Marathwada Mitra Mandal’s

College of Engineering,
Karvenagar, Pune

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Gautami Deshpande with Exam Seat No.

T150450836 have successfully presented the seminar entitled Tackling of
Cold Start Problem in Catalytic Convertor under my supervision, in the
partial fulfillment of Bachelor of Engineering - Mechanical Engineering
of Savitribai Phule Pune University.

Date :

Place :PUNE

Prof. S. R. Dhok Examiner

Guide

Dr. P.S. Purandare Dr. S.M. Deshpande

Head, Dept. of Mech. Engg. Principal
MMCOE, Pune MMCOE, Pune

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity here to thank all those who had helped us in making this
seminar.

First of all, I express our deep gratitude to our seminar guide Prof. S. R. Dhok for his
valuable support, help & guidance from time to time during the project work. I am
also grateful to our Head of Department, Dr. P. S. Purandare for giving us this
opportunity to present this seminar.

Last but not the least; I would like to thank our entire teaching staff who assisted me
directly or indirectly throughout the duration of this time period.

Gautami Deshpande

T150450836

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 Tackling Cold Start Problem in Catalytic Converter 2019

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No Title of Figure Page No

1 Rough sketch of catalytic converter 07
2 Metallic wire substrate 10
3 Ceramic substrate 10
4 Zeolite pellets 10
5 Two way catalytic converter 12
6 Three way catalytic converter 13
7 Converter with combination of PCM and VCI 17
8 Comparison between PCM VCI and Conventional 18
converter

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 Tackling Cold Start Problem in Catalytic Converter 2019

INDEX

Title Page No.

1. Introduction 05
1.1 Catalytic Converter 06
1.1.1 Design Considerations 07
1.1.2 Construction 07
1.1.2 Selection of Substrate 08
1.1.3 Selection of Catalyst 10
1.1.4 Casing Material 11
2. Literature Review: 11
2.1 Types of Cat-Con 11
2.1.1 Two Way Catalytic Converter 12
2.1.2 Three Way Catalytic Converter 12
2.2 Problems Faced 13
2.2.1 Back Pressure 13
2.2.2 Warm-up Delay 14
2.2.2.1 Light-off Temperature 14
2.2.2.2 Cold Starting 14
2.3 Tackling of Cold Starting 14
2.3.1 Electrical Quick Heating 15
2.3.2 Moving Catalyst Closer to Engine Manifolds 15
2.3.3 Heat Insulation System 15
2.3.4 Phase Change Material 16
2.3.5 Vacuum Insulation System 16
3. Case Study: 17
3.1 Case study of Cat-Con With Combination of PCM and VIS 17
4. References 18

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ABSTRACT:
As we know, we live in an era of industrialization. We are constantly surrounded by

various machines. All the machines which operate using non-renewable energy

resources are expected tp emit CO2 and H2O after the complete reaction. But, in

reality, all the reactions leave poisonous gases such as Carbon Monoxide(CO), Oxides

of Nitrogen and Hydrocarbons as effluents. These are proved to be very harmful for

the living body. Hence we need to rectify the above mentioned gases into less harmful

gases to environment before releasing them into the environment.

Catalytic convertors are being used for the same purpose since many years.

New modifications are being made in the catalytic convertors for the sake of complete

elimination of the effluents. Hence we try to eliminate the problems faced by Cat-cons

such as back pressure, durabily and cold starting. Problem of back pressure can be

eliminated by calculation of dimensions according to it. Problems such as cold

starting play a major role in the industries and hence needs to be solved.

Cold start problem of the catalytic converter can be solved by using PCM and

Vacuum Insulation so as ro retain the hear in the converter.

This further increase the capacity, durability and efficiency of the catalytic converter

and decreases the overall cost of the converter.

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 Tackling Cold Start Problem in Catalytic Converter 2019

1.1 Catalytic Converter

Device attached to the exhaust system of an auto or other engine to eliminate or

substantially reduce polluting emissions. It generally converts three harmful
substances into harmless ones: carbon monoxide (a poisonous gas) into carbon
dioxide, nitrogen oxide (causes acid rain and smog) into nitrogen and oxygen, and
hydrocarbons (cause smoke and respiratory problems) into carbon dioxide and water.
Catalytic converters consists of a stainless steel box attached to the muffler and
containing ceramic beads or honeycomb coated with catalysts (usually alumina, ceria,
and rhodium) and various sensors that regulate the fuel and air passing through the
engine.

