Clarify PDF

CLARIFICATION
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Contents
3.1 Fundamentals ....................................................................................................................... 6
3.1.1 Description .................................................................................................................. 6
3.1.2 Coagulation ................................................................................................................. 8
3.1.3 Flocculation ............................................................................................................... 12
3.1.4 Sedimentation ........................................................................................................... 13
3.1.5 Jar Testing .................................................................................................................. 13
3.1.6 The Rule and Exceptions to the Rule ................................................................... 14
3.1.7 Equipment ................................................................................................................. 15
3.2 Coagulator Clarifier ........................................................................................................... 16

3.2.1 Process and Operations Overview ........................................................................ 16
3.2.2 Equipment Design and Options ........................................................................... 18
3.2.2.1 Tank ................................................................................................................... 19
3.2.2.2 Internals ........................................................................................................... 19
3.2.2.3 Lining ................................................................................................................ 21
3.2.2.4 Paint .................................................................................................................. 21
3.2.2.5 Piping ................................................................................................................ 22
3.2.2.6 Valves ................................................................................................................ 22
3.2.2.7 Instrumentation .............................................................................................. 22
3.2.3 Application and Design .......................................................................................... 22
3.2.3.1 Application ...................................................................................................... 22
3.2.3.2 Design ............................................................................................................... 24
34a_m3_r0 3-1 Clarification

3.3 Cold Lime Softening Clarifier ......................................................................................... 27
3.3.2 Equipment and Design Options ........................................................................... 30
3.3.2.1 Tank ................................................................................................................... 30
3.3.2.2 Internals ........................................................................................................... 30
3.3.2.3 Lining ................................................................................................................ 31
3.3.2.4 Paint .................................................................................................................. 31
3.3.2.5 Piping ................................................................................................................ 31
3.3.2.6 Valves ................................................................................................................ 32
3.3.3.1 Application ...................................................................................................... 33
3.3.3.2 Design ............................................................................................................... 34
3.4 Lamella Clarifier ................................................................................................................ 37

3.4.2.1 Tanks ................................................................................................................. 40
3.4.2.2 Internals ........................................................................................................... 40
3.4.2.3 Lining ................................................................................................................ 40
3.4.2.4 Paint .................................................................................................................. 40
3.4.2.5 Piping ................................................................................................................ 40
3.4.2.6 Valves ................................................................................................................ 41
3.4.3 Applications and Design ........................................................................................ 42
3.4.3.1 Applications .................................................................................................... 42
3.4.3.2 Design ............................................................................................................... 43
3.5 Chemical Feed Equipment ............................................................................................... 48

3.5.3.1 Application ...................................................................................................... 50
3.5.3.2 Design ............................................................................................................... 50
3.5.3.2.1 Bulk Chemical Storage Tanks ................................................................. 50
3.5.3.2.2 Measuring (Batch) Tanks ......................................................................... 50
3.5.3.2.3 Metering Pumps ........................................................................................ 51
3.5.3.2.4 Caustic Metering Pump ........................................................................... 52
3.5.3.2.5 Lime Feeder ................................................................................................ 53
3.6 Resources ....................................................................................................................... 54

Module 3
CLARIFICATION
In Module 1, the reasons for water purification are discussed. In Module 2, the
fundamentals of water chemistry are reviewed. In this module these ideas and
concepts are applied to one of the oldest forms of water purification and treatment:
clarification.
Clarification is the method used to remove suspended matter from surface water and
industrial wastewater. In essence, it makes “turbid” water “clear,” as shown below in
Figure 3.1-1.
Figure 3.1-1: Turbid and Clarified Water
Clarification also reduces iron, manganese, organic material, oil and color. It can be
configured to remove hardness. It is the first step in surface water treatment,
because the processes that follow normally require clear and colorless influent water.
For the same reasons, clarification is often the last step before discharge of
wastewater to a receiving stream.

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Turbidity is the measurement of light transmission and reflection through a sample
of water as shown below in Figure 3.1-2. It is an indirect measurement of the
amount of suspended matter in water. Turbidity is measured with a turbidimeter as
shown below in Figure 3.1-3.
Courtesy of Hach Chemical Company

Figure 3.1-2: Turbidity Measurement
Courtesy of Hach Chemical Company
Figure 3.1-3: Turbidimeter

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Clarification uses chemical addition and the sedimentation process to remove
suspended matter from water, as discussed below. Figure 3.1-4 below shows a
collage of different clarifier designs that can be selected for use in a water purification
system.
Coagulator Clarifier Cold Lime Softening Clarifier
Courtesy of Ecodyne
Collage of
Clarifier Designs
Lamella Clarifier
Figure 3.1-4: Collage of Clarifier Designs

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3.1 Fundamentals
This section reviews the fundamentals of clarification technology. Coagulation,

flocculation and sedimentation phenomena are discussed. The use of polymers and
jar testing to optimize clarification is presented. Rules of clarification and exceptions
to the rules are noted.
3.1.1 Description
Clarification removes suspended matter from water. Surface waters require

clarification because they have moderate to high levels of suspended matter. Well
waters do not require clarification because they have low levels of suspended matter.
As shown below in Figure 3.1-5, the suspended matter in water includes two kinds
of particles:
• Settleable Particles (macroparticles, typically visible to the eye)
• Non-Settleable Particles (microparticles, normally visible through a microscope)
Settleable Macroparticles Visible to the Eye
Non-Settleable Particles Visible Though a Microscope

Figure 3.1-5: Suspended Matter in Water

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Settleable particles are particles in water that settle out over time.
Figure 3.1-6 on the right shows a sample of water in which the
settleable particles (suspended matter) have settled out. The
water itself is clear, indicating an absence of suspended matter
Courtesy of Betz Dearborn

(turbidity). If non-settleable particles had been in the water, the
water would not be clear. This “turbidity” would have indicated
the presence of non-settleable particles. Turbidity is an indirect
measurement of the amount of suspended matter (settleable
particles and non-settleable particles) in water.
Clarification uses chemicals and sedimentation to remove

suspended matter (settleable particles and non-settleable
particles). Several steps are involved. First, coagulation
destabilizes the particle surface charge that keeps the particles in
solution. Once destabilized, the particles no longer repel one
another and come together as floc. Second, floc agglomerate Figure 3.1-6:
into larger particles. Polymers are used to enhance the Suspended Matter
flocculation process. Third, sedimentation causes agglomerated
floc to settle out. The settled floc is collected and concentrated for discharge to
waste, called clarifier blowdown, or recycled to the coagulation step, called sludge
recycle. Clarified water is collected and flows out of the clarifier.

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3.1.2 Coagulation
The first step of the clarification process is coagulation, as shown below in Figure
3.1-7. Particles in water have a naturally occurring negative charge. This causes them
to repel each other and stay in suspension. When this charge is destabilized, the
particles no longer repel one another, and can come together in closer proximity. A
chemical salt, called a coagulant, is mixed with the inlet water to destabilize the
charge. Common coagulants are aluminum sulfate (alum), ferric sulfate and ferric
chloride.
Floc
Floc
Figure 3.1-7: Coagulation
The coagulants provide a positive charge, in the form of metallic cations, that
destabilize the natural negative charge of the particles. The metallic cations combine
with hydroxide in the water to form a metallic hydroxide that is an insoluble
compound. The destabilized particles and metal hydroxide precipitates agglomerate
into small, visible particles called floc. Color, organic matter and colloids, including
colloidal silica, are removed by becoming bound up in the floc. The precise
mechanism for removal- absorption, adsorption, co-precipitation, or a combination-
is not fully understood.

