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In recent research, bacteria, including Pseudomonas deceptionensis [21], Weissella oryzae [22],
Bacillus methylotrophicus [23], Brevibacterium frigoritolerans [24], and Bhargavaea indica
[25,26], have been explored for silver and gold nanoparticle synthesis. Similar potential for
producing nanoparticles has been showed by using several Bacillus and other species, including
Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, Rhodobacter sphaeroides [27–29], Listeria
monocytogenes, Bacillus subtilis, and Streptomyces anulatus [29,30]. Various genera of micro-
organisms have been reported for metal nanoparticle synthesis, including Bacillus, Pseudomo-
nas, Klebsiella, Escherichia, Enterobacter, Aeromonas, Corynebacterium, Lactobacillus,
Nanosensors detect
biomolecules,
External Brain environmental factors
Anmicrobial, lls
Detector
magnec field Ce s
Skin NP
anpathogen, Cosmecs Lung
mosquitocidal uses and
Breast
medical Gene
appliances Photoimaging Prostate
Cell delivery
labelling
Colorectal
NI
Bladder
R
NPs External
Tumor magnec field
Most applicable area cell
Second most-applicable area NPs Magnecally Various types of
Applicaons under clinical trial Photothermal responsive human cancer
therapy drug delivery
Figure 1. Biological Synthesis and Applications of Metal Nanoparticles in Biomedical and Environmental Fields. Silver nanoparticles are mostly used in the
medical field due to their antimicrobial effect, and zinc and titanium nanoparticles are used in cosmetics. Silver, zinc, and other metal nanoparticles are also used in food
packaging, wound dressings, catheters for drug delivery, and so on, due to the broad range of antimicrobial effects. The second application area of biological
nanoparticles is the development of sensors for various biomolecules related to environmental factors and agriculture. Furthermore, nanoparticles are also used in gene
delivery and cell labeling in plants and in medicine. Some applications of metal nanoparticles are still in development, such as photoimaging, photothermal therapy, and
magnetically responsive drug delivery. The mechanisms of the antibacterial and anticancer activities are shown in Figure S1 in the supplemental information online.
Rather than using bacteria, mycosynthesis is a straightforward approach for achieving stable
and easy biological nanoparticle synthesis. Most fungi containing important metabolites with
higher bioaccumulation ability and simple downstream processing are easy to culture for the
efficient, low-cost, production of nanoparticles [33]. Moreover, compared with bacteria, fungi
have higher tolerances to, and uptake competences for, metals, particularly in terms of the high
wall-binding capability of metal salts with fungal biomass for the high-yield production of
nanoparticles [33,34]. Three possible mechanisms have been proposed to explain the mycosyn-
thesis of metal nanoparticles: nitrate reductase action; electron shuttle quinones; or both [33].
Fungal enzymes, such as the reductase enzymes from Penicillium species and Fusarium
In the intracellular synthesis of nanoparticles, after culturing the microorganism for a certain optimum growth period,
biomass is collected by centrifugation and washed thoroughly with sterile water, then dissolved in sterile water with a
filter-sterilized solution of metal salt. Similar to extracellular synthesis, the reaction mixture is monitored by visual
inspection for a color change. After the incubation period, the biomass is removed by repeated cycles of ultrasonication,
washing, and centrifugation. These steps help to break down the cell wall and enable the nanoparticles to be released.
The mixture is then centrifuged, washed, and collected.
For the synthesis of nanoparticles by plant extracts, the plant parts (root, leaf, bark, etc.) are washed thoroughly with
distilled water and then cut into small pieces and boiled to perform the extraction. Next, the extract can be purified by
filtration and centrifugation. Different ratios of plant extract, metal salt solution, and water (depending on the plant species
and parts) are used for nanoparticle synthesis. This reaction mixture is incubated further to reduce the metal salt and
monitored for a change in color. After synthesis, the nanoparticles are collected by similar methodologies as in
microorganism-mediated synthesis.
In all of the synthesis methodologies, good monodispersity (i.e., a narrow size distribution) can be achieved. by controlling
the relevant critical parameters (Figure 2, main text).
