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Benzodiazepinas Historia PDF
Benzodiazepinas Historia PDF
Review Article
T
raditionally, various terms have been used to define substance From the Department of Psychiatry and
use–related disorders. These include “addiction,” “misuse” (in the Diagnostic Psychotherapy, Ludwig Maximilian Univer
sity, Munich, and Medical Park Chiemsee
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition [DSM-IV]1), “harmful use” blick, Bernau — both in Germany; and
(in the International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision [ICD-10]2), and “dependence.”3 Privatklinik Meiringen, Meiringen, Switzer
Long-term intake of a drug can induce tolerance of the drug’s effects (i.e., increased land. Address reprint requests to Dr. Soyka
at Medical Park Chiemseeblick, Rasthaus
amounts are needed to achieve intoxication, or the person experiences diminished strasse 25, 83233 Bernau, Germany, or at
effects with continued use4) and physical dependence. Addiction is defined by com- m.soyka@medicalpark.de.
pulsive drug-seeking behavior or an intense desire to take a drug despite severe N Engl J Med 2017;376:1147-57.
medical or social consequences. The DSM-IV and ICD-10 define misuse and harm- DOI: 10.1056/NEJMra1611832
ful use, respectively, on the basis of various somatic or psychological consequences Copyright © 2017 Massachusetts Medical Society.
Cl-
channel
pore
CELL
MEMBR ANE Schematic 2
monomeric subunit
1 3
α
GABA
4
Benzodiazepines
C Y TOPLASM
1 2 3 4
Cl-
effect at the receptor. The GABA A receptor is cologically active metabolites. Table 1 shows the
composed of various subunits (α1 through α6, β1 half-lives of major benzodiazepines and relevant
through β3, and γ1 through γ3) and variants, metabolites.6,9,10 Short-acting benzodiazepines are
with hypnotic agents acting mainly through the typically used as hypnotic agents (e.g., triazolam),
α1 subunit. GABAA receptor function can be mea- and longer-acting benzodiazepines as anxiolytic
sured by means of positron-emission tomogra- or anticonvulsant agents (e.g., diazepam and
phy with specific radiotracers.8 clonazepam). There is modest evidence that ben-
Pharmacologically, benzodiazepines cannot be zodiazepines with a shorter half-life are associ-
clearly divided into those that are more anxio- ated with a greater risk of dependence.11 Benzo-
lytic and those that are more hypnotic. They diazepines also potentiate the sedative effects of
have completely replaced older hypnotic agents, opiates.6
which were much less safe.5 Benzodiazepines
are well absorbed and are highly protein-bound. Clinical Use
They are metabolized in two basic pathways: Benzodiazepines can be divided into anxiolytic
glucuronide conjugation and microsomal oxida- agents and hypnotic agents on the basis of their
tion. Some benzodiazepines already have a hy- clinical effects. In principle, however, all benzo-
droxyl group (e.g., oxazepam and lorazepam) and diazepines have anxiolytic, hypnotic, muscle-
consequently are metabolized directly by glucuro- relaxant, anticonvulsant, and amnesic effects.
nide conjugation; this group tends to have a They are used as sedatives and to treat with-
shorter elimination half-life. However, the ma- drawal symptoms, including alcohol withdrawal
jority of benzodiazepines are demethylated or delirium.12,13 Benzodiazepines are relatively safe
oxidized before conjugation and therefore have a for short-term use (2 to 4 weeks), but their safety
longer half-life, with an associated risk of accu- has not been established beyond that period,5
mulation. Many benzodiazepines have pharma- and dependence develops in approximately half
of patients who use benzodiazepines for longer Table 1. Pharmacologic Classification and Half-Lives of Representative
than 1 month.11 The risk of fatal intoxication by Benzodiazepines.*
the use of a single drug is low.
