initial flap ɬ- of the Gude form. This flap is
sometimes represented in Chadic by hl-or tl-. (See A.12a.1-2 (Chadic) including Extended section.) The frontal
fricative initials of the Hebrew forms are reflected in both Old Chinese and Tibetan morphemes.
380
Note- H.38b.1(Tibetan) Jaschke is describing the postal situation in Tibet around 1880. (The first edition of his
dictionary was in 1881).
381
Note- H.38b.1 (Proto-Chadic) For multiple occurrences of the Hausa, Cushitic *øark, *rək-root in Indo-
European languages see the following section H.38c.2 Asian non-STlanguages with close correspondences to
the African/AA roots.
761

H.38b.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) lahk “to write letters”
lahk bou “to report by letter” Chik / Ng Lam 250-251
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic māl’əktāňňa “messenger, emissary, delegate, envoy, representative”
Leslau 1976 10
H.38b.1 IE-Sanskrit lekyāhanam “mail (post)” lekyāvahanam “dispatch” lekyam “official
message” lekhahari m. “hasty messenger” Cologne Lexicon
IE-Pashto leg-al “to send, to transmit, send out, to dispatch” Raverty 891
IE-Bengali lagano “employ” “hire” Thompson 75 104
/
H.38c.1 W. Chadic-Ngizim Proto-Afro-Asiatic Proto-Semitic
Proto-TB ràkáu “drive (Orel / Stolbova *rāʕ
*rak (animal etc.) along” 1995) “herdsman”
“drive, chase” “drive away, chase *(h-)lak “go, “companion”
Matisoff 2003 after” drive” Skinner 214 Militarev, A.
609, 644, 647 márákí “one who E. Cushitic-Somali Semitic Etymology
TB-Proto-Lolo- chases, drives raac #423 22
Burmese, along” Schuh 111, “to accompany” Semitic-Old Aramaic
Written 136, 196 “go with” ra’ē, ra’yā
Burmese W. Chadic-Hausa Awde 1999 45, 62 “chief shepherd”
*rak rāràka “drive Skinner 214 rā’ya, ra’ita
“drive, chase” away” Skinner 3 Proto-Cushitic “shepherdess”
Matisoff 2003 C.. Chadic-Njanye, *raaʕ- Comprehensive
319, 644, 647 Gude lak- “drive “to accompany, Aramaic Lexicon
away” Skinner 214 follow” W. Semitic-(Ethiopian)
C
See also Starostin, Sergei arak “associate,
Note-H.25a.1 E. Cushitic- be a companion”
(Hausa Extended) Etymology Skinner 214
H.38c.2 W. Chadic-Diri E. Cushitic- Semitic-Syrian Aramaic NS-Nuer
Proto-Tibeto- raʔa “herd, graze” Rendille yáak n. rəʕā “pasture, lak
Burman, Stolbova, Olga “pasture, grazing” guard livestock, “to
Proto-Lolo- W. Chadic yaakha vt. herd, graze” graze”
Burmese Etymology 2006 “graze on” Militarev, A. Huffman
*ʔklak ~ W. Chadic-Hausa Pillinger 296 Semitic Etymology 27
*glak ràkaà raahin “to go #423 22
“graze (forage)” “accompany, with, travel with, to Ethiopian-Amharic
Matisoff escort” follow, aläqqämä
2003 317, 653 Newman, P. 2007 to precede” “take to pasture”
TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Ngizim “(act of) going, ”make to graze”
rɔgba ràakənú travelling in Leslau 1976 8
“a helper, “walk, travel, go” procession with” Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi)
assistant” ràakán Pillinger 245 ra‫ع‬i vn. “grazing”
Goldstein 1049 “travelling, moving [in Rendille this is raa‫ع‬i
along” Schuh 136 also used in the “shepherd, herdsman”
mariki m. context of walking, Dict. of Iraqi Arabic
Newman / Ma travelling with part 2 190
1992 88 camels]
762
H.38c.3 E. Cushitic- Semitic-Arabic

TB-N. Loloish- Rendille jaquʔdu (IPA)
Lalo yagcha vt. “drive”
jàk “take livestock to Merriam-Webster
“drive, chase” drink water” Arabic 46
Matisoff yaakicha
2003 319 “to pasture
livestock,
drive (livestock
out to graze)
yaakime
“practice or skill of
herding”
“look over, watch
over (livestock)”
Pillinger
296-297, 332
H.38c.1
C. Chadic-Muktele lakiŋ “accompany” Skinner 214
Chadic-Mofu Gudur ləg- “accompagner” [accompany] Skinner 214
H.38c.2 IE-Old Indian raksati “to guard, watch, take care” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European
Etymology 2012 4
IE- Sanskrit goraks “tending or guarding cattle” goraksa “a cowherd” “tending or breeding cattle,
business of a herdsman” go “cattle” Araksin “guarding, watching cattle” raks “to guard, watch, take
care of, protect” “to tend (cattle)” raksita “guarded, protected, saved” raksa “the act of protecting or
guarding, protection, care, preservation, security”
rakshati (Vedic) “to guard, watch, take care of, protect” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Hindi raks̝ā “guard” Scudiere 71 raksā “protection” raksā karna “protect” vt.
raksak “keeper, escort”m. Scudiere 309
IE-Bengali rɔkkha “protection, defense” n. rɔkkha kɔra “protect” vb. Thompson74, 119
nɔjor rakha vb. “watch, keep an eye on” nɔjor “sight, vision view” Thompson 58
Proto-Indo-European *alek- “to defend” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology4
H.38c.3 Proto-IE *yag(‘)h “to drive” Nicolayev, Sergei Indo-European Etymology 2012 158
↓↓
H.39a-b Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA- AA-Semitic NS NC
Cush.
H.39a.1 W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Semitic-Arabic
N. Chinese-MSC Miya tsāwar (Yemeni)
jiāoyì “business, “change, exchange” h’awwal
deal, trade, Skinner 232 “to change,
transaction” W. Chadic-Geruma convert,
Wu, J. 338 jàw- “buy” exchange”
jyāuyì (Y) n. < “exchange” Qafisheh 150
“bargain, purchase)” Skinner 128
Chen 16382
382
Note- H.39a.1 (Chinese, Chadic, Arabic) It is difficult to determine which, Hausa or Arabic, should be posited
as the proximate source of the Chinese morphemes . The jiāo- root is the same as that of H.39b.1 which is based
763
N. Chinese-MSC W. Chadic- Gwandara saawam

chiāo (WG) (Gitata) “to haggle, bargain
“to exchange, šàwáà with somone”
to barter, “exchange” Qafisheh 324
to bargain” Matsushita1974 #699
Mathews #702a 95 146
xiāo W. Chadic-Hausa
“spend” sauyà vg.1 vt.
Merriam-Webster “change, exchange”
Chinese 145 Skinner 232
H.39a.2 W. Chadic-Hausa Semitic-Arabic
TB-Tibetan sārī m. (Iraqi)
sarwa “buying wholesale for šarwa
“purchase, buy” resale” “a purchase, a buy”
Das 241 Newman, P. 2007 179 Dict. of Iraqi
Arabic part 1 142
part 2 241
H.39a.3 W. Chadic- Hausa Semitic-Arabic Kanuri
N. Chinese -MSC sautù m. (Iraqi) sáwərngin
jiao “hand over, “giving money to tsawwaġ “go away for
give up” someone going on a “to shop for gifts business or
jiaofu journey so that the to take home from trading, be an
“hand over, person can buy a trip” itinerant trader
deliver, consign” something for you” Dict. of Iraqi < Arabic”
jiaocun sayō vg.6 Arabic sáwər
“hand in for (ventive) part 2 273 “trade,
safekeeping, “buy for, buy and bring commerce”
consign” back” < Arabic”
Wu, J. 337 Newman, P. Cyffer 1990
N. Chinese-MSC 2000 627 2007 181 155-156
jiāochuan
“exchange, swop”
Wu, J. 338
diāohuan
“exchange, change,
swap” Wu, J. 156
on the verbal exchange found in bargaining as well as the exchange of goods. The semantics of “exchange” exist
within a wider semantic field of social interaction and this in H.39b.1 appears to have originated in Semitic
languages. Trade was taking place between theArabian peninsula and African populations of the eastern Sahel as
early as 3000 BCE when it was the major vehicle of cultural interaction between southwest Asia and Africa.
Recent archaeological digs in Oman have revealed that the southeastern Arabian peninsula was a major trading
center from 2500 BCE. The main proof of this is the wide presence in Arabia of pottery and carnelian beads from
the Indus (Harappan) civilization at this time. Lawler 1093-1097, Possehl 224-225. The correspondences indicate
that Chadic speakers were involved in this trade.
Trade with EastAsia developed at the latest during the early historical period. The Persians are known to have
been intermediaries on the northern route from the Mediterranean. However a southern route also passed between
Mesopotamia, Persia, north India and perhaps later, but still in the pre-historic period, into China. See also Chapter
6 sections 6.4-5, 6.12, Chapter 7 Section 7.4 , Chapter 8 note 8.1.3.1 and Chapter 9 sections 9.6, 9.9. Much later
there was major maritime contact between Arab traders and east/Asia (after 800 CE). See Ehret 2002 230.
764
H.39a.4 W. Chadic- Hausa

S. Chinese-Kejia sàyu [verb grade 7 of
[Hakka] (MacIver, sàyā or sauya
Meixian) “exchange” “be bought
siau1 (completely)”383
“be marketed, sell, “has been well bought’
be circulated” Kraft 147, 363
Hakka Dict. “be well bought”
N. Chinese -MSC Newman, P. 2000 627
hsiāo, siāo jàuřa f.
“to sell” “peddling,
Mathews petty trading”
#2611a 388 Newman / Ma
1979 57
“itinerant peddling”
Skinner 122, 291
H.39a.5 W. Chadic- Gwandara Egyptian
N. Chinese-MSC (Karshi) shu “to haggle,
shòu “to sell” šowé’ / šewóye to trade as a
Wu, J. 633 “exchange” merchant”
TB-Tibetan (Toni) shuti
chó-ce “trade, sówòyi “exchange” “merchant,
traffic commerce” Matsushita 1974 trafficker”
Jaschke 452 #699 146 Budge v.2 733
H.39a.1 N. Chinese-MSC chiāo “to exchange, to barter, to bargain”
< W. Chadic- Geruma jàw- “exchange”
H.39a.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sauh “to sell”
< W. Chadic-Hausa sauya “change, exchange”
Approximate Sinitic etymon *jaw ~ *sau- “exchange”
H.39a.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gàau “to exchange” Chik / Ng Lam 7
S. Chinese-Min kaū-kuân “to trade with, deal with, do business with” Bodman 1987 v.2 83, 145, 151
N. Chinese-MSC xiāo, xiāoshòu “sell, market” Wu, J. 758-759
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) siu sauh “to sell” Chik / Ng Lam 468
H.39a.3
S. Chinese-Min kaû “to hand over, pay (as fee) Bodman 1987 v.2 145
Chinese–Min siau1 “be marketed, sell, be circulated” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jáau “to return (change)” Chik / Ng Lam 166
H.39a.4 N. Chinese-MSC xiāoshòu “sell, market” Wu, J. 759
H.39a.1
E. Chadic-Bidiya sawar “troquer, échanger” [swap, exchange] Skinner 232
Proto-AA ciway- “trade” Militarev / Stolbova 2007 Afro-Asiatic Etymology
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) ‘awwal “to change, convert, exchange e.g., money”
ti’awwal “to be changed, to be converted” Qafisheh 150
Written Arabic ta’awwul “change, transformation, transmutation” Wehr 254
383
Note- H.39a.4 (Chadic-Hausa) The grade 7 form of the Hausa verb “indicates that the subject of the verb has
sustained or is capable of sustaining some action”. In many cases, it thus corresponds to the English passive.”
Newman, P. 2000 665 See also Notes E.7c.1 (Hausa) and E.13e.3 (Hausa).
765
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic zäwwärä “change around” Leslau 1976 184

Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) saawa “to equal” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 1 62-63
Semitic-Arabic musaawi “equivalent”Merriam- Webster Arabic 50
NS-Kanuri njiwo / yiwo “purchase” [verbal noun forms of] yíwukin, cíwin “buy”
Cyffer 1990 141, 192, 193.
Cushitic-Aga jew- “buy” Skinner 128
H.39a.2
W. Chadic-Hausa (Maradi dialect) sāyòowā “buying and bringing” Newman, P. 2000 706
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage mezära / messära “exchange” Skinner 205
Semitic-Arabic tiʒa:ra (IPA) “trade” n. Merriam-Webster Arabic 164
šarwa “[a] bargain” [as in] “This book was a good bargain” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 1 15
E. Cushitic-Oromo c’ac’aru “vendere al minuto” [sell at retail price] Borello 76
C. Chadic-Bidiya d’yirawo “marchand ambulant” [itinerant peddler] Skinner 122
H.39a.3
W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic täzäwawari “one who goes back and forth” ”errant, itinerant”
Leslau 1976 181
Semitic-Written Arabic šara “to sell, vend” Wehr 549
H.39a.4 W. Chadic-Hausa sayârwā “selling” Kraft 363 saye da sayârwā “buying and selling”
Newman, P. 2007 181
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage mezära / messära “exchange” Skinner 205
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic šəyyaĉ’ “sale” Leslau 1976 65
H.39a.5 Egyptian šu v. “trade” Skinner 128
E. Chadic-Masa Group-Lame, Peve *tsob’- “buy, sell” Skinner 232
NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] choggu “dealing, bargaining” sōda “to deal, to bargain, to buy”
Taylor 177 tšoggu “trade, commerce” Barth v.2 290
W. Chadic-Hausa kāasuwā n. “market” Newman, R.1990 163
kasuwanci “business (commercial activity)” Newman, R.1990 32
Nilo-Saharan-Kanuri kasúwu n. “market” kasuwú adj. “having to do with the market”
< Arabic Cyffer 1990 83
E. Cushitic-Sidamo sōrr- “change” Skinner 232
H.39a.1 IE-Hindi saudā “bargain, deal” m. saudāgar “trader” m. Scudiere 342
H.39a.2
IE-Pashto chār “business, affair, work, profession, occupation” Raverty 351
IE-Sanskrit sarani “a traveler, esp. a travelling merchant” Cologne Lexicon
/
H.39b.1 N. Chinese–MS E. Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi)
jiāotán “talk with each other, Cushitic- jaawab “to answer, reply to”
converse” Somali Dict, of Iraqi Arabic
jiāoji “make social contacts, jawaab part 1 8 part 2 79
socialize” Wang, F. 236 “answer” W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic
“social intercourse, Awde tacäwwätä “chat, converse,
communication” Wu, J. 338 1999 54 play (a game)” Leslau 1976 241
H.39b.2 Semitic-Arabic(Yemeni) NC-Swahili
S. Chinese-Yue tšaawar / šaawar shauri
(Cantonese) “to consult with each other, “to advise,
jàu deliberate” “to consult with to consult,
“to confer, to consult, someone” Qafisheh 355 to decide”
to seek the advice of” (Iraqi) tzaawwär “to exchange Awde 2000 212
Chik / Ng Lam 424 visits, visit each other” < Arabic]
766
N. Chinese–MSC chiāo
“to have intercourse with,
intimacy, friendship”
Mathews #702c 96
jiǎo “associate with”
See also F.6b.2 (Arabic)
Extended Sino-Tibetan language word family
H.39b.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gáauwuhn “exchange” Chen 100 gau “to come across,
to meet, to encounter” Chik / Ng Lam 456
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] gaau1 / gau5 “exchange, intersect, cross” “unite in sexual intercourse”
“simultaneously, each other” (Meixian, MacIver) kau1 ; (Lau Chunfat) gau1 / gau2 / gau4 / kau1
“submit, hand in or over” “transfer” Hakka Dict.
S. Chinese-Min kaû bf. “keep in touch with” kaû kuan “trade, deal with” Bodman 1987 v.2
145
H.39b.1
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) muwaa‫ح‬ara “dialog, conversation, talk”
E. Cushitic-Rendille hawwoocha vi. “converse” kahawwoocha vt. “discuss something”
Pillinger 138,175
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic, Gurage (Soddo) s’äwätä “converse” Leslau 1979 v.3 192
H.39b.2
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi, Yemeni) mušaawara “conference, consultation”
H.39b.1
IE-Pashto jawab “an answer, a reply” Raverty 342
IE-Hindi javāb “response, reply, answer” javāb dena vi. “reply, answer” n.m. Scudiere 10
IE-Bengali jɔbāb “answer” n. Thompson 84 jɔbāb deowa “reply” v. Thompson 120
↓↓
H.40.1 N. Chinese- W. Chadic- Hausa N. Semitic- Arabic
MSC shāng (WG) sha’ani sha’anoni pl. Cushitic- ša’an
“trade or commerce” “business, affair” Beja “matter, business,
“a merchant” Newman, P. 2007 182 [Bedauye] affair”
“to trade” Bargery 2002 šanha Qafisheh [329]
Mathews #5673a 783 sha’anin cìnikii “work” “business, affair”
“trade, commerce, “business Skinner Skinner 240
business” “merchant, (commercial activity)” 36
trader” Wu, J. 595 4 Newman, R. 1990 32
H.40.2 W. Chadic- Hausa Semitic- Arabic Kanuri
S. Chinese-Yue musanya vt. (Iraqi) sanyâ n.
(Cantonese) musanyi n. s’an‫ع‬a “trade,
sàangyi n. “trade” “exchange, barter” s’anaayi‫ ع‬pl. craft,
“business (trade)” Skinner 205 “trade, craft, occupation”
Kwan 53, 535 “exchange” occupation” Cyffer
[Disyllabic corresp.] Newman / Ma 1979 93 “a trade” [as in] 1990 154
jouhsàangyi v. sànā’àa “occupation” “I’m a butcher by
“trade” Newman, R. 1990 185 trade” Dict. of Iraqi
wuhn sànyéh v. Arabic part 1 186
“trade in” Kwan 535 part 2 271
767
N. Chinese -MSC
shāngyè
“commerce, trade,
business”
Wu, J. 596
H.40.3 Proto-Chadic Egyptian
S. Chinese-Yue (Newman, P.) sun, sunnu
(Cantonese) sèung *şəna “to sell”
“commerce, trade” “work” sun-t
“merchant, trader, Skinner 36 “trade, business,
business-man” “to See also Note- buying and
discuss, to exchange H.38a.2, 4. selling”
views” (Hausa Extended) Budge v.2 650
Chik / Ng Lam 63 and set F.15a.2.
TB-Kiranti-Limbu
s‫כ‬nma vt.
“sell (with inanimate
patient)”
van Driem 1987 515
TB-Tibetan
tsuuno “buying”
Goldstein 881
H.40.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sàangyi n. “trade” “business (trade)”
< W. Chadic- Hausa musanye vt. “exchange”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etymon *sangye vt. “exchange, barter”
H.40.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian, MacIver) ts’an5 (Siyan) ts’an3 “make, money, earn, gain,
profit” Hakka Dict.
H.40.2
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sáungaih “skill, trade” Po-fei Huang 435 “skill (to make a living)”
Kwan 482
S. Chinese–Min siēng-uâq “life, livelihood, living” Bodman 1987 v.2 172
H.40.3
Chinese–Wu snz1 “commerce, business trade” “merchant, trader, businessman” Hakka Dict.
TB-Tibetan tsoŋga “selling” tsoŋge “business profit” Goldstein 886 soŋ “goods, merchandise”
Goldstein 963 tsoŋ gyaà “to do trading, to buy and sell” Goldstein 887
TB-Tibetan h’tshoŋ-wa “to barter, to sell” Das 1045
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sèungchèung “market (business world)” Po-fei Huang 438
S. Chinese–Min siēng-li “business, trade” Bodman 1987 v.2 172
sǹg-cí “pay up, settle accounts” Bodman 1983 40, 193 ;
siong1 “commerce, business, trade” Hakka Dict.
(Meixian, MacIver) s’ong1 (Lau Chunfat) song1 “commerce, business, trade” “merchant, trader ”
“discuss, exchange views” Hakka Dict.
H.40.2 Nilo-Saharan-Kanuri sanyârám “place of work, place of practicing one’s trade”
sanyamá “one making a living from his trade or craft” Cyffer 1990 154
C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur m + səmk- “acheter”(Fr.) [buy] Skinner 205
W. Chadic-Hausa saya “buy” Newman / Ma 1979 108 Skinner 232 ;
sàyā “to buy”, sai da / sayar da “to sell” Newman, R. 1990 32, 239
768
sàyayyàa ”purchases” Newman, P. 2007 181

W. Chadic-Ron (Scha) šyen “wechseln” [exchange] Skinner 232
H.40.3 Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šugul “business” Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 1 27
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni, Iraqi) suug “marketplace, bazaar”
Qafisheh 324 Dict. of Iraqi Arabic part 2 230
↓↓
Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA- AA- NS NC
Cush. Sem.
H.41.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Gwandara
jüürii “twisting, turning” (Karshi, Toni, Koro)
[Disyllabic corresp.] jùyi “turn round”
jūg‫“ ככ‬twisted” Matsushita 1974 #517 115
jüǜg‫“ ככ‬screwing in W. Chadic- Hausa
something” jūyàa vg.1 vt.
Goldstein 337 “turn something around or over”
gyu̱wa “movement, Newman, P. 2007 101
circulation” “rotate (turn, alternate)”
Goldstein 268 Newman, R. 1990 230
[Disyllabic corresp.] jūyàwà
jū “to turn, change direction” “spin, go round and round”
Goldstein 337 Newman, R.1990 255
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) jewa “hovering, going to and fro,
yíu “to go around, to encircle” hanging around”
H.41.2 W. Chadic- Hausa
TB-Tibetan jūyii m. “change of state, position”
gyür Newman, P. 2007 101
“to change, to transform, jūyàa v.
to alter” “to translate “translate”
to interpret” “change (make become different)”
gyurwa “a change” Newman, R. 1990 283, 39
Jaschke 96-97 Goldstein 24
H.41.1 TB-Tibetan jüüri “twisting, turning”
< W. Chadic-Gwandara jùyi “turn round”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *jùyii “turn round”
H.41.1
TB-Tibetan sgyur-ba perf. sgyur fut. “to transform” “to change (color, one’s mind), to alter
(something written, hence to correct , revise)” “to turn off, aside (the course of a river)” “to turn”
“to translate” Jaschke 118
kə̄gyur “turning around, changing direction (e.g. for vehicles)” Goldstein 91
ka ̄ju “to turn / twist around, to change direction, to veer” Goldstein 93
H.41.2 TB-Tibetan
gyurdeb “a translated book” Goldstein 281-2
H.41.1
W. Chadic-Hausa jùwa “giddiness, vertigo” n. f. Newman, P. 2007 101
E. Chadic-Dangaleat, Tumak d’uw- “turn, return” Skinner 128
↓↓
769

H.42 Afro-Asiatic – AA-Cush. AA- NS NC
Chadic Sem.
H.42.1 W. Chadic- Hausa Kanuri
TB-Tibetan tařwàtsā vt. tartekin
thara-thoré zág-pa “to scatter, disperse” “scatter,
“to scatter, Newman, R. disperse,
to throw loosely about” 1990 71 be scattered,
Jaschke 227 tařwàtsē gr 4 dispersed”
tárd ‫“ככ‬scattered, dispersed” completive . tarngin
Goldstein 490 “become scattered, “scatter,
gtor-wa explode” disperse”
“to strew, spread over” Newman, P. 2007 tartaa vn.
Das 527 199 Cyffer 1990 170
dárba
“to be diffused,
to spread (of influence,
power, diseases)”
Jaschke 251
H.42.2 E. Cushitic- Kanuri
S. Chinese-Yue Rendille tarngin
Cantonese) taa’ha vi. “spread out
tàanhoi “spread out, (usually in the
“to spread out scatter, sun to dry)”,
(books, papers), disperse” “lay out,
spread thin” taana expose”
Po-fei Huang 444 “we are Cyffer 1990170
tàan spreading
“to spread, to open” out,
“to divide equally” scattering”
Chik / Ng Lam 194 taana
N. Chinese -MSC “you sing.
tān “spread out” are spreading
Wu, J. 663 out,
“spread things out scattering”
(as for a display)” Pillinger 272
Wang, F. 450
H.42.1
TB-Tibetan dárwa “to be diffused, to spread, spreading” dárba “to be diffused, to spread
(of influence, power, diseases)” tárdɔɔ “scattered, dispersed”
< W. Chadic-Hausa tařwàtsa “to scatter” tařwatsē “scatter out, disperse” / NS-Tubu tar “spread,
extend” / NS-Kanuri tartekin “scatter, disperse, be scattered, dispersed”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *tařwà- “to scatter, spread” “to be scattered, dispersed”
H.42.1
TB-Tibetan
dar-ba “to be diffused, to spread (of influence, power, opinions, diseases” Jaschke 251
dárwa “to be diffused, grown up, to spread, spreading” Das 621
tárgyəb “diffusion, dissemination, spreading” Goldstein 527
770
ɣtór-ba “to strew, to scatter, to cast, to throw” Jaschke 209

‘thor-wa “to be strewn or scattered” Das 609
torewa “a scattered few” Goldstein 502384
rdál-ba “to spread (sand, stones, manure etc.)” Jaschke 285
bdál-ba “scattered, spread” Hodge 182
H.42.2 S. Chinese-Min tan5 “arrange, exhibit, display, spread out” Hakka Dict.
H.42.1
W. Chadic-Hausa dāře “scatter” Skinner 44
Proto-AA *tár- “to increase” Ehret 1995 #174 142
NS-Tubu [Teda] tar “ausbreiten” [spread, extend] Lukas 1953 184
W. Chadic-Ngizim tàřb’u vt. “to scatter out, disperse” “distribute, share out” Schuh 157, 196
H.42.2 South (Ethiopic) Semitic-Amharic
bättänä vt. “disperse, scatter, dissipate, strew (flowers, leaflets”)
täbättänä vi. “disperse, be scattered, dissipate” Leslau 1976 95
E. Cushitic-Oromo tamsawu “sparpagliare, spandersi” [to scatter, to disperse” “to scatter, to spread,
to spill, to slop] Borello 389
H.42.1
IE-Pashto
tarawul “to disperse, to scatter, to spread” Raverty 217
tarmey tarmey “scattered, disheveled” 237
IE-Sanskrit
staRaNa “the act of spreading, strewing or scattering”
staRaNIya “to be spread, or strewn or scattered”
stR “to spread, spread out or about, strew, scatter” Cologne Lexicon
Proto-Turkic *dar- “to go apart, to scatter, to spread” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Turkic-Turkish darga “to go apart, to scatter, to spread” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Turkic-Turkmen darɣa “to go apart, to scatter, to spread” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Turkic-Dolgan targat “to go apart, to scatter, to spread” Starostin, Sergei Turkic Etymology
Old Indian
stártave, staritavai, stáritave infinitive “to spread, spread out, strew, scatter”
stáriman n. “spreading, scattering”
H.42.2
IE-Sanskrit
tan “to extend, spread, be diffused (as light) over” “spread out or about, strew, scatter”
Atan “to extend or stretch over, spread, overspread (said of light)” “to extend (a texture), spread,
stretch (a bow for shooting) “to diffuse”
tanula “spread, extended” Cologne Lexicon.
ut-tana “stretched out, spread out” “spreading out over a surface”
ut-tanasivan “lying extended” Cologne Lexicon.
IE-Hindi
tānnā vt. “extend” Scudiere 58
See also Supplementary Table 2 Sanskrit and IE H.42.1-2
↓↓
384
Note- H42.1 (Tibetan Extended) The alternative Tibetan form ‘thorba / ‘thorwa also has the meanings
“to be scattered, to fly asunder, to be dispersed, to fall to pieces” “to burst (of a gun)”. This is related to the H.42.1
Hausa tařwàtsē vt. “become scattered, explode”, but also to an E. Cushitic root found in Rendille tarkha vi.
“to squirt out” which in its causative form tarkhicha means “squash, crush, pop (literally, cause fluid to squirt
out). “Used of squashing small juicy’ insects like ticks, spiders, lice; also of popping pimples etc.” Pillinger 274
771

H.43 Afro-Asiatic – Chadic AA- AA- NS NC
Cush. Sem.
H.43.1 W. Chadic–Hausa gōgàa vt. “rub on”
TB-Tibetan gōgèe verb grade 4 gūgàa vn. f.
gug-pa “scrape off, rub, clean, polish”
“to rub or scratch Newman, P. 2007 75
gently” “rub something onto something, file, polish,
Jaschke 69 plane” Skinner 87
Das 220 W. Chadic –Bole
gōgo- “rub” Skinner 87
H.43.1 TB-Tibetan gug-pa “to rub or scratch gently”
< W. Chadic – Hausa gugàa vn. “rub (something onto something)” “rub, file, polish, plane”
Approximate Tibetan etymon *gug- “scrape off, rub, file, polish”
H.43.1
W. Chadic–Hausa
yi guga “press (iron clothes)” Newman, R.1990 207
magōgī “grater” “brush” “eraser” Newman, P. 2007 144 Newman / Ma 1992 84
W. Chadic-Angas gwak, gwok “rub, grind” Skinner 87
C. Chadic–Mofu Gudur gwaguh- “frotter quelque chose pour nettoyer” [rub something to clean it]
Skinner 87
Proto-Cushitic *x-hK- “comb, scrape” Skinner 87
Proto-E. Cushitic *c’uukk “to rub” Ehret 1995 #553 292
H.43.1
Kartvelian-Georgian xọk- “to scratch” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 60
Kartvelian-Megrel xọk- “to shave” Starostin, Sergei Kartvelian Etymology 2005 60
772
Chapter 3
Statistical analysis of Afro-Asiatic ↔ Sino-Tibetan language superfamily lexical correspondences
3.1 Statistics for the number and size of word families
The following statistical analysis reports data related to the objectives stated in Chapter 1 sections
1.5.2-1.5.5:
1. Is the total number of word families large enough to remove any reasonable probability of chance
ST ↔ AA correspondences between their closely similar lexemes?
2. Are the individual word families large enough to identify multiple close correspondences within
them?
3. Can loaning be reasonably excluded as an explanation of the similarities?
3.1.1 The number of word families

The number of word families is determined by a count of all word families (reported in Table 3.1.1
(following). The count includes as units the word families which are subtables of generic word families.
This count is broken down by ST subfamily then by Semantic / Syntactic domain in Tables 3.1.2a-b
The full lexical comparison (Tables 2A-H) identified 508 word families common to ST and African /
Afroasiatic languages (represented by 309 numbered tables). These are broken down as follows:
Table 3.1.1
Breakdown by word family semantic/syntactic domains
Number of word families: Numbered tables
Word families 3:A (Animals) 65 37
Word families 3:B (Inanimate Objects) 67 39
Word families 3:C (Human body) 91 53
Word families 3:D (Human social groups) 57 39
Word families 3:E (Human cognition, intention) 65 34
Word families 3:F (Human artifacts) 43 28
Word families 3:G (Qualities, Numbers etc.) 40 36
Word families 3:H (Verbs) 80 43
Total word families and tables: 508 309
The 508 word families common to ST and African/Afroasiatic languages are fewer than the number of
TB cognate sets identified by Benedict in his elaboration of proto-Tibeto-Burman roots (about 700);
however, they exceed his original numbered sets (491). and the individual word families are in almost all
cases much larger than the TB word families identified by Benedict and Matisoff. Hence the present
inventory is plausibly adequate for proposing proto-forms.
3.1.2 The size of the word families

The size of word families can be measured under the parameters of:
a) Large single (independent) word families, defined as the number of single word families with
4 or more CC sets (reported in Table 3.1.3a)..
b) Generic word families, i.e. the total number of large interrelated word families and their
percentage of the total numbered tables. (reported in Table 3.1.3b)
773
Tables 3.1.2
Number of single (independent) word families containing one or more African/Afroasiatic ↔ ST
close correspondences broken down by subfamily (TB and Sinitic) then by Semantic/Syntactic
domain (Morphemes contained in the records’ Extended Correspondence areas are not included in the
count)
Table 3.1.2a
1. Single familyAfrican/Afroasiatic ↔ Tibeto-Burman subfamily correspondences:
Semantic/ Syntactic domain A: African/AA ↔ TB w.f. corresp. 59 =(90.8% of 65 w.f.)
Semantic/ Syntactic domain B: African/AA ↔ TB w.f. corresp. 54 =(79.4% of 67 w.f.)
Semantic/ Syntactic domain C: African/AA ↔ TB w.f. corresp. 74 =(81.3% of 91 w.f.)
Semantic/ Syntactic domain D: African/AA ↔ TB w.f. corresp. 42 =(73.6% of 57 w.f.)
Semantic/ Syntactic domain E: African/AA ↔ TB w.f. corresp. 51 =(78.5% of 65 w.f.)
Semantic/ Syntactic domain F: African/AA ↔ TB w.f. corresp. 37 = (82.2% of 43 w.f.)
Heterogeneous word fams. G: African/AA ↔ TB w.f. corresp. 27 = (67.5% of 40 w.f.)
Semantic/ Syntactic domain H: African/AA ↔ TB w.f. corresp. 62 = (77.5% of 80 w.f.)
Total African/AA ↔ TB word family correspondences: 406 = (79.9% of the 508 w.f.)
Table 3.1.2b
2. Single family African/Afroasiatic ↔ Sinitic subfamily correspondences:
Semantic/Syntactic domain A: African/AA ↔ Sinitic w.f. corresp. 40 =(61.5% of 65 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain B: African/AA ↔ Sinitic w.f. corresp. 49=(72.1% of 67 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain C: African/AA ↔ Sinitic w.f. corresp. 75 =(82.4% of 91 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain D: African/AA ↔ Sinitic w.f. corresp. 48 =(84.2% of 57 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain E: African/AA ↔ Sinitic w.f. corresp. 56 =(86.2% of 65 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain F: African/AA ↔ Sinitic w.f. corresp. 34 = (79.9% of 43 w.f.)
Heterogeneous word fams. G: African/AA ↔ Sinitic w.f. corresp. 34 =(85% of 40 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain H:African/AA ↔ Sinitic w.f. corresp. 49 = (61.3% of 80 w.f.)
Total African/AA ↔ Sinitic word family correspondences: 385 = (75.8% of the 508 w.f.)
3.1.2.1 The average difference between the total number and percentage of African/Afroasiatic ↔
Tibeto-Burman correspondences is not great, i.e. AA ↔ TB (406 = 79.9%) and the AA ↔ Sinitic
(385 =75.8%); thus a difference of only 4.1%.
However there are significant differences between the relative importance of some Domains in the TB
and Sinitic comparisons.
In the TB comparison the A (Animals) Domain has a significantly higher percentage than the TB
E (Cognitive/Volitional) Domain, i.e.:
Table 3.1.2a AA ↔ Tibeto-Burman A Domain 59 = (90.8% of the 65 Chapter 2A w.f.)
Table 3.1.2a AA ↔ Tibeto-Burman E Domain 51 = (78.5% of the 65 Chapter 2E w.f.);
but in the Sinitic A and E Domains the E Cognitive /Volitional) Domain shows a higher percentage than
the A Domain, i.e.:
Table 3.1.2b AA ↔ Sinitic A Domain 40 = (61.5% of 65 w.f.)
Table 3.1.2b AA ↔ Sinitic E Domain 56 = (86.2%) of 65 w.f. See also Chapter 4 Section 4.3.3.
See Chapter 4 Tables 4.3 and Sections 4.3.2-3 and chapter 5 Section 5.2.3.1. Both of these contain
further analysis of correspondence patterns of the A, D and E Domains.along with proposed explanations
for their variances.
774
3.1.3 The size of the Chapter 2A-H word families as evidence against chance correspondence.
Statistics for large single multi-CC set word families and multiple word family (generic) related
groups.
Table 3.1.3a
Large single (independent) word families- those containing four or more Close Correspondence
sets = 38
4 CC sets A.27.1-4 “dung, excrement”
B.7.1-4 “grass, straw” B.30.1-4 “star, planet”,
C.4.1-4 “to lick, to taste” C.13.1-4 “navel, fetus, embryo” C.23.1-4 “beard”
C.39.1-4 “to be tired, to tire”,
E.10.1-4 “quarrel, rebuke, scold” E.31.1-4 “to inspect, examine” “to test, try”,
E.33.1-4 “to sing, a song”,
F.10.1-4 “tie up” “bundle, roll” F.19.1-4 “fold” repeat” “crease” F.25.1-4 “road”
G.5.1-4 “red” G.12.1-4 “long, “linear measure” G.15.1-4 “sun, day”,
G.16.1-4 “one, single” G.17.1-4 “one, single” G.18.1-4 “six” G.30.1-4 “I, me”
H.22.1-4 “give”, H.31.1-4 “cut, chop” H.32.1-4 “to dig, to scrape”
5 CC sets A.29.1-5 “grasshopper, louse”
C.17 “cave, belly, hollow, hole” C.8.1-5 “body, flesh, meat” C.40.1-5 “to spit”,
E.12.1-5 “sign, name” E.17.1-5 “strict, severe” “injure, “ harm” “grieved”
G.14.1-5 “time, hour, moment” “one, single” G.28.1-4 “ten”
H.12.1-5 “to bind, to fasten, to join”
6 CC sets D.1.1-6 “man, male, son”
7 CC sets A.26.1-7 “egg”, C.34.1-7 “ear, hear”, E.14.1-7 “to cry, to weep, to shout”,
E.15.1-7 “to grunt, to murmur, to growl”
8 CC sets F.1-8 “capture, catch” “hold, tongs”
Table 3.1.3b
Statistics of generic word families and the individual word families within them.
The number of generic word families (= multiple word Total individual word families
family groups = numbered tables with subtables flagged (flagged as subtables a-b- etc.) in
alphabetically as a-b- etc.) within each semantic/syntactic each generic word family within
domain A-H. each semantic/syntactic domain A-H
A domain
A.1a-b “bird” “hawk, crow” “partridge, guinea fowl” 2
A.2a-c “bird, partridge, chick” 3
A.5a-b “to fly, to jump” 2
A.6a-d “cow, bull” “flesh, meat” “castrated” 4
A.7a-b “to kill” “to strike dead” 2
A.9a-d “equids” “horse, colt” “wealth” 4
A.10.a-f “canines” “dog, fox, hyena” 6
A.12a-c “sheep, goat” “meat, flesh” 3
A.13a-b “scorpion, crab” 2
A.14a-c “biting, sucking insect” 3
A.18.a-c “elephant” 3
A.19a-b “lion, leopard” 2
A.20a-b “snake, worm” 2
A.21a-c “buffalo, cow” 2
A.24a-b “meat, flesh” “wild animal” 2
Numbered tables: Total A domain 15 = Total w.f. of A domain 42 =
40.5% of 37 numbered tables in group 64.6% of 65 word families
775
/
B domain
B.1a-b “earth” “agricultural field”, “tree, wood, to plant” 2
B.2a -b “green” “trees, plants, leaf, forest” 2
B.3a-d “stone, gravel, sand, clay” 4
B.5a-c “a block of stone or wood” “mound, mountain, hill, rock” 3
B.11a-e “burn, fire, kindle” “bake, roast” “hot, warm” 5
“spicy, haste, urgent”
B.12a-c “dry” “dry up, wither” “roast, toast, burn” “hard” 3
“stiff, stiffen”
B.14a-d “blossom, bud, flower” “swell, swelling” 4
B.15a-f “water“ (in its various forms), and water-related states 6
such as “flow” “pour”, “boil”
B.16a-c “rain, water” “passage for water” “valley, hollow place” 2
B.18a-b “moisture, dew, steam, wet” 3
B.20a-b “smoke, mist” 2
B.22a-b “flat stone or rock, flat objects” 2
B.33a-b “rice” “millet” “beans” 2
Total B domain 13 = Total w.f. of B domain 40 =
33.3% of 39 numbered tables in group 59.7% of 67 word families
/
C domain
C.1a-b “mouth, throat, opening” “neck” 2
C.2a-c “tongue, lick” 3
C.5a-b “nose, to smell” “scent” 2
C.6a-c “breast, milk, suckle” 3
C.8a-d “the human body, flesh, skin” “somebody, someone” 4
“form, figure, body” “a leather bag”
C.9a-b “self” “a corpse” 2
C.12a-b “back (of body), behind” “outside” 2
C.18a-c “cavity” “belly, inside,” “hole, hollow” 3
C20a-b “skin, bark, shell” “animal hide, leather” 2
C.21a-b “foot” “claw” “time(s), (instances)” 2
C.22a-c “upper arm, shoulder, hand” “strike with hand” 3
C.24a-b “angle, knee” “bent, hook, curve” 2
C.26a-b “knee, kneel” “ elbow” “angle” 2
C.28a-b “palate, gums” “chin, jaw” 2
C.29a-b “jaw, chin” “molar teeth” 2
C.30a-b “bite” “eat, drink” “ ridicule, sarcasm” 2
C.31a-e “eat, drink” “bite, chew” “ridicule, mock” 5
C.35a-d “foot, leg” “trunk, stem” “cylindrical object” 4
C.36a-c “to sit” “buttocks” 3
C.37a-b “die” “be lost, disappear” 2
C. 38a-c “hunger, hungry” “to fast” “tired, ill” 3
C.41a-c “face, direction” “right, right side” 3
C.47a-b “rashes, measles” 2
C.51.a-b “tuft of hair” ”top of head” 2
776
Total C domain 24 = Total w.f. of C domain

45.3% of 53 numbered tables in group 62 = 68.1% of 91 word families
/
D domain
D.3a-d “child, offspring, seed” 4
D.4a-c “husband, male” “older male relative” 3
D.5a-b “elder brother” “person with authority,” 2
D.9a-b “aunt, mother, woman” 2
D.10a-b “family, relatives” “protect, stand up for” 2
D.11a-b “pawn” “loan” 2
D.15a-b “poor person” “lonely person” 2
D.18a-b “gray haired” “old, old man, woman” 2
D.19a-b “old” “old man” 2
D.21a-d “be guilty, be bad (in character)” “be lazy” 4
D.26a-c “thief, steal” “be evil” “disaster, destruction” 3
D.27a-b “wizard, witch” “practice magic” “magician” 2
D.30a-b “dad” “father” “uncle, older brother” 2
Total D domain 13 = Total w.f. of D domain
33.3% of 39 numbered tables in group 32 = 56.1% of 57 word families
/
E domain
E.1a-d “the mind” “to think, know” “to wish, to hope for” 4
E.2a-b “to wish, for, to covet” “to hope, to expect” 2
E3a-d “to understand, to know” “to wish, to desire” “meaning, 4
purpose”
E.4a-d “see, look at, sight” “teacher, expert, astrologer” 4
E.5a-c “desire, love” 3
E.7a-e “good, beautiful, better” 5
E.8a-e “say, announce, publish” “law” “predict, divination” 5
E.9a-b “to talk, chat” “speak, say, state that” 2
E.11a-c “state, report, tell, say” 3
E.13a-f “speak, cry out, call, greet” 6
E16a-b “silent, calm down” 2
E.23a-b “fear” 2
E.24a-b “to hide, to conceal” 2
Total E domain 13 = Total w.f. of E domain 44 =
38.2% of the 34 numbered tables in group 67.7% of 65 word families
/
F domain
F.2a-b “gourd, container” 2
F4a-c “gourd, container” 3
F.6a-b “to turn” “circle, round” “a ball” 2
F.7a-b “a ring, to encircle, to surround” 2
“to turn round, go around” “surrounding wall” “a boundary, suburbs”
“enclosure for animals”
F.8a-c “surrounding area, vicinity” “ enclosed, walled town” 3
“an area, country with certain dimensions”
777
F.9a-b “to spin, go around” “to pen up, to surround with a fence, 2
wall” “to enclose, obstruct”
F.12a-c “to pierce, to sew” 3
F.15a-b “to build, dwelling(s)” 2
F.17a-c “to stop up, to plug” “to block, to seal” 3
F.18a-b “yarn, thread, twine” 2
F.21a-b “wood (used as tool, weapon, fuel etc.)” 2
“staff, stick” “firewood, stick, club”
Total F domain 11 = Total w.f. of F. Domain 26 =
39.3% of 28 numbered tables 61.9% of 43 word families
/
G domain
G.1a-b “strong” “thick (of liquids)” 2
“bitter” “hard”
G.8a-b “small” 2
G.11a-b “high, tall” “huge, big” 2
G.13a-c “night, staying overnight, 3
place to stay overnight” “sleep, tired”
“day, day break, sun”
Total G domain 4 = Total w.f. of G domain 9 =
11.1% of 36 numbered tables 22.5% of 40 word families
/
H domain
H.3a-c “to turn around, to be turned around” “to move” 3
“to move back”
H.4a-d “to go, come” “to travel, roam, migrate” “to wander” 4
H.6a-b “to enter, to go across” “to cross a stream, a ford” 2
“to go out”
H.7a-b “to tread, to trample, to stamp on” “to measure by pacing, 2
to survey”
H.8a-b “to tread, to walk” “road, way” “method” 2
H.13a-b “to crowd together, fill up” “to be full of, 2
to be filled up”
H.17a-c “to sit, to squat” “to descend, to get down, to go down” 2
“to be lodged”
H.19a-b “to stand up” “to be erect” “to carry” 2
H.20a-b “a load, a burden” “to carry” 2
H.23a-c “clean” “purely, completely” “holy, sacred, good” 3
“good, chaste, pure”
H.24a-g “clean” “clear” “completely” “new” “to rub, wipe” 7
“to shave, scrape” “to sweep, to comb” “to wash, bathe” “to strain,
to filter, to sift”
H.25a-c “to hunt, chase” “to escape, to flee” “to compete, a race, 3
a competition” “to excel, surpass”
H.26a-b “to prop up” “to support, raise up” “lean on” 2
“shelf, support”
H.29a-c “to beat, to knock” “to strike” “to grind, crush” 3
“to poke, to pull, to touch”
778
H.30a-d “to break, to split” “cracked” “to cut” “to carve” 4

“to scrape”
H.33a-b “to scoop out, to dig out” “to scrape, hoe” 2
H.34a-c “to fall” 3
H.38.a-b “to send, to work, job” “to send, drive off” 2
H.39a-b “exchange, buy, sell” “to confer, to consult” 2
“to converse”
Total H domain 19 = Total w.f of H domain
44.2% of 43 numbered tables 52 = 67.5% of 80 word
families
Total generic w.f in the A-H Semantic/Syntactic domains: Total individual w.f. in the
112 = 36.2% of 309 numbered tables A-H generic w.f.:
307 = 60.4% of 508 w.f.
Table 3.1.3c
Summary statistics of generic word families broken down by Semantic Domain
Summary table of generic word families as % of numbered tables (from Table 3.1.3b column 1)
Word families 3: A (Animals) 15 (40.5% of 37 numbered tables)
Word families 3: B (Inanimate objects) 13 (33.3% of 39 numbered tables)
Word families 3: C (Human body) 24 (45.3% of 53 numbered tables)
Word families 3: D (Human social groups) 13 (33.3% of 39 numbered tables)
Word families 3: E (Human cognition, intention) 13 (38.2% of 34 numbered tables)
Word families 3: F (Human artifacts) 11 (39.3% of 28 numbered tables)
Word families 3:G (Qualities, Numbers etc.) 4 (11.1% of 36 numbered tables)
Word families 3:H (Verbs) 19 (44.2% of 43 numbered tables)
Total generic word families 112 (36.2% of 309 total numbered tables)
/
Table 3.1.3d
Summary table of individual word families in generic w.f.’s as % of total w.f.’s: (from Table 3.1.3b
column 2)
Word families 3:A (Animals) 42 (64.6% of 65 word families)
Word families 3:B (Inanimate objects) 40 (58.8% of 67 word families)
Word families 3:C (Human body) 62 (68.1% of 91 word families)
Word families 3:D (Human social groups) 32 (56.1% of 57 word families)
Word families 3:E (Human cognition) 44 (67.2% of 65 word families)
Word families 3:F (Human artifacts) 26 (61.9% of 43 word families)
Word families 3:G (Qualities, Numbers etc.) 9 (27.5% of 40 word families)
Word families 3:H (Verbs) 52 (67.5% of 80 word families)
Total w.f. in generic word families 307 (60.4% of 508 total word families)
These two summary tables show that only 36.4% of the 308 numerically ordered
Chapter 2A-H tables are generic word families, but this 36.4% contains a high percentage of the total
word families, i.e. 60.4% of the 508 total Chapter 2A-H word families.
Table 3.1.3d also shows that only the semantically heterogeneous domain G contains less than 50% of
its word families located in a generic word family.
779
3.2 Basic language as evidence against loaning.

Statistics of the 100 word basic language vocabulary
In each Semantic Domain of the Chapter 2 A-H Analytic Tables the number of word families
containing one or more basic language terms in the Domain is reported. These are:
A- Animals 24, B- Objects in nature 26, C-Human Body 40, D- Kinship, social groups 5,
E-Cognition/Volition 16, F-Artifacts 2, G-Heterogeneous 19, H-Verbs 12 = Total 144 = 28.3% of
the 508 word families.
The three highest domains Animals, Objects in Nature and Human Body contain 90 basic language
terms which constitute 62.5% of the total 144.
3.3 The size of word families combined with basic vocabulary; further evidence against loaning as a
principal source of the African /AA ↔ Sino-Tibetan correspondences.
A combination of the criteria of the size of word families and presence of basic language terms in
them provides evidence that the African/Afroasiatic relationship is historical (linguistically genetic) and
not based primarily on loaning. Large single independent word families provide further evidence counter
to any theory of chance correspondence since they represent large sets of parallel correspondences
between ST and African / Afro-Asiatic roots.
3.3.1 Statistics of large single independent word families containing Swadesh list basic language terms :
The largest of the single independent word families (those containing four or more individual
correspondence sets) representing Swadesh basic language term:
A.26 “egg”, A.29 “louse”, B.30 “star”, C.17 “belly”, C.34 “ear”, D.1 “man”,
E.12 “name”, F.25 “path”, G.5 “red”, G.12 “long”, G.15 “sun”, H.22 “give”.
These 12 w.f. constitute 30.8% of the 38 large single independent word families reported in
Table 3.1.2a.
3.3.2 Statistics of large generic word families, many containing Swadesh basic language terms :
The largest of the generic word families (those containing four or more individual word families) are:
A.6.a-d “cow, bull” “flesh, meat” “castrated”- Swadesh “flesh, meat”

A.9a-d “equids” “horse, colt” “wealth”
A.10.a-f “canines” “dog, fox, hyena” Swadesh- “dog”
B.3.a-d “stone, gravel, sand, clay, earth” “stone” “earth”- Swadesh “stone”
B.11.a-e “burn, fire, kindle” “bake, roast” “hot, warm” “hot, spicy” “haste, urgent”- Swadesh “to burn”
; “fire”; “hot, warm”
B.14a-d “blossom, bud, flower” “swell, swelling”
B.15.a-f “water“ (in its various forms), and water-related states such as “flow” “pour”, “boil”-
Swadesh “rain” ; Swadesh “water”
C.8.a-d “the human body, skin” “leather bag” “someone, anyone” Swadesh “flesh, meat” “skin”
C.31a-e “eat, drink” “bite, chew” “ridicule, laugh at, mock” -Swadesh “eat” ; Swadesh “drink”
C.35a-d “foot, leg” “trunk, stem” “cylindrical object, drum” -Swadesh “foot”
D.3.a-d “child, offspring, seed” -Swadesh “seed”
D.21a-d “be guilty, be bad (in character)” “be lazy, be weak”
E.1a-d “the mind” “to think, know” “to wish, to hope for” Swadesh “know” ; “hear”
E3a-d “to understand, to know” “to wish, to desire” “meaning, purpose” -Swadesh “know”
E.4a-d “see, look at, sight” “teacher, expert, astrologer” -Swadesh “to see” ; “to know”
E.7a-e “good, beautiful, better” Swadesh “good”
E.8.a-e “say, announce, publish, judgment” “law” “predict, divination” -Swadesh “to say”
E.13.a-f “speak, cry out, call, greet” -Swadesh “say”
H.4a-d “to go, come” “to travel, roam, migrate, wander” “to swim” -Swadesh “to walk”,
780
H.24a-g “new, fresh, clean” “completely” “clear, bright” “to shave, to comb, to brush, to sweep”
“to clean, to rub” -Swadesh “new”
H.30a-d “to break, to split” “cracked” “to cut to pieces” “carve”
Of these 21 largest generic word families, 17 (= 81%) contain basic vocabulary as defined by the 100
word Swadesh list.
These statistics give further evidence counter to any assertion of loaning aa a source of the
African/Afroasiatic lexicon in Sino-Tibetan.
3.4 Statistics of African >TB and African > Sinitic cognates and lexemes occuring in only TB or
only in Sinitic.
Two lists of the words in the study found only in TB or only in Sinitic are contained in the Chapter 9
Sections 9.1 and 9.2 as an aid to the Chapter’s discussion on migrations from NE Africa to Central and
East Asia. The number of these words are found in columns 3 and 4 of the following table. This involved
an analysis of the full data as follows:
Table 3.4
Domain A↔ H word families containing [(African > TB) AND (African > Sinitic) AND (African
> TB only cognates) AND (African > Sinitic only cognates)]
Domain 2. ST (TB ↔ 3. African 4. African ↔ 5. Total-
Sinitic) ↔ TB- Sinitic-only
African ↔ ST Word
Cognates only
Families
A 40 17 8 65
B 49 11 7 67
C 66 13 12 91
D 39 9 9 57
E 40 9 16 65
F 26 10 7 43
G 25 5 10 40
H 50 17 13 80
Totals 335 91 82 508
This data stengthens the already firm hypothesis of African/Afroasiatic origins of much of the Sino-
Tibetan lexicon .
781
Chapter 4
Statistical Comparison of individual AA and ST language subfamilies
4.0.1 Information on the origin and age of the Afro-Asiatic superfamily:

The fact that Afro-Asiatic existed in the Middle East in the prehistoric period has led some authors to
hold that the Afro-Asiatic superfamily originated in that area. However most Africanists now reject this
view and consider that AA originated in Eastern Africa around the northern Ethiopian highlands; then the
speakers moved north along the area between the Nile and Red Sea coast. Proto-AA’s oldest descendants
are still spoken in this region.
Ehret’s argument for a unitary African origin of Afro-Asiatic languages relies on the fact that all of the
AA languages except Semitic are found on the African continent.385 There is no archaeological evidence
to support a theory that Afro-Asiatic originated in southwest Asia and moved into Africa. Also it is clear
from Ehret’s reconstruction of AA proto-roots that Cushitic roots, not Semitic ones, are consistently the
closest to proto-Afro-Asiatic.“The hypothesis for an Asian origin of Afro-Asiatic speakers cannot be
confirmed by the contemporary linguistic evidence”. (Ibriszimov 2008 v.5 224). Linguistic evidence also
shows that speakers of AA very early split into two major groups, a southern group which stayed in the
original homeland, the north Ethiopian highlands and a northeast African group called Erythraites who
settled in the area between the Red Sea and the Nile. (Ehret 2002 38). Proto-Cushitic and Omotic were
spoken in the Ethiopian highlands while the Erythraites probably first spoke an ancestral form of Chadic,
which was later influenced in Egypt by Egyptian and Berber.
The present chapter further confirms African rather than Middle Eastern origins by showing that
massive linguistic data from Sino-Tibetan languages corresponds to the AA-Chadic lexicon (with
additional evidence of morphological / grammatical similarities in Chapter 10). Cushitic is also a major
historical source of ST while Semitic and Egyptian are less so.
4.0.1.1 Chadic originated in Northeast Africa
Ehret considers that speakers of early Afroasiatic languages, the Erythraites, were the first to collect
wild grains for food. These people lived in a region extending east from the Nubian Nile to the Red Sea
hills and southward to the northern Ethiopian highlands. By the 11th millenium BCE the northern
Erythraites were collecting wild grasses and grains for food as far north as northern Egypt. Chadic
speakers were Northern Erythraites. Archaeological and linguistic data indicate that they were at least as
far north as present-day Egypt by 9000 BCE. (Ehret 2002 75).386 See also Notes B.1a.1-2, B.9.1-2 and
Chapter 7 Section 7.2.2.
From the presence of correspondences with Proto-AA roots in both the general A through H and
Sanskrit / IE comparisons the inference can plausibly be made that in Egypt and the Levant ancestral
Chadic had not diverged from Cushitic to the degree that it has today, and that Chadic was a major source
of the AA-Semitic languages in southwest Asia.
385
Note 4.0.1 “The distribution of linguistic variation has been strongly influenced by the Neolithic Revolution
in Africa. Linguistic, archaeological and ethnographic data suggest that all four African language families arose
before agriculture, in West Africa (Niger-Congo), Northeastern Africa (Afro-Asiatic), the middle Nile region (Nilo-
Saharan), and East Africa (Khoisan).” (Wood et al 2005 868).
“---the Afrasian [Afro-Asiatic] language family, contrary to widely held presumptions, originated not in Asia but in
Africa, in the regions between the Nubian Nile and the northern Ethiopian highlands.” Ehret 2002 38.
386
Note 4.0.1.1 In northeastern Africa groups forming the Mushabian culture spread across the Sinai into Palestine
and Syria, though many remained in northeast Africa. These Mushabian communities were neighbors to the people
of the earlier Kebaran culture (12,000 / 10,800 to 10,500 BCE), and the combination of the two produced the
Natufian culture. The Natufians lived mainly in the Jordan Valley of present-day Palestine in the period from
10, 800 to 8,500 / 8,300 BCE. They were “sophisticated hunter/gatherers” who practiced wild grain collection.
Archaeological research on their successors, the Khiamains (8500/8300 to 8100 BCE), and the Sultanians (8300
/8100 to 7300/7200 ) revealed that they had domesticated plants, for example in Jericho (Ehret 2002 38-39, Possehl
24).
782
4.0.1.2 Chadic expansion into the humid Sahara.

Chadic speakers moved west into the increasingly humid Sahara from the Red Sea coastal area about
9000 BCE. (Ehret 2002 39,75).387
4.0.1.3 Chadic expansion into southwest Asia. Chadic ↔ Arabic cognacy.
A movement of Chadic speakers into Arabia and Mesopotamia probably occurred around the same
time since Arabia and Mesopotamia also became more humid. Given the later massive influence of
Arabic on African languages of the Sahel, it has sometimes been assumed that most Arabic loanwords
came into Chadic with the expansion of Arabic into the Sahel under Islam from the 7th century CE. Such
loaning did exist, but this study identifies a matching Chadic ↔ Arabic lexicon cognate to a substantial
set of morphemes found in all Chinese languages sometime before the 206 BCE emergence of the
Western Han dynasty. (See notes D.16.1 Swahili, Arabic, Hausa, G.23.1 and H.39a.1 Chinese, Chadic,
Arabic of the Chapter 2A-H tables). Scholars have now dated the emergence of Proto-Semitic at 5750
years BP = (c.3750 BCE). (Chiaroni 351-352).
4.0.2 The date of AA origin
The last great Ice Age (Last Glacial Maximum) began around 70,000 BCE at the latest and lasted till
around 12000 BCE. Anthropological, linguistic and genetics researchers consider that during this very
cold and dry period of the ancient Sahara the humans who had lived there moved south into the warmer
tropical areas of the African continent. Although the earliest migrations from Africa into SE Asia date
from about 40,000 BCE.388, a high percentage of the migrations posited in the present study are much
later (during the early or middle Neolithic). See also Chapter 9 section 9.4. The present study has shown
that all four African language superfamilies contain a substantial number of lexemes matching Sino-
Tibetan forms. Ehret has estimated the date of origin of proto-AA to be 15,000 BCE. (Ehret 2008 v.5 18,
Jaggar 218.)389 Since all the records of the Chapter 2A-H database include Afro-Asiatic lexemes, 15,000
BCE. can be used as the earliest possible date (terminus a quo) for migrations of AA speakers out of
Africa, although some evidence present in this and the following chapters suggests that the major
movements were probably several millenia later.
4.0.2.1 The age of Sino-Tibetan

Based on the linguistic diversity between Tibeto-Burman languages the age of Sino-Tibetan has been
estimated to be at least 7000-9000 BCE for Tibeto-Burman. Sinitic exhibits less diversity and its age is
estimated at 4000-3000 BCE. (Blench 2010a 4).
4.0.2.2 A prehistoric migration date based on documents.

One prehistoric migration within East Asia dates before the middle of the second millenium BCE.
Chinese historical documents show that the language which was the ancestor of modern [northern]
Chinese was spoken on the North China plain along the banks of the Yellow River by this time. It is
called Old Chinese, the language spoken during the Zhou dynasty (11th century BCE to 221 BCE).
(Sagart 4).
387
Note 4.0.1.2 “Close links between climatic variations and prehistoric human occupation of the Sahara during the
early mid-Holocene (10-5 KYA) [8000-3000 BCE] are documented by archaeological and paleoanthropological
evidence”. (Cruciani 2010 800). Cruciani’s references furnish a good summary of this research based on genetic
data. See also Note 5.1.2a (Chadic-Hausa)
388
Note 4.0.2(1) “The age of the M168 mutation, representing the last common ancestor of all non-African human
Y-chromosomes, has been estimated to be 40000 years.” “This estimate is young in relation to the events recorded
in the archaeological and fossil records. However it embraces within its confidence interval the period in which the
models above postulate an African population fragmented and differentiated into distinct [chromosomal] sub-
clusters that later dispersed out of the continent.“ “Suggested departure routes for these dispersals include passages
via the Horn of Africa to India and the Middle East Levantine corridor.” (Underhill 2001 50).
389
Note 4.0.2(2) Ibriszimov’s proposed date of AA origin in the Southeastern Sahara and Eastern Africa in the
tenth or ninth millenium BCE is much later. (Ibriszimov 2008 v.5 224).
783
The dates of migrations into E. Asia are not all well-established, but there is evidence of multiple
populaton movements from W. Asia into East Asia. See Note 4.3.1 below, Chapter 7 Section 7.9 and
Chapter 9 sections 9.4-5.
4.0.2.3 The Afro-Asiatic subfamilies currently are made up of approximately the following number of
languages:
Chadic 150
Semitic 47
Omotic 28
Berber 26
Egyptian 2
In this Chapter 4 comparison the statistical compilations are again drawn from subsets of the Chapter 2
A-H data. It includes tables based solely on correspondences between the ST and AA lexicons; hence its
focus is on the statistics proper to the AA superfamily and particularly the AA proto-roots.
4.1 Statistical analysis of Afro-Asiatic correspondences with Sino-Tibetan language

4.1 Objectives
By concentrating on Afro-Asiatic proto-roots the inquiry can confirm or disconfirm more specifically
the hypothesis of a linguistically genetic relationship. It can also measure the impact of AA on ST in the
eight linguistic/cultural areas represented by Semantic Domains A-H. Hence Chapter 4 reports:
a) Total correspondence sets containing ST correspondences with Afro-Asiatic proto-roots with
breakdown by Semantic Domain. (4.2.1)
b) ST ↔ Proto-Afro-Asiatic root correspondences in basic vocabulary.(4.2.2)
c) The number of word families containing ST ↔ AA roots in each of the four of the AA subfamilies:
(Chadic, Cushitic, Semitic and Egyptian. (4.3)
4.2 Comparison of ST and Afro-Asiatic proto-roots.

A large set of Afro-Asiatic proto-roots has been reconstructed by Ehret and Orel/Stolbova. Although
they were arrived at separately without knowledge of the other’s research, they coincide to a high degree.
A substantial number of these roots correspond to TB and/or Chinese lexemes. The probability of chance
correspondence diminishes as AA proto-roots are found to correspond closely with ST lexemes.
Only one Proto-AA ↔ ST root correspondence is counted per word family.
4.2.1 Proto-Afro-Asiatic roots which match ST lexemes (TB and/or Sinitic) counted by word family
and broken down by Semantic domain:
A domain- 19
B domain- 27
C domain- 34
D domain- 14
E domain- 18
F domain- 18
G domain- 8
H domain- 26
Total = 164 = (32.3% of the 508 Chapter 2 A-H word families).
This data provides further evidence of the validity of the African/AA origins hypothesis.
4.2.2 ST basic language roots which correspond closely to proto-AA roots.

Of the 100 word Swadesh list 44 were found to match a Proto-Afro-Asiatic lexeme, i.e. the total = 44%
of the basic language terms. A number of basic language terms were found in more than one word
784
family. Counting these multiple occurrences, there were 63 total correspondences of Swadesh basic
language vocabulary terms with ST lexemes.
The fact that 44% of the Swadesh list basic language vocabulary is attested by at least 1 ST lexeme
↔ AA proto-root correspondence constitutes additional evidence counter to any theory of loaning as a
source of the ST ↔ AA lexicon and thus gives additional confirmation to the “out of Africa” migration
hypothesis.
4.3 The number of word families containing ST ↔ AA roots in each of the four AA subfamilies:
(Chadic, Cushitic, Semitic and Egyptian).
The following analysis ranks the relative importance of each of the four subfamilies of Afro-Asiatic,
i.e. Chadic, Cushitic, Semitic and Egyptian, as a source of the ST ↔ AA lexicon; also whether there is
any significant difference in the relationship of each AA subfamily to the two ST subfamilies, TB and
Sinitic. The table reports the number of word families which attest at least one TB and/or Sinitic close
correspondence with an AA root. Omotic has been grouped with Cushitic since both are found in the
Ethiopian highlands, the most probable homeland of Afro-Asiatic.
Tables 4.3
Word family analysis of TB and Sinitic subfamilies, broken down by AA subfamily, then by
Semantic/Syntactic Domain.
TB ↔ Chadic word family close correspondences by Semantic/ Syntactic Domain:
Semantic/Syntactic domain A: TB ↔ Chadic corresp.: 55 (84.6% of 65 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain B: TB ↔ Chadic corresp.: 54 (80.6% of 67 w.f)
Semantic/Syntactic domain C: TB ↔ Chadic corresp.: 69 (75.8% of 91 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain D: TB ↔ Chadic corresp.: 38 (66.6% of 57 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain E: TB ↔ Chadic corresp.: 43 (66.2% of 65 w.f)
Semantic/Syntactic domain F: TB ↔ Chadic corresp.: 37 (86% of 43 w.f.)
Heterogeneous word fams. G: TB ↔ Chadic corresp.: 25 (62.5% of 40 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain H: TB ↔ Chadic corresp.: 56 (70% of 80 w.f.)
Total TB ↔ Chadic word family correspondences: 377 (74.2%) of 508 w.f.)
Sinitic ↔ Chadic word family close correspondences by Semantic/ Syntactic Domain:

Semantic/Syntactic domain A: Sinitic ↔ Chadic corresp.: 43 (66.2% of 65 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain B: Sinitic ↔ Chadic corresp.: 49 (73.1% of 67 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain C: Sinitic ↔ Chadic corresp.: 67 (73.6% of 91 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain D: Sinitic ↔ Chadic corresp.: 41 (71.9% of 57 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain E: Sinitic ↔ Chadic corresp.: 47 (72.3% of 65 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain F: Sinitic ↔ Chadic corresp.: 30 (69.8% of 43 w.f.)
Heterogeneous word fams. G: Sinitic ↔ Chadic corresp. 29 (72.5% of 40 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain H: Sinitic ↔ Chadic corresp.: 48 (60% of 80 w.f.)
Total Sinitic ↔ Chadic word family correspondences: 354 (69.7% of 508 w.f.)
TB ↔ Cush./Om.word family close correspondences by Semantic/ Syntactic Domain:

Semantic/Syntactic domain A: TB ↔ Cush./Om./PAA corresp.: 37 (56.9% of 65 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain B: TB ↔ Cush./Om./PAA corresp.: 34 (50.7% of 67 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain C: TB ↔ Cush./Om./PAA corresp.: 48 (52.7% of 91 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain D: TB ↔ Cush./Om./PAA corresp.: 31 (54.4% of 57 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain E: TB ↔ Cush./Om./PAA corresp.: 29 (44.6% of 65 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain F: TB ↔ Cush./Om./PAA corresp.: 27 (62.8% of 43 w.f.
Heterogeneous word fams. G: TB ↔ Cush./Om./PAA corresp.: 16 (40% of 40 w.f.
Semantic/Syntactic domain H: TB ↔ Cush./Om./PAA corresp.: 35 (44% of 80 w.f.)
Total TB ↔ Cushitic/Omotic word family correspondences: 257 (50.6% of 508 w.f.)
Sinitic ↔ Cush./Om. word family close correspondences by Semantic/ Syntactic Domain:

785
Semantic/Syntactic domain A: Sinitic ↔ Cush./Om./PAA corresp.: 26 (40% of 65 w.f.)

Semantic/Syntactic domain B: Sinitic ↔ Cush./Om./PAA corresp.: 34 (50.7% of 67 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain C: Sinitic ↔ Cush./Om./PAA corresp.: 51 (56% of 91 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain D: Sinitic ↔ Cush./Om./PAA corresp.: 33 (57.9% of 57 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain E: Sinitic ↔ Cush./Om./PAA corresp.: 42 (64.6% of 65 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain F: Sinitic ↔ Cush./Om./PAA corresp.: 24 (55.8% of 43 w.f.)
Heterogeneous word fams. G: Sinitic ↔ Cush./Om./PAA corresp.: 23 (57.5% of 40 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain H: Sinitic ↔ Cush./Om./PAA corresp.: 32 (40% of 80 w.f.)
Total Sinitic ↔ Cushitic word family correspondences: 265 (52.2% of 508 w.f.)
TB ↔ Semitic word family close correspondences by Semantic/ Syntactic Domain:

Semantic/Syntactic domain A: TB ↔ Semitic corresp.: 25 (38.5% of 65 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain B: TB ↔ Semitic corresp.: 29 (43.3% of 67 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain C: TB ↔ Semitic corresp.: 36 (39.6% of 91 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain D: TB ↔ Semitic corresp.: 27 (47.4% of 57 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain E: TB ↔ Semitic corresp.: 36 (55.4% of 65 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain F: TB ↔ Semitic corresp.: 26 (60.5% of 43 w.f.)
Heterogeneous word fams. G: TB ↔ Semitic corresp.: 17 (42.5% of 40 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain H: TB ↔ Semitic corresp.: 35 (43.7% of 80 w.f.)
Total TB ↔ Semitic word family correspondences: 231 (45.5% of 508 w.f.)
Sinitic ↔ Semitic word family close correspondences by Semantic/ Syntactic Domain:

Semantic/Syntactic domain A: Sinitic ↔ Semitic corresp.: 17 (26.2% of 65 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain B: Sinitic ↔ Semitic corresp.: 19 (28.4% of 67 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain C: Sinitic ↔ Semitic corresp.: 35 (38.5% of 91 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain D: Sinitic ↔ Semitic corresp.: 27 (47.4% of 57 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain E: Sinitic ↔ Semitic corresp.: 41 (63.1% of 65 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain F: Sinitic ↔ Semitic corresp.: 23 (53.5% of 43 w.f.)
Heterogeneous word fams. G: Sinitic ↔ Semitic corresp.: 16 (40%) of 40 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain H:Sinitic ↔ Semitic corresp.: 27 (33.8% of 80 w.f.)
Total Sinitic ↔ Semitic word family correspondences: 205 (40.4% of 508 w.f.)
TB ↔ Egyptian word family close correspondences by Semantic/ Syntactic Domain:

Semantic/Syntactic domain A: TB ↔ Egyptian corresp.: 14 (21.5% of 65 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain B: TB ↔ Egyptian corresp.: 20 (29.9% of 67 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain C: TB ↔ Egyptian corresp.: 10 (11% of 91 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain D: TB ↔ Egyptian corresp.: 9 (15.8% of 57 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain E: TB ↔ Egyptian corresp.: 10 (15.4% of 65 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain F: TB ↔ Egyptian corresp.: 8 (18.6% of 43 w.f.)
Heterogeneous word fams. G: TB ↔ Egyptian corresp.: 5 (12.5% of 40 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain H: TB ↔ Egyptian corresp.: 18 (22.5% of 80 w.f.)
Total TB ↔ Egyptian word family correspondences: 94 (18.5% of 508 w.f.)
Sinitic ↔ Egyptian word family close correspondences by Semantic/Syntactic Domain:

Semantic/Syntactic domain A: Sinitic ↔ Egyptian corresp.:10 (15.4% of 65 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain B: Sinitic ↔ Egyptian corresp.: 17 (25.4% of 67 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain C: Sinitic ↔ Egyptian corresp.: 16 (17.6% of 91 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain D: Sinitic ↔ Egyptian corresp.: 7 (12.3% of 57 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain E: Sinitic ↔ Egyptian corresp.: 8 (12.3% of 65 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic domain F: Sinitic ↔ Egyptian corresp.: 5 (20.9% of 43 w.f.)
Heterogeneous word fams. G: Sinitic ↔ Egyptian corresp.: 5 (12.5% of 40 w.f.)
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Semantic/Syntactic domain H: Sinitic ↔ Egyptian corresp.: 11 (13.8% of 80 w.f.)

Total Sinitic ↔ Egyptian word family correspondences 79 (15.6% of 508 w.f.)
4.3.1 Summary comparison of percentages of TB ↔AA subfamily and Sinitic ↔ AA subfamily

close correspondences between word families.
The percentages of AA ↔ ST subfamily correspondences are not highly different for any of the AA ↔
ST subfamily comparisons in which Tibeto-Burman and Sinitic are compared individually
(a through d following); however the different percentages of the combined Tibeto-Burman + Sinitic
correspondences for each subfamily a.1 through d.1 when compared with each other are highly
significant, ranging from a high of 71.9% for (Chadic > ST) to a low of 17.55% for Egyptian.
a. [Chadic > TB correspondences 377 (74.2%)] AND [Chadic < Sinitic close correspondences]: 354
(69.7%)
a.1 Chadic + (TB+Sinitic) = (74.2% + 69.7%) / 2 = 71.9% Sino-Tibetan correspondences
b. [Cushitic > TB correspondences 257 (50.6%)] AND [Cushitic < Sinitic close correspondences]: 265
= (52.2%) / 2= 42.45%
b.1 Cushitic + (TB+Sinitic) = (50.6% + 52.2%) / 2 =51.4% of Sino-Tibetan correspondences
c. [Semitic > TB correspondences 231 (45.5%) AND Sinitic < Semitic close correspondences =: 205
(40.4%)]
c.1 Semitic + (TB+Sinitic) = 45.5% + 40.4% / 2= 42.45% of Sino-Tibetan correspondences
d. [Egyptian > TB correspondences 94 (18.5%) AND Sinitic < Egyptian close correspondences: 79
(15.6%)]390
d.1 Egyptian + (TB+Sinitic) = 18.5% + 15.6% / 2= 17.55% of Sino-Tibetan correspondences
These percentages may be skewed up or down somewhat by differences in the amount and/or
availability of documentation on each AA subfamily. However any such skewing is not likely to have
changed the order of their importance in relation to ST. This can be concluded from the fact that after
about halfway through this study the incorporation of data from additional publications on AA and ST
added very few new word families common to the two superfamilies. Otherwise stated, from about mid-
point of the study a very high number of the new morphemes were simply variants of already identified
common roots; so they were added to the existing word families.
390
Note 4.3.1 The relatively small amount of Egyptian language ↔ Sino-Tibetan correspondences in this study
suggests a north African intracontinental migration subsequent to that in which Chadic speakers moved into the
Sinai and across the Red Sea into Arabia (i.e.before the Mid-Holocene dry phase of 6700-5500 BCE). (Ehret 2002
79). It was probably during this drier period that inhabitants of the Sahel began to concentrate in the Nile Valley
because rainfall for agriculture and even pastoralism had become inadequate in the Central Sahara. The Nile Valley
thus became dominantly inhabited by speakers of a creolized ancient Berber ↔ Niger/Congo ↔ ancient Egyptian
rather than the original Cushitic/Chadic > Egyptian descendants of Proto-AA. Ancient Egyptian is
morphologically more closely related to Berber, and Berber boredered on NC as it does now. See Ehret’s comment
on Berber in Note 1.1.1 above.
This suggests that the relationship between ST and much of Egyptian is probably indirect, i.e. less based on
direct inheritance through inherited Chadic / Cushititc roots than through population admixture. Thus the Chadic /
Cushititc-related vocabulary in Egyptian would be largely a remnant from the earliest presence of AA in the area.
See sets C.5a.3, C.8.d.2, C.12b.2, C.28b.1, C.31a.2, C.37a.1 etc.)
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4.3.2 Migration indicators

4.3.2.1 Domain A – Animals The Tables 4.3 TB-Chadic Domain A shows a higher percentage of
animal names than its 4.3 Sinitic counterpart:
TB ↔ Chadic corresp.: 55 (84.6% of 65 w.f.) vs.
Sinitic ↔ Chadic corresp.: 43 (66.2% of 65 w.f.).
This is consistent with the lower number of Sinitic Domain A correspondences with African/AA
reported in Chapter 3 Section 3.1.2 in which:
the Table 3.1.2a A Domain African/AA↔TB orrespondences are 59 = (90.8%) of the 65 w.f.) and
the Table 3.1.2b A Domain African/AA↔Sinitic correspondences are 40 =(61.5% of the 65 w.f.)
All four of the Tables 4.3 AA subfamilies above, Chadic, Cushitic, Semitic and Egyptian, show the same
pattern for the A Domain, i.e. the AA ↔ Tibeto-Burman percentage is higher than that of AA ↔
Sinitic. ( Linguistic and cultural information on the A Domain animals animals is presented in Chapter 6
sections 6.2.1-3).
The higher percentage of the TB < African/Afroasiatic correspondences here is also concordant with the
higher number of A Domain lexemes found only in TB (17) vs. those found only in Sinitic (8)
(reported in Chapter 3 Table 3.4 and listed in Chapter 9 sections 9.1 and 9.2).
A plausible explanation for the contrast between the data of chapters 3 and 4 is a diffusion of Chadic
language reflexes across central and east Asia which took place through multiple migrations. The first one
entered the present Tibetan-speaking area from the northwest. This contained some names of animals
which are not found in the Sinitic area. (See Chapter 9 Sections 9.1 and 9.5.1.2.1 Domain A indicators.)
The population was composed of Afro-Asiatic language nomadic herders (See Chapter 6 Section 6.4.1
and Chapter 9 Section 9.5.1.3) They mainly populated the mountainous Tibetan region; then a later
migration of predominantly Chadic-Hausa language migrants settled and overlaid this earlier stratum; it
occupied the whole current ST speaking area. In this proposed later migration Hausa was associated with
Arabic and togther the two groups brought many cultural terms which had emerged in tne interim
between the earlier and later migrations, especially terms which are present only in the Sinitic E Domain.
See Chapter 9 Section 9.2. In one of the the later migrations speakers of a specifically Hausa-centered
AA dialect, (e.g. containing the verb grade aspects) settled into the present–day area of China.(See
Chapter 5 section 5.2.3). The data reflects trading dominated by Hausa and Arabic speakers who moved
into and settled in China late in the pre-historic and early historic period (from about 500 BCE). See
discussion of such a hypothesis in notes G.24.1 (Chinese), H.39a.1, Chapter 6 Sections 6.5, 6.12,
Chapter 8 Section 8.1.3.3 and Chapter 9 Sections 9.7and 9.9.
4.3.2.2 Domain E– Cognitive / Volitional language
With the exception of Egyptian the Tables 4.3 comparison also shows a significant contrast between
the A and E Domain percentages.
In the E Domain the Chadic, Cushitic and Semitic Domains have higher percemtages in their E Domain
Sinitic correspondences than in their E Domain–TB correspondences.
Domain E: Sinitic ↔ Chadic corresp.: 47 (72.3%) vs.
Domain E: TB ↔ Chadic corresp.resp.: 43 (66.2%)
Domain E: Sinitic ↔ Cushitic corresp.: 47 (72.3%) vs.
Domain E: TB ↔ Cushitic corresp.: 42 (64.6%)
Domain E: Sinitic ↔ Semitic corresp.: 41 (63.1%) vs.
Domain E: TB ↔ Semitic corresp.: 36 (55.4%) See also Chapter 3 Section 3.1.2.1.
The higher number of Chadic A Domain correspondences in both Tibeto-Burman and Sinitic languages
is consistent with the presence of early and middle Holocene Chadic speakers in northeast Africa, the area
closest to a land route into Asia. (as mentioned in section 4.0.1.3 above. See also Notes 5.1.2a below and
H.39a.1.
The much higher percentage of Chadic ↔ ST correspondences greatly affects any hypothesis
concerning the history of migration out of Africa. The position of Semitic in third place might appear
surprising, given that the present-day linguistic area of Semitic languages is closer to Central and East
788
Asia than the current Chadic one. Although influences of Middle Eastern Semitic-based cultures on ST
culture have clearly been important, the evidence shows that Chadic ones are much larger and more
diverse, hence very probably earlier.
However, Domains E and F also show some very high percentages in Sinitic when compared to
Cushitic and Semitic”;
Semantic Domain E:
Sinitic ↔ Semitic correspondences 41 (63.1% of 65 w.f.)
Sinitic ↔ Cushitic correspondences 42 (64.6% of (65 w.f.)
Semantic domain F:
Sinitic ↔ Semitic correspondences 23 (53.5% of 43 w.f.)
Sinitic ↔ Cushitic correspondences.: Sinitic ↔ Cush. / Om../ PAA correspondences.:24 (55.8% of 43
w.f.)
These numbers suggest a hypothesis of later migration(s) of peoples from the more literate and
technically advanced Mesopotamian societies into Central and East Asia after the emergence of the
Semitic languages. Lexical evidence of such migrations is presented in Chapter 9 sections 9.9.1-2.
See also Note- F.3.2, Chapter 5 section 5.3 and Chapter 8 section 8.1.3.3.
4.4 Conclusions of the Chapter 4 Phase 4 analysis

4.4.1 The existence of a large number of ST < Proto-AA lexical correspondences further reduces the
possibility of a chance similarity between the two stocks.
4.4.2 The comparison also confirms the importance of AA languages for positing any Africa/Middle
East to Central/East Asia migration history. Moreover it provides data on AA subfamilies which makes
possible a comparison of an individual AA language and TB or Chinese language as is done in the
following Chapter 5 analysis.
4.4.3 Thus Chadic and Cushitic show the highest number of correspondences with ST lexemes. This
points to northeast Africa as the area from which the migration(s) into Asia took place during the
Holocene period, a conclusion which coincides with genetic data which also supports this. See Luis, J.R.
et al., passim..
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Chapter 5
Statistics of a comparison of one AA language (Chadic-Hausa) with one TB language (Tibetan) and
with Sinitic languages as a group.
5.0 Objectives
5.0.1 The data from Chapter 4 provided the information needed to identify whether a comparison of
individual AA and ST languages could provide enough correspondences to merit further analysis.
Chapter 4 showed that the highest percentage of Tibeto-Burman ↔ African/AA correspondences was
in the AA-Chadic subfamily, i.e. 377 = 74.1% of the 508 Chapter 2A-H word families. The Chapter 4
data additionally showed that the highest percentage of Sinitic ↔ African/AA correspondences was also
in the AA-Chadic subfamily, i.e. 354 (69.7% of the 508 Chapter 2A-H word families.
An extensive sampling indicated that the two single languages which attested the most AA ↔ TB
correspondences were AA-Chadic-Hausa / Gwandara and TB-Tibetan. Since no single Sinitic language
widely differed from the others in the number of correspondences with Hausa, it was decided that Hausa
be compared to all Chinese languages for reasons stated in section 5.1.2 below.
5.0.2 A second objective was to determine whether a comparison of an individual TB language with an
individual Sinitic language / dialect could serve to identify any morphological and/or grammatical
similarities. Hence the Chapter 5 comparison operates under the previous method of lexical comparison;
but since the scope is narrowed to a traditional comparison of two individual language families, affix and
grammatical comparisons can also be carried out on them. This is done in Chapter 10 below.
5.1 General parameters and scope.

5.1.1 TB-Tibetan- Of the TB languages reviewed thus far, Tibetan provides the largest recorded
lexicon. In the past Tibetan served as a very important source for the comparisons with Chinese which
established Sino-Tibetan as a language superfamily.
5.1.2 AA-W. Chadic-Hausa
Hausa is the best documented Chadic language. It is the most widespread Chadic language and has the
largest number (30 million) of first language speakers in sub-Saharan Africa. (Jaggar 219). It was
identified in Chapters 2 and 3 as a very important source of AA ↔ ST correspondences. The greatest part
of the Hausa lexicon is clearly derived from Afro-Asiatic roots, and these figure prominently in the
Chapter 3 ST ↔ AA summary comparison. But Skinner has noted that much of the Hausa lexicon is not
immediately related to that of other West Chadic languages and it has a large component of non-AA
roots.391
In additiona to Skinner’s list, the present study has identified a great variety of Hausa lexical roots
shared with non-AA African superfamilies. Chadic in particular gives evidence of a very important
relationship with Mande, which is probably the oldest branch of the Niger Congo superfamily in West
Africa. Mukarovsky’s study, Mande-Chadic common stock, shows that the Chadic subfamily has
historicaly had a geographic proximity to this very old language.392 Today Chadic extends westward
from Eastern Chad to its westernmost branch, Hausa, in northern Nigeria. To Hausa’s immediate west
391
Note 5.1.2a (Chadic-Hausa) Skinner viii “It has long been clear that a number of words from Hausa basic
vocabulary , such as “sun”, “moon” , “night”, “fire”, “water”, “ashes”, “meat, animal” are not Chadic.” “It was the
question whether such Hausa words might have their cognates elsewhere than in Chadic which inspired this work”
[his Hausa Comparative Dictionary]. Nevertheless Hausa is generally designated as a “West Chadic” language,
apparently due to its present geographic position, but Skinner states that the Hausa lexicon is closer to that of East
and Central Chadic, than that of the other W. Chadic languages. This again indicates that the present location of
Hausa in the Western Sahel is not its original one as noted in Chapter 4 Section and Note 4.0.1.2.
392
Note 5.1.2b Mukarovsky compared Mande with both Chadic and Cushitic languages. He found that Chadic was
very closely related to Mande to the point that he questioned whether Mande had a “fully separate identity”.
(Mukarovsky 1987 13). Mande is still considered to be basically a Niger-Congo language, but its important mutual
relationships to both Chadic and Nilo-Saharan have been widely recognized. (See Jungraithmayr v.1 xii-xii
concerning NC influences on Chadic).
790
the Nilo-Saharan Songhay language is interposed between it and Mande. (See Hausa/Gwandara examples
of correspondences with Mande and Songhay in B.2b.1-2,4 B.10.1-2, B.11a.1,3, B.22a.2, B.27.5,
B.31.4, C.2c.1, C.20a.1 and many other CC sets of the Chapter 2 A-H tables).
Hausa also attests considerable phonetic and semantic affinity with Khoisan, the oldest African
language still spoken. (See Supplementary Table 3 Table 1.1.1).
Gwandara, an important Hausa dialect, probably split off from the main body of the language when
the main region became Islamic (several hundred years ago according to Gwandara tradition). (See Note
A.2a.1 (Chadic). In many word families a Gwandara morpheme corresponds more closely than standard
Hausa to an ST form. (See B.5a.1, A.8a.1, C.2b.4, C.18b.3, C.20a.1, C.25.1, C.26b.3, C.5.2-3 etc.)
5.1.2.1 AA-Hausa ↔ ST-Tibetan / Sinitic lexical comparison

With respect to Sinitic a commonly-held position is that Chinese languages constitute a family derived
from a single proto-source somewhat similar to the relationship between the IE-Romance languages, all
of which are derived from Latin. (Kratochvil 327, Norman 1988a 187). This was the position of
Karlgren, whose set of Old Chinese proto-forms has been a fundamental source for etymological study of
Chinese. Although Karlgren’s reconstruction does not account for many synchronic S. Chinese-Min
forms, Min also attests many close correspondences with Afro-Asiatic languages, so it too has been
included in the present Chapter 5 comparison. Hence the Sino-Tibetan comparison proceeds along two
tracks, one for Hausa↔TB-Tibetan and the other for Hausa↔Sinitic languages with these taken as a
closely related group.
5.2 Individual language comparison statistical result

In Chapter 5 the correspondence sets have a logical relationship of (Tibetan AND/OR Sinitic) AND
(Hausa AND /OR Gwandara). The count was done by word family, i.e. word families which contain
more than one ST ↔ Hausa correspondence are counted as only one correspondence. Since only one
language is being compared, the matching ST and Hausa/Gwandara morphemes need not be in the same
Chapter 2A-H tables’ main section, i.e there are cases in which some related correspondents are found
in the main section CC set(s) and one or more others in the Extended section. Nevertheless, to be counted
those in the extended section must represent a close correspondence.
5.2.1 Word families which contain at least one Tibetan ↔ (Hausa and/or Gwandara)
correspondence.
Table 5.2.1 Tibetan ↔ Hausa/Gwandara correspondences
Tibetan ↔ Hausa Domain A 29 (44.7% of 65 w.f.)
Tibetan ↔ Hausa Domain B 38 (56.7% of 67 w.f.)
Tibetan ↔ Hausa Domain C 36 (39.6% of 91 w.f.)
Tibetan ↔ Hausa Domain D 24 (42.1% of 57 w.f.)
Tibetan ↔ Hausa Domain E 31 (47.7% of 65 w.f.)
Tibetan ↔ Hausa Domain F 25 (58.1% of 43 w.f.)
Tibetan ↔ Hausa Domain G 13 (32.5% of 40 w.f.)
Tibetan ↔ Hausa Domain H 28 (35% of 80 w.f.)
Total word families which contain at least one Tibetan ↔ (Hausa and/or Gwandara)
correspondence: 224 = (44.1% of the 508 word families)
5.2.2 Word families which contain at least one Sinitic ↔ (Hausa and/or Gwandara) close
correspondence.
Table 5.2.2 Sinitic ↔ (Hausa and/or Gwandara) close correspondence.
Sinitic ↔ Hausa Domain A 26 (40% of 65 w.f.)
Sinitic ↔ Hausa Domain B 39 (58.2% of 67 w.f.)
Sinitic ↔ Hausa Domain C 42 (46.2% of 91 w.f.)
Sinitic ↔ Hausa Domain D 31 (54.4% of 57 w.f.)
791
Sinitic ↔ Hausa Domain E 41 (63.1% of 65 w.f.)

Sinitic ↔ Hausa Domain F 25 (58.1% of 43 w.f.)
Sinitic ↔ Hausa Domain G 19 (47.5% of 40 w.f.)
Sinitic ↔ Hausa Domain H 37 (46.3% of 80 w.f.)
Total word families which contain at least one (Sinitic ↔ Hausa and/or Gwandara) close
correspondence: 260 = (51.2% of the 508 word families).
5.2.3 Discussion. In these 5.2.1-5.2.2 Tables 6 of the 8 Domains Sinitic ↔ Hausa percentages are higher
than those of Tibetan ↔ Hausa and those of the F Domain are the same, but only the TB A Domain
percentage is higher than that of Sinitic. Thus in Chapter 5 the total Sinitic ↔ Hausa correspondences are
higher than the Tibetan ↔ Hausa ones, i.e. the total Table 5.2.2 Sinitic ↔ Hausa 260 = (51.1%) of the
508 word families as opposed to the Chapter 5 total Table 5.2.1 Tibetan ↔ Hausa 224 = (44.1%) of the
508 close correspondences:
This is an important difference in the present Chapter 5 single language comparison from that found in
the more generic Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 ones: i.e.
In Chapter 3: The Chapter 3 percentage of African/Afroasiatic ↔ Tibeto-Burman correspondences
(Table 3.1.2a Total at 79.9%)
is higher than than that of the African/Afroasiatic ↔ Sinitic correspondences (Table 3.1.2b Total
75.8%).
In Chapter 4: The Tables 4.3 percentage of Tibeto-Burman ↔ Chadic correspondences Total
at 74.2%
is higher than that of the Tables 4.3 Sinitic ↔ Chadic word family correspondences
at 69.7%,
5.2.3.1 Analysis by Domains:

The Chapter 5 data also show a divergence between two semantic domains and the others, i.e.:
in the 5.2.1-5.2.2 Tables the D and E Domains of Sinitic show significantly higher percentages than
those of Tibetan, i.e.:
D Domain: Table 5.2.1 Tibetan ↔ Hausa/Gwandara (42.1%)
vs. Table 5.2.2 Sinitic ↔ Hausa/Gwandara (54.4%)
E Domain: Table 5.2.1 Tibetan ↔ Hausa/Gwandara (47.7%)
vs. Table 5.2.2 Sinitic ↔ Hausa/Gwandara (63.1%)
The G and H Domains also show higher precentages of Sinitic correspondences than Tibetan. In the G
Domain. Sinitic is higher than TB since (as seen in Chapter 6) it contains names of the the numbers 3,4,6
and 8 which have African cognates, but are absent from TB. H Domain is not relevant due to its
organization based only on its syntactic form and phonetic shape, hence also with no required broad
semantic similarities.
5.3 Migration indicators.

As mentioned in 5.2.3 above, Table 5.2.1 reported a higher proportion of Tibetan ↔ Hausa Domain A
(Animals) correspondences than Table 5.2.2 Sinitic ↔ Hausa, i.e. (44.7% vs. 40% respectively), but
Semantic Domains D and E show significantly higher proportions of Hausa correspondences with Sinitic
than with Tibetan: i.e.
D (Social groups) Sinitic ↔ Hausa 54.4%% vs.Tibetan ↔ Hausa 44.7 %.
E (Cognitive terms) Sinitic ↔ Hausa 59.5% vs.Tibetan ↔ Hausa 46.3%.
It is noteworthy that as compared with the Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 summaries the highest percentage
of E Domain Tibetan ↔ Sinitic correspondences is in the Table 5.2.2 Sinitic ↔ Hausa/Gwandara
comparison, i.e. 63.1%.
Also of all the ST words found only in Sinitic the highest number (16) are found in Sinitic Domain E.
See Chapter 9 section 9.1.2 Domain E.
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5.4 Hausa/Gwandara polysyllabic correspondences

Statistics of polysyllabic morpheme correspondences are reported in Chapter 10 Tables 10.1.3a-b.
There are 185 polysyllabic correspondences in the Sino-Tibetan ↔ African/AA comparison reported in
section 10.1.3b. Of these there are 104 (= 56.2%) in word families containing ST ↔ Hausa close
correspondences. This is a high proportion of the 185 polysyllabic correspondences in the Chapter 2 A-H
data set.
For a list of exact disyllabic correspondences between Hausa/Gwandara verb grade forms and ST
lexemes see Chapter 10 section 10.2.1.2.
5.5 Hausa/Gwandara variant forms matching variant ST forms:

Gwandara and Hausa often attest variant forms of a morpheme which closely match equivalent variant
forms of an ST root (i.e. parallel matching as described in section 1.5.7 above). (See A.4.1,3, A.14a.1-2,
B.3d.1-2, B.11d.4-5, B12c.1-2, C.4.3-4, C.8.d.1-2, C.24b.1,3, C.38c.1-2, C.39.1-2, D.32.1-2 and
G.1b.1-2 etc.) .
5.6 Hausa/Gwandara correspondences containing TB ↔ Chinese cognates:

The following sets contain examples taken from Domains A, B, and C only:
A.30.1, B.2a.1, B.2b.2, B.3b.1, B.6, B.7.1, B.9.2, B.11c.1, B.12a.1, B.12c.1, B.14a.1, B.21.1, C.1a.2,
C.3.1, C.20a.1, C.25.1, C.28a.1, C.31d.1, C.35c.1, C.36b.1, C. 38c.5, C.39.4, C.42.1, C.47a.1.)
(See the Chapter 2A-H tables and Chapter 7 for many more.)
Of singular importance are the Hausa lexemes denoting grains which have ST phonetic and semantic
equivalents. See references to Blench “Hausa names for plants” especially in Domain B and Chapter 7 of
the present study.
5.7 Chapter 5 conclusion

The single language comparison further substantiates the validity of the method of massive comparison
used in the Chapter 2A-H comparison. The Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 comparisons made possible the
identification in Chapter 5 of the single African and ST languages which contained the greatest number
of close lexical similarities. These and the prominence of Hausa ↔ ST polysyllabic correspondences as
noted in section 5.4 above further reduce the possibility of chance correspondence between the ST and
AA families.
The comparison also focused attention on Hausa as a major factor which can direct further study of East
Asian culture, history (Chapters 6, 7, and 9) and language (Chapters 8 and 10).
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Chapter 6 - Phase 6
Cultural and geographic language common to African and ST languages.
The conclusions of the previous chapters are based on use of exactly defined criteria for phonetic and
semantic lexical comparison and statistical analysis of the results. They do not take into account all the
explanatory notes contained in each data record. These include information on the African/Middle Eastern
cultural background reflected in many words. Several of these are summarized in this section.The
language of grain agriculture in Africa and East Asia is reviewed in chapter 7.
6.1. Words for gourds and containers.

