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STRAIGHT LINE
(Unit 2)

INTRODUCTION:
In our study of the straight line, we will discover the correspondence between a line
and a first degree equation in x and y. The equation represents the line and the line is the
graph of the equation. An immense discussion of the unit will be on the derivation of the
different formulas, commonly called the standard forms for obtaining the equations of lines.

2.1 LINE PARALLEL TO COORDINATE AXES

An equation of a line parallel to the Y-axis (i.e. vertical line) is x = a, where a is a

directed distance of the line from the y-axis. All the points of a vertical line has the same x-
coordinate which is equal to a. Recall that the slope of this line is undefined {<»).

Similarly, a line parallel to the X-axis (i.e. horizontal line) has the equation y = b
where b is a directed distance of the line from the X-axis. Ail points of a horizontal line has
the same coordinates which is equal to b. Slope of this line is equal to zero.

Figures 2.1 and 2.2 shows the lines parallel to coordinate axes.

b y=b

0 a X=a 0

Fig. 2.1 Fig. 2.2

Line Parallel to y-axis Line Parallel to x-axis

Evidently, the equations of the x-axis and y-axis are y = 0 and x = 0 respectively.

NOTE: a is x-intercept (point where the line crosses the x-axis)

b is y-intercept (point where the line crosses the y-axis)

Example:
1. Find the equation of the line parallel to the x-axis and 2 units above it.
2. Find the equation of the line parallel to the y-axis and passing through the point (-3,0).

2.2 SLANTING LINES: LINES WITH POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE

SLOPES

The general equation of a Line with positive/negative slope is

Ax + By + C = 0
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vhere A, B, and C are constants with A and B not both equal to zero.

These are lines inclined to some extent {degree measure) with respect to the
horizontal, specifically lines that rises to the right have positive slopes with angle of
inclination more than 0° but less than 90°, and lines that rises to the left have negative
slopes with an angle of inclination more than 90° but less than 180°.
In this section we will discuss the four standard equations of a line, all of which are
equivalent to the aforementioned general equation. Accordingly, these standard equations
are easily transformed to this general equation and into each other as well.
2.2.1 POINT-SLOPE FORM

Let P1 (x1, y1) be a given point and P (x, y) be any other point (i.e. a general point) on
the line (L). Draw auxiliary lines P1 M and PM through P1 and P respectively, and a right
triangle is thus formed.(See figure 2.5)

Therefore, the slope m of line (L) is equal to tangent of the angle of

inclination (𝜶) or m= tan 𝛼.

𝑦−𝑦1
𝑚=
𝑥−𝑥1

𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )
This is the Point-Slope form of the line. Observe that we can find the general
equation of a line through thus standard form if its slope and at least one point are given.

Note: To draw the line we plot the given point (P1) first along the horizontal line
through this point measures off a number of units equivalent to the denominator of the
slope to the right of the point, when it is positive or to the left when negative.

Then, from this end point and through the vertical line, we measure off the number of
units equivalent to the numerator of the slope, upward when positive and downward when
negative. The required line is the line drawn through the terminal point and the given point.

It is therefore important that the given slope be expressed in fractional

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Form.
Example:

1. Find the equation of the line with slope 3 and passing through the point (2, 1).
2. Find the general equation of the line with slope -3/2 and passing through (3,-1).
3. Find the equation of the line through (-1,3) and parallel to the line through (1,4)
and (3,2).

2.2.2 SLOPE-INTERCEPT FORM

The slope-intercept form of the line is similarly derived with that of the point-slope
form. The given point (P1) of the slope-intercept form is a point on the y-axis called the y-
intercept denoted by b. It is a point where line crosses the y- axis, having coordinates (0, b),
x = 0 and y = b.
Y
𝑦−𝑦1
𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼; 𝑚 = L
𝑥−𝑥1
𝑦−𝑏
𝑚= P(x,y)
𝑥−0
P(0,b) 𝛼 y – y1
y – b = mx
𝛼 x–0 X
y = mx + b 0

This is the slope-intercept form of the straight line. To reduce the general form to the
slope-intercept form, solve for y. Take note that the coefficient of x is the slope and the
constant term is the y-intercept.

Example:
1. Reduce the equation 2x + 6y – 12 = 0 to the slope intercept form. Draw the line.
2. Find the equation of the line whose y-intercept is -5 and whose slope is 4/3. Draw the
line.
3. Find the equation of the line perpendicular to the line joining (4,3) and (-4,2) and
having y-intercept equal to -3.

2.2.2.1 EQUATIONS OF PARALLEL LINES

THEOREM: If two linear equations have identical x-coefficients and identica

l y-coefficients, the lines represented are parallel.