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The addition of too much coagulant can cause the suspended matter to be re-
dispersed with the opposite charge. As shown below in Figure 3.1-8, the amount of
removal is dependent upon the coagulant dosage and the pH.
40 ppm
Residual
60 ppm
pH
Figure 3.1-8: Particle Residual as a Function of
Coagulant Dosage and pH
Alum (aluminum sulfate), ferric sulfate and ferric chloride coagulants are acidic salts
and decrease the pH of the influent water. Because of this, the pH of the water must
be adjusted with caustic (sodium hydroxide) or another alkaline (high pH chemical).
The adjustment is to a pH of 5.5 to 6.5 and is done to achieve the lowest residual of
suspended matter.
Lime is used as the coagulant when the treatment objective is hardness reduction.
The dosage depends on the desired operating pH of the clarifier. For the greatest
removal of hardness, the pH range is 9.5 – 10.5.
Feed of coagulant alone does not produce satisfactory floc in waters having a low
suspended matter concentration. In this instance, bentonite clay is added. Bentonite
clay creates an artificial base of settleable macroparticles that seed the growth of floc.

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Polymers are added to reduce the amount of coagulant required, broaden the
working pH range and create denser, heavier floc that settles out more easily, as
shown below in Figure 3.1-9. Polymers are long-chain organic compounds of high
molecular weight that bridge floc particles together or modify their surface charge.
Courtesy of Betz Dearborn
Figure 3.1-9: Floc Formed With Coagulant Alone

vs. Floc Formed with Coagulant and Polymer
In almost all cases, the water to be treated is disinfected with either gaseous chlorine
or sodium hypochlorite. This oxidizes organic matter in the water that has taste and
odor and certain metals, such as manganese and iron. When oxidized, these
constituents are transformed into a form that can be removed during clarification.
Their removal is important because they can cause fouling of process components.

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Coagulation is carried out in a fast mix chamber, as shown below in Figure 3.1-10. A
fast mix is required because the coagulant and water must be thoroughly mixed to
allow the suspended matter and coagulant to come into contact with each other. If it
is not fast mixed, some suspended matter may not come into contact with coagulant,
the surface charge will not be destabilized and flocculation will not occur. As
flocculated water flows into the slow mix chamber, polymer is added.
Inlet Water Fast Mix

Chamber
Adapted from Ecodyne

Slow Mix
Chamber
Alum
Feed Polymer
Feed
Figure 3.1-10: Coagulation Step

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3.1.3 Flocculation
In the next step of clarification, the small floc (microfloc) is allowed to grow into
larger floc, called macrofloc or agglomerated floc. This process, called flocculation, is
shown below in Figure 3.1-11. Flocculation is accomplished by gently stirring the
coagulated water to assure contact between microfloc particles and polymer. The
polymer enhances agglomerated floc formation. As the agglomerated floc continues
to grow, it becomes denser and heavier, allowing it to settle.
Floc Agglomerated Floc
Floc
Floc
Polymer

Inlet Water
Fast Mix
Chamber
Polymer
Alum
Feed Feed
Slow Mix
Chamber
Figure 3.1-11: Flocculation Step
Mixing too rapidly can create what is called floc shear. Shear is the breaking apart of
existing floc particles. The agglomerated floc, or macrofloc, is sheared back into
microfloc.

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Figure 3.1-12: Sedimentation Step
34a_m3_r0 3-13a Clarification

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3.1.4 Sedimentation
The final step of the clarification process is sedimentation, as shown on the opposite
page in Figure 3.1-12. In this step, agglomerated floc settles out to form sludge and
the sludge is transported to the sludge concentration chamber by the scraper. The
sludge thickening pickets concentrate the sludge. The sludge is discharged to waste
in a process called clarifier blowdown. Above the sludge, clarified water is collected
in the outlet launder and flows forward for use or further treatment.
3.1.5 Jar Testing
Jar tests are used to establish chemical dosage requirements and predict clarifier
effluent turbidity levels. They simulate the chemistry and physical operation of a
clarifier. The test equipment is shown below in Figure 3.1-13. Varying dosages of
coagulant, polymer and pH adjustment chemical (if required) are added to the
beakers on the gang stirrer. The water in the beaker is stirred for the amount of time
equivalent to the retention time of the fast mix chamber and slow mix chamber. The
floc is then allowed to settle for the amount of time equivalent to the retention time
of the sedimentation chamber. Then the turbidity of the water is measured and
recorded along with the pH, stirring speed and relative volume of floc produced. Jar
tests are repeated with varying dosages of chemicals and alternate chemicals to
determine the appropriate combination of chemicals, pH and floc production
necessary to obtain optimal performance. Jar tests should be performed prior to the
final sizing of the clarifier and the chemical feeders. Once the clarifier is in operation,
jar tests should be repeated if the quality of the inlet water changes significantly.
Gang Stirrer
Courtesy of BetzDearborn
Figure 3.1-13: Jar Test Equipment

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3.1.6 The Rule and Exceptions to the Rule
The Rule
The general rule for clarification is feed of a disinfectant, followed by feed of the
coagulant, then pH adjustment and finally addition of a polymer. The disinfectant,
coagulant and pH adjustment chemical are added to initiate the coagulation process.
The polymer is added after coagulation to facilitate flocculation.
The coagulant is selected based on the characteristics of the water to be treated and
the treatment objectives. Jar tests are used to determine the proper disinfectant,
coagulant, polymer dosages and the operating pH for the clarifier.
Exceptions to the Rule
Some waters and some applications invoke exceptions to the rule.
The addition of bentonite clay is required to achieve macrofloc formation in waters

that have a low suspended matter concentration. The clay acts as a macroparticle
base for macrofloc formation.
When treating waters with a high suspended matter concentration, replacement of

the coagulant with polymer is possible. The replacement is called coagulant, or alum,
substitution. In this situation, there is sufficient floc formation without the feed of a
coagulant. The advisability of an alum substitution treatment program must be
confirmed by jar tests.
If the process downstream from the clarifier is reverse osmosis, particular attention
must be paid to polymer selection and dosage. Polymer carries over from the
clarifier, even if the water looks perfectly clear, and can be a membrane foulant. The
potential for this is determined by running a Silt Density Index (SDI) on the clarifier
effluent, as described in Module 6 on reverse osmosis. Polymer carryover increases
SDI. To combat this, a filter aid can be used upstream from the filtration equipment.
The polymer and filter aid must be compatible with the antiscalant fed to the RO
system. Many thin film membranes carry a negative surface charge (anionic).
Cationic (positively charged) polymers can bind to the anionic membrane sites and
cause irreversible fouling.

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3.1.7 Equipment
Clarification can be accomplished using several approaches. The equipment designs

fall into two general categories. The first is the common clarifier, also called a
reactivator clarifier, coagulator clarifier, cold lime softener, or solids contact clarifier,
depending upon the manufacturer and performance required. The second is the
inclined plate, or lamella, design that uses inclined plates to accomplish the
sedimentation function. All have a fast mix chamber to ensure good contact
between the treatment chemicals and suspended matter for coagulation, a slow mix
chamber allowing polymer addition to facilitate flocculation, a sedimentation
chamber for settling and a concentrated sludge chamber for clarifier blowdown.
Required disinfectant, coagulant and pH adjustment chemicals are fed before the fast
mix chamber. Clay is fed to the fast mix chamber. Polymer is fed between the fast
mix and slow mix chambers. Note that the solids contact clarifiers have internal
sludge recycle, and the inclined plate clarifiers can be furnished with optional
external sludge recycle. The following sections present a process and operations
overview, discuss equipment design and options and consider the application and
design of each of these clarifiers.