The present study identified many words common to AA, ST and Sanskrit which signify both gourds
and containers such as pottery and baskets. These are identified in word families F.2.a-b and notes
F.2a.1, F.3.1 and F.4a-c. This language is concordant with archaeological and current data from Africa
which reveals that the words for the “container” artifact developed from the multiple uses of the gourd as
a drinking vessel and for storage of liquids and grains. This close association of roots meaning both
“gourd” and “container” was retained in the corresponding Sanskrit and Sino-Tibetan names of round
clay and wooden vessels. Pottery formed a large part of the exports of the Indus civilization to Arabia in
the third millenium BCE. On the Indus trade see also Notes F.2a.1 (ST), F.3.2, H.39a.1, Sections 6.5 and
6.12 below, Chapter 7 section 7.4 and Chapter 8 Note 8.1.3.1.
6.1.1 References to illustrations of pottery in China:
6.1.1.1 Guan jars. The name is derived from F.4c.2 N. Chinese-MSC guàn “pot, jar, pitcher, jug”.
(See illustrations of an ancient Chinese “guan jar” in Liu / Chen 2012 Fig.6.10 # 10-12, 17 and 18.)
The typical guan jar is round (pot-bellied) and has a wide round opening on the top. It resembles a
pumpkin or gourd with a hole cut in the top. The African cognates designate gourds, calabashes or
pumpkins.
6.1.1.2 Hu jars. The name is derived from F.3.1 N. Chinese-MSC húlu “bottle gourd, calabash”. In
China round pots with necks are called “hu jars” e.g. C. Chinese-Wu ɦu6 “a jar, pot, jug” They have
been found in several different pre-historic Chinese material cultures. (See illustrations in Liu / Chen
Figs.6.10 #10-12, 17-18; Fig.5.9 #20; Fig. 7.3 #10 and Fig. 7.10C). In Afro-Asiatic languages the root
hulu / hu refers to bottle gourds. Like guan jars they are pot-bellied, but having the neck they
resemble bottle gourds. The guan jars generally do not have a neck. (See Note-F.4c.2).
6.2 Words for animals.
In the vocabulary designating the domestic animals of the Tibeto-Burman and Sinitic linguistic areas,
there are many close similarities with African roots.
6.2.1 Sheep, goats, antelope, deer.
6.2.1.1 Ehret considers that *lôʔ-, a widespread African/AA root designating animals, wild and
domestic, means “cattle ”or “cow”in Proto-Afro-Asiatic (A.12a.2); .Dolgopolski’s related A.12a.3 proto-
Cushitic root *l-h̟-’ is glossed as “sheep”..
In Nilo-Saharan and Niger-Congo languages all the similar forms in tables A.12a-A.12c mean “sheep”,
“goat”or “antelope”. In Tibetan and TB-Kham the correspondences mean “sheep”, “goat” or “deer”. In
Chinese the corresponding A.12a.1 lu morpheme means “meat” or “deer”. Thus in ST none of these
attestations mean “cow” (or any bovid) and several of them denote a wild animal, the deer. See also
Ehret 2002 76 for the different African animals referred to by the root *lôʔ- in various languages.
At the early Neolithic (6000-5000) Dadiwan archaeological site in Northwest China-Henan province the
most numerous animal remains were of deer (47%). Both domestic and wild pig fossils were second at
(21%). (Liu / Chen 151). The “meat” semantics of the A.12a.1-2 reflexes of this root in ST show that
they have retained the semantics of animals as a source of food. The fact that Sinitic uses lu and Tibetan
ruru to designate deer suggests that both linguistic areas received the root at a time when the main source
of meat was wild animals. This suggests a migration at a time when the root still meant only “antelope”
or “deer” (a member of the same genus as antelopes). Thus in some repects the populations were still
hunter/gatherers with perhaps pigs which had been domesticated in some areas. (See notes A.12a.2
(Proto-AA) and A.12b.1)
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Tibetan also gives evidence of having inherited from E.Africa the measurement of wealth in terms of
cattle owned by a herder. The Tibetan root dkor means “wealth, riches” with no reference to domestic
animals. However, the most exact match for the Tibetan form is the A.9a.1 Proto-Cushitic (Dolgopolski)
*d-�w-r “donkey”. This and the PAA *dakw(-ar)- root are also sources of the semantics of “equids” in
the AA sets A.9a.1-3. In E. Cushitic the root has the additional generic meaning of cattle as “livestock”
“wealth” which seems to have been inherited in Tibetan along with the more specific semantics of
“equids”.
A.9d.1 Tibetan E. Cushitic- Gedeo
dkór hor- “become rich”
“wealth, riches” hore “cattle, herd, money”
Jaschke 11 horte “property, wealth” Hudson 246
“substance, wealth, E. Cushitic- Oromo
riches, property” horri “money, treasure, wealth, animals, cattle,
livestock” Foot 29
Other Cushitic correspondences suggest that the hor- root primarily meant “breed, multiply” but these
semantics have not been found in other Afro-Asiatic or African languages.
E. Cushitic- Gedeo hor-em “breed, multiply” Hudson 246
E. Cushitic- Burji hor-ad’ / horʔ “breed, multiply” Hudson 246
E. Cushitic- Oromo horu vi. “moltiplicarsi di bestiame, riprodursi, farsi denaro, arricchirsi”
[have an increased number of cattle, to reproduce, to make money, to become rich] hora n.
“prosperita, riproduzione” [prosperity, reproduction] Borello 215-216 A.9d.1 Extended
Under either hypothesis the evidence points to a NE/East African origin of TB-Tibetan dkor.
6.2.2. Bovids. Background information on the domestication of bovids in Africa and Asia-Language
and archaeology.
6.2.2.1. Bovids. Africa.
Cattle were domesticated in NE Africa from about 8500 BCE. The archaeological sites providing this
evidence are located in the far southwestern part of what is now Egypt. (Ehret 2001 228.) Ehret considers
that the first two groups to carry out this domestication were Nilo-Saharan and Afro-Asiatic-Cushitic
speakers. However the statistical data in chapter 4 Table 4.3.2 indicate that Chadic speakers were the
most numerous early source. Nevertheless the A.6a-e tables could also support a hypothesis of joint
early Chadic/Cushitic origin since the sang-, sa and saay-, sag- “cow, ox” “castrate, geld” roots
denoting a domesticated bovid are also realized in multiple Cushitic morphemes:
A.6a.1 Cushitic-Afar, Oromo, Hadiya sang- “castrate, geld, gelded animal”; A.6c.1 Cushitic-Sidamo,
Rendille, Oromo. sa, sa’a “cow, ox” ;
A.6d.1 Cushitic-Gedeo, Hadiyya, Oromo sayya “cow” etc.
6.2.2.2. Bovids. West Asia and India- Language and archaeology.
The relationship between African and Middle Eastern / Southern Asian domestication of cattle is not
clear. Liu and Chen consider that the humpless taurine (Bos taurus) species was domesticated in the
Near East around 8000 BCE whereas the humped zebu type (Bos indicus) was independently
domesticated about 7000 BCE in the Indus Valley. (Liu / Chen 106). Humped zebu cattle have been
considered to have been introduced into Africa from India in the 4th century CE or possibly earlier.
See Notes A.21a.1 and A.25.2. Two Sanskrit roots gaura “a kind of buffalo, Bos gaurus and gava
“a cow” match roots found in Africa and South China (A.21a.1,3). Bos indicus and Bos Gaurus
apparently designate the same animal found throughout SE Asia which is known in English as the gaur.
It has a long ridged hump on its back along its spinal column.
6.2.2.3. Domestication of bovids in East Asia-Language and archaeology.
The Tibeto-Burman A.6b-c lexemes attest semantics of “buffalo” or “animal” “meat, flesh”, not “cow,
domesticated bovid”. This suggests a pre-domestication migration into the present TB linguistic region.
In TB languages there are three roots for “meat, animal” and “buffalo”. These are A.6c.1 sâ “meat,
animal”, A.6a.1,3-4 sang, san- and A.6c.2 saŸ- / sag-. These morphemes designate “cows” or “meat”
in Semitic and Cushitic, but “buffalo” in TB languages. In Chinese this root in all cases has the generic
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meaning of “livestock or cattle”. Again these semantic variants could be explained as resulting from
different African/AA language migrations, some before the domestication of cattle and sheep, some
afterwards. (See also Note-A.21b.2 (Old Chinese).
In S.Chinese-Yue the root for “buffalo” is ngàuh which also means “ox, cattle, cow” (A.21a.1);
in S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] it is ku3 / gǔ3 “cow, bull, ox” (A21a.3). With the meaning “cattle” it is
also found in TB-N.Naga-Chang and TB-Nung. On the African/AA side the ngàuh / ku root means
“buffalo” in Khoisan and Niger-Congo (A.21a.1-2). This again suggests for E. Asia that the root meant
“buffalo” at the time of the earliest migration, and was applied to cows when these were imported or
domesticated.
As in West Asia and India there are genetically two species of cattle in China, the humpless taurine
(Bos Taurus) and the humped zebu (Bos indicus), considered to have been domesticated independently.
Modern Chinese cattle have been divided genetically into three groups distributed geographically in the
north, central and southern regions. “Phylogenetic analysis suggests that the southern breeds are
dominated by zebu mtDNA, whereas the northern breeds are dominated by taurine mtDNA.” The central
groups are hybrids of the two. “These data strongly suggest that cattle were introduced to China from the
north and south through different routes”.(Liu / Chen 106). See also Chapter 9 Section 9.7
The northern (Bos Taurus) type has been identified by Chinese archaeologists at the neolithic
Yangshao culture site in the Wei River valley of south Shaanxi, c.4800-3700 BCE, the Beixin site in
Shandong , c.5500-4300 BCE, the Daxi culture of the mid-Yangtze valley, c.4000 BCE, and the Qijia
site in Gansu c.2500-1800 BCE. Sagart 192. These, except Daxi, are all located near the NW Chinese
Gansu corridor which later became the entry point of the Silk Road into China much later..
The southern zebu type is called ngàuh or ku3 / gǔ3 “cow, bull, ox” in south Chinese, the same as in
Sanskrit. (See A.21a.1,3) The main candidate for name of the northern type is A.21b.2 Old Chinese
*ni̭ŭg “bull, cow , ox”. However, Sagart considers the Old Chinese form to be *bŋgwu Bos [bovid] and
the modern niu form to be derived from this by a process *ŋgwu > ŋgjuw > niu. (Sagart 192)
Ancestral African matches for niu have been found only in Nilo-Saharan languages. The morpheme is
also found in central and south Chinese languages (See A.21b.1-2), but this may reflect the mixing of the
two breeds during the southern spread of Han Chinese under the various empires.
See Chapter 9 Section 9.7.
The Proto-W. Chadic *k’abani / *kab’ani “buffalo” (A.24.1) primarily designates the African buffalo,
although the root has been applied to cows in NS and NC-Benue Congo. It is not found in Chinese, but
only in TB attestations, e.g. Tibetan where it means “wild yak” and Burmese where it also means
“buffalo”.
6.2.3 Equids. Sino-Tibetan words for the donkey and the horse are:
A.8.1 TB-Tibetan rkyaŋ “the wild ass or horse”, A.9a.1 TB-Tibetan ku-rúg / gu-rug “colt of an ass” /
TB-Naga-Sema kuru “horse”, A.9b.1 TB-Tibetan dagöö̀ / dagööbo “a wild or untrained horse”and
A.9c.1 TB-Tibetan dəwa “colt”. All of these have close correspondences in Chadic and Cushitic
languages but none of them have been identified in Sinitic in the present study. However the A.8.1 root
has been identified in Central and Northeast Asian Altaic-Turkic languages, and A.9a1, A.9b.1 in Altaic-
Mongolian.
The scientific name for the Asian wild ass is Equus hemonius kur, sometimes known simply as kur.
It is a subspecies of Asian wild asses. Its range once extended from Western India to Baluchistan in
Afghanistan and Southeastern Iran. It is also called “onager”. See Bryant 117. As mentioned, the name
shows evidence of African origin.“The wild ass Equus asinus africanus is indigenous to the African
continent”. “The kur- root is widespread in Africa.” “Domestic donkeys have been found in an Egyptian
tomb dated to 4500-4000 BC”. Blench 2000 [346]. See Chapter 9 Table 9.5.1.1 for the spread of the
A.8.1 root and others designating animals from Africa into East Asia.
6.2.4 Pigs. The main A.15.1 TB ↔ AA root *abäg’ / *awäg’ “wild pig” is attested only in Chadic and
West Semitic-Ethiopian languages. The A.15.3 vak variant has been identified only in Niger-Congo-
Benue Congo. The clearest ST attestations of the root are in TB, but see also Note A.15.1
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(S. Chinese-Min Extended) In Chinese- Min the generic word for “meat” bâq also means “pork”. This
suggests that pigs had become the staple meat source in areas of Southern China before cattle were
introduced. Pork is still the main type of meat consumed in South China.
6.3 Numbers. The present study has identified a set of numbers existing in Afro-Asiatic which
correspond to ST language morphemes. All of these correspond to an AA-Cushitic root but G.18 “6”,
G.20 “2”, and G.21 “4” have no Chadic attestations. G.22. (“8”) shows Chadic correspondences with
the Cushitic “3” and “8” roots. Roots for”1”, “3” and “4” are attested in both Chinese and Tibeto-
Burman. Those of “6”, “2” and “8” are found only in Chinese. There are no Semitic correspondences
and only two from Niger-Congo.
Number Sino-Tibetan Chadic Cushitic Sem. NS NC Khoisan,

Altaic, IE
Swadesh G.17.1 C. Chadic- E. Maba NC- Gur Altaic-Turkic-
“1” TB- E. Ngweshe Cushitic- Group-For dike Old Turkic,
(G.17) Kiranti- Rai thekhwù Burji (Fur) “1” Kumyk tēk
tik (-pu) “one” d’ekki tek / dik “only,
“one” C. Chadic- “one” “one” solitary”
Mofu- E. Maba Altaic-Turkic-
Gudur ték Cushitic- Group- Turkish,
“un (en Konso, Maba Khakassian,
comptant)” Gawade teket / Kazakh tek
[one (when t-k- “one” teget / ”odd” “only”
counting)] tekee Altaic-Turkic-
“one” Bashkir,
Tatar tik
“only,
solitary”
G.17.3 W. Chadic- E. IE-Pashto
TB-Written Hausa Cushitic- tāk “single,
Burmese tak ideo. Gedeo unique”
tac “one” “(only) táakka- IE-Sanskrit
TB-Rangkas one” tákkach taks “once”
ta:ka: “one” d’áyáá tak “one (in Altaic-Turkic-
TB-Darmiya “one and counting)” Azerbaidzhan
taku “one” only one” täk ”odd”
tak “just “only,
(one), solitary”
one (only)”
ideo.
G.17.4 E. Dinka NC- Altaic-Turkic-
S. Chinese- Cushitic- tok “one” Gwa Turkmen
Min Oromo Merarit dogbo tǖk
(Taiwan-ese) tokko tok “1” ”odd”
tǒk-tôk num. Barea “only,
“sole, only” “one” doko / solitary”
toko
“one”
797
“6” G.18.1 E.
(G.18) S. Chinese- Cushitic-
Min Rendille
ly4 “six” líh “six”
Proto- E.
Cushitic
*lih’-
“six”
E.
Cushitic-
Burji líya
“six”
“3” G.19.1 E. Chadic- E. NC- N.
(G.19) N. Chinese- Nancere Cushitic- Mande-
MSC sab Gedeo Vai
sā “three” “:three” sase sàkpá
G.19.1 TB- E. Chadic- “three” “three”
Kiranti- Kabalai sakka
Sunwar sâ sabu “three ”
“three” “three” E.
TB-C. Cushitic-
Loloish-Lisu Oromo
sá “three” sadii
“three”
G.19.2 TB- S. NS- Khoisan-
Lepcha Cushitic- Datooga Hadza
sam “three” Asa sámogu samaka
Matisoff samak “three” “three”
2003 275 “three” Rosenfelder Kartvelian-
S. Chinese- http:// Georgian
Kejia zompist. sam-
(Hakka) com/nu “three”
sam1 three” Kartvelian-
Middle Svan sam- /
Chinese sem-
sâm “three” “three”
798
“2” G.20.1 E.
(G.20) N. Chinese- Cushitic-
MSC Gedeo
liâng “two” langa
“both” “two (in
“two, a pair, counting)”
a couple, C.
both” Cushitic-
Awngi
lánga
“two”
C.
Cushitic-
Kemant
(Falasha),
Xamir,
Xamta
linga
“two”
“4” TB-Dimasa S.
(G.21) dźI “four” Cushitic-
TB-Garo Iraqw
tś́i-kuŋ tsiyáhh
“four” “four”
TB-Tibetan S.
shi “four” Cushitic-
bshi “four” Alagwa
bz̀I “four” tsigah
TB-Tibetan “four”
(Ladakhi) C.
zhi “four” Cushitic-
Middle Xamta
Chinese siza
sijH “four”
“four”
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“8” N. Chinese- W. Chadic- E.

(G.22) MSC Hausa Cushitic-
bā “eight” bakwài Afar
S. Chinese- “seven” bahar
Kejia W. Chadic- “eight” /
(Hakka) Gwandara bacaar
(Meixian) bákwè / “eight”
bat7 “eight” -Bole
C. Chinese- bákwè E.
Wu “seven” Cushitic-
paʔ 7 W. Chadic- Saho
“eight” Bele ba-haar
báawùló “eight”
“seven”
W. Chadic-
Ngamo
babìlò
“seven”
The common factor here is Cushitic which indicates it is the proximate source. The path by which these
numbers came into Chinese has not been identified in this study. The absence of any Semitic
correspondences suggests that these number words came into E. Asia before the emergence of Sinitic,
i.e. before 3700 BCE, but more research on E. Asian languages, especially on the period when these
number words entered the ST lexicon, is necessary to establish a firm hypothesis.
6.4 The language of traveling. Matching Hausa ↔ ST roots point to nomadic and other more standard
travel routes present in both ST and African languages. The following Sections 6.4.1-5 list indicators of
what are probably later influences of Chadic on Sino-Tibetan.
6.4.1
Language indicating nomadism.
The D.36.1 TB-Tibetan rugɔɔ means “a group of nomads” “community of nomads”.
This corresponds closely to W. Chadic-Hausa rugā “Fulani cattle encampment, settlement” “camp”
(transitory during a trip, Fulani type). Here Hausa gives evidence that an African language lexeme
referring to nomads was introduced into the Tibetan area. A large area of northern Tibet is still inhabited
by nomadic cattle keepers and there is evidence that its inhabitants were nomadic cattle keepers in the
pre-historic period. Hence the rugɔɔ root supports positing of an incursion into Tibet of a group of
migrants speaking a language with affinity to Hausa. The root also has military semantics in Tibetan,
Chinese as well as Hausa. (See note D.36.1).
6.4.2 Organized travel.
6.4.2.1 The zhàn root “stop, halt / zàng “stopover, lodging place”
The H.18.1 N. Chinese-MSC zhàn “stop, halt” “station, stop (as of buses, trains)” corresponds closely
to the W. Chadic- Hausa zangòo “stopover” “camping ground, lodging place”“camp (transitory during
a trip, Fulani type)”. NC-Fulani sangina “make a camp” attests the same meaning and sangēre,
pl. changēje extends the semantics to mean “a military camp” or “caravanserai outside the town”. This
root is found in both northern and southern Chinese languages.
As a cultural phenomenon, traveling with regular stops or stations is applicable to both African pre-
agricultural nomadic societies and to the long distance travel of traders which developed after 4500 BCE
when donkeys had been domesticated .(See Ehret 2002 99)
The Hausa are famed for their vast modern trading network east across the African Sahel, north to the
Mediterranean and west to the Atlantic in Ghana and the Ivory Coast. Hausa is the lingua franca across
the Sahel and on the pilgrimage route to Mecca. And far to the east a common Hausa and Arabic trade
800
vocabulary is found in Chinese languages. This is discussed further in section 6.5 below. Africa was
part of a trade network which ended in China during the late prehistoric or early historical period.393
6.4.2.2 The sūk / sug5 root “to unload” “to lodge”
The words in table H.17b.1-4 suggest an organized travel on a well-established route which had
lodging places along the way. The words for “unloading” and “receiving lodging” have the same root in
Hausa. The H.17b.3 NS-Kanuri lexeme explicitly links the two notions, i.e. sáakin “lower, take down,
bring down” “put up lodge (a visitor or stranger)”, also yirsáakin “help lower, help unload”. The
corresponding H.17b.4 Cantonese and Hakka sūk / sug5 root “to stay overnight” “to lodge, to sojourn”
is both phonetically and semantically related to the Tibetan tshùgs-pa “caravansary, open place near a
village where travelers may encamp”
Thus the zan- and suk- roots cited above attest meanings of “lodging” as well as “stopping” and
“unloading” “sitting, staying”. The corresponding tables give evidence that the two roots meaning
“lodging” in these cases are derived forms of the two verbal roots meaning “stopping” and “getting
down, sitting” respectively.
6.4.2.3 The kwan root “to stay overnight” “guesthouse, hotel”. The G.13b.1 Chinese words for
spending the night and guesthouse are based on a root kwan3 meaning “stay, lodge” and “guesthouse,
hotel”. This has exact Hausa equivalents meaning “spending the night” and “lodging/sleeping place”, e.g.
S.Chinese-Hakka kwan3 “stay, lodge” “house, guest house, hotel” /
N. Chinese-MSC guân “accommodation for guests”, kuân “a tavern, a restaurant” “to lodge” /
Chinese-Min kuàn bf. “building or institution for public use” lû-kuàn “hotel”, koan2 “house,
guesthouse, hotel” “stay, lodge”
< W. Chadic- Hausa kwāna vi. “spend the night” “stop for a rest”, “pass night”, wurin kwànciyā /
“lodging place”, makwancī, pl. makwantai “sleeping place”.
A variant form of the kwan root, goŋ, is found in Tibetan, Chinese-Hakka and Chadic languages, i.e
G.13a.1 TB-Tibetan goŋdeb / goŋmεε “halting / staying overnight (on a trip)” / Chinese-Hakka
kwon3 / kon3 / kwan3 “stay, lodge” “house, guest house, hotel” / Chinese-MSC gõngyù “lodgings”
“lodging house” < W. Chadic-Ron (Bokkos) kon “die Nacht verbringen, Beischlaf haben (und sich am
Morgen unterhalten)” [to spend the night, to sleep over (and remain till morning)] /
C. Chadic-Wamdiu gonyu “sleep”.
G.13a.2 Chinese-Cantonese gún “house, guest house” léuihgún “inn”
< NS-Kanuri kuntúshirám “resting place” / kuntúshi “rest, repose”
6.5 Commercial and trade language. The notions “to exchange, to barter”, “to sell”, “to buy” are
represented by closely similar lexemes in northern and southern Chinese languages, Arabic and
Hausa/Gwandara. (See note H.39a.1 (Chinese, Chadic, Arabic), and sets H.40.1-3.) These terms suggest
an organized trading between Chadic/Semitic and Chinese speaking groups.
The semantics of “exchange, barter” in the H.39a.1 Chadic morpheme and reflected in H.39a. –MSC
correspond to the H.39a.1 Chadic and Semitic concepts of “exchange, turn” “turn around” “change
around” “switch, change”. These original meanings in Chadic and Semitic give evidence of having
developed into the modern meanings “buy/sell”, “trade, business, commerce”and “craft, occupation”
(trading as a specialized function in the society). Trading as “exchange” indicates that Chadic/Semitic
terms for trading possibly existed in E.Asia before the use of money, and perhaps even before the
393
Note 6.4.2 “The archaeological record shows that Chinese goods, especially porcelain and coins, were
circulating in African trade networks from well before the Common Era” Monson 377.
The Hausa word for “gold” is zinariya. Skinner considers this form to be derived from the Latin “denarius”
(Skinner 299). The word possibly entered Hausa as a result of direct trade with the Roman Empire. However
Arabic also uses a morpheme derived from the Latin denar- root, i.e. Arabic dinar “old gold coin” A similar
form existed in Sanskrit, i.e. dInAra.“gold coin”. (Cologne Digital Sanksrit Lexicon). It is noteworthy that the
Chinese-Beijing word for both “gold” and “money” is jīn. (Wu, J. 352, Wang, F. 247). In Cantonese it is chin
“money”. (Kwan 301); in TB-Gyalrong zɛn “money”. (Sagart 208) These correspond more closely to the
Hausa zin- than the Arabic and Sanskrit din- forms.
801
separate denotations of buying and selling were developed. In the Sahel today cattle keepers trade milk
and meat with agriculturalists for grain and other crop foods. In Tibet peoples of the high Himalayas use
yak caravans to trade salt for the grains of peoples of the southern valleys. The language of trading in this
table plausibly reflects a situation at least partially prehistoric, though perhaps late in the prehistoric
period. The H.40a1-2 Chinese shāng “trade or commerce”also corresponds closely to Arabic and
Hausa forms. Arab traders were present in South China during the Tang dynasty period (618-907 CE).
China had practiced extended trade with the Middle East through overland routes as early as 200 BCE
under the Western Han kingdom.
The H.40.3 TB-Tibetan tsuuno “buying”, and TB-Tibetan tshoŋ-wa “to barter, to sell” appear to be
variant forms of the H.40a.1-2 Hausa/Arabic root san / shan- ~ sanyi / s̟anaayi‫ع‬. The Hausa sanyi
form also means “to exchange”, whereas the Arabic form means “trade, craft, occupation”, probably a
derived noun form. Both the H.39 and H.40 morphemes are attested in northern and southern Chinese
dialects.
The notions implied in “exchanging”such as “interacting” “mutuality, reciprocity” are expressed in
many other Chinese words such as -MSC jiāojia “(of two things) accompany each other”, jiāo
“associate with” “mutual, reciprocal, each other”. (See H.39a.1 and Wu, J. 338 for other examples.)
The word families for trade and commerce are quite large. This implies minimally that, if these terms
were all loans from AA and not inherited as part of an original AA migration, they were introduced
earlier than the recorded dates of coastal Arabic trade with China, i.e. before 800 of the Common Era.
And the very close correspondences of the Chadic exchange / trade lexicon with those of Chinese
languages provides evidence supporting a position that speakers of both Arabic and Chadic dialects (or
an admixture of the two) conducted regular trade with Central and East Asia in the late pre-historic or
early historic period.
6.6 The language of pawning, slavery and redemption. The vocabulary for these practices is common
to ST and African/AA. It is found in D.11a-b, D.12, D.13 and D.17. See the notes for each of these
word families for information on pawning and redemption as cultural institutions in Africa. There is
evidence that much modern ST vocabulary representing loaning, mortgaging and even collateral for
loans is based on words for ancient African practices which were widespread across the continent.
Several of these contemporary meanings of the terms are found in the glosses for the Chadic, Arabic and
Cushitic morphemes, semantics which give evidence of being directly derived from the original practice
of pawning in Africa.
6.7 The language of magic, divination and astrology. The practices of divination and astrology are
attested in the historical period in the Middle East and Egypt, as well as in Tibetan and Chinese religious-
cultural origins. Chinese characters first appear on the “oracle bones”. These are cattle scapula inscribed
with symbols which recorded the predictions of important events by imperial court diviners to guide the
emperor. (Keightley 23-24, 27 note 27, 39 etc.)
Divining is still practiced widely in Tibet both among practitioners of the traditional Bon religion and
Buddhism. The study’s correspondences between African/AA and ST roots indicate a specific
African/Middle Eastern cultural origin of these practices for ST speakers. Thus the comparative data
show a linguistic concordance with what was already known about the African/Middle Eastern and ST
religious cultures. (See Notes D.27a.1, E.12.4-5 (Hebrew, Tibetan) and sets E.4b.2, E.8e.1.)
With regard to language representing magical practices in Africa and Asia see table D.27b especially
note D.27b.1 (Hausa extended).
6.8 Praise-singing, ululation. The E.21.1 Chinese root lala- “cheering squad, rooters” “flatter” reflects
an African custom of praising a person or group in the context of a major social event such as going into
battle, celebrating a victory, or simply praising a king or some other powerful person as an attempt to gain
his favor. Still today there are such professional groups of praise singers in cultures around the Lake Chad
802
area of Africa. This voicing is practiced throughout the Sahel and in Arabia as ululation, a term which
itself imitates the sound made when praising or celebrating.
An interesting case is found in Hebrew where the root is used in prayers of praise to God. Semitic-
Hebrew attests heelel / heelela v. past “praised, lauded” halel “a special God-praising prayer for
holidays” halelooyaah “Praise the Lord, (Psalm)” / aleloyah “praise be to God” (See also note E.21.1
(MSC etc.).
6.9 Language of kingship and aristocracy. ST Language for aristocracy and kingship found in D.5b.1
and D.28.1 has correspondences in South Semitic and Chadic languages.(See also Note-E.4b.1 E.
Cushitic-Burji on sacral kingship and Chapter 9 section 9.9.1) .
The following three sections provide not only cultural but also geographic indicators to the area from
which the migration(s) out of Africa and the Middle East took place.
6.10 Acacia tree resin, gum arabic, glue. The widely-used adhesive, gum arabic, is produced from
the sticky sap of the acacia tree. The Hakka / MSC / Cantonese semantics of B.32.1,3 show an explicit
connection between the acacia tree and the glue by attesting the two meanings of “resin, sap” and the
derived forms “glue, gum” “sticky, adhere” having the same root as that of the acacia tree in Chadic-
Hausa and Khoisan.
B.32.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] kau1 / gau1 “glue, gum” “resin, sap, anything sticky” “stick on, stick
together, adhere” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gàau “glue, gum” “anything sticky” “to stick on” <
W. Chadic-Hausa gàawo m. “large acacia tree” “Acacia albida” karo “Acacia polyacantha species” /
C. Khoisan-Proto-Khoe *ǂkxaro “a kind of thorn tree”
B.32.3 N. Chinese-MSC shujiāu “gum (of tree)” jiāushwĕi (Y) “glue” jiāoshuir n. “liquid glue” <
W. Chadic- Hausa k’ārō n.m. “gum, resin” “gum arabic” / Khoisan-Proto-Khoisan *g!au “acacia”
True gum arabic is also called “gum acacia”. It is also known as acacia gum powder, Cape gum,
Egyptian thorn and demulcent gum. The tree itself is also known as the gum Arabic tree. It is a small,
spiny leguminous tree which grows in sandy soil, mostly in drier tropical Africa and the south of the
Arabian peninsula. The gum is used not only as an adhesive, but also in the preparation of pills and
emulsions, the manufacture of food such as candies, and in general as a thickener and colloidal stabilizer.
The major commercial source (95%) is Acacia Senegal. After the rainy season ends, the stem begins to
exude gum, which is collected from December to June for marketing as Gum Arabic. Commercial use of
Gum Arabic can be traced back to around the year 2000 B.C. when the Egyptians used it in foods,
adhesives, colors and paint industries. The term `Gum Arabic' was coined by European traders, who
imported the product from Arabian ports such as Jeddah; most gum trade of the 19th century was
associated with Arab countries. Sudan had the highest production during the 20th century.
6.11 Wind, dust storm.

The B.10 word family contains several African language correspondences closely similar to the
TB/Chinese root fun / fung meaning “wind/gale” “to blow”. Of these there are multiple Chadic and
NC-Mande correspondences glossed as “harmattan”. One of the Chadic morphemes is glossed as “sandy
fog”. As explained in note B.10.1-2 the harmattan is a dry, dust-laden wind which blows from the Sahara
south into the sub-Saharan savannah (Sahel) regions of Africa during the cold months of December,
January and February. It is usually accompanied by a thick haze which obscures the sun.
In word family B.37 the Tibetan root bud “a cloud of dust, dust storm” attests an exact root stem
correspondence to the Chadic-Hausa budàa “dry, windy harmattan haze”.There are several related
Chadic forms in the Extended word family section which also are glossed as“harmattan” and three
related Cushitic forms including Proto-S. Cushitic which mean “dust”. Also the number of Asian non-ST
language lexemes matching this root is extensive. See also B.37.1. Asian non-ST languages.
The harmattan winds most probably developed during the desiccation of the Sahara and the Arabian
peninsula region from about 6000-4000 BCE. Hence these terms provide a clue for general dating of
some of the major migrations into Asia out of these regions.
803
6.12 Incense South Semitic-Amharic əţan “incense” and aţţänä “perfume with incense,fumigate”
“smoke a beehive” are related to the Proto-Chadic *‘jan, Hebrew ‘ashan and Khoisan-Proto-Non-
Khoekhoe *cʔan[i] roots meaning “smoke”. These in turn correspond to Chinese-Hakka jan1 “smoke,
fumes” and the Chinese-MSC xiang / syang “incense”. (See note C.5a.4).)
Of the Semitic languages only the South/West Semitic-Amharic əţan “incense as smoke” matches the
Chinese forms.394 This points to a south Arabian source for incense. Incense was indeed extracted from
the wood of the frankincense tree which grows only in South Arabia, Somalia and Ethiopia. (See Note-
B.20a.2 (Semitic-Amharic).
Amharic is today spoken only in Ethiopia, but around 100 BCE it was a dialect of a major Semitic
language of the southern Arabian peninsula. The tree from which most incense was produced grows
near the Southern Arabian coast around Dhofar, its probable ancestral home. From 500 BCE it was also
produced in Yemen, Somalia and Ethiopia. The extended trade route for the sale of incense developed
from Southwest Arabia to the north and northeast. Scholars had dated this trade from about 1000 BCE,
(Ehret 2002 209), but recent research in Oman has provided textual and archaeological evidence that
incense was traded as early as 2200 into Egypt and central Mesopotamia, far from its natural habitat.
The archaeologists who made these discoveries believe that it also formed part of a larger trade network
which in this period included the Indus valley (Harappan) Civilization. (Lawler 1099). See also Notes
F.2a.1- F.3.2 (Sanskrit Extended).
This trade also stretched from South Arabia to the north and northeast. It reached as far as Parthia
(ancient Persia) which traded with China from at least 300 BCE. The product is known to have been
introduced into China by the time of the Western Han dynasty 206 BCE–9 CE probably through
Buddhism. Incense from sandalwood is one of the scents used when honoring the Buddha.
The B.20a.2 (Middle Chinese Extended) note mentions trade between southeast Arabia (present-day
Oman) and the Indus Civilization in the period 2500-2000. In India incense is made from sandalwood.
The sandal tree is native to southern India. However the evidence indicates that Sanskrit received the
South Semitic root to designate the product used as a commercial fragrance. Set B.20a.2 presents
evidence that Sanskrit candana is not of IE origin and thus that the use of incense may have existed in
north India before the Indo-European linguistic domination of the area around 2000 BCE..
6.13 Rings. Rings from the Zhukaigou culture of China’s central southern Inner Mongolia culture
( 2000-1400 BC) and the Qijia culture of the Upper Yellow River valley are shown in illustrations
(Liu / Chen 315, 324, 329)
The Zhukaigou rings are earrings and finger rings made of bronze. (Fig. 9.9 #A3-5 315). The Qijia
sites show a bronze bracelet, a bronze earring (Fig. 9.13 #19-20 324 ) and a round jade ring called
huan and a curved jade pendant called huang (Fig. 9.16 #2, 5 329.
(See F.7a.6 N. Chinese-MSC chywān (Y) n. “ring, a circle”/ chuan “ring through the nose of an
animal” quān “circle, ring” < W. Chadic-Hausa kyawanya “metal ring” “any metal ring”.
See also F.7a.4 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian) k’wan2 / k’wan1 “jade ring or bracelet” “earrings
for women” < S. Khoisan-|‘Auni !kãǔnu “earring”.
394
Note 6.12 The other Semitic words for “incense” have different roots, e.g. Arabic bxuur, and Hebrew ketora.
These forms are probable reflexes of Cushitic/Semitic roots meaning “wood”, i.e.
a) Arabic bxuur is cognate to Proto-E. Cushitic *kor- “wood”, E. Cushitic-Oromo korani “firewood, fuel”,
Semitic-Hebrew kora “log” (See these and other related forms in F.21a.1 Extended. Also Proto-S. Cushitic *’kor-
“stick, tree, wood” in note F.5.2 and set F.21a.1 Extended)
b) Hebrew ketora / ketoret “incense is cognate to W.Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic əğğäta “handle, haft (of
spear),” magädo “firewood, fuel” and Semitic-Akkadian xat’t’u “stick, branch” (See these and other forms
designating wooden objects in F.20.1 Semitic CC column plus Extended section).
804
6.14 Grindstones Flat hand grinding stones have been found in many archaeological sites throughout
northern China. They are called “pan stones” i.e. the same word identified in B.22b.1-2 Chadic
languages as pan “flat rock” “grinding stone” with several ST < African/AA correspondences.
Hand grinding in the Peiligang culture (8000-7000 BP) of Henan province, NW China, was done
using a large flat and relatively thin stone as a base with a smaller rounded one to pound the grain. (See
illustration in Liu/ Chen Fig. 5.9 #24). These stones show up in other Chinese material cultures.
(Figures 5.6 #1, 5.12 #3 and 6.8 #16-17. In the Beixin culture (Liu / Chen 184) they are called
“mopan-mobang grinding stones”. Fig. 6.8 #5 also shows a pan plate.” Statistics on the number of
grinding stones discovered at the major Peiligang culture sites in Henan are in Liu / Chen Fig. 5.3 143.
For African and Middle Eastern words for grains and other agricultural terms found in Central and East
Asian languages see the following Chapter 7 passim.
6.15 Language indicating Semitic influence. Beside the above specific mentions of Semitic cultural
impact on East Asia, linguistic evidence of a general Semititc influence on East Asian culture is
presented in Chapter 9 Section 9.9.1.
805
Chapter 7
The language of agriculture in Africa and Asia.
7.0 The African > Sino-Tibetan grain agriculture lexicon.

In the tables below each word family contains multiple parallel close correspondences between
African/Afroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan lexical roots for grains. All the five word families concernig grains
contain roots which are found in Chadic-Hausa. Hence these common roots connect the language of TB
/ Chinese agriculture directly to that spoken by the African populations involved in one of the earliest
emergences of agriculture in human societies. The word family tables have been placed in a more
accessible sequence here since they were created at different times with different record numbers in the
Chapter 2A-H analytic tables. For citations of sources and the complete sets of notes see the full records
there.
Table 7.0.1 The mere / mai “millet, sorghum, wheat, barley” word family
B.9.1 Old Chinese C. Chadic-Tera NS-Kənzi NC-Fulfulde
miər “rice” mere “late millet” [Kənuzi] mūri
TB-Bai me E. Chadic- Dangaleat mare “millet”
“hulled rice” mériya “sorghum” “Durra” “Pennisetum
TB-Loloish-Nusu W. Chadic-Hausa [sorghum] typhoideum”
me me “hulled rice” moorii
“Sorghum bicolor”
B.9.2 N. Chinese-MSC E. Chadic-Somrai Anywa NC-Yoruba
mài / maize mai “sorghum” [Anuak] emeye /
“a general term for wheat, W. Chadic-Hausa āmáyɛ‫כ‬ mayi
barley etc.” “wheat” màiwā n. pl. “millet
TB-Proto-Karen “millet (planted late)“ “roasted species”
*may “rice” “black millet” grains” NC-Nupe
TB- Bodo-Garo W. Chadic- mai
mey or mai Gwandara (Koro) “millet”
“rice, paddy” mêywa
TB-Karenic-Pwo, Sgaw, “millet”
Pho me “rice”
B.9.3 W. Chadic- E. Cushitic-
N. Chinese-MSC Gwandara Gedeo
mî “rice” “shelled or (Gitata) mid’a
husked seed” “rice mîwâ “millet” “grain, cereal”
(uncooked)” C. Chadic-Buduma E. Cushitic-
C. Chinese-Wu miau / miō Oromo
mi6 “hulled or uncooked “sorghum, Durra” mid’aan
rice” “grain
TB-Bodo/Garo-Garo (growing,
mi “hulled rice” harvested)”
B.9.4 S. Chinese-Yue C. Chadic-Gisiga Proto-South
(Cantonese) *magaya Cushitic
siumahk “wheat” “Hirse” (Ger.) *magwale
[lit. small grain] [millet] “sorghum”
daaimahk “barley” C. Chadic-Mofu-
[lit. big grain] Gudur magaya
Middle Chinese “petit mil”
meak “wheat (Fr.) [small millet]
(or barley)”
806

B.9.1 Old Chinese miər “rice”
< C. Chadic-Tera mere “late millet” / NS-Kənzi [Kənuzi] mare “Durra” [sorghum]
B.9.2 N. Chinese-MSC mài / maizi “a general term for wheat, barley etc.” “rice, paddy”
< W. Chadic-Gwandara mêywa “millet”
TB-Bodo-Garo *mey or *mai “rice, paddy” / TB-Proto-Karen may “rice”
< NC-Nupe mai “millet” / E. Chadic- Somrai mai “sorghum” / W. Chadic- Hausa màiwaa “millet
(planted late) ” “Holcus cernuus”
B.9.4 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) siumahk “wheat” [lit. small grain]
daaimahk “barley”[lit. big grain]
< Proto-South Cushitic *magwale “sorghum”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *mare “millet species” “sorghum” ~ *magwale “sorghum”
B.9.1 TB-Karenic-Pwo, Sgaw, Pho me “rice”
B.9.2 N. Chinese-MSC xiăo mài “wheat” xiăo “small” dà mài “barley dà “big”;
shumi “husked sorghum” shu “sorghum” xiăomîr n. “yellow millet”
TB-Dimasa mai “rice, paddy”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) máih “hulled rice” “uncooked rice”
syu maî “millet grain” sūk maih “millet”
[compound of this root and that of F.12c.3 sūk “grains, millet”]
TB-Naga-Tangkhul ma “rice”
TB-Nungic-Trung-Dulong tś(h)ɯ-ma “rice”
B.9.3
TB-Bai (Dali) mi35zo21 “barley”
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver, Lau Chunfat)
mi3 “hulled or husked uncooked rice” “a shelled or husked seed”
Extended African/Afroasiatic word family:
B.9.1
W. Chadic-Cip mar “early millet”
W. Chadic-Kofyar mār “early millet”
C. Chadic-Mada mārda “late millet”
E. Chadic-Migama māriyo “millet species”
W. Chadic-Hausa moorii “Sorghum bicolor” “white guinea corn cultivar”
mùrmùrà “Sorghum bicolor” “soft guinea corn cultivar”
NC-Gbari māwi “millet”
NC-Swahili māwele “bulrush millet”
B.9.2 NC-Yoruba emeye / mayi “millet species”
E. Chadic-Somrai maja “Negerhirse” [millet]
NS-Songhay (Djenne) m‫“ ככ‬rice plant, rice (as crop in paddy)” m‫ככ‬-yje “uncooked, shelled rice (after
chaff is removed by pounding) [lit. “son of rice”]
The -yje suffix is an NS-Songhay diminutive. (See D.3c.1-2 NS-Songhay) and Note D.1.2.)
E. Cushitic-Burj mainko “millet”
B.9.3
W. Chadic-Gwandara (Nimbia) mɨyòngo “millet”
C. Chadic-Bura mili “small grain used in sukwar”
B.9.4 E. Cushitic-Oromo migíra “graminacea (Pennisetum adoense)”
Asian non-ST languages with close correspondences to African/AA roots:
B.9.1 IE-Bengali mụri “parched rice”
B.9.2 Hmong-Mien-Mien mai3 “hulled rice”
Hmong-Mien-Proto-Mienic *hmei “millet”
Hmong-Mien-Mun of Hainan / -Mun of Funing mei / mei pe “hulled rice”
807
Hmong-Mien-Proto-Miao-Yao*maiB “shelled rice”

Austro-Asiatic-Vietic ma “young rice plant”
Austro-Asiatic-Bahnaric ʔma “field rice”
B.9.3 IE-Bengali mɔyda “flour’ n.
Daic-Kra-Biao mii “cooked rice”
South Daic-Lao me:t2 “grain”
B.9.4 Kartvelian-Georgian maxa “a kind of wheat” / Kartvelian-Laz moxa “a kind of wheat”
IE-Sanskrit syāmaka “Panicum Frumentaceum “a kind of cultivated millet” magha “a species of
grain” mahabuza “a sort of rice” “barley” / mahayava “a kind of large barley”
mahadusaka “a species of grain” Cologne Lexicon
Proto-Altai *miurgu “wheat”
Altaic-Mongolian mu:rki “barley, wheat” / Altaic-Proto-Tungus Manchu *murgi “wheat”
/
Table 7.0.2 The *gērō / *gauri / kure “millet” / |xúrí “seed” word family
B.27.1 W. Chadic-Hausa W. Semitic-
TB-Tibetan gērō m. Ethiopian-
gro “Pennisetum Amharic
“wheat” glaucam” ǝnkuro
TB-Lepcha “bulrush millet” “dish made
kho-gro “Pennisetum of flour of
“a species of typhoideum” parched
grain” Proto-W. Chadic barley and
*giwro / *gyro sorghum
“millet” which has
E. Chadic-Masa been mixed
togoro “sorghum” with water”
W. Chadic-Tangale
kọọrọ
“mixed grains”
B.27.2 E. Chadic- Masa NS-Kanuri
TB-Tibetan Group-Lame tə́gə́ra n.
khrá-ma gəraŋ “dumplings
“a kind of barley “millet” of millet or
growing and C. Chadic-Higi Futu guinea corn
ripening within gərwa flour mixed
60 days” “millet” with liquid”
Proto-Tibeto-
Burman,
Proto-Lolo-
Burmese
*g-ra
“buckwheat
(Fagopyrum
esculentum)”
B.27.3 C. Chadic-Gudu NC-Galambu
TB-C. Loloish- gəwā gbaa
Lisu “sorghum” “noyau, pepin,
gua E. Chadic- grain”
“buckwheat” Masa group-Peve (Fr.)
Middle Chinese Ikwa “sorghum” [kernel, seed,
hwa “a millet” single grain]
808
B.27.4 W. Chadic-Dera Semitic- NS-Anywa C. Khoisan-

TB-Tibetan kure Hebrew [Anuak] Proto-Non-
gorii “millet” gar’een ogòollí Khoekhoe
“a type of round W. Chadic-Hausa “seed “sorghum *|xúrí
barley” kuri (grain)” cultivated C. Khoisan-
“a kind of short gargeer along the Hiechware
bulrush millet with “grain, river |khúrí
long thick heads” berry” [during the “seed”
ku’ri dry season]”
“locust bean seeds” NS-Songhay
(Koroboro)
gùurì
“noyau,
grain”
[kernel,
seed]
B.27.5 Semitic- NS-Kanuri NC-Poular
N. Chinese -MSC Aramaic ngawuli gauri
gāoliang n. gawarws “guinea “mil”
“sorghum” m. corn” [millet]
liangshi “millet” [sorghum] NC-Fulfulde
“grain” Compre- [Fulani]
hensive gawe
Aramaic “grain”
Lexicon gau / gauri /
gauriwa
“corn,
especially.
guinea corn”
B.27.6 W. Chadic- Semitic-
N. Chinese-MSC Bauci Group Written
ch’iáo *gyàurō Arabic
“buckwheat” “millet” jawwar
qiáomài W. Chadic-Hausa “rye”
“buckwheat” k’aura Egyptian
jiāo bf. “Sorghum bicolor” tchaāu
“wild rice, water “red guinea corn “a kind of
oats” cultivar” seed or
S. Chinese-Kejia Proto-W. Chadic grain”
[Hakka] *giwro / *gyro
k’iau2 / kiau1 “millet”
“buckwheat”
Hakka Dict.
TB- Burmese-
Lolo-Lolo-Tujia
khu tɕiàu
“bitter
buckwheat”
S.W. Chinese
tɕiau
“buckwheat”
809
B.27.7 W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Proto-AA

S. Chinese-Yue Diri, Pa’a, Siri (Orel /
(Cantonese) *gyura “millet” Stolbova
kìuh Proto-W. Chadic 1995)
\“buckwheat” *giwro / *gyro *gir /
N. Chinese-MSC “millet” *giur
ch’iu W. Chadic-Hausa “corn”
“parched wheat or k’urk’uráá
rice” “Sorghum bicolor”
B.27.1 TB-Tibetan gro “wheat” / TB-Lepcha kho-gro “a species of grain”
< W. Chadic-Hausa gērō “millet (planted early)” / NS-Songhay gèrò “alestes imberi” “alestes
nurse”
B.27.3-4 TB-Tibetan gorii “a type of round barley”
< C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe *|xúrí, C. Khoisan-Hiechware |khúrí “seed” / E. Cushitic-
Rendille khúrri m. “ear (of grain)” /
B.27.5 N. Chinese-MSC gāoliang n. “sorghum”
B.27.6 N. Chinese-MSC ch’iáo “buckwheat”
< W. Chadic-Bauci Group gyauro “millet”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *gērō “millet” ~ *gauri “millet” / ǀxúrí “seed”
B.27.1 TB-Tibetan
gro-ma “name of a herb (the grass Scirpus Kysoor)”
gro “breakfast” gro-yós “parched grains of wheat” gro-sóg ”stalk of wheat”
gro-skam “dry wheat”
gro-tshag “sieve for sifting wheat”
B.27.6 N. Chinese-MSC qiáo “buckwheat”
B.27.1
E. Cushitic-Oromo gerbo “barley”
NC- Fulfulde (Fulani) gērō “negro millet” “not the original Fulfulde term, but the only one used by
the Fulfulde settled in the provinces of the former Hausa empire”
B.27.2
W. Chadic-Ngizim garəfka “sorghum”
B.27.4
C. Chadic-W. Margi kwiši “sorghum”
E. Chadic-Misme/Mesme gwirany “sorghum”
B.27.7
W. Chadic-Gwandara gyero “bullrush millet”
W. Chadic-Gwandara (Newman, P.) gyoro “millet”
B.27.2
IE-Hittite karas “eine Getreideart deren Mehl nicht zur Brotbereitung verwendet wird” (Ger.)
[a type of grain whose flour is not useful for making bread” [this is typical of barley]
B.27.4
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *guril “flour” / -Mongolian-Khalka *guril “flour”
-Mongolian-Buriat guril “flour” / -Mongolian-Dagur goli(l), goli “flour”
-Mongolian-Ordos gulir, guril “flour”
IE- Sanskrit garitra “rice, corn, grain”
IE-Hindi garī f. “kernel”
810
B.27.5 IE-Sanskrit gaura “a species of rice”

gauraka “a kind of rice” gauduma “made of wheat”
B.27.6
IE-Pashto jau “barley” j’war sing. / j’wari pl. “the name of a grain (Holcus sorghum)”
IE-Hindi jau “barley” cāval “rice”
IE-Bengali caul “rice, (cooked)”
IE-Sanskrit cavala “rice”
IE-Old Indian yáva-̣h m. “barley, corn”
IE-SE-Iranian-Baluchi ʒ��
aw “barley”
IE-N. Iranian-Ossetian jaw “millet”
IE-Central Iranian-Yagn yaw “barley”; Persian �av “Gerste” [barley]
IE- E. Iranian-Avestan yava “crop” yəvīn “ Getreidefeld” [field of barley]
Hmong-Mien-Proto-Mienic *jæu “buckwheat”
Daic-Tai-Dehong ɕiau “buckwheat”
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho-Mundari tʃaʊ’li / tʃau’li “rice” -Santali tʃaʊ’le “rice”
B.27.7
IE-Sanskrit gur- “barley”, “rice” and “wheat” kuruvinda “a kind of barley” laGgura “millet”
goraksa “wheat” Cologne Lexicon
/
Table 7.0.3 The *chi- ~ shek / *cak- ~ hé “millet” “barley” “grain” word family
B.35.1 W. Chadic-N. E. Cushitic- W. Semitic-
N. Chinese-MSC Bauci-Pa’a Oromo Ethiopian-
chi2 “panicled millet” acī “sorghum” anciró Harari
jì “millet” “the god of grains W. Chadic- “dura bianca ašīta
worshipped by ancient Hausa (Sorghum “young grain”
emperors” hatsī / hacī Roxburgh-
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] < *øatsi Hackl)”
(Meixian) “grain”, “sorgo,
jii5 / tsi5 “pearl barley” esp. guinea corn saggina”
tsi1 / tsi5 “panicled millet” and millet” [sorghum]
zi1 “the millet to be offered “grain
in ritual sacrifice” (only sorghum and
TB-Qiangic-Pumi- Dayang- millet) ”
[Taoba] “cereal (millet
35 35
to tɕi “buckwheat” and sorghum)”
TB-Tibetan “corn, cereal
tsi-tsé / c‫כ‬i-tse crop”
“millet”
TB-N. Loloish-Lalo
zi “barley”
See also D.3c.2 “seed”
B. 35.2 W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic- Semitic- NC-
S. Chinese-S. Min shek’a Somali Akkadian Common
(Taiwanese) “Sorghum meseggo / šeʔu Bantu
chiȇk, chiȇkà bicolor” maseggo “barley, *caka
“unhusked rice, paddy” “guinea corn “grain” grain” “sorghum”
TB-Deng-Kaman cultivar” Proto- Semitic-
tɕika “bitter buckwheat” C. Chadic-Tera Highland E. Arabic
Old Chinese tsik Group Cushitic ši‫ع‬iir “barley”
“millet, the sacred plant of the sek-t- *bašinka hasik-at
Zhou people” “millet” “sorghum” “barley”
811
S. Chinese-Yue C. Chadic-Gude
(Cantonese) sekunwa
jīk “sorghum
“panicled millet” species”
TB-Tibetic-Lhokpu C. Chadic-Gabin
cək sèkɛ-te “millet”
“foxtail millet” C. Chadic-Boka,
Banana
šèk-tàʔa
“millet”
B.35.3 C. Chadic-Mofu- Egyptian NC-
TB-Burmic-Burmese Gudur, E. m’tchaá Common
ʃaʔ Chadic-Lele “grain” Bantu
“millet” masakwa Semitic- *caka
“mil de la saison Arabic “sorghum”
sėche” ʃaʕi:rr Skinner 198
[dry season [IPA] S. Khoisan-
millet] “barley” Proto-Taa
*sâʔŋ
“seed”
B. 35.4 E. Cushitic- Semitic-
Proto-Lolo-Burmese Kembata Hebrew
*zəy2 “barley” oze se’orah
TB-Tibetan “grain, “barley”
tsé-tsé “millet” cereal, crop”
pu-tsé “barley”
pu “husks”
TB-Qiangic-Pumi Dayang
(rGyalrong)
tau tʃə “buckwheat”
TB-Chin-Lushai, Lai
*dzey “seed”
B. 35.5 TB-Lahu W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic- W. (Ethiopian)
ca1 “rice (uncooked)” acca n. Oromo Semitic-
Matisoff 2003 30 “Digitaria exilis” ija / iji n. Amharic
Proto-Lolo-Burmese Skinner [1] “frutto di ajja n.
*dža1 / *dza1 albero, semi, “oats, rye”
“rice / paddy” chicco di
TB-Sani tsā “rice” grano”
TB-Jingpho [fruit of a
ja “kind of millet” tree, seeds,
grain of
cereal plant]
B.35.6 N. Chinese (Bejing) W. Chadic- Egyptian
hé “standing grain Tangale hi “grain,
(esp. rice)” (h)ai “millet” wheat, barley
hémiao “seedlings of cereal C. Chadic-Gudu etc.”
crops” xəy “seed”
hézī “zygote”
812

B.35.1 Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] tsi1 / tsi5, Chinese-Beijng chi2 “panicled millet” /
TB-Tibetan tsi-tsé “millet”/
< W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Pa’a acī “millet, sorghum”
B.35.2 Old Chinese tsik “millet”
< W. Chadic-Hausa shek’a “Sorghum bicolor” / Semitic-Akkadian šeʔu “barley, grain”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *(a)cī “millet, grain” ~ šeka “sorghum”
B. 35.1 TB-Tibetan jìtser “a type of millet” dzīdze “millet” < “Chinese”
B. 35.4 TB-Tibetan tse-tsi “millet”
TB-Nungish-Trung tɕaʔ “millet”
Extended African /Afroasiatic language word family:
B. 35.1
W. Chadic-Geji ĉílihwo “millet”
C. Chadic-Mandara Group xiya “sorghum”
N. Cushitic-Bedauye asida “flour (esp. millet)”
B. 35.4 W. Semitic-Ethiopian xet’t’-, het’t’- “grain, seed”
IE-Hindi
B.35.1 jī “oat” n.f. jī “barley” n.m.
B.35.2 jī kā daliyā “oatmeal” n.m.
IE-Sanskrit cikkasa “barley meal” [disyllabic correspondence with B. 35.2 Chadic-Hausa]
saktu “coarsely-ground meal , grit, groats, esp. of barley meal” RV
saktuka m. “barley” “a quantity of fried barley or barley-meal”
saksata “containing uncrushed or whole grain (not deprived of husk) , having grains of barley”
Proto-Indo-European *seg(’)- “seed(s)”
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek hashaki “pearl millet”
B.35.3
Hmong-Mien-Proto-Mienic tsyəi “millet”
Hmong-Mien-Hmong-White Hmong cey “buckwheat”
/
Table 7.0.4 The *sūk “millet” “sorghum“ “seed” “grain” word family
F.12c.3 S. Chinese-Yue W. Chadic- Hausa Omotic-Mocha NC-Fulfulde
(Cantonese) sūk “grains, shūkàa n. šokki- “seed” [Fulani]
millet” “plant(s), crop(s)” Omotic-Bworo cukkun-di
S. Chinese-Kejia shuke pl. (Shinasha) “a variety of
7 5
[Hakka] siuk / sug / šookà- millet”
xiug5 “grain, paddy, millet” “Saat”, Same”
Middle Chinese [seed]
syowk “grains still in their Omotic-Janjero
husk” “foxtail millet” zokoro
ST widespread root “millet species”
tʃɔk “foxtail millet”
TB-rGyalrong
ʃok “foxtail millet”
F.12c.4 Old Chinese W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic- Oromo
shushu “sorghum” sussukā f. shumo “granaglia
N. Chinese-MSC “corn to be threshed” bollita (con fagioli,
shùmi “husked sorghum” vn. of miglio)” [boiled
shū “broom corn millet” sussùkā cereal/grain
shú “sorghum” “to thresh corn” (with beans, millet)]
813
tzû “common millet” [In British English the

shû “glutinous millet” word “corn” means
TB-Amdo Tibetan ‘grain”. In the United
tşu “bitter buckwheat” States and Canada
TB-N. Loloish-Yi Xide “corn” refers to the
zu “barley” plant and its seeds
TB-C. Loloish-Lisu known as “maize’ in
zu “barley” most of the other
TB-Nungish-Trung Engish-speaking
(Dulong) countrues]
tś(h)ɯ ma “rice”
F.12c.3
TB-Chin-Mikir sok “rice (paddy)” “grain”
Old Chinese *sok “foxtail millet”
TB-Loloish-Lisu tʃoʔ “foxtail millet”
F.12c.4
TB-Nungic-Trung-Dulong tś(h)ɯ-ma “rice” ma “rice” (B.9.2 Extended)
N. Chinese-MSC shùmi “husked sorghum”
N. Chinese-MSC zhu “trunk of a tree, stem of a plant” “individual plant, plant” sù “grain” [millet
F.12c.4
Hmong-Mien-Mun of Hainan t’juu “grain”
Hmong-Mien-Mun of Funing tsu “Setaria italica” [millet]
/
Table 7.0.5 The dao / dou “millet” “sorghum“ “seed” “grain” “rice” word family
B.33a-b AA – Chadic AA –Cush. AA-Sem. NS NC
B.33a.1 C. Chadic-Gisiga, Zəlgwa E. Cushitic- Mande
N. Chinese-MSC dào daw “millet” Afar doro
“rice, paddy” C. Chadic -Mofu-Gudur daro “millet
Wu, J. 140 daw “grain, species”
dàu (Y) “rice “millet, sorghum” sorghum” Skinner
(growing)” Chen 335 W. Chadic-Hausa Skinner 46 46
Middle Chinese dāwàa f.
dawX “rice plant” “sorghum
Sagart 181 (guinea corn)”
TB-Qiangic-Pumi Skinner 46 Kraft 339
Dayang-Jinghua “Sorghum bicolor”
tâu-tʃə Blench
“buckwheat” Hausa names for plants
Matisoff 2003 168 13
N. Chinese dàurō
xiandào “rice” “type of thick, hard
“Oryza sativa millet”
variety indica” Newman, P. 2007 44
jingdào “rice” “Pennisetum glaucum”
“Oryza sativa “millet”
variety japonica” Blench Hausa names
Wu, Y. 224 for plants 15
814
B.33a.2 Semitic-
S. Chinese-Yue Old Aramaic
(Cantonese) doh̝an “millet”
douh “paddy or rice” Comprehensive
Chik / Ng 336 Aramaic Lexicon
Approximate ST etymon *dauro “sorghum, millet”
B.33a.1 N. Chinese-MSC dàozi n. “rice, (plant) Wang, F. 95
B.33a.2 TB-Qiangic-Pumi Dayang-Taoba tō tɕi “buckwheat” Matisoff 2003 168
B.33a.1 W. Chadic-Hausa dāwàr damina “Sorghum series spontanea” “wet season sorghum”
Blench Hausa names for plants 13 damina “the rainy season” (B.21.2) ;
dàwòo “ball(s) of fura without milk” fura “balls of millet in cultured milk” Newman, P. 2007 44
C. Chadic-Mafa = Matakam dawn “corn”
W. Chadic-Dira/Zul dəwro “millet” Skinner 46
C. Chadic-Logone dōrio “sorghum species” Skinner 46
B.33a.1
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek tariq “millet” English Uzbek Dictonary
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur tériq n. “millet” Uyghur Dictonary
7.1 Grain agriculture in Africa.

Sometime before 11000 BCE gathering and grinding of seeds from wild grasses began in SE Egypt /
NE Sudan. Peoples along the Nile used grindstones to make flour from sedge grass tubers. (See set and
note B.22b.2 ). Ehret considers that the people who did this spoke Afro-Asiatic languages.
(Ehret 2002 35-36).
Speakers of the NS language, Proto-Northern Sudanic, adopted the practice of grinding grain into flour
from their AA-Northern Erythraitic neighbors sometime before 9000 BCE. (Ehret 2002 62-63).
[Erythraitic- from the Greek word for “red” refers to the northern Red Sea area, in Latin Mare Erythreum
‘the Red Sea’]. The B.9.1 C. Chadic-Tera mere “late millet”, W. Chadic-Cip mar “early millet”
(Extended etc.) have NS cognates which confirm a a Chadic association with NS in this first processing
of grains as does the NS-Kənzi [Kənuzi] mare “Durra” [sorghum].The NS-Sudanic-Kənzi language is
spoken by people who live in northern Sudan in the area of Nubia south of the third cataract of the Nile
called the Dongola reach. See Ehret 2002 Map 2 [32] #5 Dongola Reach.and Map 778 marked as
“Capsian and Middle Eastern Agriculture”. Like the B.9.1-4 word family, the B.35 and B.27 word
families mainly attest Chadic and Nilo-Saharan correspondences associated with African grain
agriculture.
Cultivation of grains followed around 7000 BCE. (Ehret 2001 228, 2002 66). As mentioned in note
B.9.1 (Old Chinese), the cultivation of sorghum, historically the first of these wild grass grains to be
domesticated, began in this area and it became the most widespread grain-based food in Africa.
The 7000 BCE date for beginnings of agriculture in Africa can be used as a starting date for studying
the period of great population growth which propelled migrations out of NE-Africa and the Middle East
by land routes into Central and East Asia. (See note B.1a.1 on the spread of agriculture in Africa). By
815
6,800 years ago, village communities along the West Nile also cultivated wheat and barley, grains from
Southwest Asia. (Hassan, F. 241)
Millets which have been used as food in the African Sahel include pearl millet (Pennisetum) which
originated in the western Sahel, and finger millet (Eleusine) which originated in the Ethiopian and East
African highlands” (Sutton 23).
The cultivation of wild grasses for food in drier areas was a cultural breakthrough which gave the AA
speakers a demographic advantage over other populations. They could support more people on the same
expanse of land and occupy drier areas which had been more sparsely inhabited by peoples dependent for
subsistence on hunting or gathering. (Ehret 2002 36) Of course population growth also leads to migration
in search of more land for cultivation.
Around 6700-5500 BCE (the early to mid- Holocene dry phase) proto-Chadic speakers moved west
across a northern belt of the Saharan steppe staying for the most part to the north of Nilo-Saharan
speakers. In the Western Sahara, now also herders, they extended their grazing and cultivated lands
southward through the Central Sahara and into the Lake Chad basin. (Ehret 200175, 2002 79).
Archaeological excavations in the central Sahara in the Ahaggar region point to the culture of
Pennisetum (millet) during the seventh millenium BCE rather than any other Saharan cereal grass.
(Camps 567).
7.2 Grain agriculture in the Middle East.

Wild grain harvesting appeared in the Middle East around 10,000 BCE. In the lower areas of the
Zagros and Taurus mountains (in South Central Turkey) the now warmer climate melted the ice sheets on
the mountains and water flowed into the valleys and plains. As a result large-seeded grasses, the
ancestors of wheat and barley, flourished and the inhabitants began harvesting and storing their seeds as
food. (Chiaroni 2010 348)
Chiaroni et al. found a parallel between the establishment of rain-fed agriculture and the first
migrations out of the mountains to the south by populations bearing the J1e chromosome characteristic of
Arabs. He considers this first migration to have occurred at the onset of the Neolithic. About 9000 BCE
some communities in Northern Syria began to plant cereals beyond their original habitat.
Some researchers have held that African agriculture developed from Middle eastern agriculture. Indeed
Middle Eastern agriculture spread from western Asia over the Mediterranean north of Africa, probably
between 7.2 to 5.5 thousand years before the present. (Tofanelli 2009 1521). However as mentioned
above, Chadic speakers belonged to the Capsian culture of northern Africa which adapted to the
subtropical Mediterranean steppe of the northern half of the Sahara. .
7.3 African agricultural language as evidence of a neolithic incursion of speakers of an Afro-Asiatic

dialect into Asia.
The above B.9.1-4 data show that the mere- / mai- / mi- / mak- “millet, sorghum” roots for grains
are attested in Chadic, NS and NC languages. The time frame of the word family extends from 7.2 to
5.5 thousand before the present. This precedes the emergence of Semitic languages at about 3700 BCE.
(Chiaroni 352). In fact there is thus far no evidence of a Semitic occurrence of the B.9.1-4 Chadic/
Cushitic/NS me- / mi- / mag- “millet / sorghum” root stems. Interestingly, all the Chinese
correspondences to these refer to wheat, barley or rice. The same is true of all the B.9.4 Asian non-ST
languages: Kartvelian, Sanskrit/Avestan, and Mongolian. This suggests that the me- / mai- / mi- / mag-
“millet / sorghum” lexemes came to mean “wheat” or “barley” when Chadic speakers arrived in the
Middle East where culture of these latter grains originated. (See also Note- B.27.4-7.)
This supports a position that two separate agricultural traditions merged in NE Africa and Western Asia,
and suggests a further hypothesis that both were carried from Western Asia by Chadic speaking groups
into Central and East Asia, but perhaps at different times. Although agriculture originated in the Fertile
Crescent, the agricultural language of the ST linguistic area is mainly African.
816
All of the Sino-Tibetan variants listed in Tables 7.0.1-5 above, correspond phonetically to Chadic
roots meaning “millet” or “sorghum”, grains which originated in Africa, although many now refer to
rice, barley or buckwheat,.
7.4 Grain agriculture in Pakistan and India

Sorghum and millet had been imported from Africa into Northwest India and Pakistan by the third
Millenium BCE, the time when the Indus Valley civilization was flourishing. (See sets B.27.4-6 Sanskrit
+ note). The variants of a protoform *gauri “millet” / ǀxúrí “seed,” ”millet”are cognates of Sanskrit
in three of the African/AA superfamilies (B.27.4 AA-Chadic NS- and NC/Khoisan); they match
morphemes meaning grains in North and South Chinese as well as three Tibeto-Burman languages.
Hence three south Central Asian cereal crops have been known to be of African origin. Blench cites
three cereal crops of African origin which were transmitted to India around 4000 years ago. These are
sorghum “Sorghum bicolor”, finger millet “Eleusine coracorana” and pearl millet “Pennisetum
glaucam” “They appear to have spread rapidly to China, probably through the Himalayan corridor”
(Blench 2009 6).
Sorghum was imported into Pakistan at the latest by the early third millenium BCE. (c.5000 Before
Present). (Blench 2003 passim and 2009 6). Millet dating from the second and third millenia BCE has
been identified at a number of northwest Indian and Pakistani sites. These grains entered south central
Asia through the maritime trade which the Indus civilization developed with Southern Arabia and East
Africa early in the third millennium BCE. (See Possehl 218 plus note). On the Indus trade see also Note
H.39a.1 and Chapter 8 Note 8.1.3.1.
Sanskrit and its descendants’ words for grains correspond to lexemes of three of the African word
families referring to grains. As mentioned above, Tibetan and Chinese show correspondences with all
five of the African /AA language word families for grain. Sanskrit clearly attests three: B.9.1,3-4,
B.27 and B.35 i.e.:
B.9.1
IE-Sanskrit *mare “millet species” “sorghum”
IE-Bengali mụri “parched rice”n.
B.9.3
IE-Sanskrit medhya “barley
IE-Bengali mɔyda “flour’ n.
B.9.4 IE-Sanskrit syāmaka “Panicum Frumentaceum “a kind of cultivated millet”
magha “a species of grain” mahabuza “a sort of rice” “barley” mahayava
“a kind of large barley” mahadusaka “a species of grain”
B.27.1, 4-6 IE-Sanskrit *gērō / *gyauro “millet, rice”, garitra “rice, corn, grain”
*gir / *giur “corn” [grain] / gur- “barley”, “rice” “wheat”
IE-Sanskrit gaura “a species of rice” gauraka “a kind of rice” gauduma “made of wheat”
IE-Hindi garī “kernel” m.
IE-Hindi jau “barley” cāval “rice”
IE-Bengali caul “rice (uncooked)”
IE-Hindi, Urdu jowar “sorghum”
IE-Old Indian yáva-̣h m. “barley, corn” / IE-E. Iranian-Avestan yava “crop” yəvīn “Getreidefeld”
[field of barley]
B.35.2 IE-Sanskrit cikkasa “barley meal”, saktu “coarsely-ground meal , grit, groats, esp. of barley
meal”, saktuka m. “barley” RV dadisaktu m. pl. “barley meal with dadi” saksata “containing
uncrushed or whole grain (not deprived of husk), having grains of barley” mahadusaka “a species of
grain”
These are widespread roots for grains in African/AA languages attested in AA-Chadic, AA-Cushitic,
Nilo-Saharan and Niger-Congo languages. Only jau is attested in Semitic (as “rye”).
In NW Pakistan the *giur root is also attested in Burushaki, an isolate language; the form is gurin,
guren (pl.) “wheat. (Witzel 1999a 29). For Witzel it probably was borrowed by Burushaki from the
817
Indus language. He states that wheat, the staple of the Indus civilization, was also an import from the
West via the southern Arabian trade route into India. Possehl considers that it entered the region as an
expansion of its original area of domestication in northern Mesopotamia. (Possehl 28). In either case the
existence of this root in three African language superfamilies indicates that its name was inroduced
from a Western source and not domesticated locally.. Thus the large number of TB and Chinese roots
matching the African language lexicon for grains as well as many other cultural objects, supports
migration (demic expansion), rather than trade alone or local invention, as the better hypothesis of origin.
(See also notes F.2a.1, F.3.2 ,H.39a.1 (Chinese, Chadic, Arabic) See also Chapter 8 Note 8.1.3.1
Witzel also notes that “Some 30% of Hindi agricultural vocabulary are neither IA {Indo-Aryan] nor
Drav. [Dravidian] nor Munda, in short they stem from an unknown substrate”.
7.5 African agricultural grain terminology in non-ST languages of West, Central and East Asia.
This section contains words matching African roots for grains and beans from West, Southwest, South
Central/North and Southeast Asian non-Sino-Tibetan language families.The headings order them from
west to east:
-West Asia
B.27.2
IE-Hittite karas “eine Getreideart deren Mehl nicht zur Brotbereitung verwendet wird” [a type of grain
whose flour is not useful for making bread” [this is typical of barley]
Proto-IE *g’herə- / g’herəzdh- “barley”
B.9.4 Kartvelian-Georgian maxa “a kind of wheat” / Kartvelian-Laz moxa “a kind of wheat”
B.33a.1 Altaic-Turkic-Turkish dari “millet”
B.35.2
Kartvelian-Georgian c ̣ ka “rice grains in husk”
Kartvelian-Megrel cka “grain
-Central Asia
B.27.6
Central Iranian-Yagn yaw “barley” / IE-Persian �av “Gerste” (Ger.) [barley]
IE-N. Iranian-Ossetian jaw “millet”;
B.35.2 Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek hashaki “pearl millet”
B.33a.1
Altaic-Turkic-Balkassar tari “millet”
Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz tarū “millet”
-South Central Asia
B.27.6
SE-Iranian-IE-Baluchi ʒ� �aw “barley”
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho, Mundari tʃaʊ’li / tʃau’li “rice” /
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali tʃaʊ’le “rice”
IE-Pashto jau “barley” j’war sing / j’wari pl. “the name of a grain (Holcus sorghum)”
B.27.7 IE-Sanskrit gur- “barley”, “rice” and “wheat” kuruvinda “a kind of barley” laGgura “millet”
goraksa “wheat”
B.35.1 IE-Hindi jī n.f. “oat” jī n.m. “barley”
B.35.2
IE-Hindi jī kā daliyā n.m. “oatmeal”
Proto-Indo-European *seg(’)- “seed(s)” B.35.3
B.35.5 IE-Sanskrit hāyana / hāyanaki “a sort of red rice”
-North Central/Northeast Asia

B.9.1 Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *murgi “wheat” / Proto-Altaic *miurgu “wheat”
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *murgi “wheat” / Altaic-Mongolian mu:rki ’barley, wheat’
818
B.27.4
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *guril “flour” / Altaic-Mongolian-Khalka *guril “flour”
Altaic-Mongolian-Buriat guril “flour” / Altaic-Mongolian-Dagur goli(l), goli “flour”
Altaic-Mongolian-Ordos gulir, guril “flour”
-Southeast Asia
B.9.2
Hmong-Mien-Mien mai3 “hulled rice”
Austro-Asiatic-Vietic ma “young rice plant” / Austro-Asiatic-Bahnaric ʔma “field rice”
B.9.3
Hmong-Mien-Proto-Mienic *hmei “millet” / Hmong-Mien-Mun of Hainan / -Mun of Funing mei /
mei pe “hulled rice” / Hmong-Mien-Proto-Miao-Yao *maiB “shelled rice”
Daic-Kra-Biao mii “cooked rice”
South Daic-Lao me:t2 “grain”
B.33b.1
Hmong-Mien-Miao ntao6 “beans”
B.33b.3 Proto-Tai *thue “beans” / Northern Tai tuu “beans”
Dai-Siamese mak-tau6 “bean”
Daic-Tai-Dehong ɕiau “buckwheat”
B.35.3 Hmong-Mien-Proto-Mieni tsyəi “millet”
Hmong-Mien-Hmong-White Hmong cey “buckwheat”
F.12c.2 Hmong-Mien-Mun of Hainan t’juu “grain” / Hmong-Mien-Mun of Funing tsu “Setaria
italica”
B.27.6 Hmong-Mien-Proto-Mienic *jæu “buckwheat”
7.6 Grain agriculture in China

7.6.1 Millet
Estimates of the age of millet cultivation in China vary. Liu and Chen consider that grains including
millet and rice, were cultivated in North China in the earlier Neolithic. Their domesticated forms have
been identified in specimens from archaeological sites dating from 8200 BP. The archaeological record
reports findings of fossil millet from the upper Yellow River valley in the northwest to the Liao River
Valley in the northeast. The following are archaeologically researched sites containing early Neolithic
(8200-7350 BP) examples of domesticated millet :
Dadiwan in Qin’an-Gansu (7800-7350 BP)
Peiligang cultural area in Henan (8000-7000 BP)
Peiligang in Xinzheng-Henan (8000-7000 BP)
Shawoli in Xinzheng-Henan (8000-7000 BP)
Fudian in Gongyi-Henan (8000-7000 BP)
Wuluoxipo in Gongyi-Henan (8000-7000 BP)
Yuezhuang in Shandong (c.8000 BP)
Cishan in Wu’an–Hebei (7400-7200 BP)
Xinglonggou in Cifeng-Inner Mongolia (8200-7500 BP)
(Liu / Chen 2012 83).
Sagart’s estimate is similar, i.e. domesticated forms have been considered to be contained in specimens
from archaeological sites dating from 6500-5000 BCE in the Yellow River and other northern valleys.
(Sagart 176). Other recent research has placed domestication as being much later, perhaps as late as
2500-2200 BCE, (Blench 2010 1,5); but this may be based on the introduction of barley whose
African/Middle Eastern name became that of millet in ST. See section 7.6.2 below.
The millets believed to have been domesticated in China are foxtail millet (Setaria italica and
broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) (Liu / Chen 2012 82). Fossil Setaria italica dated at about 5800
BP (3800 BCE) was also identified in Central China. (Blench 2010a 5). Millet grains later identified as
Setaria italica were also found at the Panp’o site near Xian. (Chang 65.). Xian became the seat of the
819
Chinese Shang and Western kingdoms dated from11250 to 1046 BCE. See Liu / Chen Chapter 10 350-
391 passim.
Whether domestication occurred in the 6500-5000 period or the archaeological finds are fossils of
gathered wild millet has been discussed in recent literature. See Blench 2010 5. In any case “Chinese
civilization per se arose in the north around the area where millet was cultivated. Most authors consider
the Setaria italica species to be the plant designated by the Old Chinese tsik / chi root”. Sagart 179
The B.9.2 Standard Chinese mài “a general term for wheat, barley etc.” or B.9.3 mî “rice” exist in
various compounds repesenting different types of grains, i.e. N. Chinese-MSC xiăo mài “wheat” (xiăo
“small”), dà mài “barley (dà “big”), shumi “husked sorghum” (shu “sorghum)” and xiăomîr n.
“yellow millet” (xiăo “small”) (See B.9.2 Extended). Although the mai / mi morphemes mean “rice”
throughout China plus southern TB and “barley, sorghum or millet in the northern compounds, their
African phonetic correspondences all designate “millet” or “sorghum”.
Three cereals were mentioned in the Chou dynasty classics.(11th century to 771 BCE), chi (or tsik) /
he and shu. Chi was the starchy (nonglutinous) Panicum miliaceum or Setaria italica. (Chang 67-68).
Both he and shu were recorded in the bone oracles used for divining at the imperial court. The
divinations, many carried out by the emperor himself, were thought to predict good or bad harvests.
(Keightley 9-10). See also Note-B.9.2.
All the above discoveries and written records have confirmed millet’s predominance in north China
since at least the beginning of the Yang-shao period around 5000 BCE . The principal cereals in the Old
Chinese culture were millets, not rice. “Throughout the Old Chinese period, millets, of which many
varieties were maintained, provided the main source of food. Moreover millets (especially jì / he, Setaria
italica) had major religious significance, playing a central role in many rites”. (Sagart 176).
In the Chou dynasty (11th century to 771 B.C.E) the god who originally gave grain to the people
(through the royal clan) was the god of millet. His name was Hou Chi, believed to be the founder of the
Chou clans, and was associated with the supreme God on high. (Smith 17, Chang 70). See also Note-
B.35.1 (Chinese-Kejia (Hakka)]
A widely held conclusion of the fossil millet discoveries is that the population which introduced millet
agriculture expanded rapidly since it benefited from the ability to use drier land not available for
agricultural products such as rice which require wetter conditions. From this it can be argued that, as in
Africa, such sedentary populations had advantages for population expansion and cultural innovation.
Hence there is a wide consensus that the principal cereals in the Old Chinese period were millets and
that Chinese civilization arose in the northwest around the area where millet was cultivated.” (See Blench
2008 8). With reference to the language Blench further notes that “wherever [Sinitic] originates within
Sino-Tibetan, there is broad consensus that its main spread has been north-south from the millet-growing
to the rice-growing areas”. (Blench 2010 3)
7.6.2 Barley, wheat

The earliest barley (Hordeum vulgare) was discovered in Shangxi province in NW China dating from
2600 to 1900 BCE. The earliest wheat-bearing sites in China date from before 1700 BCE during the
Shang dynasty (Chang 77). Wheat is mentioned in the bone oracles found in the Shang dynasty ruins.
The earliest wheat-bearing sites were discovered in seventeen locations, the main clusters spreading
from the NW in Gansu to the NE in Shandong. Five of these locations are in the NW area, i.e. Henan and
south Shanxi provinces. (For locations see Liu / Chen Fig. 4.5 93). Before the adoption of barley, the
northwestern /northeastern regions had been millet producers for almost two millennia, and the farmers
seem to have used the terms for millet as general designators for grains, or as Keightley suggests “local
groups gave different names to their own millets”. Also “The [Shang dynasty] diviners were ritual
technicians not farmers; their concerns were presumably with harvests as a whole rather than with
particular crop varieties” (Keightley 2000 10).
Archaeologists have found no evidence of an original domestication of wheat, barley and oats in China
“therefore these three crops are most likely to have been introduced from elsewhere.” (Liu / Chen 92).
Barley has been the staple grain in Tibet at least since the 8th century CE. See Note B.27.1 (Tibetan).
820
All three of the African roots referring principally to millet or sorghum have also been used to designate
barley or buckwheat in ST:
-B.9.2 N. Chinese-MSC mài / maize “a general term for wheat, barley etc.” “wheat”;
-B.27.2
TB-Tibetan khrá-ma “a kind of barley growing and ripening within 60 days” /
Proto-Lolo-Burmese *g-ra “buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum)” /
-B.27.3 TB-C. Loloish-Lisu gua “buckwheat”
-B.27.4 TB-Tibetan gorii “a type of round barley”
-B.27.6
N. Chinese ch’iáo “buckwheat” / S. Chinese-Kejia k’iau2 / kiau1 “buckwheat”
TB- Burmese/Lolo-Lolo-Tujia khu tɕiàu “bitter buckwheat”
-B.35.1
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian) jii5 / tsi5 “pearl barley”
TB-Qiangic-Pumi- Dayang [Taoba] to35 tɕi35 “buckwheat /
-B.35.2 TB-Deng-Kaman tɕika “bitter buckwheat”
It has been difficult to reconstruct proto-ST forms given this variety of names in ST for the same
grains. (See Blench 2010a 1). The confusion of names for barley, wheat and buckwheat could result
from their being latecomers into China. As mentioned above, the mai / mi morphemes mean “rice” in S.
China and some TB language areas where this is the principal grain, but the proposed African and many
Asian linguistic close correspondences all mean “millet” or “sorghum”.
7.6.3 Rice Chinese and Western archaeologists have found much evidence for the prehistoric harvesting
of rice in the middle and lower Yangzi River Valley. Also carbonized rice was found at the Lilou site near
Ruzhou city in Henan province in 1992. It was identified as being one of the two rice varieties known
today as xiandào and jingdào. (Wu,Y. 223-224).
As the following table shows, in Afro-Asiatic languages the root “dao” designates millet or sorghum
but it refers to rice or buckwheat in several areas of East Asia. Note also in the table that a variant form
of the dao root means “buckwheat” in Chinese-Qiangic and “millet” in TB-Loloish-Akha suggesting that
the original reference of the term in the ST region was not necessarily to rice.
Table 7.6.3 The *dáu / *dòu “rice < millet/sorghum word family
B.33a-b A-A– Chadic AA –Cushitic AA-Sem. NS NC
B.33a.1 N. Chinese– C. Chadic-Mofu- E. Cushitic- Semitic- Mande
MSC dào “rice, paddy” Gudur daw Afar daro Hebrew doro
dàu (Y) “rice “millet, sorghum” “grain, doora n.f. “millet
(growing) W. Chadic-Hausa sorghum” “sorghum” species
xiandào “rice” dāwàa f. E. Cushitic- Baltsan susceptible
(Oryza sativa variety “sorghum (guinea Oromo 755 to disease
indica) corn)” “Sorghum dàgujja of the
Middle Chinese bicolor” “small / finger same name
dawX “rice plant” dàurō “type of millet”
TB-Qiangic-Pumi thick, hard millet” “sorgo rosso”
Dayang-Jinghua tâu-tʃə [red sorghum]
“buckwheat”
B.33a.2 S. Chinese-Yue Semitic-
(Cantonese) Old Aramaic ”
douh “paddy or rice” doh̝an, duh̝nā
“millet”
Comprehensive
Aramaic Lexicon
821

Approximate Sinitic etymon *daro “sorghum, millet”
B.33a.1 N. Chinese-MSC / Beijing dàozi n. “rice, (plant)
TB-Qiangic-Pumi Dayang-Jinghua tautʃe “buckwheat” ingdào “rice” (Oryza sativa variety
japonica)”
B.33a.2 TB-Qiangic-Pumi Dayang-Taoba to35 tɕi35 “buckwheat”
TB-Loloish-Akha ɕa dó “foxtail millet”
B.33a.1-2
W. Chadic-Hausa dāwàr damina “Sorghum series spontanea” “wet season sorghum”
damina “the rainy season” (B.21.2)
W. Chadic-Dira / Zul dəwro “millet”
C. Chadic-Logone dōrio “sorghum species”
C. Chadic-Gisiga, Zəlgwa daw “millet”
B.33a.1
The fact that a Chadic word for millet was used also for rice supports a tentative hypothesis that millet
was the dominant grain in China before rice was cultivated, altough wild rice may have been consumed
much earlier.
There is now a general consensus among archaeologists that rice was first domesticated along the
middle and lowsr Yangzi River, but the question of when is apparently still debated. (See Liu / Chen 76
and Fig.4.1 77 for locations of ancient remains). The greatest concentration of sites is near the mouth of
the Yangzi in East China with smaller numbers in the Middle Yangzi and along the Yellow River in the
north.)
7.7 A root meaning both crops and grains.
The following *sük- root is widespread in African languages. It’s original meaning is simply “pierce,
prick, stab” with a principal derived meaning of “stick” as in “stick (a pole, sharp stick) in the ground”.
African societies have practiced agriculture using a planting stick, so the root gives evidence of having an
early agricultural use. (See Note-F.12c.1 (Tibetan, Hausa). The root has been identified in Afro-Asiatic,
Nilo-Saharan and Niger-Congo languages, but not Khoisan. (Khoisan speakers have rarely adopted
agriculture). The F.12c.3 suk- noun form is found in many TB and Sinitic languages where the
F.12c.3-4 roots with one exception attest forms with meanings of “grains”. (See Table 7.0.4 above)
In modern Chinese the shū / su form designates sorghum, specific types of millet, or beans or
potatoes. Su means foxtail millet (Setaria italica) and shu means broomcorn millet. (Panicum
miliaceum). (Liu / Chen 2012 82)
Hence the F.12c.3 Hausa shūkàa “plant(s), crop(s)” lexeme gives evidence of being a derived noun
form of the widespread AA verb root which originally meant “to pierce, thrust in, poke” but also
“to plant”. The Hausa shūkàa “crops” would also be a reflex of the F.12c.1 Proto-Afro-Asiatic (Orel
/ Stolbova 1995) *sük- “sow”.
In summary N. Chinese languages used the shu- root to designate all agricultural products in early
Chinese agriculture and its meaning was “crops” as in F.12c.3 Hausa. Later, but within the Old Chinese
period, it denoted the millet species Panicum miliaceum. (Sagart 178). Different tones now distinguish
the root as used to refer to grains, beans and the potato. (See also Note B.33b.1-2 which is included in the
comments in section 7.7 below)
822
7.8 Two successive AA > ST roots for beans.

“Beans, especially the soybean, are regarded as having been domesticated in early historical times, in
the late second millennium BCE in northern China”. The oldest term for soybean is shu2, the same word
as was used for millet. “Millet and soybeans were cultivated in rotation beginning in the 4tth century
BCE. ”The modern term dou4 [beans] has replaced shu2 everywhere in Chinese dialects. One of its
earliest occurrences is in the Zhan Guo Ce, a work compiled between 26 and 8 BCE [i.e. under the
Western Han dynasty, 206 BCE to 24 CE]. Sagart considered its etymology to be unclear. (Sagart 1999
185) By 8 BCE beans were called dou4 and the word shu2 now designated a type of millet as it does
today. (See F.12c.3 N. Chinese-MSC shū “broom corn millet”). .
As noted above shú / tzû means “sorghum” or “common millet” in contemporary Chinese. The shū
tone 1 variant means “vegetables”, “broomcorn millet” and “a tree, a plant”. (Wu, J. 635, Mathews
#6926 1022.) The tone 3 shû morpheme means “potato, yam” (DeFrancis 863). The Cantonese and
Hakka sūk / sug5 “grains, millet” morphemes probably represent the original root and this corresponds
to the Hausa root shūkàa n. “plant(s), “crop(s)”. Again this generic meaning was probably derived from
the Hausa verbal root suk- “to plant” since millet and sorghum were the principal grain foods in the
African Sahel from c.7200 BCE.
Thus the sūk / sug forms in the Old Chinese period meant “grains”. Later, but within the Old
Chinese period, this root came to designate a specific type of millet (Panicum miliaceum). Other words
were introduced for beans and potatoes. (See Sagart 178 and notes F.12c.3, B.33b.1-2, B.9.1-2).
Additional Niger-Congo, Nilo-Saharan and Cushitic forms also attest correspondences with the “millet”
“sorghum” semantics.
Otherwise stated, early Chinese agriculture produced three crops, millet, soybeans and potatoes, so it
is plausible that the generic terms F.12c.2 suk / siuk7 “grains“ derived from Hausa suk “plants, crops”
were used for all three types of food plants. Modern Standard Chinese still uses the related F.12c.4 form
shu to designate all three of these though it developed different tones to distinguish them. See Note
B.33b.2. Later the more specific Hausa term dou4 was introduced for “beans” and “rice” as in the
B.33a-b forms. It is significant that both dòu and shù correspond closely to Chadic-Hausa roots.
As shown above, the more specific Chinese words for grains, i.e. tsi1 / chi2 “millet” and mài “barley,
wheat also correspond to Hausa forms. It is probable that the B.33a.1 Cushitic-Afar daro “grain,
sorghum” also represents a very early African root for grains since sorghum was the first grain cultivated
in Africa. The corresponding B.33a.2 NC-Mande root doro “millet species” probably also comes from the
early African agricultural period , i.e 7000 BCE. The similarity between these roots and the Chadic-Hausa
‘dòorāwàa “locust bean” suggests that beans were considered to be a type of grain since they, sorghum
and millet are all seeds of their respective plants.
The dating of this change in Chinese agricultural terminology can be explained by earlier and later
Chadic-dominated migrations into China. The date for the appearance of the dou4 lexeme would be
between 200 → 8 BCE. The-MSC shu2 root and Cantonese suk still denote grains in general including
millet or a specific kind of millet. This root is earlier, but its dating cannot be well delimited since it was
already present in Chinese at the time of writing of the earliest texts. (See also section 7.7.1 below on later
migrations).
Is there any reason to consider the same *dáu / *dòu morpheme “beans” to have a relationship to its
use to designate rice as in B.33a.1 above? The linkage appears also to lie in the evolution of the meaning
of the shu2 root meaning “crops”
Table 7.8 The *dáu / *dòu “legumes. beans”
B.33b.1 W. Chadic- Hausa NS-Kanuri
S. Chinese-(Yue) dàddawa = daudá
(Cantonese) dàudawa “condiment for
dáu / dauh < *dàw-dàwā sauce or soup made
“bean” “locust bean cake” from the fermented
“beans and peas” seeds of the locust
823
S. Chinese-Min daudawa bean tree and shaped

(Fuzhou, Xiamen) “locust bean cakes” into small cakes for
tāu “beans, peas, soybeans” sale” < Hausa”
tāu-kho
“large round bean cake”
taū “bean”
B.33b.2 W. Chadic- Hausa
N. Chinese-MSC ‘dòorāwàa
dòu “legumes, pulses, beans” “locust bean tree” “locust bean”
tòu “beans, peas”
huángdòu n.
“soybean” [lit. yellow bean]
B.33b.2 Middle Chinese W. Chadic-Ngizim
deu- “bean” árdùwà / ríidùwà “beans”
TB-Tibetan ldeu (Vigna sinensis)
“a kind of pease”
B.33b.1 Chinese- Cantonese dáu / dauh “bean” “beans and peas” < W. Chadic-Hausa daudawa
“locust bean cakes”
B.33b.2 N. Chinese-MSC dòu “legumes, beans” < W. Chadic- Hausa d‘ōrāwàa “locust bean”
Approximate Sino-Tibetan etyma *daudawa “locust bean cakes” ~ *dōw- “locust bean”
B.33b.1
Chinese-Cantonese daufuh “bean curd”
Chinese-Mandarin-Xiān tou5 “bean”
Chinese-Mandarin-Lingbâo thou5 “bean”
Extended African /Afroasiatic language word family:
B.33b.2 W. Chadic-Dira/Zul dəwro “millet”
C. Chadic-Logone dōrio “sorghum species”
W. Chadic-Hausa dāàr damina “Sorghum series spontanea” “wet season sorghum”
Blench Hausa names for plants 13 2011 print, damina “the rainy season” (B.21.2)
B.33b.1 Hmong-Mien-Miao ntao6 “beans”
Dai-Siamese mak-tau6 “bean”
B.33b.3 Proto-Tai *thue “beans”
Northern Tai tuu “beans”
7.8.1 Other words associated with agriculture in Africa and Asia.

Archaeological information on the use of flat rocks as instruments for grindng acorns and grains in early
Chinese cultures is given in sets B.22b.1-2 (Chadic) and note B.22b.2 (Proto-AA).
The Afro-Asiatic words for grindstone and flour are closely similar to the Sino-Tibetan terms for these
objects; thus far only AA-Chadic and NC-Mande have been found to have ST correspondences for both
grinding stone and flour. See also Chapter 6 Section 6.14 above.
Table 7. 8 The “flat rock, grindstone” word family
Swadesh “stone” W. Chadic- N. Egyptian NC-N. Mande-
B.22b.1 N. Chinese-MSC Bauci Gp.-Pa’a bnbn Susu
pán “large stone” vánk’a “sacred fándie /
p’án “a rock” (WG) “grinding stone” stone” fanyie
“measure word for flat things” W. Chadic – “rock,
mòpán “millstone” Hausa fā large stone”
mó “grind” pl. fànnai
824
S. Chinese-Yue m. “flat rock” NC-Benue-

(Cantonese) pán W. Chadic – Congo-
“massive rock” Gwandara Proto-
(Nimbia) Plateau
páŋ̀ “stone” *fan “stone”
“mountain”
B.22b.2 TB-Tibetan angbɛn Proto-Chadic Proto- Egyptian
“chopping board” (Newman, P.) Afro- bnwt
Chinese- Hakka *bəna Asiatic “grinding
piang3 / biang3 “grinding stone” *bāayn- stone”
“anything round and flat, W. Chadic- “grind- benuit
as a disc” Ngizim stone” “corn
ben3 “anything round and flat və̀nyi grinder
as a disc” “grinding stone” querns”
TB–Burmese kyauk-pyáng
“flat level stone, plank”
pyang “to be reduced to a
level, flat surface”
“measure word, used for thin
flat objects” e.g liãng piàn
yào “two tablets”
Flat hand grinding stones have been found at many archaeological sites throughout northern China. They are
called “pan stones” i.e. a word closely corresponding to the B.22b.1 N. Bauci Group-Pa’a vánk’a and B.22b.2
Proto-Chadic *bəna “grinding stone” as well as the W. Chadic pan- / pyang- roots meaning “flat rock”
Hand grinding in the Peiligang culture (8000-7000 BP) of Henan province, NW China, was done using a large
flat and relatively thin stone as a base with a smaller rounded one to pound the grain. See Note Note B.22b.2
(Chadic) for informationm on archaeological sites in China where these artefacts have been found.
Flour as a by-product of grain harvesting and subsequent grinding has been identified in both Chadic and
Mande languages.
Table 7.3.4 “flour” word family
B.24.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – N. Bauci- NC- S.E. Mande-
phye Tsagu fiyè “flour” Gban
“flour, meal” W. Chadic–N. Bauci- Siri viε
fíyí “flour” “flour”
W. Chadic – N. Bauci-
Mburku fíyí “flour” -
B.24.2 W. Chadic-Bole NC- S.E. Mande—
Chinese–Min bîdik’i Mano
bî-hun “flour” bî “flour”
“rice flour vermicelli” Skinner 100 S.E. Mande—Dan
bì “husked grain” W. Chadic – Hausa bii “flour”
“uncooked rice (already ribid’i S.E. Mande—
husked)” “fine ash, flour” Tura bii “flour”
7.9 Indicators of earlier and later migrations.

The evidence that daro / doro entered Chinese agricultural language later than the sūk- / siuk / shu
root supports a hypothesis that this root was introduced through a later migration. It is possible therefore
that the name of the millet species whose AA root is daro / doro also became the name of rice grain
either directly through a migration from the west in the prehistoric period or later during the historic period as
northern Chinese names for grains were brought to the south through Han expansion. Under either scenario
825
the B.33a.1 “rice” semantics replaced earlier semantics of “sorghum” or “barley” which also designated
the larger-seeded grains. (See also Chapter 5 section 5.3, Chapter 6 section 6.5 and chapter 9 sections
9.9.1-2 on later migrations(s). The presence of Altaic Turkic correspondences, especially that of Kyrgyz taru
“millet”, supports the hypothesis of an importation of the term from the northwest since Kyrgyz borders on the
NW Chinese province of Xinjiang which leads to the Gansu corridor and Henan or Shangxi provinces.,
Whatever hypothesis is proposed for the date of the introduction of grain agriculture into China, the basic
fact is that all the names of these early grain crops in China have close correspondences with Chadic-Hausa
roots.
7.10 Conclusions on Afro-Asiatic agricultural language in the south central and east Asian IE and
ST language areas.
The appearance of three major word families designating grains with African names in both Sanskrit
and Sino-Tibetan supports a firm hypothesis of a migration of Chadic speakers into northeast Pakistan /
northwest India by 2500 BCE.
Both Northern and Southern Chinese also attest a root B.33a.1 dào “rice, paddy which matches
Chadic and Cushitic forms meaning “rice”, but in Chadic and Cushitic mean “grain, sorghum or millet”.
Thus far no matching Sanskrit or Hindi form of this has been identified.
It has been noted that archaeological finds in both north and southwest China suggest different possible
migrations into the present Sinitic speaking areas. On genetic differences between northern and southern
Chinese cattle mentioned in Chapter 6, see Chapter 9 section 9.7.
This data suggests:
-either that the posited migration from Africa which brought agriculture to Central and East Asia was
dominant enough to impose the major African names for grains on those existing in the non-ST languages
of the area
-or that the African names were loaned along with the introduction of the grain(s).
There has been controversy over the source of this lexicon in East Asia, since some authors consider
that this terminology was borrowed by the Han Chinese from the non-ST languages in their southward
expansion, while others consider it to be native to ST. However, if one accepts that the massive
correspondence of this terminology with African roots supports its African origin, then the question of
its first presence in Asia is important, but secondary; most writing on agriculture in China has assumed an
East Asian origin of Sino-Tibetan whether in Tibet, northwest or southwest China.
(See Blench 2008 9 and 2010a 13.)
The data show a trans-Asian spread of African agricultural language words across Asia terminating in
both northeastern and southeastern areas of the continent. It does not prove that the transmission was by
movements of populations or simply by borrowing of the seeds and the practices of sowing and
cultivation. There is also evidence that the African words for grains were used for rice, a grain which was
cultivated in China at least as early as the introduction of millet and sorghum. See Sagart 1999 180.
826
Chapter 8
Comparison of Sanskrit and other non-ST Central and East Asian languages with Afro-Asiatic and
Sino-Tibetan
8.1 The [(Sanskrit ↔ (AA ↔ Sino-Tibetan)] subset of the Chapter 2A-H inventory.
Authorities on early Sanskrit and Tibetan have sometimes considered the vocabulary common to
Sanskrit and Himalayan TB languages to be the result of loaning. The loaned religious terminology has
been identified by Jaschke, Das and Hodge. But this Buddhist lexicon consists mainly of calques of
Sanskrit terms and these rarely match African/AA roots; hence very few of them appear in the TB lexicon
of the Chapter 2 A-H database. However there is indeed a substantial amount of other African/AA and
TB / Sinitic basic and cultural language which closely matches Sanskrit, other IE and central Asian
language roots, for example:
Table 8.1a Examples of IE-Sanskrit, Avestan and other IE close correspondence with
African/Afroasiatic, Altaic and Sino-Tibetan language morphemes
D.27b.1 W. Chadic-Hausa Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit magànce “bewitch” gyuməgεn
makatpitRka E. Cushitic- Kembata “magician, conjurer”
“a magic formula” magàn + āncu gyu “illusion, fantasy, magic,
“wizard” “magician” conjuring”
IE-Pashto W. Chadic- Ngizim garmagεn “astrologer”
makkari “fraud, deceitfullness” mágàná mágànánín gar “star”
makr “fraud, deceit, evasion” pl. “term of address or Altaic-Proto-Tungus-
reference to a sorceress” Manchu *maka- “to be
E. Cushitic- Burji deceived, perplexed”
mugáanga “magician, Proto-Altaic *mak’e “to be
wizard” < NC-Swahili deceived, perplexed”
D.27b.2 IE-Sanskrit maya W. Chadic-Hausa Chinese-Cantonese
“wisdom, extraordinary or supernatural maye n.m. maya n.f. màih
power, (only in the earlier language)” mayu” pl. “to bewitch, to charm”
“illusion, unreality, deception, fraud, trick, sorcerer, witch, wizard” màihwaahk
sorcery, witchcraft, magic” mâyyàa / mâyèe “bewitch”
mayakara “illusion maker” “witch” N. Chinese-MSC
“a conjurer, juggler” màihbû
mayadhika “abounding in magic” “practice divination for a
[Disyllabic correspondences] living, be a fortune teller”
mayadhara “possessing illusion, skilled in mayàudari n. m.
magic” [Quadrisyllabic correspondence] “trickster, deceiver”
IE-Bengali maya “illusion”
Some of the Sanskrit correspondences are singly occurring matches (hapax legomena) with
African/AA and ST lexemes.395 These have been included in the study since in the Sanskrit ↔ ST
comparison all Sankrit morphemes must match not only lexemes of the African/AA word family but also
those of a Sino-Tibetan word family. The existence of singly ocurring lexemes in a language can indicate
that they are loans, but when they occur within a larger set of correspondences between two language
families, they are plausibly part of a substratum. For example:
395
“It is important to note that most of the foreign words in the Rgveda are rare or hapax legomena”
[single occurrences of a word in a language]. Bryant 87
827
Tables 8.1b Examples of singly occurring (hapax) IE-Sanskrit (Old Indian), Avestan / Other IE
and Central Asian language lexemes corresponding with African / AA and Sino-Tibetan language
lexemes
A.1c.3 IE-Pashto shikraey S. Khoisan-Masarwa Chinese-MSC
“a hawk, a falcon” ši-‖gu “bird” chīgù
A.1c.4 IE-Sanskrit cikura S. Khoisan-|Nu‖en si-kou “bird” “sparrow hawk”
“a kind of bird” [Disyllabic corresp.] W. Chadic-Ron (Bokkos) zhègū
IE-Pashto chīkor “the bartarelle or shikóòr “Huhn” [fowl, hen] “Chinese francolin,
Greek partridge” E. Cushitic-Oromo ĉ’ukuru n. partridge”
Altaic-Turkic-Tatar čɨɣirčik “colomba” [dove]
“starling” Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) s’igar “falcon”
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish sɨɣirčɨk
“starling”
/
A.3.2 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic- Hausa N. Chinese-MSC sûn “hawk, falcon”
sunara “sparrow” sunsu “bird” sûnzhûn “hawk, falcon”
Altaic-Mongolian tsuntsū “bird”m. chún / chwún (Y) “the quail”
shongkor “falcon S. Cushitic-Asa S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sèun “quail”
Altaic-Kazakh (Aramaic) Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] s’iun2 n. “quail”
sonkar “falcon” šuʔununu “hawk” S. Chinese-Min chun2 “hawk, falcon”
/
B.5a.2 W. Chadic-Gwandara TB-Written Tibetan,
IE-Old Indian dúnci “rock, stone, mountain”” Tibetan (Ladakhi)
tunga- m. E. Cushitic-Hadiyya duuna “hill” duŋ “a small mound,
“elevaton, height, NC-Proto-W. Nigritic *-tunda “hill” hillock”
mountain” E. Cushitic-Sidamo dûna / dûno N. Chinese-MSC
“heap, lump of earth, clod” “pile, stack” dūn / tūn “mound”
Proto-Highland E. Cushitic *duuna “hill” “a block of stone or
N. Omotic-Ometo *du:nn- “termite mound” wood”
/
B.5c.2 IE-Sanskrit E. Cushitic-Sidamo Chinese-Cantonese
dhūlikedara / tullite / tullo “hill, heap” dèui / dēui “mound”
dhūli-kuttima / W. Chadic-Hausa tulìi n.m. “heap” “crowd” “mound of earth”
dhūli-kedara E. Cushitic-Oromo tullu “hill” “pile, heap”
“a mound or rampart of Proto-Afro-Asiatic *-tuul- Chinese-Min
earth” ”to rise, to form a heap, mound” tuî “a pile, a heap”
See also B.8.1, H.29c.1
It could still be argued that any proposed Sanskrit / Avestan substratum based on correspondences with
African/AA and ST languages is really a set of loans from neighboring Tibeto-Burman languages. An
argument against this position is based on the fact that many of the correspondences match only Chinese
lexemes, no closely corresponding Tibeto-Burman form having been identified, e.g.: thus far the
preceding A.1c.4, A.3.2 and B.5c.2 attest only Sinitic correspondences with the Sanskrit lexeme.
Another Sanskrit lexeme of this kind is:
Tables 8.1c Example of Sanskrit close correspondences with morphemes found only in Chinese
Swadesh “water” N.Omotic Egyptian
B.34.1 S. Chinese-Min *aq’ “wet, water” akh-t
ăk “to wet, to water” Cushitic-Agaw “watered, or irrigated
w’
ăk huĕ “water flowers” *aq land”
âq-tám “get wet (from rain “water” aakhi “to flood, to
etc.)” tám “wet” irrigate, to inundate”
828
Proto-Afro- aakh-t “water plants”

Asiatic aakh “pond, lake, large
*akhw- “water” canal”
Similar Sanskrit ↔ African ↔ Chinese (only) correspondence sets are found in Supplementary Table 2
(Table of Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali and other IE correspondences with African /Middle Eastern and Sino-
Tibetan languages): sets B.2b.2-3, C.35c.1-2, D.05a.1,3, D.32.3, F.3.1, E.2a.2, F.4a.2, G.30.1 etc.
Perhaps the largest and most geographically extensive word family made up of Sanskrit and other Asian
language lexemes matching Afro-Asiatic, non-ST Asian and Sino-Tibetan correspondences is:
B.3d.1 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic-Gwandara TB-Tibetan

kSA “the earth, ground” kaša “earth” kha̱sheè
kSa “a field” kəsa “sand” “a place
kSaman “earth, soil, ground” RV W. Chadic-Hausa (conveys a
[Disyllabic corresp.] k’asaa k’asàashee pl. vagueness about
kaccha “a bank or any ground bordering on “earth, soil, ground” “country, which place)”
water, shore” state”
kacchAnta “the border of a lake or stream” C. Chadic- Buduma
IE-Old Indian ḳsāh / ḳsámi “ground, earth” kēsa “sand”
ḳsámya- “terrestrial” NS-Maba Group-Aiki
B.3d.2 IE-Sanskrit, Avestan kàs‫“ כ‬countryside, desert”
kSetra “land, soil” “place, region, country” NS-Maba Group- Masalit
RV AV “a field” kSetrika “relating to a field” kasε / káas-è “countryside, śed / ga-śed
kSetrasIma boundary of a field” desert” “the approximate
kSiti “the earth, soil of the earth” Semitic-Hebrew direction, region,
IE-Hindi ksetra “zone” m. katse “end, edge, border” or quarter”
IE-E. Iran-Avestan shoithra “district” Egyptian ga-çed
B.3d.1 Altaic-Proto-Mongolian khast “district, a kind of land” “an approximate
*gaʒar “earth, land” E. Cushitic- Sidamo but uncertain
-Mongolian-Khalkha *gaʒar “earth” qaççe “border, frontier, boundary, direction, region or
-Mongolian-Ordos *Gaʒar “earth, land” end, suburbs, rural area” quarter”
-Mongolian-Kalmuck *ɣazr “earth” Proto-Afro-Asiatic *q̇̇at’s’-
Proto-Altaic *kiaʒurV “sand, steppe, earth” “sand”
Altaic-Proto-Turkic *Kajir “sand, steppe, earth” Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) gaa‫ع‬
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *kuʒir “sand, steppe, “ground, earth, land”
earth”
Proto-Tungus-Manchu *kuʒur “sand, steppe,
earth”
8.1.1 The question of African/AA and Indo-Aryan root relationships.