Ax + By + C1 = 0 is ǁ to Ax + By + C2 = 0
𝐴
Proof: Both lines have slope − . Since their slopes are equal, the lines are
𝐵
parallel.
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Example:
1. 2x + 3y +4 = 0 is parallel to 2x + 3y – 8 = 0
2. Write the equation of a line passing through (-3,8) parallel to the line 6x – 5y
+ 15 = 0

2.2.2.2 EQUATIONS OF PERPENDICULAR LINES

THEOREM: If in two linear equations, the x-coefficient of the first is equal to the y-
coefficient of the second and the y-coefficient of the first is numerically equal but of opposite
sign of the x-coefficient of the second, or vice-versa, the lines represented are perpendicular
to each other., the lines are perpendicular.
Ax + By + C1 = 0 is perpendicular to

±Bx ∓ Ay + C2 = 0
−𝐴 𝐵
Proof: The slopes of the lines are and respectively since their slopes are
𝐵 𝐴
negative reciprocals to each other.
Example:
1. 2x – 3y = 5 is perpendicular to 3x + 2y = 6
2. -2x + 3y – 4 = 0 is perpendicular to 3x + 2y – 5 = 0
3. Write the equation of a line passing through (6,-7) perpendicular to the line x + 3y – 6 = 0

2.2.3 INTERCEPT FORM

Let the two points of the line be on the x-axis at P1 and y-axis at P2, with coordinate
(a,0) and (0,b) respectively (figure). The x-intercept would therefore be a and y-intercept b.
Y
P1(0,b)
b–y

S P(x,y)
x
y
P2(a,0)

0 T
a–x
𝑎−𝑥 𝑦
= ; (a – x)(b – y)= xy
𝑥 𝑏−𝑦

As shown, triangle PSP1 is similar to PTP2, by proportion:

𝑇𝑃2 𝑇𝑃 𝑎−𝑥 𝑦
= or = [𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏] ÷ 𝑎𝑏
𝑆𝑃 𝑆𝑃1 𝑥 𝑏−𝑦
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𝒙 𝒚
xy = (a – x)(b – y) + =𝟏
𝒂 𝒃
xy = ab – bx – ay + xy

Example:
1. Find the equation of the line with x-intercept –3 and y-intercept –4. Draw the line.
2. The right triangle has vertices at (4,0), (0,3), and (0,0). Find the equation of its
hypotenuse.
3. Find the equation of the line passing through (3,3) and whose intercepts are equal.

2.2.4 NORMAL FORM

The perpendicular line from the origin to any line is called the normal axis of the
line, and the distance from the origin to the line measured along this normal axis is
called the normal intercept.

Suppose a given line has its normal intercept p with angle of inclination 𝜃 (see
figure 2.14). Consider the following figures:
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𝑝 𝑝
sin 𝜃 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 =
𝑏 sin 𝜃

Since the normal axis is perpendicular to the given line, its slope is the
negative reciprocal of that of the line. Hence,
1
𝑚𝐿 = − 𝑚
𝑁

−1 −1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑚𝐿 = = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =−
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Substituting m and b in the slope-intercept form,
y = mx + b
−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑝
𝑦= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 + 𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒑 - - - Normal Form

The general equation of the line may be obtained through this normal form if the
normal intercept and its angle of inclination are given.

Note: In the normal form, p is positive when the y-intercept is positive and negative
when the y-intercept is negative. Also, sin (180° - 0) = sin0 (From trigonometry, on the sine
of difference of two angles).

2.2.5 REDUCTION OF GENERAL EQUATION TO NORMAL FORM

Let the general equation of the line be Ax + By + C = 0, whence the slope intercept
form
−𝑨𝒙 𝑪
𝒚= −𝑩
𝑩

𝐴
The slope of the given line, mL is therefore − 𝐵 . Since normal axis is perpendicular
𝟏 𝑩
to the given line, then its slope is the negative reciprocal of mL, or mu = - 𝑨 =
− 𝑨
𝑩

If 𝜃 is the angle of inclination of the normal axis, then

𝐵
mN = tan𝜃 or tan 𝜃 = and a right triangle may be formed as follows:
𝐴

± √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2
B

𝜃
A
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𝐵 𝐴
From which we obtain sin 𝜃 = and cos 𝜃 = . The sign of the radical
±√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 ±√𝐴2 + 𝐵2
must be chosen the same as the sign of B.
If we divide the general equation Ax + By + C= 0 by±√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2, we obtain
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑥+ 𝑦+ =0 OR
±√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 ±√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 ±√𝐴2 + 𝐵2

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑥+ 𝑦= −
±√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 ±√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 ±√𝐴2 + 𝐵2

Comparing this with the normal form,

𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑝
𝐴 𝐵
𝑥 [ 2 2] + 𝑦 [ 2 ]= 𝑝
±√𝐴 + 𝐵 ±√𝐴 + 𝐵2

Example:
1. Reduce 3x – 4y – 20 = 0 to the normal form and draw the line. How far is the line from
the origin? What is the y-intercept?
2. Reduce 3x + 4y = 0 to the normal form and find the distance of the line from the origin.

2.3 DI STANCE FROM A LINE TO A POINT

In this section, we shall discuss the directed distance from a line to a point of
horizontal lines, vertical lines, and sloping lines as well.
The directed distance of a vertical line x = a to a point P 1(x1,y1) is
d = y1 – b
note: the sign of the radical is chosen identical to the sign of B. The distance will be positive
when the point is above the line and negative when the point is below the line. It is also
positive when the point is to the right of the line and negative when the point is to the left of
the line.

d . P1(x1,y1)