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Figure 3.2-1: Coagulator Clarifier P&ID

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3.2 Coagulator Clarifier
3.2.1 Process and Operations Overview
The P&ID for a coagulator clarifier is shown on the opposite page in Figure 3.2-1,
and the equipment cutaway is shown below in Figure 3.2-2. Major components
have been identified.
Sludge Fast
Scraper Variable Speed
Slow Recirculator Drive Mix
Mix Drive Tank
Tank

Sludge
Layer Concentrated
Sludge Chamber
Recirculated
Sludge
Figure 3.2-2: Coagulator Clarifier

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Treatment chemicals are added to the inlet flow before it enters the fast mix chamber.
The chemicals and water are thoroughly mixed in the fast mix chamber to begin the
coagulation process. A variable speed recirculator drive turns the recirculator
impeller to mix the inlet water and chemicals. Coagulated particles flow upward into
the slow mix chamber where polymer is added to facilitate flocculation. A portion of
the agglomerated floc is internally recirculated back into the fast mix chamber from
the bottom of the slow mix chamber to seed the coagulation process. Agglomerated
floc flows downward from the slow mix chamber into the sedimentation chamber.
In the sedimentation chamber, the flow reverses to upward and agglomerated floc
settles. The treated water flows upward to the outlet collection launders, then out to
use or to the next process.
It is important that the settling rate of the floc particles is faster than the upflow rate
of the water. This gives the floc particles a relative velocity that is downward. This
downward relative velocity causes the particles to move to the bottom of the
sedimentation chamber, not upward into the outlet collector. Floc leaving the
clarifier with the treated water is called carryover floc. In some applications, a floc
barrier is provided to reduce effluent turbidity caused by floc carryover.
Agglomerated floc that settles to the bottom of the sedimentation chamber is called
sludge. The sludge is moved to the concentrated sludge chamber by a scraper
powered by the sludge scraper drive. The collected sludge is concentrated with
thickening pickets in the concentrated sludge chamber and is periodically
backflushed with clarifier inlet water to keep the sludge fluidized. Concentrated
sludge is blown down (discharged) to waste through the clarifier blowdown piping.
The blowdown is 2-5% of the influent flow and has a 5-8% suspended solids
concentration.
The following is a discussion of the chemical reactions taking place as the water
flows through the clarifier. Alum (Aluminum Sulfate, Al2(SO4)3), is added to the
water to be treated in the fast mix chamber. This consumes hydroxide in the inlet
water, contributes sulfate to the treated water and forms an aluminum hydroxide
precipitate (floc).
Al2(SO4)3 + 6H2O → 6H+ + 3SO42- + 2Al(OH)3 ↓
As an alternate to alum, ferric sulfate, Fe2(SO4)3, can be used. This consumes

hydroxide in the inlet water, contributes sulfate to the treated water and forms a
ferric hydroxide precipitate (floc).
Fe2(SO4)3 + 6H2O → 6H+ + 3SO42- + 2Fe(OH)3 ↓

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Ferric sulfate is used to remove trace metals, in addition to suspended matter, in the
influent water. Ferric chloride (FeCl3) is an alternative to ferric sulfate and its
reaction with water is similar. The primary difference is that it contributes chlorides
to the treated water rather than sulfates.
FeCl3 + 3H2O → 3H+ + 3Cl- + Fe(OH)3 ↓
Independent of the coagulant selected (alum, ferric sulfate or ferric chloride), the
hydroxide consumed in the inlet water must be replaced by addition of an alkali,
usually caustic (sodium hydroxide). The alkali adjusts the clarifier operating pH to
the proper range (5.5 to 6.5). Note that two coagulants, alum and ferric sulfate, add
sulfate to the treated water and one, ferric chloride, adds chloride.
Chemical feeders, with associated day tanks and/or bulk storage tanks, are needed
for the feed of disinfectant, coagulant, clay, pH adjustment chemical and polymer.
Normally a single loop controller is used for control of the pH adjustment chemical
feed. Details of chemical feed and control are discussed in Section 3.5 beginning on
page 3-48.
The most difficult part of operating a coagulator clarifier is the formation and
maintenance of the sludge layer. Formation occurs during the startup of the
coagulator clarifier as agglomerated floc is accumulated in the sedimentation
chamber. Once formed, the sludge layer is subject to upset. The upset could be due
to changes in influent water quality, temperature changes (particularly if the
coagulator clarifier is located outdoors), or disruptions in influent flow. Once upset,
it can take several hours to re-establish the sludge layer.
3.2.2 Equipment Design and Options
The clarifier vessel is designed in various diameters and straight shell heights. The
operating water depth in the clarifier is one foot lower than the shell height. Final
vessel height depends on site-specific requirements, such as land topography, treated
water storage tank height and filter selection. It is furnished with chambers for fast
mixing (coagulation), slow mixing (flocculation), settling (sedimentation) and sludge
concentration. The coagulator clarifier is designed to do the following.
• accomplish efficient coagulation and flocculation of influent water
• collect and dispose of sludge

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This is accomplished by conservatively selecting the rise rate and retention time for
the clarifier and providing robust recirculation and scraper features. The rise rate is
the upward velocity of the water in the sedimentation chamber. The retention time
is the amount of time the water spends in the slow mix chamber. The slow mix
chamber and the sedimentation chamber are designed to achieve uniform flow
through the clarifier.
3.2.2.1 Tank
Clarifiers come in 20-200 ft diameters and 13-21 ft shell heights. They are designed
for operating temperatures from 35-150 ºF. The shell is field fabricated of either steel
or concrete. The floor is sloped concrete and access is by ladder. Clarifier tank
options are stairway access, ice design and API 650 design.
3.2.2.2 Internals
The internals on clarifiers having a diameter of 75 feet and smaller are supported
from a bridge; larger units are supplied with a center post design.
The clarifier uses a recirculator with a variable speed drive to fast mix the influent
water and chemicals. The variable speed drive allows adjustment of the impeller
speed to optimize the fast mix process.
The scraper is designed to move precipitated suspended matter (sludge) to a

collection chamber for disposal. The scraper drive is furnished with sufficient torque
to handle dense solids. Optional scraper drive torque overload can be provided.
Since the environment is not corrosive, the scraper material is carbon steel.

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An optional floc barrier can be provided to allow higher flows through the clarifier
and reduce floc carryover. As shown below in Figure 3.2-3, the floc barrier is
constructed of plastic and requires adequate supports to prevent it from moving. The
honeycomb structure of the floc barrier creates a larger effective settling area,
reducing the external dimensions of the clarifier. It also gives the clarifier a barrier to
floc carryover, resulting in lower effluent turbidity.
Adapted fromEcodyne
Figure 3.2-3: Floc Barrier

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The purpose of the outlet launder (outlet collection header) is to collect treated
water. On large diameter clarifiers, they are fed by a network of radial collector
pipes, as shown below in Figure 3.2-4, that allows the treated water to be collected
uniformly across the cross-sectional area of the clarifier. On smaller units the water
overflows directly into the launder.
Outlet Headers
Figure 3.2-4: Outlet Launder
3.2.2.3 Lining
The clarifier shell, the bridge and the internal components can be protected from
corrosion with an epoxy polyamide lining or by being galvanized. The shell is rarely
galvanized due to its size.
3.2.2.4 Paint
The clarifier can be painted with an epoxy polyamide primer and finish coat, an
epoxy polyamide primer and siloxane finish, a siloxane epoxy and finish coat, or a
custom primer and finish coat. The choice of materials depends on the environment
in which the clarifier will be located.