Since Sanskrit is predominantly an Indo-Aryan language, it might be assumed that in cases of similarity
of AA and Sanskrit morphemes the origin of these lies in a similar Indo European root. However the
similarity of Sanskrit correspondences with both AA and (TB / Chinese lexemes) provides a means for
separating Sanskrit ↔ African/AA language correspondences from similarly matching Sanskrit ↔ Indo-
European ones.
For example if we return to the C.22a *bhák- “shoulder ~ *bɔ‫כ‬k- “upper arm” example given in
Chapter 1 Table 1.6.3, we find that the following Sanskrit, Proto- Indo-European and Proto-Afro-Asiatic
roots are similar: C.22a.2 Sanskrit bāhúh̟ “arm” ↔ Proto-AA (Orel / Stolbova) *pakuh̟- “hand, arm”/
Proto-IE bhaghu “arm, hand, elbow” (a basic language term). However, as shown in the table extract
below, similar forms exist in both TB and Chinese. Also pakna “to take up into one’s arms” exists in
829
Dravidian and an even closer form bagu-. “upper arm” is attested in Mongolian, an Altaic language
which shares a border with Tibetan and Chinese.
(See C.22a.1-2 and Ruhlen 1994 318 for correspondences in other Asian languages).
A further argument supporting Proto-AA *pakuh’- as the ultimate source is that the *pak- root stem is
found in Chadic languages with the meaning of “arm”, “shoulder” and “wing”. These Chadic forms in
C.22a.1 correspond exactly in form and meaning to the root stem of the related Sanskrit pakSa “a wing”
“the shoulder” “a limb , member of the body”, but the Proto-IE *bhaghu means only “arm, hand,
elbow”.
Also Supplementary table 2 presents massive evidence of Afro-Asiatic matching with not only Sanskrit
roots, but also with very large portions of the Sino-Tibetan lexicon. Hence Sanskrit bāhúh̟ “arm” and
Sanskrit pakSa “a wing” “the shoulder” “a limb or member of the body” could be derived from different
migrations into E.Asia bearing different proto-roots one from West Asian IE and one from NE Africa; so
in this case Proto-Indo-European and Proto-AA both may well be ultimately derived from Proto-AA.
Table 8.1.1 Example of Proto-AA/ Proto-IE correspondences with IE-Sanskrit morphemes
C.22a.2 Sanskrit Proto-AA (Orel / Stolbova 1995) C.22a.2 TB-Proto-
pakSa “a wing” “the shoulder” *pakuh̟- “hand, arm” Kiranti
“a limb or member of the body” Proto- W. Chadic *bhák “shoulder”
pakSaka “a wing” *pak(k)a “wing, shoulder” / Altaic-Proto-
pakSagama “moving with wing, *(ba) + baka “wing” Mongolian
flying” pakSadhara “having W. Chadic–Tangale *baɣul- / bugul
wings” paka “hand, arm, branch, (front) paw” “shoulder”
upakaksa “reaching to the W. Chadic–N. Bauci Group-Karya TB-Tibetan
shoulder” pakə “arm” phyag “the hand”
prakaoSTha “the forearm” NS-Baka baka “arm” C.22a.1
praganda “the upper part of the NC-Gbaya baxa “arm” S. Chinese-Yue
arm” C.22a.1 [Cantonese] bok
pragraha “the arm” NC-Proto-Bantu “the shoulder, the
bāhúh̟ “arm” -b‫ככ‬k‫“ככ‬arm” upper arm”
Hindi bāhu “arm” NC-Dagomba boktau “shoulder”
Bengali bāhu “arm” boɣo “arm” [lit. head of upper
Proto-IE *bhāg’h-u “arm, hand, arm]
elbow”
This single example does not resolve this question, and since the study does not include a
comprehensive comparison of ST with IE, more research is needed. In case of doubt, however, the fact
that AA is much older than IE weighs in favor of its being the ultimate source of such IE / AA close
correspondences..
8.1.2 Statistical results from Supplementary Table 2 Sanskrit

Table 8.1.2 Summary of Sanskrit / Hindi / Bengali correspondences with African-Afroasiatic and
Sino-Tibetan word family lexical groups broken down by Semantic Domains:
Chapter 2 A-H Analytic table Number of Sanskrit / Hindi / Bengali ↔ AA ↔ ST
Semantic Domains Word Families
in Chapter 2 A-H data and Supplementary Table 2
A- Animals 35
B- Natural objects-earth, water etc. 39
C- Body, body parts 34
D- Kinship, social relationships 19
830
E- Cognitive / volitional vocabulary 39

F- Artifacts 23
G- Qualities, Numbers, Pronouns. 15
H- Verbs 38
Results of Sanskrit ↔ African/AA ↔ Sino-Tibetan word family lexical comparison
Chapter 2 A-H word families containing Sanskrit ↔ AA ↔ ST word family close correspondence
sets: Total = 242
242 divided by total 508 Chapter 3 word families = 47.6% of the Chapter 2A-H word families which
contain matching Sanskrit / Hindi / Bengali ↔ AA ↔ ST lexemes.
Of these there are 29 correspondences which are single (hapax) occurrences of a Sanskrit lexeme
with one or more AA and / or ST lexemes.
This large set of Afro-Asiatic ↔ Sanskrit / IE ↔ Correspondences gives solid evidence of an
African/Afro-Asiatic lexical substratum in Sanskrit which extended into the ST linguistic region where it
also is an important component of the ST language lexicon.
8.1.3 Information based on semantic domain subsets

The four highest 8.1.2 Domain totals are A–Animals 37, B- Natural objects 39, E- Cognitive/ volitional
vocabulary 39 and H- Verbs 38
These statistics are consistent with Witzel’s observations that the Sanskrit substratum has a large group
of terms referring to animals and plants. (Witzel 1999b 29, 56). These are found mainly in Domains A
and B. For comparable high percentages of lexemes matching animal names throughout the study see also
Chapter 3 sections 3.1.2a-b, Chapter 4 Tables 4.3 and Chapter 9 section 9.3.
8.1.3.1 The Semantic Domain A (Animals) 35 Sanskrit words for “cow”, “bull” and “castrate” match AA
forms. See (A.6a.2, A.6b.1, A.6c.2 and A.6d.1,3). This suggests that the Middle Eastern/African
domestication of bovids around 9000 BCE had spread into north India before the Aryan dominance which
by all estimates came later.396
The study also presents evidence that the Sanskrit names of animals such as the elephant, the lion, the
dog, the mouse, the buffalo, doves, crows and several types of insects have continental African language
origins as opposed to IE or Semitic ones. (See A section entries of the Supplementary table 2 Sanskrit
table)
This Domain also includes terms for animals or their products which are not found in Sinitic languages
but occur in Sanskrit and Tibeto-Burman, especially Tibetan. These are found in sets A.1a.1, A.9b.1,
A.9a.1-2, A.9c.1-2, A.14c.1-2, A.24, A.28.1 and A.35.1. See the list in Chapter 9 section 9.1.1 Tibetan-
only Domain A.
396
Note 8.1.3.1 The earliest information on agriculture and domestication of animals in the Indus region comes
from archaeological research on settlements of the Kili Ghul Mohammed Phase. This period from 7000-5000 BCE
shows communities engaged in both farming and pastoral activity. (Possehl 29-30.) Possehl considers that wheat and
barley agriculture developed in the Indus region as an early extension of its emergence in northern Mesopotamia.
.(Possehl.28); Witzel holds that it was introduced from the west. (Witzel 1999b 29).
Cattle of the Asian zebu variety were certainly domesticated in this area of India. They appear on Indus
civilization seals. (Possehl 112, 128), but so do cattle without the tell-tale zebu hump (Possehl 119, 128). Carbon
dating of cattle bones and grain pollens shows that the domestication of cattle and the practice of agriculture were
well-established early in the Harappan civilization. See also Chapter 7 Section 7.4 and Chapter 9
Section 9.7 Bovids.
831
8.1.3.2 Semantic Domain B (Natural objects) contains 39 Sanskrit / Hindi / Bengali ↔ ST < African/AA
word families.Of these:
8.1.3.2a 13 of the 39 denote soil or landforms
8.1.3.2b 9 of the 39 denote trees and plants including grains.
As described above in Chapter 7 the Sanskrit / Hindi / Bengali terms for grain which match an African
root are:
B.9.1-4 Sanskrit *mare “millet species” “sorghum” magha- “a species of grain”
B.26.1 IE-Bengali caul “rice (uncooked)”
B.27.1, 4-6
Sanskrit *gērō / *gyauro “millet, rice”,
Hindi jau “barley”
Sanskrit gur “barley”, rice, wheat”
B.35.2 Sanskrit cikkasa “barley meal” saktu “coarsely ground meal, grit, groats, esp. of
barley”
8.1.3.2c 6 of the 39 denote water and its forms (rivers, rain, clouds etc.
Hence in Domain B, there are-: Words for soils 13, Words for plants 9, Words for water 6 = Total 28.
8.1.3.3 Semantic Domain E (Cognitive/volitional language) contains 38 Sanskrit / Hindi / Bengali <
African / AA matching words, one of the three largest fields. It contains 6 basic language terms.
(See Sanskrit /IE supplementary table 2 E.1c.1 through E.33.2,4)
This semantic field does not seem to have been identified by Kuiper and Witzel as clearly constituting
part of a Sanskrit language X substratum. Many of its lexemes have apparently been considered to be
reflexes of Indo-European roots. However the E domain vocabulary corresponds to both Afro-Asiatic and
Sino-Tibetan roots which have generated very large word families.They are well-attested in both Tibeto-
Burman and Chinese languages. Of the 35 E Domain Sanskrit ↔ AA ↔ ST word family
correspondences 18 attest both Sanskrit ↔ (TB and Sinitic correspondences), and 4 attest Sanskrit ↔
Sinitic only correspondences. This militates strongly against any position which holds that they are of
direct IE origin. It could be argued, however, that they are loans into Sanskrit from Tibeto-Burman or
Chinese during the early historical period when Chinese empires controlled much of Central Asia.
Against such a hypothesis are the Table 8.1.4.3 Sanskrit ↔ Semitic correspondences below which
show in the E group the highest number and the highest percentage (31 and 79.5% ) respectively of the
A-H Domains. This points to a strong influence of the high culture of the Semitic kingdoms which traded
with the Indus inhabitants from 2500 BCE and with China on the Silk Road from100 BCE. (as
referenced in Chapters 4 Section 4.3.3, 5 Section 5.3 and section 9.9).
E Domain words which match AA and ST roots also attest two important concepts of Hindu religion
which are present in the Sanskrit word families. They are maya “illusion, trick, sorcery, witchcraft,
magic” (D.27b.3-Table 8.1a above) and kama “love, desire” (E.5c.1) both of which appear in the earliest
Vedic texts.
8.1.3.4 Semantic Domain F-Artefacts. Of the seven words for pottery and basketry identified in this
study as being common to African/AA and Sino-Tibetan languages (i.e.F.2a-F5 of the Chapter 2 A-H
tables), six of them are also found in Sanskrit. (See Sanskrit tables F.2a, F.3, F.4a, F.4b, F.4c, F.5.) All
six of these attest close correspondences with both Chadic and Semitic languages. See Chapter 2F notes
F.2a.1 (ST) on Indus pottery trade with Arabia, Chapter 2H Note H.39a.1 and Chapter 6 section 6.1.
8.1.4 Breakdown of [(Sanskrit ↔ AA) ↔ ST] correspondences by Afro-Asiatic A subfamily.

(Only one CC is counted from each word family)
8.1.4.1 Sanskrit ↔ Chadic ↔ ST correspondences (as reported in Table 8.1.2 above)
A 33 = 94.3% of 35 w.f.
B 34 = 87.2% of 39 w.f
C 28 = 82.4% of 34 w.f.
832
D 13 = 68.4% of 19 w.f.
E 35 = 89.7% of 39 w.f.
F 18 = 78.2% of 23 w.f.
G 9 = 60.0% of 15 w.f.
H 33 = 86.8% of 38 w.f. Total: 203 = 83.8% of the Table 8.1.2 242 w.f.
8.1.4.2 Sanskrit ↔ Cushitic/Omotic ↔ ST correspondences (as reported in Table 8.1.2 above)

A 23 = 65.7% of 35 w.f.
B 25 = 64% of 39 w.f.
C 19 = 55.9% of 34 w.f.
D 12 = 66.6% of 19 w.f.
E 28 = 71.8% of 39 w.f.
F 16 = 69.6% of 23 w.f.
G 6= 40% of 15 w.f.
8.1.4.3 Sanskrit ↔ Semitic ↔ ST correspondences (as reported in Table 8.1.2 above)

A 21 = 60.0% of 35 w.f.
B 17 = 43.6% of 39 w.f.
C 21 = 61.8% of 34 w.f.
D 13 = 68.4% of 19 w.f.
E 31 = 79.5% of 39 w.f.
F 14 = 60.7% of 23 w.f.
G 6 = 40% of 15 w.f.
8.1.4.4. Sanskrit ↔ Egyptian ↔ ST correspondences (as reported in Table 8.1.2 above)

A 9 = 25.7% of 35 w.f.
B 11 = 28.2% of 39 w.f.
C 9 = 26.5% of 34 w.f.
D 5 = 26.3% of 19 w.f.
E 12 = 30.7% of 39 w.f.
F 10 = 43.5% of 23 w.f.
G 1 = 4.3% of 15 w.f.
H 18 = 47.4% of 38 w.f. Total: 75 = 31% of the Table 8.1.2 242 w.f.
8.1.4.5 Summary of (Sanskrit ↔ AA-Subfamily) ↔ ST comparison with the whole database.

The order of frequency of AA subfamily correspondences with Sanskrit is similar to that of the whole
Chapter 2 A-H Database as reported in Tables 4.3. A major difference is the much higher proportion of
Sanskrit ↔ African ↔ ST correspondences in all AA subfamilies. Although the highest number of
correspondences is between Chadic and ST, the greatest divergence between the Chapter 4 and Chapter
8 data is between the Chapter 4 and the following Chapter 8 Semitic correspondences.
833
Table 8.1.4.5
General comparison of AA subfamilies with Comparison of AA-subfamilies with Sanskrit,
all Chapter 2A-H word families = 508 w.f. Hindi, Bengali word families = 242 w.f.
(Chapter 4 Tables 4.3) (Supplementary table 2) % of correspondences
% of correspondences appearing in each AA appearing in each AA subfamily
subfamily (only 1 per w.f. counted).
(only 1 per w.f. is counted).
Chadic ↔ ST 71.8% Sanskrit ↔ Chadic ↔ ST 83.5%
Cushitic ↔ ST 54.2% Sanskrit ↔ Cushitic ↔ ST 64.6%
Semitic ↔ ST 42.8% Sanskrit ↔ Semitic ↔ ST 61.3%
Egyptian ↔ ST 18.2% Sanskrit ↔ Egyptian ↔ ST 24.3%
8.1.4.5.1 This analysis indicates that the Afro-Asiatic roots existing in Sanskrit came from an
African/AA-derived language present in western/northern India and western / northern Pakistan which
most probably predated the Indo-Aryan period; i.e. before c.2000 BCE. It left a substratum to Indo-Aryan
which was therefore plausibly a major part of the language spoken by the peoples of the Indus
civilization.
The data also points to a migration from Africa and West Asia which passed south of the Himalayas
into East Asia in the period before 3000 BCE when the Indus civilization was flourishing. On the
probable migration routes see Note- H.39a.1 and Chapter 9, section 9.6
8.1.5 Sanskrit correspondences with Proto-Afro-Asiatic roots
Sanskrit. ↔ (AA ↔ ST) word families containing Afro-Asiatic proto-roots = 62 = 29% of the 214
Sanskrit ↔ AA word families.
8.1.6 Basic language vocabulary in Sanskrit / Hindi / Bengali ↔ (African/AA ↔ ST) word families
The Sanskrit ↔ African /AA word family correspondences account for 40 members of the Swadesh
list, i.e. 40% of this basic language vocabulary. This is higher than the 28.3% basic language Swadesh
terms attested in the Chapter 3 section 3.2 report for the whole database, i.e.
Total 144 = 28.3% of the 508 word families.
8.1.7 Sanskrit / Hindi / Bengali polysyllabic lexical correspondences with (African/AA and/or ST)
word families
There are 185 = 36.4% of those in the 508 Chapter 2A-H word families.
Sanskrit /Hindi/Bengali examples of these are:
A.1c.4 Sanskrit cikura “a kind of bird”
< S. Khoisan-Masarwa ši-‖gu “bird”
> N. Chinese- MSC chīgù “sparrow hawk” / zhègū “Chinese francolin, partridge”
A.9a.1 Sanskrit khurutin “a horse”
< W. Chadic – Hausa aguru “donkey” / k’urù “pony”
> TB-Tibetan ku-rúg / gu-rug “colt of an ass ”
C.34.1 Hindi kāna “ear” / Sanskrit karəna “ear”
< NC-Mande-Atlantic-Bijogo k‫כ‬nn‫“ כ‬ear” / Kordofanian-Tima (k)‫כ‬n‫“ כ‬ear” /
NS-Kunama uku(na) “ear”, Kordofanian- Koalib / (k)öni “ear” / W. Chadic-Hausa kûnnē
“ear”
> TB- Bhramu, Anal kəna “ear” / TB-Naga-Tankhul khəna “ear” / TB- Naga-Rengma
əkhəna “ear”
E.11b.1 Bengali shɔngbad “news, information” / Hindi samvaddātā “reporter”
< W. Chadic-Hausa sambàtu “idle talk” > S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sàn “to report”
See many more examples in Supplementary Table 2.
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8.1.7.1. Percentages of Polysyllabic root correspondences between Sanskrit and Sino-Tibetan

(Only one polysyllabic root correspondence is counted per word family)
Figures for the subset of word families containing polysyllabic Sanskrit ↔ (ST ↔ African /AA)
word families are:
(Sanskrit. ↔ [(African/AA ↔ ST) ↔ Sino-Tibetan] word families 101
= 20% of the 508 African /AA ↔ ST word families and
= 41.7% of the 242 Sanskrit (African/AA ↔ ST) word families
8.2 Conclusion. There was a pre-Sanskrit African /AA-derived west to north Indian language which was
a proximate source of Sino-Tibetan lexemes.
The existence in Sanskrit of a substantial vocabulary matching both African/ AA and Sino-Tibetan
language lexemes indicates that an important population of speakers of languages derived from Afro-
Asiatic was present on the north/northeast Indian plain in the pre-historic period. The data furnish
evidence that the Indus Valley and north Indian plain were a migration path and settlement area for
speakers of a mainly Chadic/Semitic based language. See also Chapter 9 sections 9.6 and 9.9.1.
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Chapter 9
Linguistic data relevant to African/AA-based migrations into the ST linguistic area
9.0 Information on migration from the west into the current Sino-Tibetan linguistic area has already been
provided in Chapter 4 Note 4.3.1. The present chapter reports additional study and analysis of specific
subsets of the Chapter 2 A-H data relevant to migration from Africa and West Asia into the Central and
East Asian areas.
9.1 Tibeto-Burman only and Sinitic only lexical correspondences with African /AA.
Words which occur only in [Tibeto-Burman AND African languages] OR only in [Sinitic AND African
languages] can furnish indicators of separate migrations from Africa into Central and East Asia by
speakers of an Afro-Asiatic predominantly Chadic dialect.
9.1.1 Tibeto-Burman only ↔ African /AA language correspondences.

Breakdown and totals by Semantic domain. (The count is by word family from the total 508 in the
Chapter 2 A-H comparison) :
A 17 = 26.2% of 65 w.f.
A.1a “bird of prey” “crow” ”A.8 “wild ass, donkey” A.9a “ass, small horse, zebra”
A.9b “wild horse” “horse, zebra” A.9c “horse, donkey” A.9d “wealth, riches” “cattle, wealth”
A.10d “dog, puppy” A.12b “deer, goat, sheep” A.13a “crab” A.14c “louse” A.16 “oil,fat,
grease” A.17 “wild elephant, elephant” A.23 “rat, mouse” A.24 “wild yak, buffalo”
A.28 “buttermilk, milk” A.31 “monkey” A.32 “horn (of animal)”
B 11 = 16.4% of 67 w.f.
B.3d “earth” B.4 clay, earth” B.5b “stone, rock” B.8 “root” B.13 “smoke, dust”
B15f “paint, dye” B.23 “to warm, ignite” B.29 “star, moon”
B.30 “moon” B.31 ”planet, star” B.38 “chaff, husks”
C 13 = 14.3% of 91 w.f.
C.1b “throat, neck” C.5b “nose” “scent” C.7 “kidney” C.11 “corpse”
C.19 “skin, bark” C.20b “skin, leather” C.24a “knee”
C.32 “feed” C.34 “ear, hear” C.49 “sweat” “hot weather” C.50 “tooth”
C.51b “head” C.53 “blind”
D 9 = 15.8% of 57 w.f
D.2 “man, person” D.3a “child, son” D.19b “old, grandparent”
D.21c “weak” “tired” D.23 “owner, master” “village head” D.24 “slave, servant”
D.29 “big” “chief, ruler” “hero” D.33 “throw away” “set free”
D.38 “free, independent”
E 9 = 13.8% of 65 w.f.
E.5b.1 “desire, crave” E.6 “love” E.8d “shout, call out” E.13a “speech, language” “to say”
E.13b “speech, talk” E.23b “fear” “E.26 “to sleep” E.27 “difficult”
E.32 “doubt, quibbling, arguing”
F 10 = 21.4% of 43 w.f.
F.2b “gourd” F5 “cup, bowl” F.7b “circular, go round” “fence” F8a “round, a ball”
F.9a “to spin, roll” F.14 “needle, arrow” F.22 “mortar” F.24 “medicine” F.25 “road”
F.28 “lock, key”
G 5 = 15% of 40 w.f.
G.1a “hard, solid” G.2 “to rot, ferment” G.3 “flat, level” G.4 “white” G.6 “red”
H 17 = 23.8% of 80 w.f.
H.4a “to go, walk” H.5 “to go over, enter” H.8b “method, way”H.11 “to begin”
H.14 “to pierce, sew” H.15 “to slice, pare” H.17c “descend, sink” H.20b “to carry”
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H.21 “to carry” H.24a “clean, clear” H.24d “to wash, bathe” H.25c “excel” H.28 “grind”
H.30c “to chop, cut” H.38c “to graze” H.41.1 “twisting, turning” H.43 “to rub, scratch”
Total = 91 = 17.9% of 508 w.f.
9.1.2 Sinitic only ↔ African/AA language correspondences. The count is by word family with
breakdown and totals by Semantic domain:
A 8 = 10.8% of 65 w.f. .
A2a “bird” A.2b “small bird” A.3 “quail” A.10f “hyena, dog” A.14b “louse”A.22 “spider”
A.25 “hunchback, hump” “camel”A.30 “ant”
B 7 = 11.8% of 68 w.f.
B.5c “mound, hill” B.11b “fire” B.14d “flower” B.18b “soft, mushy” B.20.b “smoke”
B.34 “wet” “to water”B.36 “thunder”
C 12 = 13.2% of 91 w.f.
C.4 “lick, taste” C.9a “self, oneself” C.9b “corpse, body” C.12b “outside, external”
C.14 “navel” C.22b “arm, shoulder” C.31c “laugh at, mock”
C.31e “eat” C.37a “die” C.38a “hunger C.41a “face” “direction” C.41b “right side”
D 9 = 17.5% of 57 w.f. .
D.8 “child” D.11b “loan” D.15b “widow” ”alone”
D.17 “mortgage” “blood money” D.21b “tired, weak” D.22 “enemy”
D.26b “cunning” “ghost” D.26c “destroy, ruin” D.35 “young, youth”
E 16 = 24.6% of 65 w.f. .
E.4c “to know” E.7a “good, all right” E.7b “beautiful, good” E.7d “beautiful, good”
E.8a “say” E.8b “speak, announce” E.8c “law, judgement” E.8e “magic” “foretell”
E.11b “report, inform” E.13d “explain, say” E.13f “tell, say” E.18 “cautious, careful”
E.21 “flatter, encourage” E.29 “despise, mistrust” E.30 “compare with”
E.34 “explain” “obvious”
F 7 = 16.3% of 43 w.f.
F.3 “a gourd” F.6b “suburbs” ” boundary” F11 “boundary, limit”
F.17a “stop up, block up” F.17b “stop up, blockup” F.21b “axe, pole, stick”
F.23 “lane” “direction”
G 10 = 27.5% of 40 w.f..
G.11a “tall, high” “mountain” G.11b “big” G.13b “stay, lodge” G.20 “two” G.22 “eight”
G.24 “all” G.27 “be like, compare” G.31 “I, we” G.32 “I” G.33 “we”
H 13 = 15% of 80 w.f.
H.1 “pull” H.3a “come” H.3b “move backward” H.7b “step on” H.8a “to walk” “path”
H.9 “to move” H.13a “crowd together” “squeeze” H.13c.1 “enough” H.24c “sweep, brush”
H.27 “to breed, grow, spread out (plants)” H.32 “dig, scrape out” H.37 “thing, affair, business”
H.39b “consult with”
Total 82 = 16.1% of 508 w.f.
Totals
Thus there are 91 (Section 9.1.1) + 82 (Section 9.1.2) = 173 word families found in the study to exist
in only one of the ST language subfamilies (TB or Sinitic) = 173/ 508 = 34.1%.
9.2 This combined number of single ST subfamily occurrences (173= 34.1% of the 508 w.f ) gives
further support to the hypothesis of multiple migrations from Africa, especially since single language
lexemes show a limit to any assertion of internal migration as an explanation of the general similarity
between the TB and Sinitic lexicons. In so doing, they also support the traditional division of ST into
Tibeto-Burman and Sinitic subfamilies.
9.3 Migration indicators from A Domain
The TB-only Domain A (Animals) shows the second highest number of w.f. correspondences 17;
Sinitic A attests only 7. This is consistent with the higher TB A Domain totals reported in previous
837
comparisons. See Chapter 3 Table 3.1.2a and Chapter 4 Tables 4.3 as shown in the following excerpts
from these chapters.
The 3.1.2a-b Table comparison of the complete Chapter 2A-H African/AA database with Sino-Tibetan
subfamilies (Domain A-Animals) shows:
3.1.2a African/AA ↔ Tibeto-Burman (A Domain- Animals)
A= B= C= D= E = 76.1% F = G= H=
90.8% 83.3% 86.4% 72.1% 88.1% 67.5% 80.5%
3.1.2b African/AA ↔ Sinitic (A Domain- Animals)
A= B= C = 81.5% D = E = 83.6% F = G= H=
60.6% 74.2% 81.4% 81% 85% 63.6%
Thus the largest contrast is that between the African/AA ↔ Tibeto-Burman A Domain African/AA ↔
Sinitic correspondences 90.8% versus. 60.6% respectively. The percentage differences are smaller in the
other Domains..
The pattern for the A group is similar in the Chapter 4 Tables 4.3.1 results when only Afro-Asiatic
languages are compared.
4.3.1 Afro-Asiatic ↔ Tibeto-Burman ↔ Chadic (A Domain-Animals)
A= B = 80.6% C = D= E= F= G= H=
84.6% 75.8% 66.6% 66.2% 86% 62.5% 70%
Afro-Asiatic ↔ Sinitic Chadic (A Domain-Animals)
A= B= C= D= E= F= G =72.5% H = 60%
66.2% 73.1.2% 73.6% 71.9% 72.3% 69.8%
This reflects the fact that TB has correspondences with African words for horse, scorpion, pig,
butter/oil, rat/mouse (2 w.f.), cow’s milk, monkey, horn, yak/buffalo and grasshopper. Thus far no
Sinitic correspondences have been found for these African animals or their parts / products.
9.4 A provisional sketch of migration paths between NE Africa and East Asia.
What is generally called “the southern route”was traveled by Africans carrying early modern human
(Homo Sapiens Sapiens) genes who migrated along southern Asia into southeast Asia. (See Section 4.0.2
and Note 4.0.2(1) of the Introduction. Geneticists have been able to calculate the age of this migration as
being between 60,000 to 40,000 BCE, possibly from the Horn of Africa (Ehret 2002 22, Su, B.1999, 13
and Zhang 2007). Su and Zhang are geneticists. Geneticists use statistics to estimate the times and routes
of migrations by examining the level of diversity in a set of genes and the concentration of a particular
chromosome in the population of an area. The geneticist Peter Underhill was able to able to trace an
African / SW Asian chromosome R1 on a migration route from southwest Asia to East Asia. R1
bifurcated into R1a and R1b about 25,000 years ago. R1a branches into the Afghanistan-Pashtun-Pashto
language, the SW-Pakistani Baloch and SE-Asian Cambodian)..The highest frequencies of R1a-Z21235
occur in Kyrgystan (bordering NW China) and in Afghan Pashtuns at > 40%. (See Underhill 2015 Figure
2 ( 2c, d) + its following text, and Figure 5 #17 M780 / L657). Thoughout the study large numbers of
ST↔ Pashtun and ST↔ Pakistani-Sanskrit cognates have been identified.
As compared to genetics, language alone is a less effective tool for tracking migrations with any
geographic precision. The present chapter, however, suggests some global patterns of the movement of
populations based on linguistic data. We do not know what language they spoke, but the most likely
conjecture is that it was to some degree related to the Khoisan spoken today. These groups were hunter-
gatherers, since agriculture was invented many millenia later in the in the Neolithic period. Cave
depictions of animals in, for example, Lascaux, southern France indicate a fascination of the cave
dwellers with hunted animals; also the perfection of stone or bone arrowheads and spearheads suggests
that even earlier than the cave art, hominids were living from hunting.
In any inquiry about pre-Neolithic language, Khoisan becomes more relevant since it is much older
than Afro-Asiatic or the other African language superfamilies.(See Notes 1.1.3(1) and 1.1.3(2) The
present study has identified Khoisan as a source of much of the AA-African and ST comparative
838
lexicons. So the question arises as to whether it is only a remote source, i.e only of etymological
importance. To aid in this Supplementary table 3 has been structured to compare Khoisan with ST and
other languages of Central and East Asia. Finding Khoisan in ST does not, of course, guarantee that
Khoisan speakers have been migrating into E. Asia during the Neolithic, i.e during the last 15,000 years.
It does, however, open up the possibility that there is a surviving Khoisan substratum in both the northern
and southern regions of the ST linguistic area which is inherited from a Khoisan-speaking population
which migrated into Central and East Asia before the Neolithic and hence also possibly before the
emergence of the Afro-Asiatic, Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan superfamilies.
Some word families containing multiple Khoisan ↔ ST correspondences with Sino-Tibetan suggest that
their Khoisan roots are the result of such a pre-Neolithic migration into both the northern and southern
areas of the present-day ST linguistic region
The following word families show exceptional patterns as compared to others in the study:
C.34.1-Swadesh “ear”.
In this word family all the ST words are from TB languages. There are multiple Khoisan
correspondences (6 of 7 sets ) and sets 4 and 7 show only a TB ↔ Khoisan correspondence i.e. no other
African correspondence has been identified, nor is there a Semitic or Egyptian correspondencs in any of
the 7 sets.
C.20b.1 Swadesh “skin”. In this word famiy all five sets show TB only ↔ Khoisan correspondences
A.26.1-7 Swadesh “egg” In this word famiy 6 of the 7 sets have ST ↔ Khoisan correspondences.
Two of these are direct ST ↔ Khoisan correspondences (no other correspondences identified) .
A.10a-b “dog, hyena”
In these two closely related word families all but one of the correspondence sets are similar in that 8 of
the combined 9 sets contain Khoisan correspondences; 2 of these A.10a.5 and A.10a.6 thus far show no
AA, NC or NS correspondence); again no Semitic or Egyptian correspondence has been identified in
either word family.
In the study as a whole there are sets from 15 word families containing Khoisan lexemes for which no
other African language ↔ ST correspondence has been identified. (A.10a.5,6; A.26.5,7; A.33.2; B.20a.4,
B.30.2; B.31.2; C.6c.5,6; C.29b.2; C.33.3; C.34.4,7; E.13a.2; G.11b.1,2; G.30.2; H.17a.4; H.23a.2 and
H.28.2).
Of these the following 13 sets are in word families comprised of one or more basic language terms:
A.10a.5,6; A.26.5,7; A.33.2; B.20a.4, B.30.2; B.31.2; C.6c.5; C.33.3; C.34.4; E.13a.2; G.11b.1;
G.30.2 and H.23a.2.
See also Section 9.6 Bovids below on the ngàuh “buffalo” lexeme.
The above data suggests a provisional hypothesis that a linguistic remnant of one or more pre-Neolithic
migrations from Africa across Asia is present in Sino-Tibetan and perhaps other eastern and southeastern
Asian languages. See also Note C.29b.1 (Middle Chinese etc).
9.4.1 Summary of Khoisan correspondencs with ST languages-Domain Totals

A 22
B 23
C 25
D 13
E 18
F 9
G 8
H 19 = 137 = Total word families containing Khoisan correspondences with Sino-Tibetan
roots = 47.6% of the 508 word families.
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9.5 The more recent routes

From the West Asian Levant through Central Asia the Himalayas have always been a major obstacle to
movement of populations into the present areas of Tibet and Northwest China. As a result there were,
generally speaking, major routes north and south of the Himalayas into the Tibeto-Burman area and China
from the West. Most of these probably occurred during the Neolithic. The present study deals specifically
with migration routes which developed after the emergence of Afro-Asiatic languages from about 12000
BCE and especially the invention of agriculture in the early Holocene up to the historical period around
2000 BCE.
9.5.1 Indicators of northern and southern routes. The following A Domain word families contain
lexemes from Afro-Asiatic-Semitic, Indo-European and Kartvelian-Georgian, Megrel ( languages of the
South Caucusus),
A sample of 21 sets referring to animals in the following table shows a relationship between the
African roots and Semitic, Altaic or Indo-Aryan lexemes:
“birds” A.1a.1, A.1b.1, A.2a.1, A.2b.1, A.2c.1, A.3.1, A.4.2-3 /
“equids” A.8.1, A.9b.1, A.9c.1 /
“dog, fox” A.10a.2, A.10c.2, A.10c.4, A.10d.1 /
“louse, flea” A.14a.1 /
“oil, butter”A.16.1 /
“insect” A.20a.1,4. /
“urine, urinate” / A.27.2
“insect, louse, cricket” A.29.5-6
See similar trans-Asian roots in C.24b.2, D.25.1-2 and H.25a.2.
The 20 Altaic < African/ AA correspondences in the following A Domain comparative table support the
existence of a northern route from NE-Africa → West Asia → Central Asia → Northern Tibet and / or
North China / Mongolia. The number of these in the B to H Domains of the whole study is reported after
the table.
The Sanskrit, Pashto and Munda entries are less prominent but point to a migration south of the
Himalayas from Afghanistan or SE Iran.
Table 9.5.1.1
A Trans-Asian route of A Domain lexemes tracked from Africa and the Middle East to Central and
East Asia on northern and southern routes.
1. Identifier + African / Non-ST Central Asian ST and Altaic E. Asian
Afro-Asiatic and correspondences of correspondences
West Asian Caucasus-Kartvelian,
correspondences IE, Altaic and Austro-
Asiatic-Munda
(A Domain) (A Domain) African- (A Domain) Mongolian,
African-Afro-Asiatic Afro-Asiatic > Northern Tibeto-Burman and Sinitic,
Kartvelian, Indo- E. Asian Altaic
European, Central
Asian Altaic
A.1a.1 W. Chadic–Hausa Kartvelian- TB-Tibetan kharada “name of a bird”
kařàmbatà n.f. Georgian,Megrel kara-ru-be-ka “a kind of bird”
“eagle, kestrel species” kor- “hawk” Altaic-Turkic-Tuvan
“black-crested hawk-eagle” Altaic-Turkic-Azeri kaargan /qarhan “crow”
W. Chadic–Bole garha “crow” Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu
karmata Turkic-Turkmen / *kara- “a kind of bird” ;
“white hawk” Turkic-Azeri garga *karbu “a kind of aquatic bird”
Semitic-Hebrew “crow, raven”
‘or “crow” IE-Pashto karak “quail”
840
Proto-Semitic TB-Tibetan kharanda

*ɣārib “corvo” [crow] “a sort of wild duck”
khra-bo “magpie”
Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz
garha “crow’
Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur
karha “crow”
Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh
karha “crow” taskara “vulture”
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek
qironqara “hawk”
A.1a.2 W. Chadic-Gwandara Kartvelian-Georgian, TB-Tibetan
akwākwā “crow” Megrel khwa
C. Chadic-Gude kor- “small crow”
kwāryat- “kite hawk” “hawk” “raven”
Proto-Semitic
*kwā(kw)-
“owl, raven, vulture”
A.1a.3 W. Chadic–Bole IE-Sanskrit TB-Tibetan
kaki “crow” kaka kāka “the crow”
W. Chadic–Hausa “crow” Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur
hankākà “crow” khaga “bird” qaghav “crow”
C. Chadic-Mafa-Mada group IE-Bengali
ŋga’ak “crow” ka:k “crow”
W. Ethiopian-Semitic-Geez
qaqer “crow”
↓
A.1b.1 Kartvelian-Megrel TB-Tibetan
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) s’agur čqor- tsa-ko-ra
“hawk, falcon” “quail” “a partridge”
W. Chadic-Gwandara Kartvelian-Georgian dza-go-ra
jàkára “cock” (m) ̣čqer- “quail” “partridge”
W. Chadic-Hausa IE-Pashto
zàkaràa m. “rooster” jahk “a pheasant”
sàagarā f. “pullet”
Semitic-Aramaic
šagrāq / šagrākā “crow”
ts̟agra “falcon”
A.1b.3 Proto-Altaic sako-sako “magpie” TB-Tibetan
W. Chadic–Hausa Altaic-Turkic-Oryat taka “hen, fowl” chagaà
tsàakō m. Altaic-Turkic-Khakassian taɣak “chicken,
tsàakuwā pl. “hen, fowl” a kind of water-fowl”
“baby chick” Altaic-Proto-Turkic *tiakigu “hen, chagöö
Proto-Afro-Asiatic fowl” “vulture”
*cagah’ “bird” Altaic-Turkic-Sari-Yughur takagi
Semitic-Aramaic “hen, fowl”
zāg / zāgā Altaic-Turkic-Karakhanid *takagu
“a young cock or hen” “hen, fowl”
/
841
A.2a.2 W. Chadic-Hausa A.2a.3 A.2a.1

tsâttēwàa < *tsew-tsēwàa Proto-Altaic N. Chinese-MSC chú (WG)
“a swift, a swallow” *kiure “a chick, a fledgling”
W. Chadic-Gwandara “woodcock” Altaic-Proto-Mongolian
(all dialects) nsusuwa / ncucuwa / čuwčali “snipe”
nsûtsûwã “bird” -Mongolian-Buriat
E. Cushitic-Burji šurki “teal”
c’úuw-ee “chicken” -Mongolian-Ordos
Semitic-Arabic čūčil
šuha “kite hawk, vulture” “snipe”
W. Chadic-Pelci sura “kite hawk”
W. Chadic-Ngamo šuli “kite hawk”
Egyptian asu “birds”
A.2a.3 Austro-Asiatic- N. Chinese- MSC (Beijing)
E. Chadic-Somrai Munda- chūi (WG) “short-tailed birds”
gwi “Rebhuhn” [partridge] Kherwarian-Ho què “sparrow”
C. Chadic-Mandara kuyè “kite” ’oe / o’e “bird”
/
A.2b.1 IE-Pashto N. Chinese-MSC
W. Chadic-Fali Mucella char-charru ch’iao (WG)
šaru “kite, hawk” “a hen sparrow” “the magpie, jackdaw, jay
W. Chadic-Bole-Tangale-Bole Proto-Altaic sàru and similar birds”
jaro / yàró “bird” “a bird of prey” jiāo “wren”
W. Chadic-N.Bauci-Mburku Proto-Altaic *kiăro chiāo (WG)
gyalu “kite hawk” “crow, raven” “small bird like the tit or
W. Chadic-Hausa Altaic-Turkic-Balkar, Karaim wren”
shāhòo m. tawuk “hen, fowl” S. Chinese-Kejia
Altaic-Middle Turkic tawuk
“hawk, falcon” [Hakka]
“hen, fowl”
Semitic-Written Arabic jiau2 “bird”
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek təwuk
jauzal / jawazil “young pigeon” “hen, fowl”
/
A.2c.1 Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen Altaic-Proto-Mongolian
E. Chadic-Masa Group- serče “sparrow” *cirokej “a kind of duck”
Koyra, Zayse Altaic-Turkic-Chuvash N. Chinese -MSC
ts’ilo “kite, hawk” śerźi “sparrow” chio / tsio (WG)
Egyptian “small birds”
tcheru ts’io (WG) “the magpie,
“vulture, kite, glede” jackdaw,
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish jay and similar birds”
serče “sparrow” chiu (WG) “the pigeon”
TB-Tibetan kāŋciu
“sparrow”
kāŋ “house”
842
A.2c.2 A.2c.2 IE-Pashto chirgurraey A.2c.2

Proto-Afro-Asiatic “a chicken” TB-Kiranti-Kulung
*t’s’ir- “bird” Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen serče “sparrow” cirwa
*c̟ir(aʕ)- sar “starling” “swallow” [bird]
“bird of prey” Altaic-Turkic-Chuvash śerźi “sparrow” Altaic-Turkic-Tuva
W. Chadic-Hausa Altaic-Proto-Turkic sarɨ
shirwàa f. *sarɨ “bird of prey, kite” “a kind of falcon”
“black kite (hawk)” “a kind of falcon” Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek sarɨ
Egyptian “starling” “siskin” “bird of prey”
tchera-t Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali Altaic- Turkic-Kyrgyz sarɨ
“vulture, kite” tʃē’rē “bird” “bird of prey”
tcher-t “hawk, falcon, Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian- Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur
vulture, kite Mundari tʃē’rē “bird” sa(r) “bird of prey”
Omotic-Ometo-Kachama
č’era “bird”
/
A.3.1 IE-Sanskrit Old Chinese chun2 “quail”
W. Chadic- Hausa sunara Altaic-Mongolian
sunsu “bird” / “sparrow” shongkor “falcon”
tsuntsū “bird” Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh N. Chinese-MSC
Semitic-Written Arabic sonkar sûn “hawk, falcon”
summun “quail” “falcon” chún / chwún (Y)
Semitic-Aramaic “the quail”
sonqor m. “falcon” sûnzhûn “hawk, falcon”
/
A.8.1 W. Chadic- Ron (Bokkos) Altaic-Turkic-Azeri
njake “donkey” (Azerbaizhan)
jake “Esel” [ass, donkey] eššäk “donkey”
W. Chadic–N. Bauci-Tsagu žāƙ- Altaic- Turkic Turkmen eshek
“donkey” “donkey”
Egyptian sakut “young asses” Altaic- Turkic-Uzbek ešak
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) ja‫ح‬aš “young “donkey”
donkey” Altaic- Turkic-Kazakh esek TB-Tibetan
W. Chadic–Gwandara (Karshi, Toni, “donkey” rkyaŋ
Koro) jàŋkyi “donkey” IE-Tokharian yákwe “Pferd” “the wild ass or horse
E. Cushitic-Sidamo (Karshi, Toni, Koro) (Ger.) [ horse] of central Asia”
gango “mule” Sanskrit ekanda “a kind of gyaŋ
NS-Anywa gɅɅŋŋu “mule” horse” “Tibetan wild ass”
/
843
A.10d.1 IE-Hindi Altaic-Proto-Mongolian

W. Chadic-Ngizimk útə́řu kutta “dog” *küderi
“puppy” IE-Pashto (Pushtu) “a kind of fox”
C. Chadic- Bura kutray “puppy” Altaic-Proto-Tungus-
kutiru “puppy” Proto-Altaic Manchu
C. Chadic-Bata kəde “dog” *kiutí “a kind of fox” *kitiri
Semitic-Old Aramaic qurtison Altaic-Turkic-Azeri “a kind of fox”
“little dog” kurd “wolf”
NS-Tepeth kudo’ “dog” IE-E. Iranian-Avestan
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish gadhwa “a bitch, a female dog”
kurt “wolf”
/
A.12b.5 Altaic-Turkic-Karakhanid Altaic-Turkic-Tuva, Kazakh
C. Chadic-Padoko elik “wild goat” elik
vileke “calf” Altaic-Turkic-Karakalpak “roebuck, wild goat”
Proto-Afro-Asiatic elik TB-Tibetan
*lax- “sheep, goat” “wild goat” rəgu
Semitic-Mehri “kid (baby goat)”
elīk “camel calf” Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish (dial.) elik
elik “wild goat” “wild goat”
/
A.14a.1 Altaic-Turkic-Khakassian Altaic-Turkic-Tuvan sēk “fly”
W. Chadic–Hausa sik, sēk “fly” Altaic-Proto-Mongolian ciɣV- “locust” “wood
jìgā n.f. Altaic-Turkic-Oyrat louse”
“jigger flea” sēk “mosquito” -Mongolian-Buriat šigej- “locust” “wood
A.14a.2 A.14a.2 louse”
W. Chadic-Hausa Kartvelian-Laz čič- “firefly” -Mongolian-Kalmuck šigej- “locust”
mājib’āri Kartvelian-Georgian “wood louse”
“bee, fly” cicci-natela “firefly, moth” TB-Tibetan chig “louse”
Proto-AA IE-E. Iranian-Avestan A.14a.2
jibar- “bee, fly” makśī “Fliege” (Ger.) TB-Tibetan h̟ji-ba / h̟ji-wa “a flea”
[fly]
/
A.16.1 IE-Tocharian smare “smooth, oil” Proto-Tungus-Manchu
Proto-Chadic Proto-IE *smerw “butter, marrow” *mala “plant oil” /
*mar “oil” Proto-Altaic *male “plant oil” TB-Tibetan mar “butter”
C. Chadic-Tera Altaic-Turkic-Bashkir, Tatar, Turkmen, maa / margo “butter”
mar “oil” Kazakh, Uzbek mɔj “fat” marnaà “vegetable oil”
W. Chadic–Hausa Altaic-Turkic-Khakassian sar-maj Proto-Tungus-Manchu
mâi “oil, fat” / “butter” *mala “plant oil”
may “oil” < Proto-Altaic *male “plant oil” Bashkir, Uzbek mɔj “fat”
Proto-Chadic Altaic-Turkic-Tatar, Turkmen, Kazakh, Altaic-Kyrgyz,
*mar “oil” Uyghur mɔj “fat”
/
844
A.20a.3 A.20a.4 A.20a.3

C. Chadic-Hitkala Proto-Turkic Proto-Tibeto-Burman
būbu “Schlange” *bürče / *bürge *buw = *bəw “insect, snake”
[snake] “flea” *bəw “bug” “insect, vermin, bug”
C. Chadic-Gava Proto-Altaic TB-Tibetan bu “insect, bug”
buba “snake” *biüre “flea” Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *bürge “flea”
A.20a.4 bürgə “flea” Altaic-Mongolian-Baoan bərgə “flea”
W. Chadic-Gera IE-Sanskrit A.20a.4
bur-si fùllarika TB-Qiangic-Pumi-Dayang bərá “snake”
“mosquito” “a serpent”
C. Chadic-Fali Muchela fùllaka
mùburù “termite” “a worm or snake”
/
A.25.2 Altaic-Turkic- N. Chinese-MSC
W. Chadic-Hausa Karakalpak, Balkar luòtuo “camel”
*tūzo > tōzō tüje “camel” tuóbèi “hunchback, humpback”
“hump (e.g. of camel)” “hunchbacked”
Berber-Tuareg C. Chinese-Wu
tuw- tu “camel” “hunchbacked, humpbacked”
“bosse de chameau” Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz tō “camel” “mountain”
[hump of camel Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur tögä “camel”
/
A.27.2 Altaic-Turkic-Oyrat, Nogai, TB-Tibetan
NS-Maba Group-Kodoi Balkar, Karaim, Kumyk, gci-wa “to discharge urine”
ìsîî “urine” / iisi “urinate” sij- “urinate” N. Chinese-MSC shî “excrement,
Proto-North-Omotic faeces, dung” “ordure, dung (in
*sh’e / *sh’- “to urinate” comb.)”
Altaic-Turkic-Turkish Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek, Kyrgyz
sij- “urinate” sij- “urinate”
/
A.29.5 Altaic-Turkic- TB-Gyarung
C. Chadic-Mada Khakassian sar “louse”
ʒara “cricket” sarisxa “a kind of Proto-TB
Proto-Highland E. Cushitic dragonfly” *sar ~ *śar “louse” /
*z-r- “locust” Altaic-Turkic-Oyrat *s(y)ar “louse”
C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur sariška- Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu
jaray “criquet” [cricket] “locust” *čačaraku
Semitic-Hebrew tsartsar n.m. “cricket” Altaic-Proto-Turkic “locust”/
saričga “locust” Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *čarča-
Semitic-Arabic ħaʃara (IPA)
Proto-Altaic “locust /
“insect”, a‫ح‬šara “insect, bug” sarču
s̟urs̟ur s̟̟aras̟ur pl. “cricket, cockroach” “locust, dragonfly” Altaic-Mongolian-Buriat
*sarsa “locust”
The data of the research suggests two probable northern routes from NE Africa to the ST speaking area of
E.Asia.
9.5.1.2 The northernmost route.
The migrations of AA-Chadic- and early Egyptian-speakers out of northeast Africa moved along the
Eastern Mediterranean coast at least as far as northern Syria and probably also central and southeastern
Turkey. From this area the migrants moved east into the southern Caucasus, and Azerbaizhan, then into
northwestern Iran and along the southern coast of the Caspian Sea.
845
In north central Iran one migration followed north of the central Iranian desert into south-central
Turkmenistan. From there an ancient route leads to Samarkand in central Uzbekistan, then into Eastern
Uzbekistan, SW Kyrgystan and Northwest China’s Xinjiang province, then across the Taklamakan
Desert into the Gansu corridor which leads to NW China’s Gansu, Shaanxi, and Henan provinces as well
as present-day North Chinese Inner Mongolia. See Regueiro 2006 Fig.1 and Zhong 2011 718.
9.5.1.2.1 The TB-Tibetan single language Domain A indicators of a northernmost route

Of the section 9.1.1 TB-only lexemes, the single TB language with the highest number of A Domain
correspondences is Tibetan.
Of the 17 TB-only A Domain correspondences with African ↔ ST 16 are found in Tibetan and 9 of
these thus far attest only Tibetan as a TB ↔African language correspondence, but 5 of these latter have
no Altaic language cognate.. The 9 are:
A.8 Tibetan rkyan “Tibetan wild ass” contains 4 Altaic language cognate, \
A.9b Tibetan dagoo “wild horse” contains 2 Altaic language cognates
A.9c Tibetan dewa “colt” contains 2 Altaic language cognates
A.16 Tibetan mar “butter” contains 4 Altaic language cognates
A.9d Tibetan dkor “wealth” contains 0 Altaic language cognates
A.17 Tibetan lango “elephant” contains 0 Altaic language cognates
A.28 Tibetan dara “buttermilk” contains 0 Altaic language cognates
A.31 Tibetan sre “monkey” contains 0 Altaic language cognates
A.35 Tibetan tsi-tsi “rat, mouse” contains 0 Altaic language cognates
This data shows that 3 African words for equids appear only in Tibetan, the end area of a northern route.
In the other 6 cases the route into Tibet could have been north central or south central
The data again support a hypothesis of a culture centered on animals among the TB-speaking peoples
who settled the current northern TB area where these languages are spoken. It also suggests that some of
the Tibeto-Burman A Domain lexicon is representative of a migration into the northern TB-speaking area
which was different from and probably earlier than the southern one, i.e TB-Jingpho, TB-Burmese etc.
9.5.1.2.2
Altaic-Mongolian lexemes’ show the end point (in Asia) of the Central and E. Asian northernmost route
The numbers and percentages of word families containing two or more Altaic-Mongolian
correspondences with African and Sino-Tibetan lexemes are reported for each Domain as follows:
Domain A- 65 word families of which:
20 attest multiple Altaic / Mongolian ↔ African ↔ ST lexical corresp. = 30.77%
Domain B- 67 word families of which:
Domain C- 91 word families of which:
Domain D- 57 word families of which:
Domain E- 65 word families of which:
4 attest multiple Altaic / Mongolian ↔ African ↔ ST lexical corresp. = 6%
Domain F- 43 word families of which:
Domain G- 40 word families of which:
4 attest multiple Altaic / Mongolian ↔ African ↔ ST lexical corresp. = 10%
Domain H- 80 word families of which:
14 attest multiple Altaic ↔ Mongolian ↔ African ↔ ST lexical corresp. = 17.9%
The two largest perecntages are in Domain F at 38.1% and Domain A Animals at 30.77% with the
lowest in the E Domain (cognitive/volitional terms) at 6%
846
So the 9.5.1.2.2 Altaic / Mongolian data show an even greater contrast between the A and E domains in
North Central Asia as opposed to the more southerly routes.
9.5.1.3 Discussion The above 9.5.1-2 data are consistent with Blench and others’ position that foragers
lived on the high Tibetan plateau up to 10000 years ago and were the earliest speakers of Tibeto-
Burman. (Blench 2010a 13-14 including Fig. 6). He considers that these early hunter/gatherers lived in
an arc across the slopes of the southern Himalayas. With respect to this hypothhesis it is noteworthy that
the A.8 Tibetan-only rkyan “Tibetan wild ass”, and A.9b Tibetan-only dagoo “wild horse” both refer
to wild animals.
Blench further posits that domestic animals were added to the previous culture based on hunting and
foraging, and this “livestock revolution” took place in the mid-level Himalayas. These other early
speakers of Tibeto-Burman were yak herders who moved up and settled permanently on the high
Tibetan plateau from 6000 to 5000 years ago. (Blench 2010a 12 Fig.5). The above-cited data support this
position since the greatest contrast in total number of correspondences in a single Semantic Domain is in
the A (Animals) group. The Altaic A subset contains names of animals which are still central to the
herding culture of the central and north Tibetan Himalayas. See also Note-D.36.1 (Hausa).
9.5.1.4 A north central route. Some migrations of speakers of AA languages followed a similar path
into western Iran but passed south of the central Iranian desert into northern Afghanistan, eastern
Tajikstan and into the southern Taklamakan desert. The human populations who lived in this area (at that
time humid) possessed high levels of West Asian/African genes. Li , Chunxiang 2010 and Di Cristofaro,
J. 2013. This NW entrance into China is through the same Gansu corridor and Henan province mentioned
above.
The Altaic-Turkic languages extend from Turkey in West Asia to the Kyrgyz, and Uyghur populations
which respectively border on and are within Northwest China. The Altaic Mongolian and Tungus
Manchu language areas are spoken within North China and Mongolia. Altaic languages dominate in
these areas but there is evidence of an AA substraturm (as reported in section 9.5.1.2.2 above)
9.5.2 A trans-Asian migration indicator on a south central route.

Altaic-Turkic-Turkish, Altaic-Turkic-Azeri (from Azerbaidzhan), and the S. Caucasus Kartvelian
languages (e.g. Georgian and Megrel). Indo-European languages are or have been spoken in Iran
(Southeastern Iran-Avestan), Afghanistan (Pashto) and in the northern Punjab area of Pakistan (IE-
Sanskrit / IE-Urdu language). Avestan, Pashto and Sanskrit contain a substratum of African/Afro-Asiatic
lexemes as shown in Supplementary Table 2.
The discovery of an extensive presence of African agricultural terminology in south central Asian
languages other than ST provides information for tracing a migration path of Afro-Asiatic through South
Central Asia. This region lies between Northeast Africa and central East Asia. The trajectory probably
passed from ancient Palestine / Syria across central and southern Iraq, then on two routes:
9.5.2a One route passed across northern Iran into north Central Afghanistan (where the Pashto language
is now sapoken), then on to the Khyber Pass and northern Pakistan, then along the southern Himalayas.
The descendants of Sanskrit (Urdu, Hindi and Bengali) are spoken in an area from Southern to
Northern Pakistan and across Northern India where they border on the north to the Tibeto-Burman
spoken in Tibet and on the east to northern Myanmar.. In NW Pakistan this route joined with the
following one across northern Myanmar (with its Jingpho language) into Southwest China;
9.5.2b The other route moved from Palestine across southern Iraq along the northern shore of the Persian
Gulf into southeastern Iran’s Baluchistan province and the Indus Valley in Pakistan, thence north to the
southern Himalayas where it joined with the other one above . It may be the source of the Tibeto-Burman
languages in central Myanmar. Again Chapter 8 and Supplementary Table 2 confirm these routes over the
south central Asian part of the trajectory as being the source of the proposed Sanskrit substratum.
9.5.2.1 The single lexeme B.27.6 A suggests a migration path showing the spread of grain from Africa to
East Asia using Afro-Asiatic ↔ Asian language correspondences.
847
Schema from close correspondence set B.27.6 representing the historical spread of grain
agriculture from NE Africa to East Asia on a south central route.
NE-Africa- West Asia S. Central Asia East Asia
Northeast West Asian South Central Asian East Asian
African/Afro- correspon- correspondences with correspondences with
Asiatic roots dences with African/Afroasiatic roots and their African / Afro-Asiatic roots
(Egypt and N.E. African / West Asian /Central Asian cognates and their West Asian /
Sudan) Afro-Asiatic (SE-Iran, Afghanistan, SW- Central Asian cognates.
B.27.6 roots (Syria / Pakistan, Northern and (North Myanmar, South
AA-Egyptian Palestine, Northeastern India) China)
tchaau Northern B.27.6 IE-SE-Iranian-Baluchi B.27.6
“a kind of seed Iraq, ʒ�
�aw “barley” TB-Burmish-Bola (Luxi) /
or grain” Caucasus, IE-Pashto jau “barley” (Central -Atsi (Zaiwa) khjau
AA-Chadic-N. West and and South Afghanistan) “buckwheat
Bauci group Central Iran) j’war sing. / j’wari pl. SW Chinese tɕiau
*gyauro B.27.6 “the name of a grain “buckwheat”
“millet” AA-Semitic- (Holcus sorghum)” South Chinese-Kejia
AA-Chadic- Written (Northwest/North India (Hakka)
Hausa k’auraa Arabic IE-Hindi, Urdu jowar “sorghum” k’iaw “buckwheat”
“sorghum jawwar IE-Hindi jau “barley” S.TB-Tujia khu tɕiau
bicolor” “rye” cāval “rice” (NE India) “bitter buckwheat”
W. Chadic- (Central IE-Bengali caul “rice, S.TB-Burmish-Bola (Luxi)
Gwandara Caucasus) (uncooked)” tɕiau “buckwheat”
gyoro “millet” N. Iranian- Austro-Asiatic-Munda- Hmong-Mien-Proto-Mienic
gyero Ossetian Kherwarian-Ho-Mundari tʃaʊ’li / *jǽu “buckwheat”
“bullrush millet” jaw “millet” tʃau’li “rice” / -Santali tʃaʊ’le Daic-Tai-Dehong
“rice” (Northeast India) ɕiau “buckwheat”
9.6 Bovids. Different breeds of cattle in Sinitic suggesting northern and south central migration
routes
As mentioned in Note A.21a.1 and chapter 6, modern Chinese cattle have been recognized as
genetically belonging to three groups distributed geographically between the north, central and southern
regions. “Phylogenetic analysis suggests that the southern breeds are dominated by zebu mtDNA, whereas
the northern breeds are dominated by taurine mtDNA.” The central groups are hybrids of the two.
“These data strongly suggest that cattle were introduced to China from the north and south through
different routes”. (Liu / Chen 106).
The most common name in north China is N. Chinese-MSC / Beijing niú “ox” (A.21b.1) where
Taurine cattle are prevalent ; in South China and southern TB the more common name is that of
S. Chinese-(Cantonese), -Kejia (Hakka) ngàuh / ku3 / gǔ3 “buffalo, ox, cattle, cow” or TB-N. Naga-
Chang ŋʌ̂u “cattle” (A.21a.1) where Zebu cattle are mainly found. (See chapter 6 section 6.2.2.3 and
Liu / Chen 106). Sanskrit attests the southern forms but not the northern niú ones. Sanskrit gaura
means “buffalo” or “bull”.(See A 21a.1) ; This name is the same as that of the gaur a wild bovid found
throughout Southeast Asia. (See also notes A.21a.1 and A.25.1-3).
Words of the proposed Sanskrit substratum are found across a route from SW Pakistan to NE India.
Beside the ngàuh form, the san- / shan- root is present in south Chinese, southern IE, and the
southern TB languages, e.g A.6b.2 IE-Sanskrit sanDa “a bull fit for breeding”, IE-Pashto sāndda
“a male buffalo”, S.Chinese- Cantonese sàng / sàngchūk “livestock”, TB-Kiranti-Yamphu sanga
“buffalo”, TB-N. Naga-Chang ŋʌ̂u “cattle”
The ngàuh root is probably historically the oldest word designating bovids since it appears in three
Khoisan variants which mean “buffalo”. Hence its appearance in southern Sinitic and southern Tibeto-
Burman implies the possibility that it was present in the earliest migration of African language speakers
848
into Southheast Asia. This is also suggested by the fact that not all migrations seem to be restricted to an
exactly defined area.of East / Southeast Asia. For example the gu morpheme meaning “bovids” is also
found in N. Chinese-Beijing (A.21a.3) and a variant form of the niú morpheme is found in the
southeastern TB-C. Loloish-Lahu as nu “cattle” (A.21b.1 Extended). This may be the result of mixing of
the breeds as mentioned in Chapter 6 section 6.2.2.3 or multiple migrations into and within the ST
lingusitic area. See also note A.21b.2 (Old Chinese).
The only words clearly designating bovids in non-ST Central and East Asian languages are found in
IE-Sanskrit/ Pashto and Austro-Asiatic-Munda, a language of pre-Neolithic origin found in northeast
India. In the following table the Munda roots have also been identified in TB-Kiranti, and TB-Jingpho
with meanings of “buffalo” or “animal, meat”.
A.6b.2 Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian- W. Chadic- Hausa Sanskrit

Santali sānìyā “cow” sanDa
ʤan’war E. Cushitic-Oromo “a bull fit for
/ ʤanowar “animal” sa’a / sa’ani n. breeding”
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu “mucca, vacca” sanDhaya
sana “buffalo” [milk cow, cow] “bull”
Egyptian sam “wild bull” IE-Pashto
sāndda “a male
buffalo”
A.6b.3 W. Chadic – Hausa Hindi
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari shānu “cattle” janavara
ʤanowar “animal” pl. of sāniya “animal”
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali Semitic-Akkadian
ʤanowar / ʤan’war sͅēnū “gregge di ovini” [flock
“animal” of ovines]
TB- Jingpho [Kachin] šàn1 “flesh, meat, deer” Proto-Semitic
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sānghau “cattle” *šaʔn- “small cattle”
However, the ST correspondences with African names for cattle only aid in establishing the existence
of two different migrations, not their times or exact routes.
Since taurine cattle were domesticated in the Near East around the 8th millenium BCE the evidence
suggests that this breed was brought to China by incoming migrants. They could have entered northwest
China from a central route which crossed Afghanistan, forked north along the western Himalayas, then
across the southern edge of the Taklamakan desert into northwest China. As mentioned above, the human
populations who lived in this area (at that time humid) possessed high levels of West Asian/African
genes. See Chunxiang, Li 2010 and Di Cristofaro, J. 2013.
9.7 Palatalization of velars : North / South Chinese contrast

B.32.1,3 (Chinese-Hausa-Khoisan) The B.32.1,3 sets show parallel correspondences between the South
and North Chinese morphemes and the variant Hausa sets.
B.32.1 W. Chadic- Hausa C. Khoisan-
S. Chinese-Kejia gàawo m. Proto-Khoe
[Hakka] (MacIver) kau1 / gau1 “large acacia tree” *ǂkxaro
“glue, gum” “resin, sap, anything sticky” W. Chadic- Hausa “a kind of thorn
“stick on, stick together, adhere” karo “Acacia polyacantha tree”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gàau species” Proto-Khoisan
“glue, gum” “anything sticky” *g!au “acacia”
“to stick on” “glue (paste)
B.32.3 N. Chinese -MSC W. Chadic- Hausa
shujiāu “gum (of tree)” k’ārō n. m.
jiāushw�á (Y) “glue” / “gum, resin” “gum arabic”
849
jiāoshuir n. “liquid glue” [pronounced ky’ārō]

TB-Tibetan h̟jar-wa / h̟jar-ba / jaawal “Commifera
h̟byar-ba “to stick together” africana” “gum”
Of particular interest in this case are the Hausa variants which attest both non-palatalized and
palatalized initial velars each of which corresponds to a Chinese form. The non-palatalized g- initial is
the more conservative form. This matches the C. Khoisan-Proto-Khoe form meaning “acacia tree”, the
source of gum arabic.
Palatalization of velars before /i/ is a feature which distinguishes Southern and Northern Chinese
dialects. (Norman 182.) A standard theory holds that palatalization occurred in Chinese between the
periods of Old and Middle Chinese, but the Southern dialects Min and Kejia dialects preserved their
original g-/k- velars. (Norman 211). The migration from Africa hypothesis is consistent with a position
that this northern /southern Chinese morphological difference is the result of different migrations of Chadic
speakers into E. Asia during the Holocene, the one carrying non-palatalized initial velars, probably earlier than
the other. See also Notes A.18a.2 (Central Chadic) B.32.1,3, C.10.2-3 and sets H.16.1-2.
9.8 Indicators of later migrations.

It is noteworthy that 12 of the 17 Table 9.1.1 TB-only A domain correspondences attest no Semitic
lexeme, i.e. A9a, A9b, A9c, A9d, A10d, A13, A14c, A17, A23, A24, A31 and A32. This suggests that
the migration(s) carrying the names of these animals occurred before the emergence of the Semitic
languages in the Middle East. The place of origin and age of these latter has been estimated through
genetic Bayesian analysis to be in the Levant about 5750 years ago [about 3750 BCE] with subsequent
arrival of South Semitic speakers in the Horn of Africa about 2800 years ago [800 BCE]. (See Chiaroni
352).
Blench considers TB to be older than Sinitic because it shows greater diversity. TB is about 7000 to
8000 years old and Sinitic about 4000. (Blench 2010a 3-4). As mentioned in Chapter 5 Tables 5.2.2
Tibetan shows a smaller percentage of Hausa/Gwandara lexemes than the Sinitic area. This suggests that
a migration dominated by Hausa speakers was later.
That some of the TB-only component was earlier than the Sinitic-only component is also inferred from
the fact that in the section 9.1 Tibeto-Burman only and Sinitic only comparison the E Domain shows a
higher number of correspondences in Sinitic-only than those of TB-only (16 vs. 9) respectively. See
also Note E.1b.2 (MSC, Proto-AA) on variant TB and Chinese proto-forms.
The existence of a sea route from Southeast Arabia to Southern Pakistan beginning about 2500 BCE
and lasting into the historical period has been noted throughout the study as referenced in Tables 4.3,
Sections 6.4-5 and note H.39a.1. By this date pottery had already been exported from the area of the
Indus civilization into the southeastern Arabian peninsula.The Afro-Asiatic ↔ Sanskrit correspondences
for pottery in sets F.2a.1, F.3.1, F.4a.2-3, F.4c.1-2 and F.5.1-2 including Notes F.2a.1and F.3.1 show
closely similar roots in Chadic, Cushitic and Semitic languages.
9.8.1 Evidence from Semitic cultural language.

The Semitic ↔ Sinitic correspondences reported in Chapter 4 Tables 4.3 and section 4.3.4 amply attest
the Afro-Asiatic lexical influence on E. Asian languages. The following table presents linguistic evidence
of West Asian cultural links between Africa and Central / East Asia.
Specific examples of the Semitic↔ST cultural lexicon are:

D.5b .1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gwàn “a sovereign, a monarch, a king” /
N. Chinese-MSC ‘huángdi n. “The Emperor, emperor” / huángshang “emperor” /
guan “government official”
< W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic mäkwänən “governor, noble person of high rank, officer
(in the army), dignitary” mäkwänənt “appointive nobility, nobleman, aristocracy”
wanna azzaž “commander-in-chief” azzaž “commander”
850
D.11a.2 TB-Tibetan d� ŋuu “deposit, pledge, pawn, bail” /

S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dehng “deposit (a payment indicating trust)”
< Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) deen “credit” “debt” “a loan, outstanding, money owed one”
“creditor” / South (Ethiopic) Semitic-Amharic mädən “immunity, recovery, bail, security”
D.11a.3 TB-Tibetan gta-ma “a pawn, pledge” / Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) dàam bóu
“to guarantee, to pledge ; a guarantee, a pledge”
< Semitic-Written Arabic damana “guaranty, surety, collateral, security, bail”
D.11b.1 N. Chinese-MSC dài “loan” dàifāng “credit side, credit”
< Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi, Yemeni) daayan “to lend, loan” dayyaan “creditor”
tdaayan / tidaayan “to borrow money”
D.16.1 N. Chinese –MSC hsìng / sìng (WG) “a clan, a people” / S. Chinese-Yue\
(Cantonese) sing (WG) “a clan, a family” “one’s family name” “family”
< Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi, Written Arabic) jinis “kind, sort, variety, species, class, category,
race, nation” jinsiyat “nationality, citizenship”
D.16.4 TB-Tibetan shaňe “kinsman, descendent, blood relative” gnyen-tshan
“kindred, relations” / Sanskrit / N. Chinese -MSC zhānqīn-dàigù “have ties of kinship or
friendship”
< Semitic-Written Arabic mutajanis “akin, related, of the same kind or nature” /
Semitic-Hebrew zan “breed, species” / Sanskrit sanaAbha “a near kinsman, a uterine
brother”
D.17.1 N. Chinese-MSC dîyā “mortgage” dî “compensate for, make good” “mortgage”
“be equal to” “pay with one’s life (for a murder etc.), a life for a life”
< W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari diya “blood money”
D.28.1 TB-Burmese màng “ruler, governor, official” / màŋk “king”
< W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic m’angest “kingdom, government, reign”
D.34.1 TB-Chin-Mikir var “throw, throw away, divorce (a spouse)” / TB-Chin-Lushai vorʔ
“throw, throw away, divorce (a spouse)”
< Semitic-Written Arabic mubara’a “divorce by mutual consent”
E.4b.1 TB-Tibetan mkhán-po “a clerical teacher, professor, doctor of divinity, principal of a
great monastery”
< W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic kahən “priest, churchman, clergyman” / Semitic-Arabic
(Iraqi) kaahin, kahana pl. “priest, religious leader” tkahhan “to predict, foretell,
prophesy” kaahin “priest, religious leader”
(See also Notes B.35.2, E.4b.1 (E. Cushitic-Burji and E.4b.1-2 (Sanskrit Extended).
E.8c.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) faat “law, regulation, rules, statutes, legal” faat ling
“decree” faatgùn n. “judge (in a court)”
< W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic fətəh “justice, law, judgement” / Semitic- Arabic
(Yemeni) fatwa “formal ruling on a religious matter” (Iraqi) “a formal legal opinion (Islamic
law)”
E.8c.2 N. Chinese-MSC fá “to punish, penalize” făguān “judge, justice, magistrate” [lit.
law expert]
< W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic färrädä “dispense justice, judge, render judgment,
pronounce sentence”
E.8e.1 N. Chinese -MSC fâ “magic arts” fâli “supernatural power” / C. Chinese-Wu faʔ7
“tricks, magic arts”
< Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi, Yemeni) faal “to tell fortunes, predict the future” “omen, auspice,
sign” fawwaal “fortune teller” / W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Harari fālaňňa “fortune teller”
fāl “omen” fäla “divination”
F.6b.1 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gàau “suburbs of a city” gàau kèui “suburban area”
ngàu “a district, an area, a zone” “a border” /
S. Chinese–Min (Taiwanese) kaû “border, frontier, boundary”
851
< W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic qäbäle “district, area, precinct, section of city or

country, region” / Semitic-Hebrew gaval v. “bordered” gevool “border”
F.6b.2 N. Chinese-MSC jiāo “suburbs, outskirts” jiāowài “the countryside around a city,
outskirts” chiāo “open spaces beyond a city” “frontiers” jiào “border” jiāojiè “ (of two or
more places) have a common boundary” “meet, come together at a border:”
< Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi, Yemeni) jaawar “to be neighbor of, to live next door” “to border,
border on”
F.9b.2 TB-Tibetan kārgyaŋ “wall around a fort/castle”
< W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic magär “wall of poles fastened in the ground” /
Semitic-Written Arabic qarya “village, hamlet, small town, rural community”
F. 11.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] kai5 n. “boundary, v. limit” “limit, demarcate, define,
delimit” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gaai “territory, world” “to limit” gaaisin / gèunggaai
“boundary” / gaaihaahn “limit” / S. Chinese–Min kai “boundary, world” kau-kai
“border, frontier”
< W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic qäyyäsä “measure land, make a survey of land, outline”
/ Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) qayyad “to restrict, limit, confine”
F.15b.1 TB-Tibetan kháng-pa “house” “in compounds also a part of the house: room, story”
< Written Arabic xan “hostel, caravansary, inn” /
W. Semitic-Ethiopian- Gurage gända “section of a village” /
Semitic-Hebrew khan n.m. “old-fashioned inn in Arabic or Near Eastern tradition” /
H.39a.1 N. Chinese-MSC jiāoyì “business, deal, trade, transaction” jyāuyì (Y) n. “bargain,
purchase)”
< Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) h’awwal “to change, convert, exchange” / W. Chadic-Geruma
jàw- “buy” / W. Chadic- Gwandara (Gitata) šàwáà “exchange” W. Chadic-Hausa sauyà
vg.1 vt. “change, exchange”
H.39a.3 N. Chinese–MSC, jiao “hand over, give up” / jiaocun “hand in for safekeeping,
consign” / jiāochuan “exchange, swop” diāohuan “exchange, change, swap”
< W. Chadic- Hausa sautù m. “giving money to someone going on a journey so that the person
can buy something for you” sayō vg.6 (ventive) “buy for, buy and bring back” /
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) tsawwaġ “to shop for gifts to take home from a trip”
9.8.2 Evidence from lexical innovation.

Some words of Chadic or Semitic origin are first detected in the Chinese lexicon during the historical
period under the Han dynasties (206 BCE- 220 CE) or later. See also Chapter 7 section 7.7.1 and
notes B.33b.2, C.24b.1,3 D.4a.1, G.16.2, (Chinese), G.24.1, G.29.1 (Chinese, Chadic, Arabic), G.31.1,
G.33.1, H.17a.1, H.18.1, and H.35.1-2 (Chinese.)
These word families suggest that there were later migrations which still carried a heavily Chadic lexicon
along with a Semitic one.
852
Chapter 10
Aspects of comparative morphology and grammar
10.0 The Chapter 5 comparison of W. Chadic-Hausa with Sino-Tibetan languages concluded that Hausa
had a particularly important influence on Sino-Tibetan. The present chapter explores this relationship in
terms of morphology and grammar.
10.1. Morphology-Polysyllabic correspondences
This study does not count as polysyllabic morphemes those made up of compounds of TB or Chinese
roots which are themselves monosyllabic and can exist as independent morphemes. Many words
sometimes considerd as polysyllabic in Chinese are obviously the result of compounding of independent
roots which originally had different meanings.397 Many of the components of these compounds have been
identified as independent monosyllabic roots in Old Chinese; they were formed into compounds in
modern Chinese languages as a response to the need for expressing, e.g. more nuanced concepts in social
sciences or for describing new technology and its artefacts. In this study polysyllabicity refers to
correspondences between polysyllabic roots existing in both African/AA and ST. As such they can be
called etymologically polysyllabic morphemes.
A different case of compounding is that of bound roots. What might at first appear to be a suffix is
actually a lexeme which, when attached to other lexemes, gives them a different but related meaning.
Modern Standard Chinese uses several AA morphemes to create these bound forms which
grammatically are compounds. Those derived from AA lexemes are:
G.12.4 -du “degree,” D.25.1 -er “diminutive suffix and/or “nominalizer”, D.16.2 -xing “nature”,
D.3.c.1 -zi “diminutive suffix” and/ or “nominalizer” and G.32a.1 -men “human plural marker”.
Etymological polysyllabic correspondences in word families are tracked in the Chapter 2 A-H tables
by flagging them in the first column. All but three of these are disyllabic correspondences. In these three
cases matching on three syllables is found, and they are labeled “trisyllabic”. The use of bold type for
each matching syllable identifies the root correspondence.
The following two close correspondence sets attest etymological polysyllabic (trisyllabic and disyllabic)
morphemes
.
Table 10.1 Examples of close correspondences between disyllabic and trisyllabic morphemes
Swadesh “bird” A.1b.1 TB-Tibetan tsa-ko-ra W. Chadic-Hausa zàkaràa m.
“a partridge” dza-go-ra “partridge” [Trisyllabic corresp.] “rooster” sàagarā f. “pullet”
F.5.1TB-Kiranti- W. Chadic– E. Cushitic- Semitic- NC-
Limbu Gwandara Rendille Arabic Fulfulde
/ TB-Nepalese koriya “calabash, karaáya / (Iraqi) [Fulani]
*khuriyā calabash bowl” karaáyo quuri kōriyāje
/ *khoriyā W. Chadic–Hausa “basin” quuriyyat “a large pot
“small metal cup” kória E. Cushitic- pl. “kettle, for keeping
[Trisyllabic “Flaschenkurbiss” Sidamo kûre f. teapot” sour milk”
corresp.] [bottle gourd] “large pottery jar”
397
Note 10.1 When the components of a compound have been identified in the study, many have been noted
in the Extended section of the table by citing the data record numbers of both the roots in question, e.g.
1. C.48.2 Chinese- Cantonese (Extended) màchán “measles” (Kwan 290) [a compound of this (the C.48.2 ma
root) and the C.47a.1 chán root]
2. C.38b.2 Chinese – Cantonese (Extended) yùhngkwan ”tired and indolent” (Chik / Ng Lam 156) [a compound
of this (the C.38b.2 yùhng root) and the C.38c.1 kwan root ]
3. E.8a.1 Chinese- Beijing tánhuà (Lit. talk words) (Yip, Po-Chin 2004 90) [Compound of this (the E.8a.1 huà
root) and that of E.19.3]
(For compounds in which a particular African/AA lexeme has generated an extensive semantic field in Chinese see
Notes E.1b.4 (Beijing) and D.3c.1-2 (Cantonese, Tibetan).
853
E. Chadic – Bidiya
kōriyo “gourde a
eau” [gourd for
water]
The disyllabic / trisyllaic variance between this and the following morphemes is due to a sonnd change
rule in Hausa through which a “feminative” suffix –iya converts disyllabic morphemes into trisyllabic
ones as also in the Tibetan *k’ugì > k’ugìya below. See Newman, P. 2000 210, 214 Rule 2. See note
F.5.1 (TB-Nepalese, Kiranti, Chadic). This implies that the following F.5.2 disyllabic form became the
above F.5.1 trisyllabic one. Hence the F.5.2 TB-Tibetan is derived from th earlier disyllabic form and the
F.5.1 TB-Kiranti *khoriyā inherited the later trisyllabic one; so the Khoisan disyllabic form is the
probable ultimate etymon.
F.5.2 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – Hausa E. Cushitic- West Kanuri N.

ko-ré “cup for k’wáryàà n. f. Burji Semitic- korê n. Khoisan
drinking” k’ôrai / k’ôree pl. k’or-ee Ethiopian- “vessel -Naron
shiŋ kor “gourd (medium “wooden pot *kora with neck !kɔre
“wooden cup” round for keeping with handle “cup, bowl, for Khoisan
shiŋ ”wood” food)” “calabash” and base” jar” liquids” -‖Ng-!’e
kó-re “bowl, dish, gòorā n. m. E. Cushitic- Arabic Daza !kɔrε̎
drinking cup” “gourd (large, used Oromo korre (Iraqi) goré n. S.
TB-Kiranti-Limbu as a float)” “large “wooden bowl” quuri “marmite” Khoisan-
khorεʔl “small round gourd used as a E. Cushitic- pl. |Nu-‖’en
bowl, or cup” floating device for Burji, Gedeo quuriyyat !ɔre
[Disyllabic crossing a river” k’ore “plate “teapot” “dish”
corresp.] (of wood)”
The same sound change rule reported in the preceding word family explains the difference between
Tibetan ‘kyōgge > ky‫כ‬ggy‫ ככ‬in this close correspondence.
C.24b.3 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic – Hausa NC-Fulfulde
gugyaà “to hook something” k’ugi > k’ūgìyā f. [Fulani]
ky‫כ‬ggy‫כככ‬/ gyōggy‫כככ‬/ gy�K ggew a “hook” “anchor” koga
“crooked, twisted, bent” [pronounced “be bent U-
[Disyllabic corresp.] ky’ūgìyā] shaped”
< ‘kyōgge “crooked”
Example of disyllabic TB AA corresponjdence

C.24c.1 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Hausa E. Cushitic- NS-Songhay
gyubo “curved” yi k’obobo “be bent Oromo gobo (Koyra)
[Disyllabic corresp.] (of person)” sv. and adj. kuubi
k’obobo “being round- “gibboso, gobbo, “bend, twist,
shouldered; stoop arcuato” curve”
(due to age or a heavy [humped,
load)” arched]
See sections 10.1-2 for more examples.
Modern Tibetan (mainly from the current Lhasa dialect) has been considered to be principally
monosyllabic. Goldstein states that most syllables in modern Tibetan possess independent meaning and
he describes numerous types of compounding similar to those found in Chinese languages. (Goldstein
xiii-xvi) But the examples below show that a substantial number of Written Tibetan morphemes are
etymologically disyllabic. Also a large number of Tibetan disyllabic words are composed of an
independent root plus the -ba / -pa nominalizing suffix. These correspond extensively with the Hausa
854
continuous action nominalizing suffix and hence are etymologically disyllabic as lexemes also. (See note
E.9a.3.1 and section 10.2.2 below on the Hausa nominalizing suffix.)
Thus when TB is compared to African/AA roots, the various languages attest a large number of
etymologically disyllabic TB ↔ AA morphemes, as in the following selected examples:
10.1.1 Tibeto-Burman
1. A.1a.1 TB-Tibetan kharada “name of a bird”
< W. Chadic–Hausa kařàmbatàa n.f. “eagle, kestrel species” / NS-Kanuri kaji karáabe
“wild guinea fowl”
2. A.7b.1 TB-Jingpho [Kachin] gəsat ~ kəsat “to fight, a fight”
< W. Chadic- Gwandara kàshe-kàshe vg.4 (completive aspect) “to kill” /
Egyptian ketcha ketcha “to kill, to throw down”
3. A.9a.1 TB-Tibetan ku-rúg “colt of an ass” / gu-rug ‘colt or foal of an ass’
< W. Chadic–Hausa aguru “donkey” / k’urù “horse of small stature” / C. Chadic – Masa kūro
“l’ane” [ass, donkey].
4. A.2a.2 TB-Tibetan ciiwə “sparrow” [occurs also in Chinese below]
< E. Cushitic-Burji c’úuw-ee “chicken” / E. Cushitic- Qabenna ĉuwa-ĉuwēta “chick”
5. A.9b.1 Tibetan (Lhasa dialect) dagöö̀ “a wild or untrained horse”
< W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Mburke, Jimbin dáakù “horse” / C. Chadic-Margi tágú “horse”
6. A.9c.1 Tibetan (Lhasa dialect) dəwa “colt”
< C. Chadic- Bacama dèwé “horse” / Proto-AA *dawak “equid”
7. A.17.1 Tibetan (Lhasa dialect) laŋgöö “wild elephant”
< Chadic root làngá “elephant” / W. Chadic- N. Bauci group-Pa’a làngá “elephant”
8. A.19a.1 Tibetan (Lhasa dialect) seŋge “mythical snow lion”
< C. Chadic –Bura singi / tsingi “lion” / C.Chadic-Masa zìŋil “la panthere”[panther] / W. Chadic-
Pero cəŋgin “lion” / E. Chadic- Kwang sèmki / sémgí “lion”
9. B.3d.1 Tibetan (Lhasa dialect) khasheè “a place (conveys a vagueness about which place)”
< E.Cushitic-Sidamo qaççe “border, frontier, boundary, end, suburbs, rural area”, ga-śed “the
approximate direction, region / Maba Group- Masalit kasε / káas-è “countryside or quarter” ”desert”
10. C.5a.1 TB-Nung śəna “nose” / TB- Kadu səna “nose”
< C. Chadic-Gude shina / tshiná / shina “nose” / W. Chadic- N. Bauci-Warji tsín-na / tshíná /
cìnna “nose” / N. Cushitic-Beja šin’(a) “nostril” / Zagawa sina “nose”.
11. H.30a.3 TB-Tibetan chaàgεε “cracked”
< W. Chadic-Hausa tsāgèe vi. grade 4 verb “become split, cracked” tsāgèe = completive aspect
10.1.2 Sinitic
Although Chinese languages are pervasively monosyllabic, there are still many cases in which Chinese
lexemes and matching African/AA lexemes are etymologically disyllabic:
1. A.2a.2 Old Chinese- tsywij “generic term for short-tailed birds” / N. Chinese-MSC ch’ūèh (WG)
“the magpie, jackdaw, jay and similar birds” máchywè (Y) “sparrow”
< E. Cushitic-Burji c’úuw-ee “chicken” / West Semitic-Ethiopian c’əw / c’wəya “chick” / N. Cushiic-
Beja [Bedauye] siwi “chick”
2. A.22.1 N.Chinese-MSC zhīzhū “spider” / S.Chinese- Cantonese jìjyū “spider (insect)”
< C. Chadic-Mada dudu gizuwe “spider” / W. Chadic–Hausa gízògizò “spider” /
W. Chadic– Gwandara ògɨzògɨzò “spider” (See also Note-A.22.1)
3. A.10f.1 S.Chinese-Cantonese wùhlei “fox”
< NC- N. Mande-Soninke wulle “dog”
4. D.14.1 S.Chinese- Cantonese ngábā “mute (boy)” “a deaf mute person”
< W. Chadic-Hausa gāb’òo m. gāb’ùwā f. “simpleton, fool” gāb’ùb’u / gāb’òo “fool” /
Semitic-Arabic ġabaa “stupidity, ignorance, foolishness”, ġābaawa “stupid person” “ignorance,
foolishness, stupidity”
855
5. B.15b.1 Old Chinese śi̭wər ”water”

< W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Diri tsúwáru / súwárú ”water”, W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Warji suwára /
tsuwárá / suwárá ”water”.
6. C.4.3 S.Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] t’iam3 / tiam3 “lick (with the tongue), taste” / Old Chinese t’iam
“lick, taste”
< W. Chadic–Goemai [Ankwe] tiyəm “taste” / N. Cushitic-Beja [Bedawi] d’am “taste” / West Semitic-
Ethiopian-Amharic t’ama “be tasty, taste pleasant, be of good taste”
7. D.16.1 N.Chinese-MSC xìngzhì “quality, nature, character” “sex, gender” “nature, character,
disposition, property, quality”
< W. Chadic-Hausa jinsìi “kind, race, species” “sex“ “gender (gram.)” jiniì “species, race (group
descent)” / Semitic-Written Arabic jinsi “generic, sexual, racial” jinsiya “sexuality, nationality”
8. D.39.1 Old Chinese gywan “servant” / TB-Written Burmese kywan “slave” /
< W. Chadic-Hausa kuyanga f. “slave girl” kwìyanga “slave girl” [colloquial pronunciation]
kuyangancîi m. “serving a superior (usually by a younger person)” /
Semitic-Arabic qiyan “slave”
9. D.21a.1 N. Chinese-MSC làipí “rascally, shameless” “a man who has no shame, a rogue”
< W. Chadic-Hausa mài lâifī “criminal” “guilty” lâifī m. “crime, offence, wrongdoing, fault”
“blemish, defect”
10. F.7a.6 N.Chinese-MSC chywān “ring, a circle” / Old Chinese gi̭wan “circle, circumference,
round, return”
< W. Chadic-Hausa k’awanyàa [pronunciation kyawanya] “circle, any metal ring” “round”
“sitting in a circle”
11. F.10.1 Chinese-MSC kûnzā “tie up, bundle up”
< W. Chadic–Hausa k’unsàa “wrap, envelope” “wrap up, tie up”
12. F.6a.3 S.Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) wàiHhéi vt. “enclose (by a fence)”
< W. Chadic–Hausa gēwayē vg.4 vt. completive “surround, encircle” /
kèewàyèe vg.4 vt. completive “surround, enclose” “circle, enclosure”
13. F.17b.1 N. Chinese-MSC dûsè “stop up, block up”
< W. Chadic–Hausa tōshèe / taushe vg.4 completive “stop up, plug up”
(See other examples in C.12b.1, C.13.1-3, C.22b.1, C.41b.1, D.1.3, D.4c.1 (TB-Tibetan), D.9a.1,
D.15a.2, D.17.1, D.31.1, D.32.1, E.21.1.
10.1.3 Statistics of polysyllabic morpheme correspondences

Table 10.1.3a Word families containing one or more ST ↔ African/AA polysyllabic
correspondences:
Only one polysyllabic correspondence is flagged and counted for each word family.
Semantic/Syntactic Domain A 30 (46.2% of 65 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic Domain B 21 (30.9% of 67 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic Domain C 36 (39.6% of 91 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic Domain D 26 (45.6% of 57 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic Domain E 24 (36.9% of 65 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic Domain F 22 (51.2% of 43 w.f.)
Heterogeneous w.f. Domain G 6 (15% of 40 w.f.)
Semantic/Syntactic Domain H 20 (25% of 80 w.f.)
Total ST ↔ African/AA word families containing polysyllabic correspondences: 185 (= 36.4% of

508 Chapter 2A-H word families.
(For examples in which Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali and other IE disyllabic lexemes correspond to both AA
and ST roots see Supplementary table 2).
856
Table 10.1.3b Word families containing one or more ST ↔ Hausa polysyllabic close
correspondences
As mentioned in Chapter 5 section 5.4 it is noteworthy that W. Chadic-Hausa ↔ ST correspondences
constitute a high number of polysyllabic matches with ST. These by semantic/syntactic domain are:
W. Chadic-Hausa ↔ ST polysyllabic correspondences
Semantic/Syntactic Domain A 13 (44.8% of 30 polysyllabic correspondences)
Semantic/Syntactic Domain B 12 (60% of 21 polysyllabic correspondences )
Semantic/Syntactic Domain C 21 (56.7% of 36 polysyllabic correspondences)
Semantic/Syntactic Domain D 15 (57.7% of 26 polysyllabic correspondences)
Semantic/Syntactic Domain E 14 (66.6% of 24 polysyllabic correspondences)
Semantic/Syntactic Domain F 16 (76.2% of 22polysyllabic correspondences)
Heterogeneous word family G 4 (80% of 6 polysyllabic correspondences)
Semantic/Syntactic Domain H 9 (60% of 20 polysyllabic correspondences)
Total ST ↔ African/AA word families containing Hausa polysyllabic correspondences:
104 (= 56.2% of the 185 polysyllabic correspondences)
10.2 Affixes
10.2.0 Suffixes
10.2.1 Chinese/TB ↔ Hausa verb grade semantic/syntactic correspondences based on verb suffixes
Some morphological similarities between Hausa and Chinese / TB verbs were identified in the study,
particularly in the E and H sections. As mentioned in Chapters 2E and 2H these Hausa verb forms occur
in a number of different morphological / grammatical categorie s called grades. They represent different
aspects of actions denoted by the verb. Thus basic verb forms are modified by adding several different
suffixes which produce important semantic shifts. There is evidence that this is important for
constructing some Chinese etymologies. Reviewed from a perspective of polysyllabicity these are:
10.2.1.1 Hausa primary verb grades
grade 1 (vg.1) usually functions as basic form transitive. Newman, P. 2000 633
grade 2 (vg.2) also serves as basic form transitive. Newman, P. 2000 637
grade 3 (vg.3) basic form intransitive. This grade ends in short –a which is the mark of its
intransitive status. Newman, P. 2000 643 See Note H.6b.1
Most correspondences of Chinese-TB morphemes with Hausa verbs are based on grade 1 or grade 2
basic form verbs. Usually the final vowel of the Hausa form has disappeared in the TB or Chinese
correspondence, but the root is intact. Grade 1 and 2 verbs are not flagged as such in the table entries.
Other grades are flagged as vg.3, vg.4 etc.
10.2.1.2 Hausa secondary (derived) verb grades.
grade 4 (vg.4) completives These express totality or finality of the action. The suffix -èe denotes this
aspect. The verbs can be transitive or intransitive. (Newman, P. 2000 648). In the following cases the
ST morpheme gives evidence of having retained the completive form of the Hausa verb. All are examples
of disyllabic correspondence between Hausa and ST lexemes.
. -H.30a.3 TB-Tibetan chaàgεε “cracked”
< W. Chadic-Hausa tsāgèe vi. grade 4 verb “become split, cracked” tsāgèe = completive
aspect of Hausa
The Hausa tsāgàa verb grade 1 vt. “split, crack, rip” “make cut or incision into something”
is the basic form of this Hausa verb. It corresponds to the Tibetan H.30a.1 ɣśág-pa “to cleave,
to split”. The Tibetan chaàgεε lexeme meaning “cracked” represents the final state of the object.
The form is vestigial in the sense that the Hausa verb grade structure is not productive in TB.
-G.2.2 TB-Tibetan rüübə “rotten”
< W. Chadic-Hausa rub’èe vg.4 completive “rot, go bad, become fermented”
In this case both the Hausa grade1 ru’bàa vt. & vi. “ferment” (G.2.1)
and the Hausa grade 4 rub’èe “become fermented” (G.2.2) show a disyllabic
correspondence with Tibetan but the grade 4 Hausa rub’èe is closer.
857
-H.25b.1 TB-Tibetan tsε�“to compete with, against” “to compete”, ts�lεε ge̱e “to surpass
/ exceed (a quota, norm, limit)”
< W. Chadic–Hausa tsērèe + indirect object Grade 4 verb vi. “escape, flee”
”outstrip, outrun” “be saved” completive aspect of Hausa tsira verb grade 3 which
in this case has a similar meaning “escape, get away safely, be saved”.
-C.46.1 N. Chinese-MSC nìsî “to be drowned” (person, animal)” vi. / S.Chinese- Cantonese
niksei o drown”
< W. Chadic-Hausa nitsèe grade 4 completive “sink” “drown (sink into)”
“vanish into water”
-A.7b.1 TB-Jingpho [Kachin] gəsat ~ kəsat “to fight, a fight”
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *g-sat = *g-săt “kill, fight, strike”
“The general Tibeto-Burman sense is “kill by striking” / TB-Jingpho [Kachin] gəsat ~
kəsat “to fight, a fight” [Disyllabic corresp.]
< W. Chadic-Gwandara kàshe-kàshe vg.4 (completive aspect) “to kill” /
-E.32.1 TB-Tibetan dɔ̄gge “sophistry, rtog-ge “the act of arguing, reasoning, dialectics”
< W. Chadic-Hausa tōgèe vg.4 (completive) “deny, take back one’s word”
“hold back, withdraw, stand aloof” “hide, withhold” “withhold one’s true feelings”
tōgèe gaskiya “withhold the truth”
-F.6a.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) wài “to surround, to enclose, to encircle’
“surrounding environment” / wàiHhéi vt. “enclose (by a fence)”
< W. Chadic-Hausa kèewàyèe vg.4 vt. completive “surround, enclose”
- F.17b.1 N. Chinese-MSC dûsè “stop up, block up”
< W. Chadic–Hausa tōshèe / taushe verb grade 4 vt. completive “stop up, plug up”
“stop up (e.g. a drain)” “block (clog an opening, hole” “be(come) stopped up” “seal up an
opening” / matōshii “stopper, cork”
-H.6a.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) chēut “to go out” / chēutheui “to go out”
< W. Chadic-Hausa shud’èe vg.4 “go away” “to pass by” “pass through, pass by”
grade 5 (vg.5) efferentials This term used by P. Newman refers to the function of the verb aspect which
denotes action directed out and away from the speaker. This grade is marked by a suffix -ař. These verbs
are transitives, but are not true causatives. (Newman, P. 2000 655)
-B.15e.3 TB-Tibetan shó-ba / bsho-ba “to pour out, to pour away”
< W. Chadic–Hausa zubař vt. vg.5 (efferential) “pour out, spill out” “pour out, away” “throw
away quantity of something. (See Note B.15e.3 (Tibetan, Hausa).
-G.2.1 TB-Tibetan rúl-ba “to rot, get rotten, to become putrid”
W. Chadic – Hausa “ferment” ru’bar (dà) vg.5 efferential vt. “ferment” [to ferment
something]
grade 6 (vg.6) ventives The ventive grade is marked by an –o suffix. It denotes action or movement
in the direction of the speaker (or previous place of reference). (Newman, P. 2000 663)
H.1.2 Chinese-Cantonese chàu “to draw out” “to pull out or open” / Chinese-Wu tshɤw2
“to draw out” “to pull out or open”
< W. Chadic – Hausa jāwō grade 6 verb (ventive) vt. “pull (here), drag (toward
speaker)” “pull this way”
The basic form of the Hausa jāwō is jā “pull, drag. (Chinese correspondences to this basic
form are H.1.1 Chinese-Wu tsha5 ”to pull, drag” and Chinese-Hakka cha3 “to pull, drag”)
H.2.1 Chinese-Min kau3 v. “to arrive, reach, direction, to, up to, until” “arrive, go to, been
to” / Chinese- Cantonese gàau “to arrive, reach, direction to, up to, till”
< W. Chadic–Hausa kāwō grade 6 verb (ventive) vt. “bring” “reach here” “arrive” vi.
“approach, get close to” The kāwō ventive is derived from a basic form kai “take, take to”
E.13e.3 S.Chinese-Hakka kiau5 / giau5 v. “call, summon” /
858
S.Chinese-Min kiau2 “call arms” v. “summon to arms” n. / kiôu “to call, to order”
< W. Chadic – Hausa kirāwō grade 6 verb (ventive) vt. “call here, summon” [“call to
come here” ventive form of kirā “call, summon].
-F.6a.3 S.Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) wàaihyiuh / wàaihjyuh vt. “enclose” “to encircle,
surround / wàihyiu n. “environment (surroundings)”
< W. Chadic- Hausa kēwayō vg.6 vi. ventive “come around again” /
W. Chadic-Ngizim áakwàyú “boundary (of a farm etc.)”
-H.3a.2 N. Chinese-MSC dào vi. “come”
< W. Chadic- Hausa tahō vg.6 vi. ventive “arrive, come” “come this way”
The ventive aspect is also used for actions which are performed for the benefit the speaker (such as “eat,
drink” vi. action terminating in the subject) as opposed to “feed”
-C.31a.5 N. Chinese-MSC hsiáo (WG) “to eat” / TB-Tibetan bcah’-wa n.
“a drinking or drink”
< W. Chadic- Hausa shāwō “drink vg.6 ventive of < shā “drink, eat, (juicy fruits or
sweets”)
grade7 (vg.7) sustentative / passive
These verbs are strictly intransitive. They indicate that the subject of the verb has sustained or is capable
of sustaining some action, and often correspond to the English passive.
(Newman, P. 2000 664). The suffix is -u or –wu.
-E.7c.1 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) kiau3 “correct, rectify, straighten” /.
E.7c.2 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] chau1 “be more than, exceed, be better than, excel”
< E.7c.1 W. Chadic-Hausa gyàaru vg.7 vi. sustentative / passive
has passive meaning” “be repaired” “be well repaired” /
E.7c.2 W. Chadic-Hausa k’àaru vg.7 vi. . sustentative / passive “improve, get, become
better”
-H.39a.4 Chinese- Hakka siau1 / xiau1 “be marketed, sell, be circulated” / Chinese-MSC
hsiāo, siāo, xiau1 “to sell”
< W. Chadic- Hausa sàyu grade 7 verb ] “be bought (completely)” “be well bought”
[bought out?] [sustentative / passive form of sàyā or sauya “exchange”] (See Note E.13e.3)
Chinese- Hakka kiau5 / giau5 v. “be called, known as”
< W. Chadic- Hausa verb grade 7 kiràawu “be called” [sustentative form of kirā “call,
summon]
-E.13e.4 S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian) kiau5 / giau5 v. “be called, known as”
< W. Chadic–Hausa kiràawu vg.7 vi. sustentative / passive “be called”
10.2.2 Continuous action/ nominalizer suffix

For the continuous action / nominalizer suffix –ba / -wa in Tibetan, TB-Meithei and TB-Kiranti-
Limbu, see Notes C.36a.1 and especially E.9a.3 (Tibetan, Hausa). The citation form of the Tibetan
lexeme includes the –ba / -wa suffix for both nouns and verbs, thus indicating its Chadic origins as a
suffix regularly used to denote the verbal noun. (See Note E.9a.3.1a-b Tibetan, Hausa and its
references.)
10.2.2.1 Ethnic group suffix

The -ba / -wa suffix has a specialized function for designating nouns signifying ethnic groups.
(See Note E.9a.3.2)
TB-Tibetan -ba “a particle indicating a person from a country” bod-pa “a Tibetan” Das 879, Goldstein
641 “Tibetans” Jaschke 372 Bod “Tibet” ’brug-pa “a native of Bhutan” Das 932 Goldstein 641
< W. Chadic-Hausa bà “prefix indicating ethnic or geographical origin” e.g. Bahaushe singular masc.
“Hausa man” Bakano singular masc. man from Kano “In the plural the prefix is dropped and a suffix
-āwā is added.” → Hausawa plural Hausa men / women/people / kanawa plural men/women/people
from Kano [Kano (principal city of Hausaland)] Newman, P. 2007 12, 2000 25.
859
An example of current usage is: Bayahudi singular masc. “Jew” Yahudawa pl. [Jewish people]
Newman, P. 2007 19. A lexical source may be bá’h or baá “people, community, society” Pillinger 74
Other African examples:
W. Chadic-Hausa bà’askare sing. askarawa pl. “soldier” Awde 1996 9
NS-Kanuri The –wa suffix also forms the plural in NS-Kanuri, e.g. telamwa tongues, languages” (Kanuri
tə́lam “tongue”) (C.2c.3) Cyffer 1990 xiii, 173 hawarwa “news, stories” Cyffer 1990 xiii, 66
hawar “story, news, information” (E.8a.1)
Tibetan appears to have retained the Hausa / Kanuri suffixed plural form in the Tibetan suffixed *-wa
= *-ba. See Jaschke “Phonetic Table”xix-xx..
This affix is still productive in the Hausa language. See Newman, P. 2007 Appendix B, 242 for more
examples of its contemporary usage for forming ethnonyms.
Basically the suffix denotes an association of the person with some place or activity. It is also used to
denote the profession, adherence or status of a person, e.g. Hausa badukuu “leather worker” sing.
dukaawa pl. from dukancci “leather working” Newman, P. 2000 170-171. See also Note C.31a.3
In many Niger-Congo-Bantu languages ba- is a plural prefix which generates names for roots
signifying ethnic groups. For example, an individual person of the Baganda group of Uganda is a
Muganda, and the people as a whole are called the Baganda.
These affixes furnished an important basis for comparison of Niger-Congo morphology with previous
classifications of “Western Sudanic” languages. See Greenberg 1966 9-10.
10.3 Prefixes
10.3,1 The a- prefix appears in both Chinese and TB before kinship terms with both a vocative and
referential function. Hence this prefix is a rare AA/African ↔ (TB / Chinese) affix cognate. See Notes
D.4a.1 and D.9a.1
10.3.2 The “disappearing” or “moveable” k-:
A Sino-Tibetan k- initial appears in several different contexts in relation to African Languages:
10.3.2.1 Change by reduction of initial velar to *ø- Examples are:
-a H.34a.1 Sagart cites the H.34a.1 lexemes to confirm the existence of a prefix k- in Old Chinese, as
posited by Maspero and others. He points out that the ke- initial of H.34a.3 Old Chinese *kəlak “to
fall” (proposed by Karlgren) has been lost in the Middle Chinese H.34a.5 lak “fall”. (See Note-
H.34a.3,5 S. Chinese (Min-Xiamen, Chinese-Jin-Pingyao)
Examples:
-a.1 The H.34a.1 modern Chinese Min-Xiamen ka-lauʔ “to fall, to drop” and H.34a.3 Chinese-Jin-
Pingyao kʌʔlʌʔ (cited above) have retained the Old Chinese initial ka-. (Sagart 199918, 99, 126 and
129 Table 19.) However as shown in H.34a.5 it is absent in other modern Chinese languages, e.g.:
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] lak8 / lok8 “fall, decline, weakened, fallen”;
S. Chinese-Min louq “fall, decline, wither” ;
S. Min-Taiwanese) lak “to fall”.
There are parallel matching morphemes in the two E.Cushitic-Rendille morphemes H.34a.3
kálug’da “drop (something) in, on” and H.34a.5 E. Cushitic-Rendille lug’da “drop (something)”
See also set A.24.2 Extended and A.14a.4 TB-Naxi-Lijiang su “louse” versus S. Chinese-Jin (Yangqu)
kəʔ-tsɛu and (Xinzhou) kəʔ-ts‫“ כ‬flea”.
-b.1
B.3d.1-2 The following pair of B.3d.1-2 sets show a parallel correspondence between Chadic-Hausa
and Tibetan morphemes, the first possessing the kha- initial and the second lacking it:
B.3d.1
TB-Tibetan kha̱sheè “a place )” [Disyllabic corresp.] / śed / ga-śed “the approximate direction,
region, or quarter” < W. Chadic-Hausa k’asā pl. k’asāce “earth, soil, ground” “country, state” “land ”
B.3d.2 TB-Tibetan sa-chá “place, country, land” < W. Chadic-Hausa sāshìi / sāshèe / sâssā pl.
“district, region” “section” “area”.
-b.2
860
The following F.6a.1-4 ST ↔ Chadic-Hausa parallel sets also attest presence and loss of an initial
ke-, but they are in different ST subfamilies:
F.6a.1
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gwáai “to turn” / S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) gwáai “to turn” /
N. Chinese-MSC / Beijing kuâi “to turn”
< W. Chadic- Hausa këuaye “meandering roundabout” à kèewàyèe “in a circle” kèewàyayyē
“round” as opposed to
absence of initial k- in TB which ocurred in:
F.6a.2 TB-Jingpho [Kachin] wai “whirl as a whirlpool, stir, as with a ladle”
< W. Chadic- Hausa wàiwàyā “turn, return” wàiwàiye “turning the head around to look”
-b.3.0
The following F.6a.3-4 sets show Chinese-Yue morphemes without the ke- initial, but they match
the two final syllables of two Hausa correspondences containing the ke- initial which represent the
completive and ventive aspects of the kewai- / wai verb roots:
-b.3.1
F.6a.3 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) wàiHhéi vt. “enclose (by a fence)” gēwayē vg.4 vt. completive
< W. Chadic- Hausa gēwàyèe m. “enclosure” / kèewàyèe vg.4 vt. completive “surround, enclose”
“circle, enclosure”
F.6a.4 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) wàaihyiu “environment, surroundings”
wàaihjyiuh vt.“encircle, surround””
< W. Chadic- Hausa kewàya vg.1 vt. “encircle, go around a place” kēwayō vg.6 vi. (ventive)
“come around again” / W. Chadic- Ngizim aakwayu “boundary (of a farm)”
-b.3.2
Parallel TB ↔ Chadic/Semitic cases of this are found in: A.21b.1-2, B.18a.3-4, F.6a.1-2, H.24b.1-2
(Extended).
-c.
See also set A.29.3 including extended form C.22b.1-2, Note C.26b.2 and sets H.24b.1-2,
H.24c.1-2.
TB examples of loss of initial k- in verbs are found in: notes A.7b.1-2, A.27.2-3, H.30a.1-2, B.18a.,4
C.23.3-4 and sets B.3d.1-2, B.11a.1-4, B.14b.1-2. See also notes and/or sets C.34.1,5 (Tibetan),
F.13.2,4, H.24b.1-2, and H.24e.1 for similar velar ku- / gu- / k- / g- prefix presence and loss
matches in other AA and NC forms.
10.3.2.2 Change from exact match to a glottal or uvular fricative inital

Benedict/ Matisoff use the A.20a.2 ‘bu morpheme as an illustration of prefixed ‘ [= ʔ glottal].
“Before stops / affricates it represents glottalization”. Benedict/ Matisoff 1972 123. However, the
A.20a.2 TB-Kiranti-Limbu kubu “a worm”and TB-Jingpho-Kadu (Extended) kəphu “snake”
correspond on a fully syllabic velar initial, i.e.with Chadic kùbūbuwàa “viper” and Cushitic gùbun
“very poisonous black snake”.
Hence in set A.20a.1 Tibetan ‘buu / h̟bur with inital glottal stop/ uvular fricative can be plausibly
accounted for as the W. Chadic / *k- / *g- first radical of the A.20a.2 kùbūbuwàa which has
changed to an initial glottal or uvular fricative in A.20a.1 W. Tibetan ‘bu. Thus the A.20a.1-2 Chadic
lexemes form a parallel contrast with their TB counterparts. See Notes B.11a.1-2, D.4c.1-2 and
F.13.1-2. The largest word family containing such contrasts is C.34 (sets 1-3 vs. sets 4-7). In that
example all the sets match Khoisan lexemes of which sets 1-3 contain the velar k- initial consonant and
sets 4-7 a dental or lateral click as first element of the velar click phoneme. See also Note- D.4c.1-2.
10.3.2.2.1 AA Hausa initial k- / g- presence and absence.:
Paul Newman has shown that this occurs within W. Chadic-Hausa. “In some eastern dialects (like
Gudduri) there is an additional source for initial glottals, namely the change of initial /ƙ/ [= /k’/ ] to /’/,
861
i.e. E. Hausa (Gudduri) ‘ofàa = Standard Hausa < ƙofàa “doorway”, ‘otàa < k’otàa “tool
handle”. Newman P. 2000 228.
See also:
East Hausa ‘oda < Standard Hausa k’o’da “kidney”,
East Hausa ‘ona < Standard Hausa k’ona “burn”,
East Hausa ‘osa < Standard Hausa k’osa “satisfy, suffice”,
East Hausa ‘oshi < Standard Hausa k’oshi “be or become replete” Matsushita 1993 85-86.
(H.13c.2)
Also “All [Hausa] vowel-initial words are pronounced with a glottal stop although this is not written”.
(Newman / Ma 1979 [ix]. See Note-H.38a.4 (Hausa)
10.3.2.3 Nilo-Saharan initial k- / g- presence and absence.: In Nilo-Saharan languages, Greenberg

considers the k- initial to be a nominal derivative prefix which is “moveable”, i.e. sometimes present,
sometimes absent :
-1. It can be present in one NS-language, not in another, e.g.:
-1a NS-Daza k‫כ‬bε “arm” as opposed to: NS-Maba bi / abi “shoulder” / NS-Berti abi “arm” /
NS-Uduk ʌbi “arm” Greenberg 1966 133 (C.22b.1-2) ;
-1b. NS-Kanuri ngəlangin “become good, get better, improve” Cyffer 1990 136 / NS-Bari kεlan
“beauty” Greenberg 1966 118 as opposed to: NS-Nuer lan lan “very good” Huffman 27 (E.7e.1-2)
-1c. NS-Kanuri kemali as opposed to: NS-Daza melle “ant” Greenberg 1966 132 ;
-2. It can be present in one morpheme of a single NS-language, but not in a related morpheme, e.g.
-2a. NS- Maba Group buraga “flower” as opposed to: NS- Maba Group kubu-k / kob-uu / kob-uk
“flower” (B.14a.2) ;
-2b. NS-Kanuri tígə “body, surface” as opposed to: NS-Kanuri kàttígə “skin” (C.8a.4) ;
NS-Maba Group sek “hen” as opposed to: kùjik “bird” (A1b.2)
-3. A contrast in Chinese is matched by one within NS-Kanuri:
-3a. H.24c.1 N. Chinese-MSC sâo “sweep, brush/clear away” / S. Chinese-Min saû “to sweep” .
as opposed to: H.24c.2 Chinese-Jin kəʔ-sua “to brush back and forth”
-3b. H.24c.1-2 NS-Kanuri sàw- verb “winnow” as opposed to: kàsáwò “winnowing”
-4. It can exist in a Nilo-Saharan language, but be reduced to an initial glottal stop in a corresponding
morpheme of an AA or ST language. See for example Chapter 2B note B.21.1.
Whether this prefix is strictly a nominalizer or not, NS contains morphemes clearly related to ST and
AA forms whose variance is determined by the presence or absence of an initial NS k- / kə. See also
B.18a.4-6 (Tibetan) and B.18b.1.
10.3.2.4 Niger-Congo/Kordofanian initial k- / g- presence and absence.