The converter uses simple oxidation and reduction reactions to convert the
unwanted fumes. Recall that oxidation is the loss of electrons and that reduction is the
gaining of electrons. The precious metals mentioned earlier promote the transfer of
electrons and, in turn, the conversion of toxic fumes.

There are two types of "systems" running in a catalytic converter, "lean" and
"rich." When the system is running "lean," there is more oxygen than required, and
the reactions therefore favor the oxidation of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons (at
the expense of the reduction of nitrogen oxides). On the contrary, when the system is
running "rich," there is more fuel than needed, and the reactions favor the reduction of
nitrogen oxides into elemental nitrogen and oxygen (at the expense of the two
oxidation reactions). With a constant imbalance of the reactions, the system never
achieves 100% efficiency.

Note: converters can store "extra" oxygen in the exhaust stream for later use.
This storage usually occurs when the system is running lean; the gas is released when
there is not enough oxygen in the exhaust stream. The released oxygen compensates
for the lack of oxygen derived from NOx reduction, or when there is hard acceleration
and the air-to-fuel ratio system becomes rich faster than the catalytic converter can
adapt to it. In addition, the release of the stored oxygen stimulates the oxidation
processes of CO and CxH.

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Fig 1: Rough sketch of a general catalytic converter

1.1.1 Design considerations

The design of catalytic converters for 2-stroke engines requires a

system approach because of trade-offs involved in arriving at the
optimum design.
The following requirements must be satisfied in designing the catalytic
converters:
 Should provide enough surface area to meet conversion
efficiency requirement for both HC + N02 and CO.
 Power loss due to backpressure created by the converter should
be minimized.
 Should not interfere with engine operation.
 Must meet durability requirements.
 Heat generated by the catalytic reactions must not raise safety
converters.
 Must fit in the available space.
 Should be affordable.

Aiming for a robust design

Robust design is a methodology that addresses product quality issues
early in the design cycle. The goal of robust design is to deliver
customer expectations at profitable cost regardless of customer usage,
degradation over product life and variation in manufacturing, suppliers,
distribution, delivery and installation.

1.1.2 Construction

The catalytic converter consists of many components:

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The catalyst core, or substrate. For automotive catalytic converters, the core is
usually a ceramic monolith with a honeycomb structure. Metallic foil monoliths made
of FeCrAl are used in some applications. This is partially a cost issue. Ceramic cores
are inexpensive when manufactured in large quantities. Metallic cores are less
expensive to build in small production runs, and are used in sportscars where low
back pressure and reliability under continuous high load is required. Either material is
designed to provide a high surface area to support the catalyst washcoat, and therefore
is often called a “catalyst support”. The cordierite ceramic substrate used in most
catalytic converters was invented by Rodney Bagley, Irwin Lachman and Ronald
Lewis at Corning Glass, for which they were inducted into the National Inventors Hall
of Fame in 2002.

The washcoat is a carrier for the catalytic materials and is used to disperse the
materials over a high surface area. Aluminum oxide, titanium dioxide, silicon dioxide,
or a mixture of silica and alumina can be used. The catalytic materials are suspended
in the washcoat prior to applying to the core. Washcoat materials are selected to form
a rough, irregular surface, which greatly increases the surface area compared to the
smooth surface of the bare substrate. This in turn maximizes the
catalytically active surface available to react with the engine exhaust. The coat must
retain its surface area and prevent sintering of the catalytic metal particles even at
high temperatures (1000 °C).

The catalyst itself is most often a precious metal. Platinum is the most active catalyst
and is widely used, but is not suitable for all applications because of unwanted
additional reactions and high cost. Palladium and rhodium are two other precious
metals used. Rhodium is used as a reduction catalyst, palladium is used as an
oxidation catalyst, and platinum is used both for reduction and oxidation. Cerium,
iron, manganese and nickel are also used, although each has its own limitations.
Nickel is not legal for use in the European Union (because of its reaction with carbon
monoxide into nickel tetracarbonyl). Copper can be used everywhere except North
America, where its use is illegal because of the formation of dioxin.