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3.2.2.5 Piping
Since the water is not corrosive, carbon steel is the standard piping material.
Galvanized carbon steel is an option for sites desiring better corrosion resistance.
The choice of materials for chemical feed piping depends on the chemical being
used; stainless steel is quite common.
3.2.2.6 Valves
Butterfly valves are the standard valves furnished for clarifier operation. The inlet
isolation valve is manual; all others are air operated. Air operated valve closing
action is slow to prevent water hammer.
The backflush inlet and blowdown outlet valves have travel stops.
3.2.2.7 Instrumentation
An optional turbidity analyzer is provided to measure clarifier effluent turbidity.
3.2.3 Application and Design
3.2.3.1 Application
Coagulator clarifiers are used to remove suspended matter. They do not remove
hardness. Ferric sulfate or ferric chloride may be substituted for alum if the
treatment objective includes removal of trace metals.
Aluminum flocs and iron flocs are gelatinous in nature, fragile and not abrasive. This
is important because the nature of the floc factors into the power requirement for the
recirculator and scraper drives the amount of blowdown and the abrasive resistance
of materials of construction. Compared to cold lime softening clarifiers, which have
a heavy, crystalline, abrasive floc and a blowdown 2-4 times higher than a coagulator
(alum) clarifier, the coagulator clarifier recirculator and scraper drives have a lower
power requirement and the scraper is not subject to abrasion.

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Table 3.2-1 below gives a summary of performance for coagulator clarifiers.
Basic Equipment Select ion

Coagulat or Clar ifier Per for mance Summar y
Const it uent Unit s Influent : Alum Effluent : Alum
Tur bidit y NTU 3000 1-20
Ir on ppm Fe 20 0.2
Mn ppm Mn 20 0.5
Or ganics (dissolved) ppm O2 consumed NO LIMIT 1-2
Oil (float ing) ppm 10 0.5
TDS ppm CaCO3 NO LIMIT NO CHANGE
Chlor ine Cl2 20 *
Har dness ppm CaCO3 NO LIMIT NO CHANGE
Alkalinit y ppm CaCO3 90 NO CHANGE
pH STD unit s NO LIMIT 5.5 - 6.5
* Chlor ine is added t o a clar ifier t o kill bact er ia and oxidize or ganic cont aminant s in wat er. As t he
or ganics ar e oxidized, t he chlor ine is r educed t o t he chlor ide ion. The ext ent t o which t he chlor ine
cont ent is r educed is dependent upon t he or ganic cont aminat ion of t he wat er.
Table 3.2-1: Coagulator Clarifier Performance Summary

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3.2.3.2 Design
Sedimentation chamber rise rate and slow mix chamber retention time are the two
main factors used in sizing coagulators. Rise rate, which is the upward velocity of
the treated water measured in gpm/ft2, determines the area of the clarifier treated
water surface. Retention time determines the volume of the slow mix chamber. The
area taken up by the slow mix chamber is not included in the treated water surface
area. Therefore, the diameter of the clarifier is computed based on the sum of the
areas of the treated water surface and the slow mix chamber.
First, the slow mix chamber volume is calculated. It is a function of the clarifier flow
rate and the slow mix chamber retention time. The retention time is the time it takes
for the coagulation and flocculation chemical reactions to occur. The typical
retention time is 20-30 minutes, based on experience. The low end of the range is
used when coagulation and flocculation chemical reactions are fast; the high end
when the reactions are slow. For coagulator clarifiers, the reaction is slow, so 30
minutes is selected. The equation for calculation of the slow mix chamber volume is
as follows:
Slow Mix Chamber Volume = (Flow rate)(Retention Time)
Second, the slow mix chamber area is calculated. It is a function of the slow mix
chamber volume and height. Typical heights are 12-20 ft. The height selected
depends on site-specific requirements, such as land topography, treated water
storage tank height, and filter selection. The equation for calculation of the slow mix
chamber area is as follows:
Slow Mix Chamber Area = Slow Mix Chamber Volume

Slow Mix Chamber Height
Third, based on the slow mix chamber volume and area calculated above, the
diameter of the slow mix chamber is calculated as follows:
(Slow Mix Chamber Diameter)2 = (4)(Slow Mix Chamber Area)

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Fourth, the treated water surface area is calculated. It is a function of the clarifier
flow rate and the treated water surface rise rate. Typical rise rates are 0.75-1.25 gpm/
ft2. Rise rates on the low end of the range are used when the settling speed of
agglomerated floc is slow and/or the water temperature is low, rise rates on the high
end when the agglomerated floc settles quickly and/or the water temperature is high.
Coagulator clarifiers are commonly sized with a 1 gpm/ft2 rise rate. The calculation
for treated water surface area is as follows:

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Treated Water Surface Area = Clarifier Flow rate
Rise Rate
Fifth, the total clarifier area is calculated. It is the sum of the treated water surface
area and the slow mix chamber area.
Total Clarifier Area = Treated Water Surface Area + Slow Mix Chamber Area
Sixth, the clarifier diameter is calculated based on its total area.
(Clarifier Diameter)2 = (4)(Total Clarifier Area)

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The following example sizes a 500 gpm coagulator clarifier.
Slow Mix Chamber Volume = (500 gpm)(30 min)

(7.48 gal/ft3)
= 2000 ft3
Slow Mix Chamber Area = 2000 ft3

12 ft
= 165 ft2
(Slow Mix Chamber Diameter)2 = d2 = (4)(165 ft2)

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or d @ 15 ft
Treated Water Surface Area = 500 gpm_

(1 gpm/ft2)
= 500 ft2
Total Clarifier Area = 165 ft2 + 500 ft2 = 665 ft2
(Clarifier Diameter)2 = d2 = (4)(665 ft2)

3.14
or d @ 29 ft.

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Figure 3.2-5 below is a sketch of the example coagulator clarifier with the
dimensions noted.
Figure 3.2-5: Example Coagulator Clarifier Dimensions

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Slow Mix Tank Fast Mix Tank

Sludge Layer Concentrated
Sludge Chamber
Figure 3.3-2: Cold Lime Softening Clarifier

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3.3 Cold Lime Softening Clarifier
The coagulator clarifier and cold lime softening clarifier have several common
features. They have the same straight shell height, treated water surface rise rate and
fast mix chamber retention time, but the coagulator clarifier has a longer slow mix
chamber retention time than the lime softening clarifier. For this reason, the
coagulator clarifier has a larger diameter than the cold lime softening clarifier, given
the same influent flow rate. The two clarifiers also operate with different coagulants.
This gives the coagulator clarifier a 2-5% gelatinous blowdown, whereas the cold
lime softening clarifier has a 10-20% crystalline blowdown. Finally, the coagulator
clarifier operates at a pH of 5.5 – 6.5 and the cold lime softening clarifier operates at
a pH of 9.5 –10.5.
The P&ID for a cold lime softening clarifier is shown below in Figure 3.3-1, and the
equipment cutaway is shown on the opposite page in Figure 3.3-2. Major
components have been identified.
Figure 3.3-1: Cold Lime Softening Clarifier P&ID

