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Emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, psychological well-being and students

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 European Journal of Educational Studies 2(3), 2010

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(3), 2010

ISSN 1946-6331
© 2010 Ozean Publication

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, SELF-EFFICACY, PSYCHOLOGICAL

WELL-BEING AND STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES: IMPLICATIONS FOR QUALITY
EDUCATION

SAMUEL O. SALAMI,
Department of Guidance and Counselling,
Kampala International University, Kampala, Uganda
E-mail address for correspondence: drsosalami2002@yahoo.co.uk

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Abstract: This study examined how emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, and psychological well-being contribute to
students’ behaviours and attitudes. Two hundred and forty-two students from a college of education, in Kwara State,
Nigeria responded to a set of questionnaires consisting of measures of emotional intelligence (EI), self-efficacy,
psychological well-being (i.e. happiness, life satisfaction and depression) and students’ behaviours and attitudes
Hierarchical regression analyses conducted for each dependent variable showed that emotional intelligence, self-
efficacy, happiness and life satisfaction over and above depression predicted students’ behaviours and attitudes.
This research indicates the need to emphasise positive psychology in improving the positive elements in students
proactively rather than retroactively trying to solve problems that emerge in order to improve the quality of higher
education.
Keywords: Emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, psychological well-being, students’ behaviours, attitudes.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION

Students in higher educational institutions are viewed as leaders of tomorrow. They have academic success as their
major goal. For this goal to be achieved, it requires dedication, sacrifices, self-discipline, motivation and cordial
relationship between students and lecturers. Students at this level are saddled with a lot of responsibilities and
challenges (Imonikebe, 2009) which may sometimes result in stress. They need good mental health to be able to
succeed in their academic pursuit. As academic demands increase and new social relations are established, students
become uncertain of their abilities to meet these demands (Dwyer & Cummings, 2001). Difficulties in handling the
ensuing stressor often lead to decreased academic performance, increased psychological, distress, and negative
attitudes toward learning Dwyer & Cummings, 2001; Salami, 2006). All these invariably pose challenges to the
much sought quality in education.
Emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, and psychological well-being (happiness, life satisfaction and depression) are
important resources for enhancing students’ learning, success and quality in education. Emotional intelligence
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(Adeyemo & Adeleye, 2008; Salami, 2004; Salami & Ogundokun, 2009; Tagliavia, Tipton, Giannetti & Mattei,
2006; Wong, Wong & Chau, 2001), self-efficacy (Adeyemo & Adeleye, 2008; Faulkner & Reeves, 2009; Hagger,
Chatzisarantis & Biddle, 2001; Salami 2004; Salami & Ogundokun, 2009; Schwarzer or Fuchs,2009;Yalcinalp
;2005),and psychological well-being (Khramtsova, Sarrnio, Gordeeva, & Williams, 2007; Salami, 2008) have been
shown to predict students’ attitudes and academic performance in higher educational institutions. Thus, the overall
question of interest in this study was how changes in emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and psychological well-
being (happiness, life satisfaction and depression) are related to students’ behaviours and attitudes.
Little attention have been paid to how emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, psychological well-being (happiness, life
satisfaction & depression) differentially predict various facets of students’ behaviours and attitudes. One way of
filling the gap created in knowledge in this area is to examine the predictors of students’ behaviours and attitudes
and their implications for enhancing quality in education. In this study, I examined the extent to which emotional
intelligence, self-efficacy, and psychological well-being (happiness, life satisfaction & depression) jointly and
separately contribute to the prediction of students’ behaviours and attitudes.
In the academic life of students in tertiary institutions especially universities, colleges of education and polytechnics,
students’ intrinsic motivation, self- discipline and attitudes toward their lecturers or professors are perhaps the three
most important domains to consider in students’ behaviours and attitudes. Intrinsic motivation is the desire to study
based on personal interest and satisfaction rather than for a grade. Self discipline is having self-control over ones
behaviours and attitudes (e.g. studying, getting to class on time). Attitude towards lecturers and professors refers to
thinking highly of lecturers’ professional level and showing them respects (Khramtsova, Saarnio, Gordeeva &
Williams, 2007).
Trait emotional intelligence (trait EI) refers to individual differences in the perception, processing, regulation and
utilization of emotional information. It is a constellation of emotion-related self-perceived abilities and dispositions
located at the lower levels of personality hierarchies (Petrides & Furnharm, 2001). Individuals with high trait EI
scores believe that they are in touch with their emotions and can regulate them in a way that promotes well-being
(Bar-On, 2005). These individuals should enjoy higher levels of happiness (Furnham and Petride, 2003).
Emotional intelligence has been related to several factors such as life satisfaction, psychological well-being,
occupational success and job performance, (Adeyemi & Adeleye, 2008; Bar-On, 1997 & 2005; Salovey & Mayer,
1990). Emotional intelligence has also been found to be related to students’ academic achievement, behaviours and
attitudes (Salami, 2004; Salami & Ogundokun, 2009; Tagliavia, Tipton, Giannetti & Mattei, 2006; Wong, Wong &
Chau, 2001). However, few studies have related trait EI to students’ behaviours and attitudes.
According to Salovey and Mayer (1990), emotional intelligence involves abilities that are categorized into five
domains,self-awareness, managing emotions, motivating oneself, empathy, and handling relationship which have
implications for students’ performance in tertiary institutions. It is likely that emotional intelligence will assist
students having low happiness and low satisfaction and high depression in developing appropriate behaviours and
attitudes in respect of their academic work. It is, therefore, expected that emotional intelligence will moderate the
relationship of psychological well-being with students’ behaviours and attitudes.
Self-efficacy refers to a person’s is belief in his/her ability to organise and execute a required course of action to
achieve a desired result (Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy has been found to be related to academic achievement,
behaviours and attitudes (Faulkner & Reeves, 2009; Hagger, Chatzisarantis & Biddle, 2001; Yalcinalp, 2005;
Schwarzer & Fuchs, 2009; Salami, 2004; Salami & Ogundokun, 2009). It is, expected that self-efficacy will be
related to students’ behaviours and attitudes. However, there is scarcity of research that examined the self-efficacy
of stressed students in relation to their attitudes.
Self-efficacy determines an individual’s resiliency to adversity and his/her vulnerability to stress and depression
(Bandura, Caprara, Barbaranelli, Gerbino & Pastorelli, 2003). General self-efficacy aims at a broad and stable sense
of personal competence to deal effectively with a variety of stressful situations (Adeyemo, 2008; Schwarzer, 1994).
Perhaps for an individual who has low happiness and life satisfaction and high depression, having high self-efficacy
will help him/her in displaying appropriate behaviours and positive attitudes as regards his/her academic work.
Therefore, it is expected that self-efficacy will moderate the relationship of psychological with students’ behaviours
and attitudes.

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Psychological well-being is defined as states that emerge from feeling of satisfaction with one’s close interpersonal
relationships and with one’s occupation and financial situation (Bar-On, 2005). In this study, it is defined as a
combination of happiness, life satisfaction and depression. Happiness is an emotional state whereas life satisfaction
addresses a more global cognitive evaluation of one’s life (Compton, 2005; Khramtsova et al, 2007). Whereas
happiness and life satisfaction are positive affects, depression is a negative affect. Both affects tell us the well-being
of the individual. At present much more is known about negative effects of depression on student success than about
the benefits of happiness and life satisfaction (Khramtsova et al, 2007). For example, depression is negatively
related to students’ success, grade point average and less time spent on homework (Field, 2001).
According Isen (2003), positive affect correlates positively with processes that contribute to college success-
cognition and motivation. Thus the objective of this study is to bring positive and negative characteristics into a
context and find their differential influence on students’ behaviours and attitudes. It is expected that the positive
characteristics (emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, happiness and life satisfaction) will account for variation in
students’ behaviours and attitudes over and above negative characteristics of students (depression).

