-454

NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS

NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS

\ 17
7

Wild edible fungi

A global overview of their
A
use and
use and importance to people
people
'dug
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ol4
 NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
0\ -WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
17
edible fungi
Wild edible
A
A global overview of their
their
use and importance to people
people

by
Eric Boa

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

FOOD NATIONS
Rome, 2004
This paper discusses some traditional and contemporary
contemporary uses
uses of
offungi
fungi as
as food
food or
orininmedicine.
medicine. This
This material
material isis pre-
pre-
sented for
sented for information only and does not implyimply endorsement
endorsement by the author or by by FAO.
FAO. Use
Use of
of these
these products
products is is
not recommended
recommended unless
unless taken
taken under
under the
the care
care and
and guidance
guidance of
of aa qualified
qualified expert or physician. Reports of edible and
poisonous species
species are based on named sources. The accuracy of this information lies lies with these
these original sources.

Transport
Transport of
of some fungi across international boundaries
boundaries may
may pose
pose aa risk of accidental introduction of insects or other
accidental introduction
potentially
potentially destructive
destructive agents.
agents. It
It is
is recommended that
that anyone
anyone planning
planning to to move
move fungi across international boundaries
check with appropriate authorities in the country
country from
from where
where the
the products
products are
are to
to be
be exported
exported and
and the
the countries into
which the products are
are to
to be
be imported
imported for
forimport
importperrmit
perrmitrequirements,
requirements, phytosanitary
phytosanitary certificates
certificates or restrictions
restrictions
that might
might apply.
apply.

Movement certain fungi

Movement of certain fungi or other non-wood
non-wood forest
forest products
products across
across international
international boundaries may be
boundaries may be subject
subject to
to
trade restrictions (both tariff
tariff and
and non-tariff).
non-tariff). Appropriate
Appropriate authorities
authorities should
should bebe contacted
contacted prior toto planned
planned move-
move-
ment of any of these products across
across international
international boundaries.
boundaries. A
A review
review of trade
trade restrictions
restrictions affecting
affecting international
trade in non-wood forest products may
trade may be found in:

FAO 1995. Trade

Trade restrictions
restrictionsaffecting
affectinginternational
internationaltrade
trade in
in non-wood
non-wood forest
forest products,
products,by
by M.
M. Iqbal.
Iqbal. Non-wood
Forest Products, No. 8. Rome.
No.8.

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this

material in this information
product do
do not
not imply
imply the
the expression
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the the part
of the
of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the the
legal status of any
legal or development status any country,
country, territory, city or area or of its authorities,
its frontiers
or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

ISBN 92-5-105157-7

All rights
All rights reserved.
reserved. Reproduction andand dissemination
dissemination of
of material
material in this
this information
information
product for educational
educational or other non-commercial purposes are
non-commercial purposes are authorized
authorized without
without
any prior written permission
permission from the the copyright
copyright holders
holders provided
provided the
the source
source is
is fully
fully
acknowledged. Reproduction
acknowledged. Reproduction of material
material in
in this
this information product for resale
resale or other
commercial purposes
commercial purposes isis prohibited
prohibited without written permission
permission of the copyright holders.
holders.
Applications for such permission should be be addressed
addressed to:
to:
Chief
Publishing Management
Management Service
Service
Information Division
FAO
Viale delle
Viale delle Terme
Terme di
di Caracalla,
Caracalla, 00100
00100 Rome,
Rome, Italy
or by e-mail to:
bye-mail
copyright@fao.org

© FAO 2004
2004
 iii
UI

CONTENTS

..
Foreword vii
Vll

Abbreviations
A bbreviations viii
Vlll
Acknowledgements
A cknowled gements ix
IX
Summary xi
Xl

1 Introduction: setting
1 setting the
the scene
scene 11
1.1 General
1.1 General importance 1

1.2 Traditions and history of

1.2 of use
use 2
2
1.3 Purpose
1.3 and structure
Purpose and structure of
of the publication 4
1.4 Sources
1.4 of information
Sources of information 5
5

2 Characteristics:
2 Characteristics: biology,
biology, ecology,
ecology, uses,
uses, cultivation
cultivation 7
2.1 What
2.1 What areare fungi? 7
7

2.2 Identification
2.2 Identification 10
2.3 Major
2.3 Major groups
groups ofof wild
wild fungi 13
2.4 Edibility
2.4 Edibility and
and poisonous
poisonous fungi 17
2.5 Cultivation
2.5 Cultivation ofof edible
edible fungi 20

3 Management:
3 Management: wild edible
edible fungi,
fungi, trees,
trees, forest
forest users
users 25
Multiple use
3.1 Multiple use of
offorests:
forests: issues
issues and conflicts
confl icts 25
3.2
3.2 Regulating
Regulating collection
collection 26
3.3
3.3 Collectors
Collectors and
and local
local practices
practices 28
3.4 Harvesting
Harvesting methods
methods andand approaches
approaches 31
31
3.5
3.5 Measuring
Measuring production
production 33
33
3.6
3.6 Practical
Practical planning:
planning: towards
towards sustainable
sustainable production
production 35

4 Importance
4 Importance to people: food, income,
income, trade 41
4.1 Wild
4.1 Wild edible
edible fungi
fungi and
and livelihoods
livelihoods 41
4.2 Nutrition
4.2 Nutrition and
and health
health benefits
benefits 43
4.3
4.3 Local
Local marketing
marketing and
and income
income 47
4.4 National
4.4 National and
and international
international trade
trade 49

5 Realizing
Realizing the
the potential:
potential: prospects,
prospects, actions, opportunities
opportunities 59
5.1 Key
5.1 Key facts 59
5.2
5.2 General
General constraints
constraints 59
59
5.3
5.3 Research priorities: wild
Research priorities: wild edible fungi 60
60
5.4 Effective
Effective management
management 61
61
5.5
5.5 Commercialization
Commercialization and cultivation 63
63
5.6
5.6 The
The future for
for wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi 64
64

6 Sources
Sources of advice and information
advice and information 67
6.1
6.1 Mycological
Mycological expertise
expertise 67
67
6.2
6.2 Field
Field guides
guides to wild (edible)
(edible) fungi 67
67
iv
IV

6.3 Information
6.3 Informationon
onmedicinal
medicinaland
andpoisonous
poisonous mushrooms
mushrooms 69
6.4 Web
6.4 Web sites
sites 70

7 References
References 71

Annexes
11 Summary of the
Summary of the importance
importance of
of wild
wild edible fungi by
by region
region
and country 89
Africa 90
90
Asia 93
Europe 96
North and Central
Central America
America 99
99
Oceania 101
South America 102
2 Country records
Country recordsofof wild
wild useful fungi (edible,
(edible, medicinal and
and
other
other uses)
uses) 103
103
3
3 A global list of
of wild
wildfungi
fungiusedusedasas food,
food, said
said to
to be
be edible
edible
or with
with medicinal
medicinal properties
properties 131
131
4 Edible and
Edible and medicinal
medicinal fungi
fungi that
that can
can be cultivated 143
143
55 Wild edible fungi
fungi sold
sold in
in local
local markets
markets 145
 v

TABLES

1 Numbers of
Numbers of species
speciesof
ofwild
wild edible
edible and
and medicinal
medicinal fungi 1

2
2 Disciplinesand
Disciplines andareas
areasofofactivity
activitycontaining
containing information
information on
wild useful
useful fungi 2
3
3 Plant families
Plant families with
with edible
edible ectomycorrhizal
ectomycorrhizal fungi 9
4 Preferred (current
Preferred (current of "correct")
"correct") names
names ofof economically
economically important
important
wild fungi 12
12
5
5 Important genera
genera of wild
wild fungi
fungiwith
withnotes
noteson onuses
uses and
and trade 14
14
66 Fungi with conflicting reports
Fungi with on edibility
reports on 16
77 Incidents
Incidents of large scale poisoning caused
scale poisoning causedby byconsumption
consumptionofofwild
wild fungi
fungi 19
88 Sale of
Sale of permits for collecting
collecting nnatsutake
matsutake in Winema National
National Forest,
Forest,
Oregon, 1997-2002
1997-2002 28
99 Collecting wild fungi
fungi ininthe
theUnited
UnitedRepublic
RepublicofofTanzania,
Tanzania, Mexico,
Mexico,
the
the Russian Federation, Bhutan, Finland, India and
Russian Federation, and China
China 30
10
10 Yields
Yields of wild
wild edible
edible fungi from
from different
differentcountries
countries 33
11 National
11 production of wild edible
National production edible fungi 34
12
12 Preparing
Preparing management
management guidelines for wild edible fungi
guidelines for 35
13 Ethnoscientific studiesof
Ethnoscientific studies of wild
wild fungi
fungi with
with edible
edible and
and medicinal
medicinal properties 43
14
14 Nutritional
Nutritionalcomposition
composition ofofsome
some wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi 44
15
15 Estimated
Estimated nutritional
nutritionalvalues
values of
ofsome
some edible
edible fungi
fungi 46
16 AA general
16 general comparison
comparison of of nutritional
nutritionalvalues
values of
of various
various foods compared
compared toto
mushrooms 46
17 Properties
17 Properties and
and features
features of
of25
25 major
majormedicinal
medicinal mushrooms
mushrooms 48
Local collection
18 Local collection marketing
marketing and
and use
use of
of wild
wild edible fungi 50
19 World
19 World production
productionof
ofcultivated
cultivatedmushrooms
mushrooms 52
20
20 Value
Value of
of wild
wild useful
useful fungi
fungi collected
collected by
by country of origin 52
21 Matsutake 1:
21 1: domestic production and and imports
imports in
in tonnes
tonnes to
toJapan,
Japan,
1950-99
1950-99 53
22
22 Matsutake
Matsutake2:2:exports
exportstotoJapan
Japaninintonnes
tonnesby byvarious
various countries,
countries, 1993-97
1993-97 53
23
23 Matsutake
Matsutake3:3:value
val ueofofexports
exportstotoJapan
Japanby byvarious
various countries,
countries, 1993-97
1993-97 54
24 Volume
Volume ofofexports
exports of
ofnamed
named wild
wildedible
ediblefungi
fungifrom
fromselected
selectedcountries
countries 54
25 Information
Informationneeds
needsand
andissues
issuesconcerning
concerning sustainable
sustainable use
use of
of
wild edible
edible fungi 62
26
26 Sources
Sources of technical advice and
technical advice and information
information onon wild edible
edible fungi
fungi 68
Field guides
27 Field
27 guides and
and Web
Web sites
sitesfor
for identifying
identifying macrofungi
macrofungi andand edible
edible varieties
varieties 68
28 General
General Web
Web sites on wild edible
sites on edible fungi
fungi and
and related
related topics
topics 69
vi

PLATES

1 Types of macrofungi
Types of 21
22 How fungi
fungi grow:
grow:mycorrhizas,
mycorrhizas, saprobes
saprobes and pathogens
pathogens 22
33 Which fungi
fungi are
are edible?
edible? Identifying
Identifyingspecies
species 23
4 Truffle collecting in Italy 38
5 The trade in Boletus edulis
in Boletas edulis 39
6 Edible fungi in
Edible fungi in Africa
Africa 55
7 Edible
Edible fungi inin Latin
Latin America
America andand the
the Caribbean
Caribbean 56
8 Edible fungi
Edible fungi in
in Asia
Asia 57
9 Edible and
Edible and medicinal
medicinal fungi
fungi in
in Asia
Asia 66

FIGURES

1 Naming the parts of aa mushroom

Naming mushroom 11
11

BOXES

11 Wild edible
edible fungi
fungi and
and mushrooms
mushrooms 22
22 A developing country
country perspective
perspective 4
33 "If
"If II eat
eat this
this bowa
bowa itit isis OK
OK to buy"
buy" -- Mr
MrSabiti
Sabiti Fides, trader from
Fides, trader from Malawi 18
4 Matsutake and exports
exports to to Japan
Japan 26
55 Practical inventory:
Practical inventory: measuring
measuringproductivity
productivity in
in Malawi 36
66 Development projects
Development projects and and wild
wild edible fungi 42
77 Amino acids and the
acids and the nutritional
nutritional value
value of wild edible
edible fungi 45
8
8 Permits and
Permits and regulating
regulating the collectors
collectors 49
99 Product quality
Product quality and its importance for trade trade 64
 vii

FOREWORD

Much of the
Much the forestry
forestry and
and development
development debate debate in international fora focuses
international fora focuses onon how
how
forests, forest
forests, forest products
products and
and forestry
forestry cancan contribute
contribute to to the United Nations Millennium
Millennium
Development Goals of of halving poverty and food insecurity by by 2015.
2015. FAO's programme
on the
the Promotion
Promotion and and development
development of of non-wood
non-wood forest forest products
products (NWFP)
(NWFP) isis
contributing to
contributing to this
this goal
goal byby improving
improving the the sustainable
sustainable use use of
of NWFP
NWFP in in order
order toto
improve income-generation and food security, security, toto contribute to the wise management
management of of
the world's forests
forests and toto conserve
conserve their
their biodiversity.
biodiversity.
One of of the
the important
important groups
groups of ofNWFP,
NWFP, collected
collected all over the world and and used
used for
for
subsistence
subsistence purposes as well as as sold on local markets and restaurants, are are fungi - often
called mushrooms. However,
called mushrooms. However, most most information
information on fungi fungi isis available
available on
on cultivated
cultivated
species
species while data on wild edibleedible fungi
fungi (WEF)
(WEF) remain
remain scarce.
scarce.
The
The present
present publication
publication waswas supported
supported by by funds
funds from
from the
the Norway
Norway Partnership
Partnership
Programme "Forests for for sustainable
sustainable livelihoods". It aims at documenting and analysing analysing
the role of WEF in in food security
security with
with focus
focus on
on developing
developing countries.
countries. It
It compiles
compiles inin one
one
volume the much scattered
volume information on the uses
scattered information and prospects
uses and prospects for
for development
development of of
WEF, including issues
WEF, issues such asas ecology,
ecology, collection,
collection, harvesting,
harvesting, socio-economic
socio-economic benefits
benefits
and trade.
By disseminating
By disseminating this information, it is
this information, is expected
expected that that the attention
attention ofof forestry
forestry
technicians, nutritionists, natural natural resource planners, policy-makers
resource planners, policy-makers and and other
other
stakeholders concerned will
stakeholders concerned will be
be drawn
drawn to to the links
links between this important category
between this category of
NWFP, food security
security and
and sustainable
sustainable forest
forest management.
management.
It is hoped thatthat the
the use
use of
of this
this document
document willwill help
help to
to promote
promote thethe sustainable
sustainable use
use
of WEF as valuable component
as a valuable component in the process of economic development and poverty
alleviation.

Wulf Killmann
Director
Forest Products and
and Economics
Economics Division
Forestry Department
viii

ABBREVIATIONS

DFID Department for International Development

ECM Ectomycorrhiza
FAO Food and Agriculture
Agriculture Organization
Organization of
of the
the United
United Nations
Nations
NGO Non-governmental organization
NTFP Non-timber forest products
NWFP Non-wood forest
forest products
TCM Traditional Chinese Medicine
SEMARNAT
S EMARNAT Secretariat de
Secretariat de Medio
Medio Ambiente
Ambiente y Recursos
Recursos Naturales (Secretariat of
Environment and Natural
Natural Resources)
Resources)
WEF Wild edible fungi
WUF Wild useful
Wild useful fungi
fungi (including
(including those
those with
with edible,
edible, medicinal
medicinal and
and other
other
properties)
 ix
IX

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This publication is is based on aa draft presented

presented by
by Eric
Eric Boa
Boa from
from CABI
CAB! Btoscience.
Bioscience. The
The
author first
first became
became involved
involved with
with wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi through
through Jim
JimWaller,
Waller, aa colleague
colleague
from CABI
CABI Btoscience. Thisled
Bioscience. This ledtoto the
the Miombo
Miombo Edible
Edible Fungi
Fungi project,
project, funded
funded by by the
Department
Department for for International
International Development
Development (DFID)
(DFID)fromfrom1999
1999 to
to 2002
2002 and
and carried
carried out
out
in conjunction
conjunction with
with thethe Forestry
ForestryResearch
Research Institute
Institute of
ofMalawi.
Malawi. Paul
Paul Kirk, Gerald
Gerald Meke
and Janet
and Janet Lowore made major contributions
made major contributions to this
this project
project and
and towards
towards thethe author's
author's
own understanding of of wild edible
edible fungi and their use by rural people.
The author
author was
was repeatedly
repeatedly intrigued and astounded
astounded by by how
how much
much hashas been
been written
written
about wild edible fungi, often buried away away in reports
reports and
and other
otherless
less visible
visible places. Two
Two
British colleagues, Brian Morris
colleagues, Brian Morris and Graham Piearce, have been a particular
particular inspiration.
Both have
Both have undertaken
undertaken broadbroad and and sustained researchesthat
sustained researches that have
have notnot only
only helped
helped toto
demonstrate the importance of of wild
wild edible
edible fungi to people in southern
southern Africa,
Africa, but
but have
have
also raised
also awareness on
raised awareness on a broader front of of an
an often
oftenneglected
neglected resource.
resource. Graham
Graham hashas
generous and
been a generous and prompt
prompt provider of comments, information and
comments, information and photographs.
Dave
Dave Pilz of the United States States is one of aa group group ofof scientists
scientists who have have worked on
wild edible
edible fungi in the Pacific northwest. Their work has has also
also been an inspiration and
source of insights. The author
author thanks
thanks Dave
Dave inin particular
particular for
for the
the benefit
benefit ofof his
his insights on
on
critical scientific issues. Jeffery
scientific issues. Jeffery Bentley
Bentley hashas done
done much to educate
educate me me onon people
peopleissues
issues
and without
without this
this II would
wouldstill
still be
be struggling
struggling to to make
make the
the enriching
enriching connections
connections between
between
science and development.
science and development. At At FAO,
FAO, Laura Russo Russo suggested
suggested thatthat the
the author
author should write
this book,
book, while
while Sven
Sven Walter has overseen the execution, casting a patient patient yet critical eye
over the manuscript.
manuscript. The authorauthor thanks
thanks himhim and
and his
his colleagues,
colleagues, in particular
particular Florance
Florance
Egal,
Egal, Franwis
Franc;ois N'Deckere-Ziangba,
N'Deckere-Ziangba, Jorike Jorike Potters,
Potters, Mette
MetteLoyche-Wilkie,
Loyche-Wilkie, Michel Michel
Laverdière,
Laverdiere, Olman Serrano,Serrano, Paul Vantomme,
Vantomme, Peter Bailey Bailey and Tina Etherington, for for
their comments. The author thanks thanks his his family
family for giving
giving him the time to complete complete the
task and other
other friends
friends whowho provided
provided him him with
with accommodation
accommodation and and peace
peace toto write.
write.
The other
other people
people who
who have
have helped
helped are
are arranged
arranged alphabetically
alphabetically by by first
first name.
name.
Alessandra
Alessandra Zambonelli
Zambonelli (Italy);
(Italy); Anabela
Anabela Martins
Martins (Portugal);
(Portugal); Ana Franco-Molano
Franco-Molano
(Colombia);
(Colombia); Andre
Andrede de Meijer
Meijer (Brazil);
(Brazil); André
Andre de de Kesel
Kesel (Belgium); Andrew Pulford Pulford (UK);
(UK);
Antonella Amicucci (Italy); Anxious Masuka (Zimbabwe); Arailde Fuentes Fuentes (Brazil);
(Brazil); Arie
Bijl (South Africa);
Africa); Attila
Attila Hegedus
Hegedus (Hungary); Bart Buyck (France); (France); Brenda
Brenda Down
Down (UK
and Sierra Leone); Brian Morris (UK); Caroline Caroline BoaBoa (UK);
(UK); Daniel Winkler
Winkler (USA);
(USA); Dave
Pilz (USA);
(USA); David Minter (UK); (UK); Dennis
Dennis Desjardin
Desjardin (USA);
(USA); Duncan
Duncan Boa Boa (UK);
(UK); Elaine
Elaine
Marshall (UK and and Mexico);
Mexico); Else
Else Vellinga (USA); Emidio
Vellinga (USA); Emidio Borghi
Borghi (Italy);
(Italy); Frank Taylor
(Botswana); Gene Yetter (USA); Georges René Rene (Italy and Haiti);
Haiti); Gerald
GeraldMekeMeke(Malawi);
(Malawi);
Gerritt
Gerritt Marais
Marais (South
(South Africa);
Africa); Gianluigi Gregori (Italy);
Gianluigi Gregori (Italy); H H Hosaka
Hosaka (Lao(Lao People's
People's
Democratic Republic);
Republic); Graham
Graham Piearce
Piearce (UK); Giuseppe CardinaleCardinale (Italy);
(Italy); Harry
HarryEvans
Evans
(UK); Hildegun Flom (Norway);
(UK); (Norway); Ian Ian Hall
Hall (New
(NewZealand);
Zealand); IbuIbuLeyulani
Leyulani(Indonesia);
(Indonesia);
Irina Gorbunova
Irina Gorbunova (Russia(Russia Federation);
Federation); Irma Irma Gamundí
Gamundi (Argentina);
(Argentina); JanetJanet Probyn
Probyn
(Lowore) (Malawi);
(Lowore) Javier Lander
(Malawi); Javier Lander (Spain);
(Spain);Jerry
Jerry Cooper (New Zealand); Zealand); Jim Waller
Waller
(UK); Jimmy LoworeLowore (deceased:
(deceased: Malawi);
Malawi); Jolanda Roux (South (South Africa);
Africa); Lauro
Lauro Russo
Russo
(Italy); Lesley
Lesley Ragab
Ragab (UK);
(UK); Luba
Luba Nanaguylan
Nanaguylan (Armenia);
(Armenia); LuoLuo Ghuozhong (China); (China); M.M.
Snowarski (Poland); Marc Ducousso Ducousso (France);
(France); Maria
Maria Chamberlain
Chamberlain (UK); (UK); Maria
Maria Teresa
Teresa
Schifino-Wittmann (Brazil);
Schifino-Wittmann (Brazil); Marisela
Marisela Zamora-Martinez
Zamora-Martínez (Mexico);(Mexico); MarjaMarja Härkönen
Harkonen
(Finland); Mary Apetorgbor (Ghana);
(Finland); Mary (Ghana); Meral
Meral Gurer (Turkey);
(Turkey); MikeMike Howard
Howard (South
(South
Africa); Miriam
Africa); Miriam de de Roman
Román (Spain); Myles Mander
(Spain); Myles Mander (South
(South Africa);
Africa); Necla
Necla Caglarirmark
Caglarirmark
(Turkey);
(Turkey); PaulPaul House
House (Honduras
(Honduras and and UK);
UK); Paul
Paul Kirk
Kirk (UK);
(UK); Phuntsho
Phuntsho Namgyel
Namgyel
x