1.1.2 Selection of Substrate

Substrate: It is defined as the base material on which the catalyst wash coat is
provided
Three basic types of substrates which are widely used:
 Ceramic Monolith
 Metallic Wiremesh
 Pellet Type

1. Ceramic Foam

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Unlike standard, honeycomb type catalytic substrates, ceramic foam based systems
homogenize the flow as well as the thermal and chemical loads inside the converter.
The flow of exhaust gases inside the foam is turbulent, leading to improved heat and
mass transfer characterized by significantly higher sherwood and nusselt numbers
compared to the laminar flow inside honeycomb substrate channels. The ceramic
foams developed represent a promising concept, since they redistribute the flow of
exhaust gases thus enhancing turbulence and the mixing of species, without increasing
flow resistance to prohibitive levels. They can initiate, facilitate or balance complete
oxidation of unburnt HCs and CO, oxidize a substantial fraction of particulates while
generating required reactants for the following aftertreatment step. The turbulent flow
inside the ceramic foams permits short overall lengths for high conversion rates. The
relatively low material and manufacturing costs are an additional important aspect. In
urea based SCR (Selective Catalytic Reaction) nitrogen oxide reducing systems, the
evaporative characteristics of the liquid reactant and the mixing of NH3 with NOx are
improved by the turbulent flow through the ceramic foam based catalytic converter.

2. Metallic Substrate
Material like stainless steel is used to manufacture a wire mesh with required
cell density as a substrate.
This substrate is further treated so as to impregnate the catalyst onto it for the
required reactions to take place.

3. Zeolite Pellets
Zeolite has received captivating attention as an environmental catalyst due to
its capability in filtration, refining and separation of chemical species. Porous alumina
structure of interconnecting channels provides the advantages by promoting radial
mixing and enhancing turbulence. Existing PGM (Platinum Group Metal) catalysts,
which are commonly used in honeycomb structure of conventional catalytic
converters, are highly expensive.
This project develops a Porous Alumina-Zeolite (PAZ) filter and investigates
its influence on hydrocarbon (HC) emission from a spark ignition engine. This filter
employs polymeric sponge method to obtain porous structure with a composition of
90 vol. % alumina and 10 vol. % of zeolite. The filter is tested in the exhaust system
of 1300 cc engine at different speeds from 1400 rpm to 3200 rpm. The emission is
measured and compared with conventional catalytic converters. Further experiment is
conducted by installing both commercial catalytic converter and PAZ filter and in
their reverse position. Analysis shows reduction of emission level up to 20 % is
obtained between 1400 rpm to 2200 rpm for PAZ and a combined system of both
PAZ and catalytic converter. The results exhibits the potential of PAZ filters as a HC
trap especially in a cold start region in which the catalyst in catalytic converter has not
been fully activated yet.

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Metallic wire Ceramic Zeolite

mesh Substrate pellets
Fig. 4
Fig.2 Fig. 3

1.1.3 Selection of Catalyst

1. Cerium Oxide
It is used as an oxygen storing compound. It liberates of absorbs O2 during the
air-fuel perpetuations. It was found to have the proper redox response, there it is the
most commonly used O2 storage compound in modern day catalytic converters.

For rich mixture,

2CeO₂ + CO Ce₂O₃ + CO₂
For lean mixture,
Ce₂O + 0.5O₂ 2CeO₂

Added Advantage of Cerium Oxide:

 It is a good steam reforming catalyst and thus the catalyst reactions of CO
and HC with H2O in rich mixture and H2 is formed. This H2 further reduces
a portion of NOx to N2.
 The light off temperature of cerium oxide is much lower as compared to
outer catalysts, this eliminates the cold start emission problem

Method of application of catalyst:

 Make a mixture of 0.6 gm CeCl2, 3 drops glycerin, 2ml H2O2 in 100 ml
deionized water
 Store in room temp for 24 hrs

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 Apply the mixture on the stainless steel wiremesh

 Sun dry it for 48 hours

2. Nickel as a metal catalyst

Nickel is electroplated on stainless steel wire mesh. The oxidation is done by
providing heat cycles of about 1000°C for about 100 hrs.

3. Copper and silver coated zeolite:

Manufacturing Process of Ag and Cu coated 13x zeolite

Step I: Soaking of 13x zeolite sieves in silver nitrate and copper nitrate solution as per
specified ratio of zeolite and solution (being 20:3)
Step II: Dried pallets are then heated in electric furnace to 6000C which oxidises
nitrate from zeolite surface to form Ag and Cu coated 13x zeolite .