Theoretical framework
This study is based on positive psychology theory by Seligman and Csikszentmihaly (2008) which states that
happiness promotes success across various arenas of human functioning. According to Erez and Isen (2002),
inducing positive emotional states in people facilitates flexible, effective problem solving, decision making and
evaluation of events. Therefore, positive emotions have a potentially adaptive and interactive nature and might
moderate the relationship between stress or depression and college students’ behaviours and attitudes that lead to
success. According to positive psychology, it is more important to focus on developing positive characteristics rather
than on avoiding or diminishing negative ones such as depression after they have occurred.

Statement of the problem

Given the paucity of research that investigated the relationship of psychological well-being (happiness and life
satisfaction), self-efficacy and emotional intelligence with students’ behaviours and attitudes, there is need to fill the
gaps in knowledge by examining the mentioned predictors of students’ behaviors and attitudes. The study
investigated the relationship of psychological well-being, self-efficacy and emotional intelligence with students’
behaviours and attitudes. This study also examined the moderating roles of emotional intelligence and self-efficacy
in the relationship.

Hypotheses
It was hypothesised that depression (H1), happiness (H2), life satisfaction (H3), emotional intelligence (H4) and
self-efficacy (H5) will predict students’ behaviours and attitudes. It was further hypothesised that emotional
intelligence (H6) and self-efficacy (H7) will moderate the relationships of psychological well-being (happiness, life
satisfaction and depression) with students’ behaviours and attitudes (Intrinsic motivation, self discipline and respect
for lecturers).

METHOD

Research Design
This study adopted a survey research design to obtain data from the participants in order to investigate the
relationship between the dependent and the independent variables.

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Participants

The participants were 242 students (male =140 (57.85%), female = 102 (42.15%)) randomly selected from a college
of education in Kwara State, Nigeria. The mean of age the sample was 27.30 years (S.D. = 6.35).

Measures

Trait Emotional Intelligence Scale by Law, Wong and Song (2004) known as Wong and Law EI Scale (WLEIS).The
WLEIS is a 16-item scale consisting of 4 sections: Self emotions appraisal, others emotions appraisal, Use of
emotions and regulations of emotions. It adopted a 5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree= 1, to
strongly agree= 5. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the sections range from .72 to .89 for this study.
Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES) developed by Schwarzer and Jerusalem (1995). The GSES is a 10-item
scale that assessed self-efficacy based on personality disposition. It is measured on a 4-item Likert scale ranging
from 1= Not at all true to 4= Exactly true. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of GSES range from 75 to 90 for this
study.
Life satisfaction: Life satisfaction was measured by means of life satisfaction scale by Khramtsova et al. (2007). It
consists of 24 items that asked participants to rate their satisfaction with various aspects of their life (e.g. material
well-being, family, having a purpose in life etc). On a 5-pointa Likert scale ranging from 0= not satisfied to 4=
completely satisfied. The items formed a composite measure of life satisfaction with a Cronbach’s alpha of .92. For
this study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .90.
Depression: Depressive symptoms were assessed with a 20-item Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale
(CES-D; Radloff, 1977). The items of the CES-D scale asked about the ways the respondents have felt or behaved
during the past week (e.g. I felt bothered by things that usually don’t bother me). CES-D adopted a four –point
Likert-type scale that ranged between 0= None of the time to 3= All of the time. Higher scores indicate greater
reported symptoms of depression. For this study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .87.
Happiness: The Lyubomirsky’s Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS, Lymbomirsky & Lepper, 1999) is a 4-item scale
of global or enduring happiness. It measures global Oren during happiness using a seven-point scale ranging from 1
= not at all to 7= a great deal. For this study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.82.
Student Behaviours and Attitudes: Student Behaviours and Attitudes Scale consist of 15 items that measure basic
classroom behaviours and attitudes. It uses a seven-point scale that ranged from 1= absolutely disagree to 7=
absolutely agree. The scale was based on Illiina’s Motivation for Learning Instrument published by Illiin (2000).
Students were asked how much they agreed or disagreed with the statements about their attitudes toward classes and
about common behaviours. The scale consists of three variables named intrinsic motivation (6 items) with factor
loading ranging from .43 to .74; self-discipline (4 items), with factor loadings ranging from .65 to .74; and respect
for college professors (2 items) with factor loading ranging from .81 to .82. For this study, the Cronbach’s alpha
coefficient for the whole scale was 0.83.