(Bhutan); Pierluigi
Pierluigi and
and Luna
Luna the
the dog
dog (Urbino, Italy);
Italy); Roberto Flores (Guatemala); Rory
(Guatemala); Rory
McBurney (UK);
McBurney (UK); Roy
Roy Watling
Watling (Scotland);
(Scotland); Sara
Sara Maltoni and her
her mother
mother(Sardinia);
(Sardinia); Seona
Seona
Anderson (UK);
(UK); Sinclair
Sinclair Tedder
Tedder (Canada);
(Canada); Solomon
Solomon Wasser
Wasser (Israel); Soulemane Yorou
Soulemane Yorou
(Benin); Stephanos Diamandis (Greece);
(Benin); Stephanos (Greece); Susan Alexander (USA);
(USA); Sven Walter (Italy);
Tim Livesey (UK); Warren Priest (UK); Yun Yun Wang (China and New New Zealand).
Zealand).
friends and colleagues
These friends have provided
colleagues have provided the
the author
author with much information. Any Any
errors
errors in presentation
presentation or interpretation
interpretation remain
remain with the author
author and
and FAO.
FAO. Paul
Paul Kirk
Kirk
has
has checked
checked scientific names for
scientific names for wild
wild fungi
fungi and suggested changes to
suggested changes to reflect current
reflect current
taxonomic
taxonomic thinking. This is is an area of some confusion and and there are doubtless
doubtless further
changes
changes that need to be made to the lists compiled for the book. New initiatives on wild
edible fungi are being developed,
developed, aimed
aimed at sustainable use by rural people, particularly
sustainable use
but not
not exclusively
exclusively in developing
developing countries.
 xi

SUMMARY

Wild edible fungi

fungi areare collected
collected for for food
food and to earn earn money
money in in more
more than than80 80 countries.
countries.
There is a hugehuge diversity
diversity of of different
different types,
types, fromfrom truffles
truffles toto milk-caps,
milk-caps, chanterelles
chanterelles to
termite mushrooms, with more more than
than 11 100
100 species recorded during
species recorded during the preparation of
this book. A A small
small group of of species
species are of economic
economic importance in terms terms of exports,
exports, but
the wider
wider significance
significance of wild edible edible fungi lies with their their extensive
extensive subsistence
subsistence uses uses in
developing countries. They provide a notable contribution contribution to diet in central and southern
Africa during the months of of the
the year
year when
when the the supply
supply of offood
foodisisoften
oftenperilously
perilouslylow. low.
Elsewhere they they are
are aa valued
valued and valuable
valuable addition to to diets
diets ofof rural
rural people.
people.
Commercial harvesting
Commercial harvesting isis an an important business
business in countries
countries such such as as Zimbabwe,
Zimbabwe,
Turkey, Poland, the
Turkey, Poland, the United StatesStates ofof America,
America, the the Democratic
Democratic People'sPeople's Republic
Republic of
Korea and Bhutan. The export trade is driven by a strong and expanding demand demand from from
Europe and Japan Japan andand is is predominantly
predominantly from from poorpoor to rich countries.
countries. This This isis good
good forfor
local businesses and collectors, providing important cash income
local businesses and collectors, providing important cash income that pays
pays for children
to gogo to
to school
school and and helps
helps to to reduce
reduce poverty
poverty in in areas
areas where
where the options options for earning
earning
money are limited. Local markets around the the world
world reveal
reveal aa widespread though though smaller
smaller
individual trade in an extensive species. Though
extensive range of species. Though difficult
difficult to to measure
measure compared
with the
the more
more visible
visible export
export of of wild
wild edible
edible fungi,
fungi, local
local trade is of considerable value value to
collectors and increases
increases the supply of food to to many
many areas
areas of
of weak
weak food food security.
security.
Collection and consumption
consumption within withincountries
countriesvaries
varies from
from thethe extensive
extensive and intensive
intensive
patterns of China
patterns China to to more
more restricted
restricted useuse by byindigenous
indigenous peoplepeople in inSouth
SouthAmerica.
America.
Substantial quantities
Substantial quantities are are eaten
eaten through
through personal
personal collections
collections thatthat maymay go go unrecorded.
unrecorded.
The nutritional value
The value of wild edibleedible fungi should not be
fungi should be underestimated:
underestimated: they they areare of
comparable value with many many vegetables
vegetables and in in notable
notable cases
cases have
have aa higher food food value.
value.
Wild edible fungifungi play an important
important ecological
ecological role. Many of of the
the leading
leading species
species live
symbiotically with trees and this mycorrhizal association sustains sustains the the growth of native
forests and commercial plantations
forests plantations in temperate and tropical zones. zones. The saprobic
saprobic wild
edible fungi, though less
edible fungi, less important in terms terms of of volumes
volumes collected
collected and money earned earned
from local
local sales,
sales, are important in in nutrient
nutrientrecycling.
recycling. The Thesaprobic
saprobicspeciesspecies areare the
thebasis
basis
for the
the hugely
hugely valuable
valuable global
global business
business in cultivated
cultivated mushrooms,
mushrooms, currently currently valued
valued at at
around US$23
US$23 billion
billion each
each year.
year. This is is an
an increasing
increasing source
source of of income
income for for small-scale
small-scale
enterprises in developing countries.
Wild
Wild edible fungi are
edible fungi are among
among the the most
most valuable
valuable NWFPNWFP with with muchmuch potential
potential for for
expansion of trade, but but there
there are
are also
also challenges
challenges in the integration of their management management
and sustainable production
production as as part
part ofof multiple
multiple use forests.
forests. There are concernsconcerns about the
impact of excessive harvesting,which
excessive harvesting, whichrequire
require better
better data
data on
on yields
yields and and productivity
productivity and and
a closer examination of collectors and local local practices.
practices. Closer
Closer cooperation between forest
managers and those using wild edible fungi is needed and suggestions suggestions are are made
made on how
this might
might bebe achieved.
achieved.
There
There is aa strong
strong emphasis
emphasis on on subsistence
subsistence uses uses of wildwild edible
edible fungi
fungi and and their
their
importance to rural rural people
people in in developing
developing countries, although this is an area where where there
are still significant gaps
are gaps in information. There There is is also
also significant
significant commercial
commercial harvesting
harvesting
in developed
in countries, such
developed countries, such asas the United StatesStates of America
America and Canada, and in the the
emerging economies of eastern Europe, for example example Poland and and Serbia
Serbia and Montenegro.
Montenegro.
However, countries
However, countries in in the north are are of
of greater
greater significance
significance to wild edible edible fungi
fungi as a
destination for exports
destination exports and and as
as aa source
source of ofscientific
scientific expertise,
expertise, especially
especially in in mycology
mycology
(the study of of fungi).
fungi).
xii
XII

This scientific
This expertise isis increasingly
scientific expertise being applied
increasingly being applied to
to help
help achieve
achieve the major
major
development goals,
development goals, which
which include
include poverty alleviation and sustainable
alleviation and use of natural
sustainable use natural
Real progress
resources. Real progress has
has been andand continues to be made in the roles that wild edible
fungi contribute towards these
fungi these goals.
goals.
I Introduction:
1 Introduction:setting
setting the
the scene

GENERAL IMPORTANCE
Wild edible
Wild fungi (WEf!)
edible fungi (WEF') have been collected collected and and consumed
consumed by people for thousands
of years. The archaeological
archaeological record reveals reveals edible species associated
associated with people living
13 000
13 000 years
years ago
ago in
in Chile
Chile (Rojas
(Rojas and Mansur,Mansur, 1995)1995) but but it is
is in China where the the eating
eating
of wild
of wild fungi
fungi isis first reliably noted,
noted, several hundred years
several hundred years before
before the the birth of Christ
Christ
(Aaronson, 2000). Edible fungi were collected from forests in ancient Greek and Roman
times and highly valued, though more by high-ranking high-ranking people people thanthan by by peasants
peasants (Buller,
(Buller,
1914). Caesar's
1914). Caesar's mushroom
mushroom (Amanita caesarea) caesarea) isis aareminder
reminder of of an
anancient
ancienttradition
tradition that that
still exists
still exists inin many parts of of Italy,
Italy, embracing
embracing a diversity
diversity of edible edible species dominated
species dominated
today by by truffles
truffles (Tuber
(Tuberspp.)spp.) andandporcini
porcini(Boletus
(Boletus edulis).
edulis).
China features
China prominently in the early
features prominently early and laterlater historical
historical record of wild edible edible
fungi.
fungi. The Chinese have for centuries valued valued many species, species, notnot only
only forfor nutrition and and
taste but also for their
taste their healing
healing properties.
properties. These These values
values and and traditions
traditions are are asas strong
strong
today as they were were centuries
centuries ago ago and are are confirmed
confirmed by the the huge
huge range
range ofof wild
wild fungifungi
collected from forests and fields
collected fields and marketed
marketed widely
widely (Wang,
(Wang, 1987)
1987) (Plate 8). 8) . China is
also the
also the leading
leading exporter of cultivated mushrooms. mushrooms .
It is less well known that countries
less well countries suchsuch as as Mexico
Mexico (Plate
(Plate 7) and Turkey,Turkey, and major
areas of central and southern
southern Africa
Africa (Plate
(Plate 6),6), also have
have aa long
long and
and notable tradition of of
wild edible fungi.
fungi. The list of countries
countries wherewhere wildwild fungi
fungi are
are reported
reported to be consumed
and provide incomeincome to to rural
rural people
peopleisis impressive
impressive (Annex(Annex 1). 1).
The threat
threat posed
posed by by poisonous
poisonous and andlethal
lethalspecies
species isisoftenoftenoverstated.
overstated.Incidents
Incidents
of poisoning and deaths deaths areare fewfew and
and farfar between
between compared
compared to to thethe regular
regular andand safe
safe
consumption of edible edible species,
species, but but publicity
publicity and and cultural
cultural attitudes
attitudes continue
continue to fuel fuel
an intrinsic
intrinsic fear
fear of
of wild
wild fungi
fungi in in some
some societies.
societies. This is is more
more commonly
commonly found found in in
developed countries and has undoubtedly undoubtedly led led to
to general
general beliefs
beliefs that global use of wild
edible fungi is small-scale
small-scale andand restricted to key key areas.
areas. AsAs this
this publication
publication conclusively
conclusively
shows, this is is simply
simply notnottrue
true(Table
(Table 1).1). The
The useuse ofofwild
wildedible
edible fungi
fungi isis both
bothextensive
extensive
and intensive,
intensive, though patterns of use do vary
(Annex TABLE 11
(Annex 1). 1).
Numbers
Numbers of of species
speciesof of wild
wild edible andand medicinal
medicinal fungi
Wild edible
Wild edible fungi
fungi addadd flavour
flavour to bland bland
staple foods
foods but theythey are
are also
also valuable
valuable foods
foods CATEGORY No. OF
No. OF SPECIES
SPECIES PERCENTAGE
PERCENTAGE
TOTAL
in their
their ownown right.
right. Local
Local names
names for for termite
termite
1. Edible only
only 1009
1 009 43
mushrooms
mushrooms (Termitomyces)
(Termitomyces) (Plate (Plate 6) 6) reflect
reflect 2. EdibleEdible and
and medicinal
medicinal 88
88 4
local beliefs
beliefs that they are a fair substitute for 3. Food Food only
only 820 35
35
meat, a belief that is confirmed by nutritional 4. Food and medicinal
is confirmed 249
249 11
analyses.
analyses. Not Not allall wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi have have 5. Medicinal only only 133
133 66

such
such a high high protein
protein content
content but they they areare 6. OtherOther uses (none of
uses (none of above)
above) 29
29

of
of comparable
comparable nutritional
nutritional value value to many TOTAL
to many wild useful
TOTAL wild useful species
species 22327
327
vegetables. ALL edible only (1+2)
ALL edible only (1+2) 1 097
097
vegetables.
ALL
ALL food
food (3+4)
(3+4) 1 069
1069
In
In addition
addition to
to making
making substantial
substantial contri-
contri- ALL medicinal
ALL medicinal (2+4+5)
(2+4+5) 470
470
butions
butions to the
the diets
diets of
of poor
poor people
people inin - - - -----''-----'----- - - -- - - -- - --
Note:
Note: Compiled from more
Compiled from more than
than 200
200 different
differentsources
sources from
from 110
110
developing countries, they are an
developing countries, an important
important but excludes
countries, but excludes a detailed review
review of
ofspecies
species from
from developed
developed
countries.
countries. Varieties
Varieties and
and subspecies
subspecies are counted
counted separately.
separately. The
The
categories
categories food and
and edible
edible are
are mutually
mutuallyexclusive.
exclusive. To
To distinguish
distinguish
1 SeeBox
See Box 11 for
for aa discu
discussion
ssion ooff terminology
terminology used
used in
in this
tlus clearly
clearly between
between use use and
and properties
properties of
ofa aspecies:
species:substantial
substantial
book.
boo k. numbers ofof edible
edible species
species lack
lack confirmed
confirmed use
use as
as food.
food.
2 Wild edible
Wild edible fungi:
fungi: aa global
global overview
overview of their
their use
use and
and importance to people
people

BOX 1
BOX1
Wild edible
Wild ediblefungi
fungi and
and mushrooms
mushrooms
Fungi are a distinct group
group of
of organisms
organisms which
which include
include species
species with large
large and visible fruiting bodies
visible fruiting bodies
(rnacrofungi). The best known
(macrofungi). known examples
examples of of macrofungi
macrofungi are are the mushrooms.
mushrooms. They Theyhave
haveaa cap
cap and
and aa stalk
stalk
and are frequently seen seen in fields and .fores.ts.
forests. Most are are simply
simply inedible
inedible but
but there
there are
are notable
notableexamples
examples
that can be eaten. The number number of of poisonous
poisonous species
species is relatively small
small while
while those
those that are fatal
fatal belong
belong
to a tiny
to tiny minority.
minority. The
The most
most familiar
familiar edible mushrooms are those that are are cultivated
cultivated and sold fresh
and tinned in shops.
Macrofungi have
Macrofungi have many
many different
different shapes
shapes and appearances. Boletes have
appearances. Boletes have pores
pores rather
rather than gills
gills
on the underside
underside ofof the
the cap;
cap; truffles
tdiffles grow
grow Underground
underground and do do not
nothave
have aastalk
stalkand
andaacapcap(Plate
(Plate1).
1).
Huitlacoche is a Mexican
Mexican foodfood produced when maize cobs are infected by a fungus. fungus. This isis clearly
clearly not
not
a mushroom.
Wild edible
Wild edible. f1mgus
fungus (fungi
(fungi isis the
the plural
plural form,
form, usually
usually pronounced
pronouncedwith.a with a hard
hard e<g")
"g") is used
used toto
distinguish their origin and the fact that they
distinguish they include
include aa variety
variety of of forms
forms that
that include
include infected
infected maize
cobs, stomach fungi, boletes, bracket fungi fungi and, of course,
course, mushrooms. Many other publications (e.g.
Hall
Hall.et al., }1998a)
etal., refer to
998a) refer to wild mush-rooms,
mushrooms, defining this broadly to include
defining this include the different shapes and
appearances.
It is
is interesting
interesting to to compare
corripare terms
terms used
used inin other
other languages.
languages: In ItalyItaly wild
wild fungi
fungi are
are referred
referred to as as
funghi comestible; there is
comestible; there is no
no equivalent
equivalent of "mushroom" in in Italian.
Italian. In
In Spanish
Spanish bongo
hqngo comestible
comestible and and
silvestre are
hongo silvestre are used.
used. Seta
Seta isis similar
similarininmeaning
meaningtotomushroom
mushroom but it does not imply that that aa particular
particular
species isis edible.
species edible.·In Malawi,
Malawi, bowa describes
describes an edible
edible fungus
fungus in the Chewa language,
language, a term thatthat has
has
in essence the same meaning as as "wild edible fungus".

source of income.
income. Wild edible
edible fungi
fungi are sold
sold in
in many
many local
local markets
markets and
and commercial
commercial
harvesting has
harvesting has provided
provided new
new sources
sources of
of income
income for
for many
many rural
rural people.
people. The
The demand
demand for
specialist wild
specialist wild mushrooms
mushrooms from Europe and Japan continues to earn significant amounts
for countries such
such as
as Bhutan, the
the Democratic
Democratic People's
People's Republic
Republic of
of Korea
Korea and
and Pakistan.
Pakistan.
Wild
Wild fungi
fungi also
also have
have medicinal properties, some
medicinal properties, some ofof which
which areare found
found in edible
edible
species (Table
species (Table 1).
1).Wild
Wild useful
usefulfungi
fungi therefore
therefore contribute
contribute towards
towards diet,
diet, income
income andand
human health.
human health. Many species
species also
also play a vital
vital ecological
ecological role through the the symbiotic
symbiotic
relationships known
relationships known as as mycorrhizas
mycorrhizas that that they
they form
form with
with trees.
trees. Truffles
Truffles and
and other
other
valuable wild edible
valuable wild edible fungi
fungi depend
depend on on trees
trees for their growth
growth andand cannot
cannot bebe cultivated
cultivated
artificially.The
artificially. The mycorrhizas
mycorrhizasenable enabletrees
treestoto grow
grow inin nutrient-poor
nutrient-poor soils. The trees
soils. The trees of
the miombo woodland of central and southern Africa Africa and the woodland itself would
not exist without their
their fungal
fungal partners.
The importance
importance of wild wild edible
edible fungi
fungi continues
continues to grow
grow forfor more
morefundamental
fundamental
reasons. Logging
reasons. Logging bans
bans inin several
several countries
countries hashas renewed
renewed interest
interest inin non-wood forest
forest
products (NWFP) as as an alternative
alternative source
source of income and jobs
income and jobs for people previously
previously
employed in forestry.
employed forestry. Wild
Wild edible fungi have
edible fungi have played
played an
an important role in in providing
providing
income in
new sources of income in China
China and
and the
the United
United States
States of
of America.
America.Further
Further information
information
is given
is given inin Chapters 33 and
and 4.
4.
To summarize,
To summarize, wild edible fungi fungi are
are important for three
three main
main reasons:
reasons:
• asas a source of food (plus
(plus health
health benefits);
benefits);
as a source of income;
• as
• to maintain the health
health ofof forests.
forests.