We have tested catalytic converter at 20:3 ratio which gives best result at
various operating conditions.

4. Ammonia
 Use of urea spray: By using urea spray selective catalytic reduction of
oxides of nitrogen take place. In automotive industries the solution
known as ADBLUE is used which is 32.67% urea by weight

4NH3+4NO+O2 4N2+6H2O
6NO2+8NH3 7N2+12H2O

1.1.4 Casing Material

The steel can is exposed to high temperatures because of the heat generated
within the converter. It is necessary to select steels that have low thermal expansion
coefficient and excellent creep resistance to maintain the holding force
The holding force can decrease if the steel shell expands too much or if the steel
undergoes permanent deformation. Ferrite stainless steels 409 and 439 are commonly
used for catalytic converter cans. The thermal expansion of this steel is 30% lower
than 300 series stainless steels.

2. Literature review

2.1 Types of Catalytic Converter

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2.1.1Two way Catalytic Converter

A 2-way (or "oxidation", sometimes called an "oxi-cat") catalytic

converter has two simultaneous tasks:

CO oxidation: 2CO + O₂ 2CO₂

HC oxidation: CxH₂y + (x+ y/2)O₂ xCO₂ + yH₂O

Two-way catalytic converter was mainly used before 1981. After which they
were replaced by three-way catalytic converters due to their lack to control nitrogen
oxides.

Fig 5: Two way catalytic converter

2.1.2Three way Catalytic Converter

Three-way catalytic converters (TWC) are today’s most successful
exhaust gas after treatment devices for gasoline engines. They simultaneously reduce
the harmful substances nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), and unburned
hydrocarbons (HC) and convert them to nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and
water (H2O):

CO oxidation: 2CO + O₂ 2CO₂

HC oxidation: CxH2y + (x + y/2)O2 xCO₂ + yH₂O
NO reduction: 2NOx N₂ + xO₂

The major issue in three-way catalytic converters is that the reduction of NOx
fails under lean conditions, while the oxidation of CO and HC remains incomplete in
rich conditions.

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Fig 6: Three Way Catalytic Converter

2.2 Problem Faced by the Catalytic Converter:

2.2.1Back Pressure

Exhaust backpressure can cause a variety of problems. A plugged catalytic

converter can strangle engine breathing and cause a big drop in engine performance
and fuel economy. And if the converter plugs up completely, it can make the engine
stall. The same thing can happen if a muffler, resonator or double walled exhaust pipe
collapses internally. Anything that restricts exhaust flow will create excessive
backpressure in the exhaust system.

The classic symptoms of too much backpressure include things like a lack of
high speed power, poor fuel economy and even overheating. Anything that backs up
exhaust pressure into the engine will also back up heat. About a third of the heat
produced by combustion goes out the tailpipe as waste heat, so if the heat can't escape
it can overload the cooling system and make the engine run hotter than normal,
especially at highway speeds.

If there is a complete blockage in the exhaust, the engine may start and idle
fine for a minute or two, then die as backpressure builds up and strangles the engine.
In some instances, backpressure may buildup to such a degree that it blow out a pipe
connector or the converter shell. That makes diagnosis a lot easier, but in most cases
you may not be sure if there is an exhaust restriction or not. So in these instances, you
need to measure backpressure.

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2.2.2Warm-up Delay

Vehicles fitted with catalytic converters emit most of their total pollution
during the first five minutes of engine operation; for example, before the catalytic
converter has warmed up sufficiently to be fully effective.

2.2.2.1Light-off Temperature

A catalyst needs to reach a certain temperature, known as ‘light-off’, before it

becomes operational. There are two commonly accepted definitions of light-off
temperature:

- The temperature at which any emissions reduction is first seen,

- The temperature at which 50% emissions reduction of a particular pollutant is

observed, i.e. T50. The latter assumes near 100% reduction at a higher temperature.
We have observed (Ref. 8) that light-off can be quite sharp, i.e. a few tens of degrees
can take the catalyst from 0 to 100% emissions reduction

– Hence T50 can be a convenient measure. Whereas a measure of the inlet

temperature may give a good guide to light-off temperature, it will not represent the
operational temperature of the catalyst because of the exothermic reactions taking
place. The exhaust temperature will be much closer to this but our experience (Ref. 8)
has showed that this is still likely to underestimate the peak temperature.