Procedure

The participants were administered the questionnaires which consisted of the measures described above in their
college. Informed consents of the students and the college authorities were obtained. Of the 300 questionnaires, 250
were returned and 242 were properly filled and were used for data analysis.

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Data Analysis
Data collected were analyzed using hierarchical multiple regression analysis in order to establish the relationship of
the independent variables (Happiness, life satisfaction, depression, self-efficacy and emotional intelligence) with the
dependent variables (students’ behaviour and attitudes).

RESULTS

Correlation analyses
Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics for the variable studied and the bivariate correlations emotional between
intelligence, self-efficacy, happiness, life satisfaction, depression and students’ behaviours and attitudes (intrinsic
motivation, self-discipline and respect for lecturers). The correlations on Table 1 showed that emotional intelligence,
depression, self-efficacy and life satisfaction significantly correlated with intrinsic motivation, self discipline and
respect foe lecturers (correlations ranged from r= -.19 to r= .24, p< .05). Happiness significantly correlated with
intrinsic motivation and respect for lecturers but not with self discipline. (See Table 1).

Regression analyses
A series of hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to examine the relative contributions of the predictor
(independent) variables-emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, depression and life satisfaction to the prediction of
students’ behaviours and attitudes- intrinsic motivation, self-discipline and respect for lecturers. Results are shown
on Tables 2 and 3 in 3 models in accordance with the hypotheses. (See Table 2 and 3). It was hypothesised in H1 that
depression will predict students’ behaviours and attitudes. Results on Table 2 model1 showed that depression
predicted intrinsic motivation (F (1,240) =9.70, R2=.23, Beta= -.12, p<. 05) and self-discipline (F(1,240=7.6, R2= .20,
Beta= -.15, P< .05) however, it did not predict respect for lecturers (see Table 3, model 1). This is an indication that,
for the most part, Hypothesis H1 is confirmed. Results on Table 2 and Table 3, Model 2 further showed that
happiness, life-satisfaction, emotional intelligence and self-efficacy predicted intrinsic motivation, self-discipline
and respect for lecturers except happiness that hypotheses did not predict self-discipline. This is evidence that H2,
H3, H4 and H5 are partially confirmed. (See Table 2 and 3).
Results on Tables 2 and 3, model 3, revealed that interactions between depression and emotional intelligence and
between depressed and self-efficacy were significant in predicting intrinsic motivation self-discipline and respect for
lecturers. These results showed that hypothesis6 was confirmed. These results also confirmed that emotional
intelligence and self-efficacy served as moderators in the relationships between depression and intrinsic motivation,
self-discipline and respect for lecturers. Specifically, among students who experienced depression, those who were
higher in emotional intelligence and self-efficacy, showed greater intrinsic motivation, self-discipline and respect for
lecturers. However, the interactions between happiness and emotional intelligence, happiness and self-efficacy, life
satisfaction and emotional intelligence, life satisfaction and self-efficacy failed to predict the students’ behaviors and
attitudes (intrinsic motivation, self-discipline and respect for lecturers). These indicated results that Hypothesis H 7
was rejected.

DISCUSSION

The primary aim in this study was to investigate the relationship of emotional intelligence, self-efficacy,
psychological well-being (happiness, life satisfaction and depression) with students’ academic behaviours and
attitudes. It was found that, for the most part, all the independent variables significantly predicted students’
behaviours and attitudes. These findings support the work of previous researchers who found that both cognitive and