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coagulation process. A variable speed recirculator drive turns the recirculator
impeller to mix the inlet water and chemicals. Coagulated particles flow upward into
the slow mix chamber where polymer is added to facilitate flocculation. A portion of
the agglomerated floc is internally recirculated back into the fast mix chamber from
the bottom of the slow mix chamber to seed the coagulation process. Agglomerated
floc flows downward from the slow mix chamber into the sedimentation chamber.
In the sedimentation chamber, the flow reverses to upward and agglomerated floc
settles. The treated water flows upward to the outlet collection launder, then out to
use or to the next process.
It is important that the settling rate of the floc particles is faster than the upflow rate
of the water. This gives the floc particles a relative velocity that is downward. This
downward relative velocity causes the particles to move to the bottom of the
sedimentation chamber, not upward into the outlet collector. Floc leaving the
clarifier with the treated water is called carryover floc. In some applications, a floc
barrier is provided to reduce effluent turbidity caused by floc carryover.
Agglomerated floc that settles to the bottom of the sedimentation chamber is called
sludge. The sludge is moved to the concentrated sludge chamber by a scraper
powered by the sludge scraper drive. The collected sludge is concentrated with
thickening pickets in the concentrated sludge chamber and is periodically
backflushed with clarifier inlet water to keep the sludge fluidized. The concentrated
sludge is blown down (discharged) to waste through the clarifier blowdown piping.
The blowdown is typically 0.2 to 1% of the influent flow rate for every 100 ppm of
solids removed and has a 5-20% suspended solids concentration.
The following is a discussion of the chemical reactions taking place as the water
flows through the cold lime softening clarifier. Hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2) is added to
the water to be treated prior to the fast mix chamber. This adds hydroxide and
calcium to the inlet water.
Ca(OH)2 + HCO3- → CaCO3 ↓ + H2O + OH-.
Calcium carbonate, CaCO3, is formed with an attendant reduction in calcium

hardness if sufficient bicarbonate alkalinity, HCO3-, is present in the inlet water.
Magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2, is formed as the magnesium in the inlet water
reacts with the hydroxide alkalinity, OH-, of the lime. This results in a reduction of
the magnesium hardness of the inlet water.
Mg+ + 2OH- → Mg(OH)2↓

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However, the hydroxide alkalinity used to remove the magnesium hardness takes
away hydroxide alkalinity from the conversion of bicarbonate alkalinity to carbonate
alkalinity, CO32-. Therefore, more lime must be added to compensate.
If sufficient bicarbonate alkalinity, greater than 35 ppm as CaCO3, is not present in

the water, soda ash (Na2CO3) must be added. Soda ash adds sodium and carbonate
alkalinity to the water.
Na2CO3 → Na2+ + CO32-
Therefore, soda ash makes carbonate alkalinity available for calcium hardness to
react with to form calcium carbonate. The amount of lime and soda ash needed to
reduce the inlet water hardness depends on the calcium hardness, magnesium
hardness and alkalinity of the water being treated. Because the reactions are quite
complicated, jar tests provide a more accurate prediction of removal performance and
sludge production than calculations alone. Actual performance is an effluent with
approximately 35 ppm as CaCO3 of calcium hardness and 80% magnesium removal.
for the feed of lime, polymer and soda ash (if required). Normally a single loop
controller is used for pH control. Details of chemical feed and control are discussed
in Section 3.5 beginning on page 3-48.
The most difficult part of operating a cold lime softening clarifier is the formation
and maintenance of the sludge. Formation occurs during the startup of the lime
softening clarifier as agglomerated floc is accumulated in the sedimentation
chamber. Once formed, the sludge layer is subject to upset. The upset could be due
to changes in influent water quality, temperature changes (particularly if the lime
softening clarifier is located outdoors) or disruptions in influent flow. Once upset, it
can take several hours to re-establish the sludge layer.

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3.3.2 Equipment and Design Options
The clarifier vessel is designed in various diameters and straight shell heights. The
operating water depth in the clarifier is one foot lower than the shell height. Final
vessel height depends on site-specific requirements, such as land topography, treated
water storage tank height and filter selection. It is furnished with chambers for fast
mixing (coagulation), slow mixing (flocculation), settling (sedimentation) and sludge
concentration. The cold lime softening clarifier is designed to do the following:
• reduce hardness
• collect and dispose of sludge
This is accomplished by conservatively selecting the sedimentation chamber (treated

water surface) rise rate and slow mix chamber retention time for the clarifier, and
providing robust recirculation and scraper features. The rise rate is the upward
velocity of the water in the sedimentation chamber. The retention time is the
amount of time the water spends in the slow mix chamber. The slow mix chamber
and the sedimentation chamber are designed to achieve uniform flow through the
clarifier.
3.3.2.1 Tank
Clarifiers come in 20-200 ft diameters and 13-21 ft shell heights. They are designed
for operating temperatures from 35-150 oF. The shell is field fabricated of either steel
or concrete. The floor is sloped concrete and access is by ladder. Clarifier tank
options are stairway access, ice design, and API 650 design.
3.3.2.2 Internals
The internals on clarifiers having a diameter of 75 feet and smaller are supported
from a bridge; larger units are supplied with a center post design.
The clarifier uses a recirculator with a variable speed drive to fast mix the influent
water and chemicals. The variable speed drive allows adjustment of the impeller
speed to optimize the fast mix process.

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The scraper is designed to move precipitated suspended matter (sludge) to a
collection chamber for disposal. The scraper drive is furnished with sufficient torque
to handle dense solids. Optional scraper drive torque overload can be provided.
Since the environment is not corrosive, the scraper material is carbon steel.
An optional floc barrier can be provided to allow higher flows through the clarifier
and reduce floc carryover. As shown previously in Figure 3.2-3, the floc barrier is
constructed of plastic and requires adequate supports to prevent it from moving. The
honeycomb structure of the floc barrier creates a larger effective settling area,
reducing the external dimensions of the clarifier. It also gives the clarifier a barrier to
floc carryover, resulting in lower effluent turbidity.
The purpose of the outlet launder is to collect treated water. On large diameter
clarifiers, it is fed by a network of radial collector pipes, as shown previously in
Figure 3.2-4, that allow the treated water to be collected uniformly across the cross-
sectional area of the clarifier. On smaller units the water overflows directly into the
launder.
3.3.2.3 Lining
The clarifier shell, the bridge and the internal components can be protected from
corrosion with an epoxy polyamide lining or by being galvanized. The shell is rarely
galvanized due to its size.
3.3.2.4 Paint
3.3.2.5 Piping

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3.3.2.6 Valves
isolation valve is manual; all others are air-operated. Air-operated valve closing

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3.3.3.1 Application
Cold lime softening clarifiers remove suspended matter and reduce hardness. Lime
floc is heavy, granular in nature and abrasive. This is important because the nature of
the floc factors into the cold lime softening clarifier recirculator and scraper drive
power requirement, blowdown amount and scraper material abrasive resistance.
Table 3.3-1 below gives the performance summary for cold lime softening clarifiers.

Cold Lime Soft ening Clar ifier Per for mance Summar y
Const it uent Unit s Influent : Lime Effluent : Lime
Ir on ppm Fe 20 0.1
Mn ppm Mn 20 0.1
TDS ppm CaCO3 NO LIMIT *
Chlor ine Cl2 20 **
Ca 35ppm as CaCO3
Har dness ppm CaCO3 NO LIMIT
Mg 80% r educt ion
appr ox. 10ppm OH-
Alkalinit y ppm CaCO3 NO LIMIT
as CaCO3
* Reduced by t he amount t o calcium and magnesium bicar bonat e which ar e pr ecipit at ed.
** Chlor ine is added t o a clar ifier t o kill bact er ia and oxidize or ganic cont aminant s. The ext ent t o
which t he chlor ine cont ent is r educed is dependent upon t he or ganic cont aminat ion of t he r aw wat er.
Table 3.3-1: Cold Lime Softening Clarifier Performance Summary