2.2.2.2 Cold Starting

Automotive catalytic converters are quite efficient once they reach operating
temperature, typically destroying over 98% of the incoming hydrocarbons (HCs) and
carbon monoxide (CO). However, up to 80% of the emissions during the Federal Test
Procedure occur during the first few minutes when the engine is running rich, the
oxygen sensor is not yet operational, and the catalytic converter has not reached its
light-off temperature. Thus, to significantly reduce automotive emissions of HCs and
CO, a method must be found which will reduce the emissions during the cold start
period.

2.3 Tackling of Cold Starting

Tackling of cold start can be achieved by various methods like:

a. Electrical quick heating of catalyst

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b. Moving catalyst closer to engine manifolds

c. Thermal insulation

d. Phase Change Material (PCM)

e. Vacuum insulation system

2.3a Electrical quick heating

The concern over cold-start emissions has led to significant activity by auto
manufacturers and suppliers in developing new emissions treatment techniques.
Leading approaches include quick-heat of the catalyst electrically [Laing, 1994;
Socha et al., 1994] or with a catalyzed-fuel burner [Oser et al., 1994]. These
techniques typically require a minimum of 1 kW to 2 kW of power for 1 0 to 30
seconds in order to reduce (but not totally eliminate) the cold-start emissions. In
addition to significant added cost and complexity, these systems also undergo
repeated and severe thermal gradients. It is anticipated that these gradients may lead
to a reduction in system durability at a time when warranty periods are being
extended. Electrically heated catalyst systems also put the battery through repeated
deep-discharge cycles and stress the alternators.

2.3b Moving catalyst closer to engine manifold

Moving the catalyst closer to the engine manifold has also been used (often
with an electrically heated precatalyst) to reach light off temperatures more quickly.
In many autos, however, this strategy introduces additional unwanted heat into the
footwells of the cabin and into the engine compartment, where thermal degradation of
engine components (electronics, hoses, wire insulation, and other polymer materials)
is already a significant problem. Also, the catalyst is more susceptible to damaging
exhaust temperature excursions

2.3c Thermal insulation

This can involve double-walled insulating pipe leading from the manifold to
the catalyst, as well as hightemperature refractory insulation around the catalyst itself.
Sufficient insulation around the catalyst can maintain its temperature above lightoff
for several hours after the engine is shut off. Any trip initiated within this time then
would start with virtually no cold-start emissions. As with electrically heated and
fuel-fired catalysts, some vehicles may require air-injection to fully catalyze the fuel-
rich mixture typically present in the first few minutes of engine operation.

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Unfortunately, to provide sufficient thermal insulation for holding heat for

more than an hour or so, conventional refractory insulation must be extremely bulky
and heavy. Also, during steady-state operation of the engine, this insulation may
allow the catalyst temperature to exceed safe limits (about 1000°C) and cause thermal
degradation and loss of emission conversion efficiency.

2.3d Phase Change Material

In the present work an investigation was made of a solution based on the
exploitation of thermal capacitance to keep the catalyst temperature high during off-
operation periods. A phase-change material (PCM) with a transition temperature of
352.7 degrees C, which is slightly above the light-off temperature of the metallic
catalyst, was specially formulated, and a system comprising a catalytic converter
embedded in the PCM was designed and tested. Under normal engine operating
conditions, some of the thermal energy of the exhaust gases was stored in the PCM.
During the time that the vehicle was not in use, the PCM underwent partial
solidification, and the latent heat thus produced was exploited to maintain the catalyst
temperature within the desired temperature range for maximum conversion efficiency.

2.3e Vacuum insulation system with PCM

In addition to reducing heat loss, the converter uses about 2 kg of phase-

change material (PCM) to significantly boost the heat storage capacity of the
converter. As shown in Figure 1, the PCM, typically a eutectic salt or metal alloy, is
sealed in an annulus located between the converter monoliths and the vacuum
insulation. To protect the converter from over-heating, the vacuum insulation has a
variable thermal conductance feature. This feature is described in detail in an SAE
paper [Benson, et al., 1994], and a patent [Benson and Potter, 1994]. By heating a few
grams of a metal hydride material containing hydrogen, the pressure of hydrogen gas
within the vacuum insulation can be varied between 0.01 and 10 torr. This pressure is
at most about 1% of atmospheric pressure, well below a combustion level. Even this
small amount of hydrogen, however, can cause a variation in the thermal conductivity
of the vacuum insulation of more than 100:1. The hydride can be actively controlled
via an electric resistance heater, or passively controlled by the heat of the converter.