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affective variables influenced students’ achievement, behaviours and attitudes (Field, 2001; Khramtsova et al. 2007;
Lyubomirsky, 2001; Salami, 2004; Wong, Wong & Chau, 2001). Students who had high self-efficacy, high
emotional intelligence and who were happy were motivated to participate in relevant academic activities and
developed positive attitudes that led to success in college. That psychological well-being (depression, happiness and
life satisfaction) predicted students’ academic behaviours and attitudes- intrinsic motivation, self-discipline and
respect for lecturers- support the findings of previous researchers who reported similar results (Berrollo, 2003; Field,
2001; Fredrickson, 2002; Isen, 2003; Khramtsova et al. 2007; Lyubomirsky, 2001). Happy students with high
satisfaction scores were found to be flexible and efficient in problem solving and were more committed to their
academic goals and pursued success rather than focus on avoiding failure. They were more intrinsically motivated to
learn, had more self control over studying and had more respect for and appreciation to their lecturers. Depressed
students had been reported to have lower grade point averages and spent less time on their homework (Field, 2001).
Depressed students usually are less intrinsically motivated to learn, they lacked self control over their studies and
were not motivated to show respect for and appreciation to their lecturers.
The hypothesis that emotional intelligence will predict students’ behaviours and attitudes (intrinsic motivation, self
discipline and respect for lecturers) was supported by data from this study. Findings from this study reinforce prior
evidence linking emotional intelligence with students’ behaviours and attitudes (Salami, 2004; Salami &
Ogundokun, 2009; Tagliavia, Tripton, Giannetti & Mattei, 2006; Wong, Wong & Chau, 2001) by showing the
salutary effects of emotional intelligence on students’ attitudes. Students who had high emotional intelligence i.e.
could perceive and understand their own emotions and emotions of others and could manage their emotional
behaviour performed well in their academic work and developed more positive attitude toward learning. That self-
efficacy predicted students’ academic behaviours and attitudes corroborates the work of prior researchers who found
that self-efficacy was a predictor of students’ academic achievement, behaviour, study habits and attitude toward
learning (Faulkner & Reeves, 2009; Hagger, Chatzisarantis & Biddle, 2001; Yalcinalp, 2005, Schwarzer & Fuchs,
2009; Salami, 2004; Salami & Ogundokun, 2009). Students with high self-efficacy were likely to interpret academic
problems as opportunities to succeed and were thus eager to gain the skills necessary to go on to the next level to
solve any academic problem that might come their way. Such students were likely to perform well in their academic
work and to develop more positive attitude toward learning.
The hypotheses that emotional intelligence and self-efficacy will moderate the relationship between psychological
well-being (depression) and students’ behaviours and attitudes were confirmed by the data from this study. These
results can be explained on the basis that students who were stressed or depressed as a result of inability to meet
academic demands but had high self-efficacy and high emotional intelligence, showed intrinsic motivation, self-
discipline and appreciated their lecturers’ skills and efforts. Therefore, they developed an appropriate attitude toward
learning and participated in activities that could bring academic success.

Implications of the findings

Results from this study have implications for counselling practice and assessment. That emotional intelligence and
self-efficacy predicted students’ behaviours and attitudes- intrinsic motivation, self-discipline and respect for
lecturers demands that counselling psychologists and lecturers should focus on teaching emotional intelligence as a
strategy to develop academic behaviours and attitudes of students in tertiary educational institutions. When students
are educated to be emotionally and socially intelligent, their general performance can be improved.
Based on the findings from this study, it is feasible to enhance appropriate behaviours and attitudes of students, in
short, quality in education, by encouraging them (i) to be aware of their emotions (ii) manage their emotions (iii) use
emotions to motivate themselves (iv) develop interest (v) recognize the emotions of other people (vi) manage
relationship (vii) set and achieve personal goals and develop their potentials (viii) to be realistically positive and
optimistic. To achieve these objectives, counsellors and lecturers with the cooperation of college managements and
parents, should design appropriate intervention strategies to enhance the above mentioned emotional intelligence
and self-efficacy factors related to students’ behaviours and attitudes. Research is needed in this area to examine
what can achieve the best and most lasting effects for increasing emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and students’
behaviours and attitudes.
Because psychological well-being is a strong predictor of students’ behaviours and attitudes it demands that school
psychologists and counsellors should design intervention programmes to foster psychological well-being of students
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and use them to enhance students’ behaviours and attitudes thereby improving quality of education. In conclusion,
the study has shown that emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, happiness and life satisfaction predict students’
behaviours and attitudes beyond depression. Also emotional intelligence and self-efficacy moderated the
relationship between depression and students’ behaviours and attitudes.