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3.3.3.2 Design
Sedimentation chamber (treated water surface) rise rate and slow mix chamber
retention time are the two main factors used in sizing cold lime softening clarifiers.
Rise rate, which is the upward velocity of the treated water measured in gpm/ft2,
determines the area of the clarifier treated water surface. Retention time determines
the volume of the slow mix chamber. The area taken up by the slow mix chamber is
not included in the treated water surface area. Therefore, the diameter of the clarifier
is computed based on the sum of the areas of the treated water surface and the slow
mix chamber.
First, the slow mix chamber volume is calculated. It is a function of the clarifier flow
rate and the slow mix chamber retention time. The retention time is the time it takes
for the coagulation and flocculation chemical reactions to occur. The typical
retention time is 20-30 minutes based on experience. The low end of the range is
used when coagulation and flocculation chemical reactions are fast, the high end
when the reactions are slow. For cold lime softening clarifiers, the reaction is fast, so
20 minutes is selected. The equation for calculation of the slow mix chamber volume
is as follows:
Slow Mix Chamber Volume = (Clarifier Flow rate)*(Retention Time)
Second, the slow mix chamber area is calculated. It is a function of the slow mix
chamber volume and height. Typical heights are 12-20 ft. The height selected
depends on site-specific requirements, such as land topography, treated water
storage tank height and filter selection. The equation for calculation of the slow mix
chamber area is as follows:
Slow Mix Chamber Area = Slow Mix Chamber Volume

Slow Mix Chamber Height
Third, based on the slow mix chamber volume and area calculated above, the
diameter of the slow mix chamber is calculated as follows:
(Slow Mix Chamber Diameter)2 = (4)(Slow Mix Chamber Area)

3.14
Fourth, the treated water surface area is calculated. It is a function of the clarifier
flow rate and the treated water surface (sedimentation chamber) rise rate. Typical
rise rates are 0.75-1.25 gpm/ft2. Rise rates on the low end of the range are used
when the settling speed of agglomerated floc is slow and/or the water temperature is
low, rise rates on the high end when the agglomerated floc settles quickly and/or the

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water temperature is high. Cold lime softening clarifiers are commonly sized with a
1 gpm/ft2 rise rate. The calculation for treated water surface area is as follows:
Treated Water Surface Area = Clarifier Flow rate

Rise Rate
Fifth, the total clarifier area is calculated. It is the sum of the treated water surface
area and the slow mix chamber area.
Total Clarifier Area = Treated Water Surface Area + Slow Mix Chamber Area
Sixth, the clarifier diameter is calculated based on its total area.
(Clarifier Diameter)2 = (4)(Total Clarifier Area)

3.14
The following example sizes a 500 gpm cold lime softening clarifier.
Slow Mix Chamber Volume = (500 gpm)*(20 min)

7.48 gal/ft3
= 1333 ft3
Slow Mix Chamber Area = 1333 ft3

12 ft
= 110 ft2
(Slow Mix Chamber Diameter)2 = (4)(110 ft2)

3.14
or d @ 12 ft
Treated Water Surface Area = 500 gpm

1 gpm/ft2
= 500 ft2
Total Clarifier Area = 500 ft2 + 110 ft2 = 610 ft2
(Clarifier Diameter)2 = d2 = (4)(610 ft2)

3.14
or d @ 28 ft

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Figure 3.3-3 below is a sketch of the cold lime softening clarifier with the
dimensions noted.
Figure 3.3-3: Example Cold Lime Softening Clarifier Dimensions

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3.4 Lamella Clarifier
The equipment cutaway for a lamella clarifier with major equipment identified is
shown below in Figure 3.4-1.
Slow Mix
Chamber

Inclined
Plates
Fast Mix
Chamber
Sedimentation
Chamber
Figure 3.4-1 Lamella Clarifier

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coagulation process. Clay, if required, is fed to the fast mix tank. A variable speed
mixer is used to perform the mixing. Coagulated particles overflow into the slow
mix chamber where polymer is added to facilitate flocculation. A second variable
speed mixer is used to perform the mixing. Agglomerated floc flows downward from
the slow mix chamber, through the channel between the inclined plate chamber and
the exterior wall, to the bottom of the inclined plates. Here the flow reverses to
upward and agglomerated floc settle into the concentrated sludge chamber as shown
below in Figure 3.4-2. Treated water flows upward to the collection flume, then out
to use or to the next process.
Flow from the Channel Between

the Inclined Plate Chamber
and Lamella Exterior Wall
into the Inclined Plate Chamber
Flow Downward Through the

Channel Between the Inclined
Plate Chamber and Lamella
Exterior Wall
Reverse Flow Up
Flow from Channel to Inclined Plates
Inclined Plate Chamber
Figure 3.4-2 Flow into the Inclined Plates

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Agglomerated floc slide down the inclined plates to the concentrated sludge
chamber. Concentrated sludge is blown down to waste through the clarifier
blowdown piping. The blowdown is about 2 to 5% of the influent flow and has a 5
to 8% suspended solids concentration, the same as for the coagulator clarifier.
The chemistry of the lamella clarifier is the same as that of the coagulator clarifier.
Refer to Section 3.2.1 on page 3-16.
for the feed of disinfectant, coagulant, clay, pH adjustment chemical and polymer. A
single loop controller is normally used for control of the pH adjustment chemical
feed. Details of chemical feed and control are discussed in Section 3.5, beginning on
page 3-48.
The most difficult part of operating a lamella clarifier is solids carryover. This occurs
when agglomerated floc is swept up through the inclined plates and carried out with
the effluent. Solids carryover can be due to changes in influent water quality,
temperature changes (particularly if the lamella clarifier is located outdoors), or
disruptions in influent flow. This is usually eliminated by adjusting the chemical feed
rates, or by reducing the flow rate of the lamella clarifier.
The lamella clarifier design includes a fast mix tank, slow mix tank, inclined plate
tank and sludge concentration tank (chamber). The lamella inclined plate tank is
provided with 55º inclined plates and the sludge concentration tank with a sludge
thickening picket. Inclined plates are used to separate agglomerated floc from the
water and are designed to achieve uniform flow. The lamella clarifier is designed to
do the following:
• collection and disposal of sludge
This is accomplished by conservatively selecting the inclined plate rise rate and
retention time in the slow mix tank, and providing robust mixer and sludge
concentration features. The rise rate is the upward velocity of the water in the
inclined plates. The retention time is the amount of time the water spends in the
slow mix tank (chamber).

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3.4.2.1 Tanks
The tanks are designed for operating temperatures from 35-150 ºF. The standard
material of construction is carbon steel. Optional materials are FRP, concrete, and
stainless steel. Tank access is by ladder (optional).
The fast mix tank provides one minute of retention time, the slow mix tank 30
minutes (the same as the coagulator clarifier).
3.4.2.2 Internals
The clarifier uses mixers with variable speed drives to fast mix and slow mix the
influent water and chemicals. The variable speed drive allows adjustment of the
impeller speed to optimize mixing.
Inclined plates are furnished in FRP material and are removable.
3.4.2.3 Lining
The fast mix tank, slow mix tank and inclined plate tank can be protected from
corrosion with an epoxy polyamide lining or by being galvanized. The shells are
rarely galvanized due to their size.
3.4.2.4 Paint
3.4.2.5 Piping

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3.4.2.6 Valves
isolation valve is manual, all others are air operated. Air operated valve closing

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3.4.3 Applications and Design
3.4.3.1 Applications
Lamella clarifiers are used to remove suspended matter. They do not remove
hardness. Ferric sulfate or ferric chloride may be substituted for alum if the
treatment objective includes removal of trace metals.
Table 3.4-1 below gives the lamella clarifier performance summary. It is identical to
the coagulator clarifier.