TRADITIONS AND
AND HISTORY
HISTORY OF
OF USE
USE
Ethnomycology
Ethnomycologyisisthe thestudy
studyofofpeople
peopleand
andfungi
fungiand
andisis aa recent
recent area
area of
of academic interest.
It traces
traces its
its roots
roots to
toaalandmark
landmarkpublication
publicationentitled
entitledMushrooms,
Mushrooms, Russia
Russia and
and htstory
history
(Wasson
(Wasson and and Wasson, 1957). This
Wasson, 1957). This privately
privately published
published and and discursive opus contains
discursive opus
a wealth
wealth of useful
useful information
information on on the
the culture
culture and
and history of of wild
wild fungi.
fungi. Although
Although
Introduction: setting
setting the
the scene
scene 3
- - -- --

ethnomycology began
ethnomycology began withwith a clear interest in wild wild edible
edible fungi,
fungi, later
later developments
developments
saw aa strong emphasis
saw emphasis on hallucinogenic
hallucinogenic mushroomsmushrooms and their their cultural
cultural significance
significance
(Schultes, 1940;
(Schultes, 1940;Wasson,
Wasson,1968). 1968).While Whilethis thiscontinues
continuesto to be
be anan area
area of understandable
intrigue, the
intrigue, the spotlight
spotlight has has turned back to wild edible fungi. During
edible fungi. During the the last
last twenty
twenty to to
thirty years researchers
researchers have substantially increased increased our knowledge
knowledge of local local traditions
traditions
in Africa, Asia and Mesoamerica (Mexico,
in (Mexico, Guatemala).
Guatemala).
An early distinction
distinction was was made
made between
betweenmycophilia
mycophilia and and mycophobia:
mycophobia: In mycophilicmycophilic
societies
societies or or cultures,
cultures, fungifungi are are esteemed
esteemed and and there
there isis a strong and long long tradition
tradition of of
popular use.use. Mycophobic
Mycophobic cultures cultures have haveaa minor
minor regard
regard for for fungi
fungi andand they are often often
actively feared (Wasson
actively feared (Wasson and and Wasson,
Wasson, 1957). 1957). The The British
British colonial
colonial record in in Africa
Africa
contains
contains little
little information
information about the the local
local use
use ofof wild
wild edible
edible fungi,
fungi, despite
despite the fact fact
that people
people throughout
throughout southernsouthernAfrica Africahave have eaten
eaten them
them for forcenturies
centuries (Morris,
(Morris, 1994; 1994;
Piearce, 1985).
1985).
The history of use of wild edible
The edible fungifungi isis well
well recorded
recorded for for China,
China, although
although much much
information is is still in Chinese
Chinese (Plate(Plate 3). China is an example mycophilic country
example of a mycophilic
while Britain is is usually
usually classified
classified as mycophobic. These These distinctions
distinctions are are becoming
becoming less less
clear, however, and
clear, however, and although
although there there is still aa w-eak tradition of
weak tradition of collecting
collecting in in northern
Europe in general,general, moremore people
people gathergather fromfrom the wild wild than
than before.
before. SomeSome of this this isis
for commercial
commercial reasons reasons (Dyke and Newton, Newton, 1999) 1999) but but immigrants
immigrants from from mycophilic
mycophilic
countries
countries have have alsoalso changed attitudes. There
changed attitudes. There is is an expanding
expanding group group of peoplepeople who who
now collect
collect wild edibleedible fungi in the United United States,
States, for
for example.
example. Traditions vary within
countries: the
countries: the central
central andand northern regions regions of Italy are strongly mycophilic, mycophilic, but but the
tradition of collecting
tradition collecting and consumingconsuming wild wild edible fungi isis less
edible fungi strong in the
less strong the south.
south.
Catalonia in
Catalonia in Spain
Spain has has a markedly
markedly greater greater interest
interest in in wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi compared
compared
to other
to other regions.
regions. Variable traditions also
Variable traditions also exist
exist in in the United
United Republic
Republic of of Tanzania
Tanzania
(Härkönen,
(Harkonen, Saarimäki
Saarimaki and and Mwasumbi,
Mwasumbi,1994). 1994).
Finland represents
Finland represents a particularly interesting interesting meeting
meeting of traditions.
traditions. The historicalhistorical
influence
influence of of Swedish
Swedish culture
culture did did little
little to
to enthuse
enthuse local interest in
local interest in the west but, but, inin
the east,
east, Karelian
Karelian people who came came from from thethe Russian
Russian Federation
Federation to to live
live inin Finland
Finland
brought aa much much stronger
stronger tradition
traditionand andliking
likingforforwild
wildedible
ediblefungi
fungi (Härkönen,
(Harkonen,1998). 1998).
Russians are noted noted for for their
theirgeneral
general(though
(thoughnot notuniversal)
universal)love loveofof-wild
wildedible
ediblefungi,fungi,
as
as witnessed by by large-scale
large-scale movement
movement of people people to to forests
forests atatthe theweekend
weekend(Filipov, (Filipov,
1998). The
1998). The Estonians
Estonians have have a saying
saying that that describes
describes the Russian passion: passion: "Where there is
a mushroom coming coming up, up, there
there is is always
always aa Russian
Russian waiting for it". In In Finnish
Finnish Karelia
Karelia
they used
used to to say
say "Shouting
"Shoutinglike likeRussians
Russians in in[a]
[aJ mushroom
mushroomforest"2.forest"2.
The Latin American tradition tradition is is almost
almost wholly
wholly restricted
restricted to to Mexico
Mexico (see (see review
review by by
Villarreal
Villarreal and and Perez-Moreno,
Perez-Moreno, 1989). 1989). It It extends
extends south to to Guatemala
Guatemala and and briefly
briefly into into
Honduras (House, (House, 2002, 2002, personal
personal communication:
communication: Wild Wild edible
edible fungi in in Honduras)
Honduras)
but then
then abruptly
abruptly ends, ends, despite
despite the the widespread
widespread occurrence
occurrence of pine forests forests and other
trees
trees with edible edible mycorrhizal
mycorrhizal fungi. fungi. There
There is little
little evidence
evidence of of strong traditions
traditions in
South
South America,
America, although
although studies
studies of ofnative
native people
people in in Amazonia
Amazonia(Prance, (Prance, 1984)
1984) revealed
revealed
regular
regular consumption
consumption and management management of wild wild edible
edible fungi
fungi (though
(though all all saprobic).
saprobic).
A little-known
little-known study study fromfrom PapuaPapua New NewGuinea
Guinea(Sillitoe,
(Sillitoe, 1995)
1995) reveals
reveals a wealthwealth of of
information on on wild
wild edible
edible fungi that hints at wider use in other countries.
Local people reject some species species that are edible.edible. Boletes
Boletes are are not
not eaten
eaten in in parts
parts of the
United
United Republic
Republicof ofTanzania
Tanzania as as aa general rule (Harkonen,
(Härkönen, 2002). 2002). An Italian priest living
in Guatemala found that that local
local people
people were were ignoring
ignoringBoletus
Boletus edulis, despite their general
'iking
liking of wild
wild edible
edible fungi.
fungi. With
With his his encouragement
encouragement they they were
were ableable toto enjoy
enjoyaaspeciesspecies
they had previously ignored ignored (Flores,
(Flores, 2002,2002, personal communication: Guatemala Guatemala edible edible
fungi). ItIt isis not
not clear
clear whether
whether peoplepeople in in Europe
Europewouldwouldreadily
readilyeat eatPhallus
Phallus impudicus,
impudicus,
however, despite its
however, despite its widespread
widespread popularity
popularity in China (Plate (Plate 9) 9) and somesome cultures
cultures are are

2
2 Information provided
provided by
by Marja
Marja Hark6nen.
Hiirko nen.
44 ___ ----,!!,ild
Wild edible
edible fungi:
fungi: aa global
global overview
overview of their use
use and importance to people

BOX 2
BOX2
A developing country country perspective
perspective
Most ofof the
the information
information on onthethebiology
biologyand andecology
ecologyof ofedible
edible macrofungi
macrofungi is is based
based onon research
research carried
out in
in developed
developed countries.
countries. The The literature
literature isis heavily
heavily weighted
weighted towardstowards perceptions
perceptions of value value and
and
usefulness of wild edible
edible fungi
fungi found
found in the North. Here Here there
there isis aa strong
strong emphasis
emphasis on on valuable
valuable types
such as true
true truffles
truffles (Tuber
(Tuber spp.),
spp.), chanterelles
chanterelles andand various
various boletes
boletes - of which Boletus edulis is is the best
known. There is is much
much lessless knowledge,
knowledge, for for example,
example, about
about thethe many
manyspecies
species of of Lactarius
Lactarius or orRussula
Russula
eaten in Africa, from aa biological,
biological, social
social or
or economic
economic perspective.
perspective.
Income from wild edible fungi is an important source source of revenue for rural
ofrevenue rural communities,
communities, especially
especially
in developing countries. In central southern Africa, WEF are a
southern Africa, WEF are a significantsignificant source of nutrition; so
so too
too
in rural parts of of China,
China, India
India andand Mexico.
Mexico. InIn Europe,
Europe, WEF
WEF are are aaspecialist
specialist food,
food, aa gourmet
gourmet item item toto
be savoured infrequently - a reflection of the high high prices
prices demanded
demanded for for prized
prizedspecies.
species. This
This can
can mean
mean
good incomes for the the less well-off in rural parts of of Spain and Italy, but the overall importance of WEF WEF
to such societies,
societies, and indeed the the potential
potentialforforincreased
increasedlocal
local incomes,
incomes, isis small
small compared
compared to to local
local use
use
and markets in the developing world.
The
Tht; publication
publication concentrates
concentrates on on improving
improving knowledge
knowledge about about wild wild edible
t;dible fungi
fungi in
in developing
developing
countries, though
countries, though research
research and and published
published information
information from from the
the North has has notnot been
been ignored.
ignored. The The
experiences
experiences in in the
the Pacific northwest of
Pacific northwest of North America
America have have been been widely
widely quoted
quoted following
following an
expansion
expansion of of activities
activities on on NWFP generally
generally as traditional
traditional forestry industries
industries declined
declined andand rural
rural
communities sought new sources of income.
communities income. Finland has long promoted aa wider wider useuse of
of wild
wild edible
edible
fungi as
fungi as the country
country emerged
emerged from from times
times of
of economic
economic difficulty,
difficulty, whilewhile thethe demand
demand for matsutake
(Tricholoma
(Tricholoma spp.) in Japan has been of major significance for developing countries such such as
as China,
China, the the
People's~epubIic
Democratic People's Republic of Korea and even Bhutan.
These
These examples offer wider
examples offer wider insights
insights onon a number of different
different aspects
aspects of wild edible fungi, fungi, from
management of natural resources resources to collection
collection practices.
practices. A comprehensive review review of WEF use use in the
South and in the NorthNorth is, is, however,
however, beyond the scope of the current publication. publication. That That isis not
not to say
that
that the
the collection
collection ofoftruffles
trufflesininItaly
ItalyororFrance,
France,ororniscalos
niscalos(Lactarius
(Lactariusdeliciosus)
deliciosus) in in Spain,
Spain, are without
without
economic importance to to local
local people
people (de(deRomán,
Roman,2002,2002,personal
personalcommunication:
communication:Trade Tradeininniscalos
niscalos
from North
North Spain
Spain toto Catalonia
Cataloniaand andtruffle
truffleproduction),
production),but butagain
againthesetheseareareof oflesser
lessersignificance
significance as as a
source of income
income compared
compared with withcomparable
comparableactivities
activities in
in many
many developing
developing countries.
countries.

instinctively fearful of Amanita species.

species. This genus contains deadly poisonous as
as well
well
as flavoursome species
species (Plate
(Plate 7).
7).

PURPOSE AND
PURPOSE AND STRUCTURE OF THE
STRUCTURE OF THE PUBLICATION
PUBLICATION
This publication
publication presents information
information onon the
the importance
importance of
of wild
wild edible
edible fungi to people.
It includes
includes details of species collected and
species collected and sold,
sold, but there is a particular emphasis
emphasis on
social and economic
social and aspects in
economic aspects in an
an attempt
attempt to show show how
how wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi might
might
contribute to rural
rural livelihoods.
livelihoods. There is
is a wealth of information on the biologybiology and
and
general characteristics
general characteristicsofofmacrofungi
macrofungibutbut this
this isis only
only discussed
discussed in
in detail
detail where
where it is
is
relevant to either people or the
the use
use of
of natural
natural resources.
resources.
A broader
broader aim
aim of
of the
the publication
publication isis to
toincrease
increase awareness
awareness of of wild
wild edible
edible fungi and
to emphasize the
the ecological
ecological link
link between
between key keyspecies
species of
of-wild
wild edible fungi and forests.
forests.
Suggestions are
Suggestions are made
made on on how to manage
manage wild edible
edible fungi in in aa sustainable
sustainable manner,
manner,
taking into account the multiple use of forests and other forest users. users.
There is a strong emphasis
emphasis on developing countries
countries (the "South") in in many
many ofof the
the
discussions, particularly
discussions, particularly when reviewing
reviewing how to improve the benefits of wild edible
fungi and their sustainable production. Information
fungi Information isis also
also drawn
drawn fromfrom case
case studies
studies
and experiences
and with wild
experiences with wild edible
edible fungi
fungi in
in developed
developed countries
countries (the
(the "North").
"North"). The
The
reasons for
reasons for concentrating
concentrating on developing
developing countries
countries are explained
explained in more detail
detail in
in
Box 2.
Introduction: setting
setting the scene
scene 5

The publication is is divided

divided into into five
five chapters
chapters and and includes
includes aacomprehensive
comprehensive series series
of tables
tables and annexes.
annexes. The The reader
reader is is pointed towards
towards primary and other other sources
sources of of
information, bearing
information, bearing in mind that personal personal communications
communications with with the
the authors
authors have
have been
been
important means
an important means of of learning more about about wild
wild edible
edible fungi. Original publications are
often difficult to obtain
obtain and and general
general sources
sources suchsuch asas the
the excellent
excellent literature
literature reviews
reviews by by
Rammeloo and Walleyn Walleyn (1993)(1993) and Walleyn and Rammeloo (1994) are recommended
(1994) are
for Africa south of the Sahara. Sahara. ThereThere is is a need
need to undertake similar reviews for
similar reviews for other
other
regions of the world,
regions world, thusthus increasing
increasing awareness
awareness of of aa surprising
surprising breadth
breadth of of published
published
information
information and and stimulating
stimulating interest
interest ininnew
newlines
lines of
of research.
research.
The characteristics
characteristics of of wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi areare briefly
briefly described
described in in Chapter 22 and and
include key
include key facts
facts onon biology,
biology, ecology,
ecology, edibility
edibility and and cultivation.
cultivation. The emphasis
emphasis is is
on general
general information
information and and few few technical
technical details
details are
are presented.
presented. Major
Major genera
genera are are
described
described in in outline.
outline. Latin names names are are mostly
mostly used
used throughout the book book since
since there
there
are few common names names for wild edible fungi that easily
edible fungi transfer from
easily transfer from oneone country or
language to another. The exceptions include matsutake (Tricholoma matsutake but also
(Tricholoma matsutake
T magnivelare
T magnivelare and and other
otherspecies),
species), chanterelles
chanterelles (Cantharellus
(Cantharellus spp.) spp.) and
and porcini
porcini (Boletus
(Boletus
edulis).
Management
Management issues issues are explored in Chapter Chapter 3, 3, and this includes a review of collectors
and the relationship
relationship between
between harvesting
harvesting and and forest
forest management.
management. This This section
secti on examines
examines
some
some of the the broader
broader issues
issues concerning
concerning multiple
multiple useuse of of forests,
forests, productivity
productivity of of wild
wild
edible fungi and and access
access toto collecting
collecting sites.
sites.
Chapter 4 continues the discussions begun in the previous
Chapter previous chapter
chapter but pays
pays particular
particular
attention to people
people and and how
how wildwild edible
edible fungi
fungi are traded, their importance to diet and
nutrition.
nutrition. Trade
Trade data,
data, marketing
marketing and and commercialization
commercializationare are explored,
explored, with
with aa final
final section
that briefly
briefly summarizes
summarizes the the use
use ofof wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi byby region
region and
and country.
country.
The
The final
final chapter
chapter moves
moves from from thethe present
present to to thethefuture.
future. Chapter
Chapter55examines
examines
possibilities
possibilities forfor future
future initiatives
initiatives withwith an emphasis
emphasis on on practical steps that
practical steps that could be be
taken to increase
increase benefits
benefits to rural rural people
people while
while sustaining
sustaining production of of wild
wild edible
edible
fungi
fungi and
and achieving
achieving soundsound forestforest management.
management. The The publication
publication describes
describes known
known
constraints
constraints to the the sustainable
sustainable use use of
of wild
wild edible
edible fungi.
fungi. A A forest
forest manager
manager in in western
western
China despaired of of getting
getting local
local collectors to to adopt
adopt less
less destructive
destructive harvesting
harvesting practices
practices
for aa prized
prized edible
edible fungus
fungus knownknownas as matsutake
matsutake(Winkler,
(Winkler, 2002). Such constraints,
2002). Such constraints, it is is
suggested, can
suggested, can bebe overcome
overcome and and changes effected, but
changes effected, but only
only if actions
actions are based on aa
sound knowledge of what people do and and why.
why.