In parallel sets C.22b.1 and C.22b.2:
The C.22b.1 Chinese ↔ Kordofanian correspondences both contain a ge – initial: i.e N. Chinese-
MSC gēbei / gēbo “arm” ↔ Kordofanian-Otoro (g)əbo “shoulder” , Niger-Congo Mwa gbe
“arm” as opposed to :
C.22b.2 S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) bei “arms (of a human being)” / N. Chinese-MSC bì “arm” as
opposed to:
Kordofanian-Otoro Kordofanian- Eliri Kordofanian- Eliri (c)ebi “shoulder”
In these two sets the same contrast exists between Nilo-Saharan Daza k‫כ‬bε “arm” and Nilo-Saharan
NS-Maba bi / abi “shoulder” NS-Berti abi “arm”.
These cases indicate that this weakening or loss of the “moveable” or “disappearing” k- morph is a
phenomenon which is found in both AA and NS, and not explainable solely as having a nominalizing
function as in Kanuri. On this point Sagart comments for Old Chinese “it is tempting to regard the
functions of *k- in verbs and nouns as being fundamentally one: *k- would serve for actions and
objects that are well-delimited in time and space, and hence usually concrete and countable.” This study
partially confirms this analysis since the Nilo-Saharan and Niger-Kordofanian nouns cited above in
862
sections 10.3.2.3-4 are count nouns . However the verbs in sections 10.3.2-3 are more difficult to
categorize as solely representing concrete countable actions.
10.3.3 The s- / sa “prefix” in Tibeto-Burman

Discussion of the sa– initial syllable in TB has focused on its possible use as a prefix to roots which
designate animals which are used as food. Examples mainly from the A section on animals suggest that
this remains a possible explanation of many cases, but also that the TB sa – first syllable is sometimes
simply a reflex of the first radical of a disyllabic root.
Benedict proposes sa / sya “animal” as the basis of the s- prefix of words for animals in Tibeto-
Burman languages . “Lushai regularly prefixes sa ‘animal’ to words for animals, and other TB
languages have closely parallel formations”. Benedict 1972 107. “With words for parts of the body and
animals prefixed *s- can be referred to TB *sya- “flesh, animal”. Benedict 1972 106. “The prefix
“appears as fully syllabic sa- in Lushai animal names”. Matisoff 2003 100-104. In support of the s- as
innovative in TB, in the following examples from Note- A.1a.1 the TB examples attest a similar prefix
but various African lexemes match only on the root stem:
TB-Tibetan tsa-ko-ra “a partridge” Cushitic- Arbore kore “kite” [bird] (A.1b.1, A.1a.1)
TB-Chin-Lushai sa-kor “horse” NS-Kanuri, AA koro “donkey, ass” (A.9a.1-2)
TB-Miri spre / spra “monkey” AA vre / bare ~ bura / vííra “monkey” (A.31.1-2)
TB-Tibetan sbrul “snake” NC mburu “viper” (A.20b.1)
TB-Tibetan sgál-pa “the small of the back” AA kal-ée “kidney” “rene, rognoni, lombo” (C.7.2)
TB-Tibetan sdig-pa “scorpion” AA ‘dig- / ‘dik- “scorpion” (A.13a.1)
As mentioned, in some cases the AA (and/or NS, NC) root contains an s- onset which comparative
data indicates is not a prefix, but the initial of a first radical, e.g. TB *s-na “nose” AA *san- / sàna /
sanna / sina / soona “nose” (C.5a.1). The s- initial of the morphemes soa / swa “tooth” is
also most probably the first radical of the root so- “tooth” and not a prefix as Benedict suggests.
Benedict 1972 106. See also the evidence in Chapter 2C Notes C.5a.1 (Tibetan) and C.50.2 (Proto-
TB). Similarly the TB-Chin-Lushai sakei “tiger” considered by Matisoff to contain the sa- prefix
corresponds closely with the Chadic-Hausa disyllabic morpheme zākìi “lion”. See also note A.19a.2.
Benedict recognized that there are such exceptions. Though many TB roots can be constructed without
this prefix, he noted three which cannot. These include the root for “louse”mentioned in Note A.14a.1-2.
The s- prefix is not even used before all animal names in Lushai itself. For example Lushai vok
“pig” (A.15.3 Extended), Lushai rul “snake” (A.20b.1 Extended), Lushai bui “bamboo rat” (A.23.1
Extended) and Lushai khau “grasshopper” (A.37.1) all lack the s- initial. It is possible however that
the sa- initial refers only to animals which are eaten, so on this hypothesis only vok “pig” might qualify
as an exception. See C.31a.1 saa “eat”.
10.3.3.1 The Khoisan click factor-Reduced clicks

As mentioned in note A.1a.1, there is a different possible source for the s- “prefix” based on Khoisan
clicks. The Khoisan !goreb “zebra”, an equid, matches the TB kor- “horse” lexemes of the A.9a.1 set.
There is considerable evidence that Khoisan clicks have been reduced to related initials in TB. This is not
as yet sufficient to claim that Benedict’s hypothesis is not correct in all cases where it occurs. On
proposed corresponding Khoisan click initials see Supplementary Table 3 sections 1.1a-e with many
examples, and notes A.1a.1, A.13a.1, C.1a.3 (Khoisan) and sets A.13b.2, B.12a.2, B.31.2, B.31.3,
C.34.4, G.11a.2 etc.
In many cases the s- prefix corresponds to morphemes with a glottalized Hausa velar (‘k- or k’
and/or a Khoisan alveolar click initial. This appears to represent a case of vestigial glottalization
(a weakened Khoisan click). Hence the evidence suggests that s- prefix varies in its original usage and
in some cases occurs only under certain phonological conditions. e.g Khoisan alveolar and Alveolar
863
lateral click correspondences. But a fully grounded position on the relationship of Khoisan clicks to
individual TB prefixes must await a comprehensive inventory of Khoisan ↔ TB correspondences.
10.3.3.2 The t- / ta- / d- initial in TB as a different reduction of a Khoisan alveolar click.

In set A.10a.5 the TB-Samong təkhwi, TB-Jili təkwi “dog” and TB-Mru tăkhwi “dog”
morphemes all correspond to the Khoisan form containing an initial dental click before a velar. 398 This
explains its contrast with set A.10a.4 which reports ony the basic root element of the khwi / kwe lexeme
since it matchess on a palatal or alveolar lateral click rather than the dental click of A.10a.5. See more
examples in Supplementary Table 3 Section 1.c-d .
A.10a.4 C. Chadic- NS-Berta N. Khoisan- !O-!Kung

TB-Written Burmese Musgoy agwe ǂwe “dog”
khwe “dog” kwéykwoya “hunting Starostin, G. 2003 13
Norman 1988a 13 “hyena” dog” S. Khoisan-‖Xegwi
Jungraithmayr Skinner ‖kwi “dog”
1994 v.2 205 138 Starostin, G.
2006-2008
A.10a.5 N. Khoisan-Doke
TB-Burmish-Samong !gwi
təkhwi “dog” “brown hyaena”
TB-Jingpho-Jili S. Khoisan-Ng
təkwi “dog” !gwi “brown hyaena”
Benedict 1972 1 S. Khoisan-ǀXam
TB-Mru tăkhwi !gwai “hyena”
“dog” Ruhlen 1994 302
Matisoff 2003 102 note 44
10.3.4 The locative or agential prefix

In Hausa the ma- prefix as “locative”or “agential designates the location or instrument of the verb of
which it is the initial syllable. The instrument may be a tool, a person or in the following F.1.3 case a part
of the human body.
See sets-
F.1.3 W. Chadic-Hausa makāmā / makami n. “handle, tool, pincers” including Note F.1.3 on human
hand.
F.15a.1 W. Chadic-Hausa Extended. magìni “builder, potter” from gin- “build, make pottery”
H.38a.4 W. Chadic-Hausa maaikaci “worker” / ma‘aikatā “place of work, factory” both from
‘aikatā vt. “do, perform, act”
F.19.4 W. Chadic-Hausa Extended matùfki n.m. “rope maker” from tufka “braiding (of rope),
See also F.20.1 Hausa Extended. See also note F.1.3 (Hausa)
This prefix is rarely inherited as such by Sino-Tibetan, but it explains differences in meaning between
ST lexemes under concepts which share the same root stem. See Note- D.5b.4 and D.27b.1-2 + note.
10.4 Measure (quantity) words. Chinese measure words and classifiers are also a type of affix. “Since
[classifiers] are clearly function rather than content morphemes, they must be a kind of affix.” (Packard
75). There are a number of Chadic roots which denote countable groups of objects which have become
398
Note- 10.3.3.2 The parallel matching here reflects a parallel sound change within Khoisan languages which has
been inherited by southern TB.
Thereare other instances of the t- “prefix” correspondence. See A.26.5, B.31.3, C.51.5, F.14a.1 and
Supplementary Tables 3 section 1.1.
864
measure words in Chinese languages. Several are described in notes A.1c.1 Chinese-Cantonese
Extended), A.14a.2 Chinese-MSC Extended, B.2b.2 Chinese- Min, B.5c.1 and D.32.2 Extended. One
example is:
F.10.2 N. Chinese-MSC kûn “tie, bind, bundle up” kûn measure word “bundle” yī kûn shū
“a bundle of books”
< W. Chadic–Hausa kundi n.m. “bundle of papers and notes, esp. those of a malam” / C. Chadic-
Bura kuntu n. “roll of Bura cloth” / C. Cushitic- Afar gùndi “roll of cloth”
10.5 Reduplication
Reduplication is used in both Chadic-Hausa and in Chinese to express the intensity or repetition of an
action or state of affairs.
E.18.1 Chinese-MSC shān-shān lai chi “be slow in coming” ↔ Chadic-Hausa sànnu “slowly” >
sànnu-sànnu “very slowly and carefully”. (Newman, P. 2000 509.) Here Newman posits an original
reduplication of the whole Hausa lexeme. But Hausa also attests an alternative disyllabic morpheme
tsantsan “cautiously” representing the same concept. This is a reduplication which is almost an exact
match with the Chinese shān-shān . (For other cases see G.14.3, H.7a.3, H.29a.3, C.25.1, E.4d.1
Extended), E.10.1 and E.21.1). For the various forms of reduplication in Hausa see Newman P. 2000 508-
521.) Reduplication is not as common in ST as it is in AA and other African language families. There are a
number of African reduplicated forms which correspond on one element to an ST morpheme but are not
reduplicated in ST. (See A.2a.1, A.7b.1, C.5a.4, F.4c.2) This is probably due to the predominance of
monosyllabism in Chinese, and to a lesser extent, in Tibeto-Burman.
The following example illustrates reduplication in Semitic which is replicated in Tibetan but not in
Hausa or S.Chinese.
E.10.1 Semitic-Hebrew TB-Tibetan

seekhsehk v. “fomented quarrel, instigated” rdsig-rdsig /
seekhsookh m. “quarrel, dispute” rdzig-rdzig
S. (Ethiopic) Semitic-Amharic “to address one harshly and
täĉäqäĉcäqä “fight (vi.), quarrel, argue, dispute, squabble” threateningly”
W. Chadic- Hausa S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
tsēgumi f. chìk hot
“constant complaining about other people with implied threats” “to shout or bawl angrily”
E. Cushitic-Oromo c’iiga’a “have aversion to” jìk “to argue, to dispute”
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šika “to complain about’
/
In the following example the basic concept seems to be “rotate” or “round and round” since three of the
African superfamilies employ reduplication thus implying repetitive circular movement.
F.8a.1 TB-Tibetan
C. Chadic-Malgwa kór-kóre “round” ‘khor khor
Semitic-Hebrew s’khor-s’khor adv. “round, circular”
“round about, round and round” sgor-sgor
Egyptian karkar “round, circular”
“anything round, staff, stick, roll, cylinder”
NS-Kanuri korkór / kórkóri n. “circle”
S. Khoisan-!Kwi-|Xam kuérre-k:uérre “round”
10.6 Grammatical relationships in ST which are derived or adapted from Hausa morphemes
10.6.1 Directional verbs. In Cantonese a Hausa verb root indicating motion is used for the grammatical
function of “directional” verb.
(See note H.6a.2 (Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) Min, MSC).
865
10.6.2 Purposive clauses. The relationship of two clauses the first denoting an action or status, the
second giving a reason for it (past action) or the purpose of it (intention or projected future) is expressed
in English by “because” or “in order that”. The subordinate clause giving the reason-why or purpose is
expressed in Hausa by the preposition/conjunction don in Hausa. This morpheme don has exactly the
same form and function in Tibetan. (See Note E.3d.1).
10.6.3 Marker of opposition. A relationship of contrast with, or qualification of, the first clause by the
second is expressed in English by the conjunctions “although”, “however”, “the opposite” etc. The same
function is expressed in Cushitic-Rendille by the dow morpheme of the phrase tabar dow, and in NS-
Kanuri by the morpheme dùwô. The closely similar conjunctions dóu in Cantonese and dào in MSC
have the same denotation of contrast / opposition between the main and subordinate clauses.
(See Note H.3b.2 (Cushitic-Rendille, NS-Kanuri). The notion of contrast / opposition seems to be derived
from the situation of passing someone going in the opposite direction. See E. Cushitic-Rendille
H.3b.1-3 tabar dowa “go in an opposite direction to someone”and Supplementary Table 2 H.3b.3
IE-Bengali,.
10.6.4 Direct Discourse (quotative) The E.9a.3 Tibetan morpheme sewa “direct discourse/ speech
particle, (said)” is used to express a direct quote. It corresponds closely to the Hausa verbal noun form
cêwā “saying” derived from the basic form of the verb cê “say, tell”. Both can govern a following
direct quote. (See Note- E.9a.3(1) (Tibetan, Hausa)). The E.9a.1 Hausa basic form cê has a direct
meaning listed as “say” “tell” by P. and R. Newman and Skinner (See E.9a.1 Hausa), but it appears to
function as a direct quotation, e.g. Sun cèe “madalla” “They said “thank you” or ni ne na cèe
“madalla” “I was the one who said “thank you”. Newman, P. 2000 648
Examples:
E.9a.1 TB-C. Loloish-Lahu cê “quotative particle” / TB-S. Loloish-Akha dje “quotative particle” ←
Egyptian–Coptic ce “introduces a quotation”
E.9a.3 TB-Tibetan sewa ← Chadic-Hausa cêwā verbal noun
E.9b.1 TB-C. Loloish-Lahu t� ʔ “quotative particle” / IE-Sanskrit iti “used to indicate that the
preceding phrase is a quotation” ← Semitic-Ethiopic-Amharic təqs “quotation”
E.11a.1 TB-Tibetan cé-na / shena / ze-na “If anyone says so, asks so, after words literally quoted”
/ N. Chinese-MSC zhēng “contend, argue” “argue about” ← Sanskrit iticen “often placed at the end of
the objector’s statement , hence a meaning of ‘if it be argued that’ ”
10.6.5 Reflexive pronoun in ST (TB / Chinese) ↔ AA /NC correspondences (See Note C.9a.1)
In N. Chinese-MSC zì means “self, oneself, one’s own”; in Chadic zì means “body” and in
Cushitic si (< *is-i ) means “self”. (For examples of similar usage in Sinitic and AA / NC as the
reflexive pronoun see Chapter 2C Note C.9a.1).
866
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Supplementary Table 1
Results of a preliminary comparison of Greenberg’s word lists of all four African language
superfamilies with Sino-Tibetan.
Given the massive nature of the project, an introductory comparison of Greenberg’s word lists for all
four African language families with Sino-Tibetan languages was carried out to determine which of the
four might be the most productive as a focus (filter) for the study. Statistics from it were compiled and
are shown in the following table. The report breaks down all the counts by African language family in the
horizontal rows. It follows Greenberg’s inclusion of Kordofanian as a member of the same superfamily
as Niger-Congo, though this does not pretend to resolve the questions concerning this classification.
Column 1 gives the count of numbered sets, including for example the Greenberg Kordofanian ↔ TB
set “ear”. (When this was subsequently compared systematically with Afro-Asiatic and Sino-Tibetan
languages in the 2A-H comprehensive AA ↔ST comparison, it became an entry in Chapter 2 set C.34.1
Column 2 gives a count of the sets from column 1 which contain one or more African/Afroasiatic
morphemes corresponding to an ST language family morpheme.
Column 3 gives a count of the individual African / Afroasiatic morphemes contained in the column 2 sets.
For example in Greenberg’s Table 1.4.1b the #47 set contains the two Khoisan morphemes
|O |Kung ‖nə and Hatsa ‖nae “to hear” (See Greenberg, Joseph H. The Languages of Africa. 2d ed.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1966.)
Column 4 shows the number of correspondences between ST and African/Afroasiatic morphemes in the
Column 3 sets.
Statistical table of Greenberg African/Afroasiatic lexicon with corresponding ST lexemes

African/ 1.Total sets of 2. Total sets 3. Total 4. Number of ST
Afroasiatic African / with one or African language
language families Afro-AA more ST ↔ /Afroasiatic correspondences to an
and Greenberg language African / language African language
citation morphemes Afroasiatic morphemes morpheme
per language contained in (includes proto-forms)
superfamily correspondences column 2 sets
1. Afro-Asiatic 78 35 122 95
Greenberg, 51-64
2. Nilo-Saharan 398 38 89 91
Greenberg, 95-108,
117-127, 133-148
3.Khoisan 116 13 25 27
Greenberg, 75-83
4. Niger- 183 14 48 42
Kordofanian
Greenberg, 95-108,
153-160
Totals 775 100 284 255
Statistical Analysis of the introductory comparison.

The following ratios between Columns 1 and 2, and Columns 3 and 4 show the relative weight of the
correspondences in each of the language families. This is important since Greenberg used samples of
Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Kordofanian and Khoisan vocabulary which are much larger than the AfroAsiatic
sample.
Columns 1-2 (gives a count by sets of glosses)
881
Afro-Asiatic- Of Greenberg’s 78 numbered glosses 35 (= 44.8%) contain one or more morphemes

which correspond to one or more morphemes of an ST word family (as represented by an individual
Phase 1 table). This is the highest relative number of correspondences.
Nilo-Saharan – Of Greenberg’s 398 numbered glosses 38 or (= 9.5%) contain one or more
morphemes which correspond to one or more morphemes of an ST word family (represented by an
individual table).
Khoisan - Of Greenberg’s 116 numbered glosses 13 (=11.2%) contain one or more morphemes
which correspond to one or more lexemes of an ST word family (represented by an individual table).
Niger-Congo + Kordofanian - Of Greenberg’s 183 numbered glosses 14 (= 7.6%) contain one or more
morphemes corresponding to one or more morphemes of an ST word family (represented by an
individual table).
Columns 3-4 (give a count of all the African/Afroasiatic morphemes which correspond to a Greenberg
list word, not just the sets of glosses.)
Afro-Asiatic- Of the 122 AA morphemes there are 95 corresponding ST morphemes.
Nilo-Saharan- Of the 89 NS morphemes there are 91 corresponding ST morphemes.
Khoisan – Of the 25 Khoisan morphemes there are 27 corresponding ST morphemes.
Niger-Congo + Kordofanian Of the 48 morphemes there are 42 corresponding ST morphemes.
The results from Columns 3 an 4 are certainly skewed, especially for Nilo-Saharan, by Greenberg’s
selection of African/AA vocabulary. Greenberg’s comparison used:
5.1 times more sets of Nilo-Saharan words
1.48 times more Khoisan sets of words and
2.3 times more sets of Niger-Kordofanian words
than those used for the Afro-Asiatic comparison.
This may simply reflect a situation in which Afro-Asiatic had already been fairly well established as a
language superfamily and the others needed more data to be identified. Of course the goal of the present
research is different: i.e. to identify which African language family might supply the greatest number of
correspondences with ST, not to survey all of them for purposes of classification.
Absolute and relative number of correspondences.

From this perspective, therefore, Afro-Asiatic looks most promising since it has the highest percentage
of Greenberg glosses containing African/Afroasiatic correspondences to ST morphemes (44.8%) = (ratio
of column 1 to column 2 above which shows the relative number of correspondences)
and, despite the noted skewing of Nilo-Saharan, it still has the greatest absolute number of
correspondences with ST (95 in column 4 above) as compared to NS with 91. Hence only Afro-Asiatic
is systematically compared to ST in the Chapter 2A-H Phase 2 analytic comparison..
However, the comparative data indicates that the non-AA African language families, especially Nilo-
Saharan, should also be taken into account in any hypothesis regarding the origins of ST.
A breakdown of the 122 Afro-Asiatic (AA) ↔ Sino-Tibetan (ST) correspondences (Row 1 column 3
above) by AA subfamily gives the following results:
Afro-Asiatic language family Total ST ↔ AA morpheme correspondences:

Chadic- 61 (50%)
Cushitic/Omotic 25 (20.49%)
Semitic- 21 (17.2%)
Egyptian- 11 (9%)
Berber- 9 (7.3%)
The much higher incidence of ST correspondences with Chadic as compared to Cushitic and Semitic
may be surprising given the current geographic locations of the three linguistic areas. Today Cushitic,
and especially Semitic, speakers live much closer to the ST linguistic area than Chadic ones. Again,
882
however, these results might also be interpreted as being the result of the fact that Chadic had not yet been
identified as a subfamily of AA separate from what was then the “Semito-Hamitic” superfamily (named
Afro-Asiatic by Greenberg), so Greenberg needed a larger set of Chadic lexemes to establish this.
Whether the Greenberg AA list is somehow skewed toward Chadic or not, the above statistics already
show that as a matter of fact a large number of Chadic roots correspond to ST ones. This was confirmed
fully as reported in Chapter 4 Tables 4.3 of the Phase 2 A-H comprehensive comparison.
Preliminary comparison results and conclusion

Thus this first comparison presented wide evidence that Sino-Tibetan languages have inherited lexemes
from all four African language families. Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan are the more important of these,
but Afro-Asiatic is indicated as the language to be comprehensively compared with ST, since it has the
greatest relative number of correspondences.
883
Supplementary Table 2. The Afro-Asiatic substratum in Sanskrit

and other IE languages
The following correspondence sets contain Sanskrit, Hindi or Bengali and other Ceentral/ East Asian
IE language correspondences with African/Afro-Asiatic and ST language lexemes including those from
Extended word family data. All Sanskrit entries without other citations of their source are found in the
online Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon. Data record numbers from the Chapter 2 A-H Analytic
tables of word families are included at the head of each group of (Sanskrit / IE ↔ African ↔ Sino-
Tibetan) correspondences .
Sanskrit , Hindi, Bengali, Other African / Afro-Asiatic Sino-Tibetan and non-Sino-

Indo-European Tibetan Central and E.
Asian
A.1a.1 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic – Hausa TB-Tibetan
khara “an osprey, a heron” kařàmbatà n. f. kharada “name of a bird”
kharazabda “an osprey” “eagle, kestrel species” kharanda
kAra “a kind of bird” “black-crested hawk-eagle” “a sort of wild duck”
kArabaka “a kind of bird” W. Chadic–Bole Altaic-Kyrgyz / Turkic-Azeri
karanda “a sort of duck” karmata “white hawk” garha “crow’
karaka “a species of bird” Proto-Semitic *ɣārib Altaic-Kazakh karha “crow”
karabaka “a species of bird” “corvo” [crow] taskara “vulture”
karAyika “a bird, a small kind of NS-Daza karabu “vulture” Altaic-Uyghur karha “crow”
crane” NS-Barea karba “bird” Turkic-Turkmen / Turkic-Azeri
karaTu “the Numidian crane” Cushitic- Arbore garga “crow, raven”
kharakoNa “the francolin kore “kite” Altaic-Tuvan
partridge” Cushitic- Boni kaargan / qarhan “crow,
kalakaNTha “a peacock, kor- “hawk” raven”
gallinule, a sparrow” S. Khoisan-|Kham Altaic-Uzbek qironqara
khargala “an owl or any similar k”ari “bird” “hawk”
night bird” S. Khoisan-Khakhea |k’arika Altaic-Turkic-Turkish
kalikara “the fork-tailed shrike” “bird” kartal “eagle”
“a kind of chick” TB-Tibetan khra “a small bird
IE-Hindi garur “eagle” of prey, sparrow-hawk, falcon”
IE-Pashto karga “a crow, the “kind of hawk or falcon”
common crow” karak “quail” khra-zhur “a species of eagles”
A.1a.2 W. Chadic-Gwandara TB-Tibetan
IE-Hindi akwākwā “crow” khwa
gauraiyā “sparrow” Proto-Cushitic (Ehret) “small crow”
kauā “crow” *xwar- “crow” “raven”
NS-Kanuri TB-Kiranti-Limbu
kwarámáta “swift, sunbird” akhwa “crow”
Proto-W. Nigritic
*-kwal “kind of hawk”
A1a.3 W. Chadic–Hausa TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit hankākà “crow” kāka “the crow”
kaka “crow” Proto-Afro-Asiatic gaga “magpie”
khaga “bird” *ġak’- “crow” “magpie’s croaking”
IE-Bengali Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) Proto-Tibeto-Burman
ka:k “crow” ‫ع‬ag‫ع‬ag “magpie” *ka “crow”
Swadesh “bird” Semitic- Ge’ez qaqer
“crow”
884
NS-Songhay gaaga
“pied crow”
NS-Kanuri
ngágə / ŋāgə “crow”
E. Cushitic-Proto-Saho-Afar
*kāk- “raven”
W. Chadic–Bole
kāki “crow”
E. Cushitic- Rendille
khaakle “crow (pied)”
/
A.1b.1 W. Chadic- Hausa TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit zàkaràa m. “rooster” tsa-ko-ra “a partridge”
cakora sàagarā f. “pullet” dzā-go-ra “partridge”
“the Greek partridge S. Cushitic-Irakwe tsa-kra bāka
(Perdrix rufa)” sakäri “guinea fowl” “the red goose”
“a hen, sparrow” W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage (Anas casarca)
zakatavila “a gallinule” žəgəra / žəg’ra “guinea fowl” chagöö “vulture”
zakatara “a bird of prey” Semitic-Aramaic Kartvelian-Megrel ̣
ts̟agra “falcon” čqor- “quail”
zāg / zāgā “a young cock or hen” Kartvelian-Georgian (m)
S. Khoisan-Khakhea ǀk’arika “bird” ̣čqer-
W. Semitic-Ethiopian- Tigrinya “quail”
zagra “guinea fowl” TB-Tibetan
W. Chadic- Gwandara chagaà “chicken, a kind of
jàkára “cock” water-fowl”
zagəre “cock, rooster” Altaic-Proto-Turkic
C. Cushitic- Bilin sagiskan “magpie”
jägira “guinea-fowl”
*tsagah̟̟ “bird” tsàgagi “ibis”
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *cagah’ “bird”
C. Chadic – Bura
shaka / sheka “chick, baby chicken”
C. Chadic- Sukur jak / ják “bird”
NS-Anywa ājaak “ibis”
A.1b.2 Sanskrit Semitic-Aramaic TB-Tibetan
cakraGga / cakravAka šagrāq / šagrākā “crow” tsa-kór
“the cakra bird” “a goose” W. Semitic-Ethiopian- Tigrinya “partridge”
zakunI “a bird” zagra “guinea fowl”
“a female bird” W. Semitic-Ethiopian- Amharic
“a hen-sparrow” ğəgra “guinea hen”
zakuntI “a bird” RV W. Chadic – Hausa
zakuna “a bird (esp. a tsààkóó sing. tsakuwa pl. / TB-Tibetan
large bird or one of good or c’aako “chick, young bird” cagar “pheasant”
bad omen)” “a common C. Chadic-Mandara
kite or Pondicherry eagle” c’aako “chick, “young bird” Proto-Altaic
“derived from or relating to Jungraithmayr 1994 v.2 70 sako-sako
birds or omens” Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) “magpie”
“having the nature of a s̟agur “hawk, falcon”
bird” C. Chadic-Kilba-Pela
śa-kuna / śa-kuni / jakū “bird”
885
śa-kunta “bird” Proto-Chadic tsàakū “chick”

śakunti RV / AV
śakunta “bird”
A.1b.3 IE-Pashto C. Chadic–Bura , Chinese-Cantonese
jahk a pheasant” C. Chadic-Mandara jaahk “a kind of pheasant
IE-Sanskrit tsakala “cock” with long tail feathers”
jaGgala C. Chadic – Mofu S. Chinese-Min
“the francoline partridge” dzagolok “cock” ciăq “classifier for animals,
zakatavila “a gallinule” shaka / sheka birds”
zakatara “a bird of prey” “chick, baby chicken” S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka]
zakuna “a bird (esp. a C. Cushitic- Agaw zak7 / chak7 / zhak7
large bird or one of good or ĉága / ĉ̟áġă “bird” “numerical classifier for
bad omen)” C. Cushitic- Agaw hen, pigeon, bird, ox , goat,
zakunta “a bird, bird of ĉága / ĉ̟áġă “bird” hand, foot etc.”
prey” “a blue jay” Semitic- Aramaic zag5 “numerical classifier for
śakuna “a bird” zāg / zāgā “a young cock or hen” hen, pigeon, bird ”
Altaic-Proto-Turkic
sagiskan “magpie”
/
A.1c.3 S. Khoisan-Masarwa Chinese-MSC
IE-Sanskrit ši-‖gu “bird” chīgù
cikura S. Khoisan-|Nu‖en “sparrow hawk”
“a kind of bird” si-kou “bird” zhègū
IE-Pashto W. Chadic – Ron (Bokkos) “Chinese francolin, partridge”
chīkor shikóòr “Huhn” [fowl, hen] Altaic- Mongolian
“the bartarelle or E. Cushitic-Oromo singxur “falcon”
Greek partridge” ĉ'ukuru n. “colomba” [dove] Altaic-Proto-Turkic
shikraey Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) *sɨgirčɨk “grouse, hazel hen” “starling”
“a hawk, a falcon” s’igar “falcon” Turkic-Turkish *sɨɣirčɨk “starling” /
C. Chadic-Boka Turkic-Tatar čɨɣirčik “starling”
cikara Turkic-Khakassian siɣiraj “bullfinch” /
“cock, rooster” Turkic-Tuva siɣirɣa “oriole”
↓↓
A.2a.1 W. Chadic- Hausa Mongolian-Khalka čūčal
IE-Pashto tsâttēwàa < *tsew-tsēwàa “a swift, “snipe”
chūcha a swallow” Proto-Mongolian čuwčali
“a kind of pheasant” W. Chadic-Gwandara “snipe”
(all dialects) nsusuwa / ncucuwa / Mongolian-Kalmuck čūwčl
nsûtsûwã “bird” “snipe” Mongolian-Ordos
E. Cushitic- Oromo c’uc’o / c’uc’ii “chick” čūčil “snipe”
NC- Common Bantu *-c’ucu “chicken” Mongolian-Khalka čūčal
W. Semitic-Ethiopian *c’əw-c’wəya chick” “snipe” Starostin, Sergei
Mongolian Etymology
/
A.2b.1 N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e Proto-Altaic *kiăro “crow, raven”
IE-Pashto ‖áru “sparrow” Proto-Altaic sàru “a bird of prey”
char-charru W. Chadic- Bole-Tangale-Bole S. Chinese-Min ciàu “bird”
“a hen sparrow” jaro / yàró “bird” N. Chinese- MSC / Beijing
NS-Songhay-Gao kyiraw ch’iao (WG) “the magpie, jackdaw,
“bird” jay and similar birds”
886
W. Chadic- N.Bauci-Mburku jiāo “wren” chiāo (WG)

gyalu “kite hawk” “small bird like the tit or wren”
Egyptian śeráu “sparrow” S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka]
Semitic-Written Arabic (Meixian, MacIver, Lau Chunfat) jiau2 “bird”
jauzal / jawazil
“young pigeon”
A.2b.2 NC-Nupe kparo N. Chinese - MSC / Beijing
IE-Hindi “grouse, partridge” yào “harrier, sparrow hawk”
gauraiya W. Chadic-Bole-Tangale-Bole S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Lau Chunfat)
“sparrow” jaro / yàró “bird” yau2 / yau4 “sparrow hawk, hawk”
IE-Sanskrit NC-E.Mande- Bobo
gaura-titiri m. yálo “bird”
“a kind of W. Chadic- S. Bauci- Jimi
partridge” yabo “chicken”
/
A.2c.2 E. Cushitic-Oromo Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho
IE-Hindi čirii “kind of bird” tʃē’rē “bird”
ciriyā E. Cushitic-Sidamo c’irre Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari
“bird” n.m. “bird” tʃē’rē “bird”
ciriyām Proto-Afro-Asiatic *t’s’ir- Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali
“bird” “bird” tʃē’rē “bird”
Egyptian tcher-t Altaic-Turkic-Turkish serče “sparrow”
“hawk, falcon, vulture, kite Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen serče “sparrow”
IE-Pashto Omotic-Ometo-Kachama Altaic-Turkic-Chuvash śerźi “sparrow”
chirgurraey č’era “bird”
“a chicken” W. Chadic-Hausa
shirwàa f. “black kite (hawk)”
TB-Kiranti-Kulung
cirwa “swallow [bird]”
↓↓
A.3.1 W. Chadic- Hausa Chinese- Hakka sun3 “hawk, falcon”
IE-Sanskrit tsuntsuu “bird” s’iun2 n. “quail”
sunara tsuntsun Maka “peacock” Chinese-MSC sûn “hawk, falcon”
“sparrow” S. Cushitic-Asa (Aramanic) S. Chinese-Min chun2 “hawk, falcon”
šuʔununu “hawk” Chinese- Cantonese sèun “quail”
Semitic-Aramaic S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian)
sonqor m. “falcon” s’iun2 n. “quail”
Semitic-Written Arabic Altaic- Mongolian shongkor “falcon
summun “quail” (zool.) Altaic-Kazakh sonkar “falcon”
↓↓
A.4.2 Berber – Tuareg Middle Chinese kej “chicken”
IE-Sanskrit ekəji “coq” [cock] Chinese-Min ke1 “chicken, hen, cock”
A.4.2 tekəjit “chicken” Hmong-Mien-Hmong nqaij qaib /
keJca “kind of W. Chadic – Karekare South Daic-Lao gay2: pu6 “cock”
sparrow” kezi “cock” TB-Bai ke1 “chicken”
A.4.3 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic- Gwandara TB-Tibetan kha-zhúr “water-hen”
kaJcula kajá “stone partridge” “fowls, [a gallinule]
“a partridge” hen” kha-shúr “water-hen”
kacatura “a kind W. Chadic-Bole, Ngamo Proto-Altaic
of gallinule” kaja “cock” *kùja “a kind of aquatic bird”
887
NS- Maba Group-Maba Proto-Tungus-Manchu

kájangar “partridge” *kuju- “a kind of aquatic bird”
kaju-mar “cock, male-bird” Proto-Mongolian *kajil- “a kind of aquatic
bird”
↓↓
A.5b.2 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic – Kofyar paar “fly” TB-Tibetan
parAgA “to go away, Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi) farr / farra “to flee, run off, ‘phar-wa
fly, escape” RV AV run away, escape” “to leap up, to fly
parApat “to fly away Semitic- Hebrew parakh v. past “flew off” up, to bound”
or past, escape, depart” Semitic (Ethiopic)-Tigre bärra “fly” par
RV Semitic (Ethiopic)-Amharic bärrärä “fly” “to bounce up, to
parAdru “to run, away, E. Cushitic- Oromo barr-isu “volare” [to fly] fly up”
flee, escape” bararu “spiccare in volo, volare” [to take off in
Hindi flight, to fly]
fařfařānā “flap” vt. NS-Nuer bar “to run away, to fly, to flee”
fařfařāhāt “flap” f. NS-Kanuri farngîn / farjîn “jump, fly”
Swadesh “to fly” Egyptian y” pa / pai “to fly, to jump”
W. Chadic-Hausa fař-fař ideo. “moving up and
down of wings by birds”
↓↓
A.6a.1 IE-Sanskrit E. Cushitic- Afar sangise v. “castrate” (an Chinese-Hakka
sanDhaya animal), geld” sànga / sànka “gelded animal” san1 “geld”
“to castrate, E. Cushitic- Oromo shang-omu Chinese-MSC
to emasculate” “essere castrato” [to be castrated] shàn
sancula “to castrate” Semitic- Ethiopic- Tigrinya sängäwä “castrate” “to geld a horse or ass
sanDha “a eunuch” Semitic- Ethiopic- Harari, Amharic etc.” “castrate or
sanDhatva / saDhya sänga “castrated animal” spay”
“the state of being a Semitic- Ethiopic-Harari sängaaša “castrate an TB-Kiranti-Limbu
eunuch, impotence” animal by crushing his nerves” sakma vt. “castrate”
/
A.6b.2 IE-Sanskrit South (Ethiopian) Semitic- Gurage TB-Kiranti-Yamphu
sanDa “a bull fit (Masqan, Gogot, Selti, Wolane) sanga
for breeding” sanga “ox fattened to be eaten, “buffalo”
sanDhaya “bull” big bull” Proto-Kiranti *sang
IE-Pashto E. Cushitic-Gedeo sanga “buffalo”
sāndda “a male “ox for beef” Chinese- Cantonese
buffalo” W. Chadic-Hausa sáánìyáá “cow” sàng / sàngchūk
IE-Sanskrit Egyptian sam “wild bull” “livestock”
camara n. m. Semitic-Akkadian sͅēnū
“a kind of ox called “gregge di ovini” [flock of ovids]
the yak” Proto-Semitic *šaʔn- “small cattle”
A.6b.3 W. Chadic – Hausa TB- Jingpho [Kachin]
IE-Hindi shānu “cattle” šàn1 “flesh, meat, deer”
jānvar “animal” Berber–Tuareg [Tamasheq] S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
m. janavara isan pl. “viande” [meat] sānghau “cattle”
“animal” Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-
Mundari ʤanowar “animal”
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-
Santali ʤanowar / ʤan’war
“animal”
888
/
A.6c.1 IE- E. Cushitic-Kambata gasara “buffalo” TB-Written Burmese
Sanskrit E. Cushitic-Rendille gasar “buffalo” sâ “flesh, meat, animal”
kasara E. Cushitic-Oromo sa’a / saawa n. “cow”; sà “beast”
“buffalo” sa’a “mucca, vacca” [milk cow, cow] TB-Meithei sá “animal, flesh,
sahari, sadhi Egyptian sáab “a castrated animal body”
“a bull” for sacrifice” TB-Chin-Lushai sa “animal” ~
saras, C. Chadic –Margi hsa “cow” śa “flesh, meat”-
sarasvat E. Cushitic- Burji sáa “cow” TB-Newari sa “meat, flesh”
“a buffalo” W. Chadic – Hausa sâ “bull” Chinese-Hakka
E. Cushitic- Afar sà “large kudu deer”` sa1 “a large-size buffalo”
A.6c.2 W. Chadic – Gwandara (Karshi) TB-Tibetan 1shaa “deer”
IE-Bengali šâ’ “cow” sha-ba / shwa-ba “hart, stag”
shār “ox” Proto-Cushitic (Ehret) *šāc - “cow” TB-C. Loloish-Lahu
šā “game, animal, meat”
/
A.6d.1 E. Cushitic- Gedeo, Hadiyya TB-Kiranti-Yamphu
IE-Sanskrit saayya “cow” saŸa “buffalo”
sairiba C. Chadic- Musgu saye “cow TB-Proto-Kiranti *saŸ “buffalo”
“a buffalo” E. Cushitic- Oromo saaina “cow” Proto-Tibeto-Burman
W. Chadic- Ron hòsay “Büffel” *dzay “cattle, domestic animal”
[buffalo]
A.6d.2 E. Cushitic- Afar saga “cow” TB-Tibetan tsag “the yak”
IE-Sanskrit E. Cushitic- Kambata saʕa “cow” tsag-bo “yak that is killed for
zagka “a bull” E. Cushitic- Afar saq “small stock food” “cattle to be killed for meat”
zakkari “a bull” (animal)” tsag-sha “flesh of larger
jaGgala “meat” Semitic-Ethiopic-Amharic səga “meat, animals”
chā’ga flesh” shagee “dressed carcass of an
“ram, goat” RV Proto E. Cushitic *shac “cow” animal”
NS-Kanuri cágə / cágə̂ “muscle, sinew tshag-sha “yak beef”
/
IE-Sanskrit NS-Kanuri sáuré “large herd of cattle” Chinese-
A.6e.1 Semitic-Hebrew shor “ox, bull” Cantonese
saura “a cow” E. Cushitic-Oromo sa’a / saawa / saawi n. “cow” sau
saurabheya Berber-Tuareg esaw “taureau” [bull] “a beast or
“a bull” S.Khoisan-|Nu-‖’en tsau(ma) “calf” animal”
IE-Pashto N. Khoisan-!Kung tsãub “calf” TB-Tibetan
saur “a bull” W. Chadic – Boghom sau / saw “meat” s‫כ ככ‬
IE-Sanskrit C. Khoisan-Nama tsãub “calf” “cattle,
surabhi E. Chadic- Ndam suwi “cow” livestock”
“any cow” E. Chadic – Lame šíàú “bull, cow”
C. Khoisan-Nama tsãub “calf”
Proto-S. Cushitic *ĉawr- “bull”
Proto-W. Chadic *ĉaw- “meat”
↓↓
IE-Sanskrit A.7a.2 Proto-Afro-Asiatic Chinese-Wu saʔ7 v.
chagh “to smite or slay” *-jaʕ or *-dzaʕ “to kill (animal)” “kill, slaughter”
“kill” jaghnu “striking, Semitic-Hebrew v. shakhat “murder, put to death”
killing ” jaghni “striking” “slaughtered” “fight”
Swadesh “to kill” adj. shakhoot “slaughtered”
889
/
IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic- Gwandara Proto-Tibeto-Burman
A.7b.1 kSad “to cut, kíša “to kill” *g-sat = *g-săt
dissect, divide, kill” W. Chadic- Hausa “kill, fight, strike”
kSata “wounded, hurt” kisà n. m. “killing, defeat” “the general Tibeto-Burman sense
kSatavikSata Semitic- Ge’ez qašä is ‘kill by striking’’”
“covered with cuts and “throw down, make fall” TB-Jingpho [Kachin],
wounds” Berber – Tuareg [Tamasheq] gəsat ~ kəsat “to fight, a fight”
IE-Hindi agsar “atterrir, s’abattre” TB-Burmese sat “kill”
ksat “lesion” m. Egyptian sāṭ “to cut, to slay” Old Chinese săt “kill”
ksati “damage” f. sāti “slaughterer, executioner” Chinese-Hakka sat7 / sat8 /
IE-Sanskrit zad shāt “slaughter, carnage” “ sad5 v. “kill, slaughter”
“to fell, throw down, to cut, to cut off, to slay” “slaughter, Chinese-Min sat “to kill, to murder,
slay, kill” carnage” to slay”
IE-Old Indian ḳsatá Egyptian ketcha ketcha Middle Chinese s’ăt
“to hurt, injure, wound” “to kill, to throw down”
↓↓
A.8.1 E. Cushitic- Sidamo gângo “mule” TB-Tibetan rkyaŋ “the wild ass or
IE- Sanskrit Proto-E. Cushitic *gaang- “mule” horse of central Asia”
eKANda W. Chadic–Gwandara jàŋkyi “donkey” gyaŋ “Tibetan wild ass”
“a kind of horse” C. Chadic- Padoko -žəŋwa “donkey” Hmong-Mien -Hmong
cakrin “an ass” W. Chadic- Ron (Bokkos) njake “donkey” zag “donkey, mule”
cakrivat “an ass” jake “Esel” [ass, donkey] Altaic- Turkic-Uyghur, Uzbek
cakrin “an ass” Berber-Tuareg ejak “donkey” ešak “donkey”
cakrivat “an ass” C. Chadic–Glavda Altaic- Turkic-Azeri
Cologne Lexicon kyáka “antelope (like donkey)” eššäk “donkey”
IE-Tokharian W. Chadic –N. Bauci- Tsagu Altaic- Turkic -Turkmen
yákwe žāƙ- “donkey” eshek “donkey”
“Pferd” (Ger.) Egyptian) sakut “young asses” Altaic- Turkic-Turkish, Kyrgyz,
[ horse] Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) Karakalpak, Balkar
ja‫ح‬aš “young donkey” ešek “donkey”
↓↓
A.9a.1 IE-Pashto ghorā-khar “the wild ass or W. Chadic – Hausa TB-Ao Chungli kor “horse”
onager” khargaey “a young ass” aguru “donkey” TB-Chin-Lushai sà-kôr
IE-Sanskrit khara / gaura “ass, mule” k’urù “pony” “horse”
“a donkey” gaurakhara “a wild donkey” C. Chadic – Masa Proto-Tibeto-Burman
[lit. buffalo donkey] gaura “a kind of kūro *kor “horse”
buffalo” “the Bos gaurus” “l’ane” Altaic- Mongolian
kharu “a horse” khara m. “a donkey” [ass, donkey”] guräsun “antelope”
“an ass” “a mule” gh’yara “the wild ass” Omotic- Chara göruge(n) “wild steppe
IE-Hindi ghor̝ā “horse” ghor̝ī “mare” kura “ass” animal”
IE-Bengali ghorā “horse” Omotic- Kafa Altaic- Proto-Mongolian
IE-Middle Persian kurrag / kuro “ass” *gúri “deer, game”
IE-North Persian kurra
“Fohlen” (Ger.) [foal, colt]
IE-Hittite kurka “Fohlen” (Ger.) [foal, colt]
A.9a.2 IE-Sanskrit khurutin “a horse” kóro “donkey, ass” TB-Tibetan
kharu “a horse” N. Khoisan-|Kung ku-rúg “colt of an ass”
khara “donkey” “ass” “a mule , a she-ass” |kw‫כ‬re “zebra” gu-rug “In Ladak ‘colt or
kharostra “ass and camel” Omotic-Mao foal of an ass’ ”
890
gardabha “foal, young of an ass” kuuri “donkey” TB-Naga-Sema kuru

IE-Pashto khar “an ass, a donkey” “horse”
khára “a female donkey” TB-Naga-Lotha korrū
IE-Hittite kurka “Fohlen” (Ger.) [foal, colt] “horse”
Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh
kürre “young donkey”
/
IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic- Hausa TB-Tibetan
A.9c.1 dhaureya dóokii < daukī < dawki) dawākī pl. “horse” dəwa “colt”
“beast of burden, Proto-AA *dawak “equid” Mongolian-Ordos
draught-horse” C. Cushitic-Qwara dewara “donkey” adū “horse(s),
dur “horse” C. Cushitic-Qemant dohuara “donkey” cattle”
IE-Old Indian E. Chadic-Bidiya d’awd’aw “pe cheval” Mongolian-Dagur
dhúrya- m. [roan antelope, lit. horse antelope] adō
“beast of burden” W. Chadic- Angas dāwlyeŋ “pony” “horse(s), cattle”
↓↓
IE-Sanskrit S. Khoisan-|Nu‖en ǂkhi “dog” TB-Tibetan
A.10a.1-2 NC- S.E. Mande – Lebir khyi “dog” (Tsang prov.)
kikhi gi / gyí “dog” “pronounced as kyi or ki”
“a small kind of jackal E. Chadic–Kwang TB- Limbu khi-a “dog”
or fox” kìyē / kíyé “dog” S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
khikhi “a fox” NC-S.E. Mande–Bisa gyíì “dog” kei “a fierce dog”
kiGkhira “a fox” Khoisan-Nama |giri-b “jackal, fox”
E.Chadic–Lele gìrà “dog” Altaic-Proto-Turkic *eker
NC- S.W. Mande – Loma gile “dog” “hunting dog” Starostin, Sergei
W. Chadic-Ron (Daffo-Butura) cìra Turkic Etymology
“Hund” [dog] Altaic-Turkic-Shor, Oyrat, Halaj
NS-Kanuri kə́ri “dog” W. Chadic– eger “hunting dog”
Gwandara [all dialects] kəre “dog” Starostin, Sergei Turkic
C. Chadic-Higi-Baza kɨre “dog” C. Etymology
Khoisan-Proto-Khoekhoe |iri “black- Altaic-Proto-Mongolian
backed jackal” *kirsa “fox, marten”
/
A.10b.1 Proto-IE Khoisan-Hadza N. Chinese-MSC
*k’wen- “dog” ‖áʔano “dog” quăn “dog” /
IE- Hittite śuwanis “dog” S. Khoisan-!Kwi- ǂKhomani ch’ǖan (WG) “the dog”
IE-Armenian skund ǂ’an “dog” chywăn (Y) “dog”
“”junger Hund, Wolf” TB-Tibetan-Bunan
“young dog, wolf” goa-nu “fox”
IE-Pashto kūngraey
“a pup, a puppy”
IE- Sanskrit
çvan “dog”
śvan “a dog, hound”
A.10b.2 Omotic-Mao kano “dog” Chinese-Kejia (Hakka)
Proto-IE Omotic root *kàna “dog” (Meixian, Lau Chunfat)
*(s)kan- / *(s)kane- “puppy, cub” E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] kian3
kànyà “dog” “dog, canine”
Omotic – Bencho kyan “dog”
Omotic-Gimira kjan “dog”
891
/
A.10c.1 W. Chadic-Hausa Altaic-Mongolian
Proto-IE kōlō m. “dog” “any kind of dog” gölög / gölöge / gölüge
skol- “puppy” E. Cushitic-Oromo gullo “grossa iena” “young dog”
[big hyena]
W. Chadic- Karekare kóoróo “dog”
NS-Songhay koro “hyena”
A.10c.2 C. Chadic- Mokulu kūrusu TB-S. Loloish-Mpi
IE-Sanskrit “chiot” [pup, puppy] khɯ2 “dog”
kukurrah “dog” f. NS-Songhay (Djenne) k‫ככ‬r‫“ כ‬hyena” Old Chinese
“a bitch” E.Chadic-Bidiya kúrkido ku “dog”
kurkura “dog” AV “chiot”[pup, puppy] kuwX
kurkuriya Proto-N. Khoisan *ǂghú “dog” “the naked pup or whelp of
“to behave like a dog” S. Khoisan-!Koo ǂgxū “hunting dog” dogs and other animals”
koka “a wolf” RV Khoisan-Sandawe kāka “dog” Turkic-Turkish
Bengali NC-N. Mande- Bozo Dia gûû “dog” kurt “wolf” .
kukur “dog” n. Proto-Semitic *gurw- “puppy” Turkic-Azeri
E. Cushiic- Rendille kár “male dog” kurd “wolf”
Austronesian-Puyumi
kurkur “dog”
A.10c.3 C. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖e !káu Chinese-Min
Sanskrit C. Khoisan-Naron !gau kaù “dog”
kauleyaka “a dog, “spotted hyena” Chinese- Hakka
(especially a hunting N. Khoisan- !’O-!Kung !k’āū “dog” ngau2 “mastiff; large, fierce
dog)” kauleya dog”
“a domestic animal, Hmong-Mien-Proto-Miao-Yao
i.e. a dog” *qlAuB “dog”
/
A.10d.1 E. Cushitic-Afar, Konso TB-Proto-Kiranti *ku°tu / *ku°cu “dog”
IE-Hindi kùta “dog” TB-Kiranti-Tulung ku°tüma “puppy”
kuttā “dog” W. Chadic-Ngizim kútə́řu “puppy” TB-Kiranti-Limbu kutibā “puppy”
IE-Pashto (Pushtu) C. Chadic- Bura kutiru “puppy” Turkic-Turkish kurt “wolf”
kutray “puppy” Semitic-Old Aramaic qurtison Turkic-Azeri kurd “wolf”
IE-E. Iranian- “little dog” Proto-Altaic *kiutí “a kind of fox”
Avestan gadhwa C. Chadic-Bata kəde “dog” Proto-Mongolian *küderi “a kind of
“a bitch, a female NS-Tepeth kudo’ “dog” fox”.
dog”
↓↓
A.12a.1 NC-Ewe lu “female antelope” TB-Tibetan
E-Sanskrit NC-Ahlo ulu “female antelope” ruru “deer”
ruru “a species of W. Chadic- Ngizim tlùwái Hmong-Mien-White
antelope” “meat” “animal (generally wild)” Hmong lwj “the
rucu “a deer with C. Cushitic-Bilin luwi “Kuh” [cow] Sambar deer
black horns” W. Chadic – Karekare ló “meat, animal” Hmong-Mien-Hmong
ruruzIrsan W. Chadic–Tangale lọ “animal, meat” mos lwj /
“deer-headed” NS-Maba Group-Aiki àlù “sheep” tus mos lwj “deer “
“having a deer’s NS-Maba Group- Masalit aru “ram”
horns”
A.12a.2 IE-Sanskrit NS- Maba Group-Zaghawa Chinese (Jiangdong)
rohi “a kind of deer” aro “ewe” òòru “flock” rou4 “deer, cervidae”
892
↓↓
A.13b.3 IE-Sanskrit Semitic-Arabic ‫ع‬agrab “scorpion” / TB-Chin-Lushai
ajakava “kind of vermin, ʕagrab “scorpion” ai ~ chakai “crab”
centipede or scorpion” Semitic-Hebrew m. ‘akrav “scorpion” TB-C. Loloish-Lahu
W. Chadic-Hausa á-chègu ~ á-chiku
[k’yāguwā] = k’aguwa “crab” “crab”
↓↓
A.14a.1 W. Chadic – Hausa A. 14a.1 TB-Tibetan chig “louse”
IE-Sanskrit A. 14a.1 TB-Kuki-Chin-Mikir chikli “flea”
suksmaSika jìgā n. f. TB-Jingpho [Kachin] tsiʔ “louse”
“a small fly, “jigger flea” Chinese-Cantonese sīk “a poisonous insect”
mosquito” NS-Kanuri Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho
suksma “minute, cígə “fly” si’kȋ: / s’iki’je “mosquito”
small” Proto-Cushitic Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari
(compound with (Dolgopolski 1973) si’kȋ’ɳȋ / sȋ’k’ri “mosquito”
G.8a.3 suksma) *ts-Gw-n(s) Altaic-Turkic-Khakassian sik, sēk “fly”
IE-Old Indian “fly, louse” AltaicTurkic-Oyrat sēk “mosquito”
makśika Altaic-Turkic-Tuvan sēk “fly”
“fly, bee” Proto-Mongolian ciɣV- “locust” “wood
louse”
Mongolian-Buriat, Kalmuck šigej- “locust”
“wood lous
A.14a.2 Khoisan-ǂHoan cʔí “louse” TB-Nung [Rawang] śi “louse”
IE-Bengali Proto-N. Khoisan Chinese- -MSC shí “louse”
machi “fly” n. *cʔíŋ “louse chī (WG) “a louse, aphid, nit” zhì “leech”
cicciTiGga NS-Bari ciro(tat) “louse” TB-Yi Nanjian ɕi5 “louse”
“a kind of E. Cushitic- Somali Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari,
venomous insect” šilin ”tick” Santali si: “louse”
IE-E. Iranian- -Rendille chilím ”tick(s)” Kartvelian- Laz čič- “firefly”
Avestan makśī Semitic-Gurage (Selti, Wolane) Kartvelian- Georgian cicci-natela “firefly,
“Fliege” (Ger.) šilme ”tick” moth”
[fly] (Zway) silmi ”tick”
/
IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic- Hausa Chinese-Cantonese
A.14b.2 màtsàttsàku “leech, fluke” sāt “flea” “louse”
satcarana “louse, (Katsina dial) Chinese-Min
locust” c’àcc’aku sat1 “louse”
suksmasatcarana n. m. “leech” Old Southern Chinese
“a sort of tick or louse” W. Chadic-Bauci Group dzât “cockroach”
suksma “minute, satsa / tsatso “an earwig”
small”
/
IE-Sanskrit S. Cushitic- Burunge TB- Dimasa thi-ku “louse”
A.14c.1-2 tikaciya “tsetse fly” TB-Tibetan gti-khe “a kind of louse”
diGka C. Chadic- Logone mtigulas TB- Garo tik “louse “
“the nit of a louse” “Floh, Wanze” [flea, insect] Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-
cicciTiGga Berber-Tamazight tixxuyin “fleas” Mundari ti’ki “flea”
“a kind of E. Cushitic- Sidamo tiiticca n. “fly” TB-N. Naga-Tangsa-Moshang thik
venomous insect” Egyptian tekk-t “a kind of insect” “louse”
E. Cushitic-Hadiyya teekay-a TB-Naga-Chokri- təkhrì “louse”
“fly”
893
↓↓
IE-Sanskrit South (Ethiopian) TB-Tibetan pagba “pig, hog” phag-pa “swine, hog, pig”
A.15.1 Semitic- Gurage TB- Mikir phak “pig”
pagkakrida abäg’ar / Proto-Tibeto-Burman *pak = *pwak “pig”
“a pig” abäg’ēr Austro-Thai *mba(g)- “pig”
pagkakridanaka “wild pig” TB-Tibetan pagba “pig, hog”
“a pig” C. Chadic- Masa TB-Kiranti-Limbu phak “pig” phaksa “pork” sa
bakum “meat”
“le cochon” TB- Mikir phakleng “wild pig”
[pig] TB- Proto-Kiranti *ʔpək “pig”
S. Chinese-Min bâq “meat (especially pork)”
gū -bâq “beef” (Taiwanese) ti-bâq “pork” ti “pig” ”
TB-Tibetan phag-rgod “wild boar” ;
phag-sha “pork” pag-sha “pork” sha “meat”
TB- Qiangic-Pumi-Dayang-rGyalrong pak “pig”
Sino-Tibetan root brak “pig”
“widely attested in ST” “also in Austronesian”
↓↓
A.16.1 Proto-Chadic *mar “oil” TB-Tibetan
IE-Tocharian C. Chadic-Tera mar “oil” mar “butter”
smare W. Chadic-Ron (Kulere) mààr / màr maa / margo “butter”
“smooth, oil” “oil” marnaà
Proto-IE Proto-AA *mori’ “fat, oil” “vegetable oil”
*smerw E. Cushitic- Oromo moora n. “fat, Proto-Altaic *male “plant
“butter, marrow” cattle fat” oil”
NS-Anywa [Anuak] Proto-Tungus-Manchu *mala
màaɔ‫“כ‬oil, fat, grease” “plant oil”
màar dhɪaŋ “butter” [lit. cow oil]
↓↓
A.18a.2 C. Chadic-Wamdiu ĉiwàr “elephant”
IE-Sanskrit C. Chadic-Bura ĉiwar “elephant”
sivàra “elephant” C. Chadic-Ngwaxi ciwə̀r “elephant”
C. Chadic-Kilba ĉuwar “elephant”
C. Chadic-Hildi [Margi] čiwaru “elephant”
↓↓
A.19a.2 W. Chadic- Hausa zākìi “lion” TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit South (Ethiopian) Semitic- Gurage gza “the snow leopard, nearly white,
gza “lion” žägwara “leopard” with small clusters of black spots living
IE-Tokharian W. Chadic–Karekare cagalau on the higher mountains”
śiśak / ̣secake “leopard” TB-Chin-Lushai sakei “tiger”
< sēnśake “lion” NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] TB-Chin-Lakher tśəkei “tiger”
njagáwu “lion” pl. njāgaji Written Burmese sac “leopard”
/
IE-Sanskrit Niger Congo-Swahili simba “lion” TB-Tibetan
A.19b.1 siMha m. Niger Congo- Common Bantu *cimba siŋ-ge “the lion”
“lion” “early Vedic” “cat, lion, leopard, genet” séŋ-ge “the lion”
IE-Old Indian simhá C. Chadic- Masa zimi “lion” seŋge “mythical snow
m. “lion” E. Chadic-Kwang sèmki / sémgí lion”
IE-Bengali shingho “lion” senge kabeb
“lion” n. Chadic root *sèmki “lion” “Indus River”
894
IE-Hindi sinha m. C. Chadic–Bura singi / tsingi “lion” South Daic-Lao

“lion C. Chadic- Masa zìŋil “la panthere” dtua1 si:ng4 n. “lion”
IE-Pashto (Pushtu) [panther]
shin-m’zaraey C. Chadic- Bura group *TSəŋg-y “lion”
“the lion” W. Chadic- Pero cəŋgin “lion”
Proto-IE *sing’h C. Chadic-Musgum senim “lion”
“lion” C. Chadic-Zime-Batna tsindzir / tiŋir
IE-Sanskrit sindhura “leopard”
m. “elephant ” NC-Benue-Congo-Bagam sɨŋ ~ syŋ
“elephant”
A.19b.2 IE-Sanskrit C. Cushitic-Bilin �anā “elephant” TB-Burmese
candira m. C. Cushitic-Qwara �ānā “elephant” tshaŋ “elephant”
“an elephant” C. Cushitic-Khamta djāni “elephant” chaŋ “elephant”
sannāhya NC-Benue-Congo-Ndoro Proto-Tai *jaŋ “elephant”
“a war elephant” a-saŋgama “elephant” N. Chinese-MSC
sama-ja / samajate m. -Benue-Congo-Bapi (Mbam Nkam Group) syàng (Y) “elephant”
“an elephant” sɨə́n “elephant” South Daic-Lao
-Benue-Congo-Bachingou sang5
(Mbam Nkam Group) “elephant”
sɨəñ ə̃ “elephant”
↓↓
IE-Sanskrit C. Chadic- Hitkala Middle Chinese
A.20a.1 būbu “Schlange” [snake] bjəu “insect/worm”
bhujaMgha C. Chadic- Gava Proto-Tibeto-Burman
“a serpent, snake” buba “snake” *buw = *bəw “insect, snake”
bhujiu W. Chadic-Gera *bəw “bug” “insect, vermin”
“a snake or viper” bur-si “mosquito” Proto-Kiranti
bhujaMgha TB-Qiangic-Pumi- *bhu “snake, worm”
“a serpent, snake” Dayang TB-Lepcha bû
bhujiu bərá “snake” “reptile, worm”
“a snake or viper” Proto-Semitic TB-Magari bul “snake”
*bur “kind of insect”
A.20a.3 E. Cushitic- Oromo TB-Mirish-Bengni
IE-Sanskrit butii “kind of snake” bɯr-ta “snake”
bhUlata “vipera nera TB-Naga-Tangkhul
“an earth worm” velenosissima” phərɯ / phərə “snake”
fùllarika / phullarika [black viper, very Proto-Mongolian
“a snake, a serpent” poisonous] *bürge “flea”
fùllaka buti “viper” Proto-Turkic *bürče / *bürge “flea”
“a worm or snake” Mongolian-Khalka
büreg “flea”
Mongolian-Kalmuck, Ordos
bürgə “flea”
Mongolian-Baoan bərgə “flea”
↓↓
IE-Sanskrit C. Chadic- Glavda Chinese- Cantonese
A.21a.1 káwa “bull” ngàuh
gaura káwà “ox, cattle, cow, bull”
“a kind of buffalo, “buffalo (male)” séuingàuh
Bos Gaurus” “the female Proto-E. Cushitic “water buffalo”
of the Bos Gaurus” *ʔawr- “bull” séui “water”
895
IE-Old Indian Proto-AA TB-N. Naga-Chang

gau-h m. “ox” f. “cow” *yaw- / *yawr- “bull” ŋʌ̂u “cattle”
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan W. Chadic- Bole / Tangale-Kirfi
*gāu “ox, cow” kaunong / kaunu “buffalo”
gao “ox, cattle” N. Khoisan-!Kung
gava “cow, bull, ox” ǀgàuh, ǀkau /
IE-Bengali goru “cow” Khoisan-Hukwe
IE-Sanskrit |gau “buffalo”
gava “a cow, cattle” Khoisan- Nama,, Korana
gavarjah “a bull” |gao “buffalo”
gavala, gavaya NC-Benue-Congo-Gure
“the wild buffalo” kawi “buffalo”
gavaya “Gayal, NC-Benue-Congo-Kuturmi
(a species of ox, kawa “buffalo”
Bos gavaeus)” RV W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Warji
gavendra “a bull” kavna “buffalo”
IE-Pashto ghwaayaey W. Chadic-Bole/Tangale-Kubii
“a bull, a bullock, an ox” kabba “buffalo”
A.21a.2 NC-Benue-Congo-Ikulu TB- Nung ŋwa ~ ŋa ~ nwa
IE-Pashto (Pashtu) kuwah “buffalo” “cattle”
ghwaa “cow” Daic-Siamese ŋwaA2
IE-Hittite n. “water buffalo’’
*guwau “Rind” (Ger.) South Daic-Lao ngua3 maa2 n.
“head of cattle” “cow”, ngua3 pa2 n. “bull
(animal)”, ngua3 kway3 n. “cattle”
A.21a.3 IE-Tocharian C. Khoisan-Khoekhoe-Gowab Chinese-Min gú “ox, cow”
*ko / keu “cow” ‖goo “bull” cuî-gú
IE-Sanskrit Egyptian “buffalo, water buffalo”
gu “cow” gu “a kind of cattle” cuî “water”
go “an ox, a cow” gw “bull” Chinese- Hakka
pl. “cattle, kine, khu ku3 / gǔ3
a herd of cattle” “cattle for sacrifice” “cow, bull, ox”
RV NC-Benue-Congo-Amo Daic-White-Tai
“cattle” ku-káwi “bull” ŋoA2 “water buffalo’’
↓↓
IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic- Hausa, Gwandara TB-Tibetan
A.28.1 madařā “milk” dára / dár
dharaghosa “(milk) cooled Semitic-Written Arabic “buttermilk”
after having been milked” darr “milk” tara
dharosna “warm from the cow Kanuri fe mádára- be “milk cow” “buttermilk”
(milk)” E. Cushitic- Rendille dár-ba “fresh
kadara “coagulated milk” ‘dambar “colostrum, first milk produced buttermilk”
taruNadadhi by mother (human or animal) after giving
“coagulated milk five days old” birth”
kadambara E. Cushitic- Oromo
“the surface or skim of ’dama “water removed from coagulated
coagulated milk, sour cream” milk” “buttermilk, whey”
kadambarIbIja “any cause of dama-ti “latticello, siero di burro”
fermentation, ferment, yeast” [curds, whey]
↓↓
896
IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic-Hausa TB-Tibetan

A.29.1 zagō “large termite” tsag-tsag / tsa-ga-‘bu
zaka “a kind of fly” matsattsagi / ča-ga-bu “grasshopper”
“a variety of ča-ga-pa “locust” “grasshopper”
IE-Old Indian grasshopper” Chinese-Hakka tsa5 / tsak7 ~ za5 /
maśaka “mosquito, gnat” W. Chadic-Dwot zak7 “grasshopper, locust”
makśa “fly, bee” njak “termite” Altaic-Turkic-Khakassian
Egyptian tchakitcha saɣirti “locust, grasshopper”
“gnat, midge” Altaic-Turkic-Yakut saxsirɣa “fly”
A.29.2 IE-Bengali W. Chadic-Goemai Chinese-MSC zhà “grasshopper”
mɔsha “mosquito” [Ankwe] Chinese- Cantonese
nža “termite” ja “locust, grasshopper”
A.29.5 IE- Sanskrit Semitic-Hebrew Altaic- Mongolian sarsä “locust”
zarabha / śarabha “locust” tsartsar n. m. Proto-TB *sar ~ *śar “louse”
KsarakIta “a kind of insect” “cricket” *s(y)ar “louse”
sArikAmuka “insect” Semitic-Arabic sursur TB-Gyarung sar “louse”
caraka “a cockroach” sarasur pl. Proto-Altaic sarču “locust, dragonfly”
saragh “(of unknown “cricket, cockroach” Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu
derivation) a bee” Chadic-Hausa *čačaraku “locust”
sAragha “coming or tsariyà “small cricket” Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *čarča- “locust”
derived from the bee” “cricket species” Altaic- Mongolian-Buriat
“a bee” RV Proto-Highland E. sarsa “locust”
IE- Hindi Cushitic Altaic-Proto-Turkic saričga “locust”
macchar “mosquito” *z-r- “locust” Altaic-Turkic-Khakassian
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) sarisxa “a kind of dragonfly”
‫ح‬ašara “insect, bug” Altaic-Turkic-Oyrat sariška- “locust”
A.29.6 IE- Sanskrit C. Chadic-Higi Kamale TB-Deng
zalabha “a grasshopper” dzale “locust” sal “louse”
“a locust”
zalabhaya
“to be or act like a
grasshopper or moth”
IE-Bengali
jhala “a cricket”
↓↓
A.35.2 IE-Sanskrit C. Chadic- Mandara (Wandala) TB-Tibetan
cikka “a mouse” “a musk rat” jigale “rat” rtsig-ge “a mouse”
cikkira “a kind of mouse” C. Chadic- Bura dzīgi “mouse, rat”
cikura “a musk rat” kutsika “bush rat”
NS-Maba Group- Kodoi
jîk “rat, mouse”
↓↓
A.37.1-2 Proto-W. Chadic Proto-Tibeto-
IE-Sanskrit *kur- “dove:” Burman
A.37.1 E. Cushitic-Afar kurrubaahe “ring-necked dove” *kruw =
kurava Anywa ākuurú “pigeon” m-krew “dove”
“a kind of dove” NS-Kənzi kur / kuru “Turteltaube” [turtle dove] TB-Jingpho
NS-Kənzi- Dongola kuru “dove” [Kachin]
khru “dove”
897
A.37.2 IE-Sanskrit E. Cushitic-Afar kukkurru “dove”

ghughu “a pigeon” E. Cushitic-Oromo
gugè “colombo, picchione” [dove, pigeon]
Total Sanskrit / Hindi / Bengali A Domain correspondences = 35
B.2b.2-4 NC-S.E. Mande- Samo Austro-Asiatic-Kherwarian-

B.2b.2 IE-Hindi Bangasoko, Kiembara etc. Mundari ʤaŋ’gal
jangal “jungle” n. kware “grove”
jangal “wood” m. sááŋgaa “forest, thicket” Chinese-MSC
IE-Sanskrit sanDa W. Chadic- Gwandara tsāngtsāng (WG)
“a group of trees or plants, wood, tsàŋwâ / “dense foliage”
thicket” càŋwâ “grass”
sAndra “(of unknown TB-Tibetan tshaŋ-tshiŋ
derivation)” “a wood, thicket” “a dense copse or thicket”
“a heap, cluster” “thick, solid, “wood, grove, copse, thicket”
compact, dense” “studded or lchaŋ-ma “willow, salix
crowded with” viminalis, almost the only leaved
sAndramata “most compact or tree in Tibet” jaŋma “tree”
dense”
B.2b.3 Proto-Afro-Asiatic Chinese-Cantonese
IE-Sanskrit *tsim- / *tsam- sàm “luxuriant vegetation or
samUla “fruit, seeds, foliage, plant luxuriant growth of trees”
“having roots, overgrown, grassy, growth in general” Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Ho,
green, verdant” Egyptian Mundari, Santali
IE-Hindi jamgala sām “a plant or flower” jamgala “grove, forest”
“grove, forest” Semitic-Akkadian Austro-Asiatic-Kherwarian-Ho
šamm- “grass” ʤum’bel “grove”
B.2b.4 IE-Bengali Maba Group- Maba S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
jɔngol n. “forest, jungle” sùŋ-ɔ̀k “tree, wood” chùng “a shrub (plant), thicket”
jɔngli adj. “wild” sùŋo korkuro chùng lam “a dense wood”
“dense, impenetrable forest”
W. Chadic-Hausa N. Chinese-MSC
sùnk’ūrùu m. ts’úng (WG) “a clump of trees”
“thick bush, uncleared land” “crowded together”
↓↓
B.3a.1 IE-E. Iran- Semitic-Arabic Chinese-Wu zaʔ8 “stone, rock,
Avestan zArkarA s’axar “rock(s) , mineral”
“gravel, grit, pebbles” stone(s)” Chinese- Hakka zag7 / tsak7
“small stone” s’axri “stony, rocky” “sand and gravel in shallow waters”
“gravelly mold or soil” Semitic-Arabic s’ak8 “stone, rock, mineral”
AV “consisting of s’a‫ح‬raaʔ “desert” “calculus (as a kidney calculus), kidney
gravel or grit” “gritty” Proto-Afro-Asiatic stone”
zAkvara “sand, *c̟�KVraʔ “sand” TB-Tibetan shág-ma / shág-ruù
gravel” W. Chadic – Hausa “small stones or pebbles, gravel”
IE-Pashto tsakuwàa “small stone, shág-sa “rocky soil, soil having lots of
sakhra’h ”a stone, a gravel” pebbles”
rock, a pebble” zaɣazaɣa “sand” Turkic-Turkmen çage / çhage “sand”
skhar ”a stone, a rock, Central Chadic-Gude Altaic-Proto-Turkic
or pebble” sekwat “small rocky hill” *sekü ”stone bench, pedestal”
898
B.3a.3 IE-Sanskrit C. Chadic – Glavda Altaic-Turkic-Turkish

jaGgala sə̀ghə̀la çakil “sand”
“arid, sterile desert” “sand”
“arid, sparingly grown C. Chadic – Padoko
with trees and plants” dzegela
jaGgalapatha “rocher” [rock]
“any arid or sterile
region, desert”
[Trisyllabic corresp.]
Proto-IE
*k(‘) g(‘)hl- “gravel”
B.3a.4 West (Ethiopian) Semitic-
IE- Sanskrit Amharic ĉ’əqa
cikila / cikalla “mud, clay, mire”
“mud, mire, a slough” šäkla “clay”
C. Chadic – Wamdiu
tsakwab’u “mud”
West (Ethiopian) Semitic-
Argobba šäkla “clay”
/
B.3b.1 IE-E. Iranian-Avestan W. Chadic-Hausa Chinese- Cantonese
sikaTa jigāwā jīk “gravel and sand”
“sand, gravel” “sandy soil” “soil (sandy)” jīhk sà “quartz sand”
sikatila “light soil (usually TB-Tibetan (Ladaki)
“consisting of sand, sandy” upland)” mchig “the nether millstone”
sikatottara / sikatavat C. Chadic – Gude chi / chigu “millstone, grinding
“abounding in sand, sandy” AV zhígè “sand” stone”
IE-Pashto shiga’h NS- Maba Group- Mimi Proto-Mongolian
”sand, gravel, small pebbles” siki “sand čeɣel “sand, sandbar”
shiglana “sandy or gravelly Proto-W. Chadic Turkic-Turkish
soil” *zhígwa “hill, rock” seki ”stone bench, pedestal”
Egyptian utshi Turkic-Turkmen, Kyrgyz
“a kind of stone”” seki “stone bench, pedestal”
/
IE-Sanskrit South (Ethiopian) TB-Tibetan
B.3c.2 Semitic- Gurage dzā “clay used for making pottery”
zada (Masqan, Gogot, Chinese- Cantonese
“mud, slime” Selti) šähla “clay” sà “sand, tiny gravel or pebbles”
C. Chadic–Guduf “ a kind of clay for making utensils, vessels etc.”
zaazaa “sand”
IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic- Hausa TB-Written-Burmese
B.3c.4 saimō m. sâi “sand”
saikaTa “infertile, barren land” TB-Jingpho [Kachin]
“sandy , zài-bru “sand” zài-ni “fine sand, dust”
gravelly” Proto-Tai *zaay “sand”
“consisting or made Proto-Altaic *sāj “shallow, stony place”
of sand” Altaic-Proto-Turkic *saj “shallow, stony place”
Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu *saj “shallow,
stony place”
Siamese saaj
899
/
B.3d.1 W. Chadic- Gwandara Proto-Mongolian
IE-Sanskrit kaša “earth” kəsa “sand” *gaʒar “earth, land”
kSA “the earth, ground” W. Chadic-Hausa Mongolian-Khalkha
kSa “a field” k’asaa k’asàashee pl. *gaʒar “earth”
kSaman “earth, soil, ground” “earth, soil, ground” Mongolian-Ordos *Gaʒar “earth,
RV “country, state” land”
kaccha “a bank or any ground C. Chadic- Buduma Mongolian-Kalmuck *ɣazr
bordering on water, shore” kēsa “sand” “earth”
kacchAnta NS-Maba Group- Aiki Proto-Altaic *kiaʒurV “sand,
“the border of a lake or stream” kàs‫“ כ‬countryside, desert” steppe, earth”
IE-Old Indian Semitic-Hebrew katse Proto-Turkic *Kajir “sand, steppe,
ḳsāh / ḳsámi “ground, earth” “edge, border” earth”
ḳsámya- Egyptian khast “district, a Proto-Mongolian *kuʒir “sand,
“terrestrial” kind of land” steppe, earth”
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) gaa‫ع‬ Proto-Tungus-Manchu
“ground, earth, land” *kuʒur “sand, steppe, earth”
B.3d.2 IE-Sanskrit, NS-Maba Group- Masalit TB-Tibetan kha̱sheè “a place
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan kasε / káas-è (conveys a vagueness about which
kSetra “land, soil” “place, “countryside, desert” place)” śed / ga-śed “the
region, country” E. Cushitic- Sidamo approximate direction, region, or
RV AV “a field” qaççe “border, frontier, quarter” ga-çed “an approximate
kSetrabhumi “cultivated land” boundary, end, suburbs, rural but uncertain direction, region or
kSetrasIma boundary of a area” quarter”
field”
IE-Hindi ksetra “zone”
↓↓
B.5a.2 W. Chadic-Gwandara dúnci “rock, stone, TB-Written Tibetan,
IE-Old Indian mountain”” Tibetan (Ladakhi)
tunga- m. E. Cushitic-Hadiyya duuna “hill” rduŋ
“elevation, height, NC-Proto-W. Nigritic *-tunda “hill” “a small mound, hillock”
mountain” E. Cushitic- Sidamo dûna / dûno “heap, lump N. Chinese -MSC
of earth, clod” “pile, stack” dūn / tūn “mound”
N. Omotic-Ometo *du:nn- “termite mound” “a block of stone or wood”
/
B.5c.2 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic- Hausa tulìi n. m. “heap” Chinese- Cantonese
dhUlikedara E. Cushitic-Sidamo tullite / tullo “hill, heap” dèui / dēui “mound of
“a mound or rampart of E. Cushitic-Oromo tullu “hill” earth” “pile, heap”
earth” Proto-AA *-tuul- ”to rise, to form a heap, Chinese- Min
mound” tuî “a pile, a heap”
↓↓
B.6.1 IE- W. Chadic- Hausa TB-Tibetan gaŋ “a ridge”
Sanskrit gāniyà “acme, peak, sgaŋ “a projecting hill or spur, or the side of a larger
gandaka zenith” “peak “ (acme) kān mountain” the ridge or top of a hill”
“a hill” dūtsèe “ridge (of hill, gangsa “highland area, a plateau, a ridge”
gandaUpa mountain)” Proto-Tibeto-Burman *s-gaŋ “hill” “mountain”
“the tableland of gàngaràa f. “slope” “slant Proto-Lolo-Burmese *kaŋ1 “hill / high ground”
a mountain” (incline)” “sloping ground” Chinese-MSC gāng “ridge (of a hill)” “mountain
E. Chadic- Tumak ridge”
gəŋ “bank” [of river] Old Chinese kâŋ “hill, ridge”
900
↓↓
B.7.1 Songhay (Koroboro) TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit sarahu “herb or grass species of rocky areas” tsà “herb,
sara “grass” W. Chadic- Ron (Bokkos) plant”
zara “a sort of reed or shala “Futtergras (fur Pferde)” sa / dza
grass (Saccharum Sara)” [fodder, forage grass (for horses] “grass”
RV W. Chadic-Hausa tsāri “thatching grass” caà
zaradaka W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Miya, Kariya “fodder”
“a kind of Darbha grass” tsar “grass species”
zaradanda W. Chadic-Karekare, Bole *šar “grass”
“a stalk of reed or grass” W. Chadic-Bura Group *sar “grass”
jaraDI “a kind of grass” Proto-S. Cushitic *tsar- “grass”
S. Cushitic- Irakwe tsarami “thatching grass”
Semitic-Ethiopic-Gurage, Tigrinya sa’ri “grass”
Semitic- Ethiopic-Harari sä’ar / sār “grass”
Semitic-Ethiopic-Amharic sar / sār “grass, straw”
Egyptian tchā / tchāā “straw, weed”
↓↓
B.8.1 W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Pa’a šarì “root” TB-Tibetan
IE-Hindi E. Chadic- Birgit cááro “root” / E. Chadic- Mubi cààro “root” rtsá-ba
jar Proto-Chadic *sar- “root” / Proto-Afro-Asiatic *sar- “root” “root”
“root” f. Proto-Cushitic *sar- “root” dza
Semitic-Amharic, Tigre, Harari sər- “root” “root”
Berber – Tuareg [Tamasheq] azar “root”
NS-Kanuri zâr “root”
N. Khoisan-Zu|’hoan ‖àrì “root”
N. Khoisan-‖Au‖en ‖ari “root fiber”
N. Khoisan -!’O!Kung ‖are / ‖ale “root fiber”
↓↓
B.9.1 C. Chadic- Tera Old Chinese
IE-Bengali mere “late millet” miər “rice”
mụri E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] N. Chinese-MSC
“parched rice” n. mériya “sorgho” [sorghum] xiăomîr n. “yellow millet”
Sudanic-Nubian-Kənzi [Kənuzi]
marē “Durra” [sorghum]
B.9.3 E. Cushitic- Gedeo South Daic-Lao me:t2 “grain”
IE-Bengali mid’a “grain, cereal, crop” Hmong-Mien-Proto-Mienic
mɔyda E. Cushitic- Oromo *hmei “millet”
“flour’ n. mid’aan “grain (growing, Hmong-Mien-Mun of Hainan /
harvested)” “graniglia, cereali” Hmong-Mien--Mun of Funing
[grain, cereals] mei / mei pe “hulled rice”
B.9.4 IE-Sanskrit C. Chadic-Gisiga Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
syāmaka “Panicum magaya “Hirse” [millet] siumahk “wheat” [lit. small grain]
Frumentaceum C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur daaimahk “barley” [lit. big grain]
“a kind of cultivated magaya “petit mil” Middle Chinese
millet” [small millet] meak “wheat (or barley”
magha “a species of Proto-South Cushitic Kartvelian-Georgian maxa “a kind
grain” *magwale “sorghum” of wheat”
mahabuza “a sort of E. Chadic- Somrai Kartvelian-Laz moxa “a kind of
rice” “barley” maja “Negerhirse” [millet] wheat”
901
mahayava “a kind of Proto-Altaic *miurgu “wheat”

large barley” Altaic- Mongolian mu:rki ’barley,
mahadUSaka wheat’
“a species of grain” Altaic- Proto-Tungus Manchu
*murgi “wheat”
↓↓
B.11a.1 IE- Sanskrit Semitic-Ethiopic- Amharic Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh,
AbhA “to shine or blaze towards” abärra vi. “be aglow, shine Bashkir, Karakalpak, Kumyk,
“to irradiate, outshine, illumine” (of eyes, sun), be bright, light Tatar balqi
RV up” “to shine, glitter”
bhA “to shine; “be bright or vt. “turn on the light, light (a TB-Chairel phal “fire”
luminous” lamp), burn (a candle)”
IE-E. Iran-Avestan hvar
“sun, glow”
B.11a.2 IE-Pashto Semitic-Ethiopic- Amharic TB-Tibetan
barrāndda’h “a blaze of fire with abärra vi. ‘bár-ba / ‘bár-wa “to burn”
much smoke, a flame.” “be aglow, shine (of eyes, bār “to light, to turn on a
bal adj. “burnt, lighted, inflamed, sun), be bright, light up” light”
set on fire” vt. “turn on the light, light (a sbár-ba “to light, to kindle”
baledal vt. “to burn, to kindle, to lamp), burn (a candle)” TB-Miri par “light (as a
ignite, to take or catch fire” bärra “burn” “(of light) be fire)”
balawul vt. “to light, burn, set alight, be lit, light up” Proto-Tibeto-Burman
on fire, kindle ignite” bärräqä “lighten, shine” *bar ~ *par = *bwár ~
IE-Sanskrit Semitic-Hebrew ba’ar “burned” *pwár
bharaNyu “fire” barata / v. past tense “burn, fire”
bharatha “fire", “name of Agni” W. Chadic-Guuruntum bàʔa TB-Kanauri
[the god of fire] “heat” bar “burn” vi.
barhis “fire, light, splendor” C. Chadic-Gude par “burn” vt.
barhiSkeza / barhiHzuSman ‘bərə “shine” bhárga- m. “radiance,
“fire or the god of fire” ‘bərən “light” splendor”
bhaIh “to shine” bhasvat E. Cushitic-Rendille
“luminous, shining” guba vt. “to burn”
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan ā-bā Egyptian barga “illumine, to
“scheinen” (Ger.) [to shine] give light” bā “to shine,
IE-Tokharian por “fire" be bright”
IE-Hittite pahhur “fire" Proto-Afro-Asiatic
Proto-IE *bhā- “to shine” *ba- “burn, be hot”
IE-Old Indian svarati W. Chadic- Hausa
“to shine” balbal “make a bright fire”
IE-Old Indian bhāti “to shine, bābā “to shine, to give light”
be bright, be luminous” pāpā “to shine, to illumine”
bhāla- n. “splendor, luster” pā “flame, fire, spark”
bhárga- m. “radiance,
splendor”
B.11a.3 Proto-IE W. Chadic-Goemai Old Chinese xwâr
*g’werə- “to burn, to flame” / khw̄:r “burn” burn, fire”
*g’wher[e] “to heat, to burn” W. Chadic-Hausa (Daura dial.) TB- Nung hwar “burn,
IE-Hittite war- “brennen, kuwārà “a big bush fire” kindle”
verbrennen” [burn, scorch] Proto-Afro-Asiatic Proto-Tibeto-Burman
*qawar- “burn” *hwa:r “fire, burn,”
NS-Kanuri kwára “bush-fire”
902
Proto-Kartvelian
warwar- “to burn, glitter”
Kartvelian-Svan
warwāl- “to burn, glitter”
B.11a.4 IE-Old Indian Kartvelian-Georgian
svarati “to shine” varvār- “to burn, glitter”
/
B.11e.4 Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) sarra ‫“ح‬to speed up, expedite” TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit tsarra “to be rash, hasty, tshatsha
saranya be in too much of a hurry” sarrii‫“ ح‬fast, quick, rapid” (Balti prov.)
“to run, hasten, W. Chadic-Hausa “hastily, quickly”
speed” RV saurī m. “haste” “hurry” “speed, haste” tsadraà /
saranyu yi saurī “hasten” dzadraà
“quick, fleet, NS-Songhay (Koroboro) čahā “hurry, do fast, be in a “urgent, critical”
nimble” RV hurry”
E. Chadic- Dangaleat sàadyilè “se hater exagérément,
perdre patience” [be overhasty, lose patience]
/
B.12b.1 NS-Kanuri kángin N. Chinese-MSC
IE-Sanskrit “deep fry” (e.g. bean cakes in oil)” kàng
kandava “roasted or kánnu “fire” “bake or dry by the heat of the
baked in in an iron pan NC- Benue-Congo- Ekoid Bantu fire”
or oven (as bread, kaŋ- “fry, bake” k’àng (WG) “a brick bed
cakes)” kandu NC-Swahili warmed by a fire”
“an oven or vessel -kaanga “to fry” TB- Jingpho [Kachin]
serving as one” kangwa “to be fried” “fried” kaŋ “to be hot, emit heat, as the
kandupakva N. Omotic-N. Mao sun or a flame”
“parched or roasted (as k’än- vt. “to burn” kekāŋ “roast, toast”
grain) or fried in a pan” kham “warm (temperature)” Proto-Kiranti
kandukaghRha Egyptian *kaŋ “fry, roast”
“a place for cooking” kham “burning hot” TB- Burmese
IE-Old Indian khamm “heat, fire, hot, fever” kaŋ “broil, roast, toast”
ukhá-m, “to be hot, to blaze” Chinese-Cantonese
ukhā NS-Saharan Songhay (Koroboro) chàang
“boiler, cauldron” čaŋkam “warm up at fire” “a heat, a pan for frying”
E. Cushitic- Oromo Proto-Tibeto-Burman
qam-accu *kaŋ
“riscaldarsi al sole o al fuoco, prendere “roast, toast, burn”
sole” [to warm oneself at the fire, take TB-Chin-Lushai ka.ŋ “burn”
some sun] Proto-Altaic
Khoisan-Sandawe *kéma
*kama “to burn” “stove, cauldron”
Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni)
h̟ammar “to roast”
N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au‖’e
ǂxame “cook”
B.12b.2 IE-Bengali B.12b.2 C. Chadic-Fali Mucella, Fali Proto-Kiranti
agun “fire” n. Bwagira xun- “burn” *ghoŋ
W. Chadic-Buli konu “burn, dry up” “to warm”
↓↓
903
B.13.1-2 Nile Nubian [Kenuzi- TB-Pattani dhul “dust”