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Table 1: Intercorrelations between Emotional Intelligence, self-efficacy, Psychological well-being and Academic
behaviours and Attitudes.
Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 EI 1.00
2 GSES .08 1.00
3 LS .18 .19* 1.00
4 CES-D -.21* -.19* -.20* 1.00
5 Happiness .32* .28* -.42* -.40* 1.00
6 Intrinsic .20* .21* .20* -.22* .30* 1.00
Motivation
7 Self .24* .22* .19* -.19* .12 .38* 1.00
Discipline
Respect for .23* .20* .21* -.23* .22* .34* .23* 1.00
lecturers
8
Mean 65.22 28.72 85.70 9.76 24.73 38.40 21.45 8.76
S.D 6.30 5.63 3.64 4.56 5.34 3.70 3.80 4.20

Note: N=242, EI= Emotional Intelligence scale, GSES= Generalised Self-Efficacy Scale, LS=Life Satisfaction,
CES-D= Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale.
*P<.05 (2-tailed test).

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Table 2: Regressing Emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, Life Satisfaction, happiness and depression on intrinsic
motivation and self-discipline
Dependent variables
Independent Intrinsic motivation Self-discipline
variables
Model 1 Model2 Model 3 Model 1 Model2 Model 3
Beta (t) Beta (t) Beta (t) Beta (t) Beta (t) Beta (t)
CES-D -.12 (2.40)* -.11 (1.98)* -.12 (2.00)* -.15 (2.34)* -.14 (2.23)* -.13 (1.97)*
Happiness . 21 (3.60)* .19 (2.10)* .08 (1.00) .08 (.09)
LS .28 (4.00)* .25 (4.25)* .13 (1.96)* .12 (1.96)*
EI .16 (3.60)* .15 (3.22)* .17 (2.00)* .16 (2.00)*
GSES .14 (2.74)* .17 (3.70)* .18 (2.43)* .17 (2.30)*
CES-D X EI .24 (4.82)* .19 (3.22)*
CES-D X .22 (3.76)* .18 (3.43)*
GSES
Happiness x .05 (.08) .07 (1.00)
EI
Happiness x .10 (.09) .03 (.05)
GSES
LS X EI .07 (.05) .05 (.05)
LS X GSES .04 (.06) .05 (.07)
F 9.70* 10.65* 8.76* 7.60* 9.54* 7.30*
Df 1/240 5/236 11/230 1/240 5/236 11/230
2
R /Adjusted .23/.24 .35/.34 .42/.40 .20/.18 .28/.27 .33/.30
R2
R2 change - .12 .07 - .08 .05

Note: CES-D = Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, LS= Life Satisfaction, EI= Emotional
Intelligence, GSES= Generalised Self-Efficacy Scale.
*P< .05 (2-tailed test).

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 European Journal of Educational Studies 2(3), 2010

Table 3: Regressing Emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, life satisfaction, happiness and depression on Respect for
lecturers
Dependent variables
Independent variables Respect for lecturers
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
Beta(t) Beta (t) Beta (t)
CES-D -.07(.50) -.08(.67) -.07(.60)
Happiness .17(1.96)* .18(1.98)*
LS .16(1.98)* .16(1.96)*
EI .14(2.10)* .13(1.98)*
GSES .15(2.03)* .17(2.36)*
CES-D X EI .15(2.20)
CES-D X GSES .19(3.72*)
Happiness X EI .08(1.54)
Happiness X GSES .05(1.22)
LS X EI .12(1.70)
LS X GSES .09(1.34)
F 1.70 8.84* 9.76*
df 1/240 5/236 11/230
R2/Adjusted R2 .21/.20 .28/.26 .32/.30
2
R change - .07 .04

Note: CES-D= Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, LS= Life Satisfaction, EI= Emotional
Intelligence, GSES= Generalised Self-Efficacy Scale.
*P< .05 (2- tailed)

257

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