SOURCES
SOURCES OF OF INFORMATION
INFORMATION
Information has
has been
been gathered
gathered on
on activities
activities in
in 85
85 predominantly,
predominantly, but but not
not exclusively,
exclusively,
developing countries (see
(see Box 2). The published and and accessible
accessible information
information has has varied
varied
hugely in terms
terms of
of emphasis
emphasis (Table
(Table 2),
2), detail
detail and
and accuracy
accuracy and and has
has demanded
demanded carefulcareful
examination. There areare many
many mycological
mycological publications,
publications, for
forexample,
example, thatthatlist
listspecies
species asas
being "edible" but do notnot elaborate
elaborate on
on their
their local use. General
local use. General accounts
accounts of of NWFP
NWFP talk
about "mushrooms"
"mushrooms" without
withoutspecifying
specifying which
which types.
types.
Over
Over 800
800 papers, books, newspaper
newspaper articles,
articles, personal
personal communications,
communications, Web Web sites
sites and
miscellaneous
miscellaneous other sources of information were consulted. Information Information on on wild
wild edible
edible
fungi is spread across many different
different disciplines
disciplines (Table
(Table 2). discipline represents a
2). Each discipline
different set of interests
interests but also with some overlap. This isis the
overlap. This the first
first time
time that
that aa broad
review of wild edible fungi
fungi has
has been
been attempted
attempted and and there isis undoubtedly still still much to
learn, particularly from
learn, particularly from the Russian
Russian and
and Chinese
Chinese literature.
literature. Information
Information about about wild
wild
edible fungi in the Russian
Russian Federation
Federationwaswas only
onlyavailable
available because
because of of aa translation
translation made
made
by Dr
Dr Seona
Seona Anderson
Andersonof ofaakey
keytext
text(Vasil'eva,
(Vasil' eva, 1978).
1978).
6 Wild edible
Wild edible fungi:
fungi: aa global
global overview
overview of their
their use
use and
and importance to people
people
- - -- - -

TABLE 22
Disciplines andareas
Disciplines and areasofofactivity
activitycontaining
containing information
information on
on wild useful
useful fungi
fungi
DISCIPLINE OR
OR TOPIC
TOPIC NOTES

Mycology, including
Mycology, The study
study of fungi
fungi (mycology)
{mycology} includes
includes molecular biology, biochemistry
biochemistry and
mycorrh izas
mycorrhizas traditional topics
more traditional topics such
such as ecology and
as ecology and taxonomy.
taxonomy. Published
Publishedinformation
information
generally has
generally haslittle
little detail
detail about the use
use of fungi byby people,
people, particularly
particularly the
social and
social and economic
economic aspects.
aspects.Mycorrhizal
Mycorrhizal studies
studies have
haveaacombined
combined interest
interest in
fungi and
and plants.
plants. Edible
Edible ectomycorrhizal
ectomycorrhizal fungi have
have only
only recently
recently emerged
emerged
as aa subdiscipline
as subdisciplinewithin
within a much larger area
area of
of study.
study.

Field biology and natural

Field Field guides
Field guides contain
contain descriptions
descriptions of species and photographs
species and photographs and are usedused
history mostly for
mostly for identification
identification purposes. The majority of guides
purposes. The guides are
are published
published in
the North
North and
and therefore
therefore have
have aa limited
limited use
use in
in developing
developing countries.
countries. A
A few
few
guides are
guides are specifically
specificallyfor
for edible
edible fungi.
fungi. Natural
Natural history
history publications
publications have
have
provided some
provided some information on on uses
uses of WEF
WEF by by people,
people, though
though this group is
is
often ignored or dealt with fleetingly.
fleetingly.

Cultivation of
of mushrooms
mushrooms There is
There is an
an extensive
extensive literature
literature on cultivated
cultivated mushrooms.
mushrooms. Regular
Regular meetings
meetings
are held which
are which have
have strong
strong commercial
commercial support.
support. There
There has
has been
been recent
recent
interest (e.g.
{e.g . Mshigeni
Mshigeni and
and Chang, 2000) in
Chang, 2000} in the introduction
introduction of
ofsmall-scale
small-scale
production units to developing
developing countries and and aa small
small but
but growing
growing literature
on managing
on managing natural
natural areas for production
areas for production of matsutake
matsutake and
and truffles
truffles
{Federation-Franca ise-des-Trufficu Iteu rs, 2001).
(Federation-Francaise-des-Trufficulteurs, 2001}.

Ethnomycology Ethnomycology is is aa relatively young area

area of
of investigation.
investigation.Topics
Topics include
include the
the
cultural, ceremonial
ceremonial and medicinal
medicinal uses of fungi by
uses of by people.
people. Ethnomycology
Ethnomycology
was originally
was originally dominated by by the
the study
study of
ofhallucinogenic
hallucinogenicmushrooms
mushrooms and and
their cultural significance
significance and and littre
littre attention has
has been paid to the uses
been paid of
uses of
WEF by
WEF by people.

Nutrition, human
human health, The literature
The literature on nutritional
nutritional value
value isis surprisingly
surprisingly large
large though
though analytical
analytical
food security
security approaches
approaches vary vary and
and comparison
comparison of of results
results isis difficult.
difficult. Most
Most analyses
analyses have
have
involved
involved cultivated
cultivated mushroom
mushroom species with only
species with only a few wild wild edible
ediblespecies
species
included. There has
included . There has been
been a a huge
huge expansion
expansion of ofscientific
scientific research
research on on
cultivated,
cultivated, medicinal
medicinal mushrooms,
mushrooms, mushrooms
mushrooms as as dietary
dietary supplements
supplements and
"nutriceuticals", but this
"nutriceuticals", this is
is of
of limited
limitedrelevance
relevance to to development
development initiatives.
initiatives.
There are
There are few
few studies
studiesthat
that have
have considered
consideredwild wildedible
ediblefungi
fungi inin the
the context
of food
food security,
security, though
though this
this angle
angle deserves closer attention.
deserves closer attention.

Markets and trade Data on volumes

Data on and values
volumes and valuesof
of wwild edible fungi collected
ild edible collected are
are weak, patchy
patchy
and
and often unreliable.
unreliable. Global
Global estimates
estimates of of trade
trade are
are open
open to
to interpretation
and unreliable
unreliable sources may acquire
sources may acquire aa spurious
spuriouscredibility
credibility by repeat references.
references.
Although caution
caution is
is needed
needed when reviewing marketing
marketing datadata there
there has
has been
been
more accurate documentation
documentation in in recent
recentyears.
years.

Wood and non-wood Wild edible

edible fungi
fungi appear
appearregularly
regularlyininNWFP
NWFP studies
studies but
but individual
individual species
species are
are
forest products
products often not
not mentioned
mentioned (if{ifever
everidentified).
identified}.Specific
Specific and
and detailed
detailed interest
interest has
has
grown as
as the result of activities in the Pacific northwest of the United
Pacific northwest United States
States
and Canada and elsewhere. General
Canada and General NWFP
NWFPstudies
studiesare
areoften
often aa disappointing
disappointing
source of information
source of information on
on wild
wild edible
edible fungi.
 7

2 Characteristics:
Characteristics:biology,
biology,ecology,
ecology, uses,
cultivation

Mycology
Mycology is is the
the study ofof fungi
fungi and
and mycologists
mycologists are are the
the people
people who who carry out these these
studies.
studies. New research methods have substantially increased knowledge
research methods have substantially increased knowledge about the
the
fundamental nature of fungi.
fundamental nature fungi. Much of this this research
research has focused
focused on fungi that cause cause
plant diseases.
diseases. Research
Research on edible fungi has concentrated on on aasmall
small group
group of ofspecies
species
that are
are commercially
commercially cultivated.
cultivated. Wild
Wild edible
edible fungi
fungi have,
have, until
until recently,
recently, been
been relatively
relatively
ignored byby science,
science, though amateur
amateur mycologists
mycologists oftenoften documented
documented speciesspecies they found
in field
field studies, mostly in Europe or or countries
countries in in which
which Europeans
Europeans have have settled.
settled.
There has always,
always, however,
however, been a keen interest in in aa small
small group
group of of valuable
valuable wild
wild
fungi that cannot be cultivated. These
edible fungi These include
include thethe truffles
truffles (Tuber
(Tuber spp.),
spp.),matsutake
matsutake
(Tricholoma spp.) and porcini or
(Tricholoma or cèpes (Boletus edulis).
d:pes (Boletus edulis). Their
Their biology and ecology ecology have
have
been studied in some detail - a marked
been marked contrast
contrast to to the many
many other
other wild
wild edible
edible fungi
used around the world.
used
The consequence
The consequence of of this
this neglect
neglect is that
that wild
wild edible
edible species
species used
used in in developing
developing
countries are poorly known. Some information is available from studies of
countries are poorly known. Some information is available from studies of close
close
relatives in
relatives in temperate
temperate regions.
regions. Russula
Russulaand and Lactarius
Lactariusoccur occuraround
around the the world,
world, forfor
example, and
example, and knowledge
knowledge of of species
species in
in Europe
Europe can can bebe applied
applied with some caution and
caveats to
caveats to African
African species. The main
species. The main problem
problem is is naming
naming and and recognizing
recognizing species.
species.
Genera and species concepts were originally based based on the narrower range range of diversity
diversity
found in temperate
temperate regions
regions and
and these
these may
may require
require fundamental
fundamental reappraisal
reappraisal as as tropical
tropical
species become
species become better known.
This chapter provides a brief
This brief introduction
introduction to to the
thelarger
largerfungi
fungi (macrofungi),
(macrofungi), with with
special reference to
special reference to those that are edible.
are edible. The use of specialist terms has
specialist terms has been avoided
avoided
where simpler
where simpler alternatives
alternatives are
are available.
available. Field
Field guides
guides contain
contain useful
useful glossaries
glossaries and
there are an increasing number of Web sites sites that help in understanding technical terms
(Chapter 6).6). The Dictionary
Dictionary of of the
the fungi isis aa regularly updated text text with
with details
details about
about
fungal genera
all fungal genera and other information on mycology (Kirk et al., 2001).
information on mycology (Kirk et al., 2001).

WHAT ARE ARE FUNGI?

FUNGI?
Fungi are
Fungi are a distinct group
group of of organisms
organisms more more closely
closely related to to animals
animals than plants.
At
At present fungi
fungi are divided
divided into three separate and distinct kingdoms
separate and distinct kingdoms based based on on an
an
expanded knowledge
expanded knowledge of their biochemistry
biochemistry and and genetic
genetic makeup
makeup established
established especially
especially
over the
over the last 30 or so years.
last 30 years. It isis wrong
wrong and and misleading
misleading to to refer
refer to to fungi
fungi asas "plants
"plants
without
without chlorophyll"
chlorophyll"(FAO,(FAO,1998a).
1998a).
Despite fundamental differences,
differences, fungi are often classified
classified asas plants.
plants. Understanding
Understanding
the taxonomic status of of fungi
fungi has
has little
little apparent
apparent significance
significance to to people collecting and
selling wild
selling wild edible
edible fungi,
fungi, but
but it is is of
of critical
critical importance
importance in in establishing
establishing a sound
sound and and
robust classification system. This
classification system. This ensures
ensures that when two people people use use the
the same
same species
species
name they know that
name that they
they are
are referring
referring to to the
the same
same (edible)
(edible) fungus.
fungus.
The
The classification
classification of
of fungi with
with plants
plants has
has inadvertent
inadvertent practical
practical consequences.
consequences. It It is
is not
not
whether ethnobotanical
always clear whether ethnobotanicalstudies studiesinclude
includewild
wildfungi,
fungi, as
as is
is the
the case
case with a study
study
from Turkey (Ertrug, 2000). Ethnomycology isis the
2000). Ethnomycology the correct
correct term
term that
that indicates
indicates fungi
fungi are
involved. On aa similar track, flora refers only to plants.
involved. plants. The
The equivalent
equivalent termterm for
for fungi
fungi is
is
mycota. These
mycota. These fungal
fungal terms maymay be be unfamiliar
unfamiliar but theirtheir use
use helps
helps to identify
identify published
information on on wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi clearly
clearly that may otherwise be be ignored
ignored or or missed.
missed.
8 Wild edible fungi:
Wild fungi: a global overview of their use and importance to
to people
------- - - - - - - ---------------------

Structure and
Structure and feeding
Fungi
Fungi come
come in in many
many shapes,
shapes, sizes
sizes and
and colours
colours (Plate 1). Macrofungus
(Plate 1). Macrofungus (plural:
(plural:
macrofungi)
macrofungi) is a general
general category used for speciesspecies that have
have aa visible
visible (to the
the unaided
unaided
eye) structure
eye) structure that produces
produces spores,
spores, such as as aa mushroom
mushroom or or truffle.
truffle. These
These visible
visible
structures are generically referred to
generically referred to as
as "fruiting bodies".
Fungi consist of fine threads known
known as as hyphae, which
which together
together form
form aa mycelium,
mycelium, as as
in the mould
mould growing
growing onon aa piece
piece of fruit or bread.
bread. The cap of a mushroom or aa bracket
fungus
fungus also
also consists
consists of hyphae,
hyphae, densely packed together
densely packed together toto form the fruiting
fruiting body.
body.
Specialized hyphae
Specialized hyphae produce
produce spores
spores that
that are
are dispersed
dispersed in in a number of ways. They can
viewed en
be viewed en masse
masse by
by placing
placing the
the cap
cap of
of aa mushroom on a piece of white paper and
covering it with a glass
covering glass (Plate 3).
3). The colour,
colour, form and way in in which
which spores
spores develop
develop
help to identify the fungus.
edible fungi
Wild edible fungi are
are often
often referred
referred toto generically
generically asaswild
wildedible
edible"mushrooms".
"mushrooms". This This
can be confusing for aa number
can number of ofreasons:
reasons: edible
edible species
species have different forms,forms, some
with
with gills
gills and some with pores, some with stems and some some without
without (Plate 1).1). This
This book
book
prefers the broader
broader term
term wild
wild edible
edible fungi to reflect
reflect the diversity of forms
forms and also
also to
distinguish them clearly from cultivated mushrooms (Box (Box 1).
1).

How fungi feed feed

Fungi are
Fungi aredependent
dependent on on dead
dead and and
livingliving material
material for growth.
for their their growth. They obtain
They obtain their their
nutrients in
in three
three basic
basic ways:
ways:
SAPROBld - growing on dead organic matter;
• SAPROBIC3
• SYMBIOTIC - growing in association with other other organisms;
organisms;
• PATHOGENIC PARASITI'C - causing harm to another
PATHOGENIC or PARASITIt another organism.
organism.
The majority of of wild
wild edible
edible fungi species are symbiotic
species are symbiotic and
and form mycorrhizas withwith
trees
trees (see below). Saprobic
(see below). Saprobic edible
edible fungi
fungi are
arealso
alsocollected
collectedfrom
fromthe
thewild
wild but
but they
they are
are
best known and and most
most widely
widely valued
valued in
in their
their cultivated
cultivated forms.
forms. Plant
Plant pathogenic
pathogenic fungi
fungi
cause diseases of
cause diseases of plants
plants and
and aa small
small number
number of these
these microfungi
microfungi are
are eaten
eaten in the form
of infected host material
material (Plate
(Plate 2). The different modes of of feeding
feeding are shown
shown in
in Plate
Plate 22
and described briefly
briefly below.
below.

Saprobic
Saprobicfungi
fungi
Fungi colonize rotting wood and and organic
organic matter
matter found
found inin soil.
soil. Many
Many species
species cannot
cannot
be seen with the
the naked
naked eye
eye (microfungi)
(microfungi) but there
there are
are (edible)
(edible) macrofungi
macrofungi that fruit
on fallen logs
logs and
and bracket fungi
fungi that grow from dead
dead or dying parts of standing trees.
Agaricus arvensis
arvensis is
is a commonly collected wild edible
edible species
species that occurs
occurs in
in pastures
pastures
and
and grassy
grassy areas.
areas. Edible
Edible species
species of Favolus
Favolus are collected
collected from dead
dead wood
wood inside
inside
tropical
tropical rain forests.
forests. The wild
wild edible
edible fungi used by
by the
the Yanomam
Yanomam Indians
Indians in
in Brazil
Brazil
are all saprobic
saprobic and
and occurred in slash and burn areas
slash and where rotting wood was present
areas where
(Prance, 1984).
1984).
In the wild,
wild, the
the volume
volume and
and value
value of
of saprobic
saprobic species used as
species used as food
food are small
small by
comparison
comparison withwith the
the symbiotic
symbiotic edible
edible fungi,
fungi, though
though more
more edible
edible saprobic
saprobic species
species
are collected.
collected. Their overall
overall value
value isis much higher because
because they are are widely
widely cultivated:
cultivated:
a recent figure of US$18
US$18 billion was quoted for for the
the annual,
annual, global
global trade
trade in
incultivated,
cultivated,
saprobic
saprobic species
species (Chang,
(Chang, 1999;
1999; see
see also
also Table
Table 19).
19).
Saprobic species
Saprobic speciesneed
need aa constant
constant supply
supply of of suitable
suitable organic matter to sustain
organic matter sustain
production
production in in the
the wild
wild and
and this
this can
can be
bea alimiting
limiting factor
factor ininproduction.
production. Shi'itake
Shi'itake
(Lentinula edodes)
(Lentinula edodes) mushroom
mushroom cultivation
cultivationinin one
one area
area of
of China
China isis threatened
threatened by the
supply of
of suitable
suitable tree
tree branches
branches from
from nearby
nearbyforests
forests (Pauli,
(Pauli, 1998).
1998).
Saprobic macrofungi
Saprobic macrofungi areare also
also highly
highly valued
valued forfor their medicinal properties. Most
medicinal properties.
are cultivated, though Ganoderrna
Ganoderma spp. spp. (Plate
(Plate 9)
9) are
are also
also collected
collected from thethe wild.
wild. The
The

3 Saprophyte describes a plant that feeds

feeds by external digestion of dead organic matter.
matter.
Characteristics:
Characteristics: biology,
biology, ecology,
ecology, uses,
uses, cultivation
cultivation 9

list of symbiotic
list symbiotic macrofungi
macrofungi with medicinal properties isis a short one,
medicinal properties one, though
though there
there
is
is some indication that they
they have
have been
been studied
studied less
less because
because they cannot
cannot be
be cultivated
cultivated
(Reshetnikov, Wasser
Wasser and Tan,
Tan, 2001).
2001).