IE-Bengali dhula “dust” Dongola] TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit dhUli “dust (also the dusty tulli “smoke” rdul “dust, as particles
soil), powder, pollen” C. Chadic- Gude floating in the air”
dhulaya “to sprinkle with dust or powder” tul “dust(y)” tuluŋ “smoke”
dhUlana “covering with dust” N. Omotic-Janjero tüü “smoke” tushaà,
IE-Hindi dhula “dust” tuloo / tulloo tuwə, “smoke”
IE-Pashto durra’h “dust” tudreg “smoke, dirt, soot”
“fine dust, dust in general” NC-E. Mande- Bobo TB-E. Kiranti-Bantawa
durredal “to become dusty, túlú “dust” dhu-mi-lo
to be covered with dust” NC-N. Mande- Bozo- “dusty, misty”
IE-Sanskrit dhūma Dia Altaic-Turkic-Turkish
“smoke, vapor, mist, haze” xumun-dulu “dust” dhuman “fog”
dhūmravarNa N. Omotic-Gimira, Shako Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur
“smoke-colored, smoky” “incense” duldul “cloud” tuman “fog, mist”
carisnudhuma NS-Songhay Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
“having moving smoke” RV dullu “smoke” Kherwarian-Ho
IE-Hindi dhumdh “haze” steam” W. Chadic- Hausa du’lid’ “dust”
dhumdhlā “hazy” tùrùrī “steam, vapor” -Kherwarian-Mundari
IE-Bengali dhu:m “smoke, fumes” tùràare “perfume” dhu’ri / du’rǝ “dust”
Proto-IE *dhuw- “to smoke, to raise tùràaren wuta -Kherwarian-Santali
dust” “incense” dhu’ri “dust”
↓↓
B.14a.1 IE-Sanskrit Semitic- Arabic TB-Nepali phulnu
phulla “a full-blown flower” full (coll.) “roses, “to blossom, to flower”
“abounding in flowers, flowery” flowers” phul “flower”
“to open, expand, blow (as a flower” N. Omotic-Janjero N. Chinese-MSC
“opened wide, puffed, inflated” fūraa “blossom, flower” fū (WG) “to open, as a flower”
phullana “puffing up, inflating” fūraa “flower” TB-Burmese
phulli “expanding, blossoming” Proto-Afro-Asiatic phù “to bud, swell”
“a full-blown flower” *pur- “flower, grass” aphu “bud, swelling”
“abounding in flowers, flowery” W. Chadic- Gwandara Proto-Tibeto-Burman
“to open, expand” (Koro, Nimbia) *bu ~ *pu “open, bud”
“opened wide, puffed, inflated” fùré / pùri “flower” Proto-Altaic
phullavat “expanded, W. Chadic-Hausa *púre “leaf, bud”
blossoming, blooming” “a full- fùrē pl. fùrànni Proto-Altaic *púre “leaf, bud”
blown flower”“bloom” “flower, blossom” Proto-Turkic *bür “leaf, bud”
phulav “swelling” m. NS-Tubu [Teda] Proto-Mongolian *bor- “leaf,
IE-Bengali phul flower” fur “offnen” [to open] bud”
B.14a.3 NS-Kanuri fúngin, fújin TB-Bahing pung “flower”
IE-Hindi phunsī “pimple” f. “swell, become swollen”
/
B.14b.1 IE-Sanskrit Semitic- Ge’ez Austro-Asiatic-Munda
phalya “a flower, bud” färya, färäyä “to blossom” palha “leaf”
phala “fruit” RV N. Cushitic- Beja [Bedawi] palhao v. “sprouting of new leaves
phal-ini “having fruit” far “flower” after the branch of a tree has been cut”
phal “to burst, cleave Semitic-Hebrew Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-
open or asunder” “to bear poreakh v. present tense Mundari phal “fruit”
or produce fruit” parakh v. past tense TB-Mikir aŋ-phar
phal “fruit, esp. of trees” “blossomed, bloomed” “flower”
904
phalahrt perakh “flower” S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)

“fruit-bearing, fruitful” bar m. “field flower” fā n. “flower”
aphala, suphala South (Ethiopian) Semitic- TB-Bodo/Garo- Dimasa
“berry of the Ficus Gurage (Masqan, Gogot, Soddo) bār “flower”
religiosa” RV (a)färra-m “bear fruit” TB-Chin-Lushai
IE-Hindi phal Proto- Semitic *pary “fruit” pa.r “flower, to blossom”
“blade, fruit”m. West (Ethiopian) Semitic- páar “flower”
phalna vi. “bloom” Amharic Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho
phalodyān “orchard” afärra “fructify, [produce fruit, ba: “flower”
phalna-phulna “thrive” yield (fruit, crops), bear fruit, be Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-
fertile, win friends, enemies)” Mundari ba: / ba’ha / ‘ba: “flower”
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-
Mundari ba’ha “flower”
/
B.14c.2 W. Chadic-Hausa
IE-Pashto ghumb’ah kumbùrà “become swollen”
“a hard swelling, S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa
a protuberance, ‖úʔhbu “to swell”
a tumour” Proto-North Khoisan
*!gùʔúbú “to swell”
B.14c.3 E. Cushitic- Sidamo TB-Tibetan
IE-Hindi boro’de “tumour, excrescence, wart” chu-bor
phorā “boil” n. E. Cushitic-Oromo “bubble” “blister, vesicle”
borollé “ulcera, piaga” [ulcer, wound] “boil, abscess”
Proto-IE W. Chadic- Hausa bòorōròo m. cūbur “water bubbles”
*bherw- “blister” “blister, boil”
“to boil, to seethe” C. Chadic- Mandara (Wandala) mbur
“boil”
C. Chadic-Bura mbwur nfwa “foaming of
the sap in firewood” mbwur shabul
“soapsuds”
B.14c.4 C. Chadic-Bura TB-Tibetan
IE-Hindi mbwur nfwa “foaming of the sap in cū burbur “bubbling
bulbulā n. “bubble” firewood” water”
mbwur shabul “soapsuds” lbu-ba / dbu-ba “bubble,
foam, froth, slaver”
dbuwa / buwə
“bubble, foam, froth”
↓↓
B.15a.1 NS-Nyimang kwe B.15a.1
IE-Sanskrit “water” Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho
kuhi- NS-For [Fur] kɔwí “rain” ‘kū:ɛ “well”
“fog, mist” NS-Berta kɔ̃ì “rain, Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali
RV cloud” kū:i “well”
kuhedi / S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa, S. Chinese-Min
kuhedika / !Xoo khué “stream”
kuhelika *!kxôe “rain” Proto-Altaic *kure “rain, storm”
“fog, mist” NC- N. Mande- Susu
xurɛ “fresh-water
course”
905
C. Cushitic- Bilin
kuri “Fluss” [river]
E. Cushitic- Oromo
kuri n. “caterrata, stagno,
bacino” [water-course,
pond]
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-
Gurage kure “pond,
flood of water after a rain”
B.15a.2 C. Cushitic-Bilin TB-Bodo/Garo- Digaro
IE-Sanskrit kurā / kuri kəra “rain”
aGkura “water” “Fluss” [river] Proto-Altaic *kūre / *kūri “rain, storm”
See also B.34. C. Chadic- Fali (Gude- Kartvelian-Georgian tkor- “tide” Proto-
aG “water” Mubi) Kartvelian tkor- “to flow, splash”
IE-Bengali pukur kurabi Proto-Altaic *k’ara “tide, ebb-tide, flood”
“lake, pond” “rainstorm” Altaic-Proto Turkic *k’ar-
IE-Hindi pokhara C. Chadic- Margi “tide, ebb-tide, flood”
“pond” kula “rain” Altaic-Proto Tungus-Manchu
IE-Pashto khurr *ügē(r)- “river, small river” /
“a watercourse, the sandy Egyptian *xarba- “tide, ebb-tide, flood”
bed of a river or rivulet” qerá “rainstorm, tempest, Altaic-Proto-Mongolian
IE-Hindi kār̝ī f. “gulf, thunder-storm” *k’argi- “tide, ebb-tide, flood” /
bay” Proto-Afro-Asiatic *kura “rain, storm”
IE-Pashto (Orel / Stolbova 1995) Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali
karrob “watered, *kur- “river” ’kuh’ra / ‘kuh’rǝ “fog”
irrigated, wetted with C. Chadic- Sura Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari
water” kur “lake” ga’ra / gar’ha “river”
IE-Sanskrit Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho
kūhā “a fog, a mist” ‘gara / ga’ra “river”
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho
pu’kuri “pond”
Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho
puku’ri “lake”
Austro-Asiatic--Mundari pu’khu’ri “pond”
Proto-Altaic
*kūre / *kūri “rain, storm”
Altaic-Proto Turkic
*ügüŕ “river, small river”
B.15a.3 S. Khoisan-Proto-!Wi TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit !kh(o)a “rain” khu-wa “fluid, liquid”
kuha- ”fog, mist” RV S. Khoisan -ǀXam TB- Khambu kəwa “water”
IE-Hindi kuhāsā !khwa “rain” TB-Kiranti-Limbu kuwa n.
” mist” “little semi-artificial water reservoir”
IE-Bengali Hmong-Mien-Hmong kua “liquid”
kuwasha ”fog, mist” W. Chadic – Hausa kua ciab “fluid”
IE-Pashto khwarr kwàràarā vi. Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari
“a watercourse, a ravine, “flow down heavily” kuă’si / kua’si / kuăsa “fog”
the dry bed of a river” Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali
khwarrah “the sandy ’‘ku’wǝ:s “fog”
bottom of a ravine or
watercourse”
906
/
B.15b.1 W. Chadic -.N. Bauci- Warji Proto-Tibeto-Burman
IE-Sanskrit suwára / tsuwárá / suwárá *sywar ~ *śwar ”flow” “flow,
svar “water” ”water” pour”
svarakSu “name of a W. Chadic-.N. Bauci-Diri Old Chinese śi̭wər ”water”
river” tsúwáru / súwárú Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen
svarakS “name of a ”water” suwarmak
river” Proto-W. Chadic *s’wr “water” “to water, water”
suvarsa “raining well” Cushitic-Dembya, Quara TB-E. Kiranti-Waling
“a good rain” suwā ”pluie” [rain] tśəwa ”water”
svaraksu “name of a NS-Kanuri S. Chinese- Min
river” kasuwa n. “current (of a river suā / cuā
svarNamahA “name etc.)” “mountain stream, brook”
of a river” Pre-Proto-Semitic cuá
suvartula “water *s’w “to flow” “a spring, a small stream” “river”
melon” Egyptian sáu Altaic-Karakalpak, Nogai,
“pool, lake, drinking trough” Halaj,Kumyk
Khoisan-ǂHoan suw “water”
čoʔaŋ “rain” Altaic-Uzbek, Turkmen, Karakhanid
suv “water”
B.15b.2 Kartvelian-Megrel ̣
IE-Sanskrit čvaṛčval
svardra “very wet or “to splash, flow”
moist” Kartvelian-Georgian
suvarNamukharI cwar
“name of a river” “dew, drop of dew”
suvarNarekha “name Kartvelian-Megrel
of a river” cwar
suvarNamukharI “dew, drop of dew”
“name of a river” Proto-Kartvelian
suvarNarekha *cwar
“name of a river” “dew, drop of dew”
svarnagrIva f.
“a river issuing from the
eastern side of the
Nataka mountain”
/
B.15c.1 W. Chadic- Ron (Daffo) Chinese-MSC/Beijing
Proto-IE swéy “Loch [lake], shwêi [Yale] “water”
*sūwe- Brunnen [spring, well]” shuî [Pinyin]“water” “river”
“to rain” W. Chadic-Ron (Bokkos) “a general term for rivers, lakes, seas etc.”
swey “Loch” [lake] S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver)
Nilo-Saharan-Ik čuε “water” s’ui3 (Lau Chunfat) sui3 “water”
W. Chadic-Angas N. Chinese-MSC
shwē / shwa “drink” shui3 “water, fluid, liquids”
suī “urine”
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian)
shui3 “water” “a general term for seas” “flood,
flood disaster”
S. Chinese-Min cuì “water”
Kartvelian-Georgian cwi- “to spill”
907
/
B.15d.1 Proto-Afro-Asiatic N. Chinese -MSC
IE-Sanskrit *xüdad- “stream, river” chù “water flowing”
cyut W. Chadic-Ngizim TB-Tibetan chu “water, brook, river”
“to flow, trickle, zhùutú “filter a liquid off, N. Chinese-MSC
ooze” pour off” chù “water flowing” zhù “pour”
cyuti “coming C. Khoisan- ‖Kh’au-‖’e zhū “pool, puddle, place where water collects”
forth” [Khoe] čū “flow” S. Chinese-Min chù “to pour (liquid)”
cyu “to come forth W. Chadic– Hausa cû-lai ī–chui “running water”
from, stream forth tsūgàa vt. “to pour out in S. Chinese- Hakka
from” “to cause to great quantity” chu5 (Lau Chunfat) tsu4 “pour (liquid)”
stream forth” Semitic-Hebrew Tibetan shüǜju “fast flowing stream”
Acyu “to cause to shofehk “pour, spill” Turkic-Turkmen suw “water, watery”
flow over, Khoisan-Tati chu-sér “a euphemistic term for urine”
pour out” RV ǰoo “flow” Altaic-Tuvan suh “water”
E. Cushitic- Sidamo Altaic-Uyghur / Turkic-Azeri / Altaic- Kazakh
shuma “urine” su “water”
shumaara “to urinate” Altaic-Kyrgyz su / suu “water”
Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh su “water”
↓↓
B.16a.1 Semitic-Written Arabic TB-Tibetan
IE-Pashto charr “a cascade, a waterfall” jarā “to flow, stream chár / char-pa
járra’i “continual downpouring rain, or cloudy (water)” jarayān “rain”
weather” “flow, flux, course, cār / cārba
IE-Hindi jharnā “waterfall” stream” “rain”
IE-Sanskrit car, carati “flow, pass” Proto-Afro-Asiatic cārju “rain water”
caruvenI “name of a river” *xar “river” Austro-Asiatic-
saras “anything flowing or fluid” *cār- “to abound in Munda-
“a lake, large sheet of water, pond, pool” RV water, be very wet” Kherwarian-Santali
sarasvat “abounding in or connected with ponds” C Khoisan-Proto-Non- ‘dzharna /
“water” “the sea” “a river” “name of a river” Khoikhoi ‘dzharna “lake”
Sarasvati a major river referred to in the Rgveda. *châ “water” Altaic-Uyghur
RV See the discussion of studies on the hydrological N. Khoisan-!O!Kung, ja “to rain”
history of the Sarasvati in Bryant 166-169. Naron ca “rain” Altaic-Tuvan
sarit “river, stream” RV sara “a brook” C. Khoisan-Hiechware chah “to rain”
IE-E. Iranian –Avestan, IE-Sanskrit AV tsaa “water” Turkic-Azeri jah-
kSar “to flow, stream” “to cause to flow, pour N. Khoisan-!Kung “to rain”
out” RV AV “to give forth a stream” “to urine ša / ca “water” TB-Tibetan
[urinate]” “to cause to flow (as urine)” Egyptian sharhu Sala “name of a
kSara “water” “melting away” “a cloud” “irrigation channels” great river in
sAraNi “a stream, channel, water pipe” C. Cushitic-Bilin Jambudvipa,
sAraNyu “a cloud, water, spring”” šag / šäh ”urine” probably the
sarat “going, flowing” E. Cushitic- Burji Salwen?”
sarapas “flowing water” RV k’áraari n. m. sarita “stream,
sarasI “a pool, pond” “lake” RV “rainy season” river (mystic)”
aksara “water” RV See also B.34.1 W. Chadic-S. Bauci-
sarala “name of a river” Wangday
kSarana “flowing, trickling, distilling, dropping” shar / shà ”water”
“a cloud” “water” NS-Maba Group- Masalit
sara “fluid, liquid” “a waterfall” “a brook” sàa “water, rain”
“a lake, pond”
908
salasala “rain water, rain” “flowing surging, Semitic-Hebrew

fluctuating” “flood, surge, waves” zaram “flowed”
IE-Old Indian ḳsárati “to flow, to stream” Niger-Congo-Balante
sáras “lake, pond, pool” sara “urine”
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan ɣžáraiti NS-Berta sara “urine”
“stromt, wallt auf” [streamed, flowed on] W. Chadic-Ron Daffo
sâr ”urinate”
/
B.16b.1 Semitic-Old Aramaic TB-Tibetan khul “ravine”
IE-Hindi rgul, rgula Altaic-Kyrgyz qol- “valley”
kulli “narrow valley, ravine” Altaic-Tuvan xol- “valley”
“quarry” E. Cushitic-Afar Altaic-Uyghur qol- “valley”
golo “gorge, valley” Altaic-Proto-Turkic
*kōl “valley”
Altaic-Proto-Mongolian
*gola “valley”
*gowl “valley”
B.16b.2 S. Khoisan -|Xam Proto-Lolo-Burmese
IE-Sanskrit kuhara xwara *kwar ~ *kor
“a cavity, hollow, hole” “waterhole” “hole, valley”
kévata “cave, pit” RV W. Chadic – Hausa Proto-Tibeto-Burman
E-Bengali kwarìi “valley” *kwar ~ *kor
guha “cave” “lowlands” m. ”hole, pit, valley”
“mountain cave” “valley, furrow” TB-Lushai
khuar ~ khur
“hole, cavity” “pit”
Proto-Altaic *kǒbú
“hollow, cavity”
IE-Sanskrit kuhara
“a cavity, hollow, hole”
B.16b.4 C. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e
Proto- IE- skur- !kuru / !koro “hole,
“hole” grave”
IE-Bengali gɔrto S. Khoisan-ǀXam
“hole, cavity, ditch” !kɔrro “to be hollow”
Written Arabic kurba
“hole, eye of a needle,
anus”
B.16b.6 IE- Old Indian Khoisan-Naron
kūpa- m. “pit, hole !xubi “valley”
Proto-IE *kup Proto-C. Chadic
“pit, hole” *gub-
IE-Hindi gufā n.m. “hole” “well”
“cave”
See also C.1b.1
/
909
B.16c.1 NS-Nuer S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)

IE-Sanskrit, kuk “hole, as hole in guk “a valley, a waterway between two
IE-E.Iranian-Avestan tree” mountains”
kukSi W. Chadic- Hausa Middle Chinese kuwk “mountain valley”
“a valley” kogo “hole, cavity” Chinese-Min
“an ocean cavity” kogon bishiya kok1 “valley, ravine, waterway between two
“a bay, a gulf” “hollow of tree” mountains”.
“the interior of anything” E. Cushitic-Sidamo Chinese- Cantonese kok “a gully, a pool”
“the womb” gōggōla Chinese- Hakka kok7
“a cavity in general” “hollow in tree” “a gully, a channel for water, a narrow ravine at
“the belly, the cavity of the NS-Anywa the floor of a hill” .Old Chinese kok7 / giuk
abdomen kùgù “decayed, “valley”
(in the earlier language)” hollow trunk of a tree” TB-Mikir angkok
RV AV W. Chadic- Hausa “cavity, opening, hole, crevice”
“belly kògī “river” TB-Tibetan
kukSa “the belly” Kòogin Kwara khogbub “cavity (of abdomen, mouth, tooth)”
IE-Hindi “Niger (river)” khogba “inside, the stomach”
khokhala “hollow” adj. Khoisan-Sandawe kɔ̄gdoŋ “hollow” “having an empty stomach”
goʔa “valley” grog-po “deep dell, ravine”
↓↓
B.20a.2 Proto-Chadic S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka]
IE-Sanskrit ‘jan “smoke” jen1 / jan1 “smoke, fumes, mist,
cancalakya W. Chadic-Seya vapor”
“incense” yaŋ / yaki “smoke” TB-Proto-Karen *jan “haze, fog”
candana C. Khoisan-Proto-Khoe Proto-Lolo-Burmese
“sandalwood” *cʔan[i] “smoke, to smoke” *džan “haze, fog”
“sandal (Sirium South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic N. Chinese-MSC
myrtifolium), ət’an n. “incense, perfume” yān smoke” “smoke, mist, vapor”
either the tree, the at’t’änä “perfume with incense)” xiāngyān “incense smoke”
wood or the unctious Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) S. Chinese-Min iān1 “smoke, fumes”
preparation of the s̟andal “sandalwood” “mist, vapor”
wood held in high C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe TB-Tibetan
estimation as a *cʔán[i] “smoke” tsandan “sandalwood”
perfume” C. Khoisan-|Ganda cʔánì Middle Chinese
cAndana “smoke” “fog” tśjän dân “sandalwood”
“consisting of C. Khoisan-!Ora |kxàn N. Chinese-MSC
sandalwood” “smoke “ syāng (Y) “incense”
IE-Hindi candan ki Semitic-Hebrew ‘ashan xiāngyān “incense smoke
lakar “sandalwood” “smoke” zhāntán “sandalwood”
S. (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic Chinese-Cantonese
at’t’änä “fumigate, tàahn “sandalwood”
smoke a beehive” tàahn heung
“incense made of sandalwood”
↓↓
B.21.1 NS-Kanuri TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit kádám- “water from spring or well source” ka-dam-pa can
gaDAmbara “cloud” dámjin vi. “cloud”
kadambinI “seep, ooze out, trickle (of water from a ‘dam-pag
“a long line or bank of clouds” ground source)” “muddy plash,
kada “a cloud” haze” slough”
910
B.21.2 Proto-Cushitic Chinese- Cantonese

Proto-IE *d-m-n “clouds, cloudy weather” tàahm
*dhAngw “bog, marsh” Semitic-Ethiopic *dämän “cloud” “cloudy, overcast”
IE-Pashto Semitic – Ethiopic- Amharic
ddandda’h “a small pond, dämmäna “cloud” N. Chinese-MSC
a cistern, a pool of water, dämmänä “be cloudy” t’án (WG)
a small well” W. Chadic – Ngizim dəmán “rainy season” “dark clouds”
dandukar “mist, smoke, C. Chadic – Logone deman “rain”
W. Chadic – Hausa dàaminā / dàamunā /
dàamānā f. “the rainy season”
Proto-Omotic daman- “cloud”
Omotic-Ometo dāmmānaa “cloud”
↓↓
B.22a.1 E. Chadic–Dangaleat TB-Kiranti-Yamphu
IE-Sanskrit paTTa pàtyìrtyàn “de forme aplatie (pour phäk
“flat or level surface of anything” quelque chose d’ àllongé)” “flat, thin”
“a slab or tablet for painting or [having a flattened form (for something TB-Tibetan
writing on” long)] pha-bong
IE-Hindi pattara “stone” pàtìrtàr “plat (sol)” [flat (ground)] “a large rock or
IE-Bengali W. Chadic – Hausa block, above
pathor “stone, rock” “log, board” fā / pā n. m. “flat rock” ground”
W. Chadic – Gwandara
pà’ “rock mountain” “flat outcrop of
rock”
NC-S.W. Mande– Mende
fai / fa “stone, rock”
Egyptian āba “a slab of stone on
which offerings were placed”
B.22a.2 IE-Sanskrit C. Chadic – Gude Proto-Altaic
phalaka “any flat surface” paɬa “large, flat, exposed rock” *p’ālà “field, level
“a board, lath, plank” “a slab or fāra “rock, stone” ground”
tablet (for writing or painting on)” W. Chadic- Hausa fàlali / falami n. Proto-Tungus-
“a slab at the base of a pedestal” m. “rock (large and flat)” fàřantìi / Manchu
parAruka n. m. “a stone or rock” babban fàřantìi n. m. “plate” *pāla-n
parvati / parvata f. “a rock, “big tray” “field, level ground”
stone” NC-N. Mande – Malinke, Samo Kwi TB-Chin-Lushai
paraTiTa “a stone, a rock” párá “stone, rock” pèer “flat”
IE-Pashto pal “a millstone” Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi) TB-Dimasa
par-śa’h “a rock, a ledge of rock” mfalta‫“ ح‬flat, flattened” per “flat”
IE-Hindi pahāra “mountain” C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur
IE-Bengali pahār “mountain, hill, pərad “roche plat” [flat rock]
rock” E. Chadic-Bidiya pēra “roche lisse,
Proto-IE *bhAr- “log, board” terrasse”
[smooth rock; terrace, (raised) patio]
↓↓
B.23.1 IE-Sanskrit C. Chadic- Dghwede dùgaya “kindle” TB-Proto-Kiranti
dhukS “to kindle” C. Chadic-Guduf (Gava) ndùgànɔŋa *dukt- ~ *duk “light, ignite”
dhu “to fan, kindle “kindle” TB-Tibetan
(a fire)” C. Chadic-Glavda tùgkù “kindle” dúgs-pa “to make warm, to
NC-N. Mande-Bambara tùgú “kindle” warm” “ to light, to kindle”
911
↓↓
B.25.1-2 Semitic-Arabic ši‫ع‬al “to ignite, TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit light, set fire to” sigaf “to roast tshig-pa “to burn”
zikhavat (fish) over an open fire” Proto-TB *m-(t)sik “burn, angry”
“flaming, Proto-Cushitic *ts’iʕ- vi. “to burn” Chinese- Cantonese
burning” Proto-Afro-Asiatic *-s’iʕ- vi. jek / jīk “to burn, to cauterize,
“fire” “to burn” to roast, to broil, to heat”
“a lamp” NS-Maba Group-Maba uosi(k) Kartvelian-Svan šix “to burn”
“fire” Proto-Turkic *č(i)ak “to strike fire”
W. Chadic- N. Bauci group- Miya Proto-Tungus-Manchu
ʔsiy- “burn” *či(K)u / *či(K)e “to strike fire”
Proto-Mongolian
*čaki “to strike fire”
↓↓
B.26.2 IE-Sanskrit Semitic -Ethiopic- Chinese- Hakka san1 “hill, mountain”
sAnu “a summit, ridge, top of a Amharic Chinese- Cantonese
mountain” mountain ridge, šäntärär sàan “hill, mountain, peak”
table land” “mountain chain, Chinese-MSC
sanumat “having a summit or mountain range” shān “hill, mountain”
ridge” “a mountain, hill” C. Chadic – Mafa, “a mountain, a hill, a range of mountains”
sanudaparvata n. m. Padoko, Matakan TB-Tibetan- Ladakhi
“name of a mountain” dza(ŋ) “mountain” gtsang-gtsong “steep, rugged
samahIdara “having E. Cushitic-Kwa’adza mountains”
mountains, mountainous” tsēm “hill” Chinese- Cantonese
sàhm “a relatively high pointed hill”
↓↓
B.27.2 IE-Sanskrit Semitic-Hebrew TB-Tibetan
garitra “rice, corn, grain” gar’een “seed (grain)” khre “millet”
IE-Hindi gari “kernel” m. C. Chadic-Mafa =
IE-Hittite Matakam gagar
karas “eine Getreideart deren Mehl “millet”
nicht zur Brotbereitung verwendet W. Chadic-Ngizim
wird” [a type of barley whose flour garəfka “sorghum”
is not useful for making bread] Semitic-Hebrew
Proto-IE *g’herə- / *g’herəzdh- gargeer “grain,
“barley” berry”
See also Note B.27.2-4 (Sanskrit) of E. Chadic- Masa
the Phase 2 tables. Group- Lame gəraŋ
“millet”
W. Chadic-Ngizim
garəfka “sorghum
(Sorghum bicolor)”
B.27.4 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic-Dera TB-Tibetan gorii
laGgura “millet” kure “millet” “a type of round barley”
gur- “barley” “rice” “wheat” C. Khoisan-Proto-Non- NW-Pakistan-Burushaki
kUra “boiled rice” Khoekhoe *|xúrí gurin, guren (pl.) “wheat”.
kuruvinda “a kind of barley” “seed” Proto-Mongolian *guril “flour”
gur- “barley”, “rice” and “wheat” C. Khoisan-Hiechware Mongolian-Khalka *guril “flour”
kuruvinda “a kind of barley” khúrí “seed” Mongolian-Buriat guril “flour”
goraksa “wheat” E. Cushitic-Rendille Mongolian-Dagur goli(l), goli
912
khúrri m. “ear (of “flour”

grain)” Mongolian-Ordos
gulir, guril “flour”
B.27.5 NC-Poular N. Chinese-MSC
IE-Sanskrit gauri “mil” [millet] gāoliang n.
gaura “a species of rice” NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] “sorghum”
gauraka “a kind of rice” gau / gauri /
gaurazAli “a species of rice” gauriwa “corn, esp.
goraksa “wheat” guineacorn”
godhUma “wheat” Semitic-Aramaic
gawarws m.
“millet”
Proto-AA
(Orel / Stolbova 1995)
*gir / *giur “corn”
W. Chadic-
N. Bauci-Diri, Pa’a,
Siri
*gyura “millet”
E. Chadic- Masa
togoro “sorghum”
C.Chadic-Higi Futu
gərwa “millet”
B.27.6 IE-Pashto Semitic-Written Arabic N. Chinese-MSC
jau “barley” jawwar “rye” ch’iáo
j’war sing. j’wari pl. “buckwheat”
“the name of a grain W. Chadic-Bauci Group jiāo bf. “wild rice, water oats”
(Holcus sorghum)” *gyàurō S. Chinese-Hakka
IE-Hindi, Urdu jowar “sorghum” “millet” k’iau2 / kiau1 “buckwheat”
IE-Hindi jau “barley” Hmong-Mien-Proto-Mienic
IE-SE-Iranian-Baluchi W. Chadic-Hausa *jæu “buckwheat”
�
ʒ�aw “barley” k’auràa Daic-Tai-Dehong ɕiau
IE-N. Iranian-Ossetian jaw “Sorghum bicolor” “buckwheat”
“millet”; S. Chinese-Hakka
IE-Central Iranian-Yagn k’iau2 / kiau1 “buckwheat”
yaw “barley” ;
IE-Persian �av “Gerste” [barley] Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
IE-Hindi cāval “rice” Kherwarian-Ho-Mundari tʃaʊ’li /
IE- E. Iranian-Avestan tʃau’li “rice”
yava “crop” / yəvīn Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
“Getreidefeld” [field of barley] Kherwarian-Santali
IE-Old Indian yáva-̣h m. tʃaʊ’le “rice”
“barley, corn”
↓↓
B.29.4-5 W. Chadic- Hausa Altaic- Mongolian
B.29.4 zàařa “planet (especially bright, e.g. Venus)” sara / sarä
IE-Sanskrit NC-S. E. Mande-Busa sɔra “star” “moon”
sarasa “moon” S. Khoisan-ǂKhomani ǂʔɔrɔ “moon” TB-W. Kiranti- Vayu
zAra “a particular W. Chadic-Seya car “star” tsholo < *tshala
constellation of stars” W. Chadic-Zaar caàr “star” “moon”
Proto-AA *ĉahar “star, moon” TB-Nung səla “moon”
913
Proto-W. Chadic *ĉahar “star”

S. (Ethiopian) Semitic-Geʔez
šahr “new moon”
Semitic-Arabic
šahr “new moon”
B.29.5 IE-Pashto W. Chadic- Ngizim TB-Tibetan
sawābit gə́zhâw / ɣzah “a planet “
“the fixed stars” gə́shâw “star”
↓↓
B.30.3 Proto-Chadic (Newman, P.) TB- Chin-Lai
IE-Hindi tārā “star” *tǝra “moon” tlaa “moon”
IE-Bengali tara “star” n. C. Chadic-Tera təra “moon” TB-Chin-Lushai [Mizo]
W. Chadic-Hausa taurāro “star thla / thlaa “moon”
S. Khoisan-!Kwi-‖Ng!ke
turro ~ !urru “moon”
NS-Anywa [Anuak] cèerò “star”
/
B.32.1 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic- Hausa Chinese-Hakka
kavara gàawo m. “large acacia tree” kau1 / gau1 “glue, gum”
“Acacia Arabica” or another “Acacia albida” “resin, sap, anything sticky”
plant” W. Chadic- Ngizim ka1 “glue, gum” “resin, sap”
gùvàrú “Egyptian mimosa, “anything sticky, rubber”
Acacia nilotica”
↓↓
B.34.1 IE-Sanskrit Proto-Afro-Asiatic Chinese-Min
aGkupaVs “water” *akw- “water” āk “to wet, to water”
aGkura “water” Omotic-Janjero *ak(k)a “water” Altaic-Tuvan aq- “to flow”
aGkaGka “water” Proto N. Omotic *ak’ “water” Altaic-Kyrgyz aq- “to flow”
aGkapa “water” Egyptian Altaic- Kazakh aq- “to
aksara “water” RV aakh “pond, lake, large canal” flow”
See also B.16a.1 akh-t “watered, or irrigated land” Altaic- Uyghur aq- “to
Proto-IE *akw- aakhi “to flood, to irrigate, to flow” Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen
“water (flowing)” inundate” akar / akmak “stream,
flow”
↓↓
B. 35.1 W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Pa’a Old Chinese chi “millet”
IE-Hindi jī acī “sorghum” S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian) jii5 /
“oat” f. W. Chadic- Hausa tsi5 “pearl barley”
“barley”m. hatsī / hacī tsi1 / tsi5 “panicled millet”
< *øatsi “grain”, esp. N. Chinese –MSC (Beijng)
guinea corn and millet” chi2 “panicled millet” jì “millet”
B. 35.2 IE-Hindi W. Chadic-Hausa Chinese-Cantonese jīk “panicled millet”
jī kā daliyā shek’a “Sorghum Old Chinese tsik “millet”
“oatmeal” bicolor” “guinea corn TB-Tibetic-Lhokpu
IE-Sanskrit cultivar” cək “foxtail millet”
cikkasa “barley meal” Semitic-Arabic ši‫ع‬iir TB-Deng-Kaman tɕika
saktu “coarsely-ground “barley” “bitter buckwheat”
meal , grit, groats, Proto-Highland E. S. Chinese-Min chiek, chiȇkà
esp. of barley meal” Cushitic *bašinka “unhusked grain, paddy”,
RV “sorghum” “unhusked rice”
914
saktuka m. C. Chadic-Tera Group Kartvelian-Georgian

“barley” sek-t- “millet” cka “rice grains in husk”
“a quantity of fried barley or C. Chadic-Gude Kartvelian-Megrel
barley-meal” səkunwa “sorghum cka “grain”
saksata species” TB-Nungish-Trung
“containing uncrushed or E. Cushitic-Somali tɕaʔ “millet”
whole grain (not deprived of meseggo / TB-Burmese
husk) , having grains of maseggo “grain” ʃaʔ “millet”
barley” NS-Kanuri
mahadusaka masakwa
“a species of grain” “dry season guinea corn”
Proto-Indo-European [sorghum]
*seg(’)- “seed(s)” NC-Common Bantu
*-caka “sorghum”
W. Chadic-Hausa
masakuwa “sorghum
species” (Daura dial.
kan zago “a variety of
guinea corn”
C. Chadic-Lele
masakuwa
“mil de la saison sèche”
[dry season millet]
↓↓
B.37.2 W. Chadic- Proto-Altaic *bŏru / *bŏra / *bŏro “dust, smoke, whirlwind”
IE-Bengali Hausa Proto-Altaic *bǔlu / *bǔla / *bǔlo “cloud”
bɔrsha n. bururi Altaic-Turkic-Dolgan bürüj- / bürkük “cloudy”
“rain, rainfall, “haze” Altaic-Turkic-Karakanid bürkɔk “cloudy”
monsoon” “harmattan Altaic-Proto-Turkic *bŏra “Northwind” “ to snow heavily”
Proto-Indo- wind and Altaic-Turkic-Turkish bŏra(k) “Northwind”
European haze” Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen, Kazakh bŏra “ to snow heavily”
*bhAur- C. Chadic- Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur boran “ storm”
“storm” Buduma Altaic-Proto-Turkic *bur-uk “dust, smoke, whirlwind”
IE-E. Iranian- bur-bur Altaic- Turkic-Turkish bulut “cloud”
Avestan “dust” Kartvelian-Svan burɣw “to make dusty”
bareňti W. Chadic- birɣw “dust, ash”
“to be windy, Angas Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu
to blow ‘bur *bure-ki “dust, smoke, whirlwind”
furiously” “sand, dust” Altaic-Proto-Mongolian
*bur-gi / *bür-gi “dust, smoke, whirlwind”
*bŏruɣa “to snow, rain”
Kartvelian-Georgian, Megrel bol- “smoke (light)”
↓↓
B.39.1 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic – Hausa TB-Tibetan
jamba “mud, clay” jimb’u “clay” jim / jimbə “clay, mud”
jambāla “mud, clay” yimb’ū / yumb’ū m. ‘jim-pa “mud, clay, loam”
jambalini “muddy” “red clay (used for making pots”
Total Sanskrit / Hindi / Bengali B Domain correspondences = 39

915
C.1a.1 Egyptian khaāqe-t C.1a.1 Proto-Mongolian *kekü- “palate,

IE-Sanskrit “neck, throat” throat”
kAkud West Semitic-Ethiopian-Ge’ez Kartvelian-Old Georgian qaqa “pharynx”
“the hollow of the xoxət “mouth” TB-Tibetan lkóg-ma “gullet, esophagus”
mouth” South (Ethiopian) Semitic- “throat, neck”
Gurage kokke “gullet, Proto-Tungus-Manchu *xukte “palate, jaw”
throat” TB-Kiranti-Dumi ghokta “throat”
Proto-Highland E. Cushitic Proto-Turkic *Kogme “palate, jaw”
*kokk- “throat”
Proto-AA
*ɣooɣ- “gullet”
C.1a.5 IE- W. Chadic-Hausa TB-Tibetan
Sanskrit kafa “small hole” kha “mouth, opening, orifice”
kha “a cavity, Egyptian Proto-Tibeto-Burman
a hollow, cave, khakha m-ka “open, opening” “mouth, door”
cavern, aperture” “neck, throat” TB-Chin-S. Khami
“an aperture of the əm-kha “door”
human body”,
mouth, nostril, ear
etc.” RV
/
C.1b.1-3 South (Ethiopian) Semitic- TB-Qiangic-Pumi (Dayang)
C.1b.1 IE-Sanskrit Gurage gwärärä “throat, kwáră ~ kwá̱ ră “mouth”
kuhara “the throat or neck, gullet” ngwärärä TB-Tibetan mgur / mguwar “throat,
larynx” “neck, gullet” neck”
Proto-IE W. Chadic-Hausa Proto-Altaic *gurgi “palate”
*gwerw- “throat, neck” makwarwa “mouth, Proto-Mongolian *gürege “palate”
doorway” Proto-Turkic *kürgak “palate”
Proto-Chadic *ɣw-r- “neck, Proto-Tungus-Manchu *gorgakta
throat” “palate”
Proto-AA *gwarʕ- “throat,
neck”
C.1b.2 Semitic-Hebrew
IE-Bengali ghar “neck” garon “throat”
“nape of the neck” E. Chadic-Lele kor
IE-Pashto gharra’h “cou” [neck]
“the throat” E. Cushitic- Somali
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan xoor “neck”
gar- “Kehle, Hals” (Ger.) E. Cushitic- Rendille
“throat, neck” kúr “throat”
IE-Hindi gardan n.
“neck”
IE-Tokharian kor
“throat” ( < *gworu-)
C.1b.3 IE-Old Indian NS-Tubu [Teda] Kartvelian-Laz
gala- “throat, neck” gúləgulə “Adams-apfel” qal- / ‘al-
IE-Hindi galā “throat” (Ger.) / al- “neck”
IE-Bengali [Adam’s apple] Kartvelian-Megrel ‘al- “neck”
gɔla- “throat, neck, kólogo Kartvelian-Georgian
voice” “Kehlkopf” [larynx] kel- “neck”
916
IE-Iranian-N. Persian NC-Sango golo, goro

gulū- “Kehle” (Ger.) Gbanziri, Barambo golo
“throat” -Namshi
IE-Pashto khula’h “the kol(ko) “neck”
mouth, orifice, entrance”
↓↓
C.2b.1-2 N. Cushitic- Beja [Bedawi] TB-Lepcha
IE-Sanskrit lihas, lehas “lick” âli / lí / a-lí
C.2b.1 lehana “the act Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) li‫ح‬as “to lick” “the tongue”
of licking or lapping NS-Maba Group-Fur TB-N. Naga-Yogli li “tongue”
with the tongue” (d)ali “tongue” Chinese- Cantonese leih
Alih “to apply the W. Chadic – Gwandara “tongue”
tongue to” “to lick” lihye “lick” Proto-Tibeto-Burman *s-ley
lih “to lick, lap, lick at, NS-Coman- Koma (Kusgilo) ”tongue”
taste, sip, take any food litta “tongue” TB-Chin-Lushai lei “tongue”
by licking or lapping” NS-Songhay TB-N. Naga-Wancho le
AlIDa “licked, lapped lélèm “goûter du bout de la langue” “tongue”
by the tongue, licked leele “taste” TB-Meithei ləy “tongue”
up” lelle “taste (on tip of tongue)” South Daic-Lao
lih “to lick, frequently E. Chadic-Dangaleat [Dangla] lia3 n. “lick”
or constantly” lele “goûter du bout de la langue” [taste
with the tip of the tongue]
↓↓
C.3.1 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic – Hausa TB-Tibetan
cumb “to kiss” sumbáá dzum “to kiss” (archaic)
“to touch with the “kiss, embrace” N. Chinese-MSC
mouth” sumbā f. “a kiss” shûn “to suck, to lick”
cumba n. “kissing, sumbāta / sumbàce Altaic-Proto-Turkic
kiss” “kiss someone” sümü- “to suck, to swallow”
cumbanadana Omotic-Bencho sum n. “kiss” Altaic-Turkic-Turkish
“giving a kiss” súmmú “baiser, embrasser” süm-, sümür-
IE-Hindi [kiss, embrace] “to suck, to swallow”
cummā “kiss” m. W. Chadic –Tangale sụmbẹ “suck” Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen
and vt. W. Chadic–Bauci-Siri sənd’u vt. sümür- “to suck, to swallow”
IE-Bengali “suck” Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur
cumu “kiss” n. m. NS-Kanuri səmb- “suck, kiss” sümür- “to suck, to swallow”
Songhay (Koyra)
sumbu “kiss on cheek”
↓↓
C.5a.2 Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) Proto-Tibeto-
IE-Sanskrit šamma “a smell, a sniff” “whiff, slight odor” Burman
samAghrA “to smell at, šammam “to make or let smell” *suŋ ~ *saŋ
smell” “to kiss” šamm “to smell, sniff” “smell, scent,
samupaghraH šamšam “to sniff” fragrant”
“to smell at, smell” “to kiss” W. Chadic-Hausa sansànā vt. TB-Burmese
samvacita “made fragrant, “smell, sniff” saŋ
perfumed” “made fetid, having Proto-AA *san + sun- v. “smell” “emit a pleasant
offensive smell (said of Egyptian sensen “breathe, have bad smell” odor”
breath)” asen, asenn “to sniff, to smell, to kiss”
sen / sena “to smell, to kiss”
917
C.5a.4 S. Ethiopian Semitic-Amharic N. Chinese-MSC

cancalakya “incense” ət’t’änä vt. “perfume with incense” xiāng
candana “sandalwood” ət’an n. “incense, perfume” “perfume, spice”
“sandal (Sirium myrtifolium), sandalwood”
either the tree, or the “fragrant, sweet-
preparation of the wood prized smelling, aromatic”
as a perfume”
IE-Hindi candan ki lakar
“sandalwood”
↓↓
C.6b.1-2 Proto-Afro-Asiatic TB-Tibetan núd-pa “to suckle”
IE-Sanskrit *-nûʔ- “to suck in ” nu tūŋ “to suckle” tūŋ “drink”
anudhe E. Cushitic- Rendille nu “to suckle on a nipple or pacifier”
“to cause to suck, to put nuuga “suck (something)” nú-ba “to suck”
to the breast” nuugsán nu-wa “to suck”
“breast feeding” “suckling” Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho
Proto-S. Cushitic nu’nu “breast” Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
*nûʔ- / nûnuʔ- “to suck” Kherwarian- Mundari nu’nu “breast”
South (Ethiopian) Semitic- Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-
Gurage aňňu n. “milk” Santali ‘nunu / nu’nu “breast”
↓↓
C.8d.1 W. Chadic Hausa jìkā “bag” TB-Tibetan
IE-Pashto C. Chadic -Buduma jike “sack” chi ka / chi ga
zik NS-Songhay šikara “sac en peau” “wallet, knapsack”
“a bag or bottle [leather bag] chiga “wallet”
made of leather for Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) gyεεgɔɔ
holding water and siga “milkskin, hide bag for milk, yoghurt, “a skin or leather bag/pouch”
other articles” etc.” NC-Fulfulde [Fulani]
N. Cushitic-Beja (Bedauye) njikāre
sekwa “Wasser-schlauch” “saddle bag, leather bag”
[leather bottle for water]
C.8d.2 W. Chadic-Hausa TB-Tibetan shagyεε
IE-Sanskrit jàkā f. “bag, handbag” “scrotum” “a leather/skin bag”
mazaka sāq “sack, bag” sāgdaà
“a leather water sarka “water bottle skin”; “quiver for arrows”
bag” (Daura dial.) Chinese- Hakka
zakala sàrkā “a skin water bottle” tsak7 “arrow bag”
“skin, bark” Egyptian m’sakh-t “wineskin” ts’ak “skin, hide, fur”
“the scales of a fish” Proto-AA masak “skin” “leather, rind”
W. Chadic-.Gwandara jàka “bag” ka “a leather water bag”
W. Chadic–Ngizim jàká “bag” Middle Turkic
Semitic-Assyrian tašak “scrotum”
shāk’k’u “sack, bag” Altaic-Turkic-Turkish
Berber-Tuareg aššakwa “skin bag” tašak “scrotum”
“sac en peau” [bag made of skin] Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz
Semitic-Hebrew sāk m. “sack, bag” tašak “scrotum”
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Ge’ez Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur (dial.)
zəq “skin bottle, leather bag” tašak “scrotum”
NS- Songhay čaaku Altaic-Turkic-Balkar
“large sack for grain” tašak “scrotum”
918
C.8d.3 W. Chadic–S. Bauci- Jimi TB-Tibetan

IE-Pashto zukko “skin” tsugpε�“a huge sack”
tsugul Khoisan-Hadza ašoko
“a kind of buskin “skin”
made of the fresh C. Chadic – Buduma
skin of any animal” suka
“Beutel” [bag, pouch, purse]
NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] joke “scrotum”
↓↓
C.12b.1 IE-Sanskrit, Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) N. Chinese-MSC
IE-E.Iranian-Avestan waajiha “face, front” “outside” wàijiè “the external
bahya “being outside (a door, waajah “to be opposite, facing, world, outside”
house etc.)” “situated without” across from” wài “outer, outward,
“outer, exterior” W. Chadic- Hausa outside”
“to turn out, expel” AV “not wàje “out (outdoors)” “outside, beyond, foreign”
belonging to the family or country, ya fita wàje “He has gone out” -wài- “out, a morpheme
strange, foreign” “excluded from wàje adv. “outside” typically used to indicate
the caste or community, an out- k’asàashen wàje “abroad” location, e.g.
caste” k’asàashe “country” wairén lit. “outside
IE-Sanskrit dharmabAhya Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) waajah person” i.e. “stranger “
“outside the law (contrary to what is “to be opposite, facing, across waibian “outside,
right)” from” exterior”
bahis “out, forth, outwards, W. Chadic-Ron wàidì “parts of the
outside, outside (a house, village, way “back, outside” country other than where
city, kingdom)” Egyptian uai “to be away from a one is”
bahIka “being outside, external, person or place, to go away, be wàizu “people not of the
exterior” remote, afar off” same clan” “foreigner”
vaidezika “belonging to another W. Chadic- Bedde “other nationalities”
country, foreign” “a stranger, vayan “outside” wàirén “outsider”
foreigner”vaidezya “foreign”
vaijatya “exclusion from caste,
difference of caste”
C.12b.2 W. Chadic- Hausa Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
IE-Bengali baire “out” adv. baire “foreigner” Kherwarian-Mundari,
“outside” adv. prep. Santali
IE-Pashto bahar “to come out, bah’re “out”
outside or away” Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
bahar t’lal “to go out, outside” Kherwarian-Santali
bah’re “out”
↓↓
C.15.1 C. Chadic-Masa Tibetan
Bengali dekhano “show” d’ékna “show” sdig(s)-pa “to
IE-Hindi dikhānā “show” vt. C. Chadic- Zime-Batna show,
dekhnā “behold" diʔi / dèʔ “show” to point out”
Proto-IE E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] sdigs-pa
*deik’e / *deig’e “to show” diginyo “to point towards or
IE-Hittite tekkussai “montrer du doigt” [show with finger] at,
“Zeigen, prasentieren” E. Chadic- Kera d’égé “show” to point out, to
[to show, indicate] Chadic root d’k “show” threaten”
↓↓
919
C.18b.1 Cushitic- Saho TB-Garo koŋ “hole”

IE-Bengali gōngā “cave, pit” South Daic-Lao gon1 n. “hollow (concave)” “cavity”
khoni E. Cushitic- Oromo TB-Kham kun “hole”
“quarry” gōngā “hollow” Old Chinese k’uŋ “hollow, empty” “hole”
IE-Pashto NS-Songhay (Gao) S. Chinese–Yue (Cantonese) kong / kwong “mine (pit)”
kundaey koon-ey S. Chinese-Min khong “mine”
“a subterranean “emptiness” TB-Tibetan khong “concave, hollow” khong-mo “a
excavation” Heath v.3 208 cave or ditch” khung / kuŋ “hole, pit, hollow, cavity”
“hollowing out” kóòn “être vide” Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali kuɳ “well”
kān “a mine” [be empty] Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari ku’ɳa “well”
Proto-Altaic *keŋi “hollow, empty”
↓↓
C.20b.3 NC-E. Mande- Bobo TB-Jinuo a-kho
IE-Sanskrit kõ “skin” “outer covering, bark, skin”
go N. Khoisan-Proto- TB-Tibetan kó-wa
“skin, hide, strap Khoekhoe *kho “skin” “hide, leather”
(of leather)” C. Khoisan-Proto-Non- kó-ba “hide, skin, leather”
Khoekhoe *khô “skin” Proto-Mongolian *k’ǒlta-su /
NC-E. Mande-Bobo *kǒli “bark, scales, scab”
kõ “skin” Proto-Altaic *koni “leather”
E. Cushitic- Bussa Altaic-Proto-Turkic *gōn “leather”
k’óla “skin” *kúl “bark, scales, scab”
Northern Omotic-Ometo Altaic-Proto-Mongolian
k’ol “skin” *kōn-ʒile “leather”
C.20b.5 Chadic root- West, East,
IE-Pashto Central Chadic
khwar *kw-r- “skin, body”
“skin, bark, crust, peel, Proto-W. Chadic
rind” *k’warap “bark”
W. Chadic-Boto
kóore “skin”
↓↓
C.21a.1 IE-Sanskrit Proto-W. Chadic *sAkA “leg” Chinese- Hakka
zAkHa W. Chadic-Ron (Scha) səkaca “Fuss, Bein” [foot, leg] ziuk7 / zuk7 /
“a limb of the body, Semitic- Ethiopic- Amharic säkwäna “animal’s foot” tsuk7
arm or leg” NC-Proto-Bantu *tsàkù “calf of the leg” “the foot, leg”
zAkhAGga W. Chadic-Ron (Daffo) sakur “lower leg”
“a limb of the body” W. Chadic- Bedde-Ngizim Group *zəgər “foot”
zAkHAsthi “a bone of W. Chadic-Ngizim zə̀gə́r “foot, leg”
the arm or leg” N. Omotic- Kachama sukule “foot, leg” TB-W. Tibetan
sakara N. Omotic- Haruruo şukulu “foot, , leg” súg-gu
“having hands” N. Cushitic- Beja [Bedawi] sukenaa “the lower part
sak(thi) “thigh” “foot, (sole, heel)” of the leg of
Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova 1995) *suk’ul- “foot, leg” animals”
↓↓
C.22a.2 IE-Sanskrit Proto- W. Chadic TB-Proto-Kiranti
pakSa “a wing” “the shoulder” *pak(k)a *bhák “shoulder”
“a limb or member of the body” RV “wing, shoulder” / TB-Tibetan
pakSaka “a wing” *(ba) + baka phyag
pakSadhara “having wings” “wing” “the hand”
920
upakaksa “reaching to the shoulder” W. Chadic – Tangale Proto-Mongolian

prakaoSTha “the forearm” paka baɣu “upper arm”
praganda “the upper part of the arm” “hand, arm, branch, Proto-Mongolian
pragraha “the arm” (front) paw” *baɣul- / bugul
bAhu “the arm, esp. the forearm” W. Chadic – N. Bauci “shoulder, shoulder bone”
“the forefoot of an animal” Group-Karya Proto-Tai
IE-Old Indian paḳsa “wing, shoulder, pakə “arm” *ʔba n. “shoulder”
flank, side” NS-Baka baka “arm” South Daic-Lao
Hindi bāhu “ arm” NC-Gbaya baxa “arm” ba2 lai2 n. “shoulder”
Bengali bahu “arm” paḳha “wing” Proto-AA (Orel /
Proto-IE *bhāg’h-u “arm, shoulder” Stolbova 1995) *pakuh’-
“hand, arm”
↓↓
C.24b.1 IE-Sanskrit Omotic–Mocha Old Chinese k’iūk “bend, bent, crooked”
krukta “crooked, k‘ukko “hunch- Middle Chinese
curved” backed” khjowk “to bend, bent”
kruJc “to curve or make W. Chadic- Hausa gjowk “bent, curved,
crooked” “to be crooked” k’ūgì f. TB-Tibetan ‘gug-pa “crooked, bent”
kukara “having a > k’ūgìyā f. kug “crooked, a hook”
crooked or withered “hook” “anchor”
hand”
C.24b.2 E. Cushitic- Hadiyya Chinese-Cantonese kūk “bent, crooked, twisted,
IE-Pashto guug “be bent” winding”
kog adj. Proto-Afro-Asiatic Proto-TB *guk ~ *kuk “bend, crooked”
“crooked, bent, distorted, *-goxw- “to bend Proto-Altaic *k’ōki “hinge, hook”
twisted, angular” round, form a curve” Hmong-Mien-Proto-Miao-Yao
Proto-IE W. Chadic- Angas *ŋkhok “curve(d)”
*kog- adj. gûk “curled up, South Daic-Lao koh4goh: 3 n. “hook”
“hook, claw” bent” Proto-Altaic *k’ōki “hinge, hook”
Proto-Cushitic Altaic-Mongolian-Khalkha göxij /gögi
*goxw- “to bend, “fish-hook, angle” gox “hook”
form a curve” goxii “to bow, nod” “fish-hook, angle”
E. Cushitic- Altaic-Mongolian-Buriat güxi “fish-hook,
Rendille angle”
khokkhoo- Altaic-Proto-Turkic
dánahe “be *kok, *koken “hinge, hook”
curved, be arched” Proto-Altaic *guk’a “curve, hook”
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *gok- “curve, hook”
kogīngol “a curve” *kogene- “hinge, hook”
“a curved line” Mongolian-Kalmuck ɣoxa “hook”
Semitic-Arabic Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu
ʕuqda (IPA) “knot” *guk- “curve, hook” *kūkta “hinge, hook”
/
C.24c.1 IE-Sanskrit E. Cushitic-Oromo TB-Tibetan gyubo “curved”
kubara “a humpbacked man” gobo sv. and adj. dgu-wa “to bend, to make crooked”
kubhra “a hump-backed bull” “gibboso, gobbo, arcuato” Hmong-Mien-Hmong
kubja “hump-backed, [humped, humpback, khawb “hook, buckle, hook
crooked” “a curved sword” arched] together” “lock”
kubjita “crooked, curved” W. Chadic-Hausa Proto-Mongolian
kubjaka “hump-backed, yi k’obobo *köb- / *küb- /
crooked” “be bent (of person)” “to bend, elevation, convexity”
921
kubjatA “the state of being E. Cushitic- Rendille Proto-Tungus-Manchu

humpbacked” gulguúb “bending *kupe- “to bend, elevation,
IE-Old Indian kubhrá position” convexity”
“a hump-backed bull” NS-Songhay Proto-Altaic *kop’é
Proto-IE *ghūbh- kuúbi “bend, twist, curve” “to bend, elevation, convexity”
“to bend” Semitic-Ethiopic-Amharic Proto-Turkic
Proto-IE *kūbh- “hill, hump ; gwäbätä / gwäbbätä *göp’é(ne) “to bend, elevation,
curved, to bend” “curved, bent, hunched” convexity”
”hunch” Old Chinese kjiu “down-curving”
mägwbätä “hunchback”
/
C.26b.1 W. Chadic- Ron (Bokkos) TB-Thebor
IE-Sanskrit kurugwàl “Ellbogen” [elbow] kru “elbow”
kurpara W. Chadic-Gwandara kurūshūrūwā “ elbow” TB-Tibetan
“the elbow” W. Chadic-Tangale kurūgundum “elbow” grú-mo
kurparita S. Cushitic-Iraqw guruŋgura “knee” “elbow”
“struck by the elbow” E. Cushitic-Hadiyya guru-bo “knee”
kora “a moveable joint Semitic-Ethiopic-Harari kurum bāy “elbow”
(as of the fingers, the kuru’ “cubit, arm below the elbow”
elbow, the knee)” Semitic-Ethiopic-Gurage gurmäd “knee” TB-Kanauri
NS-Kanembu ŋguru “shoulder” kruts
NS-Zaghawa kurru ”knee” “elbow”
C. Khoisan-Ganda kúru “knee”
C. Khoisan-Cara (kú)kúrù “knee”
C.26b.3 IE-Hindi N. Khoisan-!’O-!Kung ǂguni “elbow”
kuhnī f. “elbow” S.Khoisan-/Xoo ‖ɣuŋ “knee”
Proto-IE *g’enw- / C. Chadic- Glavda gùnja “knee”
*g’new- “knee” S.Khoisan-|Nuen ‖guŋ|ni “knee”
IE-Tocharian N. Khoisan-!’O-!Kung ǂkuni “elbow”
keni- “knee” W. Chadic- Gwandara (Nimbia) kùŋkúrúwo /
IE-Hittite genu- kùŋkúrúho “elbow”
“knee” S. Cushitic-Iraqw gongoxi “elbow”
↓↓
C.27.1 IE-Old Indian C. Chadic- Tera S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
*smayate, cí mə́sì /məsə́ “laugh” mèihsiu “smile”
smayati C. Chadic- Bura mēimēisiu v. “smile”
“to smile” misha Proto-Altaic *miusu “to smile”
Proto-IE *smeyə “to smile, to begin to also *miosi
“to laugh, be glad” laugh” Altaic-Proto-Mongolian
IE-Tokharian *misije- “to smile”
ismi “smile” TB-Tibetan dzum
meemee “a smiling face, all smiles”
↓↓
C.28b.1 Egyptian kham’ráa “tooth” TB-Jingpho [Kachin]
IE-Tokharian C. Chadic– Zime Batna u-kam “molar tooth”
kam / keme gámdzēy “jaw” S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka]
“tooth” Proto-S. Cushitic *gamíi “chin” (MacIver) gam3 / ham3
(Meixian, Lau Chunfat)
ngam1 / ngam3
“the chin, jaws”
922
C.28b.2 Proto N. Khoisan *!hàŋ “chin” N. Chinese-MSC

IE-Sanskrit Semitic- Arabic (Yemeni) h’anak “jaw, hán “chin”
hanu “a jaw, cheek” jawbone”
hanuka C. Chadic-Masa gàŋ “la machoire” [the jaw]
“a jaw” W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Warji
ganda “the cheek, ngàŋgənna “ jaw”
whole side of the S.Khoisan ‖Auni, Žu’hoan /
face” Proto-Central-Khoisan *!gàn(i) “chin”
Proto-IE W. Chadic – N. Bauci- Diri ŋg’àŋg’ám “jaw”
g’enau “jaw” E. Cushitic- Haddiya gangeera “jaw”
↓↓
C.29a.3 Proto-Cushitic *ʕal- “cheek” TB-Tibetan
IE-Bengali ga:l “cheek” Proto-AA *ʕal- “jaw” mgal / mgal-wa
IE-Hindi gāl “cheek” “jaw, jawbone”
↓↓
C.30a.1 IE-Sanskrit, Avestan W. Chadic- Hausa Chinese- Cantonese
khAd “to chew, bite, eat, devour, gàatsáa “bite a piece off” “bite” ngaht “to gnaw, to bite”
feed, prey upon” RV AV C. Chadic- Musgoy ŋgats “bite” Chinese- Hakka
kad “to eat, consume” C. Chadic- Daba ŋgàtsh “bite” ngat7 “bite, gnaw”
khAdana “a tooth” “chewing, ngàts “ mordre” [bite] South Daic-Lao ga:t3
eating” C. Cushitic- Bilin “bite”
khAdya “eatable, edible” gatət “nagen, knuppern an einen Old Chinese aŋet >
“food , victuals” harten gegenstand” [to nibble / crunch Middle Chinese nget
SaMkhad “to chew thoroughly” on a hard object] “gnaw, crunch in the
“eat up” “devour” Semitic–Ethiopic- Amharic teeth”
IE-Hindi kātā gat’ä “gnaw a bone, browse
“bite” n.m. (of cattle), nibble, crop”
/
C.30b.1 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic–Hausa gàtsē m. “irony, sarcasm” TB-Tibetan
ghaT / ghaTT gātsìnā vt. “make a sneering grimace” katsa / ka tsābo
“to hurt with words, Semitic–Arabic (Iraqi) “sharp-tongued”
speak of malignantly” ḍḍa‫“ ع‬to bite” “to be sarcastic, biting” kadzee
kAt “a prefix implying E. Cushitic-Sidamo qaço “contempt, scorn” “joking verbally”
contempt” qacifata “to laugh at, to mock”
kATubhasita Semitic-Arabic qašmar “to joke, banter, poke
“sarcastic speech” fun”
C.30b.3 E. Cushitic-Rendille TB-Tibetan ka-chags
IE-Bengali kachaarda vt. “mock (always in an “jest, joke”
hasha “laugh, smile” offensive or cruel manner)” ga-sha “laughter
kasha / ka sha
“jeering, mocking”
↓↓
C.31a.1 C. Chadic –Mumuye shā “eat” C.31a.1
IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic- Tangale saa “eat” TB-Written Burmese
car Berber ca “eat” cà “eat”
“to consume, eat, graze” Egyptian ushā “to gnaw, to chew, Proto-Tibeto-Burman
to bite, to eat” *dza “eat”
Proto-S. Cushitic-Proto-Rift *c’a Altaic-Uyghur
“drink” jä- “eat”
Omotic-Janjero uša “drink” “to eat, to use as food”
923
C.31a.2 Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni, Iraqi)

IE-Sanskrit šārrab
saraka “spirituous liquor” “to make or let drink”
“drinking spirituous liquor, (Iraqi)
distribution of spirituous šārrab “wine”
liquor” šārraab
zarkarasava “heavy drinker, drunkard”
“spirituous liquor, distilled
from sugar, rum”
↓↓
C.34.1 NC-Mande-Atlantic-Bijogo TB- Bhramu, Anal
IE-Hindi kāna / kān “ear” k‫כ‬nn‫“ כ‬ear, to hear” kəna “ear”
Bengali ka:n “ear” n. Kordofanian-Tima (k)‫כ‬n‫“ כ‬ear” TB-Naga-Tankhul
IE-Sanskrit karəna “ear” NS-Kunama uku(na) “ear” khəna “ear”
kaRNa “to give ear to” Kordofanian- Koalib (k)öni “ear” TB- Naga-Rengma
“listen to” W. Chadic-Hausa kûnnē “ear” əkhəna “ear”
AkarNana “hearing” ‘yan kûnnē “earrings” TB-Garo
AkarNin “listening” W. Chadic-Hausa (Daura dial.) khna “hear”
samAkarN “to give ear to, kûnyà “ear” TB-Kiranti-Limbu
listen to, hear” NS-Kanuri khemmaʔ
samA “to listen to, hear” kə́rə́nngin “listen, listen to” “hear, smell, sense, detect”
AkarNaya “to give ear to, W. Chadic- Ngizim Proto-Kiranti
listen to, hear” kəmáu “experience through any of *khem-
IE-Old Indian káṛna “ear” the senses other than sight”, “hear, sense”
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan “hear, understand” TB- Kiranti-Yamphu
karəna “Ohr” (Ger.) [ear] W. Chadic- S. Bauci-Kir kəm “ear” khemma “hear, listen”
↓↓
C.35b.1 IE- Sanskrit W. Chadic- Hausa N. Chinese-MSC
gaNDi “the trunk of a tree from gàŋgā gàn “trunk, main part” “stem, trunk”
the root to the beginning of its “trunk of a tree” kàn (WG) “the trunk of a tree, or of the
branches” “body of a body”
skandha “the stem or trunk of person” South Daic-Lao ga:n2 n. “stem (plant)”
a tree” Semitic-Hebrew S. Chinese- Hakka
skandhin “having a big stem” kaneh “stalk (of a gang1 “stalk, stem”
“a tree” plant)” N. Chinese-MSC kân (WG)
kANDa “a stalk, stem, branch, E. Cushitic- Burji “the stalk of grain, straw”
switch” “part of the trunk of the gunda “log, S. Chinese- Min
tree whence the branches stump” kan3 “trunk of a tree or of the human body”
proceed” gundáa “trunk” TB-Tibetan gə̄ŋyu “stalk/stem of plant”
“the trunk of a tree from the root Proto-E. Cushitic- N. Chinese-MSC
to the beginning of the branches” *gund- ”trunk” gēn n. “(of a plant or tree) root”
kANDa “a stalk, stem, branch” “(of a structure, foot, basis)
↓↓
C.37a.3 IE-Hindi Proto-Chadic *mətə “die” S. Chinese-Yue
murda “dead” W. Chadic- Ngizim mə̀tú vi. “die” (Cantonese)
mrtyū “death” Egyptian mwt, mt “to die” muht
IE-Bengali Semitic-Arabic (Sabaean) mwt die” “to die, death”
mrito “dead, lifeless” E. Cushitic-Rendille
oomót “death (of humans or animals)”
↓↓
924
C.37b.2 IE-Sanskrit NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] TB-Limbu ma.maʔ “root is

májjati “to sink, go down” māya “to die” -mey / -ma.- vi.
májj “drown” “submerge” Semitic-Arabic “be lost, get lost”
vimájj “submerge” maita “to die” ma.siŋmaŋ
“pass away, decease”
↓↓
C.39.1 Semitic-Arabic kall “to be or become tired” TB-Tibetan
IE-Bengali ‫ع‬aajiz “weak, feeble, powerless, incapable” ŋál ‘jug-ba
kahil W. Chadic – Hausa “to tire, fatigue, worry”
“exhausted, tired” gàji “become tired” ngál-wa
gàlàabaità vi. “undergo “fatigue, weariness”
deterioration, suffering due to hardships” Kartvelian-Georgian
Semitic-Hebrew khalah v. ɣal- “to get tired”
“fell sick, was taken ill”
↓↓
C.40.1 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic- Ron (Kulere) TB-Tibetan
Sthu “to spit out” tutó “spit (cracher)” thu “to spit” “spittle”
thuthu Proto-Chadic (Newman) Chinese- Hakka
“imitative sound of *təfə / tufə “spit” t’u5 / tu4 “to spit”
spitting” E. Cushitic-Sidamo N. Chinese-MSC
thutkAra tuhu ya, tutu ya tu “vomit, throw up”
“the sound made in “to spit ” Middle Chinese
spitting” NC-Fulfulde (Fulani) thuwH “to spit as a mark of disagreement in
IE-Bengali tūta “spit, vomit” conversation”
thuthu tūde “spittle” Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian- Santali
“spittle, saliva” n. NC-Common Bantu thu: / tho: “spit”
*-tú “spit” Austro- Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian- Mundari
E. Chadic- Mubi thu: dǝ’ʔa “spit”
tuffa “spit” Altaic-Turkic-Turkish, Kyrgyz, Uyghur,
Proto-Afro-Asiatic (Orel Khakassian tükür- “to spit”
Stolbova 1995) tuf- “spit” Altaic-Turkic-Oyrat tükür- “to spit”
↓↓
C.41b.2 Semitic-Judaic Aramaic Chinese-
IE-Sanskrit yammīnā m. “right side, right hand” Cantonese
yamya Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi) yamiin m. “right, right side” yauhmìhn
“the right hand” Proto-Semitic *yamīn- / *yamān “right”
“right, right hand”
Semitic- Hebrew yameen “right hand” N.Chinese-MSC
Proto-Afro-Asiatic (Orel / Stolbova 1995) yòuhmìan
*yamin- “right side” “the right side”
Egyptian amen “right side, west”
Proto-W. Chadic *ʔama / *yama “arm” “westwards”
↓↓
C.43.2 Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) Chinese- Cantonese
IE-Sanskrit kat’t’ “to cough” qat’t’ “cough” kat7 “cough up”
khat “the sound made in (Iraqi) ga‫ حح‬/ ga‫ح‬ga‫ح‬ TB- Mikir
clearing the throat” “to cough” tshing kha.k
NS-Nuer kak “to clear one’s throat” “expectorate, clear throat,
W. Chadic – Hausa yi kàakī “clear phlegm, sputum”
one’s throat”
925
↓↓
C.45.2 IE-Sanskrit W, Chadic- Ron, C. Chadic– TB-Tibetan
phut, phūt “an onomatopoetic imitative Bacama, Mwulyen ‘bud-pa
sound made by blowing or puffing into fûd- “blow on” phus pf. phu imp.
liquids or by the boiling or bubbling of W. Chadic–Diri “to blow either with the
water” fútshù “blow” mouth or be blown by
phutkara “blowing, puffing, hissing” Proto-Cushitic (Ehret) *fur- the wind” “to blow”
phutKR “to puff, blow, make a “puff, blow”
bubbling noise” E. Cushitic- Oromo afuufa
phutKRta “puffed, blown” vt. “blow, inflate, blow (horn,
trumpet)” “blow)”
↓↓
C.46.1 W. Chadic- Chinese- Cantonese
IE-Sanskrit nikRS nitsèe vi. niksei “to drown”
“to draw or drag down” “sink” “drown (sink into)” TB- Burmese
“to be borne down by the stream “vanish into water” nats < *nìk
of a river” Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) “sink into, be immersed”
nihrs “sink” nisa “to sink down, become Old Chinese
nisad “to sink or go down” low” niekm “sink, drown”
nitan “cause to go or grow nizal “to descend, go down, N. Chinese-MSC
downward” come down” “to fall, sink, drop, nìsî vi. “to be drowned
nimajj “sink” See also C.37b.1 go down” (person, animal)”
↓↓
C.48.1 NS-Songhay (Koyra) TB-Tibetan
IE-Bengali amasha “dysentery” masar / mashar “smallpox” (Ladak province)
IE-Sanskrit “itchy rash” mdzár-ra /
masVraka “smallpox” W. Chadic-Hausa mdzer-ré
masVri “a kind of smallpox” màshasshařa / masassařa “pitted with small pox,
mazaka “a particular skin disease “fever, smallpox” pock-marked, warty,
(causing dark, bean-like pustules or Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) mašxuut itchy”
eruptions” ” “scratched, marred, marked, scarred” Chinese- Cantonese
masuraka “eruption of lentil- C. Chadic- Hurza màh “measles,
shaped pustules, smallpox” madzahɫ-d’ay “fever” leprosy”
masuri “a kind of smallpox” N. Chinese-MSC
masuraka “eruption of lentil- má “pocked, pock-
shaped pustules, smallpox” marked, pitted, spotty”
masuri “a kind of smallpox” N. Chinese-MSC
IE-Pashto sharaey “the measles, E. Cushitic-Oromo sariti shazi “measles”
a slight cutaneous eruption” “infezione cutanea” “eczema umido”
shari niwal “to take or fall sick of [skin infection, eczema]
the measles, to get the measles”
C.48.3 IE-Sanskrit E. Cushitic-Rendille
sara / zara “of a variegated color” charccháaréh / chaccháaréh
“motley, spotted, speckled” “spotted, piebald, multicolored
“(of doubtful derivation)” (referring either to several items, or
saraGga “having color or having a to a single item covered all over with
dappled body” “of a variegated color, many colors)”
dappled, spotted” “(of doubtful NS-Songhay čaarey
derivation)” AV “be striped, be multicolored,
IE-Bengali zarita “variegated, variegated”
colored” NS-Kanuri sharshara “striped”
926
E. Cushitic-Oromo sarara
“riga” “striscia” [stripe, streak]
W. Chadic-Hausa
shâsshāwàa “decorative
markings on face or body
(esp. on women)”
shâsshàutā “cut tribal or
decorative scarifications on
someone”
(Daura dial.) shasshāwà f.
“any tattooing on any part of the
face, neck, body”
↓↓
C.51a.1 W. Chadic – Hausa TB-Chin-Lushai
IE-Sanskrit tukkū m. tuk “the knot or bob of hair on the
StukA “a knot or tuft of hair “tuft of hair on the crown of nape of the neck”
or wool” the head (a traditional hair TB-Burmese tuk “head”
“thick curl of hair” style for male children)” TB-Lepcha tok “the head, the top of
Stukavin “having tufts of “braid or bun (of hair)” anything, top ornament etc.”
hair” “tassel, plume of hat or TB-Tibetan tog “the top of anything,
kezastuka “a lock of hair” helmet” “cock’s comb” a top ornament”
keza “hair” “bird’s crest” ” thog “what is uppermost” “head, top
in a general sense” e.g. “to be at the
head , to lead”
C.51a.3 IE-Pashto N. Chinese-MSC
ttopal tóufâ “hair on the top of the head”
“the crown of the head” Altaic-Uyghur
ttopa’i “a cap, a hat, töbä “top of the head”
a helmet” Altaic-Kyrgyz
IE-Sanskrit Stupa töbö “top of the head”
“a knot or tuft of hair”
IE-Hindi topī
“cap, hat” f.
IE- Bengalii
tupī “cap, hat” n.
/
C.51b.2 IE-Sanskrit Proto-AA [Orel, Stolbova] *t̝s̝ag- “hair” TB-Tibetan
sAGgaja “having hair, C. Chadic-Logone ʔəm-sə‫כ‬gə̀ “hair” s‫̀̀כ‬gs‫̀ככ‬
together with hair, covered C. Chadic-Gulfey m-sege “hair” “hairy,
with hair” South (Ethiopic) Semitic-Amharic bushy (in hair)”
zekhara “a chaplet or t’ägur / s’ägur “hair”
wreath worn on top of the yä t’ägur assärar “hairdo”
head” “crown, diadem, Semitic-Arabic
crest” ša‫ع‬ar colloquial “hair”
śikhā “tuft on the crown of West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic NC-
the head” Fulfulde [Fulani]
viśikhá “having no tuft of sukka horejo “one with a mop of hair”
hair, bald, unfeathered” RV hore “head”
Proto-S. Cushitic *c’əg “hair”
Total Sanskrit / Hindi / Bengali C Domain correspondences = 34

927
D.3a.1 W. Chadic – Hausa Proto-Tibeto-Burman, Proto-Lolo-Burmese

IE-Sanskrit ‘yā “daughter” *za ~ *tsa “child, son”
ja “born or ‘yā‘yā “children” TB-Tibetan
descended from, E. Cushitic- Oromo dza “to give birth” “to bear a child”
born or produced ija / iji n. “rampollo, btsa-ba “to bear, bring forth”
in or at” “birth” discendente, figlia” [scion, btsa-wa “to be born, to bring forth”
“a daughter” descendent, daughter] tsha “grandchild”
“a son of (in Semitic- Arabic tsha-bo “grandson, nephew”
compounds)” jaahil “child, baby, youngster” TB-Kachin śa “son, offspring”
jA “born, NS-Songhay TB-Tsangla za ~ źa “son, offspring”
produced” ja- “compound initial form of Altaic-Proto-Turkic
“offspring, ije meaning “child, (juvenile)” *uja “relation, blood relation”
pl. descendants” “child” Altaic-Middle Turkic uja
E. Cushitic- Sidamo “younger sister”, “ brother”,
ajā “young, little, youth, young “blood relation”
man” Altaic-Turkic-Karakhanid uja “brother,
Proto-AA (Orel / Stolbova kinsman”
1995) *dza’- “son” Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen uja “sister”
W. Chadic-N. Bauci group- Pa’a Altaic-Turkic-Tatar oja “family” “kin”
zhà “child” Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz
C. Chadic- Fali Gili ža ujalaš “by one venter” [by one womb]
“daughter” “seed, sow seed, Altaic-Turkic-Karakalpak
Egyptian sa “son” ujalas “by one venter” [venter “belly”]
/
D.3b.1 E.Cushitic-Gedeo TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit zare “seed” sá-bon
sarvajiba “the seed of everything” South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic “seed”
saretas “having semen, zär “seed, descent (origin), offspring, “seed-corn, corn,
possessing seed” line, lineage, issue (descent)” grain” “propagation,
sarga “begetting, procreation” zərrəyya “offshoot, offspring, progeny, issue”
“offspring, a child” progeny”
IE-Bengali Semitic-Hebrew TB-S. Qiang
cara “seedling, zara “sowed, seeded” zue-za “seed”
a young plant” W. Chadic-Tangale zue “earth”
IE-Tokharian säryām “seed” sálá “seed, kernel”
sāry- “to plant” sārm “seed” S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa *saʔŋ “seed”
S. Khoisan-!Xóo saʔaŋ “seed”
Egyptian sáa “a seed or fruit used in
medicine”
/
D.3d.2 Proto-AA (Orel /Stolbova 1995) TB-Qiangic-Pumi-Dayang
IE-Sanskrit *jin- / *jan- “child” ̂ ̂ ̂ “child”
t́sə̂̂̂̂̂̃N
jantu “a child, offsapring” NC-Proto-Bantu TB-Bodo-Garo-Dhimal
jana “generating” *-jánà “child” t́s̀an “son”
janana “generating, begetting, NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] Proto-TB *tsan ~ *zan
producing” jānirāwo “child, son”
jama “a daughter” “great-grandson” N. Chinese-MSC
IE-Hindi janam n. West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic zhângzi “eldest son”
“birth” heșän zhângsūn “son’s eldest
janamjāt “born” adj. “baby, infant, child” son” “eldest grandson”
928
IE-Bengali Semitic-Written Arabic Proto-Tibeto-Burman

shɔntan janīn ajinna pl. “embryo, fetus, *tsan ~ *zan
“offspring, son / daughter” germ (in a seed)” “child, son”
shɔntan “son” n. E. Cushitic-Burji saññee “seed” Austro-Asiatic-Kherwarian-
IE-Old Indian E. Cushitic-Oromo saññii “seed” Munda-Ho, Mundari,
sūnú “son, child” South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Harari Santal1
säni “seed, sow seed” ʤaŋ “seed”
↓↓
D.5a.1 W. Chadic- Angas TB-Kiranti-Limbu
IE-Sanskrit kûn “mother’s elder brother” kuŋba
kumbhila yem kûn “eldest son” yem “son” “ego’s wife’s elder or
“a wife’s W. Chadic- Sura kən “uncle, nephew” younger brother”
brother” C. Chadic-Maba kunón “le gendre” “le beau-père” “ego’s elder or younger
“la belle fille” “la belle mère” [son-in-law, father-in-law, sister’s husband
daughter-in-law, mother-in-law] N. Chinese-MSC
Proto-Chadic *kən- “uncle, nephew” kūn / k’ūn (WG)
C. Chadi –Musgu kən “uncle, nephew” “elder brother”
W. Chadic-Gwandara tàbà kúnnī
“great-grandparent, great grandchild”
NS-Songhay kune “husband”
N. Khoisan-‖Au‖en !unŋ “man”
↓↓
D.6.3 C. Cushitic- Demba N. Chinese-MSC (WG)
IE-Sanskrit zan, zin “brother” hsiūng “a brother, an elder brother”
sanaAbha N. Cushitic- Beja [Bedawi] xiōng “elder brother”
“a near kinsman, san “brother” kūnzhòng n. “elder and younger
a uterine brother” Proto-Cushitic *isan “brother” brothers” “brothers”
E. Chadic-Sumray Chinese–Wu
shʌ̂n “my brother” ɕioŋ1 “one’s elder brother”
W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Tsagu
shə̂n “elder brother”
Egyptian sn “brother”
↓↓
D.14.3 W. Chadic-Hausa gārujèe “fool” Chinese-Cantonese
Sanskrit C. Khoisan-‖Kh’au‖’e kàra “stupid’ ngá “dumb” /
kharu C. Khoisan-Nama gāre “stupid” ngà “dumb, mute”
“foolish, idiotic” NS-Kanuri Proto-Tibeto-Burman
IE-Pashto káawù “stupid” *ʔ-ga / *m-ʔa “dumb”
khar-sor South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic TB-Proto-Kiranti
“a fool, a blockhead” gäragär “naive” *ʔ [ä]- “mute, dumb”
Sanskrit Semitic-Written Arabic Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-
kaDa “dumb, mute” xarisa Santali
“ignorant, stupid” “to be dumb, mute” ka’la “dumb”
IE-Bengali W. Chadic-Ngizim ka’la / ‘kala “deaf”
kala ”deaf” gádàawànák “fool” Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
gadlə̀̀bgə̀nák “foolish, fool” Kherwarian- Ho
Egyptian ukha / ukhau “to play the ‘kalə “deaf”
fool, to be foolish, simple, ignorant,
stupid”
↓↓
929
D.16.1 W. Chadic-Hausa jinsìi “kind, race, S. Chinese-Min

IE-Pashto species” jiniì “species, race” chīn-chiĕk
jins “family, race” e.g. jinin Sin “the Chinese race” “relatives, relations”,
“genus, kind, gender, “lineage” “ancestry” chīn-láng “relatives,
species, sort” Written Arabic jinis “kind, sort, clansmen”
variety, species, class, category, race, zīn-khaù “population”
nation” zin-bin
jinsiyat nationality, citizenship” “people, nationals of a country”
abna jinsina “our fellow tribesman” [literary form] ;
NS-Nuer ciìŋ-tha “family-in-law” TB-Chin-Lai
ciiŋ, ciiŋni “village, town” tsiŋ-la “line of ancestors”
ji chiŋ “villagers, inhabitants” Old Chinese
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] ts’ien “parents, relatives”
jinsu “kind, genus, gender” < Arabic” . Chinese-MSC / Beijing
NC-Swahili hsìng / sìng (WG)
jinsi “kind, sort, type” “species, “a clan, a people”
gender”
D.16.4 IE-Sanskrit Semitic-Hebrew shaňe “kinsman, descendent,
janas n. zan “breed, species” blood relative”
“race, class of beings” Semitic-Arabic Proto-Tibeto-Burman
janya n. “belonging to mutajanis “akin, related, of the same *tsan ~ *zan
a race or family or to kind or nature” “relatives”
the same country” tjannas “to become a naturalized TB-Tibetan
“belonging or relating citizen” gnyen-tshan “kindred,
to the people” “people, South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic relations”
community, nation” zämäd “collective kin terms”
janapada “living in the “relative, relation (relative), kin, TB-Tibetan zhaŋ-nyen “in a
country, inhabitant of kinsman” general sense, relations by the
the country” jananana zəmdənna “relationship, kinship, mother’s side”,
“race, lineage” pancha affiliation” e.g. tsha- zhaŋ “nephew and
jana “the five tribes of uncle, by the mother’s side”
the Rgveda” khu-tshan
IE-Hindi janjati “uncle and nephew”,
“tribe” f. pha-tshan
janamsankhya f. “cousins on the father’s side”
“population”
janam-bhumi
“homeland, native land ”
IE-Sanskrit
sanaAbhi
“a blood relation”
jami “related like
brother and sister”
930
D.16.5 IE-Sanskrit E. Cushitic-Oromo S. Daic-Lao

laksaNa sanyi la:k2 sa3:na2 n.
“characteristic, “qualita, genere” “razza, cabila, “characteristic”
attribute, quality” progenie, tribu, stirpe” TB-Tibetan mshaň-nyid
lakSaNa “related [“quality, type” “attribute”
with or acquainted “race, caste, progeny, tribe, lineage”] mtshan-nyid
with characteristic “the essential characteristic”
signs or marks” mtshan-pa “marked”
IE-Hindi laksan “property, quality, symptom,
“symptom, indication”
characteristic”
↓↓
D.20.1 IE-Sanskrit E. Cushitic-Rendille TB-Tibetan
anuja “born after” m.f.n. núgul n. “youngsters (who nú-bo “a man’s younger brother”
“later, younger” play together in the village)” nú-mo “the younger sister of a
“a younger brother” m. “Refers primarily to children female”
“a younger sister” older than toddlers but Middle Chinese
anujanman “a younger younger than teenagers” ānú “younger brother”
brother” “younger” “young” N. Chinese-MSC
anujAta “after born, later, núgleel “smallness” “early nú “sons and daughters, children”
younger, after” “later, childhood” TB-Garo no “younger sister”
younger” “a younger brother, Egyptian unnu TB-Chin-Lakher nɔ
a younger sister” “child, infant” “younger sister”
↓↓
D.21a.3 IE- E. Cushitic- Oromo W. Tibetan ló-li-ma “prostitute, harlot”
Sanskrit alale “lussuria” [wantonness, Tibetan laa-mo “a derogatory term for a
lalita “a wanton lasciviousness] woman”
woman” “wanton, alaaluma “prostituta, mondana” Chinese- Cantonese
amorous, [a prostitute, frivolous woman] laih “bad, evil”
voluptuous” alalu “essere disonesto, Chinese- Hakka lai5 / laai6 / lai4
lalanA f. dissoluto, perverso” [be dishonest, “lazy” “no good, poor, bad”
“a wanton dissolute, perverse] Kartvelian-Megrel lala
woman” South (Ethiopian) Semitic- “good-for-nothing”
lal “to play, Amharic alläle “of dissolute Kartvelian-Georgian lele
sport, dally, life” “good-for-nothing”
behave freely or W. Chadic- Hausa Hmong-Mien-Mien luei “lazy”
loosely” làlatà f. 0“immoral act, behaving Hmong-Mien-Ai Cham lwaj “lazy”
lola “desirous, like a rogue” Kartvelian-Megrel lala “good-for-
greedy, lustful” “fornication, premarital sex” nothing”
/
D.21c.1 Proto-IE *slap-, *slab- “weak, South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Gurage TB-Tibetan
languid” lāfa “lazy, bad” lád-pa
IE-Sanskrit alasa “inactive, without -Amharic azläfälläfä “weak, faint,
energy, lazy, idle, indolent, tired, faint” “cause languor, fill with languor” exhausted”
analasa “not lazy, active” E. Cushitic- Haddiya, Kambata
madalasa ”lazy from drunkenness, languid, lāfa “very weak”
indolent, slothful” E. Cushitic- Wolamo lāfa “tired”
IE-Bengali ɔlɔsh “lazy, idle” adj. NS-Kanuri tə́lə́s “emphasizes
IE-Tokharian leswi “attacks of weakness” tiredness” tə́lə́s yimbarə́kana
“I am totally exhausted”
931
↓↓
D.26a.1-3 E. Chadic- Banana Proto-Tibeto-Burman *r-k`uw or *r-kəw
D.26a.1 IE-Sanskrit kul “to steal” “steal” gū “to steal”
kuh “to surprise or cheat NS-Kanuri kurkurí n. TB-Tibetan gū “to steal”
by trickery or jugglery” “petty theft” Proto-Mongolian *kula-gai “to steal,
cur “to steal” NS-Nuer cuer “thief” deceive”
curaNya “to steal” Proto-AA *xuruc Proto-Tungus-Manchu *kola- “to steal,
cor / coraka “a thief” “steal” deceive”
IE-Bengali Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) Proto-Altaic *kiola- “to steal, deceive”
cor “ thief” n. muqurbaaz Old Chinese k’u “rob”
curi “theft, stealing” “cheater, swindler” TB-Nung [Rawang] khü “rob, steal
IE-Hindi cor “ thief” Semitic-Written Arabic TB-Himalayish-Newar khul- “steal”
cori karna “steal” xulsatan “by stealth, Proto-Mongolian *kula-gai “to steal,
IE-Pashto ghulati stealthily” deceive”
“cheating or tricking at NS-Anywa [Anuak] Proto-Tungus-Manchu *kola- “to steal,
play” ”a cheat at play” kùu kùuwè pl. “thief” deceive”
Proto-Altaic *kiola- “to steal, deceive”
Proto-Turkic *K(i)al- “to steal, deceive”
D.26a.2 IE-Sanskrit N. Cushitic- Beja TB-Tibetan
Akhu “a thief” [Bedawi] rku-wa
kuha “a rogue, guhar “steal” “to steal, rob”
a cheat” küára
kuhaka “a cheat, rogue” “räuber” [robber]
“an imposter”
“deception, trickery”
kuhanika
“jugglery, hypocrisy”
D.26a.3 NS-Nuer N. Chinese-MSC
IE-Sanskrit kwil guî “deceitful, tricky, cunning”
kuj / khuj “stealing” guijue “strange and changeful, treacherous”
“to steal” NS-Anywa [Anuak] gâoguî “play tricks, be up to some mischief”
kùu kùuwè pl. guī “dirty trick”
“thief” Chinese-Wu
kuE5 “cunning, crafty, wily, deceitful”
“dirty trick, dirty work”
Chinese- Hakka
kwui3 / gui1 “traitor, villain, thief,
treacherous fellow”
TB-Written Burmese khûi “steal, thief”
khuì “steal”
/
D.26b.1 W. Chadic- Hausa N. Chinese-MSC
IE-Sanskrit wāyō adj. wāi
vaJcaka “deceiving, a deceiver, fraudulent, “cleverness, trickiness” “devious, underhanded,
crafty” “a low or vile man” yi wawaiyo crooked”
vaJcanata “trickery, deception, roguishness” “trick (play a trick on” gwáija
vaJcatha “deceit, a deceiver, cheater” wàayō m. “craft, guile”
vaJcana “cheating, deception, fraud” “cleverness, cunning” guàiwu
“to practice fraud, cheat” mài wàayō adj. “monster, monstrosity,
vaidagdya “dexterity, intelligence, acuteness, “crafty (shrewd)” freak”
cunning” “an eccentric person”
932
vaidagdyavat “cleverness, clever, Semitic-Amharic Chinese-Cantonese

skillful, experienced” “illusion, delusion, t’änqway waaih
hallucination” “magician, wizard, witch “vicious, mean, evil”
vaikatya “hugeness, horribleness, doctor” waaih
atrociousness” t’änq “pernicious, “bad (in character)”
vaipajcamika “a diviner, a soothsayer” disastrous, harmful” wáihge “evil”
↓↓
D.26c.3 IE-Sanskrit E. Cushitic-Sidamo Chinese-Cantonese
vaidhuri “adversity, adverseness” wahe “calamity, trouble” waimiht “ruin”
vaidhurya “misery, wretchedness, Egyptian uai “death, destruction” waiwaaih
desperate plight” “to destroy, to vanquish” “destruction” (ruin)
vaikRtya “woeful state, miserable “foul, bad, stinking” waaih “broken
plight” “change for the worse, Proto-W. Chadic *wuy- “disaster” down, decaying,
degeneration” South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic rotten” “bad, poor”
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan äwayyä “tell another one’s N. Chinese-MSC
vaiyōi / āvōya “wehe!” (Ger.) misfortunes” huai “bad” “go bad,
[woe] wäyyŏ “alas! woe! spoil, ruin”
IE-Armenian vay wäyyäw “oh dear!” huaichu
“Wehe, Unglück” (Ger.) E. Cushitic-Somali “harm, disadvantage”
[pain, ache] bad luck] wah+yelo “mischief, injury”
↓↓
D.27a.1,3 NS-Kanuri TB-Tibetan
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan, mowóma mòlihk “magic charm”
Sanskrit “cheat, liar, möò “to curse”
moha “a magical art employed perpetrator of fraud” “to invoke a deity to harm someone”
to bewilder an enemy” E. Cushitic-Burji mo-pa / mó-mkhan
“to say anything that leads to mó(o)r j-oo “a soothsayer”
error, to fall into error” “thief” Chinese- Cantonese
“bewilderment, delusion, error, W. Chadic-Dyarim mòuhsi “sorcerer (witch)”
folly” AV m‫ככ‬ r‫“ככ‬thief” mòseuht / mòuhseuht
mohamantra E. Cushitic- Oromo “magic”
“a spell or charm causing móru “aruspice, mago, naahmmòuh “wizard”
infatuation or illusion” stregone, indovino” mògwai “devil”
mohayit [astrologer, sorcerer, Chinese- Wu mo6
“one who bewilders or wizard, soothsayer / “wizard, witch, demon power”
perplexes” diviner] N. Chinese-MSC
mosa E. Cushitic- Rendille mó “evil, spirit, demon, devil,
“a robber, a thief” móro “soothsayer, monster” “magic, mystic”
star-gazer” móshù
“magic, conjuring, sleight of hand”
/
D.27b.1 IE-Sanskrit E. Cushitic- Kembata Tibetan
makatpitRka magàn + āncu “wizard” gyuməgεn
“a magic formula” “magician” “magician, conjurer”
IE-Pashto makkari W. Chadic-Hausa māguzanci gyu “illusion, fantasy,
“fraud, deceitfullness” “rites of the Maguzawa” “obscene magic, conjuring”
makr “fraud, deceit, evasion” language” Maguzawa = non-Islamic garmagεn
IE-Sanskrit maga “a magian, Hausa group. “astrologer”
a priest of the sun” bamaguje “pagan (non-Muslim gar “star”
magu “a magian” Hausa)”
933
magànce “bewitch”
W. Chadic- Ngizim mágàná
mágànánín pl. “term of address
or reference to a sorceress”
E. Cushitic- Burji mugáanga
“magician, wizard” < NC-Swahili
D.27b.2 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic-Hausa N. Chinese-MSC
maya “wisdom, extraordinary or maye n.m. maya n.f. màihbû
supernatural power (only in the “sorcerer, witch, wizard” “practice divination for
earlier language)” mâyyàa / mâyèe “witch” a living,
“illusion, unreality, deception, mayàudari n. m. be a fortune teller”
fraud, trick, sorcery, witchcraft, “trickster, deceiver”
magic” E. Cushitic-Oromo Chinese-Cantonese
mayin “artful, skilled in art or amajaju vi. “stregare, ammaliare, màih
enchantment, cunning, portar iettatura” “to bewitch, to charm”
deceptive, illusory” “a conjuror, [to bewitch, to enchant , màihwaahk
juggler, magician” “a cheat, a to cast a spell] “bewitch”
deceiver” amajaja
mayakara “illusion maker” “maliardo, stregone, cannibale”
“a conjurer, juggler” [enchanter, sorcerer/wizard,
mayadhara “possessing illusion, cannibal”]
skilled in magic”
mAyAvat “having magical powers,
employing deceit, sly cunning”
IE-Bengali maya “illusion” n.
↓↓
D.29.3 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic
IE-Hindi barā adj. “big” bārātta “be strong, prevail”
IE-Bengali bɔro “big” bərtu “strong. powerful, vigorous”
Khoisan-Sandawe baʔe “big”
↓↓
D.32.4 NS-Songhay kúndà “groupe de n’importe quoi” Chinese–Min
IE-Sanskrit [group of anything] kun5
kaNDa ”a party, kondey “social club” “group, crowd,
number, multitude, NC-Swahili kúndi n. “group” “crowd” “herd” multitude, mob,
assembly” “flock” swarm, flock,
ganata “the forming of E. Cushitic-Sidamo gamba “gather” herd”
a class or multitude, W. Chadic–Hausa gungùu “crowd, group of
the belonging to a party” people”
↓↓
D.34.1 W. Chadic-Hausa ‘barī “abandon Proto-Tibeto-Burman
IE-Sanskrit (leave, cast aside)” “leave behind” *bwar ~ *hwar
parAs “to throw away or bāra-gurbi m. “unhatched egg(s) TB-Mikir var
down, cast aside, ignored by the hen” “throw, throw away, divorce
expose (as a newborn Cushitic-Bilin bār vt. “ablassen, (a spouse)”
child), aufgeben” [to give up, abandon, let out]. TB-Tibetan ‘bór-ba /
abandon, reject” Semitic-Written Arabic h̟bór-wa “to leave, forsake”
parAha bari’a “rid oneself of” “to free oneself “to forsake a husband or
“to give way, let slip. from” mubara’a “divorce by mutual wife”
abandon” consent” “to throw, cast, fling”
934
parAda “to give up or Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) bor “cast away, abandoned”

over, deliver, throw bar, barii past aspect of verb
away” RV AV “free, rid” TB-Lushai vorʔ
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan tbarra “to disassociate oneself” “throw, throw away, divorce
parAdiz “to order off, “to disown” (a spouse)”
remove” AV E. Cushitic-Oromo Altaic-Proto Tungus Manchu
IE-Pashto abararu “mandar via, fugare” [to send *burī- “to abandon, lose”
bahar yastal “to put or away, to drive out, to chase away]
cast out or away.
↓↓
D.35.1 W. Chadic – Hausa N. Chinese –MSC
IE-Pashto sauràyī shàunyán (Y) “youngster, (youth)”
jawan / “youth shào “young”
jawanwan (young person)” shàonián n. “youngster, (youth)” “youth, young
“young, “young man” person” ”period of growth, one’s youth”
juvenile” C. Chadic-Mofu xiăo “young” xiăozi “boy”
Hindi Gudur shàofu “young married woman”
javān “guy” sab’ar syăujyê (Y) “Miss (title)”
javāni “youth f. “être adolescent, syău (Y) “young (of animals)”
jāvan grandir” S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka]
“youthful” adj. [be an adolescent, sau5 / shau3 / sau5
grow up] “young, youthful, junior, juvenile”
sab’ara “jeune S. Chinese-Min
fille” [young girl] siàu-lián “young, youngster” siâu “small”
Total Sanskrit / Hindi / Bengali D Domain correspondences = 19
E.1a.2-3 Proto- Chadic N. Chinese –MSC

IE-Bengali *sənə “know” shên “know, be aware of”
cena W. Chadic- Nancere Middle Chinese
“know, recognize” sen “know” nzjen- “recognize”
vb. C. Chadic- Logone TB-Tibetan gshen
sən “know” “the act of remembering or reminding”
W Chadic- Ron (Sha) TB-Jingpho (Hkauri dialect
syen “kennen, wissen” tšêŋ “know”
[be acquainted with, know] Kartvelian-Georgian
xsen “to remind”
/
E.1c.1 IE-Sanskrit , C. Chadic–Bura TB-Tibetan
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan dzama “meditation, to ponder or bsammnó
samarth “to judge, think, reflect” “thinking”
contemplate” samarthana dzamta “to think” sāmba “thoughts,
“reflection, deliberation, W. Chadic-Hausa ideas”
contemplation” tsàmmààni “thinking” “thought, Chinese- Cantonese
“to reflect, to consider” thinking” “expectation” sám “to think of”
samAlokana “contemplation, W. Chadic–Gwandara “to know, to be
inspection” yi tsàmáni “think” aware” “the mind,
samAdhi “intense application or C. Chadic- Mandara group the conscience”
fixing the mind on” dzam- “intention, idea,
samAs “to mind, to attend to” “know, remember, think” ambition”
935
samabidhyai “to reflect deeply on, C. Chadic–Glavda sàm

meditate on” “to direct all the dzama- “to think, to remember, to “the heart, the core”
thoughts upon, long for” reckon, to believe” TB-Himalayish-
sampreks “to look well at, South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Gurage Proto-Kiranti
observe carefully” (Caha, Ennemor, Gyeto) *sam “heart, soul,
“to consider well” ĉ’ämätä “reflect, think, remember think”
“become aware of” things of the past” TB-Tibetan
samabhivIks “to perceive, become South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Gurage bsammnó
aware of” c̟äm(m)äta “think, suppose, expect” “wishing”
sampravrt “to turn or think over in Semitic-Written Arabic camba “love,
the mind, think deeply about” sanaha “to occur to someone” compassion”
samchaks “to look attentively at’ “to come to someone’s mind” camden “dear,
observe, notice, consider” C. Cushitic-Bilin beloved”
“reflect upon” RV AV šām “Liebe, Zuneigung” cambo
samvid [love, liking/ affection] “affectionate, kind
“consciousness, intellect, knowledge, Proto-AA (Orel / Stolbova 1995) and loving”
understanding” “perception, feeling, *c’amon “think, know” /
sense” *dzam- “think, remember”
saMsmr “to remember fully, to Semitic- Ethiopic- Gurage
recollect” šäm v. “desire”
samIh “to strive after, wish for, Egyptian shaām “to desire”
desire” South (Ethiopic) Semitic-Amharic
IE-Hindi sammohan səmmet “feeling, emotion,
“fascination” m. excitement” impulse (emotion),
attention, passion, sensation”
/
E.1d.1 Semitic- Arabic (Yemeni) Kartvelian-Georgian
IE-Sanskrit samaac “hearing, listening” sem- “to hear”
samAkarN “to give ear sammac “to make hear, cause to hear” Kartvelian-Svan
to, listen to, hear” karN tsamma‫“ ع‬to listen in, eavesdrop” səm- / sim- “to hear”
“ear” samzru Semitic-Written Arabic sami ʕa TB-Tibetan
“to hear or hear from” “to hear” ; gsán-pa
“attend or listen attentively (Iraqi) tsamma “to listen in, “to hear, to listen”
to” “to be distinctly heard” eavesdrop”
IE-Pashto Semitic- Hebrew shama’ v. “heard”
sāmi “a hearer” C. Chadic-Matakam sam “ear”
sāmiɶān Proto-Chadic *s’əmi “ear”
“the sense of hearing, the Semitic- Ethiopic- Amharic
power to hear” sämma “hear, listen”
gaoshem “ear”
E.1d.2 C. Chadic-Matakam N. Chinese-MSC
Hindi atsəna ts’ung (WG)
sunnā / sunanā “to hear” “the hearing”
“hear” vt. “to listen”
Bengali TB-Tibetan suŋsu ru̱ŋwa
shona “hear, listen” “objects that can be seen,
touched, smelled, heard and
tasted”
↓↓
936
E.2a.1 Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi) Chinese- Cantonese

