Engaging in positive interactions with peers, resolving confl icts with peers in nonaggressive ways,

and having quality friendships in middle and late childhood not only have positive outcomes at this
time in children’s lives, but also are linked to more positive relationship outcomes in adolescence
and adulthood (Huston & Ripke, 2006)

DEVELOPMENT CHANGES

----- As children enter the elementary school years, reciprocity becomes especially important in peer
interchanges.

- In an early classic study, a typical day in elementary school included approximately 300 episodes
with peers (Barker & Wright, 1951). As children move through middle and late childhood, the size of
their peer group increases, and peer interaction is less closely supervised by adults (Rubin, Bukowski,
& Parker, 2006).

-Until about 12 years of age, children’s preference for same-sex peer groups increases.

PEER STATUS

---- Which children are likely to be popular with their peers and which ones are disliked?

- Sociometric status is typically assessed by asking children to rate how much they like or dislike each
of their classmates.

. Popular children are frequently nominated as a best

friend and are rarely disliked by their peers.

• Average children receive an average number of both positive and negative nominations from their
peers.

• Neglected children are infrequently nominated as a best friend but are not disliked by their peers.

• Rejected children are infrequently nominated as someone’s best friend and are actively disliked by
their peers .

• Controversial children are frequently nominated both as someone’s best friend and as being
disliked.

SOCIAL COGNITION

---

- This encounter demonstrates the importance of social cognition—thoughts about social matters,
such as the aggressive boy’s interpretation of an encounter as hostile and his classmates’ perception
of his behavior as inappropriate (Prinstein & others, 2009).
- Children’s social cognition about their peers becomes increasingly important for understanding
peer relationships in middle and late childhood. Of special interest are the ways in which children
process information about peer relations and their social knowledge (Dodge, Coie, & Lynam, 2006;
Hartup, 2009)

- Social knowledge also is involved in children’s ability to get along with peers.

- initiate and maintain a social bond, and what scripts to follow to get other children to be their
friends.

BULLYING

----bullying is defined as verbal or physical behavior intended to disturb someone less powerful.

- Significant numbers of children are bullied, and this can result in short-term and long-term negative
effects for both the victims and bullies.

- What are the outcomes of bullying? A recent study indicated that bullies and their victims in
adolescence were more likely to experience depression and engage in suicide ideation and attempt
suicide than their counterparts who were not involved in bullying (Brunstein Klomek & others,
2007). Bullying has been linked to suicide.

FRIENDS

- Like adult friends, children who are friends tend to be similar to each other. Children’s friendships
serve six functions: companionship, stimulation, physical support, ego support, social comparison,
and intimacy/affection.

- • Companionship. Friendship provides children with a familiar partner and playmate, someone who
is willing to spend time with them and join in collaborative activities.

• Stimulation. Friendship provides children with interesting information, excitement, and

amusement.

• Physical support. Friendship provides time, resources, and assistance.

• Ego support. Friendship provides the expectation of support, encouragement, and feedback, which
helps children maintain an impression of themselves as competent, attractive, and worthwhile
individuals.
• Social comparison. Friendship provides information about where the child stands vis-à-vis others
and whether the child is doing okay.

• Affection and intimacy. Friendship provides children with a warm, close, trusting relationship with
another individual. Intimacy in friendships is characterized by self-

disclosure and the sharing of private thoughts.

The importance of friendship was underscored in a two year longitudinal study (Wentzel, Barry, &
Caldwell, 2004). Sixth-grade students who did not have a friend engaged in less prosocial behavior
(cooperation, sharing, helping others), had lower grades, and were more emotionally distressed
(depression, low well-being) than their

counterparts who had one or more friends. Two years later, in the eighth grade, the students who

did not have a friend in the sixth grade were still more emotionally distressed.