Benzodiazepine Substance Half-Life Metabolite Half-Life
Side Effects hours
The main disadvantages and dose-dependent
Hypnotic agents
side effects of benzodiazepines are drowsiness,
lethargy, fatigue, excessive sedation, stupor, Long half-life: flurazepam 2–3 ≤100
“hangover effects” the next day, disturbances of Intermediate half-life
concentration and attention, development of de- Flunitrazepam 10–30 20–30
pendence, symptom rebound (i.e., recurrence of Nitrazepam 18–30 —
the original disorder, most commonly a sleep Short half-life
disorder) after discontinuation, and hypotonia
Brotizolam 3–6 3–6
and ataxia.14-17 Benzodiazepines can seriously im-
Lormetazepam 8–14 8–14
pair driving ability and are associated with in-
creased risks of traffic accidents, as well as falls Temazepam 7–14 4–15
and fractures.18-20 Very short half-life: triazolam 1.5–5 —
Patients with myasthenia gravis, ataxia, the Anxiolytic agents
sleep apnea syndrome, chronic respiratory insuf- Long half-life
ficiency, spinal and cerebellar ataxia, angle-closure Diazepam 24–48 ≤200
glaucoma, or acute CNS-depressant intoxication
Chlordiazepoxide 6–38 ≤200
should not receive treatment with this class of
drugs. Paradoxical reactions are not uncommon Clobazam 50 20
in older patients (>65 years of age). Psychomotor Clorazepate dipotassium 2–2.5 ≤200
retardation and cognitive dysfunction (memory Medazepam 2–2.5 ≤200
loss, lack of concentration, and attention deficits) Prazepam 1–3 ≤200
may occur.15,21,22 These drugs are not recommend- Short-to-intermediate half-life
ed for the treatment of insomnia, agitation, or with active metabolites
delirium in the elderly and, if prescribed in this Lorazepam 2 —
population, should be restricted to short-term Oxazepam 30 —
use.23 Their amnestic effects can result in mem-
Alprazolam 12–15 1
ory gaps, especially at higher doses.14 An asso-
Bromazepam 15 6
ciation of long-term benzodiazepine use with
brain atrophy and dementia is controversial.17 * Data on hypnotic agents are from Soyka,6 Benkert and Hippius,9 and Julien,10
and data on anxiolytic agents are from Benkert and Hippius.9 Dashes denote
no active metabolite.
Benz odi a zepine Dependence
Neural Correlates mechanisms similar to those of other drugs of
The ventral tegmental area and nucleus accum- abuse.
bens are parts of the mesolimbic area of the
brain; drugs that cause dopamine release in Epidemiologic Features
these areas generally have addictive potential.24,25 The number of benzodiazepine prescriptions in
Neural projections to the prefrontal cortex rep- the United States increased substantially from
resent important connections in the “addiction 1996 to 2013.27 Deaths from overdose also in-
network.” The landmark studies by Tan et al.26 creased, by a factor of more than 4 (from 0.58 to
showed that benzodiazepines also activate dopa- 3.07 deaths per 100,000 adults),27 with a plateau
minergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area after 2010, but nearly all the deaths involved the
by modulating GABA A receptors in neighboring use of other substances in addition to benzodi-
interneurons. The special relevance of α1-con azepines. Of patients receiving opioid mainte-
taining GABA A receptors in the ventral tegmen- nance therapy, approximately 46 to 71% use
tal area has been noted.26 This information benzodiazepines28,29 (44% of German patients30).
makes it clear that benzodiazepines act through These drugs enhance the respiratory-depressant
effects of opioids. On August 31, 2016, the Food tween the ages of 18 and 80 years used benzo-
and Drug Administration issued a drug-safety diazepines, as did 8.7% of those between the
communication about serious risks, including ages of 65 and 80 years.37 Women used benzodi-
death, when opioid pain or cough medicines are azepines twice as frequently as men did. Long-
combined with benzodiazepines. The safety an- term use was shown in a quarter of the sample.
nouncement warned that “health care profes- Moore et al.41 recommend stricter controls and
sionals should limit prescribing opioid pain med- suggest that benzodiazepines should be pre-
icines with benzodiazepines . . . only to patients scribed only by psychiatrists, who give fewer
for whom alternative treatment options are inad- long-term prescriptions than other physicians;
equate.”31 however, the issue is controversial. There is a
In contrast to the prescribing pattern in the striking discrepancy between the high prevalence
United States, the prescription of benzodiaze- of benzodiazepine dependence and the very low
pines in Europe has decreased substantially over treatment rates, especially in addiction service
the past few years. Nevertheless, benzodiazepines centers.42
are still among the most frequently used psycho-
pharmaceuticals worldwide. Long-term use is not Clinical Features
synonymous with dependence. Recent data show In a study reported in 1961, Hollister et al.