Symbiotic fungi
The most common
common form form of of symbiosis
symbiosis associated
associated with wild wild edible
edible fungi is that known
as
as a mycorrhiza (Plate
(Plate 2). Many plants depend on on these
these fungus-root
fungus-root associations
associations forfor
healthy growth. A special
special type known as as an ectomycorrhiza (ECM) is found on trees trees
growing
growing in in the Taiga
Taiga in in the Russian
Russian Federation
Federation and and the
the rain forest
forest of Borneo
Borneo and
includes legume trees as well as as conifers
conifers (Table
(Table 3).
3).Ectomycorrhiza
Ectomycorrhiza are typically formed
by macrofungi
macro fungi and and they
they include
include manymany of ofthe
the key
key edible
edible species
species that are
are collected in the
wild, such as chanterelles (Cantharellus spp.) and and Amanita
Amanita species.
species.
The mycorrhiza helps helps the treetree toto grow
grow inin nutrient-poor
nutrient-poorsoils,soils, such
such asas the
the miombo
miombo
woodland
woodland of central
central andand southern
southern AfricaAfrica (Campbell,
(Campbell, 1996).1996). A A sheath
sheath of hyphae
hyphae
wraps around the root. They penetrate the root structure structure butbut not
not the
the actual
actual root
root cells
cells
themselves, forming a livingliving contact
contact between the fungus and the tree. The fungus helps
the tree gather
gather water from aa wider wider catchment
catchment and delivers
delivers nutrients from the soil that
the tree cannot access.
access. The tree provides the fungus with essential essential carbohydrates.
Termitomyces containsimportant
Termitomyces contains importantwild wild edible
edible species.
species.These
Thesefungi
fungi only
only grow
grow in
associationwith
association with termites
termites and and their
their nests
nests and
and are
are dependent
dependent on the organic organic matter
brought by the
brought the insects
insects fromfrom their
theirfeeding
feeding on ontrees.
trees.Although
AlthoughTermitomyces
Termitomyces are
saprobic, they are
saprobic, are symbiotic
symbiotic with withtermites.
termites.Twenty
Twentyedibleediblespecies
species ofofTermitomyces
Termitomyces
have
have been
been recorded
recorded from from Africa
Africa and andAsia
Asia(Pegler
(Peglerand andVanhaecke,
Vanhaecke, 1994).
1994). They
They areare
regularly collected
regularly collected and and also
also sold
sold (Plate
(Plate 6).
6). T.
T titanicus
titanicus is thethe world's
world's largest
largest edible
edible
fungus, although other
fungus, otherspecies
species areare much
much smaller.
smaller.
Rural people have long associated the appearance of edible fungi fungi with
with particular trees
and have incorporated this this in
in local
local names.
names. In southern
southern Africa,
Africa, chimsuku
chimsuku and and kamsuku
kamsuku
both describe Lactarius
both Lactarius spp.spp. that
that grow
growunder
undermasuku
masukutrees trees(Piearce,
(Piearce,1981).
1981). Some
Some edible
ectomycorrhizal fungi
ectomycorrhizal fungi produce
produce theirtheir fruiting
fruiting bodies underground. The
bodies underground. The best known
examples
examples areare the
the truffles
truffles (Tuber spp.: Plate
(Tuber spp.: Plate 4).
4). Over 400 400 species
species of of edible
edible ECM
ECM have
have
been recorded (Wang,
(Wang, Buchanan and Hall, Hall, 2002).
2002). There are also many ectomycorrhizal
ectomycorrhizal
fungi which produce fruiting bodies that are
fungi are not
not edible
edible oror are
are poisonous.
poisonous.
The production
production of of fruiting
fruiting bodies
bodies depends
depends on on aa complex
complex set set of
of factors
factors and
and in
in some
some
years production can
years can be
be negligible.
negligible. In Botswana,
Botswana, 14 14 tonnes of of Terfezia pfeilii, one
Terfezia pfeilii, one of
the
the "desert
"desert truffles",
truffles", were
were bought
bought from from oneone
small
small community in one season; season; the next year year TABLE
TABLE 33
only four fruiting bodies were located
only four fruiting bodies were located over Plant over Plant families
families with
with edible
edible ectomycorrhizal
ectomycorrhizal fungi
fungi
a much
much larger
larger area
area(Taylor,
(Taylor, 2002,
2002, personal
personal FAMILY
FAMilY EXAMPLES

communication: Edible
Edible fungi
fungi eaten
eaten and
and traded Betulaceae Betula (birches)
in Botswana and
and Namibia).
Namibia). The
The lack of certainty Caesalpinioideae Afzelia, Brachystegia,
Brachystegia, lsoberlinia,
Isoberlinia,
Julbemardia
lulbernardia
of harvests
harvests from one year to the
the next
next makes
makes it
Casuarinaceae Casuarina
difficult
difficult to plan
plan commercial
commercial exploitation
exploitation and Cupressaceae Cupressus
some attempts
attempts have
have been made to overcome this Dipterocarpaceae Shorea, Dipterocarpus,
Shorea, Dipterocarpus, Monotes
Monotes
by "cultivating"
"cultivating" key
key mycorrhizal
mycorrhizal species
species such
such Euphorbiaceae Uapaca
as
as Tricholoma matsutake (Hall et
Tricholoma matsutake et al.,
ai., 1998).
1998). Fagaceae Castanea (chestnut), Castanopsis,
Castanea Castanopsis,
Fagus (northern
Fagus (northern beech),
beech), Nothofagus
Trees
Trees are successfully
successfully infected
infected with truffles
truffles (southern beech),
beech), Quercus
Quercus (oak)
(oak)
(Hall,
(Hall, Zambonelli
Zambonelli and
and Primavera,
Primavera, 1998)
1998) and "Legumes" Acacia
managed
managed under controlled conditions in Italy
Italy Myrtaceae Eucalyptus
4) and
(Plate 4) and elsewhere,
elsewhere, but the time, effort and Pinaceae Picea (spruces),
Pinus (pines), Picea (spruces), Abies
Larix (larches)
(firs), Larix (larches)
money required
required are
are only
only justified
justified - assuming aa
Papilionoideae Pericopsis
good knowledge of the the ecology
ecology ofof the
the fungus
fungus Nyctaginaceae Neea
concerned - for for the
the most
most valuable
valuable edible
edible For details
For details of ectomycorrhizas on tropical trees,
ectomycorrhizas on trees. see
see Alexander
Alexander
mycorrhizal
mycorrhizal species.
species. and Hogberg
Hogberg (1986).
(1986).
10
10 Wild edible
Wild edible fungi:
fungi: aa global overview of
of their use
use and
and importance
importance to
to people
people

Tree species can

Tree species can form
form mycorrhizas
mycorrhizas with with more
more than one fungus,
fungus, and a fungus may
associate with
associate with more than one tree. Some ECM are are "native"
"native" to
to aa region:
region: in in Madagascar
Madagascar
an edible
an Russula grows
edible Russula grows on exotic eucalyptus (Buyck,
exotic eucalyptus (Buyck, 2001).
2001). Other
Other edible
edible ECM have
been introduced and Boletus edulis edulis isisnow
nowfound
found throughout
throughout southern
southern Africa following
the establishment of pine plantations. ECM have have been
been most intensively
intensively studied in in the
the
past on temperate
temperate tree
tree species
species but there
there have
have also
also been
been steady
steady advances
advances on tropical
tropical
ECM in in Africa
Africa (Thoen,
(Thoen, 1993;
1993; Verbecken
Verbecken and and Buyck,
Buyck, 2002).
2002).
Lichcns are
Lichens are "self-supporting" associations betweenfungi
associations between fungi and and an algaalga or
cyanobacterium and
cyanobacterium and are
are the final
final example
example of a symbiosis
symbiosis that has has edible
edible properties.
properties.
A lichen
A lichen is aa biological
biological and
and not aa systematic
systematic group
group (Kirk
(Kirk etet al.,
aI., 2001)
2001) and
and several
several
valuable species
species are
are eaten
eaten by
by people
people in in Europe,
Europc, Asia
Asia and
and North America
America and and uscd
used for
for
other economic purposes.
purposes. They
They areare not included in this book. Further information
included in information is is
available from
available from a number
number of of sources
sources (e.g.
(e.g. Richardson,
Richardson,1991;
1991; Marles
Marles et et al.,
al., 2000).
2000).

Plant pathogens and and parasitic

parasitic fungi
In several
several countries
countries people eat eat plant
plant material
material infected
infected with plantplant pathogenic
pathogenic fungi.
fungi.
Maize cobs
Maize cobs infected with the smut
infected with smut fungus
fungus Ustilago
Ustilago maydis
maydis areare consumed
consumed in large
large
quantities in Mexico, both fresh and canned. canned. They are are known
known locally
locally as
as huitlacoche or
cuitlacoche (Villanueva,
cuitlacoche (Villanueva,1997).
1997).U.U.maydis
maydisisisaa microfungus
microfungus:: itit does
does not form
form aa visible
visible
fruiting body and the
fruiting the only
only signs
signs of of its
its presence
presence areare aa mass
mass ofof dark
dark spores
spores (Plate
(Plate 1).
1).
The cobs appear to to become
become sweeter
sweeter as as the
the result
result of
offungus
fungus attack
attack(Sommer,
(Sommer, 1995),
1995), and
and
similar changes have
similar changes have been
been noted
noted forfor the edible rust fungus Cronartium
Cronartium conigenum
conigenum on on
pines in Mexico.
Other
Other examples
examples include:
include: Ustilago
Ustilago esculenta
esculenta on wildwild rice;
rice; Sporisorium
Sporisorium cruenta
cruenta on on
sorghum
sorghum in ChinaChina (Guozhong,
(Guozhong, 2002,2002, personal
personal communication:
communication: Eating Eating Sporisorium
Sporisorium
cruenta
cruenta in China);
China); winged
winged bean
bean infected
infected by bySynchytrium
Synchytrium psophocarpi
psophocarpi in Indonesia
Indonesia
(Rifai, 1989).
1989).
Hypomyces lactifluorum isis aa parasite
Hypomyces lactifluorum parasite macrofungus
macrofungus that that grows
grows on other macrofungi
macrofungi
(boletes). It is
(boletes). It is eaten
eaten from Canada through to to Guatemala
Guatemala and and completes
completes the range
range of
of
ecological niches occupied by wild
ecological niches w ild edible fungi.

IDENTIFICATION
Local
Local and scientific
scientific names
names
Local
Local names
names have
have been well well documented
documented in Mexico Mexico (Guzmán,
(Guzman, 1997), 1997), China (Mao,
(Mao,
2000) and can be checked online for Malawi (www.malawifungi.org)4 against the
2000) and can be checked online for Malawi (www.malawifungi.org)4 against the
equivalent scientific names.
equivalent scientific names. Each
Each ofof these
these countries
countries hashas a rich lexicon
lexicon of names
names andand
terms (Figure 1),1), aa sign
sign of
of the importance of wild edible fungi fungi toto rural people.
people. Some
Some
local
local names
names have
have been adopted
adopted more
more widely,
widely, particularly
particularly forfor valuable
valuable edible
edible fungi.
fungi.
Boletus edulis isis commonly
Boletus edulis commonly referred to by by its
its French
French(cèpe)
(cepe) oror Italian
Italian name
name (porcino
(porcino-
plural porcini), and Tricholoma
Tricholoma matsutake by its its Japanese name of matsutake.
matsutake.
The
The system
system of scientific names aims
scientific names aims to to remove doubt about
remove doubt about thethe fungus
fungus being
being
described.
described. A A person with Cantharellus
Cantharellus cibarius
cibarius in in Nepal
Nepal knows
knows they have have the same
same
fungus as someone in Mozambique, assuming both have been accurately identified. The
scientific name or binomial has
scientific name has two parts.
parts . The
The first
first name
name is is the
the genus
genus (Cantharellus)
(Cantharellus)
followed
followed by thethe species
species name
name (cibarius).
(cibarius). Named varieties
varieties exist
exist for some
some species
species but
but
their scientific
scientific validity is is often uncertain.
Local names
names for edible fungifungi are
are based
based onon shape,
shape, taste
taste and
and other
other properties
properties that are
distinctive
distinctive or important to to people.
people. The
The lichen
lichen (Umbilicaria
(Umbilicaria esculenta)
esculenta) and an an edible
edible
fungus
fungus (Auricularia auricula-judae) have
(Auricularia auricula-judae) have similar
similar common
common namesnames in in Hunan - Yan-er
(ear of a rock) and Mu-er
(ear M u-er (ear
(ear of
of wood)
wood) respectively.
respectively. This identifies where they grow
identifies where

4 All Web pages have been viewed

viewed in
in 2003.
2003.
Characteristics: biology, ecology,
ecology, uses,
uses, cultivation 11

and can be be collected.

collected. Mycologists
Mycologists
FIGURE 11
sometimes wary
are sometlmes wary of local
Naming the
Naming the parts of a mushroommushroom
classifications because
classifications because they they are are
based on
based on scientifically
scientifically unreliable
unreliable
characters (Härkönen,
(Harkonen, 2002).
2002). Scientific
Scientific ond and populorpopular names nomes for
Local names
Local names provide
provide important
important the parts
the ports of of a0 mushroom
mushroom
clues
clues to the uses and importance of
edible fungi to people and there
edible fungi there isis
much to be gained from their study. Remains of
Remains of volee
volvo (sac)
(soc)
RESTOS dede VOLVA,
Local
Local names
names allow
allow researchers
researchers to to RESTOS (apa ,
VOLVA- Capa,
pelleia, lela
poll*, tela
learn about collecting
collecting practices,
practices, to Cap
Cap oror pileus
pileus
PILEQ , cabeeila,
PILES: carono,
cebolla, corona,
analyse markets and
analyse markets and to to talk
talk with
with sombrero
sombrero

forest managers
forest managers and and others
others whowho
lack
lack formal
formal training
training in in science
and are
and are unfamiliar
unfamiliar withwith genera
genera
and species
and species names.
names. Examples
Examples of of Ring or
Ring or annulus
annulus
ANlllO:
ANILLO: lela, calzon
tela, calzón
ethnographic studies involving Gills
Gills or hymenium
or hymenium
wild useful fungi are are listed
listed inin Table
Table HIMENIO:
HIMENIO: 10 lo de
de obaio,
abajo, tela,
tela,
barriga, hojas,
hoios, libro, pellejo
pellejo
13. Guidelines
13. Guidelines forfor conducting such Slem
Stem or slipe
or stipe
studies are
studies are available
available from
from aa number
number ESTIPITE: palila,
ESTIPITE: patita, lailo,
toile,
Ironto
Franco
of different sources
sources (e.g.
(e.g. Alexiades,
Alexiades,
1996). Volvo (sac)
VoIva (soc)
Local and
Local and scientific
scientific classifi- VOlVA, lela,
VULVA: Ironeo, cairón,
tela, tronco, coizon,
camisilo, cuento,
camisita, merilo, tela,
lela, tronco
Ironco
cations serve
cations serve two
two different groups
Mycelium (basal)
Mycelium (basal)
of people and neither
neither is is infallible.
infallible. MICELlO: raíz,
MICELI°, roiz, semilla,
semillo,
Edible species of Boletas Boletus are Ie lila
telita

not eaten
eaten in parts
parts ofof the
the United
United
Republic of of Tanzania,
Tanzania, for example
example This example isis based
This example basedon onaafruiting
fruiting body of anan Amanita.
Amanita. Other
Other genera
genera lack
lack aa coma
valva (the
sac that encloses
sac that encloses the the expanding
expanding fruiting
fruiting body)
body)and
andthe
thering
ringmay
maybebeabsent.
absent.The TheEnglish
English
(Härkönen, 2002),
(Harkonen, 2002), reflecting
reflecting local name isis in
name in bold;
bold; Spanish
Spanish in in cap
capitals followed by
itals followed by popular names from Ajusco
names from Ajusco and and Topilejo
Topilejo
custom rather than
custom than scientific
scientific fact.
fact. in Mexico.
Source:
Source : adapted from from Reygadas, Zamoni-Martinez and
Reygadas, Zamoni-Martinez and Cifuentes,
Cifuentes, 1995.
1995.
Field
Field guides
guides often
often disagree
disagree on on
which
which species
species are are edible,
edible, either
either
because they
because they are
are cautious
cautious about about
recommending speciesspecies that require pre-cooking or or because
because thc the authors are are unaware
unaware of of
local customs
local customs in in different
different parts
parts of the world.
What is clear,
What however, isis that
clear, however, that there
there are many poorly described described species species sold sold and and
collected for
collected for personal
personal use use in developing countries. The
developing countries. The rate rate of discovery
discovery is is directly
related to funding for projects and and thethe ability
ability to to drawdraw upon uponmycological
mycological expertise expertise from from
different countries.
different countries. Work in the United Republic Republic of of Tanzania (Harkonen, (Härkönen, Codjia and and
Yorou, 1995),
1995), Mozambique
Mozambique and Malawi Malawi (Boa (Boa et et al.,
al., 2000),
2000), Burundi Burundi (Buyck, (Buyck, 1994b) 1994b)
and Benin (De Kesel,Kesel, Saarimäki
Saarimaki and and Mwasumbi,
Mwasumbi, 2002) 2002) emphasizesemphasizes the the richness
richness of of the
the
tropical, edible
tropical, edible mycota
mycota and and howhow muchmuch remains
remains to to be be done. In the the absence
absence of such
mycological expertise local local names
names can can provide
provide useful useful information, particularly particularly ifif dried dried
specimens are available for later examination.
An accurately identified specimen with aa scientific name name for for that species
species ensures ensures that that
any new
new knowledge
knowledge can can be be reliably
reliably used.
used. A scientific
scientific name name is is the
the most useful way of
finding out
out whether
whetheraaspecies
species is edible or poisonous,
poisonous, or or if if it has medicinal or other useful
properties. An An importer
importerdoes does not
notneed
needto toknow knowififthe thepied piedde de mouton
mouton from from Bulgaria
Bulgaria is is
Hydnum
Hydnum repandum
repandum sincesince thethe genus
genus contains
contains only only edible edible species, species, but an an Italian
Italian buyerbuyer
will pay less
less for the ordinary
ordinary TuberTuber sinosum
sinosum from from China compared compared with other more
valuable species.
species. In this instance a scientific name name reliably reliably and uniquely describes the
fungus in question,
question, for
for which
which information
information can can be be gleaned
gleaned from the the literature.
literature.
12 Wild edible
Wild edible fungi:
fungi: a global overview of
of their use
use and
and importance
importance to
to people
people
- -----