Lamella Clar ifier Per for mance Summar y
Const it uent Unit s Influent : Lime Effluent : Lime
Ir on ppm Fe 20 0.2
Mn ppm Mn 20 0.5
TDS ppm CaCO3 NO LIMIT NO CHANGE
Chlor ine Cl2 20 *
Har dness ppm CaCO3 NO LIMIT NO CHANGE
Alkalinit y ppm CaCO3 90 NO NO CHANGE
* Chlor ine is added t o a clar ifier t o kill bact er ia and oxidize or ganic cont aminant s. The ext ent t o which
t he chlor ine cont ent is r educed is dependent upon t he or ganic cont aminat ion of t he r aw wat er.
Table 3.4-1 Lamella Clarifier Performance Summary
The lamella clarifier is selected over the coagulator clarifier when either space or cost
considerations are paramount. The lamella clarifier occupies a much smaller
footprint than the coagulator clarifier and is significantly easier to install in the field.

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3.4.3.2 Design
Retention time in the fast mix tank, retention time in the slow mix tank, the rise rate
in the inclined plates, and the retention time in the sludge concentration tank are the
main factors used to size the lamella clarifier. Retention time determines the volume
of the fast mix tank and slow mix tank. The area taken up by the fast mix tank in the
slow mix tank is neglected when determining slow mix chamber area because it is so
small when compared to the slow mix tank diameter. Rise rate, which is the upward
velocity of the treated water measured in gpm/ft2, determines the area of the inclined
plates.
First, the fast mix tank volume is calculated. It is a function of the clarifier flow rate
and the fast mix tank retention time. The retention time is the time it takes for the
coagulation chemical reaction to occur. The typical retention time is 1 minute, based
on experience. The equation for calculation of the fast mix tank volume is as follows:
Fast Mix Tank Volume = (Clarifier Flow rate)*(Fast Mix Retention Time)
Second, the slow mix tank volume is calculated. It is a function of the clarifier flow
rate and the slow mix tank retention time. The retention time is the time it takes for
the flocculation chemical reaction to occur. The typical retention time is 20 minutes.
The equation for calculation of the fast mix tank volume is as follows:
Slow Mix Tank Volume = (Clarifier Flow rate)*(Slow Mix Retention Time)
Third, the slow mix tank area is calculated. It is a function of the slow mix tank
volume and height. Typical heights are 12-20 ft. The height selected depends on
site-specific requirements, such as land topography, treated water storage tank
height, and filter selection. The equation for calculation of the slow mix tank area is
as follows:
Slow Mix Tank Area = Slow Mix Tank Volume

Slow Mix Tank Height
Fourth, the slow mix tank diameter is calculated based on its area.
(Slow Mix Tank Diameter)2 = (4)(Slow Mix Tank Area)

3.14
Fifth, the fast mix tank area is calculated based on the selected slow mix tank height.
Fast Mix Tank Area = Fast Mix Tank Volume

Slow Mix Tank Height

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Sixth, the fast mix tank diameter is calculated based on its area.
(Fast Mix Tank Diameter)2 = (4)(Fast Mix Tank Area)

3.14
Seventh, the inclined plate surface area is calculated. It is a function of the clarifier
flow rate and the inclined plate rise rate. Typical rise rates are 0.25-0.50 gpm/ft2. Rise
rates on the low end of the range are used when the settling speed of agglomerated
floc is slow and/or the water temperature is low, rise rates on the high end when the
agglomerated floc settles quickly and/or the water temperature is high. Lamella
clarifiers are commonly sized with a 0.25 gpm/ft2 rise rate. The calculation for
inclined plate area is as follows:
Inclined Plate Surface Area = Clarifier Flow rate ___

Inclined Plate Rise Rate
Eighth, the number of inclined plates is calculated based on the inclined plate surface
area and the surface area per plate. Individual plates are 4 ft by 8 ft.
(Number of Inclined Plates) = Inclined Plate Surface Area

Area per Plate
Ninth, the number of stacked plates is calculated. The height of the stacked plates
should be slightly higher than the slow mix tank height for good hydraulics.
Number of Stacked Plates = Slow Mix Tank Height

8sin(55o),
rounded up to the next integer
Tenth, the height of the inclined plate tank is calculated based on the number of
stacked plates.
Inclined Plate Tank Height = 8(Number of Stacked Plates)sin(55o)
Eleventh, the horizontal projection of the inclined plate tank is calculated based on
the number of stacked plates.
Inclined Plate Horizontal Projection = 8(Number of Stacked Plates)cos(55o)
Twelfth, the number of inclined plate columns is calculated based on the slow mix
tank diameter.

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Number of Plate Columns = Slow Mix Tank diameter
4
Thirteenth, the inclined plate tank width is calculated based on the number of
columns.
Inclined Plate Tank Width = 4(Number of Plate Columns)
Fourteenth, the number of plate rows is calculated based on the number of plates,
number of stacked plates, and number of plate columns.
Number of Plate Rows = (Number of Plates)/(Number ofStacked Plates)

Number of Plate Columns
Fifteenth, the sludge concentration tank volume is calculated based on its retention
time. The retention time is the amount of time sludge is concentrated before being
blown down to waste. The time selected should be approximately equal to the
retention time of the slow mix tank.
Sludge Concentration Tank Volume =

(Clarifier Flow rate)(Sludge Concentration Retention Time)
Last, the sludge concentration tank height is calculated based on a diameter equal to
that of the slow mix tank.
Sludge Concentration Tank Height = 4(Sludge Concentration Tank Volume)

3.14(Slow Mix Tank Diameter)2
Parameters in this calculation can be iterated to design a well proportioned, compact

lamella clarifier.
The following example sizes a 500 gpm lamella clarifier:
Fast Mix Tank Volume = (500 gpm)*(1 min)

7.48 gal/ft3
= 65 ft3
Slow Mix Tank Volume = (500 gpm)*(30 min)

7.48 gal/ft3
= 2000 ft3

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Slow Mix Tank Area = 2000 ft3
12 ft
= 165 ft2
(Slow Mix Tank Diameter)2 = (4)(165 ft2)

3.14
or d ≅ 15 ft
Fast Mix Tank Area = 65 ft3

12 ft
≅ 5 ft2
(Fast Mix Tank Diameter)2 = (4)(5 ft3)

3.14
or d ≅ 2 ft
Inclined Plate Surface Area = 500 gpm___

( 0.25 gpm/ft2)
= 2000 ft2
(Number of Inclined Plates) = 2000 ft2

32 ft2
= 62
Number of Stacked Plates = 12 ft__

8sin(55o) ft
= 2
Inclined Plate Tank Height = 8(2 ft)sin(55o) ≅ 13 ft
Inclined Plate Horizontal Projection = 8(2 ft)cos(55o) ≅ 9 ft
Number of Plate Columns = 15 ft

4
= 4 ft
Inclined Plate Tank Width = 4(4 ft) = 16 ft
Number of Plate Rows = (62)/(2)

4
=8

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Sludge Concentration Tank Volume = (500 gpm)*(30 min)
7.48 gal/ft3
= 2000 ft3
Sludge Concentration Tank Height = 4(2000 ft3)

3.14(15 ft)2
= 12 ft
Figure 3.4-3 below is a sketch of the lamella clarifier with these dimensions noted.
15’
16’
13’
12’
9’
2’
Figure 3.4-3: Example Lamella Clarifier Dimensions

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3.5 Chemical Feed Equipment
Clarifiers require chemical feed systems for proper operation. As these feeders often
differ from the feeders used elsewhere in a water treatment system, they are
described here. Refer to Ancillary Equipment Section 9.3 for more details on
chemical feeders.
Chemicals are required to disinfect and coagulate clarifier influent water, adjust the
pH of the coagulated water for optimum flocculation and facilitate floc settling.
Sodium hypochlorite disinfectant and alum coagulant are usually delivered in liquid
form by tanker trucks. Hydrated lime is delivered in powder form by tanker trucks.
Bentonite clay is delivered in bags. Polymer is delivered dry, in pails or cardboard
shipping containers.
For the coagulator clarifier and lamella clarifier, sodium hypochlorite, alum and
caustic liquids are fed directly to the inlet piping with metering pumps for
disinfection, coagulation and pH control. Dry clay is mixed with water and fed as a
slurry to the fast mix tank, when required, for floc formation. Polymer is mixed in a
measuring tank and fed with a metering pump to the slow mix tank to facilitate
formation of agglomerated floc.
For the cold lime softening clarifier, powdered lime is mixed with water to form a
slurry and fed to the inlet piping with a centrifugal pump. Caustic for pH control and
clay for floc formation are not required. Polymer is mixed in a measuring tank and
fed with a metering pump to the slow mix tank to facilitate formation of
agglomerated floc.
Each chemical must be stored or prepared and injected into the clarifer at the
appropriate rate.