The mechanism underlying this biological synthesis is not yet fully elucidated, but is enzyme dependent for micro-
organisms. For plants, it depends on the species and different phytochemical components. The exact mechanism and
components should be resolved in the near future.
The synthesis of nanoparticles using actinomycetes has not been well explored, even though
actinomycetes-mediated nanoparticles have good monodispersity and stability and significant
biocidal activities against various pathogens [36]. The synthesis of silver, copper, and zinc
nanoparticles using Streptomyces sp. has demonstrated that the reductase enzyme from
Streptomyces sp. has a vital role in the reduction of metal salts [37]. Similar to other micro-
organisms, yeasts have also been widely investigated for the extracellular synthesis of the
nanoparticles on a large scale, with straightforward downstream processing [38–41]. Further-
more, virus-mediated synthesis of nanoparticles is also possible. Viruses can be used to
synthesize nanowires with functional components that are assembled for various applications,
such as battery electrodes, photovoltaic devices, and supercapacitors [42]. However, most
microorganism-based syntheses for nanoparticles are slow with low productivity, and the
recovery of nanoparticles requires downstream processing. Furthermore, problems related
to microorganism-based synthesis for nanoparticles also include the complex steps, such
as microbial sampling, isolation, culturing, and maintenance.
Bacteria
Bhargavaea indica Extracellular Silver and Silver anisotropic; 30–100 Antimicrobial [25,26]
gold gold, flower
Fungus
Actinomycetes
Yeast
plants are suitable for fulfilling the high demand for nanoparticles with applications in the
biomedical and environmental areas. Recently, successfully synthesized gold and silver nano-
particles using the leaf and root extract from the medicinal herbal plant Panax ginseng [44–46]
suggested the use of medicial plants as resources. Additionally, various plant parts, including
leaves, fruits, stems, roots, and their extracts, have been used for the synthesis of metal
nanoparticles (Table 2) [47–61]. The exact mechanism and the components responsible for
plant-mediated synthetic nanoparticles remain to be elucidated. It has been proposed that
proteins, amino acids, organic acid, vitamins, as well as secondary metabolites, such as
flavonoids, alkaloids, polyphenols, terpenoids, heterocyclic compounds, and polysaccharides,
have significant roles in metal salt reduction and, furthermore, act as capping and stabilizing
agents for synthesized nanoparticles [62]. For instance, El-Kassas et al. showed that the
hydroxyl functional group from polyphenols and the carbonyl group from proteins of Corallina
officinalis extract could assist in forming and stabilizing gold nanoparticles [63]. Philip et al.
showed the synthesis and stabilization of silver and gold nanoparticles by biomolecule attach-
ment in Murraya koenigii leaf extract [64]. Reports also suggest that different mechanisms for
synthesizing nanoparticles exist in different plant species [18]. For instance, specific
This effect may be related to the fact that a larger number of functional groups that bind and
nucleate metal ions become accessible at pH 3.0 and 4.0 compared with pH 2.0. At pH 2.0, the
most accessible metal ions are involved in a smaller number of nucleation events, which leads to
the agglomeration of the metal [69]. By contrast, it was demonstrated using extracts from pears
that hexagonal and triangular gold nanoparticles are formed at alkaline pH values, whereas
nanoparticles do not form at acidic pHs [70]. In the case of silver nanoparticle synthesis from the
tuber powder of Curcuma longa, at alkaline pHs, extracts may contain more negatively charged
functional groups, which are capable of efficiently binding and reducing silver ions and, thus,
more nanoparticles were synthesized [69]. Another example of size- and shape-controlled
biological synthesis was shown by Kora et al., who demonstrated the size-controlled green
synthesis of silver nanoparticles of 5.7 0.2 nm by Anogeissus latifolia [55]. Triangular gold
nanoparticles were synthesized by Cymbopogon flexuosus extract [71]. Similarly, other con-
ditions, such as duration time, salt concentrations, and localizations for nanoparticles synthesis
depend on species and extracts (Figure 2) [5].
Producon of
heterogeneous NPs
with low yield
Processing parameters:
Opmizaon
1. Incubaon period
2. Mixing rao
3. Temperature
4. pH
5. Aeraon
Stable producon of
homogenous and
capped NPs with
high yield
Metal salts
Modify processing parameters Metal nanoparcles (NPs)
Figure 2. Parameters for Producing Monodispersed, Stable, and High-Yield Biological Nanoparticles. It is
widely accepted that extracts of microorganisms and plants can be used to synthesize metal nanoparticles. However,
controlling parameters, such as salt concentration, mixing ratio of biological extract and metal salt, pH value, temperature,
incubation time, and aeration, still requires optimization for producing homogenous nanoparticles of a similar size and
shape. Biological synthesis can also provide an additional capping layer on synthesized nanoparticles with the attachment
of several biologically active groups, which can enhance the efficacy of biological nanoparticles.
nanoparticles, nanoparticles obtained from biogenic routes are free from toxic contamination of
by-products that become attached to the nanoparticles during physiochemical synthesis, which
in turn limits the biomedical applications of the resulting nanoparticles [18]. The biological
synthesis of nanoparticles has several advantages, including rapid and ecofriendly production
methodologies and the cost-effective and biocompatible nature of synthesized nanoparticles.
Additionally, it does not require further stabilizing agents because plant and microorganism
constituents themselves act as capping and stabilizing agents [19]. Moreover, the surfaces of
biological nanoparticles progressively and selectively adsorb biomolecules when they contact
complex biological fluids, forming a corona that interacts with biological systems. These corona
layers provide additional efficacy over bare biological nanoparticles [72]. Thus, biological nano-
particles are more effective due to the attachment of biologically active components on the
surface of synthesized nanoparticles from the biological sources, such as plants and micro-
organisms. Especially in medicinal plants, there are abundant metabolites with pharmacological
activity that are hypothesized to attach to the synthesized nanoparticles, providing additional
benefit by enhancing the efficacies of the nanoparticles [19,73,74]. The additional advantage of
the biological synthesis of nanoparticles is that it can reduce the number of required steps,
including the attachment of some functional groups to the nanoparticle surface to make them
biologically active, an additional step required in physiochemical synthesis [18].
In addition, the time required for biosynthesizing nanoparticles is shorter than that for physi-
ochemical approaches. Many researchers have developed rapid synthetic methodologies with
high yields by utilizing various plant sources. For instance, silver nanoparticles have been
synthesized using various plant extracts within 2 min [75], 5 min [76], 45 min [44], 1 h [46],
and 2 h [45]. Gold nanoparticles have also been demonstrated to be synthesized within 3 min
[44], 5 min [45], and 10 min [46], highlighting the simple and fast synthesis of nanoparticles using
plant extracts [75].
El-Kassas et al. showed the cytotoxic activity of biological gold nanoparticles with an extract of
the red seaweed Corallina officinalis on the MCF7 human breast cancer cell line [63]. Nethi et al.
developed novel proangiogenic biosynthesized gold nanoconjugates to accelerate the growth of
new blood vessels through redox signaling [78]. Wang et al. showed the in vivo self-bioimaging
of tumors through fluorescent gold nanoclusters that were spontaneously biosynthesized by
cancerous cells [i.e., HepG2 (a human hepatocarcinoma cell line) and K562 (a leukemia cell line)]
[79]. Mukherjee et al. demonstrated a biosynthetic approach for the fabrication of gold nano-
bioconjugates using Olax scandens leaf extract and applied to lung (A549), breast (MCF-7) and
colon (COLO 205) cancer cell lines. These results showed the significant inhibition of cancer cell
proliferation and fluorescence imaging in A549 cancer cells [80]. Patra et al. demonstrated the
better biocompatibility of biological gold and silver nanoparticles in the HUVEC and ECV-304 cell
lines compared with chemically synthesized nanoparticles. Furthermore, biological nanopar-
ticles combined with a drug, doxorubicin, were shown to have a higher anticancer effect in the
B16F10 cell line compared with the same drug combined with chemical nanoparticles [81].
Other examples includes gold and silver nanoparticles derived from the leaf extract of the
medicinal plant, Butea monosperma, which were found to be stable and biocompatible towards
normal endothelial cells (HUVEC, ECV-304) as well as cancer cell lines (B16F10, MCF-7,
HNGC2, and A549). In addition, by combining with doxorubicin, the gold and silver nano-
particles showed significant inhibition of cancer cell proliferation (B16F10, MCF-7) compared
with that of chemically synthesized nanoparticles and isolated drug [64]. The possible anticancer
mechanism of nanoparticles is related to their size and shape, which are associated with the
generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), causing damage to cellular components [82].
Additionally, nanoparticles may result in apoptosis via mitochondria-dependent and caspase-
dependent pathways [76] (Figure S1 in the supplemental information online).
For antimicrobial applications, investigations also showed the higher antimicrobial activity of
biologically synthesized nanoparticles compared with physicochemically mediated nanopar-
ticles. Mukherjee et al. demonstrated that biological nanoparticles showed 96.67% antibacterial
activity at 30 mM, whereas the chemically synthesized nanoparticles did not show any significant
efficacy at the same concentration. Sudhasree et al. proposed that the biological nanoparticles
from Desmodium gangeticum are more monodispersed and have higher antioxidant, antibac-
terial, and biocompatible activities in LLC PK1 (epithelial cell lines) compared with chemically
synthesized nickel nanoparticles [83]. Mohammed et al. also described how biologically syn-
thesized zinc nanoparticles have more antimicrobial potential against Salmonella typhimurium
ATCC 14028, B. subtilis ATCC 6633, and Micrococcus luteus ATCC 9341 compared with
chemically synthesized zinc nanoparticles [84]. The exact antimicrobial mechanism is still under
debate, although there are various proposed mechanisms of action for nanoparticles, including
resources has great potential. The biological route of synthesizing nanoparticles has many What is the exact mechanism behind
advantages, such as the stable production of nanoparticles with controlled sizes and shapes, the biological efficacy of nanoparticles,
the lack of subsequent complex chemical synthesis, the lack of toxic contaminants, and the particularly the higher efficacy of bio-
logical nanoparticles?
ability for rapid synthesis using numerous medicinal plants and microorganisms.
Even though biological nanoparticles
Importantly, the yield of synthesized nanoparticles corresponding to the metal salt concentration are more biocompatible than physico-
and the available biological resources remains to be elucidated, and the parameters that can chemically synthesized nanoparticles,
what are the future applications of bio-
overcome the problems of polydispersity of biological nanoparticles still require optimization in
logical nanoparticles in humans?
various biological systems. Furthermore, the lack of knowledge of the chemical components
responsible and the underlying mechanisms for the synthesis, action, and stabilization of Although biological nanoparticles have
biological nanoparticles, remain open challenges in taking advantage of plants and micro- been found to be more pharmacologi-
cally active, which active groups from
organisms for nanoparticle synthesis. Especially in terms of biocompatibility, it is important
biological sources attach to nanopar-
to understand how active groups from biological sources attach to the nanoparticle surface, and ticles and enhance their pharmacologi-
which active groups are involved, to produce nanoparticles with higher efficacy. Thus, the cal activity?
plethora of microorganisms and plants that have been successfully used for the biological
What determines the cytotoxicity, bio-
synthesis of metal nanoparticles prompts the deeper exploration of biological nanofactories distribution, and excretion of nanopar-
to meet the need for nanoproducts in various fields (see Outstanding Questions). However, ticles in vivo?
issues relating to the biomedical applications of biological nanoparticles, including the distribu-
tion profile, excretion, and clearance of nanoparticles in in vivo trials, need to be addressed.
Additionally, investigations into the biocompatibility and bioavailability of nanoparticles are still at
early stages, and considerable research is needed in this direction.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by funds from the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST), The People's Republic of China
(2015DFG32560), and Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation (NRF) from the Ministry
of Education (2013R1A1A2064430), Republic of Korea (Y-J.K.); and Korea Institute of Planning & Evaluation for Technology
in Food, Agriculture, and Forestry & Fisheries (KIPET NO: 313038-03-2-SB020) (D-C.Y.).
Supplementary Information
Supplementary information associated with this article can be found online at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2016.02.
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