Using the
Using the current
current or or "correct" scientific name name for for a fungus
The scientific
The scientificnames
names forfor fungi
fungi areare constantly
constantly changing
changing an indication
- an indication of how much
there isis still
there still to discover
discover about the diversity of species. species. New names names areare proposed
proposed and
generic boundaries
generic boundaries adjusted,
adjusted,both both as
as the
the result of of new
new discoveries
discoveries and aa revision
revision
of the relationships
of relationships between between species. When aa new
species. When new species
species is is proposed
proposed it is is judged
judged
against guidelines
against guidelines and and rulesrules drawn
drawn up and regularly revised revised by scientists.
scientists. The correct
publication of aa new name does not mean mean thatthat scientists
scientists agree
agree on its taxonomic
taxonomic status.status.
The boundaries between genera genera and species
species are are open
open to to different
different interpretations and
that is why there there are
are "preferred"
"preferred" rather ratherthan
than"correct"
"correct"scientific
scientificnames
names for
for fungi.
fungi.
These changes
These changes and uncertainties have important practical practical consequences
consequences for people people
using w wild
ild edible fungi.
fungi. PeoplePeople have have to
to be aware
aware that a species
species waswas previously
previously knownknown
by aa different
different name
name ororsynonym synonymwhen whensearching
searchingfor forinformation:
information:Termitomyces
Termitomyces
albuminosus was was once known as as Collybia albuminosa. Other Otherchanges
changes areare less
less dramatic.
Lentinus edodes,edodes, or shi'itake now now hashas the preferred
preferred namename of of Lentinula
Lentinula edodes.
edodes. TheThe older
older
"non-preferred" name name is is still regularly used in publications.
publications. Opinions are are still divided
TABLE
TABLE 4 as Coriolus species
as to whether Coriolus species with medicinal
Preferred (current
Preferred (current or "correct") names names of economically
economically properties should be renamed
properties should be renamed Trametes.
Trametes.
important wild
important wild fungi
fungi Auricularia
Auricularia auricula-judae,
auricula-judae, the the "preferred
"preferred
As
As PUBLISHED
PUBLISHED PREFERRED
PREFERREDNAME NAME name", appearsappea:rs variously as Hirneola
Armillariella menea
Armillariella mellea Armillaria
Armillaria me/lea
mellea auricula-judae and Auricularia auricula.
Auricularia auricula Auricularia auricula-judae Table 44 lists
Table lists the preferred names of wild wild
Xerocomus
Xerocomus badius Boletus
Boletus badius
badius edible fungi that are still commonly referred
edible fungi
Boletus
Boletus granulatus granulatus
Suillus gran ulatus
Boletus luteus
to by by other
other names.
names. CommonCommon spelling spelling
Suillus luteus
Calvatia
Calvatia gigantea,
gigantea, Langermannia
Langermannia gigantea
mistakes
mistakes also also appear
appear in in publications;
publications; even even
Lycoperdon gigantea minor
minor differences
differences can cancast
cast doubt
doubt on on the
the
_Collybia
C_o~
IIY,-b_ia_a_
lb_u_m_i_n_
albuminosa os_a_ _ _ _ _ Te_r_
m_it_o_m~y_c_es_a_l_b_um
Termitomyces _in_o_
albuminosussus_ identity
identity of aa fungus.
fungus. The Dictionary
Dictionary of the
Coriolus hirsutus Trametes
Trametes hirsuta fungi
fungi is is aa standard
standard reference
reference that
that isis regularly
regularly
Coriolus versicolor
versicolor Trametes versicolor
Trametes revised to list all genera
revised to genera of fungi
fungi (Kirk et et al.
al.
Dendropolyporus
Oendropolyporus umbella tus Polyporus
umbellatus Polyporus umbellatus
2001). Index Fungorum,
2001). Index Fungorum, an an Internet
Internet resource,
Fomitopsis officinalis
Fomitopsis officinalis Laricifomes officinalis
Laricifomes officinalis
Grifola umbellatus
Grifola Polyporus
Polyporus umbellatus
allows
allows users
users to
to check
check the
the preferred
preferred or non-
Hericium erinaceum ++ Hericium erinaceus
erinaceus preferred
preferred status
status for
for species
species names
names and to
and
Himeola
Hirneola auricula-judae
auricula-judae Auricularia auricula-judae
auricula-judae find
find synonyms
synonyms (www.indexfungorum.org).
(www.indexfungorum.org).
Hydnum imbricatus Sarcodon imbrica
imbricatustus This is of considerable
considerable practical
practical benefit,
benefit,
Hypsizygus
Hypsizygus ulmarium Lyophyllum
Lyophyllum ulmarium although Index Fungorum lacks lacks the
the backing
backing
Lentinus edodes Lentinula
Lentinula edodes
edodes
required to answer fully queries queries about which
Lepiota procera
procera Macrolepiota procera
Lepiota rhacodes
rhacodes Macrolepiota rhacodes
rhacodes
scientific name
scientific name to
to use for wild
wild edible
edible fungi.
fungi.
Panus rudis
Panus Lentinus strigosus This
This practical
practical needneed hashas still to be be addressed
addressed
Pleurotus comucopiae
cornucopiae var. var. Pleurotus citrinopileatus
Pleurotus citrinopileatus by the scientific
scientific community.
citrinopileatus
Pleurotus ferulae Pleurotus eryngii
eryngii var.
var.
ferulae
Identifying species
Identifying species
Pleurotus olearius Omphalotus olearius The
The genera
genera of wildwild edible
edible fungi
fungi found
found in
in
Pleurotus opuntiae Pleurotus ostreatus tropical and subtropical climates
climates are broadly
Pleurotus porrigens Pleurocybella porrigens
Pleurocybella porrigens similar
similar toto those
those found
found inin the
the mycota
mycota ofof
Pleurotus
Pleurotus tuber-regium Lentinus tuber-regium
Lentinus temperate regions (Lincoff, 2002). 2002). The
The
Poria cocos; Wolfiporia cocos
cocos; Wolfiporia cocos Wolfiporia extensa
extensa species diversity is,
species diversity is, however,
however, much greater
greater
Rozites caperata ++ Rozites caperatus
Sparassis radicata
Sparassis radicata
in developing countries and
developing countries and care
care must
must be
be
Sparassis crispa
Sparassis crisp a
Strobilomyces costatispora Afroboletus
Afroboletuscostatisporus
costatisporus
taken when comparing
comparing specimens
specimens with the the
eurrhizus ++
Termitomyces eurrhizus Termitomyces
Termitomyces eurhizus narrower range
range of species
species illustrated
illustrated in the
the
gambosa
Tricholoma gambosa Calocybe gambosa many field
field guides
guides published
published in Europe and and
Tricholoma
Tricholoma lobayensis;
lobayensis; Macrocybe lobayensis North
North America.
America.
T
T. lobayense
lobayense
Edible fungi occur in 1ll two maj or
maJor
Verpa bohemica Ptychoverpa bohemica
Ptychoverpa
taxonomic groups. The basidiomycetes
See www.indexfungorum.org
See www.indexfungorum.org for for further advice
advice and
and information.
information.
+ indicates a common misspelling.
misspelling. contain
contain the mushrooms,
mushrooms, bracket
bracket fungi
fungi and
and
Characteristics: biology,
biology, ecology,
ecology, uses,
uses, cultivation 13

boletes (Plate 1);1); the ascomycetes include truffles (Plate 4) and morels (Plate (Plate 9).
9). There
is
is no simple test for determining edibility.
edibility. The scientific literature is
is the best objective
source of advice, but local practices and preferences
preferences can can also reveal useful information.
evidence isis the
Empirical evidence the ultimate
ultimate indication of whether or not not aa species
species is edible.
edible.
The classical
The classical method
method for identifying
identifying aa macrofungus
macrofungus involves
involves aa microscopic
microscopic
examination of tissues,
examination tissues, spores
spores and
and sporing
sporing structures.
structures. This
This will
will at
at least
least ensure
ensure that
that the
the
genus is
genus is identified.
identified. Identification
Identification of the lesser
lesser known
known tropical species may also
species may also require
require
examination of
examination of reference collections (Plate
reference collections (Plate 3).3). Useful
Useful visual
visual clues
clues can
can be
be obtained
obtained
from photographs in
from in field
field guides
guides and
and there
there areare increasing
increasing numbers of of 'Web sites with
Web sites with
photographs and and written
writtendescriptions
descriptions of ofspecies
species (Chapter
(Chapter 6).
6). Information
Information on onMexican
Mexican
NWFP provided
NWFP provided by bythe
theSecretaría
Secretaria dede Medio
Medio Ambiente
Ambiente yy Recursos
Recursos Naturales
Naturales (2002)
(2002) on
the Internet
Internet includes
includes wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi and
and isis an
an excellent
excellent example
example of of an
an online
online guide
guide
that could be be developed
developed for other
other regions
regions (see
(see www.semarnat.gob.mx).
www.semarnat.gob.mx).
Expert identifications
Expert identifications can can be
be costly,
costly, although
although paying
paying for an an identification
identification doesdoes
provide
provide a guarantee
guarantee of of getting
getting aa response
response to to a aquery
query(Meijer,
(Meijer,2001).
2001). Preserving
Preserving
specimens is
specimens is always
always useful
useful and
and at its simplest provides a local reference for comparing
specimens. Most
specimens. Most macrofungi
macrofungi are are easily
easily preserved
preserved by by drying (Halling,
(Halling, 1996). There
1996). There
are special
are special drying
drying racks
racks for fungi (Plate 3), 3), but these
these can
can also
also bebe locally
locally improvised,
improvised,
adopting methods
adopting methods usedused for
for drying
drying fruits
fruits and otherother food
food produce.
produce. DriedDried specimens
specimens
can, if
can, if necessary,
necessary, be be sent
sent at
at a later
later date
date forfor scientific
scientific identification
identification and and should
should be
accompanied by
accompanied by field
field notes
notes and/or
and/or colour photographs.
Molecular tools are commonly used to identify plant pathogenic fungi and have also also
been applied
been applied to truffle species
species in order to to detect
detect which
which species
species are
are used
used in
in prepared
prepared
foods. The practical application of these
foods. these tools for identifying and characterizing edible edible
macrofungi
macro has still to be explored.
fungi has
Sources of technical
Sources technical advice
advice and
and support
support are discussed
discussed inin Chapter 6.

MAJOR GROUPS OF WILD FUNGI

GROUPS OF FUNGI
There are
are more than
than 200
200 genera
genera of
of macrofungi
macrofungi which contain
contain species
species of use to people,
mostly because
because of their edible
edible properties.
properties. A clear
clear distinction
distinction isis made
made in this
this book
book
between those recorded asas simply "edible"
"edible" and
and those
those that
that are
are actually
actually eaten
eaten ("food").
("food").
To include all edible species
species as
as "food"
"food" would greatly
greatly overstate the number of of species
species
consumed by people around around the
the -world. Wild fungi
world. Wild fungi with medicinal properties are also
medicinal properties also
valued by rural people
people in several
several countries, though this is of secondary importance.
The major genera of wild edible fungi are described in Table Table 5,
5, with
with brief
brief notes
notes on
medicinal species.
species. The genera of wild edibleedible fungi can
can be
be divided
divided into
into two
two categories:
categories:
those containing
containing species
species that are widely consumed
consumed and often
often exported
exported in in significant
significant
quantities, such
quantities, such asas Boletus and Cantharellus;
Boletus and and those
Cantharellus; and those with species
species that areare eaten
eaten
widely, usually in small
small amounts,
amounts, and rarely if ever
ever traded
traded beyond national boundaries.
Annex 11 summarizes
summarizes the general general importance
importance of wild edible
edible fungi
fungi by country
country while
while
Annexes 22 and
and 44 list
list individual
individual species.
species.

Medicinal mushrooms
mushrooms
Medicinal mushrooms are
Medicinal mushrooms are attracting
attracting greater
greater scientific
scientific and
and commercial
commercial interest,
interest,
prompted by
by aa renewed
renewed awareness
awareness of the
the use
use of
of such
such material
material in traditional Chinese
medicine
medicine (Table
(Table 17).
17). The International
International Journal
Journal ofofMedicinal
Medicinal Mushrooms
Mushrooms began
began
publication in
in 1999
1999 and is an important source
source of
of information
information for
for this
this expanding
expanding field
field
of research (Wasser and Weis,
(Wasser and Weis, 1999b).
1999b).See
SeeChapter
Chapter44forfor further
further discussions
discussions about
about the
health benefits
benefits of
of medicinal
medicinal mushrooms.

Ceremonial aspects
aspects
The ceremonial and religious
ceremonial and roles played
religious roles played by
by wild fungi
fungi in
in different
different cultures
cultures are
are
closely
closely associated
associated with hallucinogenic properties. This
hallucinogenic properties. This has attracted
attracted much
much scientific
scientific
14 Wild edible ffungi:
Wild ungi: a global overview of
of their
their use
use and
and importance
importanceto
to people
people
- - - -- --

TABLE 55
Important genera
Important genera of wild
wild fungi
fungi with
withnotes
noteson
onuses
uses and
and trade
trade
Information obtained
obtained mostly
mostly from
from developing
developing countries.
countries. See www.wildusefulfungi.org for
See www.wildusefulfungi.org for more
more details
details of individual
individual records
records for
speciesand
species andcountries.
countries."Food"
"Food" signifies
signifies confirmed
confirmed use
useofof species;
species;"edible"
"edible" isisaanoted
noted property
property without
without confirmed
confirmed consumption.
consumption. TheThe
total
total number
numberofofedible
ediblespecies
species isis the
the sum
sumofofthe
the two.
two. Use
Userefers
referstotocountry
countryofoforigin
originand
andnot
notcountries
countriesofofexport.
export."Medicinal"
"Medicinal" ('med.')
('med.')
is aa noted
is noted property and does
property and does not
not confirm
confirmuse
use of
ofspecies
species for health
health reasons.
reasons. Edible
Edible species
speciesmay
mayhave
havemedicinal
medicinalproperties
propertiesand
andtherefore
therefore
the total
totalnumber
numberofofspecies
species in
in bold
boldmay
maybebeless
less than the
the sum
sum of
of individual
individualuses.
uses. See Lincoff (2002)
See Lincoff (2002)for
for distribution
distribution of major
major groups
groups
of edible fungi around
around the world.

GENUS No.
No. OF
OF COUNTRY USE
COUNTRY USE AND GENERAL
GENERAL NOTES
NOTES
SPECIES
USE AND
USE ANO
PROPERTIES
PROPERTIES

Agaricus 60 Edible species

Edible speciesreported
reportedfrom
from 29
29 countries,
countries, as
asfood
food inin 13
13 (under-reported,
(under-reported, though
though note
note
possible confusion
possible confusion between wild
wild and
and cultivated
cultivatedsources).
sources) .
food
food 43
43
edible
edible 17
17
Agaricus species
Agaricus speciesare
areregularly
regularlycollected
collectedfrom
fromthe
thewild
wild but only cultivated
cultivated forms
forms are
are
exported. Some
Some species are poisonous.
species are poisonous. A.A. bisporus
bisporus isisthe
the mostly
mostly commonly cultivated
cultivated
med. 6
med.6 edible fungus. The medicinal A.
The medicinal A. blazei is exported from Brazil
is exported Brazil to
to Japan
Japan and cultivated
and sold in China.
and China.
Amanita 83 Edible species
Edible speciesreported
reported from
from 31 countries; as
31 countries; food in 15
as food 15 (under-reported).
(under-reported).
food
food 42
42 A. caesarea is highly
caesarea is highly valued in
in countries
countries such
such as
as Mexico, Turkey and Nepal.
Nepal. Few
Few
edible
edible 39
39
speciesare
species aretraded
traded across
acrossnational
nationalborders.
borders.There
Thereare
areaanotable
notable number
number of poisonous
species.A.A.phal/oides
species. phalloidesisisaamajor
majorcause
causeofofdeaths
deathsaround
aroundthe
theworld
worldfrom
from consumption
consumption
med. 7 of wild fungi.
Auricularia 13 Edible species
Edible speciesreported
reported from
from 24 countries,
countries, as food in 10
as food 10 (under-reported).
(under-reported) .
food
food 10
10 A global genus
A with aa relatively
genus with relatively small
small number
number of ofspecies.
species. Known generically
generically asas
edible 33
"ear fungi",
fungi",they
theyare
aredistinctive,
distinctive,easily
easilyrecognized
recognized and
andconsumed
consumed by by forest
forest dwellers
dwellers
in Kalimantan asas well as
as rural communities
communities in in all
allcontinents.
continents.Some
Some species
species have
med. 4
med.4 medicinal
medicinal properties. There
There isis aa major
major trade
trade in cultivated species though few data
species though data
have
have been seen.
seen. Key species:A.
Key species: A. auricula-judae
auricula-judae
Boletus 72
72 Edible speciesreported
Edible species reported from
from 30 countries;
countries; as food in 15
as food 15 (under-reported)
(under-reported)
food
food 39
39 B. edulis
B. edulis isis the
the best
best known species, regularly collected
species, regularly collected and
and sold
sold and
and major exports
from outside
outside and and within
withinEurope.
Europe. There
There are
are aa some
some poisonous speciesbut
poisonous species butfew
few
edible 33
edible 33
incidents.
incidents. "Bolete" is is a general description
description of a macrofungus
macrofungus with aa stalk
stalk and pores
pores
med.7
med. 7 on the underside of the cap.
on Apprehension exists
cap . Apprehension existsabout
about eating
eating ""boletes"
boletes" in
in east
east and
southern Africa.
Cantharellus 42 Edible speciesreported
Edible species reported from
from 45 countries;
countries; as food in 22
as food 22 (under-reported).
(under-reported).
food
food 22
22 A diverse and cosmopolitan
cosmopolitan genus
genus containing
containingwidespread
widespreadspecies
species such
such as
as C.
C. cibarius.
edible 20
20
Sold in
Sold in markets
markets in
in many
many countries,
countries,sometimes
sometimesininfunctional
functionalmi
mixtures ofdifferent
xtures of different
species.Major
species. Major quantities
quantities are
are collected
collected and
and exported
exported around
around the world.
world. No
No poisonous
poisonous
med. 3
med.3 species.
Cordyceps 37
37 Useful species(mostly
Useful species (mostlymedicinal)
medicinal) reported
reported from three
three countries.
countries.
edible? 35 The only
The only reason
reason for
for ''eating'
eating' species
species isis for
for health benefits. Collected intensively in
med. 99
parts of
of China
China and
and less
less so
so in Nepal. Many species described from
species described from Japan,
Japan, but local
local
use uncertain.. Widely
use uncertain Widely valued
valued for
for its
its medicinal
medicinal properties
properties and
and anan important
important source of
source of
income for
for collectors.
collectors. Key
Keyspecies:
species: probably
probablyC. C. sinensis
sinensis and
and C.
C. milita ris
militaris
Cortina rius
Cortinarius 50 Edible speciesreported
Edible species reported from
from 11
11 countries;
countries; as food in three.
as food three.
food
food 30
30 Widely disregarded
disregarded in Europe and
and North America
America because
because ofof concern
concern about
about
edible 20
20
poisonous species.Most
poisonous species. Mostrecord
records of local
s of local use
useare
arerestricted
restrictedto
to aa few
few countries e.g.
e.g.
China, Japan, the
China, Japan, the Ru
Russian Federationand
ssian Federation andUkraine.
Ukraine.No
Noknown
known export
export trade
trade..
med. 10
med.10
Laccaria
Laccaria 14 Edible speciesreported
Edible species reportedfrom
from 17
17 countries;
countries; as
asfood
food in
in four
four (under reported)
food 99 Regularly collected and
Regularly collected and eaten,
eaten, also
also sold
soldwidely
widely in
in markets.
markets. NoNo reports
reports of
of export trade,
which is unsurprising
unsurprising given
given their generally
generally small
small size and unremarkable taste.
size and taste. Key
Key
edible 55 species is
species L. laccata.
is L.
med. 4
med.4
Lactarius 94 Edible species
speciesreported
reported from
from 39 countries;
countries; as food in
as food in 17
17 (under
(under reported).
reported).
food 56
food 56 Many different
differentspecies
species are
are regularly
regularlycollected
collectedandandeaten.
eatenKey
. Keyspecies
speciessuch
such as
as
edible 38
L. deliciosus are
L. deliciosus are highly esteemed
esteemed and there there is
is aa valuable
valuable trade
tradeininEurope.
Europe.Several
Several
key species
speciesfrequently
frequently sold
sold inin lo
local markets. Little
cal markets. Little reported export
export activity
activity despite
despite
med. 7
med.7 widespread popularity, perhaps
widespread perhaps reflecting the the diversity
diversity of
ofspecies
species on offer.
offer.
Leccinum
Leccinum 22
22 Edible speciesreported
Edible species reportedfrom
from eight countries; as food
countries; as food in two.
two .
food 4 Widely eaten and collected but
but little
littletrade
tradebeyond
beyondnational
nationalboundaries.
boundaries.Key
Keyspecies
species
edible 9
L. scabrum.Possible
L. scabrum. Possibleexports
exportsfrom
frompinepineplantations
plantationsinintropics,
tropics, but
but poorly
poorly understood.
understood .