IE- Sanskrit t’ama ‫“ع‬greedy, avid, avaricious, tàam “to covet, greedy”
tam “to desire” desirous” “hope or wish for”
tama “most desired” t‫ع‬ämàd “to intend, to do on purpose” Chinese- Hakka
tamata “desirous of” Semitic-Written Arabic t’am1 “desire for more than one’s
t’ami’a “to covet, desire, wish, crave, rightful share, greedy, covet ,
strive” covetous”
t’ammu ‫“ح‬aspiring, ambitious, eager, TB-Jingpho [Kachin]
craving, avid” tam “to seek, look for”
W. Chadic – Ngizim TB-Burmese tam1 “promise,
tùumân intention”
“thought, hope, expectation”
/
E.2b.1-2 IE-Sanskrit Proto-AA TB-Nepali
E.2b.1 manas “mind (in the widest sense *man-, *aman- “know” man
as applied to all mental powers)” Proto-Kh “mind, heart,
understanding, intelligence, perception, oisan *mana faculty of
sense, conscience,” “to direct the mind or “to know” thinking, feeling”
thoughts toward, think of or upon” NC-Proto-Bantu
“thought, imagination, intention” *manya “to know”
man “to think, believe, imagine” Kordofanian-Tumale
manaya “to think, consider” aiman “to think”
manisa “thought, reflection, consideration, Proto-W. Nigritic
wisdom” manyate “to think” *-man / *-min “know”
IE-Bengali mon “heart, mind, thought, Semitic-Hebrew
feeling” n. mone kara “think, consider” emoonah “belief”
manin “thinking, being of the opinion” E. Cushitic- Sidamo
IE-Hindi mānsik adj. “mental” ammana
mānyata m. “recognition” “to believe (something)”
IE-Bengali mane n. “meaning, import” Semitic (Ethiopic)-Amharic
IE-Pashto ma’naa n. “meaning” W. Chadic-Bole
IE-Armenian imanam “understand” mon- “know”
IE-Old Indian manute / manyate
“to think, believe”
E.2b.2 Semitic-Arabic TB-Tibetan
IE-Tokharian mann “to yearn, be covetous” smon-pa
maňu “desire” NS-Anywa [Anuak] “to wish, desire”
IE-Sanskrit maɲɲɔ‫“ כ‬to want something” Chinese-
manas “will” maɲɲɔ̄ “to look for something” Cantonese
“inclination, affection, desire, mood” NS-Kanuri mángin “look for, mohng
seek” “want, require, desire” “to hope,
Semitic (Ethiopic)-Amharic to expect”
məňňot “wish, desire, ambition”
↓↓
E.4a.1- 3 Egyptian Chinese- Cantonese
E.4a.1 gamh “to see, to look upon, gám “to feel, to perceive”
IE- Sanskrit to perceive” “feeling, sensation, emotion”
gam W. Chadic – Hausa TB-Rodong
“to observe, ganī “see” khan “see, look, know”
understand, guess” ganèe “see (understand)”
937
IE-Hittite W. Chadic-Bole TB-Kiranti-Yamphu

kanes gān “understand” kaŋma “see, look, know”
“erkennen” (Ger.) W. Chadic – Gwandara gani “to see” N. Chinese-MSC
“to know” W. Chadic – Lele kàn “see, look at, watch,
IE-Bengali ganri “regarder” [look] read” “think, consider”
gaen “knowledge, E. Chadic-Lele gangri “regarder” kàntòu “understand
perception” Semitic- Ge’ez, Arabic thoroughly”
Proto-IE h’anaka “understand, perceive” k’àn “to see, to look at, to
g’ena- “to know” Semitic- Amharic tägänäzzäbä observe”
IE-Sanskrit “remember, recall, realize, perceive, Middle Chinese kenH
kantu be aware, note (make an observation), “to see”
“the mind, heart” conclude” Kartvelian-Svan gan-gal
E. Cushitic- Rendille ooganaawa “be or “to know”
become aware of, remember, bear in mind”
E.4a.2 C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe Old Chinese
IE-Hindi *ǂʔáǹ “[to] think” kian “see”
gyān South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic N. Chinese-MSC
“knowledge” qaňňä v. “glance about, reconnoiter, k’àn (WG) “see”
scout” [q = glottalized velar] “to spy, to watch”
C. Khoisan-!Khora [!Ora] ǂ’áń “know”
C. Khoisan-Deti, Tsika, Danisi ʔăŋ
“[to] know”
E.4a.3 IE- Hindi N. Khoisan-ǂHaba N. Chinese-MSC
jānnā ǂkʔâŋ xiang
“know, recognize, “[to] know” “think”
identify” vt.
IE- Bengali
jana “know, be
aware of”
E.4a.4 C. Khoisan-Proto-!Wi TB-Tibetan mkhyen-pa
Proto-IE *ǂʔεn “[to] know” kyēn “to know”, also
g’ena- E. Cushitic- Gedeo “knowledge” “understand”
“to know” ege’n “know” ege’na “knowledge” Old Chinese kien “see”
/
E.4b.1-2 IE-Sanskrit E. Cushitic- Burji TB-Tibetan
kaNDa ak’an-s- “teach” mkhán-po “a clerical teacher,
“teaching, learning” E. Cushitic- Burji gánn-i professor, doctor of divinity”
SKandha “traditional High-priest cum mkhan “an affix to substantives and
“a sage, a teacher” King” verbal roots denoting one who knows a
“a king, a prince” South (Ethiopian) Semitic- thing thoroughly making a trade or
gaNin Amharic kahən “priest, profession of it” mtshan-mkan [lit.
“a teacher” churchman, clergyman” sign-knower] “soothsayer, astrologer”
gaNacArya Semitic-Arabic-Iraqi ča-mkhan “soothsayer, fortune teller”
“teacher common to kaahin, kahana pl. “priest, ča “prospect, auspices”
all” religious leader” Altaic- Mongolian khaan / qan “king”
gaNadIkSin N. Cushitic- Beja [Bedawi] Altaic-Tuvan qaan “king”
“one who officiates for kānana Proto-Turkic *K(i) aŋ “head of clan”
a number of persons or “kundiger, gelehrter” S. Chinese- Hakka
for a corporation [a well-informed, learned ngan5 “man of ability and virtue,
(as a priest)” person] erudite scholar”
938
gaNaka W. Chadic-Hausa Altaic-Turkic-Turkish kǎhin

“a calculator of gànē m. “soothsaying” “soothsayer, seer, oracle”
nativities, astrologer” Egyptian khenu kaqan “Khan, ruler”
RV “an officiating priest, a prophet, Altaic-Proto-Turkic
one who announces or *K(i)aŋ “head of clan”
proclaims”
E.4b.3 Semitic- Gurage E.4b.3 TB-Tibetan
IE-Pashto kännät “skill” -mkhan “an affix to substantives and
kani (Muher) qännɔnät “skill” verbal roots denoting one who knows a
“skillful, clever, Kanuri thing thoroughly making a trade or
a good marksman” gangrang “expert” profession of it”
Proto-Kartvelian
*gangal “to know, be able to”
↓↓
E.5a.3 W. Chadic-Hausa shà’awàa “desire” S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka]
IE-Bengali k’āwàa [pronunced k’yāwàa] jau5 / jau1
caowa vn. “yearning, strong desire (esp. for food)” “want, demand, need, require, desire”
“want, desire, N. Khoisan !Kung dzau, sau N. Chinese-MSC
look at” vb. “to hunger” châo (WG)
S. Khoisan-|’Auni |kau|kau “want” “to seek, to look for”
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic zhâo “to look for, seek”
ašša(w) “choose, wish” “want to see, call on”
/
E.5c.1 IE- Sanskrit Semitic- Ethiopic- TB-Kiranti-Limbu
kam “to love, be in love with” Amharic kamma
“to wish, desire, long for” RV gwämäğğä “develop an attachment to, be or
kama “wish, desire, longing” “desire eagerly, become dependent on”
kamavat “being in love, enamoured, crave, have an TB-Tibetan
wanton” appetite for” skam-pa / rkam-pa “long for”
kamana “lustful, sensual, C. Chadic- Logone ŋam “to desire, to want, to hunger,
lascivious” (u)gəm to thirst for”
kamitR “wollen, lieben” gamgεn “greedy, avaricious,
“lustful, desirous, cupidinous” [to will, to love] gluttonous”
kamin “desirous, longing after” E. Cushitic- Oromo South Daic-Lao
“loving, fond, impassioned, wanton, hamilu “bramare, kwam3 hak2 v. “love
amorous” desiderare” N. Chinese-MSC
kanta “desired, loved, dear, [to desire, to long for] gân “affection, attachment, love”
pleasing, agreeable, lovely, beautiful” hamila “desiderio” kànshang “take a fancy to” “take
m. “lover, husband” [desire n.] fancy to” “favor”
kan “to strive after, seek, wish” qanani “amato, “be satisfied with”
IE-Bengali diletto, apprezzato, South Daic-Lao ngaan5 v. “crave”
akangka “ambition, wish” prediletto” South Daic-Lao ngaan5 v. “crave”
IE-Sanskrit kanta “desired, loved, vn. and adj. Proto-Mongolian kan “friend,
dear, pleasing, agreeable, lovely, [beloved, darling, mate”
beautiful” m. dearest] Mongolian-Kalka xa�
“anyone beloved, lover” Mongolian-Buriat xani
kantu “love, the god of love” Mongolian-Kalmuck xa�i, xa�
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan “friend, mate”
kan “to desire, prefer, select”
cakana “to love”
939
E.5c.2 IE-Sanskrit chanda “liking, W. Chadic-Hausa Chinese- Cantonese

pleasing, alluring, inviting” k’ànwa n. chàngoi
chandas “desire, longing for” “desire, love” “love and cherish”
“intention, purport” chàn, chan
canda “hot, ardent with passion” “to love” “intimate” (feeling)”
“passionate woman, vixen”
“a term of endearment , applied to
mistress”
candavat “warm, passionate”
IE-Hindi cāhanā “want” “desire”
↓↓
E.6.1 W. Chadic-Hausa TB- Burmese
IE-Sanskrit tsāràa / sa’aa “peer, lover” tsa “have tender
sarasa (Hadejia) tsāra “a paramour” regard for one
“full of love or desire” NS-Daza sardo “ami” [friend] another”
“passionate” W. Chadic-Sura šār “Freund” TB- Jingpho
jara “a paramour, [friend] [Kachin]
a confidential friend” C. Cushitic- Bilin. c’arā ndzha
jAraya “to cherish” “Genosse, Kamerad, “show love,
jArya “intimacy” Nebenmann” [companion, affectionate”
cAru “agreeable, approved, esteemed, comrade, close associate]” TB-Tibetan
beloved, endeared” W. Chadic- Hausa mdsa-ba
sarasvat “finding delight in” sha’awa “liking, wanting” “intimate friend,
sAra “a confederate prince, ally” “desire for women” husband, wife”
caraka “an associate, a companion” Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) caà “to get
šariik “partner, ally, associate” attached to, to love,
šaraaka “partnership, to like”
association"
N. Cushitic- Bedauye [Bedawi]
sharik “freund, Kamerad”
E.6.3 IE-Old Indian sákhā m. “friend, Egyptian TB-Tibetan
assistant, companion” shagig mdsah’-mo
IE-Sanskrit sakha “a friend, companion” “to delight in, to desire” “a mistress, also a
sakhi “a friend, assistant, companion” W. Chadic-Hausa female friend”
sakhitvana “friendship, intimacy” RV shàak’u vi. mdsah’-wa
sakhya “friendship, intimacy with” “be fond of, be close friends” “to be amicable,
“fellowship, community” RV shàak’uwa to love”
sakhitvana “friendship, companionship, (vn. of shàak’u) “intimacy” cāgshen
intimacy” RV “attachment, desire”
sakhIsneha “the love for a female friend
or friends”
↓↓
E.7a.4 W. Chadic-Hausa S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
IE-Pashto ho “(greeting)” hóu / hou “good, nice, fine, excellent”
ho W. Chadic-Kofyar “All right” “bravo!” “wonderful!’
“yes, ay, be it so” hoŋ “an exclamatory expression”
“vocative particle” “welcome, hello ” S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ho3 “good”
Skinner 111 C. Chinese-Wu ɦo6 “bright, fine, beautiful”
/
940
E.7b.3-4 IE-Sanskrit, South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic TB-Tibetan

IE-E. Iranian-Avestan čar / čər “good, generous” tsarwa “beautiful”
E.7b.3 cArudarzana čārənat “bounty, kindness” N. Chinese-MSC
“a good-looking woman” čərota “charity, philanthropy, chiāo
cAru “pleasing, lovely, beautiful, beneficence” “beautiful, graceful”
pretty” RV AV W. Chadic – Gwandara ch’iào / ts’iào
IE-Sanskrit cAruta “loveliness, kyawu / cawu “good, kind, “handsome, beautiful”
beauty” handsome” “goodness, beauty” sháo
cArutva “endearedness” “pleasing, Egyptian shau “something of “splendid, beautiful”
lovely, beautiful” worth or value, something useful”
“dear (with name of person)” RV Proto-Afro-Asiatic (Orel / Stolbova
cArutama “most beloved” “most 1995) *x-war- / *x-yar- “be good”
beautiful” RV E. Cushitic- Gedeo k’araar- “be
cArudarzana “a good-looking woman” better”
cArumukha “handsome-faced” NC-Fulfulde [Fulani]
cArubAhu “handsome-armed” wauna gaunidum pl.
cArughona “handsome-nosed” “be pleasant, beautiful, handsome”
E.7b.4 E. Cushitic-Oromo S. Chinese- Cantonese
IE-Sanskrit garawu adj. gáau “handsome,
gaura “buono, benigno, docile, mansueto” attractive”
“brilliant, clean, beautiful” [good, benign, gentle] Hmong-Mien-Hmong
nkauj “beautiful,
fair, fancy, pretty”
/
E.7c.1 NS-Kanuri kartə “well-done, good, nice, pretty” TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit NS-Coman- Gule agaro “beautiful, good” garso
karka E. Cushitic- Oromo garomu “farsi buono, migliorarsi, “making
“good, excellent” diventar buono” [make oneself good, improve oneself, oneself look
“beauty” become better”] good,
See also G.4.1 below. E. Cushitic- Rendille ikároón “good for, beneficial for handsome,
(someone)” attractive”
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic
agälläggälä “be good (valid)”
/
E.7d.1 IE-Pashto Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) xayri “charitable” S. Chinese-Yue
khair “good, well, xayyir “generous man” (Cantonese)
best” W. Chadic-Hausa k’āyata vt. “beautify” gàai
khair / khairat k’āyàtaccē “beautiful, sophisticated” kàrimì adj. beautiful,
“alms, charity” “generous” kārimci “generosity” good”
khairat kawul E. Cushitic- Oromo gârī “buono, virtuoso” ngaaih “fine,
“to give alms” [good, virtuous] fair, good”
↓↓
E.8a.1 IE-Sanskrit West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic N. Chinese-MSC
vyahr “to utter or awärrä huà “word, talk”
pronounce a sound, “announce, report, tell news, narrate, “talk about, speak about”
speak, say to (acc.), gossip” “words, saying, talk”
converse with, to call Proto-AA *-war- “to call out” Chinese- Cantonese wah
by name” Semitic- Arabic warwar “to speak fast” “say” “a talk, a speech, words,
E. Cushitic- Afar warisa / warse language”
“tell” waalal- “conversation”
941
Egyptian uaua “to take counsel,

to discuss, to deliberate, to talk things over”
Proto-Cushitic
*war- “to call out, news, report”
E.8a.2 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
IE-Pashto (Pushtu) täwäyäyyä waih
wáayem “say” “converse, discuss with one another” “to tell, to say”
way- “said” E. Chadic-Sumray wáy “say” “to name, to call”
Proto-AA *way “say”
/
E.8b.1 IE- Sanskrit W. Chadic- Hausa Chinese- Hakka
vad “to speak, say, utter, tell, fàd’ā “tell, say” fat7 / fad5
report, speak to, talk with” RV fàd’àa vt. “tell to” “issue, publish,
“to proclaim, announce, foretell’ Omotic–Janjero reveal, disclose,
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan fadu “prophesy” uncover”
vada “speaking, a speaker” NS-Tubu [Teda] fat “sagen” [say] “utter, express,
vAda “speaking of or about” “to NS-Daza fader / fado “dire” [say} speak”
adjudge, to adjudicate” fader “parler” [speak] Chinese-
“to proclaim, announce, foretell” Omotic – Janjero fadu “prophesy” Cantonese
“to allege, affirm, to declare Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) faat “to issue, to
(anyone or anything) fatan “to tell on someone” give forth”
to be” AV fard “to predict, announce, faat bíu “to
IE- Sanskrit “speaking about, divine commandment” make known, to
mentioning” E. Chadic-Krio wāte “sagen” [say] make public”
vadana “the act of speaking, Proto-AA (Orel / Stolbova 1995)
talking” *wat- “call, speak”
/
E.8c.1 Semitic- Arabic S. Chinese-Yue
IE-Hindi (Yemeni) fatwa “formal ruling on a religious (Cantonese)
vād “lawsuit” matter” faat “law, regulation, rules,
(Iraqi) “a formal legal opinion (Islamic law)” statutes, legal”
C. Cushitic-Afar faatica “court decision” faat ling “decree”
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic faatgùn n.
fətəh “justice, law, judgement” “judge (in a court)”
↓↓
E.9b.1 IE-Sanskrit NC-Common Bantu TB-C. Loloish-Lahu
iti “In quotations of every kind means that the *-ti “dire” [say] tὲʔ
preceding words are the very words which some W. Chadic-Angas “quotative particle”
person has or might have spoken; placed at the te “say” TB-Tibetan
end of a speech it serves the purpose of inverted NS-Songhay, Zarma “In colloquial
commas” “refers to something that has been said tyi “say” language
or thought or lays stress on what precedes” NS-Songhay tig , dig, thig is
iti “used to indicate that the preceding phrase čii “speak” ”discuss” frequently used for
is a quotation”. “speak (language)” ‘to be sure’, ‘very
IE-Hindi t̝hīk “right, correct, well, sound” C. Chadic- Margi ci right’“
t̝hik hai interj. “O.K.” “speak” tig / tig-tig
IE-Bengali t̝hik / shɔt̝hik “right, (correct)” Semitic-Ethiopic- “certainty, surety,
adjectives shot̝hik adj. “correct, accurate” Amharic certain”
shotti adj. “true, actual” təqs “quotation” Proto-TB *tik
IE-Pashto ttīk “exact, accurate, true, right” See also H.35.1 “very, real, certain”
942
↓↓
E.10.1 IE-Bengali Semitic-Hebrew seekhsehk v. “fomented quarrel, TB-Tibetan
jhɔgra instigated” seekhsookh m. “quarrel, dispute” rdsig-rdsig /
“quarrel” S. (Ethiopic) Semitic-Amharic rdzig-rdzig
IE-Hindi jhagra täĉäqäĉcäqä “fight (vi.), quarrel, argue, dispute, “to address one harshly
“quarrel” squabble” and threateningly”
IE-Pashto Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šaagab “to make trouble, S. Chinese-Yue
jhagrra disturb the peace” šagab “trouble, strife, discord, (Cantonese)
“quarrel” dissension, commotion, controversy” chìk hot
IE-Hindi šikayat W. Chadic- Hausa tsēgumi f. “constant “to shout or bawl
n. “complaint” complaining about other people with implied threats” angrily”
śikayat karna vi. E. Cushitic- Oromo c’iiga’a “have aversion to” jìk “to argue, to
“complain” Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šika “to complain about’ dispute”
↓↓
E.11a.1 W. Chadic- Hausa TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit cene “say” cé-na / shena / ze-na
iticen “often placed at the Egyptian shen “if anyone says so, asks so, after words
end of the objector’s “to speak, to proclaim, to tell” literally quoted”
statement ‘if it be argued NS-Maba Group- Maba shena “it is said or asked”
that’” zɔ‫כ‬nɔ‫“ כ‬you (sing.) say” N. Chinese-MSC
See Note E.11a.1-2 South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Ge’ez zhēng “contend, argue” “argue about”
(Sanskrit Extended) of the zenawa “inform, tell, report” ch’én (WG)
Phase 2 analytic tables. NS-Songhay čiin-ndi “be said, “to make a statement, to make a plea”
be sayable” shēn “state, express, explain”‘
/
E.11b.1 W. Chadic- Hausa S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
IE-Bengali sanař dà vt. sàn
janano “inform someone” “to report”
“inform” “tell” sanářwā f. “to present one’s case
“announcement” (in a law court)”
shɔngbad “news” ‘information” zanta “talk, inform, converse” N. Chinese-MSC
shɔngbad “message” n. West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic tsān (WG)
shangbadik “reporter, journalist zanta “story, tale” “to counsel, to consult
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Ge’ez together”
zenawa shāng
“inform, tell, report” “discuss, consult”
E.11b.2 W. Chadic-Hausa S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
IE-Hindi samvāddātā sambàtu “idle talk” sàn
“reporter” n. W. Chadic- Ngizim “to report”
IE-Sanskrit sàmàná sám “to let know”
samAbhas “chatting, talking about, relating N. Chinese -MSC
“to talk with, converse together, stories concerning” tsān (WG)
address, speak to” “discussion” “to counsel, to consult
“to speak about” NS- Kanuri together”
samAbhaSaNa səmaná
“talking together, conversation with” “talk, chat, discussion”
IE-Hindi samāchār news” South (Ethiopian) Semitic-
samāchārpatr “newspaper” m. Amharic
zanta “story, tale”
↓↓
943
E.12.4 IE-Hindi Semitic- Ethiopic- Amharic TB-Tibetan

sanket “sign” assäňňä mtshan “name”
IE-Sanskrit aksaNa “name, nominate,. designate, mtshan “mark, token, badge,
“a mark, symbol, sign, token” make to be called” symptom, sign” “name, especially
sannimita “used as a causative with the name which everyone receives
“a good omen” composite verbs” who takes orders” “to take, to
jatilAkSaNa “mark of a tribe assume a name”
or caste” mtshan-mar sgom-pa
lakSaNa “having marks or W. Chadic – N. Bauci- Pa’a “to take as an omen”
signs” “endowed with səŋ “name” Middle Chinese mjäng “name”
auspicious signs or marks” Chinese- Hakka
“lucky, fortunate” siang5 xiang4 “one’s family
alakSaNa “a bad, name”
inauspicious sign” “having no Chinese-MSC zhān “practice
marks or signs” divination” zhānxìng “divine by
lAkSaNika “knowing marks, astrology”
acquainted with signs, an TB-Tibetan mtshan-mkan
interpreter of marks or signs” [lit. sign-knower] “soothsayer,
“diviner” astrologer”
E.12.5 IE-Sanskrit Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi) TB-Tibetan
samabhida samma “to name, call” tsɛmbe
“a name, appelation” NC-Fulfulde (Fulani) “marks, signs”
samvid “a name or jamma “have or adopt a
appelation” “a sign, signal” name, other than the real
samadis “to appoint, name, name”
designate” E. Chadic–Kera sám
samajJa “appelation, name, “name”
reputation, fame” C. Chadic–Masa
samjJa “a sign, token, signal, sámnaa “name”
gesture“ ”to give a signal” Semitic- Written Arabic
samudra “an impression or asamin “name, appelation,
mark on the body” reputation”
samlaks “to distinguish by a NS-Songhay (Koroboro)
mark, mark distinctly” zammu “family name”
E. Chadic–Mubi sâmè
“name”
Semitic-Hebrew
seeman
“sign (indication)” “mark”
seeman tov
“Good omen! Good luck!”
↓↓
E.13c.1 C. Chadic-Tera TB-Tibetan
Proto-IE *g’hawə- gara “call” ŋa-ro
“to call” Proto-AA *k’ar- “shout” “a loud voice,
IE-Hindi karāhnā W. Chadic- Hausa a cry”
vi. “groan” k’āra vg. 3a vi. “a loud deep voice”
karā f. “moan, groan” “cry out” “complain” nga-ra “noise, sound”
k’ārā f. “complaint” “noise”
C. Chadic- Fali-Gili xar “call”
944
↓↓
E.13e.1 W. Chadic- Ron (Bokkos) N.Khoisan- !Kung
IE-Old Indian kauti kawa !kau “to cry”
”to sound, cry” “weinen, schreien, klagen”
IE-Tokharian *kwā- [cry, weep, scream cry out]
“call out to, invite”
“to call”
E.13e.2 Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
IE-Bengali hawwas “to make a commotion, raise hau / hàau “(of beast) to roar
haumau an uproar, be noisy” “to chant slogans” or howl”
“uproar, complaint” E. Cushitic-Rendille hawda “bellow, Written Burmese ʔau “shout”
bleat, low” S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
C. Khoisan –Nama hau / hàau
!hao “scream” / !ha̎o “call” “(of beast) to roar or howl”
↓↓
E.14.1 IE-Sanskrit Proto-AA*kuha’ “speak, shout” TB-Tibetan ŋu-wa / ngu-ba
kuuwa “be noisy” C. Cushitic- Bilin kuā “to cry, to weep”
kuvAna “a disagreeable “schreien” [to scream, cry out] TB-Tibetan ŋu vi.
noise” South (Ethiopian) Semitic- “to cry, to weep”
ku “to sound, make any Amharic č’uhät “scream, shout, TB-C.-Loloish-Nyi ŋu̱ “weep”
noise, cry out, moan, cry yell, cry” TB-Nung [Rawang]
(as a bird)” W. Chadic- Gwandara ngü “weep, cry”
“to cry aloud” kuwo “cry” n. Proto-Tibeto-Burman
kuj “to make any W. Chadic–Dera *ŋuw = ŋəw “weep, cry”
inarticulate or monotonous kūwu “shouting” Chinese-MSC k’ū “to weep, to cry,
sound” “moan, groan” NS-Tubu [Teda] to wail, to mourn for”
Proto-IE *(s)kwal kululu “cri de deuil des femmes” Kartvelian-Georgian
“to shout, to whine” [women’s cry of mourning] qu(v)- “to cry, howl”
N.Khoisan-!Kung !kóu “scream” Proto-Kartvelian *quw- “to howl”
↓↓
E.15.4 IE- Sanskrit Semitic-Ethiopic- TB-Chin-Lushai
ghurghura Amharic ŋur “to growl, to snarl,
“growling (of a dog or cat) əngurgurro “muttering, grumble”
ghurghuraka “a gurgling or murmuring” TB-Tibetan ŋer “to growl”
murmuring sound” W. Chadic - Hausa ŋergεὲ “growling”
ghuraghuraya gurgutu “growling, ŋur-ba “to grunt (of yaks and
“wheeze, puff, snort” purring” pigs)”
ghurughurAghora NS-Kanuri Altaic-Turkic-Turkish
“great noise (produced by panting or ngurngur-ngin gurlemek “roar”
puffing)” ghurika “snorting” “roar (e.g. of a lion) Kartvelian-Svan
IE-Hindi gurana “growl, snarl” “grumble, pout (of people)” gurgwn “to thunder”
gurahit “growl” f. Semitic-Aramaic Proto-Kartvelian
IE-Sanskrit ghurghura qurqā, qurqur gurgw- “to thunder”
“growling (of a dog or cat)” “making an animal noise” Kartvelian-Georgian
ghuraghuraya E. Cushitic- Oromo qurqul “wolf’s or dog’s howl”
“wheeze, puff, snort” gururi’a “growl” Proto-Kartvelian
IE-Pashto ghur-zang NC-Swahili *qur- “to howl”
“to roar, to bellow (as a bull)” nguruma “rumble, Kartvelian-Georgian, Svan
ghurchedal “to roar, to bellow” vi. thunder, growl, roar, gul- “to growl”
bellow” S. Daic-Lao ku2 “growl”
↓↓
945
E.16a.3 Semitic- Arabic (Yemeni) tsilmi “peaceful” Chinese-MSC

IE- Sanskrit W. Chadic–Hausa (WG)
kSi shirū “silence” shiru-shiru “taciturn” tsì / chì “still,
“to remain, be NS-Songhay (Koroboro) síró�=“calme, silence” silent”
quiet, Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) sikat TB-Tibetan shi
to make a person “to become silent, lapse into silence” “to calm down,
live quietly” sikan “to become still, tranquil, calm, to abate, subside” to be pacified”
/
E.16b.2 Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova 1995) Chinese-
IE- Sanskrit *saman- “be still, sit” Cantonese
samana “quiet, calm” Semitic-Arabic s̟amata “be speechless, sàhm
samupazan “to become quiet, be silent” “quiet, still, silent”
cease” Semitic-Syriac s’ammet “silence someone” TB-Tibetan
sampraSAda “perfect quiet Semitic- Ethiopic-Ge’ez sam(-ma) /
(esp. mental repose during a deep s’-mm “be silent, not listen, not answer” sum(-me)
sleep” NS-Kənzi [Kenuzi] samm “still sein, “with a low voice,
zamya “to keep quiet” müssig sein” [be still, be idle”] lowly, softly”
zamatha “quiet, tranquility” Proto-E. Cushitic c’aamb- ”to be quiet” chàhmjing
KSam “to be patient or NS-Kənzi [Kenuzi] “quiet (of a
composed, suppress anger, keep samm “still sein, müssig sein” person)
quiet” [be still, be idle”] cháhm “to sleep,
zanti “tranquility, peace, quiet, Egyptian tchaām “quietness, rest” to rest”
peace of mind” N. Cushitic- Beja [Bedawi] Tibetan
zanta “appeased, pacified, šimis “be quiet, patient” cam
tranquil” E. Chadic - Dangaleat [Dangla] “quietly, without
Proto-IE *sam- “quiet” síìmè “rester immobile et silencieux, any noise”
Old Indian sáman “calming, ne donner pas signe de vie” sīmbu /
tranquilizing” [remain motionless and silent] sīmmèwa
“quiet, silent”
E.16b.3 IE-Bengali shanto Semitic-Hebrew Chinese-MSC
“quiet” “peaceful” sha’anan “serene, tranquil” xián
shanti “peace” Semitic-Arabic “idle”
shan “peace” s’anta “quiet, silence, quietness, stillness” “quiet”
shanti “peaceful” ɔshanti n. santaawi “quiet, silent, taciturn, close-
“lack of peace, unrest” mouthed”
IE-Hindi śant “quiet, calm”
↓↓
E.17.1 IE-Pashto N. Chinese-MSC
zi-yan “to cause harm, ts’án (WG)
hurt, injury” “to injure” “grievous, cruel”
“injured, harmed, hurt”
E.17.2 W. Chadic- Hausa tsanàntà wa S. Chinese-Cantonese
IE- Sanskrit “harass ” “persecute” “torment” v. chàahnyán “cruel”
ksanana “hurting, tsanànta “harass, aggravate” chàahnyánge “cruel”
injuring” “killing, South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic N. Chinese-MSC
slaughtering” ĉ’ännäqä “embarrass, distress” cân “cruel, savage”
canDa “fierce, violent, asĉ’ännäqä “savage, barbarous, ferocious”
cruel” “put someone in great difficulty, cânrên sv. “cruel, brutal”
canDiman molest, distress, harass” (implying cruelty without
“violence, cruelty” restraint)”
946
sanirghRNa E. Cushitic-Oromo canakksisu cânkù “cruel, brutal”

“having no pity, merciless, vt. “annoiare, tribolare, far penare, ts’án “grievous, cruel”
cruel” angustiare” [to annoy/ tease, to ts’án “to injure, to spoil,
can “to hurt, to injure” torment, to cause suffering for, to to destroy” “to oppress”
ksan “to hurt, injure, distress, to afflict] shán “to abuse, to revile”
wound” mài tsananii “severe, violent” TB-Tibetan
“be injured or wounded” tsananii n. m. sternness, strictness” tsanɛn “strict, stern, harsh”
ksananu “a wound, “severity” btsán (-po)
sore” tsànantà “become severe, serious” “strong, mighty powerful, of
IE-Old Indian (Gumel) zanzoma “any pestering or kings, ministers etc. “strong,
ḳsạnóti v. aorist badgering of a person” violent”
aḳsạnit tsàngwamàa “mistreat, dislike” “coercive, strict, severe”
“to hurt, injure, wound” NS-Kanuri zə́nggin “annoy, irritate, cánhai “cruelly injure or kill”
worry, persistently bother” shán (WG) “to abuse, to
Egyptian sheni “to be sick, to be revile”
helpless, depressed, cast down”
shenn “mental sickness, disgust”
↓↓
E.18.2 IE- Sanskrit C. Chadic- Gude Chinese- Cantonese
samcintana saməm- “carefully, sorry!” sám “cautious, judicious,
“careful consideration or C. Chadic- Bura careful”
reflection” sama “slowly” síusàm “cautious”
samcintya sama sama “very slowly” Proto Altaic
“one who has carefully E. Cushitic- Rendille *sēmi “caution, attention”
considered or thought about” samaccháar “slow, careful, Altaic-Proto Tungus Manchu
samcintita “carefully gentle, quiet” “slowly, carefully, *sēmke “caution, attention”
considered or thought about” gently, quietly”
↓↓
E.19.1 NS-Kanuri Old Chinese
IE- Sanskrit tátámngin d’am “speak”
damz, dams “talk privately or whisper S. Chinese-Min
“speak” secretly in front of tám “to chat, talk”
others” tāmtám “have a chat”
W. Chadic-Hausa TB-Tibetan
tàmbayàa dām “speech, talk” “to say, to speak
“ask, inquire, ask about” dam ka kug “to get someone to talk/speak”
“ask question” gtam “speech, conversation, talk”, “news, tidings”
S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa dam dri “to question, to ask” dri n. “question”
*tám “say” Chinese-MSC tán “talk, talk about, chat, discuss
S. Chinese-Min Chinese- Cantonese taahm
tám “ask for someone”
“to chat, talk” “to visit, to inquire about” “to find, to search, to prospect”
tāmtám S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa *tám “say”
“have a chat” S. Chinese-Min
Semitic-Hebrew tám “to chat, talk”
dan tāmtám “have a chat”
“discussed, South Daic-Lao tam4 v. “question” n.
dealt with” ka:m3 tam4 n. “question” tam4 v. kam sa:k tam4
n. “query” tam4 v. “query”
↓↓
947
E.20.1 IE- Sanskrit E. Cushitic- Oromo TB-Tibetan

sopadha soba v. “lie, deny, pretend” shob / gshob / çob / gshob
“full of fraud or adj. “false” n. “liar, hypocrite” “a fib, a falsehood, a lie”
deceit” sob-à “bugia, fizione, sööbo / sööbu
sopadhi “fraudulent” simulazione, menzogna, falsita, “swindler, deceiver, liar, conniver”
sopadhize falsificazione” shōbe “perpetual liar”
“one in whom a residue [lie, deception, falsehood, rdsob-po
of guile is left” falsification] “vain, empty, spurious, void”
(Buddhist term) Proto-Afro-Asiatic *-tsob- or N. Chinese-MSC zuòbì
*-cob- “to do wrong” “practice fraud, cheat, indulge in corrupt
W. Chadic-Pero şob’à “lie” practices”
E.20.2 N. Khoisan-!Kung TB-Tibetan rdsuwa
IE-Bengali tjua n. “lie” “to give a deceptive presentation,
showa n. W. Chadic-Bole sòwta “lie” to make a thing appear different from
“lie false statement)” C. Cushitic-Bilin what it is”
suw “stehlen” [steal] C. Chinese-Wu ʦho5 “cheat, deceive,
Semitic-Arabic swindle, trick, lie”
(Yemeni) suu’ “bad” N. Chinese-MSC zuò’ è “do evil”
(Iraqi) suuʔ “evil, ill” zuòbì “practice fraud, cheat, indulge in
corrupt practices”
↓↓
E.21.1 W. Chadic- Hausa Chinese-MSC
IE- Sanskrit làllàsā “persuade, coax” lālāchêchê
lalana “the act of caressing, lallāshī “coaxing” “exchange
fondling, coaxing” lallāmi n. m. “cajolery, coddling” flattery and
lalaka “fondling, caressing” lallàb’a “soothe, flatter” favors”
“a king’s jester” Semitic-Arabic lablaba “to fondle,
lal “to loll or wag the tongue” caress” S. Chinese-Yue
lalana “the lolling or moving of the South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic (Cantonese)
tongue to and fro” dälällä “cajole, flatter, entice” làlàdeui
IE-Pashto lalo-lalo “a lullaby, a ələll alä “ululate” “utter cries of joy” “cheer[ing]
song to soothe a child, solace” W. Chadic-Hausa lallàb’a “soothe, flatter” squad”
IE-N. Iranian-North Persian Semitic-Arabic lablaba “to fondle, caress”
lāba / lāwa “Schmeichellei” (Ger.) E. Cushitic-Sidamo lallawa “to announce,
“flattering, coaxing” to talk loudly, to praise”
E.21.2 IE-Sanskrit slāgh West Semitic-Ethiopian-Tigre
“to flatter, to coax” “wheedle, to läh’sa “schmeicheln” [flatter]
praise, applaud, celebrate, eulogize” NS-Nuer
slāghyate passive “to be praised or liak “to praise, to commend” “praise”
celebrated”
↓↓
E.23a.1 W. Chadic- Hausa TB-Nung phərε “to fear, be afraid”
IE-Tokharian fařgàbā TB-Mikir phere “fear, doubt, dread”
parsk < par(k) “feel fear, “dread, fear, anxiety” “fear” “horror”
be afraid” Semitic- Ethiopic Chinese- Cantonese pa “afraid” “fear”
IE-Sanskrit Amharic “to fear, to dread, afraid, scared”
paribhaya “apprehension, fear” färra “fear, be fearful, Chinese-Min
paritrasa “terror, fright, fear” be afraid” pha3 “fear, dread, afraid, scared or
paritrasta “terrified, frightened, frightened”
much alarmed”
948
E.23a.3 W. Chadic- Hausa TB-Tibetan

IE-Sanskrit fař-fař / fařfařwaa f. phár-ba
phurAphurAya “trembling” “to leap,
“to tremble” fařfāřniyā to bound”
parispand “trembling, shivering” “to throb
“to tremble, throb, quiver” C. Chadic- Glavda (of the veins)”
parivep farfadiya “epilepsy” sá-la phár-ba
“to tremble” Egyptian perper “ to jump from fear”
parikampa “to leap about, pàr
“tremor, great fear or terror” to be agitated” “to bounce up, to fly up
sphal, sphalati, pasphala Cushitic- Sidamo (e.g. sparks),
“to tremble, quiver, throb ” baragi v. “bolt, to beat, throb”
sphuryat, sphuritun be startled” per gyaà
“to tremble, palpitate, quiver, NS-Nuer parika “to tremble, shake” vi.
twitch, vibrate” “to jump because
IE-Pashto 2d ed. 174 frightened”
parrak khwar South (Ethiopian
“to tremble, become agitated” Semitic)-Amharic
bäräggägä “be startled,
apprehend danger”
abäräggägä
“cause to start”
yäbäriyya bäššeta
“epilepsy”
NS- Kanuri
fərtənggin vi.
“convulse or shake
violently prior to death,
go through death throes”
/
E.23b.1 C. Cushitic-Agaw TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit bakak- “horror, fright” pagdza / pagdzawa
bhaGga “panic, fear” C. Cushitic-Bilin bak- “be afraid” “fear”
IE-N. Iranian-North E. Cushitic- Afar (Southern dialect) bag-pa “to be afraid,
Persian bāk “Furcht” fagqi “being petrified with fear, shock” to be apprehensive of,
(Ger.) [fear, dread] fagàqqa-exce “be petrified with fear, be to be anxious”
IE-Pashto shocked, be startled” bag-tsha-wa “to be
bhāk “fear, dread, E. Chadic- Bidiya afraid,
anxiety” b’āk “avoir peur” [be afraid] to be convulsed out of
IE-Bengali Semitic- Hebrew pakhad m. “fear” fright”
ɔbak pakhad v. past “feared”
“amazed, stunned, South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic
speechless” bərk “hysteria”
↓↓
E.24a.1 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic–N. Proto-Tibeto-Burman *pak = *pwak “hide”
Upaguh “to hide, Bauci Group- TB-Tibetan phag / phag-ma
cover, conceal” Kariya “something hidden, concealment” “to listen”
apaguh “conceal, págwu “hide” vi. pagda “looking secretly” sgo phag nas bltas pas
hide” W. Chadic–N. “to watch, spy, lurk behind the door”
avaguh “to cover, hide, Bauci Group- Diri Proto-Mongolian *büg- “to lie in ambush,
conceal” b’ágwa “hide” vi. to hide”
949
avaguhNTh W. Chadic–Hausa Mongolian-Kalmuck *büg- “to lie in ambush,

“to cover with, fàkā vi. to hide”
conceal” “lie in wait for” Mongolian-Dagur, Khalka
apagUDha “eavesdrop on” *bügši- “to lie in ambush, to hide”
“hidden, concealed” fàkèe vi. Proto-Turkic *buk- “to lie in ambush”
IE-Bengali “take shelter or Proto-Altaic *bǒke “to lie in ambush”
phāki n. “deception, refuge” Proto-Tungus-Manchu
evasion, hoodwinking” *bokan “to lie in ambush, to hide”
↓↓
E.25.1 IE-Sanskrit Semitic-Arabic TB-Tibetan
sanutar “secretly, clandestinely” ts’annat “to eavesdrop, ɣsaŋ-ba
sanutara “furtive, clandestine” listen secretly” “to do a thing secretly,
sanutya W. Chadic- Hausa to conceal”
“furtive, lying furtively in ambush” sàn’dā “stalk (someone)” “to hide oneself,
channa “covered, covered over” “move stealthily” to be concealed”
“obscured (the moon)” NS-Kanuri saŋ “to keep a secret,
“hidden, unnoticed by, secret, zanggin “close, shut” to conceal”
clandestine, disguised” “secretly” “cover, cover up” N. Chinese-MSC
“conceal, keep secret” ts’áng “to hide, to conceal”
E.25.2 IE-Sanskrit Semitic-Ethiopic-Amharic S. Chinese- Cantonese
samupAvis “to conceal” šämāqqä sám
samII “to lie down, hide, cower, lurk, “hide, conceal” “to hide, to conceal”
be concealed” Semitic-Akkadian S. Chinese- Hakka
samvR “to cover up, enclose, hide, šamāku “cover” siam2 / xiam2
conceal, hide” Semitic-Hebrew “hide, conceal”
samvaRa / samvRta samooy “unseen, “hidden, secret, latent”
“covering, concealing” concealed”
samchanna “concealed, hidden,
obscure”
saMniIt “to cower down, hide or
conceal oneself, disappear”
saMchad “to cover up, envelop,
conceal, hide”
↓↓
E.31 C. Chadic- Glavda TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit / shiga gzhig-pa
IE-Bengali jiggasha ”question, inquiry” “to try, to tempt, “to examine, search, try”
n. to test”
ZikS “try to effect, attempt, undertake” NS-Songhay (Koroboro)
“to wish to be able” síì Chinese-Min
ziksarasa “desire of acquiring skill in” “try, test” chhì
ziksa “desire of being able to effect W. Chadic- Hausa “to try, to test,.
anything, wish to accomplish” cigìita vn. to experiment”
IE-Hittite “search for”
*sak(k)- / Semitic-Arabic
sek(k) “wissen, kennen, erfahren” siʔal
(Ger.) “to ask, inquire”
[know, be acquainted with, find out,
experience]
↓↓
950
E.33.2-4 IE-Sanskrit Semitic- Ethiopic- Amharic Proto-Tibeto-

kAra “a song or hymn of praise” qärärto Burman
“a battle song” RV “war cry, battle song” ga:r
kari “raising hymns of praise” Semitic-Arabic ”dance, sing”
karika “a female dancer” ġarrad “to sing, twitter” TB-Tibetan
“raising hymns of praise” NS-Anywa ŋàr kar
karaNaneri “a kind of dance” “to sing, chant ” ”dancing”
karaNanerika “a kind of dance” E. Cushitic- Sidamo Kartvelian-Svar
carcara “a kind of song” gêrâra “to chant war songs” ɣar-
“musical symphony” geerara vi. “to cry, sing”
garah- “Lob, Preislied” (Ger.) “sing a song (specifically Kartvelian-Megrel
[praise, praise / glory song] a geerarsa” [war song] ɣargal-
Proto-IE Egyptian “to cry, sing”
*gwrā “to praise” / ga “to sing” Old Chinese
*gwerə “to praise” “to sing to a musical kâ “sing / song”
IE-Bengali gaowa vb. “sing” instrument”
IE-Sanskrit gurti “approval, praise”
gaea- “song”
garo-hmana “house of song”
↓↓
E.34.1 W. Chadic-Hausa bayyànā “explain, describe” N. Chinese-MSC
IE-Pashto “reveal, display, expose” bái “state, explain”
bayan NS-Kanuri bayen “explanation, description” “clear” [as in]
“explanation, bayenngin, bayenjin “explain, clarify “Everything is clear now.
exposition” Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) The whole truth has come
“to relate, expose, bayyan “to make something clear, plain” out”
tell, explain” “to seem, appear to be” pái (WG)
E. Cushitic-Oromo “to explain, to inform”
bayanu “decidere, decretare, “clear, obvious” “simple,
sentenziare, dar ragione” easy to understand”
[decide, decree, sentence, give reasons]
Total Sanskrit / Hindi / Bengali E Domain correspondences = 39
F.1.1 E. Chadic- Dangaleat Chinese- Cantonese

IE-Sanskrit qāme “arracher par force” kàhm
kambU [seize forcibly] “to capture, to catch”
“a thief, Cushitic- Gedeo, Sidamo [“capture, catch” is the basic meaning. In
a plunderer” ‘kamma vt. “rob” Cantonese there are no specific semantics
Semitic- Ethiopic- Amharic of “rob, steal” or “thief”.
qämmaňňa “robber” The MSC / Beijing root chyâng (Y)
qämma “rob, take by force, carry “snatch (seize). rob” corresponds more
away by force, snatch from the closely in semantics but is a phonetic
hand” variant.]
NS-Nuer kan “to take, to steal”
951
F.1.6 E. Cushitic-Somali Altaic-Turkic-Turkish

IE-Sanskrit hakin “hold” gən “to hold or carry in the hand”
ghiNN Proto-AA *’kiŋ Chinese–Min
“to take, grasp” “to grasp” khin5 “catch, capture, seize,
Chinese-MSC Egyptian (Budge) Chinese-MSC
ch’in (WG) akhem ch’in (WG) “to seize, to clutch”
“to seize, to clutch” “to seize, to grasp violently” “to arrest, to capture”
“to arrest, to capture” khemā “to grasp, to seize, qín “capture, catch, seize”
qín “capture, catch, to lay hold upon”
seize”
F.1.9 IE-Hindi E. Cushitic- Sidamo S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
cimtā ki’mi-daanco kìhm “use pliers” “forceps, tongs”
“tongs” m. “what serves to pinch something” “to hold with”
cimtī “to seize and squeeze something” “tongs, pincers, tweezers”
“tweeezers” f. “tongs, pliers” Proto-Turkic čim- “to pinch” “a pinch”
Turkic-Tuva šimči “to pinch”
E. Cushitic- Oromo šim “a pinch”
qimmida- Turkic-Kyrgyz čimči-, čimči-la “to pinch”
“pinch (a person)” čimčim “a pinch”
qimmidu “pizzicare” Turkic-Uyghur čimdi, čimqi “to pinch”
(to pinch)” čimdim “a pinch”
Turkic-Kazakh šimši “to pinch”
šimši-la “a pinch”
Turkic-Uzbek čim, čimči “to pinch”
čimdi- , čimdi-m “a pinch”
↓↓
F.2a.1 C. Chadic – Glavda kúwà “calabash, cup” TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic–Gwandara gwara ku-wa “gourd, the bottle
kuhana “small gourd used as a water jar” gourd”
“a small earthen W. Chadic- Ngizim gwàbò Chinese-MSC
vessel” “large spherical gourd for beer” -guā bf. “fruit or plant of
IE-Pashto W. Chadic- Tangale kwaali “calabash” the gourd family, including
kawāra’h Proto-AA *gwâb- “calabash (used as container, melon, cucumber,
“kind of oblong utensil)” pumpkin”
basket narrow at E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] Chinese- Cantonese
the ends, a kind of gúwà “grande jarre à large col montant” gwā “gourd”
pannier” [large long-necked jar] gwà “melon”
Proto-South Cushitic *kwad “Kurbis” TB-Naxi k’wua “bowl”
South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Gurage Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur,
qwamat “gourd, bowl made from a gourd” Uzbek kawa
NS-Kanuri guwá “bowl-shaped gourd” “pumpkin”
/
F.2b.1 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic Proto-Tungus-Manchu
IE-Old Indian gābāta “large cup or bowl of wood, wood basin *kiab- “a kind of vessel”
kapāla- for washing hands” gābāte “wooden bowl” Altaic-Proto-Turkic
“cup, jar, dish” Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova 1995) *Kobga “a kind of
kupa- *kap- / *kib- “(gourd) vessel” vessel” n.
“leather oil, vessel; *xab- / *xabic- “vessel” Proto-Mongolian
flask, bottle” C. Chadic- Buduma kapēto “bottle gourd” *kob-
C. Chadic- Musgu gabeto “bottle gourd” “a kind of vessel”
952
IE-Iranian- W. Chadic- Hausa TB-Tibetan

Middle Persian kàbēwa / kubēwa “pumpkin” kaped / kabed
kapārak E. Cushitic- Oromo qabe “gourd” “a gourd, a sort of
“Gefass” (Ger.) “recipiente con coperchio fatto di zucca” medicinal fruit”
[vessel, jar] [covered container made of gourd] IE-Pashto kupa’i /
Semitic- Arabic kabeeto “gourd, plant” kuprra’i “a small
NS-Songhay (Gao) leathern bottle, a flask”
gáptà “grande calebasse” (Fr.) [large gourd]
↓↓
F.3.1 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic-Hausa Chinese-MSC
kulaka guraka “a gourd (large)” húlu
“a sort of gourd” W. Chadic- Tangale “bottle gourd,
kulakakarka kuluk / kúlak “large gourd” calabash”
“a species of gourd” E. Cushitic- Sidamo qulä “gourd” húlúkè
culuka E. Cushitic- Alaba, Qabenna “a plant of the gourd
“a small vessel” qulā “gourd” family”
chullakI Semitic- Arabic qulla “jar of clay” xìhúlu n.
“a kind of water pot” W. Chadic- Hausa kulàa f. “pumpkin, summer
IE-Old Indian “pot ( medium with long narrow neck & squash”
kulija “a particular vessel” handle, for water)”
IE-Bengali kolshi “water pot with handle”
“a pitcher of water” NS- Songhay kùla “calebasse à petite
IE-Tokharian kolam, ouverture”
kolmo “vessel, shell” E. Cushitic- Oromo qulu “gourd”
Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova 1995)
*q̇ul- “vessel”
↓↓
F.4a.2 South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Gurage TB-Kiranti-Limbu
IE- Pashto (Endegen) quňňa ; (Selti) kunda n.
kunda quňňe ; (Gogot) quňňu “large metallic or
“a wooden cup or bowl” “jar, cup of clay used for milking earthenware jug”
IE-Sanskrit or keeping butter”
kuNDa “a bowl-shaped vessel, basin, E. Cushitic- Sidamo kunûna Chinese- Cantonese
bowl, pitcher, pot” “vessel” RV “a gourd, emptied and prepared to gun
kuNDin “a kind of vessel” serve as a drinking vessel” “container” “jar
guNDaka “an oil vessel” E. Cushitic- Rendille kúnni (deep vessel) “pot”
“container (for milk)” “a vessel, a jar, a
qunna “canestro” [basket] jug, a can”
“misura per granaglie” [measure
for grain]
“basket used as a measure”
F.4a.3 IE-Sanskrit, NC-Fulfulde (Fulani) Proto-Altaic
IE- E. Iranian-Avestan gumbal *kǔmbaka
kumbha “whole calabash with a small ”a kind of vessel”
“a jar, a waterpot, ewer” RV AV hand-hole in the top used for TB-Tibetan
“a measure for grain” water” gombu “small
“a small jar or pot” W. Chadic – Hausa cup”
“earthen cooking vessel” AV kumbò kumbuna pl. “a trap, a net”
IE-Sanskrit, “flat tray-like calabash used as Proto-Turkic
kumbhin “having a jar” RV eating bowl” “calabash species *kǔmgan ”a kind
kumbhaka “a small pot or pitcher” (long, narrow)” of vessel”
953
kumbHANDa “a pumpkin, a gourd” S.(Ethiopic) Semitic-Amharic Proto-Mongolian

kumbhatumbI “a kind of large, round gāmbo “clay pot” *kombuga
gourd” W. Chadic – Hausa NS- Songhay ”a kind of vessel”
kumbhazAlA “a pottery” gùmbúlù n. “petit calebasse
IE-Hindi placée dans une autre pleine
kumhārī “pottery” f. d’eau”
kumharā “squash” m. [small calabash placed within
IE-Bengali kumrā “pumpkin” n. another full of water]
IE-Pashto kumra’ī NS-Nuer gum “big gourd with
“a small earthen brass narrow mouth vessel small opening in top”
for drinking out of, a drinking cup” E. Cushitic-Oromo gombo
IE-Avestan xumba “Topf” (Ger.) [pot] “vaso per acqua, idria en forma di
IE- N. Persian anfora” [vessel for water, water
xumb, xum pf, Krug” [pot, jar] jar shaped like an amphora neck]
/
F.4c.3 W. Chadic–Hausa N. Chinese-MSC
IE-Pashto kəndâi “small round basket made of k’ân “receptacle”
kandū “a large earthen ngə́lai grass” k’ân “an earthen vessel”
vessel for holding grain” NS-Songhay káŋkána Proto-Altaic
kanddal “a cup, “Cucurbitacées” *kiàntu “a kind of vessel”
a pan, a vessel” [plants producing gourd-like fruits] Chinese–Min
kanddolay kànéỳ “pastèque, citrullus lanatus kàn “bottle
“an earthen cup or vessel” (cucurbitacées)” [watermelon] (measure word)”
IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic–Hausa TB-Kiranti-Yamphu khaŋraŋ
kandola kànkana “watermelon” “big, round basket”
“a basket for holding grain” Egyptian akana Proto-Altaic *kiàntu “a kind
kandolaka “a basket” “basin, bowl, vessel, pot, bottle” of vessel”
kanTakilata “a gourd” Semitic- Hebrew kankan “jar, flask” Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek kandi
kandika “a kind of gourd” Semitic- Ethiopic- Amharic “bin, crib for flour, grain”
kandala “a reed basket” gan “large pottery jar used in making Altaic-Turkic-Helaj
beer” kändi “basket”
Proto-AA *ʔigan “vessel” Altaic-Proto- Tungus-Manchu
NS-Kanuri kànéy “pastèque” *kondi “a kind of vessel”
[watermelon]
↓↓
F.5.1 Sanskrit karaka E. Cushitic-Rendille Kartvelian-Georgian
“a water vessel” “water-pot” karaáya / karaáyo “basin” qarqara “gourd”
RV NS-Nuer kεr, kεri “gourd” Kartvelian-Laz
karakapatrika Semitic-Arabic qarawanna qoqore-
“a water vessel” “large round shallow metal serving “a kind of gourd”
karpara “a cup, pot, bowl” bowl”
gara “a water-jar” Egyptian qərr “water pot”
IE-Hindi gharā “pitcher” E. Cushitic-Rendille karam karmo
Sanskrit kAravI pl.
“a small kind of gourd” “bowl (formerly made from the
kAravella / kAravallI orooro calabash split lengthwise”
“the gourd Momordica Written Arabic qar’ “gourd,
charantia” pumpkin” “bottle gourd, calabash”
IE-Old Indian karkati qar’ī “gourd, pumpkin-
“pumpkin” “Cucumis (in compounds)”
utilissimus” Wehr 887-888
954
qarura
“long-necked bottle, flagon, vial,
flask” pumpkin”.
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *gar-
“container, vessel”
C. Chadic-Gude kəra
“calabash species”
F.5.2 N. Khoisan –Naron TB-Tibetan ko-ré
IE-Bengali !kɔre “cup for drinking”
kɔrai Khoisan -‖Ng-!’e shiŋ kor “wooden cup”
“large cooking utensil, pan” !kɔrε̎ “dish” shiŋ ”wood”
NS-Kanuri korê n. kó-re “bowl, dish,
“vessel with neck for keeping drinking cup”
liquids” TB-Kiranti-Limbu
E. Cushitic- Burji, Gedeo kho.rεʔl “small bowl,
k’ore cup or beaker”
“plate (of wood)” Proto-Altaic *kòrke
Proto-Highland E. Cushitic “a kind of vessel
k’ûr’e Proto-Altaic *k’ure /
“jar, pot *kor- “basket”
(small to medium)” Altaic Proto-Turkic
*Körke “a kind of vessel
Altaic- Proto-Mongolian
*korgu “a kind of vessel
F.6b.1 IE-Sanskrit Semitic-Ethiopic-Amharic Chinese- Cantonese

kavata qäbäle “district, area, precinct, ngàu “a district, an area, a zone”
“a district containing section of city or country, region” “a border”
100 gralmas” Semitic-Hebrew gàau “suburbs of a city”
kavatika gaval v. “bordered” gàau kèui “suburban area”
“a district containing 200 gevool “border” Chinese–Min
gralmas” E. Cushitic- Afar gàwra kaû “border, frontier, boundary”
[Disyllabic corresp.] “fields, cultivated land”
F.7a.2 E.Cushitic-Rendille TB-Karenic-Sgaw

IE-Pashto káwaara “surround” khəw‫כ‬
khwā W. Chadic – Hausa “circle, surround,
“round about, on kwararo ideo. “describes round to be circular”
all sides, thing being too large or wide” kw‫כ‬
all round” E. Cushitic-Somali kuwareeg-san “encircle, bend into a circle or curve,
kuhārra’h “surrounded by” wareeg circle, curve”
“a ring made of “go around” “rotation” Kartvelian-Megrel
rope stuck up as a W. Chadic Hausa kwarkwaro kwarkwalia
mark for arrows” “spindle for thread” “round”
C. Chadic–Bura kwarakwara Kartvelian-Georgian
“bobbin of a native loom” kwerkwera
W. Chadic-Angas gwar “round”
“round, spiral patterns”
Semitic- Arabic (Yemeni)
h̟awwaṭ “to surround, encircle”
955
F.7a.3 NS-Kanuri TB-Tibetan kōra “wall, fence

IE-Pashto kōra (that goes around something”)
kar “fence off, in” “any surrounding wall”
“a fence, E. Cushitic-Burji TB-Proto-Kiranti *khòr
a temporary ‘kor- vt. surround” “enclosure, fence”
defense W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic Proto-Tungus-Manchu
made of thorns” guränno “enclosure for sheep” *kori “wattle, fence, enclosure, building”
Semitic- Arabic (Yemeni) [wattle = “a framework of interwoven
kurawi sticks and twigs used to make walls,
“to surround, encircle” fences and roofs”]
NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] Proto-Altaic *kuri “wattle, fence,
kowagol / kowādi enclosure, building”
“any fence, hedge” Altaic-Proto-Turkic *kuri “wattle,
E. Cushitic–Sidamo fence, enclosure, building”
qoqowwa Altaic-Turkic-Turkish
“to surround, to go around” korunchak “enclosure”
qoqowwo Altaic- Proto-Mongolian
“a surrounded and defended place” *kurijen “wattle, fence, enclosure,
building”
Proto-Kartvelian *qor- “stone wall”
Kartvelian-Georgian qore “stone wall”
↓↓
F.8a.1-3 E. Cushitic- Oromo Proto-Altaic
F.8a.1 kolloo n. “part of loom, shuttle” *kòlbèk “hub, wheel hub”
IE-Sanskrit kooli “loop, curve, make a circle TB-Tibetan
gola(ka) “ball, globe” of” sgor-mo “a ball, a globe”
Hindi kòoli “encircle” ‘khor khor
gol “round” adj. kólkóli “entourer autour de “round, circular”
gola “sphere” adj. quelque chose” kɔrg‫ככ‬
IE-Old Indian [surround something] “round, circular”
guli NS-Songhay sgor-sgor
“any small globular kòrbèy “round, circular”
substance” “boucle, cercle, rond, anneau”
gulika “ball, globule” [buckle, circle, round, ring]
gola “ball, globe” Semitic-Hebrew
IE-Bengali s’khor-s’khor adv.
gol “round” “round about, round and round”
IE-Pashto NS-Nilo-Saharan – Songhay
gola “a ball” (Dendi) kóóri
Proto-IE *gaul- “cerner, encercler, entourer,
“ball, swelling” tourner”
[to encircle, surround,
turn around]
F.8a.2 Semitic- Arabic TB-Tibetan
IE-Bengali (Yemeni, Iraqi) ‘khor-ba “to rotate, spin”
ghora kurah / kura “to turn around”
“turn, move, wander” “ball, globe, sphere” ‘khor-wa “to turn round,
vb. kurawi to circumambulate”
IE-Old Indian “ball-shaped, spherical” Proto-Mongolian
gargara E. Cushitic-Oromo *kor- / *kör
“whirlpool, churn” makurakura “wheel” “to roll, churn”
956
Sanskrit E. Cushitic- Afar Proto-Altaic

kharb korkorise *k’úlo “to roll, turn”
“to go round” “turn over and over” *kol-ki “to roll, turn”
kUrca Proto-Cushitic Proto-Tungus-Manchu
“ball, roll” *kar- “to turn around” *kur-
Proto-South Cushitic “to roll, churn”
*kar- “to turn around” *xol- / *xul-
Proto-AA *-kar- “to roll, turn”
“to turn round, go round” Proto-Turkic
W. Chadic- Ron (Bokkos) *Kul-
gara’ “to roll, turn”
“etwas umgehen, herumgehen” TB-Tibetan
[to go around] kōra
kààre “faire le tour” “wall, fence (that goes around
[go around] something)”
NS-Kanuri kórkórngin
“turn, spin, rotate”
kórókoró
“spool, spindle of a loom shuttle”
“wheel of a vehicle”
/
F.8b.1 E. Cushitic-Oromo TB-Tibetan
IE-Hindi qarqarā khóra / khórsa
gherā “confine, bordo, contorno” “circumference, circumjacent space”
“enclosure” [boundary, border, surroundings, than- kór / tan- skór
vb. environment, outskirts] “surrounding country”
gherā paridi m. E. Cushitic-Afar ‘khor “circle, circumference”
“circumference” gari korköö
“adjacent area, environs” “circulation, circulating, revolving around”
W. Chadic – Hausa “making a circuit, going around”
kàrkàrā g‫̄̄כ‬r “area, region”
“cultivated region around town” “vicinity, proximity”
“nearby, around”
/
F.8c.1 Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova 1995) TB-Tibetan
IE-Bengali *gurgur “a tent, also a house made of hay,
ghɔr n. “house, place” straw or grass”
“house, building” E. Cushitic- Somali Proto-Altaic gūli “dwelling, cottage”
guri “hut, house, large Altaic-Proto-Turkic
enclosure in which huts are gȕl “dwelling, cottage”
built” Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu
gūle “dwelling, cottage”
↓↓
F.9a.1 E. Cushitic- Sidamo TB-Tibetan
IE-Hindi qale “a wheel” “what turns around” h’khál-wa
callā NC- Fulfulde [Fulani] “to spin”
“hoop” m. kalasal “spindle, shaft, distaff” ’kál-ba /
N. Khoisan-!’O-!Kung ’kál-ce
galə “roll” “to spin”
Semitic-Hebrew sgalgal adj. “oval, rotund”
957
/
F.9b.1-2 Semitic-Hebrew TB-Tibetan
F. 9b.1 IE-Sanskrit kala v. “imprisoned, locked up” dgár-wa / dgár-ba
kArA “a prison” “binding, South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic “to separate, confine,
confinement” qwärännä “bind, attach, shackle” place apart,
kArAgAra “a gaol or place aqqwärännä “be tied (men, cattle, goods)
of confinement” (prisoner to guard), bind (to a job)”
kArAgupta “person Egyptian kará-t “place of restraint,
confined, imprisoned” prison”
karamarI “prisoner” NS-Nuer kʌrak‫כ‬n “prison”
car “to put a hindrance” E. Cushitic-Oromo gararo n.
caraka “a fetter, a prison” “parco per bestiame, ovile”
IE-Bengali karagar [corral, enclosure, sheepfold] F.9b.2 TB-Tibetan
“prison” n. W. Chadic–Hausa kar “blocking
IE-Hindi gar̝h m. “fortress” kāriyàa f. “screen, shield” “screening off somebody from getting
Proto-IE *k’arek- , protecting from harm” something”
“fenced place” C. Chadic-Gude gəra “keep guard, Proto-Altaic *k’ōra “to
IE-Hindi ghar “home” watch” protect, guard”
ciriyāghar ”zoo” m. W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Tigre kar’a Altaic-ProtoTurkic
[lit. bird enclosure or bird “beschützen” [to protect, defend] *K’ōrɨ- “to protect,
home] W. Chadic – Hausa guard”
kārèe vg.4 (completive) Altaic-Proto Mongolian
“to screen (temporarily)” *kori- “to protect,
“guard (shield off)” “protect” guard”
F. 9b.2 NC-Tiv gar “village, fence” TB-Tibetan
IE-Sankrit karabha “wall” W.Chadic–Hausa kārgyaŋ
karabhagrama “name of a gàařu “town wall” “wall around a
village” [lit. walled village] Proto-W. Chadic fort/castle”
karvata “a village, market *gar- “village, town” “stone wall” dgar byahi phugs
town” “town wall” “cattle to be penned in a
kArkotaka “name of a Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) qarawī fold”
town” “village, country” phugs “cattle”
kArIrapasthra “name of a Semitic-Written Arabic TB-Kiranti-Limbu
town” qarya / qarawi “village, hamlet, small garo “wall”
nagara “a town, city” town, rural community” “from Nepalese gāro”
nAgara “town-born, relating Egyptian khar “village, quarter of a town TB-Tibetan
or belonging to town or city” or city, street” gar “camp” /
nagarIya “belonging to a W. Chadic-Hausa gàrī “town” sgar “camp,
town, civic, urban” South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Ge’ez encampment”
ghar “home” m. hagar “town, country,
gharelu “domestic” inhabited region”
IE-Hindi nagar “town” Proto-Berber *a-ɣaram “town”
↓↓
F. 10.2 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadi –Hausa k’unsàa vt. TB-Kiranti-Limbu
F. 10.2 gunth “wrap, envelope” “wrap something up” khuŋmaʔ vt.
“to enclose or k’ùnshìi vn. of k’unsàa “bundle, parcel” “wrap oneself in something”
envelop, surround, “bundle (wrapped)” “package” N. Chinese-MSC
cover” “wrapping hands and feet with henna in kûnzā
gunthita preparation for a feast or celebration” “tie up, bundle up”
“enveloped, NS- Kanuri kə́ndəkin v.
covered with” “bind, wrap, or tie (a child) on one’s back”
958
gunthana / kəndo vn. of kə́ndəkin

guNDana NS- Songhay (Dendi) kùŋkùŋ
n. “concealing, “envelloper, enrouler, emballer”
covering” NS- Songhay kùngkùnì “enrouler,
guND envelopper, ourler, mettre en rouleau”
“to cover, conceal” [roll up, put in a rolled up bundle]
C. Chadic-Bura kuntu n. “roll of Bura
cloth”
W. Chadic – Hausa kundi m. “bundle of
papers and notes, esp. those of a malam”
F.10.5 W. Chadic–Gwandara TB-Kiranti-Limbu khummf
IE-Sanskrit kúmúsa “to wrap” (khumsu) “wrap up (body)”
kumb NS-Dinka, NS- Shilluk Proto-Altaic *kǔmu
“to cover” kum “to cover” “to wrap up, cover”
IE-Bengali ka:m NS-Dongola kom Proto-Turkic *kǔm-
n. “envelope” “envelop” “to wrap up, cover”
NS-Barea Proto-Mongolian
gomme, gumme “to cover” *kǔmi “to wrap up, cover”
Proto Tungus-Manchu
*kǔm- “to wrap up, cover”
↓↓
F.12a.1 Semitic-Syrian Aramaic TB-Tibetan
Sanskrit zakti “a spear, lance, sakīn “knife” ɣtság-pa “lancet for bleeding”
pike, dart” RV Semitic-Hebrew gtsag-pa “to thrust in, poke, pierce,
“a sword” sakkīn “knife” prick” “a goad, a long whip”
zagkula “a kind of lancet NC-Fulfulde sakkina Chinese- Cantonese
or knife” “throw, throw a spear” chaak “a whip for goading horses”
zaktIka “belonging to or C. Chadic-Bura caki chà “to thrust, to pierce, to stab”
relating to a spear, spearing, “needle of the witch “a prong, a fork, used in catching fish
speared” “a spearman, lancer” doctor” etc.”
zaktimat “armed with a spear Proto-Cushitic chā “a harpoon”
or lance” *-dzaaɣ- “to shoot, stab, Kartvelian-Svan chag “thorn”
sakantaka “having thorns, spear” chag-ār “prickly”
thorny, prickly” Proto-AA *-dzâaɣ- Proto-Altaic. sak’(urV)
IE-Tokharian tsak “pierce, “to pierce” “a kind of stinging insect”
bite (of a snake)” Egyptian sāq “to make Altaic-Proto-Mongolian
IE-Hindi cākū “knife” m. to enter, to introduce” sag “a kind of stinging insect”
↓↓
F.13.3 IE-Hindi W. Chadic –Hausa TB-Tibetan
tāgā m. “thread” takwalā tàgpa “rope, cord”
dhāgā m. “string” “fine thread” tàgu “a short cord or rope” “string, twine”
N. Iranian- Ossetian tàgba “rope, string”
taxun “weben” (Ger.) TB-Kiranti-Limbu takpa “rope, string”
[weave] South Daic-Lao ta:k3 v. “knit”
an-dax “Faden” [thread]
↓↓
F.14.1-2 NS- Tubu [Teda] TB-Tibetan
IE-Old Indian kapí khab “a needle”
cāpa- m. n. “Bogen” TB-Burmese-Lolo
“bow, arc” [“bow” of bow and arrow] *(t-)ɣap “needle”
959
IE-Sanskrit ajakava E. Cushitic-Gedeo Proto-Mongolian

“Šiva’s bow” gabe “arrow , bow” “bow and arrow” *karbu
“etymology unknown” N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e “to shoot from a bow”
‖kaba “arrowhead (bone)” Mongolian-Khalkha
C. Khoisan-Naro ‖gaba xarva “to shoot from a bow”
“arrowhead (bone)”
↓↓
F.15b.1 W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Pa’a TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit kani “hut (house)” káŋ-ba / káŋ “house, home”
kanana Semitic- Written Arabic (Iraqi) kháng-pa “house” “in
“a house” xan “hostel, caravansary, inn” compounds also as part of the
gandagrama E. Cushitic- Oromo ganda “village” house: room, story, floor etc.”
“any large village” E. Cushitic-Afar ganta / ganda “village” TB-Kiranti-Kaling,
“encampment of nomad houses” TB-Proto-Form
kanthA “a wall, a E. Cushitic- Gidole kant-a “village, area” kam “house” “dwelling”
town” NC-S.E. Mande-Samo Wowara, Nyankoro Chinese-Cantonese
IE-Pashto gáná / gáná(nέε) “village” gàan classifier (measure word)
khana’h “a room NC-Common Bantu for “house, hut, room” etc.
in which they sit ganda “chief’s enclosure” Chinese- Hakka
and sleep in Egyptian khanu “private part of a kan1 / kan3 / gan1 / gan3
winter” building, most sacred part of a temple” “a numerical classifier for rooms”
↓↓
F.18a.1 IE-Pashto W. Chadic- Hausa TB-Tibetan tshar-tshar
sar-rishta “the end of a cord, rope, zàare “thread, string” “ends of threads, fringes”
a thread” sar-mal “a rope for “spin, thread” tshar “thin strips of cane, for
fastening a load on a camel” zaare < zàariyaa wicker work”
sar-bānddey “rope made of strips “trouser string” Chinese- Cantonese
of leather” W. Chadic- Gwandara sā “yarn (thread)” “yarn, as
IE-Sanskrit sara “a cord, string” (Garuku) zàré’ “thread” cotton yarn” “gauze, thin silk”
sarat “thread” E. Cushitic- Oromo sà, sā “gauze, yarn”
sarit “a thread, string” s’as’ara “frangia” TB-Tibetan saadaa
Proto-IE *ser- “to wind, [fringe] “rope for hanging something,
to weave” wayanke s’as’ara clothesline”
IE-Old Indian sarat “thread” hinqabu saa “fringe, tassel”
da-śa f. “fringe of a garment, “Il tuo manto non ha le N. Chinese-MSC
loose ends of any piece of cloth, skirt frange” [your cape shā “yarn (thread)” “gauze, thin
or hem” doesn’t have fringes] silk, untwisted thread, yarn”
F.18a.3 Proto-Afro-Asiatic Kartvelian-Megrel
IE-Pashto *carVyʔ ʒerɣw “sinew”
tsakay “a rope or line suspended “tendon, sinew, vein” Kartvelian-Svan
from the roof of the house for ʒārɣw “sinew”
hanging the clothes on” Kartvelian-Georgian ʒārɣv
IE-Tokharian sarki “warp, woof” “sinew”
/
F.18b.1 W. Chadic- Hausa Altaic-Proto-Turkic *sɨrɨ- “to sew tightly”
IE-Pashto sìlī m. Altaic-Turkic-Azerbaidzhan sɨirɨ- “to sew tightly”
sīla “two-ply thread” Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh sɨirɨ- / Altaic-Turkic-
“rope made from E. Cushitic- Sidamo Karakalpak sɨrɨ- “to sew tightly”
the hair of goats” sisilla Altaic-Turkic-Khakassian sɨrɨ- “to sew tightly”
“to plait, twist (thread)” Altaic-Turkic-Tuva *sɨrɨ- “to sew tightly”
960
IE-Hindi Hausa (Gobir dial.) TB-Tibetan

silāī f. sillíya m. “a silken sí-ri (C. and W. Tibet) “pack-thread, twine”
“sewing” cord used as a neck sílli (W. Tibet) “a gauze-like texture”
silāī karna ornament” TB- Nung səri “thread”
“tailor” Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) N. Chinese-MSC sī(r) n. “thread-shaped object”
n. silāī ki masin sliíla “a hank of yarn” Altaic-Proto-Turkic *sɨrɨ- “to sew tightly”
“sewing Songhay (Koyra) Altaic-Turkic-Azerbaidzhan sɨirɨ- “to sew tightly”
machine” síllí “thread” Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh sɨirɨ- “to sew tightly”
W. Chadic-Ron-Bokkos Altaic-Turkic-Karakalpak sɨrɨ-
sîr “Sehne” [sinew, Altaic-Turkic-Khakassian sɨrɨ-
tendon, string (of bow)] Altaic-Turkic-Tuva *sɨrɨ- “to sew tightly”
↓↓
F.20.1 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic–Hausa gātari “axe” TB-Tibetan
gada “a mace, a club, E. Cushitic-Oromo gatano gá-da
a bludgeon” “bastone lungo” [long stick, staff] “club,
gadAhasta “armed with a katako “wood (finished wood)” mace”
mace” W. Chadic–Ron (Daffo) gàât “Stock” [stick, staff] Chinese-
gadAdhara “bearing a club” Semitic-Akkadian xat’t’u “stick, branch” Cantonese
gadu “javelin, spear” Egyptian m’gat “arrow, weapon” “stick” gaat
kadamba “an arrow” h’at “lance, spear” “a lance”
kadala “the plantain or banana Semitic- Ethiopic-Amharic əğğäta “handle, haft
tree” (of spear)”
kaDambaa NS-Songhay gàtálà “long baton”
“the stalk of a pot herb [long stick, staff]
kadamba “Nauclea cadamba S. Cushitic-Mbugu (m)xatu “tree”
(a tree with orange colored C. Chadic Bata kade: “tree”
fragrant blossoms)” “turmeric” C. Chadic- Njei [Nzanyi] kadi “tree”
kadamkara Highland E. Cushitic
“straw, the stalks of the various *agada “stalk”
sorts of pulse” E. Cushitic-Gedeo, Kambata, Sidamo
agada “stalk (of maize etc.)”
↓↓
IE-Sanskrit C. Chadic-Gude TB-Tibetan
F.21a.1 kāra “stalk, straw, arrow shaft” karwa “a stick”
karapAlaka “a cudgel, short W. Chadic-Hausa ‘kār-wa
club or wooden sword” karauki “a light pole for a fence” “a walking stick, staff,
karanda “a piece of wood, E. Cushitic- Rendille clutcheon”
block” karró / karkarró mkar-ba / ‘kar-ba
karavira “name of a wood” “branches, notches, forks” “staff”
karagarsin “a churning stick” NS-Nuer kar “branch of tree” kara “a tent pole”
karAlika “a tree, a sword” NS-Kanuri kərwúdə garashiŋ “sugar cane”
Proto-IE koret “twig, pole” “shaft (usually of a spear)” Proto-Altaic *kara(ma)
IE-Sanskrit karaka W. Chadic-Hausa “thin stick, rod”
[name of many species of tree] kara / kare Altaic-Proto-Turkic
“the pomegranate tree, “cane (of cornstalk, sugar cane) *karmak
“Pongamia glabra”, Semitic-Hebrew “thin stick, rod”
“Butea frondosa, Bauhinia kardom m. “axe” Altaic-Proto-Tungus-
Variegata, Mimusops Elengi” Egyptian skhar Manchu
karkotaka “the sugar cane” “a kind of tree, log” *kar- “thin stick, rod”
karaGkazal qartchan “axe”
“a sort of sugar cane” tchār-t “twig, branch”
961
F.21a.2 Proto-E. Cushitic Middle Turkic *sarča

Sanskrit *carb- “thin stick” “tethering post”
śárá - / śáru- / śáryā- Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) Turkic-Tuvan sarčin
“arrow” RV sariyaa “column, pole” “tethering post”
zara “an arrow shaft” RV Egyptian tchār-t “twig, branch” Austro-Asiatic-Munda
zari “an arrow” RV Omotic-Dache sahar “arrow”
sarala “a species of pine tree” sara “tree” Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
saralakASTha Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) Kherwarian-Ho
“the wood of the pine” saru “(evergreen) cypress” sar / sɛr “arrow”
saraNa “a kind of tree” E. Cushitic-Oromo Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
sarada “a tree” sardo “erba sempre verde” Kherwarian-Mundari,
IE-Hindi chari “wand” f. [evergreen plant] Santali sa:r “arrow”
char “rod” f. c’aròo “very long stick for driving TB-Tibetan cha-ru
oxen” “virgulto, pertica, verga” “a peg to which to fix the
[shrub, pole] ropes of a tent”
Proto-AA dzar- “pole” Proto-Turkic *s(i)ar-ča
Proto-N. Omotic *žar- “pole” “tethering post”
Egyptian sharveet “baton, sceptre”
Total Sanskrit / Hindi / Bengali F Domain word family correspondences = 23
G.1a.1 W. Chadic–Hausa Proto-Tibeto-Burman

IE-Sanskrit k’arak’auji “anything hard and dry” *kar ~ *gar
khara “solid (opposed to Proto-South Cushitic “solid, frozen”
fluid)” “hard, solid” *karah “dry, hard” “congeal, crust over”
IE-Hindi karā “hard” E. Cushitic-Kembata ŋar-ba “strength, force,
adj. k’àara “hard (not soft)” “stiff, hard, hardness (of steel)”
IE-Sanskrit strong” TB-Kiranti-Limbu
karkara “hard, firm” Semitic- Amharic t’änäkärrä kha: / kkha: / kwa
karkaza “hard, firm, “be hard, be strong, be powerful, be “hard (consistency)”
rough” solid” “hard, (not soft)” kha:kma “harden, solidify,
khakkhata “hard, solid” Berber-Tuareg iɣar “être dur” [be hard] congeal, coagulate”
G.1a.3 IE-Sanskrit Proto-Berber *ɣɣur “be dry, hard” TB-Tibetan
kUrca “hardness, E. Cushitic-Oromo kɔrba
solidity” kora “get dry, congeal” “hard, tough, solid”
/
G.1b.1,5 Semitic- Ethiopic-Amharic TB-Tibetan gar-wa
IE-Sanskrit käräkkär’ä “be acrid (sharp, stinging)” “astringent, strong”
G.1b.1 Semitic-Hebrew khareef “acute, pungent” kha-wa “bitter”
khara E. Cushitic-Sidamo qarara “to be bitter, kha “bitter”
“sharp, pungent, acid” acid, sour” Proto-Tibeto-Burman
E. Cushitic-Hadiyya k’araar’ee “bitter, *ka “bitter”
poison” TB-Karenic-Pwo,
Proto-Highland E. Cushitic Sgaw
*k’araar- “bitter” kha “bitter”
E. Chadic–Dangaleat [Dangla] khakha “bitter
gàrdìkàw “saveur âpre ou âcre” mouth, bitter taste”
[acrid, bitter taste] TB- Written Burmese
W. Chadi –Ngizim gártlà “strong in taste, khà “bitter”
bitter or sour” [e.g. of beer] khá- kha “bitterish”
Egyptian kaka “plant with a bitter taste”
962
G.1b.5 IE-Sanskrit katu NS-Longarim akate “bitter” Chinese-MSC

“pungent, acrid, sharp (one of kûtóu
the kinds of flavor)” NS-Kanuri kúttu “bitter taste”
“bitter, caustic, (as words) “disagreeable, unpleasant, bad, bitter, sad” TB-Pattani
displeasing” “pungency, NS-Kanembu kuotu “bitter” kəteg “bitter”
acerbity (as of a flavor)”
katuka “sharp, pungent,
bitter” RV
IE-Hindi khatta “sour”adj.
katu “astringent, bitter”
↓↓
G.4.1 IE-E. Iranian NS-Songhay kàaró “blanc” [white] TB-Tibetan
Avestan kàaréy “be white” “être blanc” gār / gārru “white”
kharu “white” [be white] dkár-ba
kharka “white” AV E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] “white, whiteness”
Sanskrit kar “très blanc” [very white] dkar-wa / dkar-po
karka “white” E. Chadic- Mokilko kàrkár “white” “white, pure, fair”
↓↓
G.5.1 IE-Sanskrit C. Chadic-Bura Group TB-Tibetan
sarAga “reddened, redness” -za “red” dzāà “red ochre”
“iron rust or filings” msha “red ochre soil” tsha-lu “red”
sArAgavastna W. Chadic- Gwandara (Toni, mtshal “Chinese vermilion,
“wearing red garments” Gitata) used instead of red ink”
saraNa “iron rust or filings” zā “red” tsah “rust, blight”
sara “salts of iron” sarAga W. Chadic- Hausa
“reddened, redness” “iron rust or tsātsàa f. “rust”
filings”
↓↓
G.8a.3 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic – TB-Proto-Kiranti *cùk “small”
suksma “minute, small, fine, Gwandara TB-Kiranti-Yamphu cùk “small”
thin, narrow” “narrow, short, chukuri “little” TB-Kiranti-Limbu
feeble, trifling” Proto-Afro-Asiatic cukma “be small”
suksmamana “minute or exact *šuuk’- “narrow, cuksa “tiny”
measurement” slim” Chinese-Cantonese
suksmaSika “a small fly, W. Chadic- Hausa cūk “narrow, small”
mosquito” (compound with tsugul ideo. “very Kartvelian-Georgian ̣
A.14a.1-2) short” cùk-an-a
IE-Hindi [ky’ukut] k’uk’ut “very small”
sūkśamdarśi ideo.“shortness, Proto-Kartvelian
“microscope”m. compactness” cùk- “small”
/
G.8b.1 IE-Sanskrit C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur TB-Tibetan
kumpa “crooked-armed” gum- “déformer, se ratatiner” gūm “to draw back, to
kums “diminished” [deform, as in deformed hands, pull in /contract (limbs)
IE-Bengali kɔm to shrivel] ‘kum-pa “to shrink, to
“deficient, short” E. Cushitic-Oromo Quba qurca be contracted, e.g of
kɔma “decrease” vb. gumcu “Le dita dei lebbrosi sono the limbs by gout”
kúnāru- “lame”RV monconi” [The fingers of lepers are kūm “to shrink, to
kuNaru “having a withered stumps] shrivel, get reduced in
arm”. Proto-S. Cushitic *k’um- “short” size”
963
kuNi South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic kūms

“having a crooked or withered akkwämattärä vt. “diminished”
arm or an arm without a hand” “shrink” “contract, (shrink)” S. Central Asian-
kun “to contract, shrink, täkwämat-tara vi. “shrink” “shrivel” Dravidian
shorten” “to draw together, to NC-Swahili jikunyata kúnāru- “lame”
contract” “to be hunched up” N. Chinese-MSC
“having a crooked or shortened W. Chadic-Hausa k’undume “be cut kūn “be stricken”
arm” off”
IE-Pashto gūndd W. Chadic - Hausa gūntú
“little, small, short in stature, “short (piece of anything) “stub”
squat, dwarfish” “something that is stubby, short”
E. Cushitic- Afar gundub “a small
stubby tail, a short tail”
↓↓
G.9.1 W. Chadic–Hausa TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit k’ure / k’uru “be small, narrow” gu “sign of diminutives e.g.
khullu “small, little” C. Chadic-Musgu khyi-gu “puppy, little dog”
IE-Hindi gulle / gulai “kurz, klein” cuŋ-ngu coll.
sikhurana [short, small] “little, small” “the younger or the
“shrink” C. Chadic –Gudu kul “short” youngest son”
G.9.2 E. Cushitic-Rendille S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
IE-Bengali gúrtum “tree stump” kyut “deficient, lacking, short”
khato “short” W. Chadic – Hausa S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka]
IE-Old Indian kùtutturèe “tree stump” ngut “stump of a tree, tree without
kr̝du “shortened, E. Chadic–Masa Group a branch”
mutilated, small, deficient” guti “short”
↓↓
G.11a.1 West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic N. Chinese-MSC
IE-E. Iranian- gara “mountain” n. qiâobi
Avestan garayo E. Cushitic-Oromo gara / gari “monte, “cliff, precipice”
“mountains” montagna, collina” [mountain, hill”] qiáo “tall”
↓↓
G.13a.1 C. Khoisan-Danisi ‖ʔùḿ -!Ora ‖ʔúḿ S. Chinese-Min
IE-Bengali “[to] sleep” khûn “to sleep”
ghu:m “sleep” n. C. Khoisan-Hiechware ‖gom “[to] sleep” N. Chinese-MSC
ghumano C. Khoisan-Proto-Khoekhoe ‖ʔom kùn “tired, fatigued,
“sleep” v. -Nama ‖om “[to] sleep” sleepy”
G.13a.2 TB-Qiangic-Pumi Dayang
C. Chadic- Wamdiu gonyu “sleep” kəní “rest ”
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] ngonga “to, nod,
sleep and nod, be drowsy ngongol n. “sleep”
↓↓
G.14.2 Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi) TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit saa‫ع‬a shag “a day , but not in contradistinction to a night”
zaka “an era, “time, moment” “hour” shəgshee “a few days and nights”
an epoch” C. Chadic – Bura Chinese-Min sèkì “period, stretch of time”
“a year of any era” saka “time” Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *čag “time”
zAka W. Chadic- Gwandara Altaic Proto-Turkic *čiāk “time”
“a general name for šekàrà Proto-Altaic *c’iāk’e “time”
any era” “era” “year” Mongolian-Khalkha cag “time”
964
W. Chadic- Hausa Mongolian-Ordos, Kalmuck čag “time”

shèekaràa n. f. Mongolian- Buriat sag “time”
“year” “age”
↓↓
G.17.3 W. Chadic- Hausa TB-Written Burmese tac “one”
IE-Sanskrit tak “(only) one” ideo. TB-Rangkas ta:ka: “one”
taks d’áyáá tak TB-Darmiya taku “one”
“once” “one and only one” Proto-Tibeto-Burman *tyak “one, only”
IE-Pashto W. Chadic- Ngizim G.17.1 Altaic-Proto-Turkic
tāk “single, ták “(one) only” ideo. tēk ”odd” “only, solitary”
unique” E. Cushitic-Gedeo Altaic-Turkic-Azerbaidzhan täk ”odd” “only,
táakka-tákkach solitary”
“one (in counting)” Altaic-Turkic-Turkish tek ”odd” “only, solitary”
E. Cushitic-Rendille Altaic-Turkic-Khakassian tek ”odd” “only, solitary”
tákkay / tákkach Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen tǖk ”odd” “only, solitary”
“one at a time” “one by one” Altaic-Old Turkic tēk “only, solitary”
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh tek “only, solitary”
takk “one, a single” Altaic-Turkic-Bashkir tik “only, solitary”
“alone, only” “one of a pair” Altaic-Turkic-Kumyk tēk “only, solitary”
↓↓
G.25.1 E. Cushitic- Rendille TB-Tibetan
IE- Old Indian ma má “(is) not” ma “a negative and prohibitive particle”
“prohibitive NS-Barea “verbal negative particle”
particle” ma “verbal negative” TB-Trung mà “not”
IE- Tokharian ma Didinga ma “prohibitive” Proto-Altaic *ma “a negative particle”
“not, no” Semitic- Arabic mā “not” Altaic-ProtoTurkic *-ma- “a negative
IE- Iranian- Egyptian particle”
Old Persian m “negative imperative, Kartvelian-Svan ma-d(e) “prohibitive
[Avestan] ‘do not’ ” particle”
ma “prohibitive “mark of negation used with the Proto-Kartvelian ma- “prohibitive
particle” imperative” particle”
↓↓
G.29.1 W. Chadic- Hausa Chinese-Min
IE-Sanskrit bak’i n. and adj. bâk “black, dark” “a black dye”
pâk “black, dark” G.29.2 TB-Kiranti-Limbu
“quite black” G.29.2 W. Chadic-Gera mak adj. “black”
makina “black, darkness” TB-Tibetan smag-rum “dark, darkness”
↓↓
G.31.1 IE-Bengali ami “I” pron. N. Khoisan-!’O-!Kung S. Chinese-Kejia (Hakka)
IE-Pashto m, me, mi “I” mi2 / mi3
mi “I, mine, of me” NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] “a polite expression for
mi pron. 1st person “I” ‘I, my, me’”
↓↓
G.36.1 W. Chadic-Hausa N. Chinese-MSC
IE-Bengali tā “she, her, it, its” tā pron. “he, she, it, him, her”
ta: pron. “it” “that” E. Cushitic-Rendille N. Chinese- Peking (Beijing), Xiān,
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan t- “she, it” Yangzhou, Chengdu, Lingbao
ta “this “that” “he, she, it” (third person singular tha1 “he / she”
feminine prefix on a C. Chinese- Wu tha1 “he / she” C.
prefixing verb) Chinese- Hángzhōu tha1 “he / she”
965
Total Sanskrit / Hindi / Bengali G Domain correspondences = 15
H.3b.2-3 NS-Kanuri dùwô conj. “though, although” S. Chinese-Yue

IE-Bengali Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) tabaayun n. “contrast” (Cantonese)
tobu / tobuo E. Cushitic-Haddiya dàbar- “answer, change, dàap / wùihdàap
conj. return” v.
“in spite of, yet, still” E. Cushitic- Rendille tàbar “opposite direction” “answer (question)
tɔbe “but” istabar dowa “pass one another (travelling in dàapfūk
opposite directions)” “contradict each other” “to reply to, to answer”
tabar dowa “go in an opposite direction to Middle Chinese
someone” E. Cushitic-Oromo dabaru vi. tap “answer”
“alternare, cambiare” vn. “cambio, turno”
[alternate, change; a change, exchange, turn”]
↓↓
IE-Sanskrit Semitic-Written Arabic sa’a TB-Tibetan cha-ba
H.4a.1 “to walk, move forward, to head, (W. Tibet) “the usual word for ‘go’ ”
sara be headed” “to march, to walk, to “to be about, to be on the point,
“going, moving” wander” to be going” “to intend, to
“motion” “moving or Proto-N. Khoisan purpose”
wandering about” *ča “to go to and fetch” South Daic-Lao cha:3 si:2 v.
sarana Egyptian tcha “to set out on a “going to”
“going, moving, journey, to make a passage, to Proto-Altaic *àja “to go, walk”
walking” travel” Altaic Proto-Mongolian
salasala “going, utcha “to go, to go forth, to come, *aja “to go, walk”
moving” to betake oneself to a place” *aja “journey, travel”
Semitic-Arabic sa’a “move
forward, to head, be headed”
H.4a.2 IE-Sanskrit Proto-Omotic *žaʔ “to travel” TB-Tibetan h’chag-pa
cagkrama N. Omotic- Mocha *žaʔ- “to travel” “to tread, to walk, to move”
“going about, m’shā “to march, to go, to travel” h’chag-sa “a place for walking
a walk W. Chadic-Hausa zaka “come, in” h’chag-par-byed
caGkramaNa go” “take a constitutional walk after
“going about, walking, a Egyptian saga dinner; also the place for this
place for walking about” purpose”
↓↓
H.4b.1 Proto-AA (Orel /Stolbova 1995) TB-Tibetan
IE-Bengali *dza’ / *dzaw- “go, come” cha-wa “to go away, to
jaowa Khoisan-ǂHoan ćao “walk (go)” start, to leave a place”
“go, move, E. Chadic- Mubi njā(u) go” S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
proceed, advance, E. Chadic- Kajakse jauw “go” jáu “go (leave)” “leave”
leave” vb. Semitic-Written Arabic jawab “traverser (of “to walk, go on foot”
foreign countries” “someone constantly underway, “to leave, to depart”
travelling through the world” Chinese-Wu
(Yemeni) tijawwal “to wander around, move (Wēnzhōu) tsau3 “walk”
around” N. Chinese-MSC, Beijing
Semitic-Ethiopic-Amharic täzäwawwra vi. zǒu “walk” “go” dzǒu
“move to another place, be transferred” “walk”
zäwari “wanderer, vagabond”
966
IE-Sanskrit, W. Chadic- Hausa TB-Tibetan

IE-Iranian- k’aurā kyār vi.
Avestan “move to another town, emigrate” “to stray, wander, roam”
car “to move [pronounced k’yaura n. f
oneself, go, walk, “migration, emigration”
stir, roam about, Proto-AA
wander” *sau- / *su- “go, run”
RV AV H.4b.4 E. Chadic-Lele
“to move or travel jarwi “voyager beaucoup” [travel a lot]
through, go yaara “take a walk ” “travel, go on a trip”
along” yaara-yaara
carana “going “go around, hike”
round or about” Egyptian
“motion” RV utcha “to go, to go forth, to come, to betake
cara “going, oneself to a place”
walking”
“wandering about,
traveling”
caraka
“a wanderer”
RV
↓↓
H.5.1 West (Ethiopian) Semitic- -Amharic TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit gäbba vi. “come in, go in, get home, enter, get in” rgál-ba
karb “go, move, aggäbab vi. “entering” “to step over
approach” Semitic-Ethiopic-Amharic qärräbä “approach, come (a threshold)”
qerb “near” close, come near, be near” “to pass or climb over
AkarSaNa Semitic-Hebrew karov “near” karav “approached” a mountain, to leap
“pulling, drawing Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) qaarab “to come close, come or over a wall,
near, attracting ” get near” tgaarab “to get close, approach” to ford a river”
Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) rgal-pa
tġalġal “to penetrate, pass through” “to ford a river,
Proto-AA (Orel / Stolbova 1995) *gal- “go, enter” to travel through, to
gah E. Cushitic-Oromo galu “penetrare, entrare” pass over”
“penetrate, enter [penetrate, go into, enter]
deeply into” Egyptian akhā “to enter, to go”
E. Cushitic- Somali, Dasenech, Bayso, Sidamo, Darasa,
Kambata gal- “enter”
↓↓
H.12.2 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic–Hausa ‘damara “act of tying something TB-Tibetan
dAmodara “having around waist” tamjiŋ “tying tightly,
a rope round waist” “belt, act of tying” “amulet belt” binding firmly”
dAmani “a long rope ‘dāmèe “tie body cloth securely around the waist” dam “bound fast”
to which calves are “tighten, pull taught” dam-po “strong,
tied by means of tam ideo. “tied tightly” firm, tight, narrow, of
shorter ropes” South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic fetters etc.”
dAman “string, dämäda ”wrap (a scarf around the head or neck),
cord, rope, fetter” wind (bandage or turban), tie a package with a string”
“girdle, wreath” Egyptian thami ”to wrap up in, to enclose, to wind
“large bandage” round, to bind”
967
H.12.3 W. Chadic- Tangale TB-Tibetan

IE-Hindi dangle “to tie, to fix, to fasten” thaŋ-po ”tense,
tang adj. E. Cushitic-. Rendille tight, firm”
“tight” hidán “tied up, shut up” TB-Written Burmese
tâŋ ”tighten”
Altaic-Turkic *daŋ-
“to bind, rope”
Proto-Tungus-
Manchu
*daŋ- “to bind,
rope”
Proto-Altaic *tanŋù
“to bind, rope”
↓↓
H.13b.3 W. Chadic-Karekare TB-Tibetan
IE-Iranian-N. Persian kandzanta “fill” kaŋ “to be filled up, to be full”
a-gandan “anfullen” Khoisan-Ng-!’e gaŋwa “to fill, to make full”
a-ganiš “voll” (Ger.) !xaŋ “full” skaŋ-ba “satisfaction”
“to fill up” “full” NS- Nuer can ε can Proto-Altaic *kāna
IE-Sanskrit kan ”to be “entirely full” ”to be satisfied”
satisfied with” “to be NS- Anywa [Anuak] Altaic-Proto-Turkic
satisfied or pleased” “to jàŋ “to be full with *Kān- ”to be satisfied”
accept with satisfaction” RV food” Proto-Mongolian *kanu ” be satisfied” /
kaNe “satisfying a desire” jʌ̌ŋ / jʌ̀ŋò Mongolian-Khalka xana ” be satisfied”
can ”to satisfy, please” “satisfaction” Mongolian-Buriat xana- ” be satisfied”
canas ”delight, satisfaction” Khoisan-Ng-!k’e Mongolian-Kalmuck and Ordos
“to delight in, be satisfied’ |xaŋ “full” xan- ” be satisfied”
RV Mongolian-Monguor xan- ” be satisfied”
↓↓
H.14.1 E. Cushitic-Somali TB-Tibetan
IE-Hindi toori tol-wa “to bore, to pierce, to perforate”
talvār / “dagger” rtol-ba “to bore, to pierce”
talavara West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage “to bore through, to perforate”
“sword” (Gogot etc.) Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali
t’or “spear, arms, battle, war tarawa:r / tar’wa’ri
West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic, “sword”
Argobba Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari
t’or “lance, spear, javelin” tarau’ri “sword”
E. Cushitic-Rendille tóor “spear” Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho
tora’i / torǝ’i “sword”
↓↓
H.17a.1 W. Chadic-Hausa TB-Tibetan tsog-pu / tsog-pu-pa
IE-Hindi tsugunař dà vt. “the posture of cowering, squatting,
jhuknā “make someone squat down” crouching”
”crouch, incline” E. Chadic-Masa Group- Lame dzōgdzgōg “squatting down on one’s
jhukānā suk dzudzuŋgo s’accroupir” heels”
”bend” vi. [to squat, to crouch down] bzhùgs-pa / bzugs-pa /
IE-Pashto W. Chadic-Ngizim bshùgs-pa “to sit, to dwell”
chok make to sit or jòokúlólok Altaic-Proto-Turkic *čok- “to kneel down”
squat” “in a squatting position” “to sink” “to sit”
968
chok- W. Chadic–S. Bauci group- Altaic-Turkic-Turkish čok- “to kneel down”

“seated on all fours, Wangday, Zodi Altaic-Turkic-Bashkir sük- / süg-
particularly a camel súk “sit (down)” “to kneel down” “to sink”
squatting on all C. Chadic–Masa group- Zime Altaic-Turkic-Kumyk čök- / čög- “to
fours” Batna súk “sit (down)” kneel down” “to sink” “to sit”
Nilo-Saharan- Songhay (Gao) Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek čuk- “to kneel down”
sokona “replier les jambes, “to sink”
étant couché ou assis” [to fold, Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur čok- “to kneel down”
to tuck the legs under oneself “to sink”
when lying down or seated] Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz čök- “to kneel down”
C. Chadic–Mofu-Gudur “to sink”
ndzəgàna “sit (down)” Altaic-Turkic-Balkar čök- / čög- “to kneel
down” “to sink” “to sit”
↓↓
H.20a.1 Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) khallaf “to burden” TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit karrab “to overburden” “to load down (someone)” khal “burden, load”
kal NS-Anywa [Anuak] “load, freight”
“to bear, carry” kʌ̄ʌr vt. “to carry something
(e.g. bag, book, child)”
gariman kāar vt. “to carry a child (on one’s hip or back}” Proto-Tibeto-Burman
“heaviness, S. Arabic kara “burden to be carried on the back” *s-gal “load, burden”
weight” C. Chadic–Gude karya “burden, load”
E. Cushitic-Oromo qarqaba “carico, peso, soma”
[load, weight, pack]”
↓↓
H.20b.1 IE-Sanskrit C. Chadic–Mwulyen TB-E. Kiranti-Yakha
gur / gurv “to raise, lift up” RV kuro “load” khu “lift up, raise”
H.20b.3 IE-Bengali guru E. Cushitic-Rendille TB-Tibetan khur-du togs-te
“heavy, weighty” “important, khorcha “lift on to “taking up in order to carry”
serious, momentous” (something)” khur “burden, load”
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan gurubhrt E. Chadic- Masa Group- khur-po “burden, load for men”
“bearing heavy things” AV Lame Altaic- Mongolian egür / ügür
IE-Sanskrit gurutA “weight, ku’u “porter sur le dos” “to carry on the back”
heaviness” “burden, trouble” [carry on the back] khurji “heavy load, heavy
“importance” NS- Kanuri kurwówu responsibility”
gurutana “heavier, very heavy” “heavy” “important, kurbo “load, burden (mental)”
“more important, very important or serious, grave” kurgεn “responsibility”
valuable” kɔrtobo “duty”
↓↓
H.21.3 IE-Sanskrit E. Cushitic-Sidamo baira Proto-Tibeto-
bhara “bearing, carrying, bringing” “carry on back” Burman
“the act of bearing or carrying” Cushitic-Oromo *ba “carry”
bhara “burden, load, weight” RV ba’aa n. “load, burden” TB-Tibetan
IE-Hindi bhār “gravity, load” m. ba-accu “addossarsi, ‘ba-wa “bring,
bhārā “freight” m. caricarsi, portare, sostenere, carry”
Bengali bhār “weight, gravity, burden” n. portare sulle spalle” Chinese-MSC
bhāri “heavy” adj. [to load (on the back), bào
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan baraiti “tragt, reitet” to take up a burden, to carry, “carry in one’s
[carries, bears] to hold up, to carry on the arms”
IE-Old Persian barantiy “to bear” shoulders]
969
IE-Tocharian pär “bear (away), carry (off)” C. Chadic-Daba