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Fig 7: Cat-Con with Vacuum Insulation System

3. CASE STUDY

3.1 Effect of Combination of PCM and Vacuum Insulation System on

the Heat Retention Capacity of a Prototype:

This approach involves introducing a very small amount of hydrogen gas into the
vacuum insulation. This can be accomplished by mounting a small metal hydride with
an electric resistance heater to the cold side of the vacuum insulation. The pressure of
the hydrogen is a predictable function of the hydride temperature, and the gas is
readily reabsorbed whenever the hydride is allowed to cool. By controlling the
temperature of the hydride, the thermal conductance of the insulation can be
continuously adjusted between a minimum value determined by the construction of
the insulation and a maximum value bounded roughly by the thermal conductance of
the hydrogen gas. This variable-conductance insulation (VCI) was applied to
automotive catalytic converter thermal management. The first two catalytic converter
test articles (TA-CC1 and TA-CC2) contained cordierite converter monoliths without
precious-metal loading and were used only to verify thermal performance modeling.
A standard laboratory heat-retention test involved heating the converter to 650°C with
an electric air heater and monitoring the converter cooldown. The time to reach a
conservative light-off temperature of 350°C was used to evaluate heat-retention

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performance. Based on EPA converter cooldown data [EPA, 1993], a baseline

converter was defined to have a thermal conductance of 30 W/m2K (R-0.19
ft2h°F/Btu insulation) at 500°C, resulting in a cooldown from 650°C to 350°C in 25
minutes (in 27°C still air). The vacuum insulation of TA-CC1 reduced converter
thermal conductance to 1.1 W/m2K (R-5.2) and increased the time above 350°C to 90
minutes. Phase-change material (PCM) was added to the design to increase heat
storage. For the second test article (TA-CC2), aluminum (2.2 kg) was sealed in
stainless steel between the outer surface of the converter monolith and the vacuum
insulation. The additional latent and sensible energy storage of this PCM tripled the
heat storage capacity of the converter system. Thermal modeling and infra-red
thermography indicated that half of the remaining heat loss was occurring at the
converter inlet and outlet. In an attempt to reduce the radiation and natural convection
in these regions, porous ceramic inserts were added. The combination of the PCM
heat storage and the porous ceramic inserts resulted in a measured thermal
conductance of 0.54 W/m2K (R-11) and a cooldown from 650°C to 350°C in 10
hours.

Fig 8: Comparison between different methods like PCM, VCI, and conventional converter

4. REFERENCES:

[1] Taylor K.C., “Automotive Catalytic Converters”, Catalysis Science & Technology
Springer Verlag, Berlin, Vol 5 pp. 120 – 170 (1983)

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[2] Hall K, “Catalytic decomposition of Nitric Oxide over Cu-zeolites”, Journal of

catalyst
[3] Swati Bhimasenrao, “Experimental investigations on reduction of CO and HC in
SI engine with catalytic converter’’, technical paper 2007-32-0055
[4] Amy Harwell, ‘‘Benefits of Pd doped zeolites for cold start HC/NO emission
reduction for gasoline and E-85 fueled vehicles’’, technical paper 2018-01-0948
[5] Catalytic Air Pollution Control; Ronald M. Heck, Robert J. Farrauto; Suresh T.
Gulati
[6] The Performance of Chrome-Coated Copper as Metallic Catalytic Converter to
Reduce Exhaust Gas Emissions from Spark-Ignition Engine; AASEC 2017
[7] Advanced Catalytic Converter in Gasoline Enginer Emission Control: A Review,
ENCON 2016
[8] Catalytc Converter based on Non-Noble Material, International Journal of
Advanced Engineering Research and Studies E-issn2249-8974
[9] Lahousse, B Kern, H. Hadrane and L. Faillon, “Back pressure Characteristics of
Modern Three way Catalysts, Benefit on Engine Performance”, SAE Paper No. 2006-
01-1062
[10] Heck, R M., Farrauto, R. J., Catalytic pollution control, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
2002

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