that 35.8% of patients with new benzodiaze- switched mentally healthy persons from chlordi-
pine prescriptions continue to use the drug after azepoxide (300 to 600 mg) to placebo and found
3 months, with 15.2% using it for 1 year, and that sudden withdrawal resulted in seizures,
4.9% for 8 years; 3% of the general population delirium, and psychosis.43 A special characteris-
uses benzodiazepines for the long term.32 There tic of benzodiazepines is that physical and men-
is no standard definition of long-term use, but tal dependence can develop in the absence of
the most common definition is 6 to 12 months.33 tolerance (low-dose dependence). Typical behav-
The risk of dependence on benzodiazepines or ioral features of benzodiazepine dependence in-
so-called z-drugs (nonbenzodiazepine drugs that clude doctor-shopping (i.e., seeking prescriptions
have effects that are similar to those of benzo- from several different providers), obtaining pre-
diazepines and most of which have generic scriptions from different pharmacies, and over-
names that start with the letter z [e.g., zolpidem, lapping prescriptions (Table 2).6,44-46 A recent
zopiclone, and zaleplon]) is significantly associ- study showed that clinical correlates of long-term
ated with a history of mental illness and with a benzodiazepine use are older age (>65 years),
large quantity of drugs taken.34 The use of z-drugs prescription by a psychiatrist, regular use, use
has increased in Germany during the past 20 of a high dose, and concomitant prescription of
years, which is thought to have compensated in psychotropic drugs.44
part for the decrease in benzodiazepine use.35
According to an epidemiologic study,36 2.3 Withdrawal Symptoms
million people in Germany are dependent on Symptoms of withdrawal after long-term benzo-
medications; on the basis of DSM-IV criteria, the diazepine use usually develop faster with shorter-
estimated overall prevalence of sedative abuse is acting agents (within 2 to 3 days) than with
0.8% (among both men and women), and the longer-acting agents (within 5 to 10 days). Most
prevalence of dependence is 1.4% among men withdrawal symptoms are associated with a state
and 1.3% among women. Benzodiazepine use of brain hyperexcitability and can be divided
tends to increase significantly with age.37,38 Petit into physical, psychological, and sensory symp-
jean et al.38 reported that in Switzerland, 14.5% toms. The mildest form of withdrawal is symptom
of patients were given benzodiazepines for more rebound and is particularly common with with-
than 12 months. Neutel39 found misuse of these drawal from benzodiazepines that are used for
drugs in 4.1% of the Canadian population. In the sleep disorders. The most common physical symp-
United States, Huang et al.40 reported an abuse toms of withdrawal are muscle tension, weak-
rate of 1.1% for sedatives and 1.0% for tranquil- ness, spasms, pain, influenza-like symptoms (e.g.,
izers from this drug family. sweating and shivering), and “pins and needles.”
A retrospective study of 2008 data in the The most common psychological withdrawal
United States showed that 5.2% of persons be- symptoms are anxiety and panic disorders, rest-
lessness and agitation, depression and mood capacity to tolerate symptoms.53 Recommenda-
swings, psychovegetative symptoms (e.g., tremor), tions range from reducing the initial benzodiaz-
reduced concentration, and sleep disturbances epine dose by 50% every week or so6 to reduc-
and nightmares.6,45-49 Appetite loss, tachycardia, ing the daily dose by between 10% and 25% every
blurred vision, and dry mouth may also be pres- 2 weeks.53 A period of 4 to 6 or 4 to 8 weeks is
ent, as may tinnitus, drowsiness, or derealization suitable for withdrawal for most patients. If pos-
(a feeling that one’s surroundings are not real). sible, prolonged reductions over a period of many
Disorders of perception are relatively common months should be avoided in order to prevent the
and range from hyperacusis to photophobia to withdrawal treatment from becoming the pa-
dysesthesia; these symptoms are not pathogno- tient’s “morbid focus.”15
monic but are characteristic of benzodiazepine Whether switching to a long-acting agent such
withdrawal. Seizures are quite common, espe- as diazepam has fundamental advantages is un-
cially if the agent is discontinued abruptly. Severe clear,45 as is the question of whether hospital
withdrawal symptoms include paranoid thoughts, admission is required for a “blind reduction”
hallucinations, depersonalization, and withdraw- (i.e., the patient is not told the exact dose). The
al delirium. Tables 3 and 4 provide an overview use of several benzodiazepines should be con-
of withdrawal symptoms.6,45,47,49 verted to the use of one, preferably diazepam.
Withdrawal from short-acting benzodiazepines
is associated with higher dropout rates than with-
T r e atmen t
drawal from longer-acting agents,6,51 but switch-
Treatment of Withdrawal Symptoms ing from a drug with a short half-life to one with
Numerous studies and a Cochrane review have a longer half-life is not associated with a better
examined treatment of withdrawal.50-52 The over- outcome.6,51 A relatively fixed withdrawal sched-
all consensus is that benzodiazepines should be ule with a precise duration of withdrawal treat-
discontinued gradually over a period of several ment is recommended. Withdrawal is sometimes
weeks (e.g., 4 to 6 weeks or more for diazepam successful on an outpatient basis, but patients
doses >30 mg per day), to prevent seizures and should be hospitalized for withdrawal from very
avoid severe withdrawal symptoms. The with- high doses (a dose equivalent to ≥100 mg of diaz-
drawal rate is often determined by a person’s epam daily).