IE-Pashto bar “a burden, bàw “carry (load)”
a porter, a carrier, a beast of burden” W. Chadic-Hausa
IE-Old Indian bhárti / bhárati “to bear” (Daura dial.) bāwō
“bring”
↓↓
H.23a1 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic-Hausa TB-Tibetan
sammArga “wiping off, cleansing” tsantsàmē dzaŋ “sweeping, to clean up”
sammRj “sweep clean, rub or wipe “wash lightly” tsaŋba “clean”
off” “cleanse, strain, filter, purify” RV tsantsani gtsang-wa “to be clean, pure”
sammARjana “the act of sweeping “aversion to filth” “cleanliness, purity”
or cleansing thoroughly” “cleansing, NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] gtsang-ma “pure, clean,
scouring, purifying, brushing” sena “be clean” sanctified”
samapu “to purify thoroughly” senna “make clean” dzaŋ / dzaŋba “clean”
“purge” dzaŋwa “clean, pure”
samabhiplu “to inundate, wash” TB-Jingpho [Kachin]
sama bhipluta “inundated, flooded, TB-Nung
washed” sàn “clean, pure”
/
H.23b.1 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic-Hausa TB-Kiranti-Yamphu
sam “thoroughness, intensity, sam adv. sāŋ “all, only, nothing but”
completeness” “completely” TB-Tibetan tsaŋ “to be complete/ whole/
sama “full, complete, whole, sam “thoroughness, full /entire”
entire” intensity, saŋma “all, every, entire”
samagra “all, entire, whole, completeness” dzaŋdzaŋ “only, entirely, wholly, one
complete, each, every” Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) hundred percent”
samkSi “to destroy completely, jaamii‫“ ع‬all, entirety” S. Chinese-Yue jàn “true, real, actual”
annihilate” kSi “kill, destroy” “comprehensive, TB-Tibetan tsaŋ chán, ján
sammata “completely extensive “very much, deeply”
intoxicated” mata “intoxicated, ”tsantsa tsaŋla manɔɔwaa
drunk” adv. “pure(ly)” “complete and without mistakes”
samachanna “completely “sole(ly)” dzaŋma “full, complete” “pure”
covered” channa “covered” “pure state, all and dzaŋ + verb “doing completely”, e.g.
(E.25.2) only” dzaŋshang “completely clearing
samapana “highest degree, “pure, genuine, something (a path, a canal)”
perfection” unalloyed” tsaŋj‫“ ככ‬arriving completely,
sanemi “complete, perfect” “unalloyed, pure, all the people having arrived”399
IE-Hindi sanpūrn “perfect” undoubted” zhēng “whole, complete, full, entire”
adj. “pure state” chėngtào “whole (or) complete set”
IE-Bengali shɔmpūrno adj. tsaŋbo “complete, entire”
“complete”
/
399
Note H.23b.1 (Tibetan, Sanskrit) Kiranti, Tibetan and Sanskrit all give evidence of having grammaticalized the
Hausa tsan(tsā) “pure(ly)” “sole(ly)” “pure state, all and only”, sam adv. “completely” or the Arabic jamii‫ع‬
“all” “comprehensive, extensive” into a function morpheme which, when attached to a verb, means “doing the
previously identified action completely, thoroughly”. Examples are in H.23b.1-2 Sanskrit as well as several of the
H.23b.1 Tibetan entries.
970
H.23b.2 W. Chadic- sēŋdraa “recovering completely”

IE-Sanskrit Hausa Chinese-MSC zhĕng “whole, entire”
sanemi “complete, tsambam ideo. Chinese-MSC zhēn adv. “really” adv. “true”
perfect” “in abundance, zhēn yǒnggǎn “he is really brave” [he is truly brave]
samapana “highest full” zhēnpĭn “genuine product”
degree, perfection” mālàmi nèe S. Chinese-Yue jàn “true, real, actual”
IE-Hindi sanpūrn tsantsā “ chán, ján “very much, deeply”
“perfect” adj. a scholar through zhēnzhī “genuine (or real) knowledge”
IE-Bengali and through” zhī “know” (E.4d.1 Extended)
shɔmpūrno adj. mālàmi TB-Tibetan mtshan-nyid “the essential characteristic,
“complete” “scholar” sometimes implying the true innermost essence of a thing”
/
H.23c.1 IE-Pashto adj. W. Chadic-Hausa TB-Tibetan
sarā-sar “all, the whole” sařai adv. “completely” tshar-wa “to fulfill, to
adv. “wholly, entirely, from E. Cushitic–Oromo finish” “fulfillment, doing
beginning to end” carrisu “finire, completare, ultimare, a work completely”
IE-Sanskrit portare a termini” [to, finish, to h’tshar-wa “to be
sárva- “whole, entire, all” complete, terminate, to bring to a close] finished, completed”
sarvátha “in every way” West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic “as an auxiliary to denote
IE-Bengali shara v. ĉ’arrasa “finish, end, terminate, an action that is perfectly
“finish, accomplish” complete, accomplish” past or completed”
shara “whole, entire, all” adj. ĉ’ərraš “end, altogether, completely,
IE-Tokharian salu “ganz entirely” “(with a negative verb) not at all”
(Ger.) ” [ all, completely] Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova 1995)
See also H.25b.1 k’yar- “finish”
/
H.23d.1 Semitic-Akkadian TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit shangu “priest” saŋ / saŋbo
sAnu W. Chadic–Tangale “good, fine, kind, well-meaning”
“sage, learned man” sanang “holiness” mdzaŋs-pa
IE-Hindi Proto-AA *-šeŋ- “to be “wise, learned”
sànt good” “gentle, noble”
“saint” m. Proto-E. Cushitic *šen- N. Chinese-MSC
N. Omotic-Shinasa še:ŋga tsāng “good, right, generous”
“good” zāng “good, right”.
Khoisan-Proto-Non- xián “virtuous, worthy”
Khoekhoe *žaŋ “good” Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-
N. Khoisan- Zu|’hoan Santali tʃando βonga “god”
žaŋ “good”
NC-Fulani sena “be
clean, innocent, holy”
H.23d.2 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic–Tangale N. Chinese-MSC shèng “sage, saint”
sama “just, upright, good, sen wisdom, wise, sense, “holy, sacred”
honest” samprakSAla “a under-standing, cunning, shén “god, deity, divinity”
kind of hermit or holy man” skill” “spirit, mind”
samyaggata “behaving Semitic-Hebrew shen “spirit, god, divine, soul”
rightly, holy” tsenee’oot TB-Tibetan sems or sem
samapradhana “perfectly “modesty, chastity” “soul, spirit, wisdom”
kind or friendly” C. Chinese-Wu zeŋ6 “spirit, god” “soul,
mind”
971
/
H.23e.1 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Kariya TB-Tibetan
saralata “uprightness, honesty, ‘sarna “good, beautiful” gsar-pa / gsar-po /
simplicity” W. Chadic-Angas sar-pa “good”
sarala “upright, sincere, candid, zare “good, clean, holy” ɣsál-ba “pure”
honest, artless” Egyptian sar “to act wisely or “free from faults and
saralya “ rectitude, honesty” honorably, honor” deficiencies”
carana “good or moral conduct” W. Chadic-Hausa ‘a-sarya
caritra “good conduct, good shàřîf “holy, noble man” “spiritual guide or
character, reputation” shariftàa “being a holy man” father, instructor,
caritriya “good conduct” tsarki “cleanliness, purity, holiness” doctor”
sarasa “elegant, beautiful” Semitic-Arabic [ loaned from
IE-Pashto sara’h s̟aalik “virtuous, pious, devout, Sanskrit]
“genuine, honest, sincere, candid” godly”
W. Chadic – Ron (Daffo)
sapa “heilig sein, rein sein”
[be holy, be pure] H.23d.2
H.23e.2 IE-Sanskrit South (Ethiopic) Semitic-Amharic C. Chinese-Wu
sAda “purity, cleanness, clearness” s’äddä “be clean, be pure” tsa1
sAdhu “a good or virtuous or honest s’äddäqä “be justified, be declared “pious, respectful,
man” “a holy man, sage, seer” righteous, be just, chaste, pure”
“a chaste or virtuous woman” be pious”
“goodness, kindness, benevolence” s’ädäk “pious, just, righteous”
satKRti “doing good, virtue, Semitic- Hebrew
morality” tsadak v. “be right, be just”
sadguna “good quality, virtue” tsadek n. m. “a righteous man”
“virtuous” E. Cushitic-Oromo
IE-Bengali shadu “saint” zadeqi “santo” [holy, blessed]
↓↓
H.24a.3 IE-Sanskrit NS-Kanuri kasalngin TB-Tibetan
kSal v. “bathe, wash the entire body” bshál-ba
“to wash, wash off, n. kasála “bathing” “to wash, to wash
to purify, cleanse, clean” NS-Maba Group- Masalit out or off” “to clean
kSala m. sala-n’gi / sali-n’gki “clean” by washing” bsal
“washing, washing off” W. Chadic–Tangale salamm / salam-salam vt. perf. and fut.
kSalanIya “to be “clean, bright” forms “cleanse”
washed or cleansed” NS-Maba Group- Masalit
kSalita sala-n’gi / sali-n’gki “clean”
“washed, cleansed, E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla] sâlpè
cleaned, “ “nettoyer à neuf” sal ideo.
“wiped away, removed” “emphasizes whiteness”
NS-Maba Group-Maba sasal-ik “clean”
Semitic- Arabic ġassal “to wash thoroughly”
“limpido, pulito, netto” [clear, polished, neat]
H.24a.4 W. Chadic – Hausa tsaftà “cleanliness”
IE-Hindi tsab ~ tsaf “very clean” “neatly, completely
saf “clean” clean” tsàbtàacē / tsaftàacē vg.4 vt.
“clean, cleanse”
Semitic- Arabic safi “pure” (Iraqi)
s̟affa “to make clear, to purify”
/
972
H.24b.1 IE-Sanskrit kSaura Semitic-Arabic Chinese-Jin

“performed with a razor” gaššar vt. kəʔ-tsha
“shaving” “to peel, pare, shell, skin, “to wipe, rub back and forth”
kSaurika “a barber, a shaver” scale”
IE-Hindi jhāru denā “scrape off (scales of fish)”
“sweep” vt. South (Ethiopian) Semitic- TB-Tibetan
jharubardār “cleaner” m. Amharic bshar-wa
jharu “mop” m. ĉ’arä “to shave or shear”
IE-Bengali jharu “scrape, rake, scratch”
“broom, brush”
IE-Pashto jarwata vt. “to
sweep, to brush out” “a broom”
H.24b.2 S. Khoisan-ǀXam ča “clean” N. Chinese-MSC
IE-Sanskrit W. Semitic-Ethiopian- ts’ā (WG) “to clean, to rub in,
cha “pure, clean” Amharic ššä “rub, scrub, to wipe”
carciya massage” cā “rub, wipe, spread on, put on,
“smearing the body with ašaššä “pat, stroke” brush, shave”
unguents” Egyptian tchah’ chá “to rub on, to smear”
carcita “to anoint, to smear” cā “rub, wipe, spread on, put on,
“smeared with, covered with” W. Chadic –Tangale brush, shave”
“unguent laid on” sār- “to rinse, to clean” Chinese-Wu tsha7 “wipe, scrub,
“rubbed off” sār- “clean, comb” mop, polish” “brush, shave”
NS-Maba Group- Maba TB-Tibetan chá
shashalak “clean” “to rub on, to smear”
/
H.24e.2 Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) Chinese-Cantonese
IE-Sanskrit massad “to rub, stroke chaat “rub out, rub off” “to brush, to scrub,
utsad (esp. an animal)” to clean” “brush off”
“to anoint, rub, W. Chadic–Hausa chaat gonjehng “clean by rubbing” “brush”
chafe” sart- “comb out” Chinese-Min chăt “to paint” “polish, rub”
South (Ethiopian) Semitic- chhat1 “wipe, scrub, mop, polish” “brush,
Amharic shave”
s’ädda “clean (the house), Chinese-Hakka cat7 “wipe, scrub, mop, polish”
clean up” “brush, shave”
/
H.24f.2 IE-Bengali NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] TB-Tibetan ‘tsag-pa tsags perf.
chāka vb. sāka “to strain” “to cause to trickle, to strain, filter, sift”
“sieve, strain” chake “strainings” tsagma “sieve” “anything sifted”
Proto-Indo- Kanuri saktə́ (vn. of sanggîn) Altaic-Proto-Turkic *sag- “to filter”
European *sAuk “filter, strain” sakkəkiń Altaic-Proto-Mongolian
“to squeeze the “filter or strain something into a *saga- “to filter, ooze”
juice, to strain” / container” Proto-Altaic *sājgo “to filter, ooze”
*seik “to pour, Altaic-Proto-Turkic
to strain” *sag- “to filter, ooze”
H.24f.3 E. Cushitic-Somali shaandho TB-Tibetan
IE-Hindi “sieve, strainer” sangdzaà “a sieve, a sifter”
chānnā vt. Semitic-Hebrew seenen ‘tsang-pa “to remove impurities”
“sift” v. past “filtered, strained”
v. pres. mesanen
“filters, strains”
973
↓↓
H.25a.1 IE-Sanskrit Egyptian tchaāri TB-Tibetan ‘čór-ba
car “to drive away from” “to drive away, to repulse” “to pursue, chase, hunt”
“to hunt” Semitic-Written Arabic pf. (b)s̀or fut. ɣs̀or
carya “driving a (carriage) t’arada “to drive away, chase “to pursue, chase, hunt after”
sara “driving away” away, push away, reject, repel, IE-Tokharian
saraNa “running after, banish, exile” śaru- / śerwe “hunt”
following” Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šarrad Altaic- Proto-Turkic
sarin “going, running, “to cause to flee, run away” *sǖr- “to drive away”
hastening” E. Cushitic- Sidamo Altaic-Turkic-Turkish
“following, pursuing” shorra “to drive away, chase sür- “to drive away”
sarasarin “running courses away, pursue” Altaic-Turkic-Azerbaidzhan,
or races” Semitic-Written Arabic Turkmen sür- “to drive away”
sara+Nya “to run, hasten, šarada “frighten away, Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz sür-
speed” RV chase away, drive away” “to drive away”
saraNa “running, quick E. Cushitic-Somali Altaic-Turkic-Tuva sür-
motion” carar ”to run” “to drive away”
H.25a.2 Semitic-Written Arabic TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit šarada “to bolt (horse), to run shor / ‘chór-ba pf. and f.
sRta “going, running” away, flee, take to flight” “break “to escape, slip away”
“moving, flight, escape” loose, escape” ‘chór-wa “escape, flee or steal
sR “to escape from, get rid Semitic- Arabic (Yemeni) away”
of” “run a race, to run away, šuruud “to bolt away, fleeing, chór-wa
escape” “to run a race” RV escape” vn. of šarad) “to be fled, to be lost, to escape,
sR “to run away, escape” NS-Songhay (Gao) zùrù slip”
“to run a race” “fuir (en parlant d’un homme),
s’enfuir, courir, s’echapper”
(Fr.) [to flee, run, escape]
/
H.25c.1 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic-Hausa TB-Tibetan
sAra “the very best” zara “surpassing, exceeding” tsar-ba
“good, sound, best excellent” zarcèe vg.4 (completive) “to excel, surpass”
sArabhUta “being the chief thing, “exceed, surpass” tsar perf.
best, most excellent” “pass beyond or to a place” tshar-wa
n. “the main or best thing” E. Cushitic–Somali “to fulfill, to finish”
sArarUpa “best, principal, most sarrai “be first, go to the head” “fulfillment, doing a
excellent” Semitic-Arabic tsarafa “surpass in work completely”
sArabhRt “taking or choosing what rank” h’tshar-wa
is best” W. Chadic-Hausa sarai adv. “very “to be finished,
sAradhAnya “the best grain” well, completely totally” completed”
IE-Bengali Semitic-Hebrew sarar “prevailed” “as an auxiliary to
shera “excellent, best” adj. Egyptian tchara “to overcome” denote an action that is
shara “finish, accomplish” vb. E. Cushitic–Oromo carrisu perfectly past or
shara “whole, entire, all” adj. “finire, completare, ultimare, portare completed”.
IE-Tokharian särk- a termini ” [to, finish, to complete, Kartvelian-Georgian
“pass, surpass, go beyond” to bring to a close] *(s)car / *(s)cor
Proto-IE ̣*s[e]rk- “pass, surpass, go South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic “to be in time, to be
beyond” ĉ’arrasa “finish, end, terminate, first”
IE-Hittite sarku- “erhaben” complete, accomplish” Proto-Kartvelian
“machtig” (Ger.) [elevated, lofty / ĉ’ərraš “end, altogether, completely, *car- “to be in time,
mighty, powerful] entirely” to be first”
974
↓↓
H.26b.1,3 E. Cushitic-Oromo deggera TB-Tibetan deg “to lift, raise up” “to support,
IE-Hindi “support” “shore up” to prop/shore up”
tekan m. Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) Proto-Turkic *tAkan “trestle, rack “ “tripod”
“support” tikma “pillar, column” Altaic-Turkic-Turkish daɣan “tripod”
IE-Bengali “brace, support” Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen tāGan “tripod”
tak “shelf” W. Chadic-Hausa Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh taɣan “tripod”
tha:k n. madogari n. m. Altaic-Mongolian-Ordos
“tier, layer, shelf” “prop, support” daGa “horizontal bar in a yurt”
↓↓
H.29a.3 Proto–AA TB-Bodo/Garo-Garo
IE-Bengali dhakka (Orel / Stolbova 1995) dok ~ dak
deowa “knock” vb. *dak- “beat, pound” “knock, pound”
IE-Hindi dhakkā m. W. Chadic-Tangale TB-Tibetan rdeg(s)-pa
“shock, jog” daage “to push, to knock over, “to beat, strike, smite”
dhakelnā vt. “push” to overthrow” H.29a.3
IE-Old Indian taḳsati W. Chadic-Hausa Kartvelian-Georgian ̣
“to form by cutting” dakàa vt. grade 1 verb tak-un “to knock, hit”
“chisel, fashion, form“ “pound (final pounding of grain Proto-Mongolian
táḳsan “woodcutter, into flour)” *daɣa-ri - “to hit in passing,
carpenter” Omotic-Bencho dekn “hit” offend”
IE-Tokharian taks- C. Cushitic–Bilin dagah
“chop up, grind up” “stossen, schlagen” [hit, strike]
/
H.29b.1 Proto-AA *-duk’- “break into pieces by hitting” Kartvelian-Megrel ̣
IE-Bengali “break, pound” *tuk- “strike” tok(-un ) “to knock, hit”
toka deowa NC-S.W. Mande- Kpelle dukwa / dokwa Old Chinese
“knock” vb. “hit, beat” tǔk “beat/strike”
IE-Pashto NS-Maba Group- Masalit idu-k “castrate”
ttukrr “to butt, -Aiki d‫ככ‬k “beat, pound” S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
to knock, to knock W. Chadic- Hausa. dūkàa “strike” deuk “to strike, to
against, to shove” Songhay (Djenne, Koyra) hammer”
duku / duka “ram, butt with head” Chik / Ng Lam 228
/
H.29c.1 E. Cushitic-Somali tun ”to hit, to grind” TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic-Hausa tunkuya vt. “butt, gore dung “to strike, to hit”
tunna “struck, (by horned animal)”tunkùd’a “to knock to one side” Proto-Tibeto-Burman
goaded, hurt, cut” NS-Anywa dʊ̀ɔŋ “to knock at something.” r-dung “beat, strike”
IE- Old Indian “to hit somebody on the head (with fist)” Old Chinese
tunjati, tunakti NS-Nuer d̀ɔŋ- “to rap” dɔŋ n. “knock, rap” d’uŋ “beat, strike”
“to strike, hit, NS-Kanuri dungolngin “bully or provoke someone Chinese-MSC
push” by pushing one’s clenched knuckles into the head” tông “poke, stab”
↓↓
H.30a.1-2 IE-Pashto W. Chadic–Hausa tsāgàa vt. “split, crack, Chinese- Cantonese
chak kuwal rip” “make cut or incision in something” chaak
“to split, to crack” “split, cut, tear” “tear (esp. into two)” “to split, to break or rip open”
hak-unak adj. “crack (in wood, a wall”) “to crack, to chap, to tear”
“rent, torn, slit, E. Chadic –Migama, Bigiya Chinese-Wu tshaʔ7
gashed, cracked” *jag- “hacher, desunir, separer” “break, split,
[chop up, split, separate] rip open”
975
IE-Sanskrit šaqq “to split off, break away, separate” TB-Tibetan ɣśág-pa / ‘ĉég-
zaka “to separate, “to tear, rip, rend” pa / h̟ĉág(s)-pa
to divide” Proto-AA (Orel-Stolbova 1995) ɣśags, bśags
“chip, fragment” *tsag- / *cag- “break” pf. ɣśág, fut. bśág
zakala Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni, Iraqi) “to cleave, to split”
“to separate, divide” šagg “to rip, tear something” “to break or pierce through”
“a potsherd, a half” “to cut through” “to tear” “to rend, to tear”
“(of doubtful Khoisan-Hatsa ‖kaka “to divide” Kartvelian-Megrel chack
derivation)” N. Khoisan-O-!Kung ‖ka‖kã “to tear” “to break apart, split”
“a chip, fragment, Semitic-Arabic (Yemeni) Kartvelian-Megrel čkačk-
splint, log, piece, bit tšaggag “to be torn up” “to break, tear”
(of doubtful E. Cushitic- Sidamo Kartvelian-Georgian
derivation)” c’akkawa vi. “to crack (a wall)” ceck “to break, tear”
zakalaya c’akka “to be torn (clothes)” Kartvelian-Laz čačk
“to break into pieces” Semitic-Hebrew “to peck, split”
“divide” shakhook adj. “worn, tattered” Proto-Altaic *sak’a
“to cut, split, sharp
saksata “having a W. Chadic- Hausa
instrument”
crack or flaw” tsāgìi f. “bits of cloth discarded by tailor”
Proto-Tungus-Manchu
zakalita Egyptian sekh
*sak-pi “to cut, split, sharp
“broken into pieces” “to cut, to cut off, to reap”
instrument”
“reduced to W. Chadic- Hausa
TB-Tibetan
fragments” tsāgèe vi. completive
chaàgεε “cracked”
“become split, cracked”
/
H.30b.1 Proto-Cushitic *ts’at- “to cut up” Proto-Tibeto-Burman
Old Indian C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur *tsyat “break, cut”
chyati “to cut off” Proto-AA *c’adaʔ “cut, grind, pound” TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit cha’dw- “cut, chop” h’chad-pa
ksad E. Chadic-Migama “to be cut into pieces, to be cut
“to cut, dissect, divide, ca’dó “cut, chop” off” h’chad pf.
kill” “to carve (meat)” Semitic - Ethiopic- Amharic TB-Chin-Lushai
ksadana ac’c’ädä “mow, cut with a sickle” tśat “break, cut”
“carving, dividing” Semitic – Arabic (Iraqi) TB-Written Burmese
kSattR šaṭaba “to cut into slices or strips” chat
“one who cuts or carves or (Yemeni) šaṭṭ “to tear” “break, cut”
distributes anything” RV šaṭṭaṭ “to tear to pieces”
kSata “broken, torn, Egyptian ashā “to cut”
rent” “wounded, hurt” ashāt “piece, something cut off”
/
H.30c.1 W. Chadic-Ngizim TB-Tibetan
IE-Sanskrit gàdú “snap in two (flexible object such as rope etc.)” ka trεε /
kad “to break off “snap off (fruit off tree etc.)” katrεε tu doŋ
a part, separate” “break loose (something tied or attached by rope, etc.)” “to separate, to split
khad “to divide, Semitic-Hebrew khatsah “divided in two” up, to take apart”
break” khatakh “v. (past tense) cut, cut off” kadrεε
khadana katoo’a “truncated, cut” katsoots “chopped, cut-off” “split, separated,
“cutting or tearing khatsav “hewed, chiseled” parted”
to pieces” Semitic- Arabic (Iraqi) gaṭṭa “to cut off, break off” TB-Nepali
khata “an axe, (Yemeni) gaṭac “to cut, cut off” kātnu
hatchet, chisel” Semitic-Ethiopic-Amharic qäṭṭätä “cut (grass, bushes), “to chop, cut with a
shear (sheep)” knife”
976
IE-Bengali kata kätäkkäta “cut in little pieces, mince” TB-Jingpho [Kachin]

“cut” vb. NS-Kanuri kát ideo. “describes gat3 “cut off”
IE-Hindi katna something breaking clean in two” Austro-Asiatic-
“cut” vt. E.Chadic – Dangaleat kad’aak “èvoque mouvement Munda-Kherwarian-
Old Indian sec et brutal du couteau qui tranche d’un coup” Ho, Mundari, Santali
skhadate kát’yè “fendre (le bois)” [split wood] ka’tu
“to cut, split” Omotic-Mocha ka:t- “to tear” “knife”
Proto-IE W. Chadic–Hausa katse “cut off, interrupt”
*skeda- Egyptian qatchah “to smash, to break, to shatter”
“to split” Khoisan-Hadza ‖ka:ata “to cut open”
/
H.30d.1 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic–Hausa Proto-Tibeto-Burman
kuT gutsùrā vt. “break piece off” *ku(:)t
“to break into pieces, gutsùree vi. “become broken off” “scrape, scratch, itch, cut,
tear asunder, divide” E. Cushitic- Oromo carve”
kuta “mallet” kut-u “rompere, tagliare, troncare” S. Chinese-Min
recidere” [break, cut, break in two] kŭt “to dig”
IE-Hindi E. Cushitic- Sidamo qutuff assa
khodnā “engrave” “to cut with a single blow”
E. Cushitic-Rendille khuta “dig”
↓↓
H.31.1 C. Cushitic- Bilin šar “stutzen, hacken” TB-Amdo
IE-Sanskrit [to cut (short), to chop] (Bla-brang) tɕal
kSahr W. Chadic-Hausa tsargèe “slit” (Zeku) pɕal “cut,
“one who cuts or carves Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) chop”
or distributes anything” šarra‫“ ح‬to cut up, cut in strips” TB-Tibetan btsab-
saraNa šarrag “to split, crack repeatedly” pa
“cracked, split” šarig “split, crack, fissure” “to cut small, to chop
jarjarIkRta South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic (wood)”
“torn to pieces, split” ĉ’ara “scrape, scratch, rake” “to hash, to mince”
H.31.4 IE-Sanskrit məssar “large axe” Proto-Tibeto-Burman
kSur “to cut, dig, C. Chadic-Gude tsa “tear, crack, separate” *tsywar = tśwar
scratch” C. Chadic-Bacama səwər- “chop (in small “cut, chop”
chur “to cut off, pieces)”
cut, incise” W. Chadic- Mofu-Gudur cərh- “tailler, couper
IE-Hindi d’un coup sec” [cut, chop]
churi “knife” Proto-Afro-Asiatic *-zăl- “to cut (into, off)”
↓↓
H.33b.1 IE-Sanskrit E. Cushitic-Rendille Chinese- Hakka
khutAra “a sort of hoe or khóto “hoe-like instrument kud6 / k’ut8 / k’wut8
spade” “an axe” for hollowing out wood” “dig, excavate, make a hole or cave”
khutAraka “an axe” E.Cushitic-Oromo Old Chinese akut “dig out”
kuddala “a kind of spade or qotto “spade, hatchet” Proto-Tibeto-Burman
hoe” E. Cushitic-Burji *r-ko-t = *r-got ~ *r-ko-t
kuddalaka “a kind of spade k’otto / k’ottoo “digging “dig up, scoop out”“dig out”
or hoe” kuddala “hoe” stick, hoe” k’ot- “dig, plow” TB-Tibetan
kuthara “hoe” Proto-S. Cushitic rkod-pa “to dig, dig out, to hoe”
IE-Hindi *kut “dig, plow” TB-Jingpho [Kachin]
khodnā “dig’ vt. E. Cushitic- Rendille legót ~ šegót “dig out, “scoop up”
khuta “dig” vt.
977
↓↓
H.34c.1 C. Chadic- Matakam kal “fall” “tomber)” (Fr.) TB-C. Loloish-Lahu
IE-Sanskrit E. Chadic- Jegu gal “fall “tomber)” (Fr.) qa
gal E. Chadic-Migama, Bidiya, Dangaleat gal “fall (of dew, frost,
“to fall down or off” “tomber” [fall} snow, hail, leaves)”
“to cause to drop” E. Cushitic-Oromo qara vn. “caduta”
“to drip, drop, trickle” [a fall, drop, collapse]
xarr “to fall, fall down, drop, dive”
x = voiceless velar spirant
Egyptian ukha “to let fall, to have a miscarriage,
to set down something”
↓↓
H.38a.1 NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] jaggana “to serve” S. Chinese-Yue
IE-Bengali jaggotodo “servant njaggu / jagganaki (Cantonese)
cakri “service” jik6 “dispatch”
“job, employment” W. Chadic- Hausa jekada (Hadejia dial.) “servant, laborer”
cakor “a messenger”, “employ as a servant”
“servant” jakadanci “the work of a a messenger” jīk “profession, post”
(Gumel, Katsina dial.) jeka fada “a jīkyihp
messenger” “profession, occupation”
Semitic-Hebrew sekheer “hireling of” “job” “employment”
‘eesook “occupation, job”
H.38a.5 NC-Mande S. Chinese-Kejia
IE-Bengali kyi / cyi “work, send” [Hakka] gì5 /
kaje “work” S. Chinese-Min
kaj n. “work” kì3 “send, entrust, consign”
kaj kara v. “work” S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
kaje lagano v. geimaih “consign,
“employ” consignment”
/
H.38b.1 IE-Sanskrit C. Chadic-Gude ɬəkē “send” TB-Tibetan
lekyāhanam “mail (post)” West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic zlog-pa
lekyāvahanam “dispatch” māl’əktāňňa “messenger, emissary, “to send, dispatch”
lekyam “official message” delegate, envoy, representative”
lekhahari m. talalaki “messenger , messenger boy, Old Chinese
“hasty messenger” errand boy” sli̭əg
IE-Pashto leg-al “to send, Semitic-Hebrew shole’ak v. present “command, cause,
to transmit, send out, to dispatch” “send, dispatch” send”
IE-Bengali lagano v. “employ” leshale’ak inf. “to send away”
“hire” shalee’ak “emissary, messenger”
/
H.38c.1-2 IE-Sanskrit Semitic-Syrian Aramaic Proto-Tibeto-
Araksin “guarding, watching cattle” rəʕā “pasture, guard livestock, Burman /
raks “to guard, watch, take care of, herd, graze” Proto-Lolo-
protect” “to tend (cattle)” goraks “tending W. Chadic-Hausa raka “escort, Burmese
or guarding cattle” goraksa “a cowherd” accompany” *ʔlak ~
“tending or breeding cattle, business of a E. Chadic-Mokulu *glak
herdsman” araks “to watch over, defend, ‘igi / ‘akki “envoyer” [send] “graze
to protect from” RV “accompagner” [accompany] (forage)”
978
IE-SE-Iranian-Avestan raks “to guard Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) TB-Tibetan

against” “ward off” AV ra‫ع‬i vn. “grazing” rɔgba
IE-Hindi raksā “protection” “guard” vt. raa‫ع‬i “shepherd, herdsman” “a helper,
raksā karna “protect” vt. Semitic-Old Aramaic assistant”
raksak “keeper, escort” m. ra’ē, ra’yā “chief shepherd” Old Chinese
IE-Bengali rɔkkha “protection, defense” NS-Nuer lak “to graze” luk
n. rɔkkha kɔra “protect” vb. Proto-Cushitic *raaʕ- “to nourish,
nɔjor rakha vb. “watch, keep an eye on” “to accompany, follow” rear, breed”
nɔjor “sight, vision view” C. Chadic-Muktele
IE-Old Indian raksati “to guard, watch, lakiŋ “accompany”
take care” C. Chadic-Mofu Gudur
Proto-Indo-European *alek- “to defend” ləg- “accompagner”
IE-Old Indian raksati “to guard, watch, E. Cushitic-Somali
take care” raac “to accompany”
↓↓
H.39a.1 E. Chadic- Bidiya S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese)
IE-Hindi sawar “troquer, échanger” [swap, exchange] siu sauh
saudā “bargain, W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Miya tsāwar “change, “to sell
deal” m. exchange” N. Chinese-MSC
saudāgar “trader” W. Chadic-Geruma jàw- “buy” < exchange chiāo (WG)
IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic- Gwandara (Gitata) šàwáà “to exchange,
H.39a.2-3 “exchange” to barter, to bargain”
sarani “a traveler, W. Chadic-Hausa sauyà vg.1 vt. “change, xiāo, xiāoshòu
esp. a travelling exchange” “sell, market”
merchant” W. Chadic- Hausa jaura “itinerant peddling” Chinese–Min
H.39a.2 IE-Pashto Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) šarwa “a purchase, a siau1
chār “business, buy” “[a] bargain” “be marketed, sell, be
affair, work, Semitic-Written Arabic šara “to sell, vend” circulated”
profession, West Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage mezära / TB-Tibetan
occupation” messära “exchange” sarwa
Semitic-Arabic tiʒa:ra (IPA) “trade” n. “purchase, buy”
↓↓
H.39b.1 IE-Pashto E. Cushitic-Somali N. Chinese –MSC
jawab “an answer, jawaab jiāotán
a reply” “answer” “talk with each other, converse”
IE-Hindi javāb “response, reply, Semitic-Arabic jiāoji
answer” jawaab “make social contacts, socialize”
javāb dena vi. “reply, answer” “answer” “social intercourse, communication”
↓↓
H.42.1 IE-Sanskrit W. Chadic- Hausa TB-Tibetan
staRaNa “the act of spreading, tařwàtsa vt. dárwa “to be diffused,
strewing or scattering” “to scatter out, disperse” grown up, to spread,
staRaNIya “to be spread, or NS-Tubu [Teda] spreading”
strewn or scattered” tar “ausbreiten” dárba “to be diffused, to
stR “to spread, spread out or [spread, extend] spread (of influence, power,
about, strew, scatter” NS-Kanuri tartekin “scatter, diseases)”
Old Indian stártave, disperse, be scattered, dispersed” tárdɔɔ “scattered,
staritavai, stáritave tarngin dispersed”
infinitive “to spread, spread “scatter, disperse” tárgyəb “diffusion,
out, strew, scatter” “put to flight” dissemination, spreading”
979
stáriman n. “spreading, tartaa vn. “spread out (usually in

scattering” the sun to dry) ” “lay out, expose,
IE-E. Iranian-Avestan leave out”
stártaiti, “sternere” W. Chadic- Ngizim tàřbu vt.
sterenaiti participle “to scatter out, disperse”
[to spread, extend] E. Cushitic-Rendille
stərəta-, starəta- [spreading] taa’ha vi. “spread out, scatter,
n. “streu Lager, Bett” disperse”
H.42.2 IE-Sanskrit E. Cushitic-Rendille Chinese- Cantonese
tan “to extend, spread, taana “we are spreading out, tàanhoi
be diffused (as light) over” scattering” “to spread out (books,
RV “spread out or about, strew, taana “you (sing.) are papers), spread thin”
scatter” spreading out, scattering” tàan “to spread, to open”
Atan “to extend or stretch Chinese-MSC
over, spread, overspread (said South (Ethiopic) Semitic-Amharic tān “spread out”
of light)” bättänä vt. Chinese-Min
“to extend (a texture), spread, “disperse, scatter, dissipate, strew tan5
stretch (a bow for shooting)” (flowers, leaflets”) “arrange, exhibit, display,
“to diffuse” RV täbättänä vi. spread out”
tanula “spread, extended” “disperse, be scattered, dissipate”
utan “to extend or stretch over”
uttana “stretch out, spread out”
ut-tana “stretched out, spread
out” “spreading out over a surface”
ut-tanasivan “lying extended”
IE-Hindi tānnā vt. “extend”
Total H Domain correspondences = 38
Summary of Domain Totals

A 35
B 39
C 34
D 19
E 39
F 23
G 15
H 38 = 242 = Total Sanskrit / Hindi / Bengali and related IE word families containing
correspondences with both African / Afro-Asiatic and / or Sino-Tibetan roots = 47.6% of the 508
word families.
980
Supplementary Table 3
Khoisan ↔ ST comparative data
1.0 These tables report information resulting primarily from the Chapter 2A-H comparison but they also
include direct correspondences of Khoisan lexemes with Sino-Tibetan when no Afro-Asiatic correspondence
has been found, e.g set. B.30.2. (See list at beginning of Table 1.1.1 below.) So when Khoisan
correspondences have been identified with only Nilo-Saharan and/or Niger Congo roots or with ST only,
these sets are also listed here. It must be emphasized that the table does not represent a full comparison of
Khoisan languages with African/AA and Sino-Tibetan languages. Although it is substantive, it is provisional
in nature; for this reason no statistics are compiled for the data.
1.1 Khoisan initial click phonemes

Of 133 Phase 2 word families containing Khoisan morphemes which match ST
roots 79 have click initials.
Greenberg explained that the clicks are velar injectives, i.e. “a velar closure is made simultaneously
with one [closure[ further forward.---the back of the tongue is then moved back rarifying the air and
producing a partial vacuum which is filled by inrushing air when the front closure is released”. (this is
called the influx). (Greenberg 1966 83-84). For example: the ǂ symbol represents a palatal click. Here
the forward position of the tongue is at the palate and the velar closure is similar to that which produces
an ejective (plosive) k or g; (the efflux). If there is nasalization an ng- initial sound is produced.
In AA languages there is little evidence of click retention in many morphemes which otherwise match
the Khoisan root. What is left without the click is the efflux element, since the tongue is still placed where
the click was produced, i.e.against the teeth for dental and lateral clicks, against the alveolar ridge for
alveolar clicks and against the palate for palatal clicks. Since the glottis opens for the efflux , the sound
this makes becomes the initial sound of the word. The symbol for the initial glottal in the International
Phonetic alphabet (IPA) is ʔ.
IPA symbols for Khoisan clicks are:

a. ʘ ʘ ʘ ʘ Bilabial (sounds like a noisy kiss). Only one instance of its matching with an African /
AA lexeme identified in the present study, i.e F.21b.1
b. | | | | Dental- (sounds like English “tsk tsk”, a release of the tongue from the upper front teeth) ;
when lost it commonly results in a Latin alphabet initial (d-), (t-) or someimtes (s- / sh-/ j-)
Examples below are: A.1b.2, A1c.4, A.2a.2, A.10a.5, A.26.5, C.33.1 and C.51a.1,2,5.
c. ‖ ‖ ‖ Alveolar lateral (somewhat similar to the English “tsk tsk” but is the sucking sound made
from the tongue being withdrawn from the upper side teeth.). This, when lost, commonly results in a
Latin alphabet initial plosive sibilant (ch-, sh-, tsh, s- or j-)
Examples below are: A.2b.1, A.13b.2, B.12a.2, C.34.4, D.19a.2, F.7a.6 and H.13b.4
d. ! ! ! ! Alveolar- The opening of the glottis after the influx sounds like popping of a cork from a
bottle being opened. After loss of the click, it commonly results in a Latin alphabet initial (d- , t- or
someimes s- efflux)
Examples below are: A.9b.1, A.10a.5, A.26.5,7, B.31.2-3, C.29a.3 and C.29b.2. See also Chapter 10
Section 10.3.3.2
e. ǂ ǂ ǂ ǂ Palatal (retroflex)- In the preceding cases the tongue is in a frontal position so when the
click is lost, the consonants produced at the efflux are frontal. In contrast the palatal click is produced
with the tongue touching the upper palate. Its influx also produces a popping sound when the tongue is
released but it sounds at a higher register than that of the alveolar click. With loss of the click the velar
efflux is retained, and often a k- or g- intial is produced. See C.34.2 below.
981
The retention of only the velar opening plus efflux in the AA/ST correspondent initial also occurs with
frontal clicks.
Examples of loss of the dental, alveolar or alveolar-laterals are: C.26a.4, C.51.5, D.5a.1, E.13d.1,
F.5.2, G.11a.4
As mentioned in Chapter 10 section 10.3.2.2 the Khoisan frontal and palatal clicks can be reduced to
an initial glottal in African / AA or ST lexemes. Examples: D.4c.1, F.1.2.
There are cases in which a sole Khoisan click phoneme corresponds with an ST velar or
dental/alveolar initial.
Examples: A.26.1, C.1a.3, C.33.3, C.38a.2, C.38a.3, C.51.2, G.11a. 2
From note C.38a.2- The palatal click (ǂ) phoneme of the Khoisan--!Kung,/Hatsa ǂo lexeme by
itself contains a velar consonant and as such corresponds closely to the velar initial of the C.38a.2
Chinese-Min go7 lexeme. Thus in the C.38a.2 AA and NS morphemes with g- initial there is no
closure of the frontal air flow, and absent the click, only the velar ejective (plosive ) is produced.
There are cases in which the transition from click to a non-click initial correspondence can be seen
between Khoisan subfamilies.
Example: C.21b.3
C. Khoisan-Naro ‖k’ɔro “nail (finger-)” > C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe *chàú /
Ani, Buga, Cara, Danisi chàú / -Deti, Tsika, Kua, Tsua càú “hand” See also G.11a.2, H.4c.1
Table 1.1.1 contains sets from word families attesting the Sino-Tibetan, Khoisan and African /
AfroAsiatic- close correspondences.
Table 1.1.1
Word family Khoisan ↔ Khoisan ↔ African- Khoisan correspondences with
Sino-Tibetan Afroasiatic Sanskrit and other non-ST
correspondences correspondences languages of Central and East
Asia
A.1a A.1a.1 W. Chadic – Hausa IE-Sanskrit
S. Khoisan-|Nu‖en kařàmbatàa n.f. kalikara “the fork-tailed shrike”
ǂkariron “bird” “eagle, kestrel species” “a kind of chick”
S. Khoisan-|Xam “black-crested hawk-eagle” khara “an osprey, a heron”
k”ari “bird” “mountain kestrel” karaka “a species of bird”
TB-Tibetan W. Chadic–Bole karAyika “a bird, a small kind of
kharada karmata “white hawk” crane”
“name of a bird” NS-Daza karabu kharakoNa “the francolin
khra “a small bird “vulture” partridge”
of prey, sparrow- NS-Barea karba bird” IE-Pashto karak “quail”
hawk, falcon” Omotic-Janjero Altaic-Kyrgyz garha “crow”
“kind of hawk or kura “hawk” Altaic-Kazakh karha “crow”
falcon” W. Chadic–Buli Altaic-Uyghur karqigha /
khra-zhur kale “hawk, kite” qarhaj “hawk” karha “crow”
“a species of Proto-Semitic Altaic-Mongolian
eagle” *ɣārib “corvo” [crow] keriyen “crow” / kerije “raven”
Altaic-Uzbek qerhe “crow”
/
982
A.1b A.1b.2-3 S. Cushitic- Sanskrit cakora “partridge” “a hen, sparrow etc.”

S. Khoisan- Irakwe cakraGga / cakravAka “the cakra bird”
Khakhea sakäri “a goose”
|k’arika “guinea fowl” jaGgala “the francoline partridge”
“bird” W. Chadic-Hausa śakuni “a bird, a vulture, kite, eagle”
TB-Tibetan zàkaràa m. Kartvelian-Megrel ̣čqor- “quail”
tsa-kór / “rooster” Kartvelian-Georgian (m) ̣čqer- “quail”
tsa-ko-ra W. Chadic–Ron Turkic-Turkish sɨɣirčɨk “starling” /
“a partridge” (Bokkos) Turkic-Tuva siɣirɣa “oriole”
cagar shikóòr “Huhn” Altaic-Proto-Turkic *sɨgirčɨk “grouse,
“pheasant” [fowl, hen] hazel hen” “starling”
/
A.1c A.1c.4 W. Chadic–Ron Sanskrit
S. Khoisan-Masarwa ši-‖gu “bird” (Bokkos) cikura
S. Khoisan-|Nu‖en si-kou “bird” shikóòr “Huhn” “a kind of bird”
S. Khoisan-!Xóő ǀgūʔhu “bird” [fowl, hen] IE-Pashto
N. Chinese-MSC cīgù “sparrow hawk” E. Cushitic-Oromo chīkor
zhègū “Chinese francolin, partridge” ĉ’ukuru n. “the bartarelle or
S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa |gū “bird” “colomba”[dove] Greek partridge”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) j
egū “partridge”
↓↓
A.2a A.2a.1 W. Semitic-Ethiopian Kartvelian-Laz
S. Khoisan-!Kwi-|’Auni c’əw- čučul- “chicken”
si-|u “bird” “chick” IE-Pashto chūcha
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] E. Cushitic- Oromo “a kind of pheasant”
1
(Bao’an, Hailu) ts’u (Lau c’uc’o / c’uc’ii n. Mongolian-Khalka
Chunfat) “chick” čūčal “snipe”
chu1 / cu1 n. (Dongguan, Lau Egyptian Mongolian-Kalmuck
Chunfat) “chick ” “bird” asu čūwčl “snipe”
Mongolian-Ordos
Hakka Dict. “birds”
čūčil “snipe”
N. Chinese-MSC tz’ū (WG) Proto-Mongolian
“the female of birds” čuwčali “snipe”
A.2a.2 E. Cushitic- Burji Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
S. Khoisan-!Kwi-‖Xegwi |hui c’úuw-ee Kherwarian-Ho
“bird” “chicken” ’oe / o’e
S. Khoisan-!Kwi-‖Ng |wí “bird” E. Cushitic- Qabenna “bird”
Khoisan-Sandawe thui “bird” ĉuwa-ĉuwēta “chick
N. Chinese-MSC ch’ūèh (WG) South (Ethiopian)
“the magpie, jackdaw, jay and Semitic
similar birds” c’əwc’wəya
chūi (WG) “short-tailed birds” “chick”
Old Chinese, Middle Chinese NS-Tubu [Teda]
tsywij “generic term for short- cəuri
tailed birds” “Vogel” [bird]
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) Central Chadic-Bura
jèui “a general name of short- civira
tailed birds such as pigeons” “guinea fowl”
TB-Tibetan ciiwə “sparrow”
983
A.2a.3 E. Chadic-Somrai Altaic-Turkmen

N. Khoisan-‖Khau‖’e gwi juyje / jüyje “chick”
!gwi “pauw (a kind of peacock” “Rebhuhn” Altaic-Uyghur
N. Khoisan-!O!Kung [partridge] qüje “chick”
!gwi “pauw (a kind of peacock” C. Chadic-Mandara
S. Khoisan-!Kwi-Nǀuu kuyè “kite”
|ghui-si “bird” NS-Kanuri
S. Chinese-Min kuê “chicken” kwiye “partridge”
↓↓
A.2b A.2b.1 W. Chadic- Bole-Tangale- IE-Pashto
N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e Bole char-charru
‖áru “sparrow” jaro / yàró “bird” “a hen
N. Chinese-MSC NS-Songhay-Gao sparrow”
ch’iao (WG) “the magpie, jackdaw, kyiraw “bird”
jay and similar birds” W. Chadic-N.Bauci-Mburku
jiāo “wren” / chiāo (WG) gyalu “kite hawk”
“small bird like the tit or wren” Egyptian
Chinese-Min ciàu “bird” śeráu
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] jiau2 “bird” “sparrow”
C. Khoisan-Naro ‖áruba “sparrow”
↓↓
A.2c A.2c.2 Omotic-Ometo- Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Ho
C. Khoisan- Kachama tʃē’rē “bird”
Tsua ĉ’era Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Mundari
ʒera “bird” “kind of bird” tʃē’rē “bird”
C. Khoisan- Egyptian Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-Santali
Hietšware tchera-t tʃē’rē “bird”
zera “bird” “vulture, kite” Altaic-Turkic-Turkish serče “sparrow”
Khoisan-Tsika W. Chadic-Hausa Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen serče “sparrow”
ʒìra “bird” shirwàa f. Altaic-Turkic-Chuvash śerźi “sparrow”
TB-Kiranti- “black kite (hawk)” sar “starling”
Kulung Proto-Afro-Asiatic Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur sa(r) “bird of prey”
cirwa *t’s’ir- “bird” Turkic-Tuva sarɨ “a kind of falcon”
“swallow *c̟ir(aʕ)- Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek sarɨ “bird of prey”
[bird]” “bird of prey” Turkic-Kyrgyz sarɨ “bird of prey”
IE-Pashto chirgurraey “a chicken”
↓↓
A.6e A.6e.1 S. Khoisan-|Nu-‖’en E. Cushitic-Oromo Sanskrit
tsau(ma) “calf” sa’a / saawa / saura “a cow”
N.Khoisan-!Kung zãũ “calf” sa’ani / saawi n. “cow” saurabheya
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) Berber-Tuareg “a bull”
sau “a beast or animal” [Tamasheq] esaw “taureau” saurabheyaka
TB-Tibetan [bull] “a bull”
s‫“ ̀ ככ‬cattle, livestock” Proto-S. Cushitic *ĉawr- IE-Pashto saur
C. Khoisan-Nama tsãub “calf” “bull” “a bull”
↓↓
984
A.9a A.9a.2 Omotic-Mao Hindi ghorā “horse”

C. Khoisan-Nama !goreb kuuri IE-Bengali ghorā “horse”
“zebra” “donkey” Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh
TB-N. Naga- Chang kuri C. Chadic–Bura kürre “young donkey”
“donkey” kuretetia Altaic-Mongolian
TB-Tani-Milang gure “long-tailed gore’e “antelope”
“horse” pony” Sanskrit khurutin “a horse”
TB-Naga-Sangtam kuri kharu “a horse”
“horse” gaurakhara
TB-Tani-Miri / TB-Tani- “a wild donkey”
Gallong / TB-Bodo-Garo- IE-Pashto khar “an ass, a donkey”
Deuri guri “horse” khára “a female donkey”
↓↓
A.9b A.9b.1 Proto-Cushitic (Dolgopolski) Proto-Mongolian
N. Khoisan-!Kung *d-�w-r “donkey” *aduɣu
!kw‫כ‬re “zebra” C. Cushitic-Bilin dəkwara “ass, donkey” “horse(s), cattle”
TB-Tibetan Omotic-Agaw dəxwara “donkey”
dagöö̀ / dagööbo W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Mburke, Jimbin
“a wild or untrained dáakù “horse”
horse” C. Chadic- Margi tágú “horse” Altaic- Mongolian
dagööma C.Chadic- Kilba-Pela taku “horse” tax / taki
“mare” C. Chadic- Bura taku “horse” “wild horse”
↓↓
A.10a A.10a.1-2 NC- S.E. Mande – Bisa Sanskrit
S. Khoisan-|Nu‖en gyíì “dog”; kikhi “a small kind of
ǂkhi “dog” - Lebir gi / gyí “dog” jackal or fox”
C. Khoisan-Proto-Khoe NC- S.W. Mande–Loma khikhi “a fox”
*g|iri “jackal, fox” gile “dog” kiGkhira “a fox”
Khoisan-Nama W. Chadic-Hausa Altaic-Mongolian
|giri-b “jackal, fox’ k’irik’iinju kirs “steppe fox”
TB-Tibetan (Tsang prov.) “a wild hunting dog” Altaic-Proto-Turkic
khyi “dog, Proto-Afro-Asiatic *eker “hunting dog”
“pronounced as kyi or ki” *k-y-l- “dog” Altaic-Turkic-Shor, Oyrat,
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) Proto-E. Cushitic Halaj eger “hunting dog”
kei “a fierce dog” *ker- “dog” Altaic-Proto-Mongolian
*kirsa “fox, marten”
A.10a.3 W. Chadic- Hausa
N. Khoisan-!Kung kwīykwiyòo
ǂʔhwi “dog” < *kwiy-kwiyòo
TB-Kanauri kui “dog” < *kuy-kuyòo m.
TB-Thebor khui “dog” “puppy, hyena pup”
TB- Burmese E. Chadic- Sokoro
khwijh “dog” kuwī “dog”
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] W. Chadic- Hausa
gwi “dog” kūrèe “male hyena”
gui2 “dog” C. Chadic-Higi Futu
kùrè “dog”
985
A.10a.4 C. Chadic- Musgoy

N. Khoisan- !O-!Kung ǂwe kwéykwoya
“dog” “hyena”
TB-Written Burmese khwe C. Chadic-Daba
“dog” kweykwaya
Proto-Lolo-Burmese *kwəy2 “hyène”
“dog”
A.10a.5
N. Khoisan-Doke !gwi “brown
hyena”
S. Khoisan-Ng !gwi “brown
hyena”
TB-Burmish-Samong təkhwi
“dog”
TB-Jingpho-Jili təkwi “dog”
TB-Mru tăkhwi “dog”
A.10a.6 N. Khoisan-!Kung
ǂʔhwi “dog”
TB-Chin-Tiddim ʔwi “dog”
↓↓
A.10b A.10b.1 Proto-Afro-Asiatic Proto-IE *k’wen-
S. Khoisan-Proto-!Wi ǂʔuiŋ (Orel / Stolbova 1995) “dog”
N. Khoisan-Zuǀ’hoan *küHen- “dog” IE-Armenian skund
ǂghúiŋ “dog” W. Chadic-Ron (Fyer) “junger Hund, Wolf”
S. Khoisan-!Kwi- ǀXam kweéŋ “dog” “young dog, wolf”
!wiŋ ~ !úiŋ ~ !húiŋ “dog” S.E. Mande- IE-Pashto kūngraey
Old Chinese Samo T. “a pup, a puppy”
*k’uən “dog” *khwin “dog” gyiŋ / jiŋ “dog” IE- Sanskrit çvan “dog”
śvan “a dog, hound”
A.10b.2 Omotic – Bencho Proto-IE
S. Khoisan-!Kwi- ǂKhomani kyan “dog” *(s)kan- /
ǂ’an “dog” Omotic-Gimira *(s)kane- “puppy, cub”
Khoisan-Hadza ‖áʔano “dog” kjan “dog”
A.10b.3 S. Khoisan-‘Auni Omotic-Gamergu
|kãĩn “dog” kenē “dog”
S. Chinese-Min (Fuzhou)
kheiŋ “dog”
S. Chinese-Min (Zhèróng)
khen3 “dog”
↓↓
A.10c A.10c.1 W. Chadic-Hausa kōlō m. Altaic-Mongolian
N. Khoisan-Zul’hoan “dog” gölög / gölöge /
ǂghóá “dog” E. Cushitic-Oromo gullo gölüge
N. Chinese-MSC “grossa iena” [big hyena] “young dog”
gôu n. “dog” E. Chadic- Kwang Hmong-Mien-Miao-Yao
Old Chinese gō:rény “hyena” klu “dog”
g’wo “fox” Semitic-Hebrew goor n. m.
“cub, whelp”
E. Chadic- Lele gònì
“hyena”
986
A.10c.2 NC- N. Mande-Bozo Dia IE-Sanskrit

Proto-N. Khoisan gûû “dog” kukurrah m. “dog”
*ǂghú “dog” Proto-Semitic f. “a bitch”
S. Khoisan-!Xóő ǂgxū *gurw- “puppy” kurkura “dog” kurkuriya
“hunting dog” C. Chadic- Mokulu “to behave like a dog”
C. Khoisan-Naro kūrusu IE-Pashto ku-karraey
agu “dog” “chiot” [pup, puppy] “puppy, whelp, cub”
TB-S. Loloish-Mpi E. Chadic- Bidiya IE-Bengali kukur “dog”
khɯ2 “dog” kurkid’o Austronesian-Puyuma
Old Chinese “chiot” [pup, puppy kurkur “dog”
*ku “dog” / *kuwX W. Chadic- Hausa kura Austronesian-Paiwan
“the naked pup or whelp kuràye pl. “hyena” kuku “puppy”
of dogs and other animals” IE- Sanskrit koka “a wolf”
A.10c.3 E. Cushitic-Saho Sanskrit
N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖e okaalo “dog” kauleyaka
!káu E. Cushitic-Gawwada “a dog (especially a hunting
C. Khoisan-Naro !gau xar-o “dog” dog)”
“spotted hyena” kauleya
N. Khoisan- !’O-!Kung “a domestic animal, i.e. a dog”
!k’āū “dog”
S. Chinese-Min kaù Hmong-Mien-Proto-Miao-Yao
“dog” *qlAuB “dog”
C. Chinese-Wu
3
(Wēnzhōu) kau “dog”
S.Chinese-Kejia [Hakka]
ngau2 “mastiff; large,
fierce dog”
A.10c.4 Proto-AA IE-Pashto ku-kaaraey
S. Khoisan-!Xóő (Orel / Stolbova 1995) “puppy, cub”
ǂqha “dog” *kar / *kayar “dog” Altaic-Mongolian kars
Khoisan-Sandawe W. Chadic-Hausa “steppe fox”
kāka “dog” kàrē “dog” Altaic-Turkmen karsak
TB-Burmish-Mar E. Chadic-Tumaki “steppe fox”
kha “dog” gá “dog” Altaic-Kazakh karsak
“steppe fox”
Altaic-Kyrgyz qarsaq
“steppe fox”
A.10c.5 Proto-AA (Orel / Stolbova
S. Khoisan-!Xoo ǂqhai 1995)
“dog” *kar / *kayar “dog”
-Masarwa ǂxai “dog” W. Chadic-Hausa
-Proto-Taa ǂqhai “dog” kàrē “dog”
TB-Akha xa-ye “dog” NS- Kanuri
karê “spotted hyena”
↓↓
987
A.13b A.13b.1 C. Khoisan –Tati NC-Benue-Congo-Ekoid Proto-Altaic

‖kadi “scorpion” Bantu A ə-kai “crab” kējna
Old Chinese *ɣāi “crab” NC-Benue Congo- “crab, tick”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) Ekoid Bantu F, G, H
gaai “shelled aquatic animal” ə-káə “crab”
kèi “a variety of small crab”
A.13b.2 -3 Semitic-Aramaic IE-Sanskrit
S. Khoisan–ǀN u‖’en ‖kaī “scorpion” ʕegrab “scorpion” ajakava
TB-Kuki-Chin-Naga-Khoirao Semitic-Arabic ‫ع‬agrab “kind of
tśəgai “crab” ‫ع‬agaarub pl. “scorpion” vermin,
TB-Karen-Sgaw shɣε “crab” ʕagrab (IPA) “scorpion” centipede or
TB-Chin-Lushai ai ~ chakai W. Chadic-Hausa scorpion”
“crab” [k’yāguwā] k’aguwa “crab”
↓↓
A.14a A.14a.2 NC- N. Mande- Austro-Asiatic-
Khoisan- ǂHoan cʔí “louse” Mandinka Munda--Kherwarian-Santali
Proto-N. Khoisan síi “fly” si: “louse”
*cʔíŋ “louse” E. Cushitic- Somali IE-Bengali machi “fly” n.
TB-Tibetan h̟ji-wa / lji-wa šilin ”tick” Kartvelian- Laz
h̟ji-ba / lj̀̀i-ba “a flea” E. Cushitic- Rendille čič- “firefly”
TB-Nung [Rawang] chilím ”tick(s)” Kartvelian- Georgian
śi “louse” Semitic-Gurage cicci-natela “firefly, moth”
N. Chinese-MSC shī “louse” / (Selti, Wolane) IE-E. Iranian-Avestan
chī (WG) “a louse, aphid, nit” šilme ”tick” makśī “Fliege” (Ger.) [fly ]
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Zway) IE-Sanskrit
(Meixian) silmi ”tick” cicciTiGga
tshi2 “chicken louse” “a kind of venomous insect”
↓↓
A.20a A.20a.1-3 A.20a.2 A.20a.3 IE-Sanskrit bhUlata
C. Khoisan-Naro |kauba “snake” W. Chadic- “an earth worm”
C. Khoisan-Tati |gauo “snake” Hausa fùllarika “a serpent”
TB-Tibetan h̟buu / ‘buu “worm, kùbūbuwàa fùllaka “a worm or snake”
insect, any small vermin” “viper” phùllarika “a snake, serpent”
s̀a-ʔəbu “maggot” E. Cushitic- Proto-Mongolian
TB-Kiranti-Limbu kubu Afar *bürge “flea”
“a worm which eats wood” gùbun Proto-Turkic *bürče /
TB-Qiangic-Pumi-Dayang bərá “very *bürge “flea”
Altaic-Turkic-Uzbek
“snake” poisonous
*bürga “flea”
A.20a.1 TB-Lepcha bû “reptile, black snake” Mongolian-Khalka büreg
worm” NS-Kanuri “flea”
TB-C. Loloish-Lisu bɯ “insect, kelbúrwu Mongolian-Kalmuck, Ordos
vermin” “kind of bürgə “flea”
TB-C. Loloish-Ahi bö ~ bu “insect” poisonous Mongolian-Baoan bərgə
TB-S. Loloish-Aka beü ~ bü “snake” snake” “flea”
↓↓
988
A.21a A.21a.1 Proto-AA IE-Sanskrit gaura “a kind of buffalo,

N. Khoisan-!Kung *gaway- Bos Gaurus” “th e female of the Bos
|gàuh / |kau “buffalo” Gaurus”
-Hukwe ǀgau Omotic-Kafa IE-Pashto (Pashtu) ghwaa “cow”
C. Khoisan--Nama, gāho ghwaayaey “a bull, a bullock, an ox”
Korana “buffalo” IE-Sanskrit gava “a cow, cattle”
ǀgao “buffalo” C. Chadic- gavala “the wild buffalo”
C. Khoisan-Khoe-Kwe Glavda gavarjah “a bull” gavendra “a bull”
kx’áò “bull” káwa “bull” gavaya “the gayal” “cow”
TB-N. Naga-Chang káwà IE-Bengali goru “cow””
ŋʌ̂u “cattle” “buffalo, male” IE-E. Iranian-Avestan *gāu “ox, cow”
S. Chinese-Yue W. Chadic- Bole / gao “ox, cattle”
(Cantonese) Tangale-Kirfi IE-Old Indian gau-h m. “ox” f. “cow”
ngàuh kaunong / IE-Hittite guwau
“ox, cattle, cow, bull” kaunu “Rind” (Ger.) “head of cattle”
séuingàuh “buffalo” South Daic-Lao ngua3 maa2 n. “cow”,
“water buffalo” NC-Benue- ngua3 pa2 n. “bull (animal)”, ngua3 kway3
Congo-Gure n. “cattle”
kawi “buffalo” Daic-Siamese ŋwa n. “domestic ox’’
A.21a.3 NC-Benue- IE-Sanskrit

C. Khoisan-Khoekhoe- Congo-Ijo gu “cow”
Gowab ɔ-kʊ́ “buffalo” go “an ox, a cow”
‖goo “bull” NC-Benue- pl. “cattle, kine, a herd of cattle” RV
C. Khoisan-Proto- Congo-Amo
Khoekhoe/Proto-Non- ku-káwi
Khoekhoe *kxo Egyptian
“meat” gw “bull”
A.21a.3 S. Chinese- khu “cattle for
Kejia [Hakka] ku3 / sacrifice”
gǔ3 “cow, bull, ox”
cuî-gú “buffalo, water
buffalo”
↓↓
A.26 A.26.1 Proto-Lowland-E. Cushitic
S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa ǂúŋ “empty ostrich egg” *ʔu-kuŋ / ukkun “egg”
TB-Tibetan Highland E. Cushitic-Hadiya
sgo-ŋa / sgoŋ-ŋa / sgoŋ “egg, eggs, spawn” (Gudella)
gondoò “testicles” goŋa “egg” *k’unk’a “egg”
W. Chadic- Gwandara
koŋyi “egg”.
A.26.3 Proto-Afro-Asiatic
S.Khoisan-!Xóő !gú-aŋ “egg” *k’wa(n)h “egg”
N. Chinese-MSC gãowán “testis, testicle” W. Chadic- Ngizim
S. Khoisan-|Nu||en !gu-oiŋ “egg” ngàavə‫כ‬n “egg yolk”
A.26.4 S.Khoisan-|Xam !k’aú:i “egg” E. Cushitic-Rendille
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] *ukkahó “eggs”
(Lau Chunfat) gau1 W. Chadic- Bole / Tangale-
(Bao’an) kau1 “testicle, testis” Karekare gáwd’yá “testicle”
989
A.26.5
S.Khoisan-|Auni !úin “ostrich egg”
S.Khoisan-|Xam !aúi / !aúwi “egg”
TB-Chin-Lushai tui “egg”
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] məthwi “egg”
Proto-TB *twey / *tdwey “egg”
S.Khoisan-ǂKhomani ǂwi “ostrich egg”
S.Khoisan- Nǀuu ǂui “egg”
A.26.6 W. Semitic-Ethiopian-Gurage
Proto-S. Khoisan *‖gu “egg” ənkula / ənkura
TB-S. Loloish-Bisu ʔaŋ-ʔu “egg” “egg”
Proto-N. Khoisan *!nu “egg” W. Semitic-Ethiopian-
N. Khoisan-!O!Kung !nu “egg”; Amharic ənkulal “egg”
N. Khoisan- Zuǀ’hoan !nu “egg”
A.26.7 S.Khoisan-|Proto-Kwi *ǂ(g)u “egg”
TB-Written Burmese ʔu’ “egg”
Proto-Lolo-Burmese, TB-Nusu (Bijiang)
*ʔu “egg”
↓↓
A.27 A.27.1 TB-Tibetan NS-Sungor iši “excrement” Altaic-Turkik-
Khoisan-Proto-Hadza *c̟i NS-Maba Group- Kodoi Turkish ,
“excrements” ìsîî “urine” iisi “urinate” Uzbek,
Khoisan-Hadza hiciya “excrements” Proto-Chadic *isi Kyrghyz,
“
lchi-ba “dung (esp. of cattle)” excrement” Oyrat, Nogai,
cisə “stool, excrement” E. Chadic-Sokoro issi Balkar,
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] “feces” Karaim, Kumyk
3 3 “
(MacIver) si / shi excrement, W. Chadic- Ron (Bokkos) sij- “urinate”
dung” shishí “faeces”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) W. Chadic- S. Bauci group- Hmong-Mien-
sí “excrement” Geji ʔìšì “feces” Hmong
C. Chinese-Wu sɿ1 “excrement, Omotic- Janjero, Ometo chiv
dung” šiya “feces” “manure,
N. Chinese-MSC shî n. W. Chadic- S. Bauci group- fertilizer”
“excrement, faeces, dung” Geji ʔìšì “feces”.
↓↓
A.29 A.29.2 N. Khoisan-!Kung W. Chadic-Goemai IE-Bengali
jɔā jɔā n. “fly” [Ankwe] nža “termite” mɔsha
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) W. Chadic-Cip “mosquito”
ja “locust, grasshopper” nja “termite”
A.29.3 NS-Anywa
N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖e žwažwa n. “fly” cwáarrò
N. Khoisan-!O -!Kung dzwadzwa n. “bedbug”
“fly” W. Chadic-Hausa
N. Chinese-MSC zâo “flea” k’wāro
Middle Chinese tsawX “flea” “insect”
↓↓
990
A.30 A.30.1 C. Khoisan- ‖Kh’au-‖’e C. Chadic-Wamdiu, Hildi

ǀgãĩǀgãĩ “ant” *(a)ga’i “locust”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) W. Chadic- Ron (Bokkos)
ngáih “ant” ngal “termite”
baahkngáih “termite” NC-Fulfulde [Fulani]
baahk “white” galgal “male termite,
biting white ant”
↓↓
A.33 A.33.1 N.Khoisan-ǂHoan !ho “horn” South Daic-Lao
A.33.2 Proto-N.Khoisan *!khú “horn” kow4 sat3
N.Khoisan- Zuǀ’hoan !khú “horn” “horn”
N.Khoisan-‖Au‖en !ú “horn”
TB-C. Loloish-Sani (Nyi) kɯ “horn”
Khoisan-#Hoan !o “horn”
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu kɔ “horn”
↓↓
A. 34 A.34.1 E. Cushitic- Somali sol- “to grill, toast”
C. Khoisan-Tati W. Chadic- Hausa
čoo “roast” sōyàa vg.1 vt. “fry in oil (anything
TB-Tibetan except fried cakes)”
dzo “to cook meat” sōyē m. “pieces of fried meat”
TB-Bodo/Garo-Garo sūyàa n. sōyàa vn. “frying, fried meat”
so “boil, bake” “pieces of fried or roasted meat”
W. Chadic-Gwandara (Karshi)
šoyi (Koro) šôyî “to fry”
E. Chadic- Mokulu sòríyè “fry”
A.34.2 N. Khoisan-‖Kh’aue E. Chadic- Masa Group- Lame
s’o / šou “roast” tsu “griller sur les braises”
N. Khoisan-!Kung NC-N. Mande- Soninke
sou / sau “roast” soro “cook, prepare food”
TB-Chin-Lushai [Mizo] W. Chadic-Pelci tsuru “cook”
śou “boil, bake” Proto-Chadic sura “roast, fry”
↓↓
A.36a A.36a.1 N.Khoisan-!Kung !�ú
�� “locust” Semitic-Arabic Hmong-
N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e !hau “locust” ɣawɣa “locust Mien
gáu “wasp” (beginning to fly)” -White
S. Khoisan-|Xam !hau “locust” W. Chadic-Hausa Hmong
TB-Chin-Lushai khau “grasshopper” k’yaurī m. nkawj
TB-Thado, Tangkhul khau “grasshopper” “a thin grasshopper” “wasp”
A.36a.2 E. Chadic-Maba Group-
C. Khoisan-Naro gwagwa “wasp” Lame guā’ā
Middle Chinese kwaX “wasp” “insecte sp.” (fr.)
W. Chadic-Ngizim
juwak “fly” n.
↓↓
991
B.2a B.2a.1 W. Chadic-Hausa

Proto-Khoisan, Proto-Sandawe Ʒāŋ “green” tsaŋwa “green”
Khoisan (Kagaya) jaang’gau “blue, green” tsanwā /
Khoisan-Sandawe Ʒáŋga “green” tsanwàa
TB-Tibetan jaŋ “green” “light green”
N. Chinese-MSC tsāng (WG) “green, the azure of the sky” E. Cushitic-
cāng “dark green” Kembata, Hadiyya
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (Hailu) ts’ang1 “blue, green, *šānu-
black” “green”
↓↓
B.3d B.3d.3 Proto-C. Chadic Proto-IE
Khoisan-ǂHoan kxa “earth” *xaxa “ground” “clay” *k(‘) ag(‘)hl-
Proto-N. Khoisan *kxa “earth” C. Chadic-Gabin “gravel”
TB-Kiranti-Bahing *kha-pi “earth” *xàxà “ground”
-Lohorong ba-kha “earth” Egyptian qah̟ “earth,
TB-Kadu ka “earth” ground”
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi)
gá / ʔəgá / ngá “earth” gaa‫“ ع‬ground, earth, land”
↓↓
B.8 B.8.1 W. Chadic-N. Bauci-Pa’a IE-Hindi
N. Khoisan-Zu|’hoan ‖àrì “root” šarì “root” jar̝
N. Khoisan- ‖Au‖en ‖ari “root fiber” E. Chadic-Sumray “root”
N. Khoisan-!’O!Kung ‖are / ‖ale “root sháwré “root”
fiber” Proto-Afro-Asiatic *sar-
TB- Lepcha so < *sa “veins, fibres of “root”
wood” Proto-Cushitic *sar- “root”
TB-Tibetan rtsa “vein, artery” NS-Kanuri zâr “root”
dza “blood, vessel, vein, artery, nerve, “branches of a root”
pulse” “root”
↓↓
B.11a B.11a.3 NC-Mande- Bambara Proto-Kartvelian
Khoisan-ǂHoan guā / gwà warwar- “to burn, glitter”
ɵgoa “fire” “fire of household” warwāl- “to burn, glitter”
N.Khoisan-|Gwi NC-N. Mande- Jula Kartvelian-Georgian
ǂgúà “ashes” gwa “fire” varvār- “to burn, glitter”
Old Chinese xwâr NC-Swahili IE-Hittite war-
“burn, fire” ungua “fire” “brennen, verbrennen”
TB- Nung hwar Proto- Chadic *akwa “fire” [burn, scorch]
“burn, kindle” Proto-Afro-Asiatic Proto-IE *g’werə-
Proto-Tibeto- (Orel / Stolbova 1995) “to burn, to flame” /
Burman *hwa:r *qawar- “burn” *g’wher[e]
“fire, burn, shine” NS-Kanuri “to heat, to burn”
kwára “bush-fire”
W. Chadic-Hausa (Daura dial.)
kuwārà “a big bush fire”
992
B.11a.5 Proto-W. Chadic

S. Khoisan-Masarwa *ʔagwar “burnt bits”
‖gwa “ashes” / W. Chadic-Hausa gawāro
S. Khoisan-|Gwi “anything burnt black”
ǂgúà “ashes” / gawāyi “charcoal”
S. Khoisan-!Xóő C. Chadic- Glavda ghúvra
‖gòa “ashes” “charcoal”
N. Chinese-MSC C. Chadic-Dgwede gẁvre
ħwà “burn up, “charcoal”
incinerate” “fire” W. Chadic- Ngizim wə‫כ‬rnàk
“burnt remains of mush in pot”
↓↓
B.11b B.11b.2 Proto-Afro-Asiatic Altaic-Uyghur
N. Khoisan-!Kung (Doke) (Orel / Stolbova 1995) küj- / koj-
kuʔu “[to] burn” vt. *xu’- “fire” “to burn” vi.
-Žu|’oan kùʔú “[to] burn” vt. *-hooʔ- Altaic-Kyrgyz
Proto-N. Khoisan *kùʔú “[to] “to burn, become hot” küj- “to burn”
burn” vt. C. Chadic-Hiji uhu Altaic-Uzbek
Chinese- Wu hu5 “fire, burn with “fire” küj- “to burn” vi.
fire” C. Chadic-Affade hu: Altaic-Kazakh
N. Chinese –MSC hu “(of food) “fire” küj- “to burn” vi.
burnt” C. Chadic-Klesem küje “to burn” vt.
ahu: “fire”
B.11b.3 W. Chadic- Warji
S. Khoisan–Proto-!Wi *!ui kúwe / kə̀wai / kuwol
“ashes” “fire”
S. Khoisan–|Xam, ǂKhomani E. Chadic-Mubi
!ui “ashes” kēwi “Feuer” [fire]
N. Chinese -MSC hwēi (Y) / E. Chadic-Higi-Futu
huī “ash” ɣwɨ “fire”
S. Chinese-Min hoe1 “fire, flame, Berber-Tuareg
burn with fire” əkwəy “griller, bruler”
C. Chinese-Wu huE1 “ashes” [to grill, to burn]
↓↓
B.11c B.11c.1 E. Cushitic-Oromo Altaic-
S. Khoisan-|’Auni akawu “arrostire, tostare, torrefare” [to Mongolian
!xa(u) roast, to scorch, toast, to broil] qawur- /
“burn” Proto-W. Chadic *kaw “grill, roast” xür
S. Khoisan-!Kwi-Nǀuu W. Chadic- Hausa “to roast”
!xao kawa / k’awa “grill, roast”
“burn” W. Chadic- Ngizim
Khoisan- Hadza kàuyú vn. kauyà, kawai
‖ko”a “fry (usually in oil)”
“to cook” Semitic-Akkadian
Chinese- Kejia [Hakka] kawuˆ “burn, kindle fire”
k’au3 / kau3 Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi)
“bake, roast, toast” čawwa “to burn, sear, scald”
W. Chadic-Hausa
k’aurara “fry without oil or grease”
993
B.11c.3 N. Khoisan-!’O- Egyptian shau

!Kung “to be hot, to burn, fire”
šau “roast” šau ~ sau W. Chadic-Hausa
“bake” k’aurara
N. Chinese-MSC “fry without oil or grease”
hâo “stir fry, fry” E. Chadic-Banana
shâo “burn” “cook, bake, hawwam
heat” “fry”
cháau “to fry, to roast, to
cook, to broil”
S. Khoisan-|Xam káo
“warm”
Khoisan- Hadza
‖ko”a “to cook”
B.11c.4 E. Cushitic-Oromo
C. Khoisan-Nama cilawu vi. “carbonizzarsi, coprirsi di
tsao-b “ashes” fuliggine” [to be charred, to be covered
N. Chinese-MSC with soot]
chiāo (WG) C. Chadic-Fali-Kiria k’alo “ashes”
“scorched or burned” C. Chadic-Ngwaxi kɨləw “ashes”
W. Chadic-Hausa gawāro “anything
burnt black”
W. Chadic-N. Bauci- Diri gáwàyú
“charcoal”
B.11c.5 Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi)
C. Khoisan-Danisi nšuwa “to be broiled, roasted”
djúà “ashes” W. Chadic- Hausa
C. Khoisan-Tsua zewre “brȗler superficiellement”
Ʒùá “ashes” [burn superficially]
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) E. Cushitic-Rendille jiláh n. “burning
jiu “scorched or burned” charcoal” “a glowing coal”
jiutaan “coke” jilhó pl. “burning charcoal fires”
“glowing coals”
C. Chadic-Migama gyu “burn”
↓↓
B.11d B.11d.1 E. Chadic-Masa Group
C. Khoisan-Naro ša “hot” sala “heat, sweat”
TB-Lolo *tsha “hot” E. Cushitic- Oromo
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu ca “hot” sāfa / sāfaa n.
TB-Tibetan sha “hot” “hot time of day”
TB-Chin-Lushai śa “hot” Semitic-Hebrew sharav
Khoisan-Hoan čhá “sun” “heat wave”
994
B.11d.4 W. Chadic- Hausa

N. Khoisan-Auen cã, ca “illness, be ill” zàzzàb’i
C. Khoisan-Naron cã “to be ill” n. m. “fever, high temperature”
Khoisan-Hatsa ca “illness, be ill” zāfi “heat, speed, intensity
TB-Tibetan tsha-tsha “illness, complaint” (esp. of pain)”
tsā vi. “to get a sharp, painful sensation” “heat, intensity” (esp. of illness)”
tsha-gdung “afflictions from disease, Proto-W. Chadic šaʔaf “pain,
suffering, from fever” heat”
TB-Burmese tsha “pain”
B.11d.6 Proto-AA
S. Khoisan-!Kwi-|Xam *-šah̟- “to burn”
‖a ~ ‖a: “burn” vt. Egyptian sa “to burn”
S. Khoisan-!Kwi-‖Ng|Ke Proto-Cushitic
‖a “burn” vt. *ts’aʕ- “to burn”
TB-Central Loloish-Lahu Egyptian tchaab “to be hot, to
cá “boil, cook” glow, to roast, to cook”
↓↓
B.12a B.12a.2 W. Chadic-Hausa Proto-
S. Khoisan-!Kwi- ‘kamee “dry out and become stiff, caked” Kartvelian
|‘Auni Semitic-Hebrew kamal “withered” *qam-
‖khom “dry” v. past tense “to be dry”
TB-Tibetan NS-Kanuri ngâmde “dry”
skam-po “dry” ngâm-dengin “become dry, dry out”
gamdraà “dry” Egyptian tchamā “dry land, parched ground”
↓↓
B.12b B.12b.1 C. Khoisan-Naro NC- Benue-Congo-Ekoid Altaic-Proto-
‖xām “cook” Bantu Mongolian *keŋsi
N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au‖’e kaŋ- “fry, bake” “to be burnt”
ǂxame “cook” NC-Swahili Altaic-Proto-
N. Chinese-MSC kàng “bake or -kaanga “to fry” Tungus-Manchu
dry by the heat of a fire” kangwa “to be fried” *xeŋ(-gu-) “to be
TB- Burmese kaŋ “broil, roast, “fried” burnt”
toast” NS-Kanuri IE-Sanskrit
TB-Proto-Kiranti *kaŋ “fry, kángin kandupakva
roast” “deep fry “parched or roasted
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] (e.g. bean cakes in oil)” (as grain) or fried in
kəŋau “fry” a pan”
B.12b.2 S. Khoisan-!Ke W. Chadic-Hausa IE-Bengali
‖kwona “be warm” k’ona “burn” agun
S. Khoisan-‖Ng!Ke ‖ona W. Chadic-Buli “fire”
“warm (hot)” konu “burn, dry up”
TB-Kiranti-Kaling NS-Songhay (Koroboro)
ghona “to heat, to warm” kónnù
Proto-Kiranti *ghoŋ “to warm” “ětre chaud, ětre fièvreux”
TB- Jingpho [Kachin [be warm, be feverish]
kəŋau “fry” C. Chadic-Fali Mucella,
TB-Tangkhul kəŋui “fry” Fali Bwagira xun- “burn”
↓↓
995
B.14c B.14c.2 S. Khoisan-Proto- Semitic- Arabic IE-Pashto ghumb’ah

Taa ‖úʔhbu “to swell” (Yemeni) “a hard swelling,
Proto-North Khoisan kubur “grow up, a protuberance, a tumor”
*!gùʔúbú “to swell” become large and Altaic-Proto-Mongolian *bul-
TB-Tibetan big” “swelling, lump”
ʔəbur-ba / h’bur-wa NC-Bantu-Swahili -Mongolian-Khalka *bulū
“to rise, to swell up, kufura “swelling, lump”
become prominent” “to swell” -Mongolian-Kalmuck *bulə
h’bur “swelling, boil” W. Chadic-Hausa “swelling, lump”
h’bur-po “protuberance, kumbùrà Altaic-Turkic-Turkish kabarmak
tumor” “become swollen” “to swell”
↓↓
B.15a B.15a.1 NC- N. Mande- Susu IE-Sanskrit kuhi- ”fog,
S. Khoisan-Nu‖en xurɛ “fresh- water mist”
!xwe “rain” course” Austro-Asiatic Munda-
S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa, !Xóő W. Chadic–Bachama Kherwarian-Santali
*!kxôe gùrɛ̀y “lake” ‘kuh’rǝ “fog”
“rain” C. Cushitic-Bilin -Munda-Kherwarian-Ho
TB-Qiangic-Pumi Dayang gwi kuri pu’kuri
“rain” “Fluss” [river] “pond”
S. Khoisan-Masarwa !we “rain” E. Cushitic- Oromo puku’ri
S. Chinese-Min kuri n. “caterrata, “lake”
khué stagno, bacino” -Munda-Kherwarian-
“stream” [water-course, pond, Mundari
Chinese- Kejia [Hakka] (Meixian) basin] pu’khu’ri “pond”
khui3 / kwi5 (MacIver) kurre n. “laghetto, IE-Bengali
k’wui5 (Lau Chunfat) stagno” pukur “pond”
kui5 [watercourse, pond, Proto-Altaic
“a river overflowing its banks, pool] *k’oli “lake, basin”
flooding river” S. (Ethiopian) Altaic-ProtoTungus-
Khoisan-Tati Semitic-Gurage Manchu *xule
xwere kure “pond” “lake, basin”
“waterhole” C. Chadic- Fali -Munda-Kherwarian-Ho
S. Khoisan-|Xam (Gude- Mubi) ‘kū:ɛ “well”
kui “to pour” kurabi - Santali
Khoisan-Sandawe “rainstorm” kū:i “well”
kwi “spill” NS-For[Fur] kɔwí Altaic-Proto Turkic
“rain” *ügüŕ
NS-Berta kɔ̃ì “rain, “river, small river”
cloud”
E. Cushitic-Burji
kul-ee “pond, pool”
C. Chadic–Higi
(Kamale)
xuli “river”
Semitic-Amharic
kure “pond, pool”
C. Chadic- Margi
kuray “river”
996
B.15a.3 W. Chadic–Hausa IE-Sanskrit

S. Khoisan-Proto-!Wi kwàràarā vi. kuha-
!kh(o)a “flow down heavily” ”fog”
“rain” South (Ethiopian) IE-Hindi
S. Khoisan Semitic-Amharic kuhāsā “mist” m.
-|Xam gwärräfa ”fog”
!khwa “flow by, flow in Bengali
“rain” abundance. stream kuwasha
TB-Khambu down ”fog, mist”
kəwa (of torrent, rain).” Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
“water” gwärf Kherwarian-Mundari
TB-Chin-Tiddim “flood, torrential kuă’si / kua’si /
guā “rain” rain” kuăsa
TB-Newari Semitic-Arabic “fog”
kwa xawr Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
“river” “gulf, mouth of river” Kherwarian-Santali
TB-Kiranti-Limbu W. Chadic-Hausa ‘ku’wǝ:s
kuwa aukawa “fog”
“little semi-artificial water “valley” IE-Pashto
reservoir,--- E. Cushitic-Rendille khwarr
fed by a natural source” kowwa / “a watercourse,
TB-Chin-Siyin ŋua “rain” kawwa a ravine, the dry bed of a
N. Khoisan-!O!Kung “(to) leak” river”
kau “water” NC-N. Mande- khwarrah
N. Chinese-MSC kou4 (WG) Bambara “the sandy bottom of a
“a water-course, ko ravine or watercourse”
a drain, an aqueduct” “ruisseau, marigot” Altaic-Proto-Mongolian
C. Khoisan-Nama [brook, *gola
!xwowi “valley” side channel of river] “valley”
N. Chinese-MSC NC-N. Mande-
kou4 (WG) Xassonke
“a water-course, xo “(small) river”
a drain, an aqueduct”
S. Chinese-Min
hoū-cuì
“river water”
TB-Newari (Medieval)
kho / khu / ko
“river”
TB-Tibetan khu-wa
“fluid, liquid”
↓↓
997
B.15b B.15b.1 Cushitic- Altaic-Turkic-Noghai suw “water”

Khoisan-ǂHoan Dembya, Quara Altaic-Turkic-Halaj suw “water”
čoʔaŋ suwā Altaic-Turkic-Karakalpak
“rain” ”pluie” [rain] suw “water”
TB-E. Kiranti-Waling W. Chadic- Altaic-Turkic-Kazakh su “water”
tśəwa .N. Bauci-Diri Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen
”water” tsúwáru / suv “water”
S. Chinese-Min súwárú IE- Sanskrit
suā “mountain stream, ”water” suvarNamukharI “river”
brook” W. Chadic-N. suvarNarekha “river”
cuá Bauci-Warji svar “water”
“a spring, a small stream” suwára / svarakSu “name of a river”
N. Chinese-MSC tsuwárá / svardra “very wet or moist”
chuān suwárá ”water” suvarsa “a good rain”
“river” Kanuri Kartvelian-Megrel
TB-Kiranti-Limbu n. kasuwa n. ̣čvaṛčval “to splash, flow”
cwaʔl “water” current (of a river Kartvelian-Georgian
TB-Tibetan gsho-wa / etc.)” cwar “dew, drop of dew”
bsho-wa súwú Kartvelian-Megrel
“to pour away” “to pour out “rainfall with cwar “dew, drop of dew”
water” very little Proto-Kartvelian
shwa “high water, flood, clouding over” *cwar “dew, drop of dew”
inundation”
cū-wo “river”
Proto-Tibeto-Burman
*g-sywa ~ *b-sywa
“flow, pour”
↓↓
B.15d B.15d.1 W. Chadic-Ron-Sha Sanskrit
N. Khoisan- šuh cyu “to come forth from,
‖Kh’au-‖’e “pour” stream forth from” “to cause to stream
čū “flow W. Chadic-Ngizim forth”
C. Khoisan-Tati zhùutú Acyu “to cause to flow over, pour
ǰoo “flow” “filter a liquid off, out”
N. Chinese-MSC pour off” cyut
chù Pre-Proto-Semitic “to flow, trickle, ooze”
“water flowing” *s’w cyuti “coming forth”
zhū “to flow” Altaic-Turkic-Tuvan
“pool, puddle, place NS-Kanuri suh “water”
where water collects” cú(u) ideo. Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur
TB-Tibetan “rain coming down su “water”
chu in buckets” Altaic- Turkic-Kazakh
“water, brook, river” C. Chadic-Bura su “water”
“water in the body “ xula Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz
“water” su / suu
“water”
Kartvelian-Georgian
cuṛcul
“to gurgle, flow”
998
B.15d.3 W. Chadic-Ngizim
Proto-N. Khoisan ánkû
*!gú “river”
“water” NS-Kanuri
N. Khoisan -‖Au‖en kúu ideo.
!gu / ‖gu “emphasizes
N. Khoisan -!O!Kung constant falling
‖gu of rain”
“water” Proto-Afro-Asiatic
TB-Kiranti-Lulung (Orel / Stolbova
ku “water, spring” 1995)
TB-Newari (Medieval) *xüdad-
kho / khu / ko “stream, river”
“river” Skinner 90
TB-Jingpho [Kachin]
ku “water”
↓↓
B.16a B.16a.1 Proto-Afro- IE-Pashto charr “a cascade, a waterfall”
C. Khoisan- Asiatic járra’i “continual downpouring rain, or cloudy
Proto-Non- (Ehret ) *-cār- weather”
Khoekhoe “to abound in IE-Hindi jharnā “waterfall”
*châ “water” water, IE-Sanskrit
N. Khoisan- be very wet” car, carati “flow, pass”
!O!Kung, (Orel/Stolbova kSar “to flow, stream, glide” “to cause to flow,
C. Khoisan-Naro 1995) pour out” “to give forth a stream”
ca “rain” *xar “river” “to urine [urinate]”
C. Khoisan- W. Chadic-S. kSara “water”
Hietšware Bauci- Wangday aksara “water” ak, “water” (B.34.1)
tsaa “water” shar / shà sarasvat “abounding in or connected with
N. Khoisan- ”water” ponds” “water” “the sea” “a river”
!Kung ša / ca W. Chadic-S. Sarasvati a major river referred to in the Rgveda.
“water” Bauci- Tule saras “anything flowing or fluid”
Khoisan- zhâ “water” sarit “river, stream”
Sandawe tsʔa NS-Maba sarat “going or flowing” sarapas “flowing
”water” Group-Masalit water” sara “fluid, liquid” “a waterfall”
TB-Tibetan sàa “water, “a brook” “a lake, pool” saras “anything
chár / char-pa rain” flowing or fluid”
“rain” Egyptian IE-E. Iranian-Avestan ɣžáraiti “stromt, wallt
cār / cārba sharhu auf” [streamed, flowed on]
“rain” “irrigation IE-Old Indian ḳsárati “to flow, to stream”
sarita “stream, channels” sáras “lake, pond, pool”
river (mystic)” sha ”lake, pool, IE-Bengali jhɔr̝ “storm, tempest”
Sala “name of a cistern, tank” jhɔr̝na “fountain”
great river in Written Arabic Altaic-Proto-Turkic čar- “snow dust” “fog”
Jambudvipa, jarā Altaic-Balkar, Kumyk, Turkish (dialectal)
probably the “to flow, čars- “fog” Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
Salwen?” stream” Kherwarian-Santali ‘dzharna / ‘dzharna
“lake”
↓↓
999
B.16b B.16b.1 Semitic-Hebrew IE-Hindi

N. Khoisan ‖Kh’au-‖’e khor kulli “quarry” n.
!kuru / !koro “hole, grave” “hole” Altaic-Kyrgyz
S. Khoisan-ǀXam !kɔrro NS-Songhay kol- “valley”
“to be hollow” gooru Altaic-Tuvan
TB-Bodo/Garo-Bodo, Dimasa “riviere, ravine” xol-
ha-kor [river, ravine] “valley”
“hole, valley” E. Cushitic-Afar Altaic-Uyghur
TB-Chin-Lushai kor golo qol-
“small valley, ravine” “gorge, valley” “valley”
Proto-Lolo-Burmese Altaic-Mongolian
*kwar ~ *kor qol- “river”
“hole, valley” Altaic-Proto-Mongolian
TB-Tibetan kor “a hollow in *gola “valley” /
the ground, pit” gowl “valley”
khul “ravine”
Chinese-Beijing gōu “ditch” n.
B.16b.2 W. Chadic–Hausa Sanskrit
S. Khoisan -ǀXam kwarìi m. “valley” kuhara
xwara “waterhole” “lowlands” “a cavity, hollow, hole”
Proto-Lolo-Burmese “lowlands” furrow” IE-Bengali
*kwar ~ *kor “hole, valley” kwarga guha
TB-Chin-Lushai khuar ~ khur “hole, cavity” “cave”
“hole, cavity” “pit” “mountain cave”
TB-Newari (Medieval)
kwa “river”
B.16b.4 NC-S.E. Mande-Yaure Proto-Indo-European
N. Khoisan ‖Kh’au-‖’e kuru “hole skur-
!kuru / !koro (waterhole)” “hole”
“hole, grave” W. Chadic–Hausa IE-Bengali
TB-Chin-Lushai gurbi “hole” gɔrto
khuar ~ khur W. Chadic–Tangale “hole, cavity, ditch”
“hole, cavity” “pit” kurgo “den, hole, cave”
Semitic-Akkadian
xurr- “hole, mine”
Semitic-Written Arabic
kurba “hole, eye of a
needle, anus” E. Chadic-
Dangaleat kurka
“creux” [hollow]
B.16b.6 W. Chadic–Hausa Altaic-Turkic-Turkish
C. Khoisan-Naron gurbi “hole” kabir “grave”
!xubi “valley” Proto-C. Chadic Altaic-Turkic-Turkmen
S.Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ko1 *gub- “hole” “well” khoob “hollow”
S. Chinese-Min kho1 E. Cushitic-Somali köw “hollow, glen, dell”
“hole, den” god “hole, cave” IE-Old Indian
N. Chinese-MSC gŭ “valley” Semitic-Arabic kūpa- m. “pit, hole”
(Yemeni) IE-Hindi
gabur “grave, tomb” gufā m. “cave”
/
1000
B.16c B.16c.1 W. Chadic- Hausa Sanskrit

Khoisan-Sandawe goʔa “valley” kògī kukSi
S. Chinese-Min “river” “a valley”
kok1 “valley, ravine, waterway Kòogin Kwara “an ocean cavity”
between two mountains” “Niger (river)” “a bay, a gulf”
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] kok7 “a NS-Nuer IE-Hindi
gully, a channel for water, a narrow kuk khokhalā
ravine at the floor of a hill” “hole as hole in “hollow”
Old Chinese kok7 / giuk “valley” tree”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) Huffman 25
kok “a gully, a pool” NS-Anywa
guk / yuhk “a valley, a waterway kùgù
between mountains” “decayed, hollow
TB-Mikir angkok “cavity, trunk of a tree”
opening, hole, crevice”
Written Burmese khyauk “chasm,
gulf, abyss”
/
B.20a B.20a.1 Proto-Chadic
C. Khoisan- Non-Khoekhoe -Gana, (Jungraithmayr)
ǂHaba, Tsike, Danisi, Kua, Tsua *ky ’-n “smoke”
cʔínì “smoke”
TB-Newari kɨn “smoke”
B.20a.2 Proto-Chadic
C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe *‘jan “smoke”
*cʔán[i] “smoke” Semitic-Hebrew
Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ashan “smoke”
jen1 / jan1 “smoke, fumes, mist S. Ethiopian Semitic-
vapor” Amharic
N. Chinese-MSC ət’t’änä vt.
yān smoke” “smoke, mist, vapor”” “fumigate, smoke a
C. Khoisan-|Ganda cʔánì “smoke” beehive”
TB-Proto-Karen *jan “haze, fog” NS-Kanuri kànjê
Proto-Lolo-Burmese “smoke”
*džan “haze, fog” W. Chadic- Hausa
C. Khoisan-!Or yanyami
|kxàn “smoke “ “drizzle, light rain”
B.20a.3 C. Chadic-Hurza Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur
C. Khoisan-Deti, Cara hiyeŋ chang n.
cʔání “smoke” “smoke” “dust” Uyghur
N. Chinese-MSC xīyān “smoke” Dictionary
Old Chinese xiwən vi. “to smoke,
to steam”
B.20a.4
C. Khoisan-Hiechware
ceʔne “smoke”
N. Chinese-MSC huīchén “smoke”
huī “dust, ash” (B. 11b.3)
chéntū, chén’āi “dust, dirt”
↓↓
1001
B.20b B.20b.1 W. Chadic- Hausa

S. Khoisan-Masarwa hayāk’ī m.
cxai “flair up, smoke” “smoke”
S. Khoisan-!Xóō ckxãje “smoke” Semitic-Mehre
S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa *ckajV “smoke” mənh’ayn, mənh’un
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] hai5 “mist, vapor” . “smoke”
Chinese- Cantonese haaih “mist, vapor”
N. Chinese-MSC ãi mist, haze” ; āi “dust”
↓↓
B.27 B.27.4 Songhay (Koroboro) IE- Sanskrit
C. Khoisan-Proto- gùurì “noyau, amande, gāritra “rice, corn, grain”
Non-Khoekhoe grain” [kernel, seed] IE-Hindi
*|xúrí “seed” W. Chadic-Dera garī “kernel”
C. Khoisan- kure “millet”
Hietšware W. Chadic-Hausa
|khúrí “seed” kuri “a kind of short bulrush
TB-Tibetan millet” Proto-Mongolian
gorii gùri “semoule de mil” *guril “flour”
“a type of round [millet flour] Mongolian-Khalka
barley” E. Cushitic-Rendille *guril “flour”
[Disyllabic corresp.] khúrri m. “ear (of grain)” Mongolian-Buriat guril
khre “millet” NC-Poular gauri “mil” “flour”
[millet] Mongolian-Dagur goli(l), goli
NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] gawe “flour”
“grain” gau / gauri / Mongolian-Ordos gulir, guril
gauriwa “corn, esp. guinea “flour”
corn”
↓↓
B.29 B.29.1 S. (Ethiopian) Semitic-Geʔez IE-Sanskrit
Khoisan-Western Cape šahr “new moon” sarasa
tchâ “moon” Semitic-Arabic šahr “new moon” “moon”
TB-Tibetan W. Chadic- Seya car “star” zAra
sa̱ “planet” W. Chadic- Zaar caàr “star” “a particular
B.29.4 S. E. Mande- Busa sɔra “star” constellation of
S. Khoisan-ǂKhomani W. Chadic- Hausa zàařa “planet stars”
ǂʔɔrɔ “moon” (especially bright, e.g. Venus)” IE-Pashto
TB-W. Kiranti- Vayu W. Chadic-Dyarim càrà “star” sawābit
tsholo < *tshala “moon” West Semitic-Ethiopian-Amharic “the fixed stars”
ĉäräqa “moon”
/
B.30 B.30.1 N. Omotic- Gofa, Dache
S. Khoisan-‖Ku‖e tʔɔlo tsolinte “star”
“moon” N. Omotic-Dorze
TB-W. Kiranti- Vayu c’olinte “star”
tsholo
< *tshala “moon”
1002
B.30.2
S.Khoisan-‖Khegwi klolo “moon”
S. Khoisan-Batae ʎolo “moon”
TB-Bodo / Garo-Digaro
həla ~ hlo “moon”
B.30.3 W. Chadic-Boto IE-Hindi
S. Khoisan-‖Ku‖e tʔɔlo “moon” tlaàr “star” tārā m.
TB- Chin-Lai tlaa “moon” Proto-Chadic *tǝra “star”
TB- C. Loloish-Nyi (Sani) “moon” IE-Bengali
shlà-bà “moon” C. Chadic-Tera təra tara
TB-Chin-Lushai [Mizo] “moon” “star”
thla / thlaa “moon” W. Chadic-Hausa
S. Khoisan-!Kwi-‖Ng!ke taurāro “star”
turro ~ !urru “moon” NS-Anywa [Anuak]
S. Khoisan-!Kwi-ǀXam !árro cèerò “star”
B.30.4 C. Khoisan-Hietsho C. Chadic- Glavda Hmong-Mien-
‖kala “star” kyíla “moon” Proto-Miao-
Proto-Lolo-Burmese *la / *ʔ-la “moon” Yao
TB- Burmese –Lolo *hla “moon” *hlac “moon”
TB-Bodo/Garo- Digaro həla ~ hlo
“moon”
↓↓
B.31 B.31.1 Semitic-Arabic qamar “moon” Altaic-
C. Khoisan-Hietsho W. Chadic- Hausa Turkic-
|kamiro-p “star” gàmzākìi “morning star” Turkish
C. Khoisan-Naro |amoro-b W. Chadic- Njanye kamer
“star” gə̄mlekii “star” “moon”
TB-Tibetan C. Chadic- Padoko
shing’gam “planet” gəməɬa “star”
gāmzibə “astrologer” Egyptian khemiu-urtu
gə̄mdzii shibdekaŋ “the stars that rest not”
“observatory, planetarium” NS-Kanuri kə́mbal n.
“moon, full moon”
B.31.2
S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa, !Xóő
*!qhàn “moon”
S. Khoisan-|Nu‖’en !xan
“moon”
S. Khoisan-Khakhea !xʌ̀n
“moon”
TB-Jingpho [Kachin]
šəgān “star”
TB-Kuki Chin-Naga-Khoirao
səgān “star”
1003
B.31.3 NC- N. Mande- Mandinka

S. Khoisan-ǀXam !ka!karo kári / káru “moon”
N. Khoisan-!’O-!Kung E.Chadic- Dangaleat
!ka!karī “moon” káálo “étoile” [star]
S. Khoisan-Kwi-Ng-!‘e káalò “moon”
!kɔro E. Chadic-Migama
TB-Tani-Mising-Miri tekar kàalú “étoile” [star]
“star” N. Mande-Bambara, Jula
TB-Tibetan skár-ma “star, káló “moon”
fixed star” NS-Maba Group-Masalit
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *s-kar kara “stars”
“star” N. Mande-Kono kálu “moon”
TB-Tibetan gār / gārma W. Mande-Mende ngálú “moon”
“star” E. Cushitic-Rendille bakkáal “star”
TB-Kanauri kar “star”
↓↓
B.32 B.32.1 W. Chadic- Hausa Sanskrit
C. Khoisan-Proto-Khoe gàawo m. kavara
*ǂkxaro “a kind of thorn tree” “large acacia tree” “Acacia Arabica or
Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] “Acacia albida” another plant“
(MacIver) kau1 / (Lau Chunfat) E. Chadic–Dangaleat karala “a mixture of
gau1 “glue, gum” “resin, sap, gāro oil and the resin of the
anything sticky” “Acacia nilotica” Shorea robusta.
“stick on, stick together, adhere” E. Chadic–Dangaleat [Sal tree]
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) [Dangla] Altaic-Tuvan
gàau “glue, gum” “anything sticky” gāro xarahan
“to stick on” “glue (paste)” “Acacia nilotica” “acacia”
gàauséui n. “glue” W. Chadic-Ngizim Altaic-Kyrgyz
gàaujeung “latex” gàaujeung / gùvàrú qarahan
gàaujāp “rubber latex ” “Egyptian mimosa, “acacia”
Proto-N. Khoisan *|arì Acacia nilotica”
“Acacia tortilis”
B.32.3 W. Chadic-Hausa Altaic-Mongolian-
Khoisan-Proto-Khoisan k’ārō n. m. Ordos
*g!au “acacia” “gum, resin” čawu
N. Chinese-MSC “gum arabic” “glue, fish glue”
shujiāu “gum (of tree)” jaawal Altaic-Mongolian-
jiāushwĕi (Y) “glue” “Commifera Kalmuck
jiāoshuir n. “liquid glue” africana” caweg
TB-Tibetan h̟jar-wa “gum” “glue, fish glue”
h̟jar-ba / h̟byar-ba
“to stick together”
“to cohere”
ja̱r “to be stuck on, to be glued,
pasted”
↓↓
1004
B.35 B.35.3 E. Cushitic-Somali

