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Efficiency and pollutant emissions of an SI engine

using biogas-hydrogen fuel blends: BIO60, BIO95,
H20BIO60 and H20BIO95

Willian C
ezar Nadaleti a,b,*, Grzegorz Przybyla b, Bruno Vieira a,

Diuliana Leandro a, Gizele Gadotti a, Maurizio Quadro a, Erico Kunde a,
Luciara Correa a, Robson Andreazza a, Andrea Castro a
a
Center of Engineering - CEng, Post-graduation Program - Master Course in Environmental Sciences, Federal
University of Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
b
Institute of Thermal Technology, Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of
Technology, Gliwice, Poland

article info abstract

Article history: Our planet has been experiencing abrupt climate changes in recent years. The major
Received 28 September 2017 contributor to this phenomenon is, without doubt, emissions of gases derived from
Received in revised form petroleum-based fuels, compared to their high consumption, especially diesel and gaso-
17 February 2018 line. In Brazil, the sum of all motorized trips shows that more than half of them (60%) is
Accepted 19 February 2018 based on public transport, with buses carrying 94% of all those who use this service. These
Available online xxx vehicles, in their vast majority, use the technology of Compression Ignition (CI) engines. On
the other hand, studies have shown that the country has a high biofuel production po-
Keywords: tential from various sources, such as landfills and hydroelectric plants, with an extensive
H20BIO95 production of biogas and hydrogen, that can be used, for example, in Spark Ignition (SI)
H20BIO60 engines. Nevertheless, SI engines have lower efficiency than CI engines. Part load operation
Methane of SI engines is conventionally achieved by the use of a throttle to control the airflow or air-
Hydrogen fuel mixture into the engine. When operating at partial load the throttle causes exergy
Air pollution losses what affecting on decreasing engine efficiency. With the objective of analysing the
emission of pollutants and the efficiency of conversion of fuel chemical energy, this work
presents an analysis on the use of blends of hydrogen (H2), biogas (BIO60) and methane
(BIO95) using an SI engine. The system was operated in partial load and the addition of H2
was an attempt to increase efficiency by reducing the pumping work through the throttle,
once it was possible increasing the lambda value. The tests were performed at different
ignition angles and air/fuel ratio. The value of ignition advance angle has been adjusted to
obtain maximum Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE) of the engine. It was possible to recognize
that the addition of H2 allowed the combustion limits to be extended. On the other hand,
reduced values of CO and NOx emissions could be achieved.
© 2018 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

* Corresponding author. Center of Engineering - CEng, Post-graduation Program - Master Course in Environmental Sciences, Federal
University of Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
E-mail addresses: williancezarnadaletti@gmail.com, willian.nadaleti@ufpel.edu.br (W.C. Nadaleti).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.02.133
0360-3199/© 2018 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Nadaleti WC, et al., Efficiency and pollutant emissions of an SI engine using biogas-hydrogen fuel
blends: BIO60, BIO95, H20BIO60 and H20BIO95, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.ijhydene.2018.02.133
2 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 e1 1

diseases that can also be reduced with the use of renewable

Nomenclature fuels.
In countries such as China, according to the estimation of
Abbreviations the World Bank, the annual economic loss caused by air
CO carbon monoxide pollution could approach as much as 1.2% of China's GDP [5].
NOx nitrogen oxides In this context, the production and consumption of energy
HC hydrocarbon from clean sources is of extreme importance for the protec-
CO2 carbon dioxide tion of the environment and the maintenance of people's
H2 hydrogen quality of life.
BIO60 biogas with 60% of CH4 by vol In this sense, to improve metropolitan air quality, it is
BIO95 biogas with 95% of CH4 by vol possible to replace diesel oil with clean energy forms such as
H20BIO60 hydrogen enriched biogas Bio60 hydrogen and methane blends [6]. In order to reduce and
H20BIO95 hydrogen enriched biogas Bio95 control air pollution and noise emission by mobile sources
ECU electronic control unit (automotive vehicles), the National Council for the Environ-
HCNG hydrogen-enriched compressed natural gas ment (CONAMA) created the Air Pollution Control Programs
CH4 methane for Automotive Vehicles: PROCONVE (automobiles, trucks,
CI compression ignition buses and road and agricultural machinery) and PROMOT
SI spark ignition (motorcycles and the like), setting deadlines, maximum
BTE brake thermal efficiency emission limits and establishing technological requirements
LHV lower heating value for domestic and imported motor vehicles.
kWh kilowatt hour Table 1 contains the current emission limits for phase P7,
AFR air fuel ratio CONAMA no. 403, in g/kWh, which have been in force since
IMEP Indicated Mean Effective Pressure January 1, 2012, for diesel heavy vehicles, including public
transport buses:
Symbols
On the other hand, Nadaleti et al. [8,9] pointed out that
p pressure
Brazil can generate clean energy by landfills and hydroelectric
t time
plants (biogas and hydrogen) about 5,57Eþ09 Nm3/year and
T temperature
2.76Eþ6 ton/year in 2016, respectively. For the authors, this
K Kelvin
potential can supply different fleets of vehicles that operate
h efficiency
with diesel in the country, especially using blends of these
r density
gases.
kg kilogram
Considering the number of diesel vehicles in urban areas,
% percentage
especially buses, an important application of these blends is
Nm3 normal cubic meter
the replacement of these heavy vehicles [10]. However, since
l lambda
spark ignition engines are known to have reduced efficiency
compared to traditional diesel ignition by compression, one of
the possible ways of reducing pumping losses during partial
loads is to operate the engine under lean mixture. The mixture
Introduction of H2 and CH4 can lead to a high thermal efficiency and
flammability limits, allowing the reduction in the emission of
In Brazil, the urban bus fleet is considered one of the largest in atmospheric pollutants [11].
the world, with about 107 thousand vehicles and this is the In order to try to solve the problem of emissions of atmo-
main type of public transportation in the country [1,2]. spheric pollutants from the use of diesel in the transportation
Regarding the economic costs related to the price of diesel, the sector in Brazil, this paper presents an analysis of the use of
main fuel used in these vehicles, in the base year of 2013, the the biogas-hydrogen mixture in a spark ignition engine. The
litre of diesel cost an average of R$ 2.49. In 2017, according to system was fed with biogas, CH4 and H2 in the mixture. The
the National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels pollutants were calculated by means of two gas analyzers
~ o Paulo was estimated at
[3], the price of the litre of diesel in Sa incorporated in the SI engine, in order to compare the emis-
R$ 3.30. This represents a 32.5% increase in costs per litre of sion values.
diesel compared to 2013.
Regarding environmental and public health aspects, ac-
cording to the Environmental Protection Agency [4], carbon Methodology/calculation
monoxide (CO) released in the burning inside ICO engines is
carried by the lungs of humans and tends to form carbox- Experimental test rig to emissions and efficiency evaluation
yhemoglobin, providing a picture of hypoxia by elevation of
carboxyhemoglobin - COHb and among the effects of CO on The experiment was performed on the naturally aspirated
the human organism we can mention: problems of vision, three-cylinder SI engine. During the tests, the engine ran at
cognitive ability, manual dexterity, difficulty performing fixed speed 1500 rpm. For all fuel mixtures, the engine output
complex tasks, respiratory problems, etc. These are some of power was 18% of the maximum power (per 1500 rpm) ach-
the morbidities that can be caused by atmospheric pollution, ieved by the engine in the stoichiometric combustion of the

Please cite this article in press as: Nadaleti WC, et al., Efficiency and pollutant emissions of an SI engine using biogas-hydrogen fuel
blends: BIO60, BIO95, H20BIO60 and H20BIO95, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.ijhydene.2018.02.133
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 e1 1 3

Table 1 e Limits of emissions, in g/kWh (P7).

Pollutants/emission limits
NOx HC CO CH4 MP NMHC Opacity (m1)
Test ESC(3)/ELR(4) 2,0 0,46 1,5 NA 0,02 NA 0,5
Test ETC (1) 2,0 NA 4,0 1,10 0,03 (2) 0,55 Na

(1) Cycle E.T.C. - called European Cycle in Transient Regime - test cycle consisting of one thousand and eight hundred transient modes, second to
second, simulating real conditions of use. Gas engines are tested only in this cycle. (2) Gas engines are not subject to this limit. (3) Cycle E. S. C -
called European Cycle in Constant Regime - consists of a test cycle with 13 modes of operation in steady state; (4) E.L.R. - called the European
Load Response Cycle - test cycle consisting of a sequence of four stages at constant revolutions and increasing loads of ten to one hundred
percent for the determination of the opacity of the exhaust emission.
Source: Adapted from CONAMA [7].

Bio95 fuel. Biofuels Bio60 (60% methane) and Bio95 (95%
methane, 5% CO2), as well as mixtures (blends) with 20% (vol.)
H2, named HBIO60 and HBIO95, were tested. The engine was
operated at partial load (typical urban condition), aiming to
increase the combustion limit of the air-fuel mixture in the
presence of H2. With improved energy efficiency, it is
encouraged to replace the diesel engine in the national urban
bus fleet. The test rig and measuring equipment test system
are shown in Fig. 1:
During the experiment, the composition of the air-fuel
mixture was controlled using the signal from wide band
lambda sensor. The fuelling system of the test rig allows
preparing the gas mixture consisted of CO, CO2, H2, CH4 and
N2. During the tests only CH4, CO2 and H2 were distributed to
the mixer. The volumetric flow of each gas component has
been manually adjusted by a special valve to obtain the
demanded composition of biogas or biogas enriched
hydrogen. The volumetric flows of the gases were measured
by rotameter equipped with temperature and pressure sensor.
The final mixture composition was controlled using gas
analyzer. The total flow of gas mixture was measured by Co-
riolis mass flow meter. The pressure measurements in the
first cylinder were performed using piezoelectric pressure
transducer. This type of transducer through so-called charge
amplifier generates an analogue (voltage) pressure signal
which is then sampled at a sufficient frequency by the data
acquisition system. In addition, the absolute pressure within
the intake manifold was recorded with a piezoresistive abso-
lute pressure transducer.
At both measurement ducts, the pressure signal was
sampled at a predefined crank angle using the encoder. Mea-
surements were carried out with a resolution of 1024

Fig. 1 e The experimental test rig.

Please cite this article in press as: Nadaleti WC, et al., Efficiency and pollutant emissions of an SI engine using biogas-hydrogen fuel
blends: BIO60, BIO95, H20BIO60 and H20BIO95, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.ijhydene.2018.02.133
4 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 e1 1

measurement points per revolution of the crankshaft. The Equations

encoder was also equipped with a position marker device for
indicating the position of a piston in a cylinder. To determination of specific emissions, Eq. (1) was used:

Equipment components of the experimental system n'c m_ f ½comMcom

ecom ¼ 3:6$106 (1)
Ne ð½CO þ ½CO2  þ ½HCÞ
The main components of the experimental set up include:
where:
- Three-cylinder SI engine with a capacity of 796 cm3 and ecom: specific emission, in g/kWh;
compression ratio equal to 9.3, modified for experimental n'c : carbon content in the fuel, in kmolcarbon/kgfuel;
purposes and use of combustible gases; m_ f : mass flowrate of the fuel, in kg/s;
- Electric motor (motor and generator), with possibility to [com]: molar fraction of “com” exhaust gas component;
start the engine and later apply load to the operating cycle; Mcom: atomic mass of “com” exhaust gas component, in kg/
- Exhaust gas analyzers, brands SAXON INFRALYT EL and kmol;
CAPELEC CAP 3201; Ne: brake engine power, in kW;
- Fuel gas analyzer prior to use, brand SICK MAIHAK S710; [CO], [CO2], [HC]: molar fraction of CO, CO2 and HC in the
- In-cylinder pressure recording and data acquisition system exhaust.
equipped with Kistler pressure sensors. To calculate the COV of IMEP, Eq. (2) was used:

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
The engine was equipped with the three-way catalytic P0 
i¼N 2
converter. Therefore, the composition of the exhaust gas was
1
N0
IMEPi;i  IMEPi
i¼1
measured directly after the outlet of the TWC. COV of IMEP ¼ (2)
IMEPi

Operation control where:

COV of IMEP: coefficient of variation of indicated mean
The main components for control the engine and electric effective pressure, in %;
generator work include: N0: number of analyzed working cycles;
IMEPi,i: IMEP of the following (i) working cycle, in J/m3 and;
- Engine coolant temperature: 80 ± 5  C, stabilized by heat lMEPi : average value of the IMEP obtained from N0 working
exchangers and lubricating and cooling liquid system; cycles, in J/m3.
- Engine operation: Electronic Control Unit (ECU); The brake engine power was measured on the crankshaft
- Gases tested: Supplied to the engine through a gas mixer. of the engine and next the brake thermal efficiency was
The volumetric flow was manually controlled by a valve to calculated by Eq. (3):
obtain the desired mixtures and the gases remained in
Ne
high-pressure cylinders prior to their use; BTE ¼ (3)
m_ f LHVf
- Volumetric and mass gases flow: rotameters and Coriolis
mass flow meter for measuring the fuel flow; where:
- Pressure and temperature measured in different locations BTE: brake engine efficiency;
of the rig: Pressure and temperature sensors coupled to the Ne: brake engine power, in kW;
routers; m_ f : mass flowrate of the fuel, in kg/s and;
LHVf: lower heating value of the fuel, in kJ/kg.
An overview of the system is presented in Fig. 2. Rotame- The Net Heat Release Rate (HRRnet) for all investigated
ters are visible on the left. On the right, there is the test rig mixtures was computed using a single-zone combustion
with all equipment used for the tests. model. The specific heat ratio employed in this model was

Fig. 2 e Measuring devices (left); SI engine system (right).

Please cite this article in press as: Nadaleti WC, et al., Efficiency and pollutant emissions of an SI engine using biogas-hydrogen fuel
blends: BIO60, BIO95, H20BIO60 and H20BIO95, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.ijhydene.2018.02.133
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 e1 1 5

calculated as a function of the in-cylinder temperature and whose value was more than 9.7% points higher than that
the charge composition. The HRRnet equation is as follows: presented by Bio95 (l ¼ 1; az ¼ 30 deg):
  It was found that when operated in the lean mixture, the
1 dp dV
ðHRRnet Þ ¼ VðaÞ þ kðT; MFBÞpðaÞ (4) engine showed increased BTE. Even without the presence of
kðT; MFBÞ  1 da da
hydrogen, when comparing BIO95 in lambda 1.4 with
where: H20BIO95 in stoichiometric condition, the first had efficiency
k(T,MFB): the function of the specific heat ratio, in kJ/ about five times higher compared to the second one. This
kmolK; phenomenon can be explained by the greater amount of ni-
V(a): the engine volume as a function of the crank angle, in trogen present in the a/c mixture as the air content is
m3; increased and thereby the internal temperature of the cylin-
p(a): the in-cylinder pressure measured as a function of the der is reduced. In addition, at lower temperatures, heat losses
crank angle, in Pa. between engine elements are reduced, directly impacting
An average of 100 working cycles was used as a represen- higher efficiency.
tative engine cycle in the computations. The MFB function On the other hand, besides the BTE, it is important to
was obtained with the Rassweiler and Withrow algorithm to consider the COV of IMEP of each mixture (Fig. 3 right). Ac-
resolve Eq. (4). cording to Nadaleti et al. [16], reduced values of this factor
The analysis of errors, considering the specifications of provides better engine operating conditions. In this case, the
each component of Experimental System was carried out mixture without the presence of hydrogen (BIO95e1.4) pre-
using Eq. (5): sented COV of IMEP equal to 10.5%. The BIO95-1 blend pre-
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sented 3% COV of IMEP. The H20BIO95-1 and HBIO95e1.7
u n  2
uX va blends presented coefficients of variation of indicated mean
ua ¼ t u2bi (5)
i¼1
vbi effective pressure of 2.0 and 6.2%, respectively.
A study presented by Cho and He [17] shows that, when
where: using an SI engine operating with natural gas, the lower fuel
ua: Maximum uncertainty to determine the value “a”; presence and higher air presence, that is, higher lambdas
a: Value for which uncertainty is described; cause higher values of COV of IMEP. In the work of Ma et al.
b: Measured or calculated value whose function is the [18] employing blends of natural gas and hydrogen in a CNG
determined value “a”; engine, lean mixtures with lambda greater than 1.2 led to
ub: Maximum uncertainty to determine the value “b”; higher COV values of IMEP.
n: Number of values that is used to determine “a”. Towards identifying the optimal operating condition,
COVIMEP can be used [19]. It is an important indicator of
combustion stability in an engine [20] and is frequently used
Results and discussion as a parameter to quantify stable engine operation with
minimum fuel consumption [21e23]. In the case of biogas
Brake thermal efficiency and COVIMEP with 60% CH4 content, the addition of H2 also led to increases
in BTE. However, the reduction in lambda value also led to
Recent research indicates that the presence of H2 in natural lower COV values of IMEP in this case. For this reason, it may
gas provides increases in engine efficiency since hydrogen has be interesting to use hydrogen with biogas, even if it presents
desirable characteristics for burning [12e15]. In Fig. 3, the lower methane contents, but maintaining the stoichiometric
brake thermal efficiency BTE analysis allows concluding that mixture, providing stability to the burning process. In lambda
biogas with 95% methane content and 20% hydrogen content equal to 1, COV of IMEP showed the lowest value in this mixing
(H20BIO95) presented efficiency of 0.17 (l ¼ 1.7; az ¼ 50 deg), condition.

Bio95-1 Bio95-1.4 20HBio95-1 20HBio95-1.7 Bio95-1 Bio95-1.4 20HBio95-1 20HBio95-1.7

Bio60-1 20HBio60-1 20HBio60-1.5 Bio60-1 20HBio60-1 20HBio60-1.5
0.22 20
17.6
0.188
18
Brake Thermal Efficiency BTE, -

0.20
16
0.171 0.170
0.166 14
COVIMEP, %

0.18 0.160
0.155 0.154 12 10.5
0.16 10
7.6
8
6.2
0.14
6

4 3.0
0.12 2.0 2.1
2

0.10 0

Fig. 3 e Brake Thermal Efficiency (left) and COVIMEP vs fuel mixture (right).

Please cite this article in press as: Nadaleti WC, et al., Efficiency and pollutant emissions of an SI engine using biogas-hydrogen fuel
blends: BIO60, BIO95, H20BIO60 and H20BIO95, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.ijhydene.2018.02.133
6 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 e1 1

Other recent work corroborates the results of this study. is observed that the flame development period was shortest
When working with the spark ignition engine with direct in- and equal to 27.9 CA deg.
jection of compressed natural gas enriched with hydrogen, Liu On the other hand, for BIO60-1, the combustion duration
et al. [24] showed that COV of IMEP decreases with the in- was the highest, due to the very presence of CO2 that does not
crease of the hydrogen fraction in the mixtures. For the au- burn. In this situation, the internal temperature of the cylin-
thors, in addition to the presence of hydrogen, the variation in der was 1,992 K, lower than 2,643 K for H20BIO95-1, showing
the connection durations leads to a great variation in the cy- that the presence of CO2 and the absence of H2 directly in-
clic torque. Therefore, the integration between different pa- fluence this parameter. However, in this air/fuel mixing con-
rameters must be analyzed to achieve optimized COV of IMEP dition, the addition of H2 forming H20BIO60-1 reduced the
values. combustion time with a consequent increase in NOx
emissions.
Combustion duration and flame development period
duration Pollutant emissions

Fig. 4 shows the duration of combustion process and flame In the present study, the exhaust gas composition was
development period (DCA10MFB). The results are given in measured after the three-way catalyst converter (TWC)
crank angle degree: installed in the outlet of the engine. Based on the measured
Regarding the combustion process, the presence of composition and the data regarding fuel composition, engine
hydrogen reduced the combustion duration and flame devel- power the specific emission of toxic components has been
opment period. The clear link between the values of the flame calculated.
development period and combustion duration can be In Fig. 5 the specific emission of CO and in-cylinder
observed. The shorter is flame development period the shorter maximum temperature has been shown. It was verified in
is combustion duration for each of used mixtures. Huang et al. this work that the CO emissions were lower when the com-
[25] working with different blends of natural gas and hydrogen bustion time was higher. In this situation, as the combustion
found increased engine efficiency as the combustion time time is high, the more complete the burning process, and
decreased and the H2 content increased. The same conclusion therefore the less reminiscent carbon monoxide is emitted
was verified by Moreno et al. [26] testing mixtures of methane into the atmosphere:
and hydrogen in an SI engine. Therefore, the increase in the A clear impact of H2 additive in fuel for CO emission was
duration of the combustion provides greater heat losses [27]. observed, but mainly during stoichiometric combustion of
However, from the point of view of emissions, higher tested fuels. In a study reported by Jehad, Gupta and Bansal
combustion times provide more complete burnsIt should be [29], investigating the effect of combustion time on the
pointed that not only combustion time is important but also emission of pollutants in an SI engine, in addition to reducing
the position of the piston in the cylinder when the end of CO emissions, the longer combustion time reduced NOx
combustion occurs. If combustion process is too much emissions. Addition of hydrogen to the methane favours the
extended for expansion stroke the incomplete combustion increase in temperature since the former increases the flam-
can occur. Meanwhile, it is preferable that the combustion mability limits of the mixture.
rate is minimal with the high-pressure increase and temper- However, for the H20BIO95e1.7 blend compared to
ature inside the engine cylinder. To Yamin et al. [28] the H20BIO95-1, the higher amount of air in the blend decreased
minimum combustion duration leads to decreasing the heat the cylinder temperature and slightly increased CO emissions.
loss, increasing performance and improving the thermal ef- Furthermore, the reduction in fuel consumption with lambda
ficiency. The fastest combustion process verified in this study ranging from 1 to 1.7 is considerable. In the case of BIO60, the
was that of H20BIO95-1, equal to 65.7 CA deg. For this mixture addition of H2 in lambda 1 resulted in the lowest CO emissions

Bio95-1 Bio95-1.4 20HBio95-1 20HBio95-1.7 Bio95-1 Bio95-1.4 20HBio95-1 20HBio95-1.7

Bio60-1 20HBio60-1 20HBio60-1.5 Bio60-1 20HBio60-1 20HBio60-1.5
150 139.4 50
44.4
43.6
45 41.4
125 114.9 114.3 38.9
Combustion duration , CA deg

40
ΔCA10MFB, CA deg

97.0 34.0
35 31.1
100
27.9
80.4 30
75.3
75 65.7 25

20
50
15

10
25
5

0 0

Fig. 4 e Combustion duration (left) and flame development period duration (right).

Please cite this article in press as: Nadaleti WC, et al., Efficiency and pollutant emissions of an SI engine using biogas-hydrogen fuel
blends: BIO60, BIO95, H20BIO60 and H20BIO95, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.ijhydene.2018.02.133
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 e1 1 7

Bio95-1 Bio95-1.4 20HBio95-1 20HBio95-1.7 Bio95-1 Bio95-1.4 20HBio95-1 20HBio95-1.7

Bio60-1 20HBio60-1 20HBio60-1.5 Bio60-1 20HBio60-1 20HBio60-1.5
2.5 2.21 3000
2 643

Specific emission of CO; eCO, g/kW h

1.93 2 419
2500

In-cylinder max temperature, K

2.0 1.76
1.68 2 121
1 992
1 865 1 843
2000
1.41
1.5 1 628

1.09 1500
1.07
1.0
1000

0.5
500

0.0 0

Fig. 5 e Specific emission of CO (left) and In-cylinder max temperature (right).

of 1.07 g/kWh, making the use of this mixture interesting. It propagation velocity results in slow heat release [35]. Hence,
should be noted that Indicated value is nearing for the result incomplete combustion caused by the extinction of the flame
obtained with mixture Bio95e1.4. can cause high HC emissions [36]. On the other hand, un-
For several authors, the emission of CO decreases consid- burned HC is emitted by the poor distribution of the mixture in
erably with the increase of the addition of hydrogen to the the engine [17]. Other works report the same effect of
mixture. According to the work of Akansu et al. [30] and Kar- increasing HC emissions under lean conditions engine oper-
agoz et al. [31], the addition of hydrogen to natural gas has ations [37e42]. Moreover, the temperature of the combustion
reduced carbon monoxide emissions, even when using the chamber is increased with increasing hydrogen fraction
compression ignition engine. resulting in decreased HC emission [43].
Therefore, in engines fueled with methane and hydrogen Because of the dominant impact of temperature (Zeldovich
gases, a significant portion of CO emissions comes from the mechanism), the formation of NOx is favoured by fuel-rich
decomposition of engine oils, which indicates a very high mixtures (with low values of l) [26,44e46]. Comparing BIO95
degree of complete combustion with these gaseous fuels. The and BIO60 both in the stoichiometric mixture, high tempera-
gaseous fuel emits less CO than conventional fuels used in SI tures in the combustion chamber increase the formation of
engines [32]. This fact indicates that the combined use of NOx. In this case, the engine operating with methane had a
methane and hydrogen can provide more complete burns higher combustion chamber temperature, which explains the
than biogas burned in isolation, contributing to the reduction formation of higher NOx concentrations.
of CO emissions. It is probably caused by the higher temper- Fast burning velocity and high flame temperature of
ature inside the cylinder engine which causes better condi- hydrogen tend to simulate the formation of NOx [47]. It can be
tions for combustion of CO. observed among the BIO95-1, H20BIO95-1 and H20BIO60-1,
On the other hand, in this work it was possible to verify whose have shown the highest temperatures and lowest
another important phenomenon: the increase of the lambda combustion duration time. On the other hand, the lowest
value in the presence of H2 in the mixture led directly to higher emissions of NOx where observed to BIO95e1.4, BIO60-1 and
values of CO emissions. In that situation, hydrogen can be H20BIO60e1.5, respectively.
burned in some oxygen rich area and the fast burning prop- However, comparing BIO60 and H20BIO60, Fig. 6, both
erties and high stoichiometric air-fuel ratio of hydrogen make under stoichiometric mixture, the second one has presented
it consume more adjacent oxygen, which stimulates CO for- higher values of NOx emission, since in this case the H2 shows
mation [33]. the negative effect of its presence: an increase in the internal
Considering HC emissions, as to the CO, complete com- temperature of the cylinder, which, although reducing CO and
bustion provides lower levels of hydrocarbon emissions. HC emissions, causes an increase in the emissions of nitrogen
When the air content in the air-fuel mixture is increased (<l), oxides due to the inherent NOx thermal formation
it provides higher HC emissions to BIO95. If l is higher than 1 characteristics:
than the local and average in-cylinder temperature is lower According to Park and Lee [48], high-temperature ignition,
compared to the stoichiometric mixture and this contributes i.e., above 1400 K sets the development of thermal NO (Zel-
to the increase in HC emission. Moreover, when is added to dovich). Furthermore, according to the authors, increasing the
the mixture, the unburned hydrocarbon value decreases. It temperature to values above 1400 K leads to an even faster
can be explained by the fact that hydrogen can speed up flame formation rate of NO.
propagation, i.e., reducing the quenching distance. Therefore, Besides that, conventional 3-way catalysts are quite cited
reducing the possibilities of incomplete combustion [34]. for NOx minimization [49,50]. In this work, it was used the 3-
Thereby, H20BIO95 and BIO95 fuels in stoichiometric con- way catalytic converter that works property for stoichio-
ditions presented lower emissions of 1.86 and 2.3 g/kWh of metric mixtures. Even that, for most mixtures, it was possible
HC, respectively. Considering lean mixture, slow flame to obtain lowest values for lean combustion, so in fact, the

Please cite this article in press as: Nadaleti WC, et al., Efficiency and pollutant emissions of an SI engine using biogas-hydrogen fuel
blends: BIO60, BIO95, H20BIO60 and H20BIO95, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.ijhydene.2018.02.133
8 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 e1 1

Bio95-1 Bio95-1.4 20HBio95-1 20HBio95-1.7 Bio95-1 Bio95-1.4 20HBio95-1

Bio60-1 20HBio60-1 20HBio60-1.5 20HBio95-1.7 Bio60-1 20HBio60-1
9.0 0.6
0.53
7.7 7.6
8.0

Specific emission of HC; eHC, g/kW h

0.5

Specific emission of NOx; eNOx, g/kW h

7.0

0.4 0.37
6.0 5.1
5.0 4.3
0.3
4.0
0.17
3.0 2.3 0.2 0.16
1.9 2.2
2.0
0.1 0.07 0.06
0.05
1.0

0.0 0.0

Fig. 6 e Specific emission of HC (left) and NOx (right).

presence of H2 in lean mixture does not increase the NOx The Heat Release Rate is defined as the rate at which the
emission. chemical energy of the fuel is released by the combustion
process [51]. Furthermore, the HHR is a fundamental param-
In-cylinder pressure and heat release ratio eter to analyze the combustion phenomena in the engine
cylinder.
The results presented in current study are an extenuation of The results of cylinder pressure and the rate of the heat
the results presented in publication [16]. Thereby, another release values versus crank angle and different fuel mixture
important parameter analyzed was the Heat Release Rate Net condition are shown in Fig. 7. Comparing BIO95-1 to 20BIO95-1
(HRRnet). A comparison of the In-cylinder pressure and the it becomes quite evident the increase in the In-cylinder
HRRnet for all investigated mixtures are given in Figs. 7 and 8. pressure due to the presence of the hydrogen in the blend.
It should be pointed that the experimental tests were per- In that situation, the HHR has a vertiginous increase. Ac-
formed for the ignition timing which corresponds to the cording to Kahraman et al. [52] and Mohammed, Baharom and
maximum brake thermal efficiency of the engine. Key Azia [53], the maximum pressure values are generally ob-
included in the diagram indicates the mixture. The descrip- tained by the addition of hydrogen to CNG, due to the addition
tion preceded by HHR applies to Heat Release Rate diagrams, of H2 could cause an increase in the flame speed of blends.
while the others apply to pressure diagrams. The value of Fig. 8 shows the In-cylinder pressure and HRRnet vs crank
ignition timing (before top dead centre) of each mixture is angle (mix BIO60 and H20BIO60).
described in the brackets: As verified for the pure BIO95 fuel compared to the mixture
with H2, BIO60 also presented increase of the In-cylinder
pressure with the addition of hydrogen to the blend. The

Bio95-1(30deg) Bio95-1.4(42.5deg)
20HBio95-1(32.5deg) 20HBio95-1.7(50deg)
1.6 HRRBio95-1 HRRBio95-1.4 20
Bio60-1(35deg) 20HBio60-1(37.5deg)
HRR20HBio95-1 HRR20HBio95-1.7 1.6 20
18 20HBio60-1.5(47.5deg) HRR20Bio60-1
1.4 HRRBio60-1 HRR20HBio60-1.5
18
16 1.4
In cylinder pressure p(α), MPa

1.2 p(α) p(α)

16
14
In cylinder pressure p(α), MPa

1.2
1.0 14
HRRnet, J/deg

12
1.0
HRRnet, J/deg

12
0.8 10
0.8 10
8
0.6 8
0.6
6
0.4 6
0.4
4
HRR 4
HRR
0.2
2 0.2
2

0.0 0 0.0 0
315 325 335 345 355 365 375 385 395 405 415 425 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430
CA α, deg CA α, deg

Fig. 7 e In-cylinder pressure and HRRnet vs crank angle Fig. 8 e In-cylinder pressure and HRRnet vs crank angle
(mix BIO95 and H20BIO95). (mix BIO60 and H20BIO60).

Please cite this article in press as: Nadaleti WC, et al., Efficiency and pollutant emissions of an SI engine using biogas-hydrogen fuel
blends: BIO60, BIO95, H20BIO60 and H20BIO95, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.ijhydene.2018.02.133
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 e1 1
most expressive value is reached by the 20HBIO60 fuel in
stoichiometric condition, which gave higher HRR rates.
Not only the presence of H2 in the gas fuel causes the
higher value of max in-cylinder pressure. It should be noted
that the earlier is ignition timing the higher maximum pres-
sure in cylinder occurs. So, the position point of maximum
pressure regarding TDC and its value in the engine cylinder
depends on ignition timing and fuel composition. For the
presented results the values of In-cylinder pressure during
combustion process are higher even the lean air-fuel mixture
(H20BIO60 and H20BIO95) is combusted comparing to com-
bustion of pure Biofuel (BIO60 and HBIO95) under stoichio-
metric condition. Since the difference in the rate of heat
release is affected by the mixture of hydrogen with natural gas
during combustion, Tango € z et al. [54] investigated the change
in the rate of heat release with increasing compression ratio
and the hydrogen fraction in the blends. In the same way, the
presence of the hydrogen leads to the advance of the HRR.
Furthermore, adding hydrogen can cause the blend's burning
velocity to be increased, which can provide the maximum rate
of heat release [55e57].
Conclusions
The experimental analysis developed in this research brought
as main conclusions the following:
1. Since hydrogen extends fuel combustion limits, its addi-
tion to biogas with different content of CO2 produced the
engine with different modes of operation, especially with
higher lambda values (lean air-fuel mixture). This fact al-
lows changing te position (increased opening) of throttle in
SI engine operated under low load and by this way improve
the energy balance of the engine (lower exergy losses).
2. The analysis of the BTE of the SI engine allows concluding
that biogas with 95% methane content and 20% hydrogen
content (H20BIO95) combusted with lambda 1.7 presented
efficiency of 18.8%, whose value was higher of about 3.3%
points above the presented by Bio95-1. It should be pointed
that in this case the fuel consumption by the engine will be
reduced by about 20%.
3. Reduced COVIMEP values provided better engine operating
conditions. In this case, the mixture without the presence
of hydrogen (BIO95e1.4) presented COV of IMEP equal to
10.5%. The BIO95-1 mixture had COVIMEP of 3%. The mix-
tures H20BIO95-1 and HBIO95e1.7 presented coefficients of
variation of indicated mean effective pressure of 2.0 and
6.2%, respectively. Therefore, the presence of the H2 could
be provided enhancements in this parameter.
4. In the case of BIO60, the addition of H2 in lambda 1 resulted
in the lowest CO emissions (based on the data of upstream
of the three-way catalytic converter) of 1.07 g/kWh and is
very similar to the value obtained for mixture Bio95 in
lambda 1.4 and without the H2 additive. For both mixtures
is observed high similarity in shape of the heat release rate
(HRRnet). Highest values of the specific emission of CO
occurred for stoichiometric mixtures of BIO60 and BIO95.
What is quite surprising, but it should be pointed that the
ignition timing was adjusted to obtain the highest value of
Please cite this article in press as: Nadaleti WC, et al., Efficiency and pollutant emissions of an SI engine using biogas-hydrogen fuel
blends: BIO60, BIO95, H20BIO60 and H20BIO95, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.ijhydene.2018.02.133
9
BTE. On the other hand, in this work, it was possible to
verify another important phenomenon: considering lean
mixtures combustion, the increase of lambda value in the
presence of H2 in the mixture led directly to higher values
of CO emissions.
5. The fuels H20BIO95 and BIO95 under stoichiometric con-
ditions presented 1.86 and 2.3 g/kWh of HC emissions,
respectively and is much higher. The fuels H20BIO95 and
BIO95 under stoichiometric conditions presented 1.86 and
2.3 g/kWh of HC emissions, respectively and is clearly
higher than the limit for diesel engines at the test ESC(3)/
ELR(4). It should be pointed that in this work the SI engine
has been tested and taking in to account to the parameters
of gas analyzer used during the tests the HC emission is
calculated as the equivalent of hexane.
6. The highest values of specific emission of NOx has been
observed for fuel Bio95 with lambda 1.4 and mixture
20HBIO95 under stoichiometric condition. The TWC works
with maximum efficiency in NOx reduction only when the
engine works under stoichiometric condition. It does not
reduce NOx when the engine is operated with the lean air-
fuel mixture. For most cases of combustion, the fuel mix-
tures under lean conditions the emission of NOx was very
low, even the TWC has not reduced it.
7. The flame developing period occurs faster after spark for
the fuel mixtures with the addition of H2. For this reason,
these mixtures are characterized by more dynamic HRRnet
occurred from the start of combustion up to achieving its
maximum value.
Acknowledgments
This work is partially supported by the Silesian University of
Technology from the statutory research source of Institute of
Thermal Technology.
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