(3-month) period but not at 6 months or later somnia in general.73 They can also be used for
and that there is insufficient evidence to support sleep disorders associated with benzodiazepine
the use of motivational interviewing to reduce withdrawal. One study showed that interventions
benzodiazepine use. such as sleep assessment, basic sleep hygiene
In general, the prognosis for patients who (going to bed at the same time every night and
undergo withdrawal treatment for benzodiaze- avoiding naps), stimulus control (a quiet, com-
pine dependence is fairly good.6 However, addi- fortable bedroom, with no television viewing in
tional therapeutic approaches may be necessary, bed and no lights), behavioral therapies such as
depending on whether there is underlying mental sleep-restriction procedures (which force the pa-
illness.49 Motivational techniques are particular- tient’s available sleep time into a fixed window),
ly useful during inpatient withdrawal treatment, relaxation techniques such as progressive mus-
whereas individual or group psychotherapeutic cle relaxation, and cognitive treatments were
techniques are more useful during outpatient effective for insomnia during long-term hypnotic-
withdrawal treatment (e.g., for low-dose depen- drug use, with results persisting for more than
dence). Other interventions include self-control 1 year.74
training, cue exposure focusing on settings that
may induce a craving for benzodiazepines, mar- Pr e v en t ion of Dependence
ital and family therapy, and less frequently,
psychodynamically oriented treatments that fo- A recent systematic review of patients’ experi-
cus on underlying conflicts and deficits in ego ences with and perceptions of benzodiazepine
and personality development. Twelve-step treat- use and use of other hypnotic agents identified
ments are frequently used in the United States, themes of relevance for safer prescribing of
but they are less common in other parts of the these drugs, including the effects of insomnia
world and are rarely used for benzodiazepine and failed self-care strategies, among others.75
dependence. Treatments lasting 2 to 3 months or more
Many treatments are eclectic, combining ele- and marked dose increases should be avoided. In
ments from various therapeutic approaches. Re- some patients, especially those with sleep disor-
moval of self-medication as a rationalization for ders, intervals of treatment rather than con-
benzodiazepine use is of great relevance, espe- tinuous treatment may be advisable. Careful
cially for patients with a coexisting psychiatric evaluation and reevaluation of the indication for
disorder, such as anxiety disorder.72 More psy- treatment, adherence to dosing, avoidance of mul-
chodynamically and psychoanalytically oriented tiple prescriptions, and timely discontinuation of
therapies interpret medication dependence as a treatment (usually within 4 to 6 weeks) are es-
failed attempt at self-healing. These therapies sential. High-risk groups include persons who
address frustration, poor problem-solving strate- are alcohol- and drug-dependent, are chronically
gies, and failure to tolerate negative emotions, ill (particularly those with pain syndromes), or
all of which generally play a large role in drug have chronic sleep disorders, personality disor-
dependence. Systemic therapies focus on the ders, or dysthymia. A critical issue is avoiding
patient as the symptom carrier in a disturbed or long-term prescriptions for older patients in the
dysfunctional family system and view addiction absence of a clear target symptom.
behavior as an attempt to regulate or control re-
lationships. Psychoeducation includes provision C onclusions for Cl inic a l
of information on the effects and side effects of Pr ac t ice
medications. In addition, self-control techniques
are offered. There are clear and evidence-based treatment
Nonpharmacologic interventions, especially standards for medication withdrawal in benzo-
stimulus control and sleep restriction, and to a diazepine-dependent patients, even though they
lesser extent, sleep-hygiene education (which are a heterogeneous group. Table 5 presents a
teaches patients to maintain a regular wake-and- brief synopsis of treatment standards. In psycho-
sleep pattern, relax regularly during the week, therapy, good evidence exists for cognitive be-
and avoid stimulants and large meals before bed- havioral therapy and motivational approaches
time, among other things), are effective for in- and for providing information and psychoeduca-
tion. The prognosis with standard treatment is with long-term, low-dose dependence on hypnotic
often fairly good. At the same time, from a clini- agents. If complete discontinuation of benzodiaz-
cal perspective, one does not have to attempt epines is unlikely, one can attempt to reduce the
benzodiazepine withdrawal in every case. For dose as a harm-reduction strategy. Additional
patients without any motivation for withdrawal studies on adequate pharmacotherapy during
and those with a severe depressive episode or and after benzodiazepine withdrawal and more
other major mental disorder, stabilization may evidence-based strategies clearly are required.
be warranted before initiating withdrawal treat- Dr. Soyka reports receiving consulting fees from Lundbeck,
ment. If patients have severe psychopathological Indivior, and Novartis Pharmaceuticals, lecture fees from Mepha
Pharma, Lundbeck, and Indivior, and travel support from Lund-
symptoms, one can refrain from attempting with- beck. No other potential conflict of interest relevant to this article
drawal, given that the process often lasts for was reported.
weeks and is sometimes distressing for the Disclosure forms provided by the author are available with the
full text of this article at NEJM.org.
patient and the physician. Also, withdrawal can I thank Jacquie Klesing, E.L.S., for editing assistance with an
be difficult to achieve in some elderly persons earlier version of the manuscript.
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