S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa maseggo
*sâʔŋ “seed” “grain”
S. Chinese-Min chiek
“unhusked grain, paddy,
unhusked rice”
TB-Nungish-Trung
tɕaʔ “millet”
TB-Burmic-Burmese
ʃaʔ “millet”
↓↓
C.1a C.1a.2 W. Chadic–Hausa
S. Khoisan-|Xam |khou “neck” mak’oshi
C. Khoisan-Naro !kau “neck” “throat”
TB-S. Loloish-Mpi kho-wo Semitic–Jibbali
“throat, gullet” xoh
N. Chinese-MSC k’ôu (WG) “mouth”
“an opening, a mouth, an aperture” NS- Kanuri
Proto-Tibeto-Burman ngowoltó
*ku(w) “mouth” “throat”
C.1a.3 E. Chadic-Kera
S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa *ǂû “mouth” ku “mouth”
C. Khoisan-‖Ng !u “neck”
Old Chinese k’u “mouth”
TB- Bodo-Garo-Bodo khu-ga “mouth”
TB- Bodo-Garo *k(h)u “mouth”
C. Chinese-Wu khɤw5
“mouth, open end; opening”
C.1a.4 Proto-E. Cushitic
C. Khoisan-Naro !kau “neck” �~w - “hole”
S. Khoisan-Proto-Wi *ǂʔau “neck” C. Chadic-Bacama
C. Khoisan-Proto-Khoekhoe *!kxao kwa- “mouth,
“neck” entrance”
S. Chinese-Min khaù “entrance, opening, Semitic-Arabic
mouth xawka “mouth”
↓↓
C.2b C.2b.1 NS-Maba Group- Sanskrit
N.Khoisan-!O-!Kung tali “tongue” For (Fur) Alih
TB-Lepcha lí / a-lí “the tongue” (d)ali “tongue” “to apply the tongue to”
TB- Naga-Yogli li “tongue” NS-Coman- Koma “to lick, lap”
TB-Chin-Lushai lei “tongue” (Kusgilo) lih “to lick, lap, lick at,
TB-Qiangic-Pumi Dayang litta “tongue” taste, sip, take any food
ɬε�=“tongue” by licking or lapping”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) AlIDa “licked, lapped
leih “tongue” by the tongue, licked
up”
↓↓
1005
C.2c.2 NS-Kanuri Austro-Asiatic-

C. Khoisan-Proto-Khoekhoe tə́lam “tongue” Munda-
*dlamV- “tongue” NS-Kanembu Kherwarian-
C. Khoisan-Nama lammi “tongue” dələm “tongue” Mundari ‘a’laŋ
Old Chinese d’iam / liam “tongue” W. Chadic – Bole- “tongue”
TB-W. Kiranti-Bahing liam “tongue” Tangale-Geruma límshi Austro-Asiatic-
TB-E. Kiranti-Khambu, Yakha *lem W. Chadic–Bole- Munda-
“tongue” Tangale-Kirfi Kherwarian-
TB-Proto-Kiranti *le°m “tongue” ílímshi “tongue” Santali ‘a’laŋ
“tongue”
↓↓
C.4 C.4.1 N. Cushitic- Beja [Bedawi] Proto-Altaic
Proto-N. Khoisan *dàḿ ḍam “taste” *t’ama “taste,
“tongue” E. Cushitic-Oromo munch”
Khoisan-Eastern Cape ḍamḍama “taste lightly” Altaic-Proto-
tamm “tongue” South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic ṭama Tungus-
C. Khoisan-Nama tammi “be tasty, taste pleasant, be of good taste” Manchu
“tongue” W. Chadic – Goemai [Ankwe] *tami “taste,
S. Chinese-Min tâm tiyəm “taste” munch”
“taste with the tip of the Semitic-Written Arabic t’a’m “taste, Proto-
tongue” flavor, savor” “be tasty, taste pleasant, be Mongolian
Old Chinese t’iam “lick, of good taste” *tamsija
taste” “taste, munch”
↓↓
C.5b C.5b.1 E. Cushitic- Burji. súna “nose” C.5b.1
N. Khoisan-!O!Kung Proto-E. Cushitic *sun- “nose” Altaic- Proto- Tungus-
cúŋ “nose” C. Chadic-Logone *xsəni Manchu *soŋgi-
tsn ~ čn “nose” “nose” “nose, part of nose”
N. Khoisan-‖Au‖en W. Chadic-Tala əsən ”nose” Proto-Turkic
čúŋ “nose” Niger-Congo- Mumuye sun *sum- “nose, part of
TB-Nung śəna ”nose” “nose” nose”
TB- Kadu səna “nose” NC-N. Mande- Vai suŋ “nose” Proto-Altaic
*suma
“nose, part of nose”
↓↓
C.6c C.6c.2 Proto-Afro-Asiatic (Orel/Stolbova 1995) Austro-Asiatic-
S. Khoisan-Proto- *canon- “breast” Munda-Kherwarian-
!Wi *‖noŋ “breast” Proto-Highland E. Cushitic Ho nu’nu
TB-Trung nuŋ1 *anūna “breast” “breast”
“nipple, breast, E. Cushitic- Hadiyya, Kambata Austro-Asiatic-
milk” aʔnuuna “breast” Munda-Kherwarian-
TB-Tibetan nú-ma W. Chadic – Boghon nun “milk” Mundari nu’nu
“mammary gland, noòn “breast” “breast”
female breast, W. Chadic – Hausa nōnòo “milk, Austro-Asiatic-
bosom” woman’s breast” Munda-Kherwarian-
“nipple, teat” NC-N.Mande-Malinke nono “milk” Santali
N. Khoisan- NC-S.E. Mande-Samo Ba, ‘nunu / nu’nu
‖Kh’au-‖’e [Khoe] NC-Mande-Bambara n‫́כ‬n‫́כ‬ “breast”
|num “suck” “milk” (of animals) South Daic-Lao
NC-N. Mande-Julam n‫כ‬n‫“ כ‬milk” no:m3 n. “breast”
1006
C.6c.5
S. Khoisan-ǀXam
|noain-tu “breast”
S. Khoisan-Proto-
!Wi *‖noeŋ
“breast”
S. Chinese-Min
(Jianyang) naiŋ2
“milk”
S. Khoisan- ‖Ng
‖nwoeŋ “breast”
C.6c.6
S. Khoisan-Proto-
!Wi
*‖no(e)ŋ “breast”
Written Burmese
nui’ “breast”
↓↓
C.8d C.8d.2-3 Berber- Tuareg (Tamazight) IE-Pashto
Khoisan-Hadza aššakwa “skin bag” tsugul
ašoko “skin” Songhay (Koyra) “a kind of buskin
TB-Tibetan caaku “large sack for grain” made of the fresh
cəguù Semitic-Assyrian skin of any animal,
“purse, handbag” shāk’k’u “sack, bag” worn in the winter
W. Chadic–S. Bauci- Jimi zukko “skin” when snow is on the
ground”
↓↓
C.18b C.18b.1 E. Cushitic- Altaic-Mongolian
S. Khoisan-|Auni Rendille gongil / xongil / xongxor “cavity”
!kum “grave” khunaan chonghur “hole”
N. Khoisan-‖Au‖en, “(a) digging” South Daic-Lao
!O !Kung !kumma “(a) hole that gon1 “hollow (concave)”
Khoisan-Hatsa has been dug” South Daic-Lao gon1 n. “cavity”
‖k”uma, ‖k”ume NS-Anywa Bengali khoni “quarry”
“to bury” [Anuak] IE-Pashto kān “a mine”
TB-Tibetan kʊʊ‫כ‬ɲ vt. IE-Pashto kundaey “a subterranean
khung / kuŋ “to bury” excavation” ”hollowing out, digging
“hole, pit, hollow, cavity” “to dig a hole” etc.”
“hole (made by human NS-Kanuri Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-
being or animal)” loskungin Santali kuɳ “well”
TB-Kham kun “hole” “bury, inter” Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-
Old Chinese k’uŋ “mine” Mundari ku’ɳa “well”
“hollow, empty” “hole”
↓↓
C.20b C.20b.1 NC-Common Bantu IE-Pashto
C. Khoisan-Nama *khob “skin” *-kóbà “skin” khwar
C. Khoisan-!Ora khõb “skin” C. Chadic – Gude “skin, bark,
TB-Tibetan kovun “skin (of crust, peel,
kó-ba “hide, skin, leather” man) rind”
kó-wa “hide, leather”
1007
C.20b.3 C.20b.3 Sanskrit

C. Khoisan-Proto-Khoekhoe *kho W. Chadic-Boto go
“skin” kóore “skin” “skin, hide,
C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe E. Cushitic- Oromo strap
*khô “skin” korja “pelli di (of leather)”
S. Khoisan-‖Ng !go “bark animali”
S.. Khoisan-Proto-Wi *(!)go “bark (of tree)” [animal skins]
C.20b.3 TB-Naga-Tangkhul kor / E. Cushitic- Afar
TB-Chin-Lushai kóor “peel, husk” onkoori “hull / skin
TB-Jinuo a-kho “outer covering, bark, (of grain or fruit)
skin” NC-Bulom kor “skin”
C.20b.5 Proto-Afro-Asiatic Altaic-Proto-
S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa *gu “bark (of tree)” (Orel / Stolbova 1995) Turkic
C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe *k’ur- “skin” *kúl
*gure “bark (of tree)” Omotic-Ometo kurra “bark, scales,
S. Khoisan-!Xóő gule “bark (of tree)” “skin” scab
TB-Naxi ɣu “skin” NK-NC-Fulfulde (Fulani)
TB-Atsi-Zaiwa okuʔ nguru “skin, hide”
“outer covering, bark, skin
TB-Lahu ‫̀כ‬-qú “outer covering, bark, skin”
↓↓
C.21b C.21b.2 NS-Songhay (Koroboro)
C. Khoisan-Khoe čeu “hand” cìò “pied” [foot]
Khoisan-ǂHoan šiu “hand” čew-ize lit. “foot-child”
C. Chinese-Wu sɤw5 “hand” [i. e. “toe”]
S. Chinese-Min chiù “hand” C. Chadic-Fali Jilvu
Middle Chinese syuwX “hand” čìvù “hand”
C.21b.3 Proto-AA
C. Khoisan-Naro ‖k’ɔro “nail (finger-)” (Orel / Stolbova 1995)
C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe *k’aw-
*chàú “nail, claw”
-Ani, Buga, Cara, Danisi chàú
-Deti, Tsika, Kua, Tsua W. Chadic-Hausa
càú “hand” sau / sāwu m.
N.Khoisan-Naro čou “finger, toe” foot”
S. Chinese-Min jiau “claw, talon” “animal feet” “footprint”
jáau “claw”
N. Chinese-MSC châo (WG)
“claws of birds or animals” “feet” “to scratch,
to claw”
zhâo “claw, talon”
zhâoya “cat’s paw”
C.21b.4 NS-Zilmamu
Khoisan-Sandawe c̟waʔa “claw (fingernail)” šowa
N. Chinese-MSC (Y) jwâ “claw” “foot”
zhuâ “claw, talon” “paw of a small animal”
shôu “hand”
↓↓
1008
C.24c.2 E. Cushitic-Rendille
S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa *‖gu / *‖ɣú “knee” khoonáan
Proto-N. Khoisan *!ɣòà “knee” “curve, arc”
C. Khoisan-Proto-Khoekhoe *‖oa “knee” khoodán “curved, arched”
N. Khoisan-!Xoo ‖guŋ|nàn “knee” E. Cushitic-Somali
N. Khoisan-Masarwa ‖oŋ|naŋ “knee” godan “curve”
TB-Naga-Lhota nkho “angle, knee”
TB-Lakher pǝkhu “angle, knee”
↓↓
C.26a C.26a.2 Proto-Cushitic Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
C. Khoisan-Kua ‖ùì *gwîlb- “knee Kherwarian-Ho
“knee” W. Chadic– Hausa mu’kui
N. Chinese-MSC guì v. “kneel” gwīwàa f. “knee” “knee”
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] C. Chadic–Guduf Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
kuì3 / kui6 / k’wui3 “kneel” gwídzʌ Kherwarian-Mundari
S. Chinese-Min kuī “to kneel” “knee” mǔ’kǔ’ri “knee”
C.26a.3 W. Chadic – N. Bauci-
C. Khoisan-Tsixa ‖ùέ “knee” Diri
C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe gwərìnɬá
*‖óé “knee” “knee”
-Danisi , Tsua ‖óé “knee” -Deti Semitic-Gurage
‖òé “knee” (Caha, Eža)
C. Chinese-Wu kuE6 “kneel” gwərbät
N. Chinese -MSC gwèi “kneel” “knee”
kuèi (WG) “to kneel”
gwaih “kneel”
↓↓
C.26b C.26b.1 E. Cushitic- Hadiyya Sanskrit
C. Khoisan-Ganda guru-bo “knee” kurpara
kúru “knee” E. Cushitic- Saho gulu:b “the elbow”
C. Khoisan-Cara, |Xaise “knee” kora
(kú)kúrù “knee” E. Cushitic- Kambata gulubita “a moveable joint
TB-Thebor kru “elbow” “knee” (as of the fingers,
C. Khoisan-ǂHaba NS- Kanembu ŋguru “shoulder” the elbow, the knee)”
!úrù “knee” Altaic-Mongolian
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] NS-Tubu [Teda] kürek “shoulder”
(Lau Chunfat) curú “Elle, Ellenbogen” [cubit,
jiu3 (MacIver, Meixian) ulna (anat.), elbow]
tsiu3 “the elbow” NS-Kanuri
njuro / njuroma/i “elbow”
C.26b.2 S. Cushitic- Iraqw
Khoisan-Hadza guruŋgura “knee”
gúruŋuri “knee” Proto-S. Cushitic
TB-Tibetan *guruŋ-gu(n)d- “knee”
grú-mo “elbow” C. Chadic-Matakam (Mafa)
gru / gru-ma (ŋ)gúrúmbezh “knee”
“angle, corner” South (Ethiopian) Semitic -Gurage
gurmäd “knee”
1009
C.26b.3 W. Chadic- Gwandara (Nimbia) IE- Hindi kuhnī

N. Khoisan-!’O-!Kung kùŋkúrúwo / kùŋkúrúho “elbow” f.
ǂguni “elbow” “elbow” IE-Hittite
S. Chinese-Yue S.Cushitic-Iraqw genu- “knee”
(Cantonese) gongoxi “elbow” IE-Tocharian keni
gyùnbóng C. Chadic- Glavda gùnja “knee”
“shoulder” “knee” Proto-IE *g’enw- /
*g’new- “knee”
↓↓
C.28b C.28b.2 Semitic- Arabic (Yemeni) Sanskrit
Proto N. Khoisan h’anak “jaw, jawbone” hanu
*!hàŋ “chin” E. Cushitic- Haddiya “a jaw, cheek”
S.Khoisan ‖Auni, Žu’hoan gangeera “jaw” hanuka
Proto-Central-Khoisan W. Chadic- N. Bauci- Warji “a jaw”
*!gàn(i) “chin” ngàŋgənna “jaw”
N. Chinese-MSC NS- Tubu [Teda] gəgən / gəngəni
hán “chin” “Kinn” [chin] “jawbone”
↓↓
C.29a C.29a.3 Proto-AA *ʕal- “jaw” IE-Hindi
N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e Proto-Cushitic *ʕal- “cheek” gāl
|gà “chin” South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic “cheek”
TB-Bodo/Garo-Dimasa khu-sga ag’äĉ “chin, jaw”
“jaw, chin” E. Cushitic- Sidamo gacc’o IE-Bengali
Proto-Tibeto Burman “chin, jaw” gāl
*(m) ka ~ *(s)ka “jaw, chin” N. Omotic-Kafa gaṭoo “cheek”
TB- Lushai kha “lower jaw” “chin (beard)”
TB-Chin-Thado, TB-Karenic-Sgaw E. Chadic- Migama
kha “chin” gácímó “chin (beard)”
TB-Tibetan mgal / mgal-wa “jaw”
↓↓
C.29b C.29b.1 W. Chadic- S. Bauci- IE-Hittite
S. Khoisan-!Xoo ‖qhaŋ “tooth” Wangday gaga “Zahn”
Khoisan-Sandawe !ʔakhaŋ “tooth” nga:si “bite” (Ger.) [tooth]
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) E. Cushitic- Burji South Daic-Lao
ngàh “to bite” “teeth” “tooth” gacc’o / gacoo / nga3 sang5
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] gagoo “tusk (elephant)”
nga2 “teeth, tooth” “bite”. “molars, molar teeth” sang “elephant “
Middle Chinese ŋa “tusk” “ivory” gágg-oo “molar” Proto-Tai
Chinese-Wu ngà2 “tooth” Egyptian nga “tusk, ivory”
C.29b.3 C. Khoisan-Hietsho uga “to eat, to chew Austro-Asiatic-
ka “bite” and swallow” Vietnamese
S. Chinese-Min ngà “tusk, ivory”
kā v. “to bite” kà “to gnaw, to bite”
1010
C.29b.2
C. Khoisan-*Proto-Non-Khoe-Khoe
!nai “bite”
-Zul’hoan !náí “bite”
TB-Karen-Pao- Taungthu
tǝŋa “tooth”
Proto-Tibeto-Burman
*d-ŋa “tooth”
↓↓
C.31b C.31b.1 NS-Kanuri Hmong-
C. Khoisan-|Xaise, Deti, Cara, Danisi, njuwo “chewing of the cud” Mien-
Kua, Tsua ʔjuŋ “eat” juwulangîn v. Hmong
C. Khoisan-Hiechware “chew thoroughly, masticate” cua
ŋjoo “eat” njuwongîn “chew hard,
N. Chinese-MSC “ruminate, chew the cud” bite hard”
chǚ / tsǚ (WG) “to suck, to chew” E. Cushitic-Oromo
jûjué “masticate, chew, ruminate, cucuf-accu v.
chew the cud” “mordicchiare” [to nibble]
jû “masticate, chew” Tubu [Teda]
cugu
”wiederkauen”
[to ruminate, to chew the cud]
C.31b.2 S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa Semitic-Arabic
|gxuʔrV “gnaw” jam-dʕugu
TB-Tibetan dzūgdzuù (IPA) “chew”
“the sound of chewing”
skyug-ldad “rumination, chewing the NS-Tubu [Teda]
cud” cugu ”wiederkauen”
TB-Naga-Yimchungru dzɯʔ “eat” [to ruminate, to chew the cud]
C.31b.3 NS-Kanuri
C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe kíyáukíyáu ideo
*!gxárú “gnaw” “describes crunching sound of
N. Chinese-MSC jiáo “masticate, chewing”
chew”
xìjiáomànyàn “chew carefully and
swallow slowly” [Disyllabic
correspondence]
↓↓
C.31d C.31d.1 W. Chadic – Hausa
N. Khoisan-‖Au‖en cî vt. “eat, eat away, consume”
či “drink” “win, overcome”
N. Khoisan-Zu|’hoan cî “eating” (vn. of ci)
chì “drink” W. Chadic–Ron (Sha, Kulere)
TB-Qiangic-Pumi Dayang ci “essen” [to eat]
dzɨ́ “eat” W. Chadic – S. Bauci-Guruntum chi / shi
N. Chinese -MSC “eat”
ch’īh (WG) “to eat, to drink” W. Chadic- Gwandara (Karshi, Cancara) cí
shí “eat” “meal, food” “eat e.g. meat”
1011
C.31d.3 W. Chadic-Hausa
S.Khoisan-Proto-!Wi cʔi cìizā / cìije /
“to bite” cìiji vt. “bite” “bite with front teeth”
S. Khoisan-|Xam, ‖Ng, NS-Nubian-Kənzi
ǂKhomani ci-cʔi “bite” acci “beissen” [bite]
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] E. Cushitic- Oromo
chi3 / chi1 / cih1 / ci3 “bite, cininu “mordere, addentare, morsicare”
gnaw, snap at” [bite, sink teeth into]
ch’i3 “teeth”
TB-C-Loloish-Lahu cì “tooth”
N. Chinese-MSC chi3 “front
teeth”
↓↓
C.33 C.33.1 E. Chadic- Dangaleat [Dangla]
N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e ǀkhó / ùŋò “front, devant”
N. Khoisan-!Kung |khó “forehead” [forehead, in front of]
TB-Garo sgo “head” Omotic-Gonga *eŋgo “brain”
TB-Tibetan mgo “head” go “head” W. Chadic- Hausa
ŋo “the face, the front side” gòoshī “forehead”
TB-Karenic-Pwo, Sgaw kho “head” “front part of something”
N. Chinese-Changsha NC-S.W. Mande-Loko
lau kho “cranium, skull” ngo-koko “head”
C.33.2 C.Chadic-Sukur
S. Khoisan-|‘Auni xú ~ xúu “head” khu-r “head”
C. Khoisan-Tati ǂkxhuu “forehead” C.Chadic-Margi
TB-Digaro kuru ~ mkura “head” khə-r “head”
TB-Naxi-Lijian ku “head”
C.33.3
C. Khoisan-Naro, Proto-Khoekhoe, Buga,
|Ganda ǂu “head”
TB-Proto-Lolo-Burmese ʔu2 “head”
TB-Written Burmese ʔû “head”
TB-C.Loloish-Lahu ʔú “head”
↓↓
C.34 C.34.2 Kordofanian-Talodi IE-Hindi
S. Khoisan-Proto-Wi (k)enu “ear” kāna “ear”
ǂnu “ear” Kordofanian-Talodi- kān “ear”
TB-Qiangic-Queyu Asheron IE Bengali ka:n “ear” n.
kəɳu “listen” *g-enuǀwe IE-Sanskrit
TB- Bhramu, Anal “ear, karəna “ear” kaRNa
kəna “ear” to hear” “to give ear to” “listen to”
NC-Mande-Atlantic- IE-Old Indian káṛna “ear”
S. Khoisan-!Xóõ Gola (ke)nu IE-E. Iranian-Avestan
ǂnùhaŋ “ear karəna “Ohr” (Ger.) [ear]
“ear” W. Chadic-Hausa
kunnuwàa “ears”
1012
C.34.3 W. Chadic- Ngizim

C. Khoisan-Proto-Non- kəmáu “hear,
Khoekhoe, Tsika, Danisi, Kua understand”
*kúḿ “hear” W. Chadic- S. Bauci-
C. Khoisan-Khoe, Buga, Deti, Kir kəm “ear”
Cara kóḿ “hear” W. Chadic-S. Bauci-
TB-Kiranti-Limbu khemmaʔ Tala kə́m “ear”
“hear, sense, detect” W. Chadic-Dyarim
Proto-Kiranti *khem- “hear, kə̀m “ear”
sense”
TB- Kiranti-Yamphu
khemma “hear, listen”
C.34.4
C. Khoisan-Proto-Khoekhoe
*‖náuŋ “to hear”
C. Khoisan-!Ora
‖nauŋ “to hear”
TB-Tibetan
snyan “the ear”
C.34.5 Songhay (Gao)
N. Khoisan-!O!Kung ‖nə háŋá
“to hear” “oreille” [ear]
TB-Trung ă-nà “ear” Proto-AA
TB-Nung əna “ear” *-ʔankw-
TB-S.Loloish-Sangkong aŋ-na “to listen, ear”
“ear”
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu nā “ear”
Khoisan-Hadza ‖náʔe
“to hear”
C.34.6 Kordofanian-Grebo
S. Khoisan-Masarwa nuã “ear”
!nwa “ear”
TB-Tibetan rna-wa “the ear”
C.34.7
C. Khoisan-Nama ‖náu
“to hear”
S. Khoisan-|Xam ‖no-iŋtu
“to hear”
TB-Naga-Lotha eno “ear
TB-N. Naga-Chang nou “ear
TB-Mikir nò “ear”
↓↓
C.35a C.35a.2 C. Chadic-Musgu
C. Khoisan- Proto-Non-Khoekhoe sin
*Ʒîŋ “foot” “leg”
C. Khoisan-Cara Ʒíŋ -Danisi, Deti, Tsika
ŋ
Ʒî “foot”
N. Chinese-MSC jìng “shin”
Old Chinese g’ieŋ “leg, shank, shin”
↓↓
1013
C.35c C.35c.3 W. Chadic-Hausa

C. Khoisan-Buga, Tsua kárè “foot” k’ori “shinbone”
C. Khoisan-Ganda, Kua kárì “foot” Cushitic-Arbore
C. Khoisan- Hietšware karee “foot” kerker
TB-Written Burmese khre “foot” “shin”
↓↓
C.38a C.38a.2 Semitic-Arabic South Daic-Lao
Khoisan-Hatsa ǂo “die of hunger, guc “hunger, famine” kwan3 yak6
be ill” Semitic-Harsusi kow6 n.
N. Khoisan-!Kung ǂo “die of hunger” goc “hunger, famine” “hunger”,
S. Chinese-Min go7 “hungry, hunger” yak6 kow6
“starve” adj. “hungry”
C.38a.3 West Semitic-Ethiopian-
S. Khoisan-!Kwi- ‖Xegwi Gurage
‖o “thirsty” gōro “hunger, famine”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ngoh Proto-Afro-Asiatic
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] ngo5 / ngo6 / *gorac “hunger”
ngo3 “hunger” “hungry”
C.38a.4 Semitic-Mehri Proto-Altaic
S. Khoisan-Kwi- |Xam, Batwa |owa gəwa “hunger” *górà
“thirsty” E. Cushitic-Kambata “starve,
C. Chinese-Wu ŋou6 v. gorru “hunger” be empty”
“hungry, hunger” “starve”
↓↓
C.40 C.40.4 NC-Benue- Altaic-Turkic-Turkish tükür- “to spit”
Khoisan-Proto- Congo- Niten Altaic-Turkic-Kyrgyz tükür- “to spit”
Sandawe (Plateau 3 group) Altaic-Turkic-Uyghur tükür- “to spit”
thuka tūk-ke Altaic-Turkic-Khakassian tükür-
(Kagaya) “spit” “to spit”
thuk’a Altaic-Turkic-Oyrat
“spit, spittle” tükür- “to spit”
TB-Proto-Kiranti IE-Pashto (Pushtu)
* thuk(s-) “spit” tukem “spit”
ttukem “cough”
↓↓
C.46 C.46.2 Proto-Cushitic (Ehret)
Proto-N. Khoisan *noc-
*|nòí “sink”
“drown” N. Cushitic- Bedauye [Bedawi]
S. Chinese-Yue nu’
(Cantonese) “senken, sinken lassen”
niuh [sink, let sink]
“to drown” W. Chadic- Hausa
nutsèe
“sink, vanish under water, drown”
E. Chadic- Masa Group-Lame
no’o
“plonger dans quelque chose”
[dive into something]
↓↓
1014
C.51a C.51a.1 W. Chadic–Hausa IE-Sanskrit

S. Khoisan-Proto-!Wi tukkū StukA
*|khu “hair” n. m. “a knot or tuft of hair or
S. Khoisan-|Xam “tuft of hair on the crown wool”
|khu “hair” of the head “thick curl of hair”
S. Khoisan-|Auni (a traditional hair style for Stukavin
|kho “hair” male children)” “having tufts of hair”
TB-Chin-Lushai NS-Maba group-Masalit kezaStuka
tuk “the knot or bob of totoke “a lock of hair”
hair on the nape of the “hair tuft” keza ” hair”
neck”
TB-Lepcha
tok “the head, the top of
anything,
top ornament etc.”
TB-Tibetan tog
“the top of anything, a top
ornament”
thog
“what is uppermost”
“head, top in a general
sense”
tugböö
“a yak hair tassel used on
the banners erected on the
roof of monasteries”
C.51a.2 NS-Maba group-Kibet Altaic-Turkmen
C. Khoisan–Hietšware tow < towi < tww-I tüy “hair”
|hoo “hair” Altaic-Kyrgyz
“hair” NS-Maba group-Aiki tòw töbö
N. Khoisan –!O!Kung !wi < “top of the head”
“hair” tów-ó / tò “
C. Khoisan –‖Ng |u “hair” hair, skin, feather”
N. Chinese-MSC NC-Proto-Bantu
tóu túe
“the head” “head”
“hair (style)” W. Chadic – Hausa tōliyā
“top/end of something” “tuft of hair on the crown
“head of the body” “hair, of the head (old hair style
hair-do” for male children), crest
TB-S. Loloish-Phunoi of a cock”
ʔã-tu E. Cushitic-Oromo
“head” tūtto
“ciufetto di capelli
[tuft,
forelock of hair]
tūtto
“cresta di gallo”
crest of a cock”
1015
C.51a.5 W. Chadic-Hausa
N. Khoisan –‖Ng tūtu
|u “hair” “crest, tassel,
C. Khoisan –Naron, tuft of hair”
Namang |�= “hair” tūtàa f.
TB-Tibetan tuù “flag, banner”
“circular banner of yak hair
that is hung on the roof of
large monasteries”
↓↓
D.3b D.3b.2 NC-Fulfulde
S. Khoisan-Proto- saka
Taa *saʔŋ “to sow broadcast”
S. Khoisan -!Xóo
sâʔaŋ “seed”
S. Chinese-Kejia
[Hakka]
tsak “seed”
↓↓
D.3c D.3c.1 Proto-South Cushitic-Proto-
Khoisan-Hadza |itsʔeiya Rift
“small” *dziʔa “chick, young bird”
S. Khoisan- |Xam ëise NS-Songhay (Koroboro)
“small” -ze = ize
N. Chinese-MSC “child, infant”
zî diminutive suffix ize “fils, petit d’animal”
TB-Qiangic-Xixia (Tangut) zji1 [son, small offspring of
“child” animal]
Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] Proto-AA
3
(Meixian) tsii *jiʔ- or *dziʔ-
Middle Chinese tsiX “child” “child, offspring”
< Old Chinese *tsiʔ “child”
↓↓
D.4c D.4c.1 Semitic-Arabic IE-Pashto aka “an uncle,
N. Khoisan-!’O-!Kung, *akw- “brother” a paternal uncle”
!Kung Altaic-Mongolian
!kǔ “man (male)” Semitic-Old ax / aqa “elder brother”
“person” Aramaic Altaic-Turkmen
S. Khoisan-|Xam !ku ʔah̝, ʔah̝ā aga “uncle, older brother”
“person” “brother” aga “ brother”
TB-Tibetan ’akhú Altaic-Kyrgyz aga “brother”
“uncle” Semitic-Hebrew aha “elder brother”
“father’s brother, uncle” akhva Altaic-Kazakh aha “elder
“husband, consort” “brotherhood” brother”
TB-Ao-Naga o-khu Altaic-Uyghur
“uncle, father-in-law” aka “elder brother, brother”
aha “elder brother”
1016
D.4c.2 Proto-AA Austro-Asiatic-Munda-

C. Khoisan-Hietsho (Orel / Stolbova 1995) Kherwarian–Ho
khao “man” *gaw “man, ‘kʊwe / ‘kowǝ
C. Khoisan-Proto-Khoekhoe people” “man”
*kxao “man” W. Chadic – Hausa Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
C. Khoisan-Naro kàawu / kāwù m. Kherwarian–Ho
k’au ~ ‖k’au “man,(male)” pl. kàawùnai kʊ’wa / kuwaʔ
N. Khoisan-!’O-!Kung “maternal uncle” “husband”
k’au “man (male)” NC- Fulfulde
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) [Fulani]
káuh “maternal uncle kau / kāwu
(mother’s brother)” “brother- “maternal uncle”
in -law (wife’s brother)”
káuhjái “wife’s elder
sister’s husband”
↓↓
D.5a D.5a.1 Proto-Chadic Sanskrit
N.Khoisan-!O!Kung !uŋ “man” *kən- “uncle, nephew” kumbhila
TB-Kiranti-Limbu kuŋba “ego’s wife’s C. Chadic–Musgu “a wife’s brother”
elder or younger brother” “ego’s elder or kən “uncle, nephew”
younger sister’s husband”
N. Chinese-MSC kūn / k’ūn (WG)
“elder brother”
*gəwn ~ *kəwn
“older brother, senior male relative”
D.5a.2 Nuer Altaic-Turkic-
N. Khoisan-‖Au‖en, guanlen “uncle on Turkish
S. Khoisan-|Xam, |Nu-‖’e !waŋ “man” father’s side” gwan
Proto-N. Khoisan, N.Khoisan- Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) “father”
Zhu|hoan *!hoaŋ “man” ʔax / ʔuxwaan pl.
TB-Kiranti-Yamphu “brothers”
kwaŋ “mother’s younger brother” South (Ethiopian)
“uncle” Semitic-Amharic
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) wändəmm “brother”
kwàn / guàn “an elder brother” wändənnet “manhood”
Old Chinese NS-Anyua [Anyuak]
kuən “older brother” xi̭wăŋ “elder wʌ́ŋɔ́ “male relative of
brother” grandfather’s generation”
↓↓
D.6 D.6.2 N. Khoisan-O !Kung sìŋ / C. Cushitic-Demba Kartvelian-
N. Khoisan -Zhu sìŋ / chìŋ zan, zin Megrel
“younger brother” “brother” si(n)ʒa
N. Khoisan-!Kung W. Chadic-Cagu “brother-in-
sìŋ “younger brother” šən law”
S. Chinese–Min siêng “elder brother”
“a nephew (with different name) ”
↓↓
1017
D.9b D.9b.1 W. Chadic-Hausa màama f. “mother”

S. Khoisan-|Xam, |Nu-‖’e Proto-Highland E. Cushitic
mama “mother” *ama “mother”
TB-Tibetan ‘ama “mother” E. Cushitic-Haddiya ama mother”
ama (colloq. of mother) W. Chadic- Gwandara
“my kind mother” ama “mother”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic
màmà / ama əmmamma “mamma!, address to a
“mother (more intimate term) mother or an elderly woman”
amàh “grandmother” NC-Proto-W. Nigritic
TB-Kanauri ama “mother” *-ma / *-mama “mother”
↓↓
D.14 D.14.3 W. Chadic-Hausa IE-Sanskrit kharu “foolish, idiotic”
N. Khoisan- gārujèe IE-Pashto khar-sor
‖Kh’au‖’e “fool” “a fool, a blockhead”
kàra Semitic-Written Arabic Sanskrit kaDa “dumb, mute”
“stupid’ xarisa “to be dumb, “ignorant, stupid”
C.Khoisan-Nama mute” IE-Bengali kala ”deaf”
gāre Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) Altaic-Turkmen gagal “stupid,
“stupid’ xar(a)banda foolish”
TB-C. Loloish- “an incompetent, IE-Old Indian mūka-
Lahu qa “dumb” incapacitated or senile “dumb, mute”
TB-Written person” kaDa “dumb, mute”
Burmese ʔa’ Egyptian kala “indistinct, dumb” “indistinct,
“dumb” ukha / ukhau inarticulate (etymology doubtful)”
S. Chinese-Yue “to play the fool, to be IE-Bengali
ngá “dumb” foolish, simple, kala adj. ”deaf”
ngà “dumb, ignorant, stupid” Austro-Asiatic-Munda-Kherwarian-
mute” “fool, simpleton” Santali ka’la “dumb”
↓↓
D.19a D.19a.1 South (Ethiopian) Semitic-
N. Khoisan- Amharic
!’O !Khung ‖gāa aräğğä vi.
“old” “grow old, get older, age”
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] E. Cushitic- Rendille
ləga < *r-ga “old” raaga vi.
TB-Tibetan “be old
rgá-ba “to be old, aged” (of things, not people)”
D.19a.2 W. Chadic- Ngizim IE-Hittite adv.
C. Khoisan-Tati gàrú “grow old” karu “fruher” (Ger.)
‖gao “old” NS-Kanuri kawua “earlier, former”
S. Khoisan-Khakea “aged, advanced in years” karuili “uralt” (Ger.)
‖xau “old” South (Ethiopian) “very old, ancient”
N. Chinese-MSC Semitic-Amharic arägawi
gāo “senior” “honorable person, old man” Proto-IE *g’era- / g’rā-
TB-Tibetan Proto- Chadic *garə “grow “grown up, old,
rgá-wa old” to grow old”
“be old, be aged” “old age” Egyptian kharāa “old man”
1018
D.19a.3 Semitic-Hebrew
Proto-N. Khoisan kadoom
ǂgah “old, ancient”
“old (of things)” Chadic-Tangale
N . Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e kaagâ
|gὰ “old” “great grandfather, great
TB-Tibetan grandmother”
ga̱ “to get old, to age”
↓↓
D.25 D.25.1 Proto- Altaic-Mongolian ärä / er / er-e / ere “man”
Khoisan- Highland E. Altaic-Uyghur er “man, husband”
ǂHoan Cushitic Altaic-Turkmen är “ husband”
ari *aroʔo Altaic-Uzbek er “ husband” erkak “man”
“man” m. “husband” Proto-Altaic *āri / *ēra “man”
TB-Kuki-Chin- *arʔ- Proto-Turki *ēr “man”
Mikir “husband” *erkek “man, husband, male”
arlang C. Cushitic- Turkic-Turkish er “man”
“man” Proto-Agaw Turkic-Azerbaidzhan är “husband”
lang *ʔar- Turkic-Turkmen, Uyghur ar “man”
“man” “husband” Turkic-Tuvan er “man”
E. Cushitic- Turkic-Turkish, Kyrgyz, Kazakh erkek “man”
Rendille Proto-Mongolian *ere “man”
éra interj. Mongolian-Kalmuck erə “male, man” /
“Men! Friends! Mongolian-Ordos ere “male, man”
Comrades Mongolian-Khalkha er “male, man”
(call name)” Mongolian-Dagur er “male, man”
↓↓
D.26b D.26b.3 W. Chadic-Hausa
C. Khoisan-Nama kurwa
gãǔa “evil spirit” “soul, shadow, spirit,
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) ghost”
gáauwaat “cunning” k’waro
“tricky (deceptive)” “thief, wizard”
gáauwaatge “crafty” E. Cushitic-Rendille
gáaugwái “to play underhand kákharaawa vt.
tricks” “defraud, cheat”
↓↓
D.30a D.30a.1 Proto-AA Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
S. Khoisan-‖Khegwi (Orel / Stolbova 1995) Kherwarian–Santali
bāba “father” *bab- “father” a’pa / ba’ba “father”
Khoisan--Hadza Proto-E. Cushitic *bābb- Mongolian-Dongxian
*ba, baba, bawa “father” aba, apa
“father” N. Cushitic- Beja [Bedawi] “father, paternal uncle”
TB-Tibetan bāba “father” Proto-Altaic
baba “father, dad” Proto-Chadic *áp’a “father”
N. Chinese -MSC *baba “father”
bàba “dad” W. Chadic Hausa
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) bàaba “father, dad”
bāhbā “dad” E.. Chadic- Dangaleat
bàabá “papa” (Fr.)
1019
D.30a.2 E. Cushitic-Oromo Proto-IE *bhā

C. Khoisan-Naro abba “father, elder brother”
auba, aba voc. “father” “padre, genitore” Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
N. Khoisan-!’O !Kung abbayé “papà” Kherwarian–Ho
ba, pá voc. “father” E. Cushitic-Rendille ‘abǝ “father”
TB-Tibetan āba “father áaba “father (also used as Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
ʔ-pha / ʔ-pa a call name)” Kherwarian–Mundari
“father (Vulgo)” [i.e. South (Ethiopian) Semitic- a’ba “father”
colloquial form] Amharic Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
Chinese–Min â-pa “father, abbat “father” Kherwarian–Santali
daddy (familiar)” abbabba a’pa / ba’ba “father”
TB-Lahu ā-pa voc. “father!” “daddy!, papa” Altaic-Mongolian
aba “paternal uncle”
↓↓
D.30b D.30b.1 E. Cushitic-Oromo obbo vocative “Padre Altaic-
C. Khoisan- mio!” “Signore” [My father!, Sir] Proto-
Proto-Khoe Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) ʔabu Mongolian
*ábó “father” “construct state of ʔab ‘father’” ab[u]
TB-Tibetan ʔabu “followed by a conventional male “father,
apo “address for an elderly name: a form of address to a man who is not paternal
man” married and has no children” uncle”
ābo “older relatives” Egyptian abut “forefathers, grandparents,
ancestors, kinsfolk”
D.30b.2 E. Cushitic-Rendille
S. Khoisan-ǀXam bobo imbóobo /
“father” imbóo
TB-Kham bobo “elder brother”
“husband’s father”
TB-Tibetan jēnbo
“elder brother”
bōō “grandfather, old man”
N. Chinese-MSC
bó “father’s elder brother,
uncle, the eldest of brothers”
bóbo “father’s elder
brother, uncle”
↓↓
D.31 D.31.1 E. Cushitic-Burji Altaic-
N. Khoisan-!Kung ʔai “female, mother” aayee “mother, aunt” Turkic-
C. Khoisan-Naron ai “mother, grandmother, “father’s brother’s wife” Turkmen
aunt” ayyé “aunt, maternal” ayal
S. Khoisan-‘Auni aija “mother” Omotic-Wolamo aje “woman,
Khoisan- Hadza aija “mother” “mother” wife”
N. Chinese-MSC W. Chadic-N.Bauci- Altaic-
āyi “one’s mother’s sister, auntie” “a child’s Jimbin aya “grand- Turkic-
form of address for any woman of its mother’s mother” Uyghur
generation” ayya “form of address ayal
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu ɔ‫כ‬-e “mother, grandmother, to grand-mother” “woman”
maternal aunt”
↓↓
1020
E.1a.3 W. Chadic-Hausa Kartvelian-

N.Khoisan-!O!Kung siŋ / sŋ “to see” shinàa Megrel, Laz
Proto-N. Khoisan *sŋ “to see” “to know” šin
N. Chinese-MSC xîng “become conscious, C. Chadic- Bura “to remind”
be aware” sinda
xîngwù “come to realize (see) the truth” “to know”
tixĭng “remind”
E.1a.4 C. Khoisan-Hiechware
njin “to think”
TB-Tani-Apatani čin “know”
↓↓
E.1b E.1b.1 NS-Nuer
Proto-N.Khoisan *čh́íŋ “[the] liver” cin “bowels, intestines”
N. Khoisan-!O!Kung číŋ “[the] liver” NS-Anywa [Anuak]
N. Khoisan-Cua ćʔíŋ “[the] liver” cíinó / ciŋ
Khoisan-Kua, Tsua ćʔĭŋ “[the] liver” “intestine”
TB-Tibetan [probably related under the
cīn / cimbə “the liver” mčín-pa “the liver” concept of “internal
TB-Tani-Miri aśin “liver” organ”]
TB-Kanauri śìn “liver” W. Chadic-S. Bauci group
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] sìn “internal organ” *njim “heart”
məsìn “the liver”
E.1b.3 NS-Anywa [Anuak]

S. Khoisan- |Kham |kwíŋ|kwíŋ “bowels” cwɪ̄ɲ
TB-Qiangic-Pumi-Dayang tswĭn “liver” “liver”
NS-Nuer cweny “liver”
E.1b.4 West Semitic-Ethiopian-
S. Khoisan-Xam |íŋ “heart” Gurage
N. Chinese-MSC syīn (Y) “the heart” x’in “heart, intelligence”
S. Khoisan-|Nusan |eŋ “the heart” West Semitic-Ethiopian-
S. Khoisan-Ku‖e |ɛŋ “the heart” Gurage (Endegen,
Proto-Lolo-Burmese Masqan) hin “heart”
*tsin / *(t)sin “liver”
TB-Pumi-Dayang tsʮin “liver”
↓↓
E1c E.1c.2 Semitic-Written Arabic
C. Khoisan- |Kaise, Deti, Danisi z’anna “to think, believe,
ʔj�”“[to] know” assume, presume”
C. Khoisan-Deti, Tsika, Danisi South (Ethiopian) Semitic-
ʔăŋ “[to] know” Gurage
N. Chinese-MSC ašyänä “recognize”
syâŋ (Y) “think” syâŋdàu “think of” C. Chadic- Mwulyen -d’yaŋ-
syâŋsyàŋ “conceive” “remember, think”
xiâng “think” “suppose, reckon, W. Chadic- Ron (Bokkos)
consider” shánggî “wissen, erkennen”
xiângxiâng “imagine” [to know, to recognize]
xiângxìn “believe” Proto-AA
TB- Jinghho [Kachin] tśyen “know” (Orel/ Stolbova 1995)
*saniH- “know”
1021
↓↓
E.4a E.4a.1 W. Chadic- Hausa IE-Hittite kanes
C. Khoisan-Nama ganī “see” “erkennen” (Ger.)
ǂan “know” “look at, watch” “to know”
TB-E. Kiranti-Rodong “(in continuous Proto-IE g’ena- “to know”
khan “see, look, know”, action aspect ) IE-Sanskrit kantu
TB-Kiranti-Kiranti- see that, recognize” “the mind, heart”
Yamphu E. Cushitic-Somali IE-Bengali gaen
kaŋma “see, look, know” -qiin / -qaan- “knowledge, perception”
N. Chinese-MSC kàn “know”
“see, look at, watch, read” N. Cushitic- Beja
“think, consider” kān
kàntòu “understand “kennen, wissen”
thoroughly” [know]
E.4a.2 Semitic-Ge’ez, IE-Hindi
C. Khoisan-!Khora ǂ’an Arabic gyān “knowledge”
“[to] know” h’anaka Proto-IE
C.Khoisan-Proto- “understand, g’ena- “to know”
Khoekhoe perceive”
*ǂʔan “[to] think”
C. Khoisan-Deti, Tsika,
Danisi ʔăŋ “[to] know”
Old Chinese kian ~ kien
“see”
N. Chinese-MSC (WG)
k’àn “see”
E.4a.3 South (Ethiopian) IE- Hindi
N. Khoisan- Semitic-Amharic jānnā “know, recognize,
ǂHaba ǂkʔâŋ qaňňä v. “glance identify” vt.
“[to] know” about, reconnoiter, IE- Bengali
N. Chinese-MSC scout” jana “know, be aware of”
xiang “think” q = glottalized velar janano “inform, make known”
E.4a.5 E. Cushitic- Gedeo
S.Khoisan- ege’n “know”
|Kham *ǂen “know” ege’na “knowledge”
C. Khoisan-Proto-!Wi
*ǂʔεn “[to] know” E. Cushitic- Rendille
TB-Tani-Padam oogeneet
ken “know” “be aware of, know,
TB-Tibetan mkhyen-pa understand”
“to know, also knowledge”
kyēn “to know,
understand”
Proto-TB *m-kyen
“know”
Old Chinese kian ~ kien
“see”
↓↓
1022
E.4d E.4d.2 Semitic-Arabic

Khoisan-ǂHoan ciʔa (Iraqi)
“know” s’iġa “to heed,
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) listen, pay
sīk “to know, attention”
to recognize” ši‫ح‬ar “to know,
“to record, to remember” be cognizant” “to
feel, sense”
↓↓
E.5a E.5a.1 W. Chadic- Ngizim Hmong-
N. Khoisan- ‖Kh’au-‖’e, kàwáu vi. “become fond of” Mien-White
C. Khoisan- Naro ǂkau “want” kàwà vn. Hmong
C. Khoisan-Nama ǂgao “want” Egyptian khav
Khoisan-Sandawe ‖gaue “seek gau-t “want, need” “to covet,
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) Semitic-Written Arabic to seek
kauh / kàuh xawa after”
“to seek, to ask for, to pray for, to beg” “to be empty,
ngaauh “to love, to like” to be hungry”
E.5a.3 W. Chadic-Hausa IE-Bengali
N. Khoisan-!Kung dzau / sau shà’awàa “desire” caowa
“to hunger” k’āwàa [pronunciation “want,
S. Khoisan-|’Auni k’yāwàa] “yearning, strong desire,
|kau-|kau “want” desire (esp. for food)” look at”
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] Semitic-Written Arabic vb.
jau5 / jau1 “want, demand, need, require, jawwiya “to be passionately
desire” stirred by love or grief”
N. Chinese-MSC châo (WG) South (Ethiopian) Semitic-
“to seek, to look for” Amharic
zhâo “to look for, seek” ašša(w) “choose, wish”
E.5a.5 E. Chadic- Migama
S. Khoisan-Khakhea ‖kau ‘anko
“to be hungry” “désirer, vouloir”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) [desire, wish for]
hánkàuh “crave” E. Cushitic-Rendille
“to entreat, to beseech, to implore, ankaa
to plead” “be hungry”
↓↓
E.5b E.5b.1 S. Khoisan-|Khakhea Semitic-Written Arabic
‖k’aba “to be hungry” xawa “to be empty, to be
C. Khoisan- Naro kαba “hunger, to be hungry” hungry”
C. Khoisan- Tati kaba “hunger” C. Chadic- Gude
TB-Tibetan rŋáb-pa “to. desire earnestly, nga’a “want, desire, like”
to crave” “to be hungry” NS-Songhay (Koroboro)
“to be greedy, to have a craving appetite” ngáaréy “demander,
Proto-Lolo-Burmese m-ga “want, think, love” supplier, mendier, prier,
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu ga “desiderative particle” implorer”
[ask for, beg for, implore]
↓↓
1023
E.7d E.7d.1 W. Chadic-Hausa IE-Pashto

C. Khoisan-Hiechware k’āyata vt. “beautify” khair / khairat
kaie “agreeable, nice, pretty” k’āyàtaccē “beautiful, “alms, charity”
C. Khoisan-Naro !kãĩ “good” sophisticated” khairat kawul
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) “to give alms”
gàai “beautiful, good” xayri “charitable”
ngaaih “fine, fair, beautiful, good” xayyir “generous man”
E.7d.2 N. Khoisan-!Kung kaiä Semitic-Arabic
“good” h’ayya̟ “allright”
S. Khoisan-!Kwi-!Ng!ke kyai South (Ethiopian) Semitic-
“good” Harari hāya “allright”
gai1 “good, beautiful, fine”
↓↓
E.8a E.8a.1 Egyptian
S. Khoisan-ǂKhomani uaua “to take counsel, to discuss,
kwa “say” to deliberate, to talk things over”
N. Chinese-MSC huà “word, South (Ethiopian) Semitic-Amharic
talk” “talk about, speak about” awärrä “announce, report, tell
“words, saying, talk” news, narrate, gossip”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) E. Cushitic- Sidamo
wah “say” “a talk, a speech, waar- “gossip, tell (news), talk,
words, language” speak”
E.8a.3 NC-S.E.-Mande-Mano wé “say”
N. Khoisan-!Kung NC-S.E.-Mande-Dan we “say”
kwe “say” NS-Nubian-Kənzi [Kenuzi]
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) wee “sagen, sprechen” [say,
wei “to tell, to say” speak”]
C. Chinese-Wu uE6 “say, tell” we: “to say”
“call, name, be called” NS-Nuer wε “to say”
TB-Karenic -wέ- “reported
speech” C. Chadic-Gude
N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e u’i “say, tell”
k’wi “language”
↓↓
E.12 E.12.1 S. Khoisan- W. Chadic –
|Xam, -‖Ng |eŋ S. Bauci-Tule
“name” shè:n “name”
S. Khoisan-|Auni |en W. Chadic–
“name” Gwandara
C. Chinese-Wu šéŋyi
tshəŋ1 “call, name” “name”
“name, appellation” W. Chadic–
N. Chinese-MSC N. Bauci-Pa’a
chēng “call” “name” səŋ “name”
S. Chinese-Min
siêng / seN3 “one’s
family name” “surname”
1024
E.12.4 West Semitic- Sanskrit

S. Khoisan-|Nu‖en Ethiopian- laksaNa “a mark, symbol, sign,
|aŋ “name” Amharic token” “characteristic, attribute,
TB-Tibetan assäňňä quality”
mtshan “name, nominate, lAkSaNika “knowing marks,
“name, especially the make to be called” acquainted with signs, an interpreter
name which everyone of marks or signs” “diviner”
receives who takes samvid “a name or appelation”
orders” E. Chadic–Kera “a sign, signal” samabhida
“to take, to assume a sám “name” “a name, appelation” sannimita
name” “a good omen” samlaks
“to distinguish by a mark,
characterize, mark distinctly”
↓↓
E.13a E.13a.1 Proto-South Cushitic
N. Khoisan !O!Kung ka “to say” *xah- “to speak”
Khoisan-Sandawe ga “to say” Proto-AA *-xâh- “to utter”
S. Khoisan-Kwi-|Xam, ǂKhomani Proto-Omotic
ka “to say” *x2a- or *x2ah- “to utter”
Proto-Tibeto-Burman *ka “talk, speech” W. Chadic - Tangale
“word, speech, language” ka / ga / nga
TB-Tibetan ka “mouth” “word, speech” “to say, to speak”
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] gà ~ əgà “word, C. Chadic-Cibak
speech” ɣa “to say, speak”
E.13a.2
Proto-N. Khoisan *ku “to say”
S. Khoisan-Kwi-Khomani ku ~ k’u “say”
N. Khoisan-Zu|’hoan kò “to say”
TB-C. Loloish- Lahu
khɔ‫כ‬ʔ “language, speech”
ɔ‫כ‬khɔʔ “noise, sound”
↓↓
E.13c E.13c.2 W, Chadic- Hausa
S. Khoisan-Khakhea kayyàa excl.
‖kaī “call” “a call for help in catching a thief or
S. Khoisan-Nu‖’e ‖kai “call” animal”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) Egyptian kai
ngaai v. “yell, scream” “to cry out, call out, tell out”
C. Khoisan-Naro k”xai “to cry” Semitic-Arabic
N. Khoisan-‖Au‖en k’ai “to cry” ya‫ع‬yag “to shout, yell, scream”
Khoisan-!Kung k”ai E. Chadic-Mokulu
“roaring of animals” ŋē “cri d’alarme” [cry of alarm]
Khoisan-Sandawe k’e “to cry” W. Chadic-Burma ngare “call”
S. Khoisan-|Nu‖’e ‖kai “call”
Chinese-MSC (Beijing)
āi ‘“used informally
to get someone’s attention”
āi āi āi! shuō-nĭ-ne ‘“Hey! You!
↓↓
1025
E.13d E.13d.1 Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova 1995)

N. Khoisan-‖Au‖en ‖kai “speak” *gay- “say”
S. Chinese-Min kai1 “state, explain” Omotic-S. Branch gay- “to say”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) W. Chadic – Hausa gáyàa vt.
gái “to chat” gáai / gaai “to explain” “tell”
E.13d.2 W. Chadic-Bura gaya
C. Khoisan- ‖Kh’au-‖’e ‖káiä / “to converse, conversation, story”
C. Khoisan- Naro ‖kái / Egyptian kay “to speak, to say”
C. Khoisan- Nama ‖ai / W. Chadic – Hausa
C. Khoisan-Tati !kxáio “meet” gaisà “exchange greetings”
S. Chinese-Min kài-siau gai dà / gayar (dà) / gaishē
“make an introduction, to introduce, “greet, pay one`s respects to”
show around”
↓↓
E.13e E.13e.1 W. Chadic- Ron (Bokkos) E-Old Indian
N.Khoisan- !Kung kawa kauti
!kau “to cry” “weinen, schreien, klagen” ”to sound, cry”
TB- Jingpho [Kachin] gāu “call” [cry, weep, scream cry out, Proto-IE
Old Chinese ɣâw “cry out, call” complain] *g’hawə-
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] Proto-Cushitic *kw’âlʔ- “to “to call”
(MacIver) kau5 “cry, shout, hail” call out” IE-Tokharian
“be called, known” “call, summon” NS-Kanuri kówo *kwā- “call
TB-Written Burmese kâu “call” “voice, sound” out to, invite”
E.13e.2 Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) IE-Bengali
C. Khoisan-Nama hawwas “to make a haumau
!hao “scream” / !ha̎o “call” commotion, raise an uproar, “uproar,
Written Burmese ʔau “shout” be noisy” “to chant slogans” complaint”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) E. Cushitic-Rendille
hau / hàau hawda “bellow, bleat, low”
“(of beast) to roar or howl” “general word describing
animal sounds”
E.13e.3 W. Chadic – Hausa
N. Khoisan-!’O!Kung !ʔau kirāwō vg.6
“call” “call here, summon”
Proto-Khoisan !ʔau “to call, cry” [call to come here]
S. Chinese-Min kiau2 v. “call (ventive of kirā
arms” “call, summon)
n. “summon to arms”
kiôu “to order, to call” “ask, tell
someone to do something”
↓↓
E.13f E.13f.1 Semitic- Arabic (Yemeni)
C. Khoisan-Nama gawa, gowa “to say” gawl “saying”
Chinese-MSC kào (WG) “to tell, to inform, to (verbal noun of gaal
announce to” “to say, tell”)
gào v. “to tell, inform, notify” Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi)
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) qawl “word, promise”
gàau daai “tell, instruct (in the sense of order)” qawl “saying”
1026
E.13f.2 NS-Anywa [Anuak]

S. Khoisan- ‖ŋ!Ke koa “to say kóó
S. Chinese-Min koù “report, announce” “to report something,
C. Khoisan-Nama gawa, gowa “to say” to say something”
↓↓
E.14 E.14.1 C. Cushitic- Bilin IE-Sanskrit
N.Khoisan-!Kung kuā “schreien” kku “to sound, make any noise, cry
!kóu “scream” [cry out] out, moan, cry (as a bird)” “to cry aloud”
TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Hausa Kartvelian-Georgian
ŋu-wa / ngu-ba kūwwàa / kūwàa f. qu(v)- “to cry, howl”
“to cry, to weep” “shouting, shouts” Proto-Kartvelian *quw- “to howl”
*kuha’ “speak, shout” IE-Sanskrit
W. Chadic- Gwandara kuuwa “be noisy”
kuwo n. “cry” W. kuvAna “a disagreeable noise”
Chadic – Dera Proto-IE *(s)kwal “to shout,
kūwu “shouting” to whine”
↓↓
E.15 E.15.4 E. Cushitic- Oromo Hindi gurana
N. Khoisan-!Kung gururi’a v. “growl” “growl, snarl”
‖gǘ v. “bark” C. Cushitic- Bilin gurahit “growl”
TB-Chin-Lushai gurəmrəm “murren” Sanskrit ghurghura
ŋur “to growl, [to murmur, grumble] “growling
to snarl, grumble” Semitic-Aramaic (of a dog or cat)
TB-Tibetan ŋur-ba qurqā, qurqur ghuraghuraya
“to grunt “making an animal noise” “to utter gurgling
(of yaks and pigs)” NC-Swahili nguruma sounds”
sŋur- wa “snore” “rumble, thunder, growl, “wheeze, puff, snort”
Chinese- Kejia [Hakka] roar” IE-Pashto ghur-zang
ku3 / gu1 “murmur, mutter, South (Ethiopian) Semitic- “to roar, to bellow
mumble” Amharic əngurgurro (as a bull)”
C. Khoisan- Nama “muttering, murmuring” ghrrumbem “roar”
‖húu v. “bark” gurumrumta S. Daic-Lao
“murmur” “mutter” ku2 “growl”
↓↓
E.19 E.19.1 NS-Kanuri IE-Sanskrit
S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa tátámngin damz,
*tám“ “say” “talk privately or whisper dams “speak”
S. Chinese-Min secretly in front of others” South Daic-Lao
tám “to chat, talk” W. Chadic-Hausa tam4 v.
tāmtám “have a chat” tàmbayàa “question,
TB-Tibetan “ask, inquire, ask about” enquire”
dām “speech, talk” “ask question” n. tam4 “query”
“to say, to speak” yi tàmbàyàř ka:m3 tam4 n.
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) “inquire about someone” “question”
tàahm “to talk, to converse”
Old Chinese d’am “speak”
TB-Tibetan dam dri
“to question,
to ask”
1027
E.19.3 South (Ethiopian) Semitic-

S. Khoisan-Xóő Amharic
!tâna “to talk, speak” tänättänä
N. Chinese-MSC “treat (discuss), analyze”
tán “talk, talk about, chat, discuss” Semitic-Hebrew
tàn “try to find out, explore” dan “discussed, dealt with”
tàntao “inquire into, probe into” Egyptian ̣
jiaotàn “talk with each other” tená “to question, to
interrogate”
↓↓
E.20 E.20.2 W. Chadic-Bole IE-Bengali
N. Khoisan-!Kung sòwta “lie” showa n.
tjua n. “lie” N. Omotic-Yem “lie, false
TB-Tibetan rdsuwa sòlsù statement”
“to give a deceptive presentation, to “evil,bad”
make a thing appear different from what Semitic-Arabic
it is” (Yemeni)
N. Chinese-MSC suu’ “bad”
shuwa huāzhāo “play tricks” (Iraqi) suuʔ
Khoisan-Sandawe tsoro n. “wrong” “evil, ill”
C. Khoisan-Nama soro adj. “wrong” E. Cushitic-Rendille
C. Khoisan-Naron čuša “lie”n. soonyóoy
C. Chinese-Wu “a trick, cheating,
ʦho5 “cheat, deceive, swindle, trick, deception”
lie” “deceitful, false, fake, fraudulent”
S. Chinese-Min
chou “error, mistake, wrong, mistake”
↓↓
F.1 F.1.1 Proto-S. Cushitic
S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa *kam-
*ǂgahʔm “to hold”
“hold under the arm” Proto-AA
Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) *-kam-
kàhm “to hold”
“to capture, to catch” W. Chadic- Hausa
“to hold in the mouth, kāmàa vt.
to hold back” “catch, seize,
take hold of”
Semiti-Akkadian
kamū “seize”
F.1.2 Proto-AA
N. Khoisan-!Kung *ʔam-
‖kʌm / “catch, seize”
C. Khoisan-Nama
‖kam
“hold up”
Old Chinese
*ʔiam- “grasp”
↓↓
1028
F.5 F.5.2 E. Cushitic- Bengali kɔrai “large cooking utensil, pan”

C. Khoisan –Naro Burji, Gedeo Sanskrit
!k‫כ‬re “dish” k’ore “plate karaka “a water vessel” “water-pot”
S. Khoisan -‖Ng-!’e (of wood)” karakapatrika “a water vessel”
!k‫כ‬rε̎ “dish” E. Cushitic- Burji karpara “a cup, pot, bowl”
S. Khoisan-|Nu-‖’en k’oree gara “a water-jar”
!‫כ‬re “dish” “wooden pot with kAravI “a small kind of gourd”
C. Khoisan-Nama handle and base” kAravella / kAravallI
!ores “dish” E. Cushitic- “the gourd Momordica Charantia”
TB-Tibetan ko-ré Oromo Altaic-Uzbek kurma
“cup for drinking” korre “wooden vessel”
shiŋ kor “wooden bowl” Altaic-Mongolian
“wooden cup” South (Ethiopian) xorgo “a kind of vessel”
shiŋ ”wood” Semitic IE-Pashto
kó-re “bowl, dish, *kora “cup, kara’h “a large wooden vessel used for
drinking cup” bowl, jar” covering meat or as dish cover”
TB-Kiranti-Limbu Kartvelian-Georgian qarqara “gourd”
khorεʔ| Kartvelian-Laz
“small bowl, cup or qoqore- “a kind of gourd”
beaker” IE-Old Indian karkati “pumpkin”
“Cucumis utilissimus”
IE-Hindi gharā “pitcher”
↓↓
F.7a F.7a.1 Semitic- Arabic Hmong-Mien-White
S. Khoisan-| ‘Auni (Yemeni) Hmong
!kãǔ “bracelet” mukáwwar khaub
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) “ball-shaped, round” “to wind around
káuying ge encircle”
“round” “a small stuffed ball
káuh / kàuh used in Hmong
“a ball, a sphere” games”
F.7a.4 Proto-S. Cushitic
S. Khoisan-Proto-Taa *kwam “enclosure”
*‖ɣáùŋ
“to make a bush fence with
hookthorns”
S. Chinese-Min
khuán “a circle, tour around” Proto-W. Chadic
(Fuzhou) khuáŋ *čyan
“to turn around” “encircle, surround”
S. Khoisan- |‘Auni !kãǔnu “earring”
(Meixian)
k’wan2 / k’wan1
“jade ring or bracelet” “earrings for
women”
“around, round” “surround, South Daic-Lao
surrounding” (Kwangtung) kwan1 keuang4 gan1
“encircle, confine” “barricade”
1029
F.7a.5 Proto-Central Khoisan

*‖áùŋ “to fence”
TB-Chin-Lushai huaŋ “encircle,
fence”
N. Chinese-MSC
huán “ring, hoop”
F.7a.6 W. Chadic- Hausa South Daic-Lao
Khoisan-ǂHoan k’awanyàa kian4 v.
‖xáùŋ “fence” k’àwànyū pl. “pen (animal)”
TB-Jingpho [Kachin] [pronounced
śəwan “shut in, fence in” kyawanya
N. Chinese-MSC quān kyàwànyū]]
“circle, encircle” “corral” “surrounding a place,
“pen in, shut in a place” “circle, ring” making a circuit”
chywān (Y) n. “ring, a circle” “metal ring”
chuan “ring through the nose of an “circle“ “any metal
animal” ring”
juan “shut in a pen, pen in, “circle” “encircling”
e.g. sheep” “round” “sitting in a
Old Chinese gi̭wan “circle, circle”
circumference” “enclosure for pigs”
“wall around courtyard”
↓↓
F.8a F.8a.1 NS-Songhay (Djenne) Kartvelian-Georgian
S. Khoisan-!Kwi- koori “be curved or circular” kwerkwera “round”
|Xam korbey “boucle, cercle, rond, Kartvelian-Megrel
kuérre-k:uérre anneau” [buckle, circle, round, ring] kwarkwalia “round”
“round” NS-Kanuri Altaic-Mongolian
TB-Tibetan korkór / kórkóri n. “circle” togorig / togurig /
‘khor khor Proto-AA (Orel/Stolbova 1995) tugärig “round”
“round, circular” *kor- “be round” Altaic-Uzbek
sgor-sgor Semitic-Hebrew s’khor-s’khor adv. tugarak “round”
“round, circular” “round about, round and round” IE-Bengali, Hindi
sgor-mo “a ball, Omotic-Bencho kar3 “to be round” gol “round”
a globe Egyptian karkar “anything round, IE-Pashto
staff, stick, roll, cylinder” gola “a ball”
↓↓
F.9a F.9a.1 Proto-AA *-kal- “to turn round” IE-Hindi
N. Khoisan- Proto-Cushitic calla
!’O-!Kung *kal- “to go round” “hoop” m.
galə “roll” *kar- “to turn around”
C. Khoisan-Nama C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur
gari “roll” ŋalŋal- “mettre en boule”
TB-Tibetan [roll up, lit. make into a ball]
h’khál-wa W. Chadic- Hausa gařàa
“to spin” “roll circular object along ground”
(Central and Western Semitic-Hebrew
Tibet) sgalgal adj. “oval, rotund”
’kál-ba “to spin” E. Cushitic- Sidamo
qale “a wheel, what turns around”
1030
↓↓
F.12c F.12c.4 NC-Common Bantu *-caka “sorghum”
S. Khoisan-Proto- C. Chadic-Mofu-Gudur, E. Chadic-Lele
Taa *sâʔŋ masakwa “mil de la saison sėche”
“seed” [dry season millet]
TB-Nungish-Trung NS-Kanuri masakwa n. “dry season guinea corn”
tɕaʔ “millet” [sorghum]
TB-Burmic-Burmese West Chadic-Hausa màcàkō “type of red guinea
ʃaʔ “millet” corn” [sorghum]
TB-rGyalrong ʃok Semitic-Arabic ʃaʕi:rr (IPA) “barley”
“foxtail millet” Egyptian m’tchaá “grain”
↓↓
F.14 F.14.1-2 NC-Benue-Congo IE-Old Indian
N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e (Kwoll) (Irigwe) cāpa- n. m. “bow, arc”
‖kaba “arrowhead (bone)” (Plateau 2 Group) Mongolian-Khalkha
C. Khoisan-Naro ‖gaba kappa “arrow” xarva “to shoot from a
“arrowhead (bone)” Chadic root bow” Mongolian-Ordos
TB-Tibetan khab “a needle” xava “arrow” xarwa-, xarwu-
TB- Burmese ‘ap “needle” E. Cushitic-Gedeo “to shoot from a bow”
derived from gabe “arrow , bow” Mongolian-Kalmuck
Burmese-Lolo *(t-)ɣap “bow and arrow” xarwə- “to shoot from
“needle” Cushitic- Proto-Boni a bow”
TB-Gyalrung tekyep “needle” *kabū- “arrow shaft” Proto-Mongolian *karbu
“to shoot from a bow”
↓↓
F.21b F.21b.1 W. Chadic-Ngizim
N. Khoisan- !Kung ‖gao “walking stick” gáwâ “axe”
Khoisan-Hadza ‖kau “stick for carrying W. Chadic-Hausa
poison” kàaràuki
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) “slender post for
gaau “leveling stick (used in measuring fence”
volume of grain etc.)
gáu “fishing pole”
N. Chinese-MSC
găo “pick, pick axe” “stalk of grain, straw”
gāo “punt-pole”
S. Khoisan-ǀAuni ‖kowa, ‖k‫כ‬wa “arrow” /
ʘhőä “stick” n.
F.21b.2 W. Chadic-Ngizim Proto-Altaic
Khoisan-Hadza gùvú gùvàvin *kúbù / *kobù
hikowa, ‖k’owako “arrowshaft” pl. “pole, shaft”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) “stem of a plant” Altaic-Proto-
gòu “pole for punting a boat” Turkic *kúbak
Chinese- Wu kø5 “wooden pole, stick, club” “pole, shaft”
S. Khoisan-‖Khegwi ʘho “stick” n.
↓↓
1031
G.11a G.11a.1 Proto-Afro-Asiatic IE-E. Iranian-

C. Khoisan-Ani, Buga, Naro, Haba, *ʔâw “tall, high, long, big” Avestan
Kua, Tsua, E. Chadic-Mokulu garayo
!áò “long” “frequently also used to ’awwa “haut” [high] “mountains”
denote ‘tall’ and/or ‘deep’” ’awwika “hauteur, altitude”
Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] [height, altitude]
k’iau2 / kiaw5 “tall” W. Chadic-Hausa tsawo
N. Chinese-MSC “height, altitude” “length”
qiâo “high and steep”
S. Khoisan-!Kwi-Xam !áo “mountain”
N. Chinese-MSC
jiâo “a high pointed mountain”
G.11a.2 Egyptian kau
C. Khoisan-Deti, Tsixa, Damisi “to be high”
káò “long” Semitic-Hebrew
“frequently also used to denote ‘tall’ gāvo’ah adj.
and/or ‘deep’ ” “tall, high”
C. Khoisan-Naro ‖kao gavah v. “grew tall”
“big” qau
N. Chinese-MSC “height of the ridges of the
gāo “tall, high” gāu (Y) “tall” land above the river”
Khoisan-Sandawe gawa “mountain”
G.11a.3 Semitic-Hebrew
C. Khoisan-Hietsho |gowe / |koo govah
“big” “height, altitude”
C. Khoisan-Naro ‖go “big”
S. Khoisan-!Kwi-Xam !óu
“mountain”
gòu stative verb “tall” “high”
Chinese-Min
koū (Literary) “high”
G.11a.4 W. Chadic-Hausa
S. Khoisan-|Xam !kou “mountain” k’oli “top, summit”
S. Khoisan-|Nusan !gou “mountain” k’ōlōluwa
C. Khoisan-Hietsho !goa “mountain” “summit (of mountain)”
S. Chinese-Min koū-guán E. Cushitic-Somali
“highlands, plateau” kor “top, upper””
C. Chinese-Wu ŋoʔ8 “high mountain, koreeya “high”
great mountain”
ngo2 “rocky cliff”
↓↓
G.11b G.11b.1
S. Khoisan-Masarwa !xa-i “big”
C. Khoisan-Proto-Non-Khoekhoe, -Proto-Khoekhoe
*káí “big”
C. Khoisan-Nama, !Kora kai “big” Ehret 1982 [172].
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] gāi5 / kiai5 / giai5 “huge, big,
great and honorable”
S. Chinese-Min kai3 “huge, big, great and honorable”
1032
G.11b.2
S. Khoisan-Proto-!Wi !ui “big”
S. Khoisan-|Xami !ui-a “big”
S. Chinese-Min ui3 “huge, big, great and honorable”
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] wui3 / wi3 “huge, big”
C. Chinese-Wu uE 6 “huge, big”
↓↓
G.13a G.13a.1 E. Chadic-Lele, Gabri IE-Bengali
C. Khoisan-Danisi, -!Ora ‖ʔúḿ kun “sleep” ghu:m
“[to] sleep” C. Chadic-Hwona “sleep”n.
C. Khoisan-Proto-Khoekhoe xùnà “lie down” ghumano
‖ʔom Omotic-Janjero “sleep” vb.
C. Khoisan-Nama ‖om “[to] sleep” kuna “lie and sleep”
C. Khoisan-Hiechware Omotic-Yem
‖gom “[to] sleep” kún-
S. Chinese-Min khûn “to sleep” “to fall asleep”
N. Chinese-MSC
kùn “tired, fatigued, sleepy”
↓↓
G.19 G.19.2 S. Cushitic- Asa Kartvelian-Georgian
Khoisan-Hadza samaka “three” samak sam- “three”
TB-Lepcha sam “three” “three” Kartvelian-Svan
TB-Trung ă-sə̀m “three” NS-Datooga sam- / sem-
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sàam sámogu “three”
“three” “three” Kartvelian-Laz
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] sam1 “three” sum- “three”
↓↓
G.23 G.23.1 Proto-Afro-Asiatic Proto-
S. Khoisan-ǀXam *-kal- / *-kull- Kartvelian
ku: “all” “all” *qowl- “all”
TB-Meithei Semitic-Arabic (Iraqi) Kartvelian-
kul / kull “all” “whole, entire, all” Georgian
TB-Siyin kul Proto-Semitic qovl- “all”
TB-Chin-Lai (Haka) *kl(l)- / *kull-
kul “all”
“twenty / all” S. Omotic
*kull- “all”
G.23.2 E. Cushitic- Oromo
S. Khoisan-ǂKhomani huni-ɕe hundaa /
S. Khoisan-N|uu huni-ki hundumaa
“all” “all”
TB-Tibetan kun E. Cushitic- Hadiyya
“all, every, each, whole” hunda(m) / gu’ma
Written Burmese ʔəkun “all”
“all”
TB-Lepcha gǔn “all”
↓↓
1033
G.26 G.26.1 Proto-AA Proto-

C. Khoisan-‖Gana *ma “what?” Kart-
mâ “what” Proto-Cushitic *mi / *ma velian
C. Khoisan -Deti, Cara “interrogative root” *ma
má “who” E. Cushitic-Afar maa / ma “what”
C. Khoisan - Gwi “what?” “which?”
mâŋ “what” Omotic-N. Branch-
Proto-Khoisan *ma “what?”
*ma Interrogative pron.
↓↓
G.30 G.30.1 W. Chadic-Ngizim Austro-Asiatic-Khasi
S. Khoisan-Masarwa, na(a) pron. ŋa “I”
|Nu‖en na “I” 1st pers. sing. used as
Khoisan-Hadza (o)na “I” subject Proto-Altaic
TB-Tibetan ŋa “I” ŋa “1st person pronoun”
personal pron. E. Cushitic-Oromo
“first person sing. and pl. na pron. direct object E. Iranian-Avestan
‘I, we’” “me” [to me, for me ] *nə / *n / *nō “I”
TB-Written Burmese [subject form is naf]
ŋa “I” Egyptian
Proto-Tibeto-Burman ná “I, me, my”
*ŋa “1st person pronoun” West Semitic-Ethiopian-
Old Chinese ŋâ “I, me” Amharic
Middle Chinese ŋa2 “I” əňňa “we”
G.30.3 N. Omotic-Maji Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
Proto-S. Khoisan- Proto-!Wi, in- “I” Kherwarian-Santalii
Proto-Taa i:ɲ “I”
*n / *ŋ “I” pron. sing. Proto-Semitic
S. Khoisan ‖ŋ !ke *ʔn “I”
ŋ ~ n ~ ni “I”
C. Chinese-Wu (Wēnzhōu)
ŋ4 “I, me”
ǹgh “I, me, us (in literary
usage)” “my, our”
S. Chinese-Kejia
[Hakka]
ng2 / ng3 “I, me” “we, us”
G.30.5 W. Chadic-Hausa
S. Khoisan-‖ŋ!ke ni “I, me” pron.
ŋ ~ n ~ ni “I” nii “1st person singular
TB-Tibetan pron.”
nyíd “I myself, we ourelves” ni “1st pers. sing.
independent pron.”
↓↓
G.31 G.31.1 Proto-N.Khoisan *mV “I” NC-Fulfulde [Fulani] IE-Bengali
!’O-!Kung m, me, mi “I” mi pron. ami “I” pron.
S. Chinese-Kejia (Hakka) mi2 / mi3 1st person “I” IE-Pashto mi “I,
“a polite expression for ‘I, my, me’” mine, of me”
↓↓
1034
H.4a H.4a.1 Proto-AA South Daic-Lao cha:3 si:2 v.

Proto-N. Khoisan (Orel / Stolbova 1995) “going to” Marcus 94
*ča “to go to and fetch” *dza’ / *dzaw- Proto-Altaic *àja “to go, walk”
TB-Tibetan cha-ba “go, come” Starostin, Sergei Altaic Etymology
“the usual word for ‘go” W. Chadic- Hausa Altaic Proto-Mongolian
“to be about, to be on zâ “go to” *aja “to go, walk”
the point, to be going” Semitic-Written *aja “journey, travel”
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu Arabic IE-Sanskrit
ša “particle indicating sa’a “to walk, move sara “going, moving” “going,
intended action of the forward, motion” “moving or wandering about”
first person” to head, be headed” sarana “going, moving, walking”
↓↓
H.4b H.4b.1 Proto-AA (Orel / Stolbova 1995) IE-Bengali
Khoisan-ǂHoan *dza’- / *dzaw- “go, come”/ jaowa
ćao “walk (go)” *sau- / *su- “go, run” “go, move,
TB-Tibetan E. Chadic- Mubi njā(u) “go” proceed,
cha-wa E. Chadic-Kajakse jauw “go” advance,
“to go away, to start, C. Cushitic-Bilin ajáu “ohne Ziel und Zweck leave” vb.
to leave a place” herumziehen”
S. Chinese-Yue [to wander about without goal or purpose]
(Cantonese) Semitic-Written Arabic
jáu “go (leave)” jawab “traverser (of foreign countries) ” n.
“leave” “to walk, go “someone constantly underway, travelling through
on foot” “to leave, to the world”
depart” (Yemeni) tijawwal “to wander around, move
around”
↓↓
H.4c H.4c.1 Cushitic- Proto-Boni
S. Khoisan-|Nu-‖’e kū “to go away” *kūr “emigrate, change settlement”
S. Khoisan-|Kham !û “to go out” E. Cushitic- Rendille
C. Khoisan- Nama !gû “walk, go” guura “(to) move to a new
C. Khoisan- !Ora !ûn “walk, go dwelling-place”
Old Chinese *k’ər “go” Cushitic-Proto Sam
S. Chinese-Yue [Cantonese] *gur “move house”
kìuh “to sojourn” Cushitic-Abo
kìuh màhn “persons who reside in a country gur- “migrate”
other than their own” “aliens” NC-Bantu-Swahili
kìuh bàau “overseas Chinese” gura “go”
kìuhgèui “emigrate”
↓↓
H.8a H.8a.2 E. Cushitic-Burji Austro-Asiatic-
C. Khoisan-Naro dau “path” dáw-a n. Munda-
C. Khoisan -Hietsho dhau “path” “road, way, path” Kherwarian-
S.Khoisan-Proto-Taa *dào “road, path” E. Cushitic- Santali
N. Chinese-MSC dào / tào “road” “way, Somali ‘da’ha:r /
method, path” daw- “road, way, ‘hor da’ha:r
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] t’au5 / dau4 / tau4 path” “road”
“path, road, street”
1035
H.8a.3 E. Cushitic-
Khoisan-Western Cape Sidamo
doudou dôgo
“path” “road, way”
dou “a road, a path” “a method”
S. Chinese-Min to7 “path, road, street” “method,
way”
↓↓
H.8b H.8b.1 W. Chadic-S. Bauci Group
Swadesh C. Khoisan-Naron *təb- “path, way”
“road, dauba “path” W. Chadic-Jimi
path” TB-Tibetan təbo “path, way”
təb “means, method, way” W. Chadic-Tangale
tībo “trace, track”
↓↓
H.13b H.13b.1 W. Chadic–
N. Khoisan-‖Au‖en Tangale
|geŋ “full” kẹndẹ
TB-Tibetan “fill up”
‘kheŋ(s)-pa “to be full” W. Chadic-
h’khyeng-wa “to be filled up” N. Bauci- Diri
gεŋ “to fill up” kə̑nda
keŋ “to be full of” “fill ”
“to be filled with”
S. Chinese-Min
keŋ “eat to the full”
H.13b.3 W. Chadic- IE-Iranian-N. Persian
S. Khoisan-‖Ng!ke Karekare a-gandan
!xʌŋ “full” kandzanta “anfullen”
N. Khoisan-Ng “fill” [to fill up]
!kVŋ “full” Semitic a-ganiš
TB-Tibetan ‘gengs-pa, (Ethiopan)- “voll” (Ger.) [full]
bkaŋ perf., Amharic IE- Sanskrit
dgaŋ fut. “to fill” täĉ’äna kan
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) “be loaded, ”to be satisfied with”
káŋ be encumbered” “to be satisfied or pleased”
“be choked with” täĉ’änannäqä “to accept with satisfaction”
S. Khoisan-Proto!Wi “be crowded RV
ǂauŋ “full” (of street), be kaNe
congested (of “satisfying a desire”
street)” Proto-Altaic
*kāna
”to be satisfied”
Altaic-Proto-Turkic
kān- ”
to be satisfied”
Proto-Mongolian
*kanu ” be satisfied”
1036
H.13b.4 NS- Anywa IE-Sanskrit

S. Khoisan-|‘Auni [Anuak] can ”to satisfy, please”
‖kxən-si “full” jàŋ “to be full canas ”delight, satisfaction”
with food” “to delight in be satisfied’
N. Chinese-MSC jʌ̌ŋ / jʌ̀ŋò IE-Bengali shɔntushto adj.
zhànmán “satisfaction” ”satisfied, content”
“fill (space, area)” NS- Nuer Altaic-Mongolian-Khalka,
TB-Tibetan can ε can Buriat
skaŋ-ba “satisfaction” “entirely full” xana- ” be satisfied”
Altaic-Mongolian-Kalmuck,
Ordos, Monguor
xan- ” be satisfied”
↓↓
H.17a H.17a.2 W. Chadic-Gwandara
S. Khoisan-|Nu-‖’en šu ~ ču / (Koro)
N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e šú “to sit down” jùjùma
S. Khoisan-!Xoo chû “[to] sit” “sit down”
S. Khoisan-Khakhea tsū, čū “to sit down” (Cancara)
Chinese-Xiang dzu6 “sit” jùjùwã
N. Chinese-MSC jù “crouch, squat” “sit” “sit down”
zhù “halt, stay” “be stationed at”
TB-Tibetan shuù “to sit, to stay, to dwell,
to reside”
Middle Chinese d’ju- “reside”
TB-Naxi-Lijiang ndzɯ “sit”
H.17a.4
S. Khoisan-|Xam s’ō ~ š’ō /
S. Khoisan-Batwa šō “sit”
S. Khoisan-‖Xegwi šō “sit”
Chinese-Kejia [Hakka]
1 5 3
(MacIver, Meixian) ts’o / ts’o / ts’o
1
(Lau Chunfat) co “sit, a seat”
chóh “sit” joh “to sit, a seat”
↓↓
H.19a H.19a.2 Songhay (Koroboro)
Khoisan-Hadza kéỳ ”stand, stand up”
eke “rise, get up” E. Cushitic- Rendille
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) kíhit “(act of) standing up”
kéih “stand (not sit)” “departure”
C. Chinese-Wu ki2 “begin, start” W. Chadic- N. Bauci Gp.-Jimbin
”rise, stand up” “go up, get up” kír “stand”
S. Chinese-Kejia [Hakka] (MacIver) W. Chadic- Hausa k’ik’am ideo.
k’i3 / k’i5 ”rise, stand up” “go up, get up” “standing stiffly or motionlessly”
↓↓
1037
H.19b H.19b.3 W. Chadic-Jimbin

S. Khoisan-|Xam |khei kəy “carry (load)”
N.Khoisan-‖Kh’au‖’e / N.Khoisan-!’O-!Kung Proto-AA
‖kē “carry (in hand)” *-c’īʔ- or
S. Khoisan-‖Khegwi ‖ke “carry (in hand)” *-c’îiʔ- “to convey”
S. Khoisan-Khakkea !ke “carry (in hand)” W. Chadic-Bura
TB-Tibetan kyeedro ”to go taking / carrying kil / kila
something” “to carry, to lift up”
N. Chinese-MSC xie “carry, take along”
↓↓
H.20b H.20b.1 Proto-Chadic
Khoisan -Hatsa ‖kowa *kərə “carry”
“to remove” E. Chadic- Masa Group- Lame
S. Khoisan-ǀXam ku’u “porter sur le dos”
‖kau:wa “take away” [carry on the back]
TB-Tibetan Proto-Highland Cushitic / Sanskrit
h’khur-wa “to carry” Proto-E. Cushitic gur / gurv-
khur-ba “to carry, *gur “carry away” “to raise, lift up”
convey, to carry a load” Egyptian quru “porters, boatmen” IE-Old Indian
qaur “transport man, carrier” gurate
khur-du togs-te “taking E. Cushitic-Rendille “to raise, lift up”
up in order to carry” khorcha “lift on to (something)”
↓↓
H.23a H.23a.2
Khoisan-Hadza Ʒana “new”
Swadesh S. Khoisan-!Kwi-|Xam ‖a:n “new”
”new” Old Chinese si̭an “fresh, new, fine, clear”
Middle Chinese sjen “new”
S. Chinese-Min (Shàowû) sən “new”
↓↓
H.23d H.23d.1 Khoisan-Proto-Non- Proto-AA IE-Sanskrit
Khoekhoe *žaŋ “good” *-šeŋ- “to be good” sama “just, upright, good,
N. Khoisan-Zuǀ’hoan žaŋ W. Chadic – Tangale honest”
“good” sanang “holiness” samprakSAla “a kind of
N. Chinese-MSC tsāng “good, Proto-E. Cushitic hermit or holy man”
right, generous” zāng “good, *šen- samyaggata “behaving
right” NC-Fulani rightly, holy”
xián “virtuous, worthy”” sena “be clean, samapradhana “perfectly
TB-Tibetan saŋ / saŋbo “good, innocent, holy” kind or friendly”
fine, kind, well-meaning” N. Omotic-Shinasa sAnu “sage, learned man”
shèng “sage, saint” “holy, še:ŋga “good” IE- Hindi
sacred” Semitic-Akkadian sànt “saint”
zhèngjing “decent, respectable, shangu “priest”
honest”
↓↓
1038
H.24b H.24b.2 West Semitic-Ethiopian- Sanskrit

S. Khoisan-|Xam ča “clean” Amharic aššä cha
N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖e šɔã “rub” “rub, scrub, massage” “pure, clean”
N. Chinese-MSC ts’ā (WG) W. Chadic–Tangale sara / saraka
“to clean, to rub in, to wipe” sāre “to rinse, to clean” “cathartic, purgative,
cā “rub, wipe, spread on, put on, sār- “clean, comb” laxative”
brush, shave” W. Chadic-Manga sargi “purification,
chá “to rub on, to smear” sār “sweep” purging (in
NS-Maba Group- Maba medicine)”
shashalak “clean”
↓↓
H.30c H.30c.1 E.Chadic–Dangaleat IE-Bengali kata “cut” vb.

Khoisan-Hadza kát’yè “fendre IE-Hindi katna “cut” vt.
‖ka:ata “to cut (le bois)” [split wood] IE-Sanskrit skhadana
open” W.Chadic – Hausa “cutting or tearing to pieces”
N. Khoisan -!O Kung, katsèe vt. verb grade 4 khata “an axe, hatchet, chisel”
‖kaʔa “cut, chop” (completive) “cut off, kad “to break off a part,
TB-Kiranti interrupt” vi. “ be cut in two” separate, divide”
kātnu “to chop, cut Semitic-Hebrew khatakh v. khad “to divide, break”
with a knife” past tense “cut, cut off” Austro-Asiatic-Munda-
TB-Tibetan Proto-Afro-Asiatic Kherwarian-Ho, Mundari,
katrεε / katrεεtu doŋ gad- “split, cut, chop” Santali ka’tu “knife”
“to separate, to split NC-Swahili kata v. “to Old Indian skhadate
up, cut” “to cut, split”
to take apart” “to cut across” “to sever” Austro- Proto-IE *skeda-
n. “cut” “piece” “part” “to split”
H.30c.2 NS-Nile Nubian
Khoisan-Hatsa ‖kaka [Kenuzi-Dongola]
“to divide” kak
N. Khoisan-!O!Kung “to split”
‖ka‖kã “to tear” NS- Dinka kak “cut”
N. Khoisan – NS- Anywa [Anuak]
!O !Kung / kák “to split something”
S. Khoisan-Masarwa “cut something”
‖kaʔa “cut, chop”
TB-Kiranti-Limbu
kakma “crack, bust”
↓↓
H.32 H.32.3 W. Chadic- Hausa
Khoisan-Sandawe xoa “to scratch” k’wāk’ùlē “scrape
N. Chinese-MSC guā vt. “to scrape, to shave” something out”
kuā / kuāh (WG) “to pare away, to scrape” NS-Anywa [Anuak]
S. Chinese-Min khaû “to plane, to scrape” gwàar vt.
“to scratch (deeply)”
H.32.4 Proto-Afro-Asiatic
S. Khoisan-|Xam !kwā ~ !gwa “break” gwâa “to cut”
C. Khoisan-‖Kh’au‖’e [Khoi] !kwà “break”
N. Chinese-MSC guâ “cut to pieces”
“cut, slit”
1039
↓↓
H.33a H.33a.1 S. Khoisan- Proto-AA *-kûr- “to dig out” Altaic-Mongolian-Kalmuck
Nama xoro “dig” NS-Kanuri gorwə, gorwə, “carving”
TB-Proto-Kiranti *kòr kurúm-ngin Proto-Mongolian *gur-
“scoop” “scoop out” “carving”
TB-Karenic-Sgaw NS- Anywa [Anuak] Altaic-Mongolian-Khalka
khu “dig up, scoop out” kʊ‫כ‬ʊr “to dig a hole” gurvi- , guranʒ “carving”
N. Chinese-MSC kū Egyptian aqh’u “to work in Mongolian-Buriat gurba
“hollow out” wood, to be a carpenter, “carving”
TB-Tibetan rko-ba ~ to hollow out a boat” Altaic-Proto-Tungus-Manchu
rkod-ba “to dig, dig “carpenter’s adze, axe” *xülē- “to dig”
out” “engrave” Proto-Altaic *k’ǔle “to dig”
↓↓
H.34c H.34c.2 Khoisan-Hatsa ‖kʔaiya “to fall” E. Cushitic-Rendille
S. Khoisan-Hiechware |xaiye “to fall” kayagcha
S. Khoisan-Xam |kai’tən “to fall” “take (something) down,
TB- Written Burmese. kya’ “fall” get (something ) down
khya’ “let fall, drop” from somewhere”
TB- Written Burmese khja “to throw or cast down, W. Chadic- N. Bauci Gp.–
put down” Diri
TB-Tibetan kyar “to get/ fall into a state or ngyáà “fall (tomber)”
situation” Egyptian khai
N. Chinese-MSC xià v. “go downward, descend, “to descend, to go down”
alight” -xia “[used after a verb as a complement C. Chadic-Dghwede
indicating movement from a higher position to a lower ʔya “fall”
one]
↓↓
H.37 H.37.1 N. Khoisan-!Kung či / ši- “thing” Semitic-Arabic
C. Khoisan-‖Kh’au-‖’e [Khoi] či ~ ča- “thing” (Iraqi)
C. Khoisan- !’O-!Kung či “thing” šìi “thing”
N. Chinese-MSC shì “matter, affair, thing, business” “something”
S. Chinese-Yue (Cantonese) sih “business (matter)”
↓↓
H.38 H.38a.2 S. Khoisan-|Nu‖en, N. Khoisan-‖Kh’au‖’e NC-Mande
sîsî “work” kyi / cyi
N. Chinese-MSC shì “job, work” “matter, affair, work” “work, send”
“to serve, to work”
jì “send, post, mail”
shî “send, tell sb. to do something” “use, employ”
TB-C. Loloish-Lahu ci / Written Burmese ce
“send on business, employ” “causative auxiliary verb.”
1040
Author’s Curriculum Vitae

In undergraduate programs the author followed a double major in philosophy and English language /
literature. He studied Latin, Greek and Spanish as well as logic, epistemology and history of
philosophy. This interest in logic, epistemology, intellectual history and languages has been present
throughout his career as a teacher and researcher.
The author did graduate work in philosophy at the Sorbonne and the Institut Catholique in Paris but
also studied Arabic in order to become familiar with a non-Indo-European language. His doctoral
research dealt with late medieval nominalism in Spain. For this work he did research for a year first at the
Bibliotheque National in Paris and the library of the University of Mainz in Germany to get information
on sources, then at the Vatican Library to obtain a copy of the most important manuscript of a text
containing Spanish nominalist.thought. Then a year was spent in Spain to investigate the historical
dimension.
The University of Alcala in Spain founded about 1507 was the center of Spanish nominalist teaching as
well as the first formal program of Arabic studies in Europe. It archives were moved to Madrid during
Napolean’s invasion of Spain and held in the Biblioteca de la Facultad de Derecho where the authorities
kindly gave the author full access to them. This collection contained a 15th century manuscript of
William of Ockham, the founder of medieval nominlism, and a 16th century polyglot
Arabic/Latin/Spanish dictionary). The author did further research on Spanish nominalism and the
influernce of Arabic on Medieval philosophy at the Archivo Nacional in Madrid and the University of
Salamanca.
After teaching philosophy at a liberal arts college in tne U.S. for several years, the author joined the
faculty at Makerere University in Uganda. There besides teaching philosophy he learned Swahili, and
encountered Arabic again through its heavy influence on this basically Bantu language. He also profited
from contacts with the Linguistics Dept. from which he learned of Joseph Greenberg’s use of massive
comparison to classify African languages into four major superfamilies. He also helped organize an
ongoing seminar which studied African philosophy as expressed through its languages and culture.
During this time he also helped to found a Makerere student society which carried out short term
development projects throughout rural Uganda. This included travel to very different cultural areas of the
country some of which spoke Bantu languages, others varieties of Nilo-Saharan. This interest in African
languages continued throughout the rest of the author’s career.
The study of African languages and the previous work in research libraries had sharpened the
author’s interest in working in an important historical collection, if possible an African one. He therefore
did a master’s degree in library science at Columbia University in New York. Then he learned that the
National Library of Venezuela had signed a contract with Northwestern University to compile titles about
Venezuela held in U.S. libraries and enter them into its advanced automated bibliographic processing
system. Northwestern Library has one of the largest collections of Africana in the world; so to get
experience in online management of linguistic databases, the author accepted a position in Caracas as
permanent consultant to Venezuela’s National Library and National Library System. There he supervised
transfer of the Northwestern software to Venezuela and the manual input of the National Library’s
holdings into the database. This involved training at the Northwestern Library which made possible
inspection of the Africana collection, and also provided technical knowledge used to create a database for
comparative study of Africa languages.
The author returned to the U.S. in 1982 to work at Northwestern University Library in the automated
system and train the staff of many universities and research institutions which were adopting it. These
included the University of Michigan, the University of Wisconsin, the University of Pittsburgh, Bell
Laboratories, Indiana University and many others including three in Canada, two more in Venezuela and
the National Library of Colombia.
Being based at Northwestern permitted regular access to the Africana collection. At Northwestern this
special unit of the library is named the Melville J. Herskovits Library of African Studies in honor of the
man who held the first professorial chair of African studies in the United States. A large majority of the
1041
titles cited in the present study are held there. Under the direction of Dr. Herskovits, Dr. Joseph A.
Greenberg earned a Ph.D. in Anthropology from Northwestern University in 1940.
As mentioned above, the author had become aware of Greenberg’s classification of African languages
into four superfamilies, i.e.Afro-Asiatic (to which Arabic belongs), Nilo-Saharan, Niger-
Congo/Kordofanian and Khoisan. His method of massive comparison of many languages had been an
instrument for discovery of their content and relationships. However the usual method practiced by
linguists and anthropologists was to compare just two languages since this made possible a chart of the
phonology of both which in turn facilitated identification of sound changes between the two. However
these comparisons were usually of languages in the same close geographic area. Greenberg’s method
encompassed the whole of Africa, but since he did not study sound change as such, his work is commonly
considered to be a branch of cultural anthropology (or linguistic anthropology) sometimes called “the
study of human prehistory through language”. Dr. Greenberg spent most of his career teaching at
Stanford University. His method has been used extensively by Dr. Merritt Ruhlen who is currently a
professor of anthropology there. (See Works Consulted). As mentioned above, the present work uses the
massive comparison method, but extends its scope to Asia. (See Chapter 1 Section 1.1 and Supplementary
Table 1. It is somewhat similar to that used in research on etymologies across Africa and Asia by Dr.
Sergei Starostin and a group of scholars in Russia. (See The Tower of Babel http.//starling.rinet.ru and
Works Consulted).
These sources provided an initial basis for identification of Sino-Tibetan correspondences with African
languages. A first version was completed after several years and copyrighted in 2008, but was not widely
distributed. The present edition has been substantially augmented from sources found on the Internet and
from non-ST Asian languages lying on ancient migration paths between NE Africa and East Asia.

African Origins of Sino-Tibetan Languages: Evidence From Comparative Lexical and Archaeological Data With Statistical Analyses and Historical-Cultural Notes

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African Origins of Sino-Tibetan Languages: Evidence From Comparative Lexical and Archaeological Data With Statistical Analyses and Historical-Cultural Notes

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AFRICAN ORIGINS OF SINO-TIBETAN LANGUAGES

Evidence from Comparative Lexical and Archaeological Data

© Thomas McGinn, 2018

1.0 Introduction, Summary of Phases of the research……………………………………...………....1-2

1.1 Overview of languages compared……………………..………....…….…….………………........3-6

1.4 Languages- Notation and Transcription systems………………………………………………….6-9

1.5 Methodology - Guidelines for research on prehistory through language………...........................10-29

Chapter 2C Words representing the human body and body parts.

Chapter 2F Words for Human artefacts.

Chapter 2G Qualities, Time. Numerals and other quantifiers, Particles, Pronouns.

Chapter 2H Verbs. Word families based on common syntactic type .………...………….............663-771

Chapters 3-5 Statistics from Comparative analysis of Afro-Asiatic ↔ Sino-Tibetan languages

Chapter 3 Statistical Comparison of Afro-Asiatic ↔ Sino-Tibetan language lexical

Chapter 4 Statistical Comparison of individual AA and ST language subfamilies………..………781-788

Chapters 6-7 Summary of common cultural language

Chapter 7 The language of agriculture in Africa and East Asia………………………….………..805-825

Chapters 8-9 Indicators of migration routes from NE Africa to East Asia

Chapter 10. Aspects of comparative morphology and grammar …………………………….…..852-865

Supplementary Table 2 The African/AA substratum in Sanskrit and other IE languages….….…883-979

Supplementary Table 3 Khoisan ↔ ST comparative data…………….……...….…….……......980-1039

Author’s Curriculum Vitae…………….……...….……………………………………....………1040-1041

Symbols and Abbreviations

(Koroboro) Koroboro Senni (Dialect of Nilo-Saharan-Songhay)

1.3.2 Altaic, Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic.

1.4 Languages-Notation and Transcription systems

1.4.1 African/Afro-Asiatic languages

1.4.2 Non-AA African languages:

1.4.3.2 Sinitic language romanizations:

B.15c.1 Chinese-MSC/Beijing W. Chadic- Ron (Daffo) Nilo-Saharan-

1.5 Methodology-Guidelines for research on prehistory through language

Table 1.5.1 Sample data record of African/AA ↔ Sino-Tibetan comparison

A.5a.2 NS-Kanuri NC-Igbo

1.5.2 Guidelines for comparative method. Criteria for inclusion of ST ↔ Afro-Asiatic

1.5.3 Objective 1 – Determining the number and size of word families

Table 1.5.3.1a Example of non-recurring ST ↔ African/Afroasiatic correspondence.

C.12a.1 TB- Chin-Mikir W. Chadic – Bole / Tangale

1.5.8 Semantic matching must be fairly rigorous.

Swadesh “dog” C. Chadic-Bura Proto-Afro- NC- S.W. Mande –

1.6 Identification of proto-forms.

1.6.2 The early historical process of identifying proto-roots.

1.6.3 Progressive identification of proto-forms in ST.

Extended African language word family:

Base correspondences for positing etyma:

Swadesh “bird” E. Chadic- Egyptian Songhay

Swadesh “fire” W. Chadic- Proto- Kanuri Khoisan-

1.7 Conclusions on etymologies

Generic word families = 14 These are:

Basic vocabulary- Swadesh list

Tibeto-Burman ↔ Chinese cognates: 40

Proto-Afro-Asiatic ↔ Sino-Tibetan (TB and/or Sinitic) root correspondences: 19

khra W. Chadic – Hausa Cushitic- NS-Barea S.

A.1a.3 W. Chadic–Bole Proto-AA W. Semitic- Songhay NC-

Altaic-Turkic-Turkish kartal “eagle”

TB-C.Loloish-Lahu jà “sparrow” Matisoff 2003 169

cheuk / jeuk N. Bauci-Tsagu C. Cushitic-Bilin

A.2a.2 Proto-C. Chadic E. Cushitic- W. Semitic- NS-Tubu S.

S. Chinese-Min chhu1 “chick, fledgling, very young bird” Hakka Dict.

chiāo (WG) W. Chadic- Bole-

W. Chadic-Ron (Fyer) yad’ú “Vogel” [bird] Jungraithmayr 1970 90

Extended Sino-Tibetan word family:

Base correspondences for positing etyma:

A.4.3 TB-Tibetan W. Chadic-Gwandara Maba Group-

ST-Languages African/AA languages-Close correspondences

TB-Tamangic-Thakali pihr-la ”to fly” Matisoff 2003 397

TB-Chamling burɦ- “fly” Matisoff 2003 397

Extended Sino-Tibetan word family: