218

APPENDIX 4

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

A4.1 METHOD OF TESTS FOR SOILS

Indian Standards (IS) : 2720 for ‘Method of Test for Soils’

published under separate parts for various determinations have been
followed for the characterisation of soil samples collected at Kalpakkam.
These standards are comparable to other well-established standards
followed internationally. The parameters necessary for the site charac­
terisation of the disposal facility at Kalpakkam, mainly from the safety
assessment considerations, are determined based on the above methods
outlined in IS : 2720. These determinations are discussed briefly in the
following sections :
A4.1.1 Determination of pH value of soil samples
(IS : 2720 (Part-XXVI), 1973)

Scope

The method followed for the determination of pH value of soil

suspension is based on electrometric method.
Materials

pH Meter, direct reading type, with glass electrode and a

calomel reference electrode, analytical balance, sensitive to 0.001 g,
mortar with rubber covered pestle, the buffer solutions of pH 4.0, pH
7.0 and pH 9.2 for standardisation of pH meter.
Soil specimen : The soil sample received from the field is
prepared in accordance with IS : 2720 - Part I (1972). All aggregations
of particles are broken down and thoroughly mixed and a representative
sub-sample is obtained by cone and quarter method. These sub-samples
are sieved on a 425-micron sieve to obtain specimen samples for pH
analysis.
 219

Procedure
30 g of the soil specimen prepared as per the above procedure
is taken in a 100 ml beaker. 75 ml of distilled water is added to it. The
suspension is stirred for a few seconds. The beaker is then covered with
a cover glass and allowed to stand for one hour, with occasional stirring.
It is again stirred well immediately before testing its pH with pH
electrode. The pH value of the soil suspension is recorded to the nearest
0.1 pH units.
A4.1.2 Determination of total soluble solids (IS : 2720 (Part- XXI),
1965)
Scope
The determination of total soluble solids in soils is carried out
by gravimetric method as well as conductometric method, which is
generally specified as a subsidiary method. The method employed in the
present characterisation is based on gravimetric method.

Materials
Bottle shaker, oven, Buchner or glass funnel, vacuum pump,
desiccator, water bath, filter paper (Whatman 42 or equivalent).
Procedure
A representative sample passing a 2 mm sieve is dried to
constant weight in an oven at a temperature of 105-110C. From this
sample about 10 g of soil is accurately weighed and transferred to a 250
ml glass bottle. 100 ml distilled water is added to it and the bottle is
then stoppered and fitted in the shaker and shaken overnight (or at least
15 hours). The soil is then allowed to settle and the clear portion is
decanted and later filtered through Whatman 42 paper. If the filtrate is
not clear, the filtration is repeated under suction. 50 ml of clean filtrate
is taken in a porcelain dish or glass dish and concentrated by evaporat­
ing in the water bath before drying in oven at 105C. The dish is allowed
to cool and weighed. The percentage soluble solids in soil is calculated
based on soil taken for analysis and reported to the nearest 0.01%.
 220

A4.1.3 Determiiiation of base exchange capacity

(IS : 2720 (Part-XXTV), 1967)
Scope
The base (or) cation exchange capacity is the property which
all the soil particles possess, arises on account of isomorphic substitu­
tion of Al+3 and Si+4 by smellier valent ions like Fe+2 etc. This is estimated
in the present method by converting the exchangeable sites into Ca+2
ions and this Ca is extracted with CHgCOONa and amount of calcium
is estimated which corresponds to the cation exchange capacity.

Materials
1. Sodium acetate solution (pH 5.0) : IN sodium acetate
(CH3C00Na.3H20) solution is prepared with 136 g salt and 28 ml glacial
acetic acid and made up to 1 litre to obtain pH 5.0 buffer.

2. Sodium acetate solution (pH 7.0) : IN sodium acetate

(CHgCOONa.3H20) solution is prepared containing 136 g of salt per litre
with pH adjusted to 7.0 with acetic acid.

3. Calcium chloride solution (pH 7.0) : Calcium chloride

(CaCl2.6H20) solution containing 109 g is prepared in one litre with pH
adjusted 7 by Ca(OH)2.

4. Acetone (80 %).

5. Standard calcium solution : About 0.5 g of pure dried
calcium carbonate is dissolved in a minimum of 0.2N HC1. The solution
is boiled to expel C02 and is then diluted to 1 litre. The resultant
^ +2
solution is 0.0IN with respect to Ca .
6. Buffer solution of pH 10.0: This buffer is prepared by mixing
100 ml NH4C1 and 500 ml of IN NH4OH.
7. Eriochrome Black T (EBT) : 0.5 g of EBT dissolved in 4.5 g
NH2OH.HCl and diluted it with 100 ml methanol.
8. Standard versene : 2 g EDTA is dissolved in 900 ml water.
The normality of versene is then determined by titration of 25 ml portion
with standard calcium solution.
 221

Apparatus like centrifuge and necessary glassware like volu­

metric flasks, centrifuge tubes etc., are required.

Procedure
5 g of soil is taken in 100 ml centrifuge tube and stirred in 50
ml of IN CHgCOONa of pH 5.0. The soil suspension is digested in boiling
water bath (about 90C) for 30 minutes, with intermittent stirring. The
supernatant liquid is removed by decantation after centrifugation of the
suspension. Additional two washings with IN CHgCOONa of pH 5.0 are
given to remove any dissolvable salts. If required, additional washings
are given. Subsequently the soil sample is given at least 5 washings with
IN CaCl2 solution to exchange all the exchangeable sites with calcium
ions. Excess calcium salt is removed by washing each time with 80 %
acetone. However, complete removal of chlorides is tested with dilute
silver nitrate. Ultimately, the calcium ions exchanged on the soil are
replaced by sodium ions by means of five extractions with neutral IN
CHgCOONa solution. The above washings are combined and amount of
calcium present is estimated by titrating against standard Versene
solution by the addition of 10 ml pH 10.0 buffer and 10 drops EBT
indicator and 1 ml of NaCN. The cation exchange capacity is calculated
from the expression given below and is expressed in mill! equivalents
(meq)/100 g soil:

Cation exchange capacity (meq) per 100 g soil *

Ml of versene x Normality of versene x 100
----------------------------------------------- (A4.1)
Weight of soil in gm. x vol. of washings

A4.1.4 Determination of distribution coefficient (Kd)

Scope
The distribution coefficient (Kd) of the soil medium is a
measure of its ion uptake capacity. This is an important parameter
employed in any soil transport predictions. The Kds are determined for
the important isotopes of concern with respect to shallow ground
disposal. The units are usually expressed in ml/g. The present study
envisages determining the K ,s of soil samples using radio isotopes Sr
and 137Cs.
 222

Materials
qq i on
Sr and Cs tracer, GM counter/multi-channel Gamma
analyser.

Procedure
About 2 g of accurately weighed soil sample was collected from
disposal site and is equilibrated with 20 ml of the 89Sr or 137Cs tracer
containing 1x10-3 micro curies per ml in the 50 ml centrifuge tube. The
time of equilibration was 20 h. After equilibration, the sample was
centrifuged at 2500 rpm and the filtrate was decanted. The soil was dried
under IR lamp and about 0.01 g sample was taken for counting. 1 ml
from the filtrate was plancheted and activity was determined using GM
Counter GCS-16 having efficiency of approximately 10%. Distribution
coefficient was determined (Amalraj et al, 1981) using the following
equation (A4.2)
Counts per minute
per gram of soil
(A4.2)
Distribution Coefficent (Kj)
Counts per minute
per ml. of filtrate

A4.1.5 Determination of Calcium Carbonate content (IS : 2720

(Part-XXm, 1964)
Scope
This standard outlines the volumetric estimation of CaC03 in
the soil samples. This parameter is generally determined to find out the
effect of cementing that it can impart between the soil particles.

Materials
1. Acetic acid 0.5N prepared in 0.2N (approx.) calcium acetate
solution. (58 ml of acetic acid required to make IN solution in 1 litre).

1. NaOH 0.1N (Standardised with Oxalic acid)

2. Oxalic acid 0. IN.

3. Phenolphthalien.
 223

Procedure
1-5 g of soil is placed in a 500 ml conical flask and 50 ml of
0.5N acetic acid prepared in 0.2N calcium acetate solution is added. The
contents are shaken for about one hour intermittently to allow the
calcium carbonate content to react with available acetic acid. The
contents are then filtered through Whatman 40 or equivalent filter and
an aliquote of the filtrate is titrated with 0.1N NaOH solution using
phenolphthalien indicator. The decrease in the concentration of acetic
acid in the filtrate is attributed to the C03 present in the given quantity
of soil. The % CaC03 is calculated as given below:
% CaC03 in soil =

(Volume of 0.5N Acetic acid consumed by the soil

sample x 0.025 x 100)
----------------------------------------------------- = o.74 —(A4.3
Weight of soil

A4.1.6 Determination of specific gravity (IS : 2720 (Part-HQ, 1964)

Scope
This method of test for the determination of the specific gravity
is applied to fine grained soils. The method is also applied for medium
and coarse grained soils if the coarse particles are grained to pass 4.75
mm sieve.
Materials
Two specific gravity bottles of 50 ml capacity with stoppers. A
water bath maintain ted at a constant temperature. A desiccator contain­
ing anhydrous silica gel. Analytical balance (accuracy to 0.001 g).
Procedure
A 5 to 10 g sub-sample after passing through 2 mm sieve is
taken and oven dried at 105 to 110C. This sample is transferred to the
specific gravity bottle after cooling in the desiccator. The bottle and
contents together with the stopper are weighed to the nearest 0.001 g.
Then adequate water is added and the stoppered bottle is immersed in
 224

the constant-temperature bath for approximately 1 hour or until it has

attained the constant temperature of the bath. If there is an apparent
decrease in volume of the liquid the stopper shall be removed and further
water is added. The bottle is then returned to the bath and sufficient
time is allowed to elapse after this operation to ensure that the bottle
and its contents again attain the constant temperature of the bath.
The stoppered specific gravity bottle is then taken out of the
bath, wiped diy and then weighed to the nearest 0.00 lg.

The bottle is then cleaned and filled with water, the stopper is
inserted and then it is allowed to attain constant temperature by
immersing in the constant temperature bath for 1 hour . The bottle is
then taken out of the bath, wiped dry and the weighed to the nearest
O.OOlg.

The specific gravity (G) of the soil particles is determined at

room temperature by the following equation:

G= ----------------- (A4.4)
(m4 - irq) - (m3 - m2)

where mt = weight of the specific gravity bottle in g.

m2 = weight of bottle and dry soil in g.
m3 = weight of bottle, soil and water in g and
m4 = weight of bottle filled with water in g

The determinations are carried out in duplicate and recorded

to the nearest 0.01.

A4.1.7 Grain size analysis (IS : 2720 (Part-IV), 1965)

Scope
Two methods are generally followed for finding the distribution
of grain sizes viz., wet sieving, applicable to all soils and dry sieving
 225

applicable only for soils which do not have appreciable amount of clay.
As, the present site under study does not contain appreciable amounts
of clay dry sieving is employed to finding the grain size distribution.

Sieve analysis of soil passing 4.75 mm sieve and retained on

75-micron sieve

Materials
Analytical Balance, sensitive to 0.001, sieves (2 mm- sieve,
425-micron sieve, and 75-micron sieve.

Procedure
The set of sieves in the above sieve range are arranged and
mounted on sieve shaker or shaken manually after placing known
amount of soil sample. The cumulative weight of soil fraction retained
on each sieve is calculated. The percentage of soil fraction retained on
each size is calculated on the basis of the weight of the sample passing
4.75-mm sieve taken for the initial analysis. The combined gradation on
the basis of the total soil sample taken for analysis is then calculated.

The results of the grain size analysis are reported in a suitable

tabular form. A grain size distribution curve is drawn on a semi-loga-
rithmic chart, plotting particle size on the log scale against percentage
finer than the corresponding size on the ordinary scale.

A4.1.8 Laboratory determination of coefficient of permeability

(IS : 2720 (Part XVH ), 196^)

Scope
The method followed in this standard (Part-XVII) describes the
laboratory determination of the coefficient of permeability of soils using
the falling head and the constant head methods. This test is recom-
o *7
mended for soils with coefficient of permeability in the range of 10’ -10’
cm/s. In the present determinations falling head method is employed.
 226

Materials

For the determination of coefficient of permeability by falling

head (variable head) method the apparatus required are : permeameter
mould (1000 ml capacity), a set of glass pipes varying in diameter from
5-20 mm suitably mounted on stand or otherwise fixed on wall, vacuum
pump, miscellaneous apparatus like sieves, mixing pan, graduated
cylinder, stop watch and thermometer.

Procedure

A 25 kg sample is taken from a thoroughly mixed air dried or

oven dried material which has been obtained in accordance with IS :
2720 (Part-I), 1966.

The permeameter mould is weighed to the nearest gram. After

greasing lightly the inside of the mould it is clamped between the
compaction plate and the extension collar. The assembly is kept on a
solid base.

The soil sample in the permeameter is compacted to simulate

field conditions. After completion of the compaction, the compacted
specimen is weighed. The mould with the specimen inside is assembled
to the drainage base and a cap having porous discs.
In the case of soils of medium to high permeability the
specimen is subjected to sufficient head, flow or dimension so as to
obtain full saturation. Soils of low permeability require flow under high
head. Alternatively, in the case of soils low permeability in the specimen
is subjected to gradually increasing vacuum.
Falling head test

For falling head test arrangement the specimen is connected

through the top inlet to a selected stand pipe. The bottom outlet is
opened and time interval required for the water level to fall from a known
initial head to a known final head is noted. The stand pipe is refilled
with water and the test is repeated till 3 successive observation give
almost the same time interval. The time intervals being recorded for the
 227

drop in head from the same initial to final levels as in the first
determination. The coefficient of permeability is calculated from the
equation:
2.303 aL
k =----- ------ log (hl/h2) —(A4.5)
At
n
where a = inner cross-sectional area of stand-pipe (L )
hj = initial head in stand pipe (L)
h2 = final head in stand pipe (L)
L = length of specimen (L)
n
A = cross-sectional area of specimen (L }
t = time taken for water level to drop from
hx to h2

The symbols in the parentheses indicate the dimensional

quantities.

A4.2 DETERMINATION OF GROUND WATER RECHARGE BY

oiiiLvr
dvav orilr
riiAlV- unpniAn
1 jMU&iilULJ

Scope
The downward movement of rainwater through the unsatu­
rated soil profile and thereafter the recharge (Rp) to groundwater are
measured using tritium as radioactive tracer. The method has the
advantage in tracing soil water, as tritium forms an integral part of the
water molecules and its transport is well defined both in time and space.
Briefly, the method consists in labelling a layer of soil moisture with
tritiated water and subsequent collection of radioactive soil samples
from the injection site at varying depths. The pore water from the soil
samples was extracted and the tritium concentration of the extracted
pore water was measured by liquid scintillation counter. The moisture
content of the soil column between the injection depth and the depth of
the tracer peak when multiplied by the displaced depth of tracer front
gives the amount of recharge to groundwater. Mathematically, recharge
(Rp) is expressed as:
 228

Rp = (MC) * d —(A4.6)

where Rp = Recharge (L)

MC = Moisture content (%) and
d = displaced depth (L)

The units are expressed in dimensional quantities in paren­

theses.
Materials

Tritium isotope (50 micro Curie/ml), Tritium liquid scintilla­

tion counter.
Procedure
About 50 micro Curie of Tritium was injected at 35 cm depth
from surface at two different locations preferably before the onset of
monsoon. The soil samples are collected after the peak of the activity
moved further down due to rain water percolation. The distribution peak
was located by counting tritium in the moisture extracted from soil
samples at different depths. The recharge to groundwater due to rain
was calculated by multiplying the tritium peak shift with the average
volumetric moisture content in the peak shift region. Knowing the
amount of rainfall during the period, the percentage of recharge is
calculated.

A4.3 METHOD DETERMINATION OF GROUND WATER

PARAMETERS

A4.3.1 Determination of direction of groundwater flow

(Three-well method).

Scope
Knowing the direction of groundwater movement has become
increasingly important because of the danger of contaminating ground-
water supplies. The groundwater flow lines can be determined by using
water elevation data from a minimum three wells. The information
obtained is applicable only to that location and repeated determination
at various locations can provide overall flow pattern.
 229

Procedure

The direction of groundwater flow in the field is determined

(Freeze et al, 1979) by finding out the groundwater elevations of any
chosen three wells. The distance between the above wells is obtained by
actual measurement in the field. These wells are represented on a sketch
according to the scale with horizontal direction coinciding with geo­
graphical north. Later the groundwater elevations and surface eleva­
tions are indicated at the well location. Between each of the two wells
the range of groundwater elevation is sub-divided in intervals of 0.1 m
or any other suitable interval depending on the separation between the
wells chosen and their respective groundwater elevations. The equipo-
tential points on the sketch are joined to obtain groundwater contours
on a local scale. The direction of groundwater flow is obtained by drawing
flow lines perpendicular to the groundwater contours. Several sets of
three wells may have to be chosen to get velocity distribution in the field.

A4.3.2 Determination of direction of groundwater

flow (Groundwater contours method).

Scope
The determination of direction of groundwater flow by the
above three-well method may be laborious. On the other hand if data is
obtained of groundwater elevations of several borewells in the field,
groundwater contour maps of the entire site can be drawn and based
on which the direction of groundwater flow in the entire field can be
indicated.
Procedure
The groundwater levels in the borewells are periodically mon­
itored for all seasons The groundwater contour diagram is drawn based
on the data obtained over the years for the pre-and post-monsoon
periods. The use of SURFER (1987) software is employed to draw the
groundwater contour diagrams and groundwater surface diagrams to
understand the direction of groundwater flow. The application of soft­
ware requires input data of groundwater elevations and their X, Y
co-ordinates.
 230

A4.3.3 Determination of groundwater velocity using

Darcy’s method

An indirect estimate of groundwater velocity can be made from

the hydraulic parameters of the aquifer and Darcy’s law. Using the
sketches drawn to determine the direction of groundwater flow as
described in section A4.3.1 and A4.3.2. These diagrams depict the flow
lines indicating the direction of flow.
The hydraulic gradient (i) is evaluated along the direction of
groundwater flow from the ratio of difference of groundwater elevations
between the adjacent contours and the distance between them. Darcy’s
law is generally expressed as :
VD = -k i - (A4.7)

where VD = Darcy’s velocity (LT1)

k = hydraulic conductivity (LT'1) and
i = hydraulic gradient (dimensionless)

The negative sign comes from the fact that the displacement
occurs in the direction of decreasing heads. This velocity is also termed
as Darcy’s velocity. Darcy’s velocity can utmost be an apparent velocity
as it is assumed that the groundwater flows in a straight line between
any two points and there is no tortuosity. Actually the water molecules
do not follow rectilinear path in the porous medium, hence their real
velocity is higher than Darcy’s velocity. As it is difficult to determine the
actual distance travelled by the water molecule, a correction factor is
introduced to improve the accuracy of groundwater velocity. The appar­
ent velocity is given by the following equation :
Vg = Dilution velocity = VD / 0 —(A4.8)

where 0 = effective porosity (dimensionless).

 231

The groundwater velocity determined by this method, however

requires the data on field permeability and effective porosity. The basic
assumption in the above method being that the aquifer system is
homogeneous and isotropic i.e. the hydraulic conductivity (k) and
porosity (0) are invariant with respect to space and time.

A4.3.4 Determination of groundwater velocity (Tracer method)

Scope
In hydrological investigations including determination of
ground water velocity, appropriate tracer is chosen according to require­
ments dictated by the conditions of the investigation. The study of
ground water flow makes it necessary to use a tracer directly introduced
into the water. The tracer should have good solubility and not undergo
undue losses during movement so that the characteristics may be
reproduced easily.

The single-well dilution methodology is adopted using tracers

to determine the groundwater velocity. A set of borewells drilled up to
hard base formation is necessaiy. A suitable tracer like dye, salt or radio
isotope is chosen based on the requirement and their aqueous solution
is introduced into the borewell. The method basically involves collection
of samples after addition of a tracer into a borewell at pre determined
intervals. These samples are analysed for their concentration. In the
present study, groundwater velocity is determined by using three differ­
ent isotopes viz., Sodium chloride, Rhodamine B and Tritium. The
methodology followed is given in the following sections.

Assuming that the measuring volume has been isolated and

the tracer is injected inside it, the decrease of the tracer concentration
‘C in this volume is expressed by the following equation

Vg = - (V/A*t) In (C/Co) —(A4.9)

where
Vrt is the tracer dilution velocity (LTrll
V is measuring volume in borewell of radius r (L )
A is the cross sectional area of the dilution volume(L )
C is concentration of tracer at time t
Cn is concentration of tracer at time t = 0
 232

Thus The hydrodynamic regime of the groundwater undergoes

a local modification just at the measuring point due to boring through
the aquifer layer. A series of other factors also contribute with variable
weight otherwise the dilution velocity and apparent velocity would
coincide. The variation of the tracer concentration inside the measuring
volume is also be due to radioactive decay, molecular diffusion, disper­
sion, adsorption, ion exchange and mixing phenomena (Halvey et al,
1967). The correction due to above factors is introduced in the equation
(1) and velocity Vg of the groundwater is given by
Vg = - (V/ A*t) In (C/CO) —(A4.10)
Vg = -2.303 (V/a A*t) log (C/CO) or -(A4.11)
log (C/CO) = (-Vgac A*/2.303 V) t ™(A4.12)

where
ac = Correction factor (Jain et al, 1980)

The Correction factor in the present study has been estimated

(Gasper et al, 1972) as 4, which is derived from the data of hydraulic
conductivity of aquifer (1.0 x 10'4 cm/sec), permeability of filtering
O Q

envelope (1.5 x 10 cm/sec) and permeability of filter tube (1.0 x 10

_o

to 1.0 x 10 cm/sec) respectively.

It is evident from the above equation that the plot of log C/C0
vs time would give a straight line with a negative slope. The slope thus
evaluated can be equated to :
Slope = - (Vgac A*/2.303 V) hence
Vg = 2.303 (slope) V/(ac A*) -(A4.13)

A4.3.4.1 Determination of groundwater velocity using

Sodium Chloride (Single-well dilution method).
Materials
Water level indicator, water sampler, sodium chloride, silver
nitrate solution (0.005N), and potassium chromate indicator.
 233

Procedure
To estimate the quantity of water present in the borewell, the
diameter of the borewell, column of water present are determined from
the field determinations. Water level indicator is used to measure the
column of water present in the bore well. With the above data the volume
of water present is evaluated. Sodium chloride solution is prepared in
the laboratory with the borewell waters under study and introduced into
the borewell and mixed thoroughly to obtain overall concentration of
about 0.05 M in the borewell. About 100 ml water sample is collected
immediately after the addition of sodium chloride solution using a water
sampler in a clean polythene bottle and labelled. Initially the samples
are collected at half-hourly intervals up to first three hours and every
one hour for the next three hours. The chlorides are estimated at
different time intervals by Mohr’s method (APHA, 1976).
. The chloride levels are tabulated at different time intervals
and log C/Co vs time is plotted. The groundwater velocity is evaluated
from the slope of the above semilog plot using equation (A4.13).

A4.3.4.2 Determination of groundwater velocity using

Rhodamine B Dye
About 0.1 g Rhodamine B is injected into a borewell in the
similar fashion as in the case of sodium chloride and the Rhodamine B
concentration at zero time and at same time intervals as in the case of
sodium chloride tracer study are collected and optical densities are
estimated using UV/VIS spectrophotometer at X max 555 nm. Similar
plots as in the case of sodium chloride tracer study are drawn and the
slope is evaluated from log C/Co vs time plot and velocity of groundwater
is estimated with respect to Rhodamine B using equation (A4.13).
A4.3.4.3 Determination of groundwater velocity using
Tritium Isotope
In order to compare the groundwater velocity at different
locations, the above determination is carried out in a different borewell.
A known quantity of standard Tritium isotope is added such that about
500 cpm/ml are obtained and the samples are collected subsequently
 234

as in the case of other tracer experiments and tritium levels at different

time intervals are measured using liquid scintillation counter (APHA,
1976). The velocity of groundwater flow is computed using the equation
(A4.13).
A4.4 DETERMINATION OF SELF-DIFFUSSION CO-EFFCEENTS
(HALF-CELL METHOD)
Scope
Self diffusion coefficients for the isotopes 137Cs and 85+89Sr
are determined to assess the transport of radionuclides in the geo-en-
vironment when advection is negligible and diffusion assumes greater
significance.

Materials

85+89Sr isotope, 137Cs isotope, diffusion cells, incubator

and multi-channel analyser with germanium detector.

Procedure

The soils used in these studies were sandy loam type collected
from waste disposal facility. The self diffusion coefficient was measured
for 137Cs and 85+89Sr in soils by the method of Rowell et al (1967). For
each experiment two sub samples were taken. One sub sample (6 g)
was incorporated with 0.2 micro Curie of radioactive isotope Cs or
85+89gr ag case may be These samples were dried and ground to
pass through 1 mm sieve. Cylindrical diffusion cell made of perspex
consisted of two half cells. Each half cell was 1 cm long having 2.5 cm
internal diameter.

One half cell was filled with radioactivity incorporated soil and
other with inactive soil and desired conditions like maintaining bulk
density or moisture content were followed as per the procedure followed
by Rowell et al (1967). These were brought into close contact having
lens tissue paper (Greens No. 105, 10x8 cm) in between them, and were
placed in an air tight container and maintained at 251C in an incubator.
 235

After fixed diffusion time {137Cs = 40 days, 85+89Sr = 34 days),

the half cells were separated. The amount of isotope in each half cell
was measured directly using multi-channel analyser for 137Cs and
85+89gr separately with the help of Germanium detector.

Self diffusion coefficients were calculated using the equation

given by Schofield and Graham-Bryce (1960).

Qt/Q°° = (2/L) (Dt/7t)1/2 (A4.14)

Where
Qt = Amount of radioactive ions diffused
from active to non-active soil (Bq)
Q„ = Amount that would be transferred in infinite
time (Bq)
t = Diffusion time (T)
L = Length of diffusion cell (L)
D = Self diffusion coefficient

The values of D were taken as the mean of the three replicates

and for each replicate the coefficient of variation was calculated. The
results are discussed in the following paragraphs.
 GLOSSARY OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE TERMS

Absorbed dose
Amount of energy imparted to a mass. Traditional unit is the
rad, roughly equivalent to the amount of energy deposited in tissue by
one roentgen of radiation exposure. SI unit is the gray (Gy); 1 Gy = 100
rads.
Activation products
Elements that become radioactive during the course of bom­
bardment by neutrons or protons.
Alpha emitter
An element that in undergoing radioactive decay releases
alpha articles (helium nuclei)
As low as reasonably achievable (ALARA)
Basic principle of radiation protection, stating that doses from
radioactive materials should be reduced to the lowest possible levels,
provided that economic and social benefits exceed any risks.
Backfill
The placement of soil or other material in, around, or over a
structure.
Background radiation
Radiation that arises from constant natural sources and
accepted man-made sources, such as dental and medical x-rays. Radi­
ation from cosmic sources and natural radiation are always present.
Approximately 55% of background radiation is due to radon emitted
from rock and building materials.
Bequerel(Bq)
The international unit for radioactivity representing one dis­
integration per second. Named in honor of Henri Bequerel, who discov-
 237

ered the property of radioactivity in 1896. By international agreement,

the bequerel has recently replaced the curie as the preferred unit of
measure. One Bq = 2.7 x lo-11 Ci.
Beta emitter
An element that releases beta particles (negative electrons or
positrons) during radioactive decay.
Biosphere
Those parts of the earth and its atmosphere that support life.
If represents only about 11 km of the atmosphere, the contents of the
earth’s surface, and a few kilometers into the earth’s interior.
Categories of Solid Waste
The following few types of solid wastes are likely to be received
at the plant.
(i) White type (Category - 1): All non active / potentially active
wastes arising from active working areas.
(ii) Yellow type (Category - 1): All wastes having a surface
dose less than 200 mR/hr. of Beta-Gamma activity.
(iii) Red type (Category - 2 & 3): All wastes having a surface
dose greater than 200 mR/hr. of Beta-Gamma activity.
(iv) Special Category - Alpha bearing waste (Category - 4): It
will consist of all the above products wherein alpha contamination
exceed to micro - curie/kg.
Code of Federal Regulations
Documentation of the general rules by the executive depart­
ments of the federal government. The code is divided into 50 titles that
represent broad areas subject to federal regulation. Each title is divided
into chapters that usually bear the name of the issuing agency. Each
chapter is further divided into parts covering specific regulatory areas.
Curie(Ci)
The traditional unit for radioactivity named after Mme. Curie
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for her pioneering work with radium a century ago. One curie is defined
s the amount of radioactive material which produces 3.7x ;i 010 nuclear
disintegrations per second, approximately the activity contained in one
gram of radium. Worldwide scientific adoption of a standard system of
units now uses the unit bequerel (Bq); 1 Ci = 3.7 x, 1010 Bq.

Decay (radioactive)
The transition of a nucleus from one energy level to another,
usually accompanied by the emission of a photon, electron, or neutron.
DOE/defense waste
Radioactive waste produced from activities supported by the
Department of Energy and/or defense programs of the US government.
Dose
A measurement of the quantity of radiation or energy absorbed
per unit mass (mrem/year or msievert/year)
Effective annual dose equivalent
The amount of absorbed dose received by a specific tissue or
organ in a year. The total effective annual dose equivalent is the product
of the total absorbed dose and tissue-or organ-specific weighting factors
defined by the ICRP. The dose is measured in Sieverts.
Exposure
A measure of ionization produced in air by x- or gamma rays.
Unlike dose, exposure refers to a potential for receiving radiation. Acute
exposure generally means a high level of exposure over a short time
period, whereas chronic exposure refers to low levels of exposure over a
long period of time. Traditional unit is the roentgen; SI unit is coulombs
per kilogram.
Fuel reprocessing
Recovering uranium and plutonium for reuse from irradiated
(spent) nuclear reactor fuel.
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Gamma emitter
A radioisotope that produces energy in the form of gamma rays
as it decays. Also included in this category are x-rays and electron
capture.
Gray(Gy)
The international unit for absorbed dose; 1 Gy = 100 rad.
Half-life
The time required for one-half of the atoms of a particular
radionuclide to decay. After a period of time equal to 10 half-lives,
the radioactivity remaining is only 0.1% of the original amount present.
High-level waste (HLW)
As defined by the Nuclear Waste Policy Act, high-level waste
is (1) the highly radioactive material resulting from the reprocessing of
spent nuclear fuel, including the liquid waste produced directly in
reprocessing and any solid material derived from such liquid waste that
contains fission products in sufficient concentrations; and (2) other
highly radioactive material that the NRC, consistent with existing law,
determines by rule to require permanent isolation.
Long-lived radioisotope
A radioisotope with a relatively long half-life. With respect to
LLRW, radioisotopes with half-lives longer than 5 years are considered
to be long-lived.
Low level radioactive waste (LLRW)
Radioactive waste not classified as high-level waste, transu-
ranic waste, spent nuclear fuel, or by-product material such as uranium
or thorium tailings and wastes.
Person-rem
Epidemiological concept for quantifying cumulative and col­
lective doses of radiation. It is the sum of the Radiation dose received
by the entire population of a given area. All conditions equal, the larger
the population defined, the larger the collective dose.
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Rad

Radiation absorbed dose. Unit of absorbed dose of radiation

representing the absorption of 100 ergs of ionizing radiation per gram
of absorbing material; 1 rad = 0.01 Gy.
Radioactivity

The spontaneous emission of radiation from unstable atomic

nuclei. Emissions take the form of alpha particles, beta particles,
gamma/x-rays, electron capture, or neutrons or a mixture of these. The
amount of radioactivity present was traditionally measured in curies,
but by international convention the unit bequerel is now used.
Rem

Roentgen equivalent man. Traditional unit for dose equiva­

lent. Equal to the radiation absorbed dose times a quality factor based
on the relative biological effectiveness of the radiation. One rem equals
approximately one rad for gamma and x-rays and most beta particles,
0.5 to 0.1 rad for neutrons, and approximately .05 rad for alpha
particles. 1 rem = 0.01 Sv.
Repository, geological

A facility with an excavated subsurface system used for the

permanent disposal of spent fuel and high-level radioactive waste.
Roentgen(r)

Traditional unit for exposure to gamma or x-ray radiation.

One roentgen produces an absorbed dose in tissue of approximately one
rad.
Shallow land burial

The disposal of wastes within 30 meters of the earth’s surface,

covered with soil and other overburden materials.
Short-lived radioisotopes
Radioisotopes with relatively short half-lives. With regard to
LLRW, radioisotopes with half-lives less than 5 years are considered to
be short-lived.
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Sievert (Sv)
The international unit for dose equivalent. One sievert equals
an absorbed dose of one joule per kilogram; 1 Sv = 100 rem.
Specific activity
The amount of radioactivity per amount of material, usually
measured in curies per mmol or bequerels per mmol.
Spent fuel
Nuclear fuel that has been permanently discharged from a
reactor after it has been irradiated. Typically, spent fuel is measured in
terms of either the number of fuel assembled discharged or the mass of
the discharged fuel.
Transuranic (TRU) waste
Radioactive waste that contains more than 100 nCi/g (3700
Bq) of alpha-emitting isotopes with atomic numbers greater than 92.
Classification of wastes
United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (USNRC)
classifies the radioactive wastes broadly into three categories. They are:
Class A waste, Class B waste and Class C waste. These wastes (according
to their Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 10 CFR 61) are classified
based on the radionuclide content.