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Clarifier chemical feed systems include bulk chemical storage tanks, measuring
tanks, metering pumps and dry feeders. Sodium hypochlorite and alum are stored in
vertical storage tanks and fed using metering pumps. Hydrated lime is stored in a
silo, slurried with water and fed with a centrifugal pump. Caustic for pH adjustment
is taken from a bulk liquid caustic storage tank. Polymer is provided as a liquid or
prepared by blending dry powder with water in a measuring tank. Figure 3.5-1
below is a schematic for a typical chemical feed system arrangement for alum.
Courtesy of Milton Roy

Figure 3.5-1 Typical Chemical Feed System Arrangement

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3.5.3.1 Application
Chemical feed systems are required for coagulators, cold lime softening clarifiers and
lamella clarifiers.
3.5.3.2 Design
3.5.3.2.1 Bulk Chemical Storage Tanks
Vertical storage tanks are provided for sodium hypochlorite, alum and Bentonite clay
solutions. Silos are provided for hydrated lime. The size of these tanks depends on
the capacity of the clarifier and project/site specific requirements.
3.5.3.2.2 Measuring (Batch) Tanks
Polymer is prepared by blending dry polymer and water to achieve a 1% polymer

concentration, by weight.

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3.5.3.2.3 Metering Pumps
The pumps are commonly designed for the following feed rates:
• Sodium Hypochlorite 5-10 ppm

• Alum 40-60 ppm
• Polymer 1-2 ppm
Figure 3.5-2 below shows a metering pump with stroke control.
Courtesy of Milton Roy
Figure 3.5-2 Metering Pump with Stroke Control

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Metering pumps are sized based on the clarifier flow rate and the chemical dosage.
Feed rate, lb/hr =

(Clarifier Flow rate, gpm)(Chemical Dosage, ppm)(8.33 lb/gal)(60 min/hr)
1,000,000 lb/million lbs
Flow rate, gph = Feed rate, lbs/hr

Density, lb/gal
For a 500 gpm clarifier with a 40 ppm alum dosage, the feed rate is:
Feed rate = (500 gpm)(40 ppm)(8.33 lb/gal)(60min/hr)

= 10 lbs/hr
Commercial alum is provided as a 26% solution with a specific gravity of 1.3. The
density is 2.8 lbs/gal. The flow rate of alum is:
Flow rate = 10 lbs/hr/2.8 lbs/gal = 3.5 gph
A metering pump system with the ability to inject at least 3.5 gph of 26% alum is
required.
3.5.3.2.4 Caustic Metering Pump
Positive displacement metering pumps are also used to feed caustic into the clarifier
for pH control.

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3.5.3.2.5 Lime Feeder
A dry feeder, as shown below in Figure 3.5-3, is used to meter hydrated lime to a
batch tank. There it is slurried with water for feed to a cold lime softening clarifier
using a centrifugal pump.
Courtesy of Metalfab
Figure 3.5-3 Lime Feeder
Lime feeders are sized based on the clarifier flow rate and the chemical dosage.
Feed rate, lb/hr =

(Clarifier Flow rate, gpm)(Chemical Dosage, ppm)(8.33 lb/gal)(60 min/hr)
For a 500 gpm clarifier with a 40 ppm lime dosage, the feed rate is,
Feed rate = (500 gpm)(40 ppm)(8.33 lb/hr)(60min/hr)

= 10 lbs/hr

table of contents
3.6 Resources
Demineralization by Ion Exchange, Applebaum, Academic Press, 1968.

Coagulants and Flocculants – Theory and Practice, Kim, Tall Oaks Publishing, 1995.
Betz Handbook of Industrial Water Conditioning.
Argo Scientific Engineers Manual.

table of contents

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CLARIFICATION

3.2 Coagulator Clarifier ........................................................................................................... 16

34a_m3_r0 3-1 Clarification

3.4 Lamella Clarifier ................................................................................................................ 37

3.5 Chemical Feed Equipment ............................................................................................... 48

3.6 Resources ....................................................................................................................... 54

34a_m3_r0 3-2 Clarification

Figure 3.1-1: Turbid and Clarified Water

34a_m3_r0 3-3 Clarification

Courtesy of Hach Chemical Company

Courtesy of Hach Chemical Company

Figure 3.1-3: Turbidimeter

34a_m3_r0 3-4 Clarification

Coagulator Clarifier Cold Lime Softening Clarifier

Figure 3.1-4: Collage of Clarifier Designs

34a_m3_r0 3-5 Clarification

This section reviews the fundamentals of clarification technology. Coagulation,

Clarification removes suspended matter from water. Surface waters require

• Settleable Particles (macroparticles, typically visible to the eye)

• Non-Settleable Particles (microparticles, normally visible through a microscope)

Settleable Macroparticles Visible to the Eye

Non-Settleable Particles Visible Though a Microscope

34a_m3_r0 3-6 Clarification

Courtesy of Betz Dearborn

Clarification uses chemicals and sedimentation to remove

34a_m3_r0 3-7 Clarification

Figure 3.1-7: Coagulation

34a_m3_r0 3-8 Clarification

34a_m3_r0 3-9 Clarification

Courtesy of Betz Dearborn

Figure 3.1-9: Floc Formed With Coagulant Alone

34a_m3_r0 3-10 Clarification

Inlet Water Fast Mix

Adapted from Ecodyne

Figure 3.1-10: Coagulation Step

34a_m3_r0 3-11 Clarification

Floc Agglomerated Floc

Adapted from Ecodyne

34a_m3_r0 3-12 Clarification

Figure 3.1-12: Sedimentation Step

34a_m3_r0 3-13a Clarification

3.1.5 Jar Testing

Figure 3.1-13: Jar Test Equipment

34a_m3_r0 3-13 Clarification

Exceptions to the Rule

Some waters and some applications invoke exceptions to the rule.

The addition of bentonite clay is required to achieve macrofloc formation in waters

When treating waters with a high suspended matter concentration, replacement of

34a_m3_r0 3-14 Clarification

Clarification can be accomplished using several approaches. The equipment designs

34a_m3_r0 3-15 Clarification

34a_m3_r0 3-16a Clarification

3.2.1 Process and Operations Overview

Adapted from Ecodyne

34a_m3_r0 3-16 Clarification

Al2(SO4)3 + 6H2O → 6H+ + 3SO42- + 2Al(OH)3 ↓

As an alternate to alum, ferric sulfate, Fe2(SO4)3, can be used. This consumes

Fe2(SO4)3 + 6H2O → 6H+ + 3SO42- + 2Fe(OH)3 ↓

34a_m3_r0 3-17 Clarification

FeCl3 + 3H2O → 3H+ + 3Cl- + Fe(OH)3 ↓

3.2.2 Equipment Design and Options

• accomplish efficient coagulation and flocculation of influent water

• collect and dispose of sludge