Lentinula 3
3 Edible species reported from
species reported from six countries;
countries; as food in four.
as food
food 22 Lentinula edodes
edodes is
is the
the key
key species
species (=
(= Lentinus edodes).
edodes). Known as shi'itake ititisis
as shi'itake
edible 11
edible
cultivated in
in many
many countries
countries and
and is
is an important
importantcommercial
commercial species (nearing 30%
species (nearing 30%
cultivated amount).
amount). Cultivated
Cultivated shi'itake isis exported.
med.1
Lentinus 28 Edible speciesreported
Edible species reported from
from 24
24 countries;
countries; as
asfood
food in
in eight
eight (under-reported).
food 16
16 Although
Although many
many different
differentspecies are collected
species are collected andand used
usedlocally
locallyonly
onlytwo
two or
or three
three are
are
edible 12
12
of any
any significance.
significance. Key
Key species probably L.L. tuber-regium,
species probably tuber-regium, valued for
for its
its medicinal
medicinal
properties. Little or
o r no export trade.
trade .
med 55
med.
Characteristics: biology,
biology, ecology, uses, cultivation
ecology, uses, cultivation 15
- - - --

GENUS No. OF
No. OF COUNTRY USE
USE AND
AND GENERAL
GENERAL NOTES
NOTES
SPECIES
SPECIES
USE
USE AND
PROPERTIES

Lycoperdon 22 Edible species reported from 19

species reported 19 countries; as food in
as food in seven
seven (under-reported).
(under-reported).
food
food 99 There are
There are many records of species
records of being eaten
species being eaten but
but typically reports
reports are
are of
ofsmall-scale
small-scale
collecting and
and use.
use. Only market
market sales
sales known are
are in
in Mexico.
Mexico. Key
Key species are
species are
edible 10
10
L. pyriforme
L. pyriforme and L.
L. perlatum.
med.
med.1010
Macrolepiota 13 Edible species
Edible speciesreported
reportedfrom
from 33
33 countries;
countries;as
asfood
foodinin nine
nine (under-reported).
(under-reported).
food
food 77 M. procera
M. procera is
is the
the key
key species
speciesand
andmost
mostrecorded,
recorded,from
fromaround
around 15
15countries
countrieson
onall
all major
major
continents. Locally
Locally consumed;
consumed; trade
trade isis essentially
essentially small-scale
small-scale and local.
edible 66
med.
med.11
Morchella
Morchella 18
18 Edible species
Edible speciesreported
reported from
from 28 countries; as
28 countries; as food
food in 10
10 (under recorded).
recorded).
food 14
14 Highly valued genus vvith several species
with several speciesthatthatfruit
fruit in abundance
abundance inin certain
certain years
years and
and
edible 4 are aa major source
are source of (export) revenue
revenue in in several
several countries. Species arenot
Species are not always
always
eaten in countries where
eaten where they
they are
are collected.
co llected. Key
Key species M. escu/enta.
species M. esculenta.
med.
med.55
Pleurotus 40 Edible species
Edible speciesreported
reportedfrom
from 35
35 countries;
countries;as
asfood
food inin 19
19 (under
(under reported).
reported).
food 22
22 Key species
Key speciesisisP. Postreatus
ostreatusininterms
termsofofamounts
amountseaten,
eaten,predominantly
predominantlyfrom
from cultivation.
cultivation.
Other species said to
species said to be
be more tasty. Species occurwidely
Species occur widely and
and are
are regularly picked
picked
edible
edible 18
18
though seldom
though seldom traded from the the vvild.
wild.
med.
med.77
Polyporus 30 Edible and
Edible and medicinal species reported from 20
species reported 20 countries; as
as food or
or medicine
medicine in
in seven.
seven.
food
food 15
15 speciesare
Many species areregularly
regularlyused
usedand
andeaten
eatenbut
butof
of relatively
relatively minor importance.
importance.
Some are
Some arecultivated.
cultivated. Only
Only one
one record
record known,
known, from Nepal,
Nepal, ofof selling
selling in
in markets.
markets. No
No
edible 9 international trade
trade isis known
known to
tooccur.
occur.
med.12
med. 12
Ramaria 44 Edible species
Edible species reported
reported from 18
18 countries;
countries; used
used as
as food
food in
inseven.
seven.
food
food 33
33 Many records
records of local use. Regularly sold
use. Regularly sold in
in markets
markets in Nepal
Nepal and Mexico
Mexico and
and
edible
edible 11
11
elsewhere. Several
elsewhere. Several major
major species
speciesbut
but perhaps
perhaps R.
R.botrytis
botrytis is the most commonly
is the commonly
collected and used.
used. Some speciesare
Some species arepoisonous,
poisonous,others
others are
are reported
reported to have
have
med.5
med. 5 medicinal properties.
medicinal
Russula 128 Edible species
Edible speciesreported
reported from
from 28 countries; as food in 12
as food 12 (under-reported).
(under-reported).
food 71
food 71 One of the most
One most widespread
widespread and commonly
commonly eaten
eaten genera
genera containing
containing many
many edible
edible
edible 54
54
species.Also
species. Alsopoisonous
poisonousvarieties
varietiesthough
though most
most can
can be
be eaten
eaten after
after cook
cooking.
ing. Regularly
Regularly
sold in markets but
sold but species names not
species names not always
always recorded.
recorded. Genus
Genusisisof
oftropical
tropical origin.
med. 25
med.25 Notable
Notable species
species include
include R.
R. delica
delica and
andR.R.virescens.
virescens.
Suillus 27 Edible speciesreported
Edible species reported from
from 25 countries; as food in 10
as food 10 (under-recorded).
(under-recorded).
food 26
26 Key speciesisisS.S.luteus,
Key species luteus,exported
exportedfrom
from Chile.
Chile. S.
S.granulatus
granulatus isis more
more widely recorded
recorded
though its
its use
use as
as aa food
food is
is limited. Many
Many other
other species are regularly collected
species are collected and
edible 11
edible eaten and several are sold
several are sold in
in Mexican markets.
markets.
med. 2
med.2
Terfezia 7 Edible speciesreported
Edible species reportedfrom
from eight countries;
countries; as food in four.
as food
food 55 Desert truffles occur widely in
Desert truffles in North
North Africa
Africa and
and parts
partsof
ofAsia.
Asia. They
They are
are said
said to
to be
be
edible 2
important
important but
butfew
fewdetails
detailswere
werefound
foundconcerning
concerningtrade
tradeorormarket
marketsales.
sales.

Termitomyces 27 Edible speciesreported

Edible species reportedfrom
from 35
35 countries;
countries; as
asfood
food in
in 16
16 (under-reported).
(under-reported).
food 23
food 23 Highly esteemed genus. Many
esteemed genus. Many species
speciesare
arewidely
vvidelyeaten
eatenwith
withoften
oftenhigh
high nutritional
nutritional
value. Collected
value. Collected notably throughout
throughout Africa.
Africa.Used
Used widely
widelyininAsia
Asia but
butless
less vvell
well
edible 4 documented. Notable
Notable species
species include T
T. clypeatus,
ciypeatus, T T. microporus
microporus and
and TT. striatus.
striatus. Sold
Sold
med.
med.33 in markets
markets and
and along
along roadsides,
roadsides, and good
good source
source ofof income.
income.
Tricholoma 52 Edible species reported from 30
species reported 30 countries; as
as food in
in 11
11 (under-reported).
(under-reported).
food 39
39 The most
The most important
important species
species isis T.T matsutake,
matsutake, in
in terms
terms ofof volume collected
collected and
financial value.
value. China,
China, both
both Koreas
Koreas and and the
the Russian
Russian Federation are major exporters
exporters to
to
edible
edible 13
13
Japan. The
Japan. The Pacific
Pacificnorthwest
northwest of of North America,
America, Morocco
Morocco andand Mexico
Mexico export related
med. 17
med.17 species, but only
species, but only in
in significant quantities fromfrom the
thefirst.
first.Some
Some species are poisonous
species are poisonous ifif
eaten raw; others
others remain
remain soso even
even after cooking.
cooking. Ignored
Ignored oror lowly
lowlyesteemed
esteemed inin several
several
countries prior to
to export
exportopportunities
opportunitiese.g. e.g.Bhutan,
Bhutan,Mexico
Mexico(Oaxaca).
(Oaxaca).
Tuber (truffles)
Tuber (truffles) 18 Edible species
speciesreported
reported from
from eight countries; as food in four
as food four (under-reported).
(under-reported).
food 88 Contains speciesof
Contains species of extremely
extremely high
high value and much esteemedesteemed in gourmet
gourmet cooking,
cooking,
but only of
of very
very minor
minorsignificance
significance to
to poor
poorcommunities
communitiesininthe theSouth.
South.There
Thereisissome
some
edible
edible 10
10 interest from Turkey
Turkey in management
management of of truffles.
truffles.Scientific
Scientific principles
principles have
have been
been
applied to
to truffle
trufflemanagement
managementand andsuccessful
successfu lschemes
schemes initiated
initiatedininItaly,
Italy,France,
France,
Spain and New
Spain and New Zealand.
Zealand. The
The"false
"false truffles"
truffles" comprise
comprise other
other genera
genera e.g.e.g. Tirmania,
Tirmania,
Rhizopogon, Terfezia.
Terfezia.
Volvariella 12
12 Edible species
Edible speciesreported
reportedfrom
from 27
27 countries;
countries;as asfood
foodinin 77 (under-reported,
(under-reported, though
though note
note
possible confusion between
possible confusion betvveenwildwild and
and cultivated
cultivated origins).
origins) .
food 55
food
Key species
Key speciesisisV.Vvolvacea.
volvacea.Widely
Widelycultivated
cultivated and
and sold
sold in
in local
local markets
markets but
but also
edible 77 collected from the wild.
collected from
med.1
med. 1
16 Wild edible fungi:
Wild edible fungi: aa global overview
overview of their use
use and
and importance to people
people

TABLE 6
Fungiwith
Fungi with conflicting
conflicting reports
reports on
on edibility
edibility
BINOMIAL NOTES '

Agaricus
Agaricus arvensis
arvensis Reported mostly as
Reported edible and
as edible and eaten in Mexico;
Mexico; also
also said
said to be
be aa
gastrointestinal irritant
gastrointestinal irritant (Lincoff
(Lincoff and
and Mitchel,
Mitchel, 1977).
1977).
Agaricus semotus Said to
Said to be
be edible from
from Hong Hong Kong
Kong (Chang (Chang and and Mao,
Mao, 1995);
1995); others
others say
say itit isis
poisonous (Rammeloo and and Walleyn,
W_a_I_le.:.,y_n,--,1993).
_1_9_93-')_. _ __ _ __ _
Amanita
Amanitaspissa
spissa Severalreports
Several reportsindicate
indicatethis thiscan
canbe beeateneaten(although
(althoughnone
nonestate
state"food");
"food"); an an
equal number
number say
say itit isis poisonous,
poisonous, e.g. e.g. Chang
Chang and and Mao,
Mao, 1995.
1995.
Amanita flavoconia
flavoconia Conflicting accounts from Mexico:
accounts from Mexico: one
one report
report says
saysitit isisedible,
edible,the
theother
other that
that
it is
is poisonous.
poisonous.
Amanita gemmata
gemmata Reported as edible from Mexico
as edible Mexico and
and Costa
Costa Rica but implicated in
Rica but in aa
poisoning case from Guatemala (Logemann
case from (Logemann etal.,
et al.,1987).
1987).
Bo/etus ca/opus
Boletus calopus Edible in the
the Russian
Russian far east
east (Vasil'eva, 1978); said
(Vasil'eva, 1978); saidto
to be
be poisonous
poisonous in
Slovenia (www.matkurja.com)
Slovenia (www.matkurja.com) andand byby other field
field guides.
guides.
Chlorophyllum molybdites
Chlorophyllum Many reports confirm
confirm that
thatthis
thisisisaapoisonous
poisonousspecies
species but
but ititisis also
also said
said to
to be
be
edible in
in Mexico
Mexico (Villarreal
(Villarreal and
and Perez-Moreno,
Perez-Moreno, 1989)
1989) and
and Benin
Benin (De (De Kesel,
Kesel,
Codjia and Yorou,
Codjia Yorou, 2002). Easilyconfused
2002). Easily confusedwith
with Macrolepiota
Macrolepiota procera, a well
known edible
ediblespecies.
species.
Coprinus africanus
africanus Eaten in Nigeria (Oso,
Eaten in 1975); other
(Oso, 1975); other reports suggest
suggest it is poisonous
poisonous in Africa
(Walleyn and Rammeloo,
Rammeloo, 1994).
1994).
Coprinus atramentarius
Coprinus Edible
Edible if eaten in in the
the absence
absence of alcohol; this produces
produces an an unpleasant
unpleasant effect
if imbibed
imbibed at
at thethe same
same time, hence
hence remarks that it is
remarks that is potentially
potentially poisonous
poisonous
(Lincoff and Mitchel, 1977). 1977).
Gyromrtra esculenta
Gyromitra esculenta In Finland itit isis aa delicacy
delicacy (1-lärkönen, 1998) and
(Hark6nen, 1998) and itit is also widely
is also widely eaten in in the
the
Russian Federationand
Russian Federation andneighbouring
neighbouring regions.
regions. In In other
other countries
countries it is said to
is said to
be poisonous
poisonous and and cancan kill when ravv
raw (Hall et et a/.,
al., 1998a).
1998a). TheThe toxic
toxic properties
are mitigated by suitable
are preparation prior to eating.
suitable preparation eating.
Gyromitra
Gyromitra infula Eaten
Eaten in Mexico (www.semarnat.gob.mx) but but also
also reported
reportedas as poisonous
poisonous
(Lincoff and
and Mitchel,
Mitchel, 1977).
1977).
Helvella lacunosa
lacunosa Widely eaten
eaten but also reported as toxic if eaten raw (Lincoff and Mitchel,
as toxic
1977).
1977).
Lactarius piperatus
Lactarius Many reports say
say it is
is edible and
and confirmed
confirmed asas food
food ininTurkey
Turkey(Caglarirmak,
(Caglarirmak,
Unal and Otles,
Otles, 2002)
2002) but
but also
also reported
reportedasas poisonous
poisonous in inChina
China (Liu
(Liuand
andYang,
Yang,
1982).
1982).
Lactarius torminosus
Lactarius Several reports say
Several reports say itit is edible (e.g.
is edible (e.g . Malyi, 1987);
1987); others saysay itit is
is poisonous
poisonous
(Hall et
et al.,
al., 1998a).
1998a).
Lampteromyces japonicus
japonicus A common causecause ofof poisoning in in Japan
Japan (Hall etet a/.,
al., 1998a)
1998a) but also also has
has
properties(Hobbs,
medicinal properties (Hobbs, 1995).
1995).
Lenzites elegans Edible in the United
United Republic
Republic of ofTanzania
Tanzania (Rammeloo
(Rammeloo and and Walleyn,
Walleyn, 1993) 1993)
but maybe
maybe poisonous
poisonous in the Democratic
Democratic Republic
Republic of the Congo (Walleyn and
1994).
Rammeloo, 1994).
Lepiota clypeolaria Edible in Mexico
Mexico and
and Hong Hong Kong
Kong Special
Special Administrative
Administrative Region,
Region, China,China, but
but
also said
said to bebe poisonous.
poisonous.
Morchella esculenta
esculenta Like
Like other morels
morels said
said to to be poisonous
poisonous if eaten raw raw (Lincoff
(Lincoff andand Mitchel,
Mitchel,
1977). Edible
1977). Edible and
and good
good when when cooked.
cooked.
Paxillus involutus
Paxillus involutus Widely reported as poisonous but
as poisonous but said
saidtoto be
be edible
edible after
after suitable
suitable cooking
cooking
and preparation
preparationininthetheRussian
Russian far
fareast
east(Vasil'eva,
(Vasil'eva, 1978).
1978).
Phallus indusiatus Reported as as edible (Bouriquet, 1970) 1970) and poisonous (Walleyn and
Rammeloo,
Rammeloo, 1994):
1994): both reports
reports are
are from
fromMadagascar.
Madagascar.
Podaxis pistillaris
Podaxis pistillaris Reported as as edible from India India and
and Pakistan
Pakistan (Batra,
(Batra, 1983).
1983). Said
Said to to be
poisonous in Nigeria
Nigeria (Walleyn
(Walleyn andand Rammeloo,
Rammeloo, 1994);
1994); medicinal properties
properties
1995).
(Hobbs, 1995).
Ramaria
Ramaria formosa Edible in Nepal
Nepal (Adhikari and
and Durrieu,
Durrieu, 1996)
1996) but
but said
said to be
be poisonous
poisonous in
in
several other countries, including
several other including Bulgaria
Bulgaria (lordanov,
(Iordanov, Vanev
Vanev and
and Fakirova,
Fakirova,
1978).
Russula
Russula emetica Undoubtedly poisonous
poisonous if eaten raw but
but said
said to be
be edible
edible in
in Mexico
Mexico
(Zamora-Martinez, Alvardo
Alvardo and
and Dominuez,
Dominuez,2000)
2000) and
and the
theRussian
Russian far east
east
1978).
(Vasil'eva, 1978).
Stropharia coronilla Conflicting reports
reports within
within Mexico:
Mexico: said
said to
to be
be edible
edible (Villarreal
(Villarreal and
and Perez-
Perez-
Moreno,
Moreno, 1989)
1989) and
and poisonous
poisonous (Aroche
(Aroche etetal.,
al.,1984).
1984).
Suillus placidus Said
Said toto be edible
edible (Vasil'eva,
(Vasil'eva, 1978)
1978) and poisonous
poisonous (Chang
(Chang and Mao, Mao, 1995).
1995).
Tricholoma pessundatum
Tricholoma Edible
Edible in Hong
Hong Kong
Kong (Chang
(Chang and
and Mao,
Mao, 1995)
1995) but
but TT. pessundatum
pessundatum var.var.
montanum
montanum reported
reportedas as poisonous
poisonous elsewhere
elsewhere (Lincoff
(Lincoff and
and Mitchel,
Mitchel,1977).
1977).
Tricholoma sulphureum
Tricholoma All records
records say
say itit is
is poisonous
poisonous apart
apart from
from an
an account
account from
from India
India that
that says
says it is
is
edible
edible (Purkayastha
(Purkayastha and and Chandra,
Chandra, 1985).
1985).
Characteristics: biology,
biology, ecology, uses, cultivation
ecology, uses, cultivat on 17

and personal interest,

interest, particularly
particularly in
inMexico
Mexico (Davis,
(Davis, 1996;
1996; Riedlinger, 1990). Globally
Riedlinger, 1990). Globally
this use of wild fungi is
is of minor or no
no relevance
relevance to most countries.

EDIBILITY ANDAND POISONOUS

POISONOUS FUNGI FUNGI
Many macrofungi
macrofungi are are not worth eating
eating or or are
are simply
simply inedible.
inedible. This worthless
worthless group
of species - asas defined
defined by their edibility significantly dwarfs
edibility - significantly dwarfs thethe very
very small
small number
number
of toxic or poisonous
poisonous species,
species, ofof which
which there
there are
are only
onlyaavery
very few
few that
thatcan
cankill.
kill. Yet
Yet itit is
is
also true that
that this
this very
very small
small group
group ofof lethal
lethal species
species has significantly shaped attitudes to
eating wild fungi, creating potential barriersbarriers toto wider
wider marketing
marketing in inmany
manyplaces.
places.
Knowing the the scientific
scientific name
name ofof aa fungus
fungus provides
provides aa good
good indication
indication of ofits
its edibility.
edibility.
In some
some cases
cases the
the genus
genus alone
alone will
will suffice;
suffice; all known Cantharellus
Cantharellus species
species are
are edible
edible
(though not
not equally
equally tasty).
tasty). On
Onthethe other
otherhand,
hand,Amanita
Amanitacontains
containsboth
bothexquisite
exquisiteedible
edible
and deadly poisonous
poisonous species.
species. The only reliable guide to edibility is is the
the knowledge
knowledge that that
someone has has eaten
eaten aa particular
particular type - and survived. Local practices and preferences are
therefore another
another useful
useful source
source ofof information.
information.
There are conflicting reports in field
There are conflicting reports in field guides
guides about
aboutedibility.
edibility. Some
Some recommend
recommend
eating species
eating species that
that others
others reject as as poisonous.
poisonous. People
People from
from eastern
eastern Finland
Finland regard
regard
the false
false morel, Gyromitra esculenta,
esculenta, as a culinary delicacy
delicacy once it has has been
been carefully
carefully
pre-cooked. Guides
Guides in the the United
United States
States and
and elsewhere
elsewhere state
state emphatically
emphatically that that the
fungus is poisonous and and should
should not
not bebe eaten.
eaten. Other
Otherexamples
examples of of conflicting
conflicting advice
advice areare
summarized in Table Table 6.

What species are eaten?

species are

Reports of
of edible and
and poisonous
poisonous species are based on named
species are named sources.
sources.
of this information
The accuracy of information lies
lies with
with these
these original
originalsourccs.
sources.

A total ofof 11 154 edible and food species have been recorded from 85 85 countries
countries (Table
(Table 1).
1).
The species eaten in
species eaten in one
one country or region
region often
often differ
differ from nearby areas areas and in some
cases there are dramatic changes
cases there changes in tradition.
tradition. The
The Mesoamerican
Mesoamerican tradition of of eating
eating
wild edible fungi continues from Mexico Mexico to west Guatemala
Guatemala then then isis absent from much much
of Honduras
Honduras and and Nicaragua,
Nicaragua, even though both contain
even though contain forest areas that
forest areas that in
in theory
support production
productionof ofedible
edible fungi.
fungi.
The number of of species
species eaten
eaten isis sometimes
sometimes only aa fraction
fraction of
of those
those available.
available. Only
15 of
15 of the
the 284
284 edible
edible species
species inin Armenia
Armenia are are regularly
regularly eaten (Nanaguylan, 2002, personal
communication:Edible
communication: Ediblefungi
fungi inin Armenia).
Armenia).In In two
two districts
districts of Turkey,
Turkey, 12 12 out of of aa
possible 29 edible species were collected and eaten (Yilmaz, Oder and
(Yilmaz, Oder and Isiloglu,
Isiloglu, 1997).
1997).
The reasons for these these different patterns of of use
use are
are not
not always
always clear but there is is a trend
of less frequent use
less frequent use as people move
as people move away away from
from the land.
land. Rural people in Guatemala
Rural people Guatemala
have aa positive
have positive yet yet informed
informed approach
approach to eating eating wild
wild fungi
fungi which
which people
people living
living in in
cities lack
cities lack (Lowy,
(Lowy, 1974).
1974). Educated
Educated people
people living
living in
in towns
towns in Malawi
Malawi lose lose the strong
local traditions that that rural
rural communities
communities maintainmaintain and
and even
even acquire a suspicious
suspicious attitude
attitude
towards wild fungi fungi (Lowore
(Lowore and and Boa,
Boa, 2001).
2001).
In parts of of the
the United
United Republic
Republic of ofTanzania
Tanzania boletes
boletes are thought
thought to to be be poisonous
poisonous
(Härkönen, Saarimaki
(Hirkonen, Saarimiiki and and Mwasumbi,
Mwasumbi, 1994a). 1994a).InIn Colombia
Colombia there
there isis no apparent
apparent
tradition of
tradition of eating
eating wild
wild fungi
fungi in
in the
the Andean
Andean regions,
regions, though
thoughtheytheyoccur
occur-widely
widely (Franco-
(Franco-
Molano, Aldana-Gomez and
Molano, and Halling,
Halling, 2000).
2000). Tricholoma
Tricholoma matsutake was of of little
little local
local
interest in Sichuan, China (Winkler,(Winkler, 2002) prior to Japanese
2002) prior Japanese demand
demand that stimulated an
export trade in the late late 1980s and appears
1980s and appears to to have
have prompted
prompted wider local local consumption.
consumption. A A
similar event took place place in the Pacific
Pacific northwest, thoughthough with
withTricholoma
Tricholoma magnivelare
magnivelare
(Redhead, 1997). This was
1997). This was collected and eaten by Japanese settlers in the the 1930s
1930s (Zeller
and Togashi, 1934)1934) but at the time this this did
did not
notarouse
arousemuch,
much,ififany,
any, local
local interest.
interest.
18 Wild
Wild edible
edible fungi:
fungi: aa global
global overview of their use
overv ew of use and
and importance
importance to
to people
people

Poisonous species
species
A review
A review of poisoning incidentsincidents in official and informal
official and publications shows
informal publications shows that the the
frequency of such events and the effect
frequency effect on humans are are overall
overall less
less than that suggested
suggested
by attendant publicity (Logemann
(Logemann et al., 1987). During the
1987). During the search
search forfor information on
wild edible
wild edible fungi,
fungi, about
about 170
170 poisonous
poisonous species
species were
werenoted.
noted. Most
Most areare either
either related
related to to
edible species
edible species or or confused
confused with them. There are, of course, course, real
real dangers
dangers in collecting
collecting
and consuming poisonous fungi, but but these
these should be be seen against the the wider background
millions of people collecting and eating wild fungi safely on aa regular basis.
of millions basis.
Several popular
Several popular andand highly esteemed edible species
esteemed edible species are
are poisonous
poisonous when raw. raw. Few
people eat them in this condition
condition and and risks
risks ofof poisoning
poisoning areare in reality small.
small. Poisonous
mushrooms vary
mushrooms vary inin their effects
effects from
from mild
mild stomach
stomach and and digestive upsets to
digestive upsets to more
more
serious problems
serious problems such as liver damage. damage. The The solutions
solutions to these
these potential
potential risks
risks include
include
providing
providing local
local advice
advice on
on which
which species
species to collect
collect and
and which
which ones
ones toto avoid
avoid (Plate
(Plate3) 3) and
and
campaigns that
publicity campaigns that highlight
highlight potentially poisonous species species onon posters.
posters. Mr Sabiti
Sabiti
Fides, aa trader
Fides, trader inin Malawi,
Malawi, took
took aa more
more direct
direct route
route by eating mushrooms in
eating mushrooms in front of
his customers (Box
his (Box 3).
In southern
southern Africa
Africa roadside
roadside sellers
sellers only
only offer
offer "safc
"safe species"
species" (Ryvarden,
(Ryvarden, Piearce
Piearce and
and
Masuka, 1994)
Masuka, 1994) andand most
most market placesplaces are
are aa reliable
reliable means
meansof ofobtaining
obtaining known,
known, edible
edible
wild fungi.
fungi. Problems can occur with" with "contamination"
contamination" in in markets
markets but butsuch
such incidents
incidents areare
most uncommon
uncommon (see (see Table
Table 8).8).
Finland has
Finland has trained mushroom
mushroom advisersadvisers covering
covering allall rural
rural areas
areas (Härkönen,
(Harkonen, 1998;1998;
Harkonen
Härkönen and and Järyinen, 1993). The svamp
Jarvinen, 1993). svamp "police" based in some some town
town centres in Norway
Norway
help collectors
help collectors identify edible species,
species, and
and there
there are
are similar
similar schemes
schemesininother
other countries.
countries.
Poisonings arc are associated with a numbernumber of of events:
events:
• young children collecting indiscriminately and eating raw mushrooms;
immigrants arriving
• immigrants arriving inin aa new
new country
country and wrongly identifying a local species species that
that
turns out to be be poisonous;
• food shortages and economic hardship hardship force
force people
people to hunt for food;
physiological responses
• different physiological responses to an "edible" fungus.
Mexicans living
Mexicans living in
in California have eaten Amanita pballoides phalloides - a poisonous
poisonous species
species
not found at home
found at home - thinking it was was the
the edible
edible Volvariella
Volvariella volvacea
volvacea (Plate
(Plate 2).
2). The
The
guide for
guide for edible
edible mushrooms
mushrooms in Israel Israel is
is written
written in inHebrew
Hebrewand andRussian
Russian(Wasser,
(Wasser,
1995), following
1995), following the the arrival
arrival ofof over
over one
one million
million Russians
Russians in in the 1990s
1990s andand their strong
tradition of collecting
tradition wild edible
collecting wild fungi. One
edible fungi. One Russian
Russian was was poisoned
poisoned when when he he too
too

BOX3
BOX 3
"If I eat this bowa
bowa it is OK to buy"
buy" -- Mr
MrSabiti
Sabiti Fides,
Fides, trader
trader from
from Malawi
Malawi
"We asked around
"We asked around for
for a typical
typical bowa*
bowa':' 'middleman' or 'wholesaler'
'wholesaler' and metmet with Sabiti
Sabiti Fides. As it
Fides. As
turned out
out he
he was
was not
not typical
typical at
at all
all but
but really
really rather
rather exceptional
exceptional - the
the KING
KINGOF OFTHETHEBOWA TRADERS.
BOWA TRADERS.
Fides started buying
buying bowa
bowa from
from Machinga
Machinga and and taking
taking them
them totoZomba
Zombafor forsale
saleininthe
the1998-99
1998-99season.
season.
He was trying to
to think
think ofofways
ways ofof earning
earning some
some money
money to to support
supporthis
his family.
family. He
He observed
observed that
that at
at the
the
end of a day on the roadside
roadside stall a good dealdeal of bowa
bowa remained
remained unsold.
unsold. HeHe decided
decided to to buy
buy them
them up
and take them to Zomba.
In order
order to
to find
find customers
customers hehe would
wouldwalk
walkaround
aroundresidential
residentialareas
areas such
such as
as the
the police
police training
training college,
college,
the barracks, Chancellor College
College and also
also the suburbs such
such as
as Mponda Bwino and and Chikanda,
Chikanda, selling
selling
from house to house. At first he found the householders reluctant - 'maybe they are poisonous', 'maybe 'maybe
they are not good'. Patiently
Patiently he
he would
would persuade
persuade the
the buyers
buyers (mainly
(mainly women) to try them them - tasting
tasting some
some
in order to demonstrate lack of poison.
himself in poison. One might buy.
buy. Then the next time time others
others would have
have
observed that the one who
observed who bought
bought enjoyed
enjoyed their
their purchase
purchase and
and they
they would
would follow
follow suit.
suit. Gradually
Gradually he he
would build up his regular customers who eventually would buy without fail."
eventually would fail."
". bowa - edible
edible fungus
Source: Lowore and
Source: and Boa,
Boa, (2001).
(2001).
Characteristics: biology,
biology, ecology,
ecology, uses,
uses, cultivation
cultivation 19
19
- -- - - --

TABLE 7
Incidents of
Incidents of large-scale poisoning caused
large-scale poisoning causedby
byconsumption
consumptionof
ofwild
wild fungi
CHINA NUMBER NUMBER NOTES
DEAD POISONED

1962-82 108 444

444 Ninghua county,
Ninghua county, Fujiang
Fujiang province (Liu and Yang,
Yang, 1982): 88 incidents
1982): 88 incidents were
were
reported. Of the the 16
16 poisonous
poisonous species known to occur,
species known occur, 11
11 belong to
to Russula
Russula
or
o_rAmanita.
_ __ _ __ _A_m_a_n_it_a. Population
Population of
of Fujiang
Fujiang in
in 2000
2000 was 34 million.
was 34 million._ __ _ _ __
2001
2001 66 1 700 People bought
People bought "poisonous mushrooms"
mushrooms" from aa market.
market. Report
Report by
by Yongkiu
Yongkiu
county health bureau;
bureau; via www.hclinfinet.com.
-------~-
Total 113
113 2 037
2037
POLAND
POLAND NUMBER
NUMBER NUMBER NOTES
DEAD POISONED

1931 31 All children

ns children and
and associated mainly with eating
associated mainly eating Amanita
Amanitaphalloides.
phalloides. Occurred
Occurred
in Poznan
in (Lincoff and
Poznan (Lincoff and Mitchel,
Mitchel, 1977)
1977) -from
fromananaccount
accountbybySimons
Simons(1971).
(1971) .
1952
1952 11
11 _ __ _ _ Consumption
91 ___C_o_n_s_umption of Cortinarius
Cortinarius orellanus
orellanus (Lampe
(Lampe and Ammirati,
Ammirat i,1990).
1990).
1953-62 64 708 From aa survey
From surveyof
of incidents
incidents over
over aa ten-year
ten-year period. Further
Further deaths
deaths and
and
poisonings occurred
poisonings occurred from
from eating Cortinarius
Cortinarius orellanus,
orellanus, Gyromitra
Gyromitraesculenta
esculenta
(dead-6;6; poisoned
(dead 132)and
poisoned - 132) andprincipally
principallyAmanita
Amanitaphalloides
phalloides(dead
(dead- 54;
54;
poisoned -553).
poisoned 553).Lincoff
Lincoffand
andMitchel,
Mitchel,(1977)
(1977)based
basedononGrzymala
Grzymala (1965).
(1965).
Total 106 799

RUSSIAN
RUSSIAN NUMBER NUMBER NOTES
FEDERATION DEAD POISONED

1992
1992 23 170 Report in the
the Los
Los Angeles Times,
Times, 88 August
August 1992. Occurred about
1992. Occurred about 350
350 miles
_ __ _ _from Moscow.
_o_s_cow. Species
f_ro_m_M of fungi
Species of fungi involved not
involved_no_ t_mentioned.
m_e_n_ti_o_n_e_
d_. _ __ _ _ _ __
1999 ns 2 240
2240 From Pravda,
From Pravda, 30 30 May,
May, 2001
2001. Thisshort
. This shortreport
report says
saysthat
that the
the incidents occurred
occurred
mostly
_ __ ___m_o_s_ y _in
t l ___ in Central
Central Russia.
Russia.
2000a ns 2 470
2470 Also from
Also from Pravda, 30 May
Pravda, 30 May 2001,
2001, and
and again
again notes
notes that
that the
the incidents
incidents occurred
occurred
mostly in
in Central
CentralRussia.
Russia.
20006
2000b ca.
ca. 30 ca. 300 Report from the
the LosAnge/es
Los Angeles Times,
Times, 16 July 2001,
16 July 2001, says
saysthat
thatan
an "unusually
"unusually
high number of deaths"
deaths" were reported by by the local
local authorities in Belgorod,
Belgorod,
Voronezh and
Voronezh and Volgogad
Volgogad Oblasts.
Oblasts.They
Theywere
werelinked
linkedto to consumption
consumption of
Amanita
Amanita phalloides
phalloidesbut butother
otherspecies
species may
may have
have been
been involved.
involved. Police
Po lice
patrolled forests
patrolled forests to
to discourage
discourage collection
collectionand
andchecked
checked baskets
baskets of
ofcollectors.
collectors.
Total 53 5 180
5180

UKRAINE NUMBER NUMBER NOTES

DEAD POISONED
POISONED

1992 40 400 Report from

from the
theLos
Los Angeles
Angeles Times,
Times, 8 August 1992.
1992. Species responsible for
Species responsible for
these incidents
these incidents were
were not
not mentioned.
mentioned.
1998 __ __Associated
74 _ __ _ns Press,date
A_ssociated Press, dateunknown
unknown (www.geocities.com/YosemitefTrails/7331).
(www.geocities.comNosemite/Trails/7331).
1999 42 ns As above.
As
2000
2000 112
112 ns As above.
As
Total 268 400
(4 000*)
(4000*)
ns
ns -- not
not stated.
stated.
* Sum
Sum calculated
calculated using
using an
an estimated
estimated ratio of
of ten
ten poisoned
poisoned to
to each
each person
person vvho
who dies,
dies,to
to account
account for
for those
those years
yearswhere
wherepeople
peopledied
died but
but
the number of of people
people poisoned
poisoned and who recovered were not stated.
recovered were stated.

mistook a poisonous
mistook poisonous species for an edible
species for edible species known from
species known from his home
home country
country
(Hazani, Taitelman
(Hazani, Taitelman andand Sasha,
Sasha, 1983).
1983). Other reports
reports suggest
suggest aa certain
certainrecklessness
recklessness
amongst Russians in choosing
choosing which
which species
species toto collect
collect and
and eat
eat (Matsuk,
(Matsuk, 2000).
2000).
Some
Some people eat LaettPorus sulphureus without
Laetiporus sulphureus without any ill-effects
ill-effects while others feel
feel ill.
The suggested reason is
suggested reason is that physiological responses by
physiological responses by people
people differ
differ but there could
also
also be different strains of the fungus,
fungus, which
which differ
differ in chemical
chemical composition.
composition. Little is
known about
about this
this particular
particular feature
feature for
for poisonous
poisonous or orpotentially
potentiallypoisonous
poisonousspecies.
species.
A summary
summary ofof well-publicized
w ell-publicizedincidents
incidentsof ofwidespread
widespreadpoisoning
poisoningisisgiven
givenininTable
Table 7.7.
There has been a spectacular rise in poisonings and deaths in Ukraine in the last decade.
Various reasons
Various reasons have
have been
been given, including aa dramatic
given, including dramatic economic
economic downturn
downturn and the the
desperate search for foodS
search for food' oror produce
produce toto trade
tradeininlocal
local markets.
markets.

5 "I
"I had
had never
never seen people (in
seen people (in central
central Lviv)
Lviv) not only
only rummaging
rummagin ginindustbins,
du stbins,but
butputting
pu ttingvaluable
valuablescraps
scraps of
of
fromthem
food from themdirectly
directlyinto
intotheir mouth- even
theirmouth - evenininthe
thecollapsed
collapsedsocieties
societies such
such as
as Georgia
Georgia and
andMoldova."
Moldova."
(Almond, 2002).
(Almond, 2002).
_20 Wild edible
2_0 _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ __Wild edible fun
fungi:
gi: aa global
global overview
overview of their
their use
use and
and importance to people
people

Regular reports of
of poisonings
poisonings in
in the
the United
UnitedStates
States appear
appear in
in the
thejournal
journalMc! lvainea
McIlvainea
(e.g.
(e.g. Cochran,
Cochran, 1987). These incidents
1987). These are insignificant
incidents are by comparison
insignificant by with the
comparison with the
thousands of people
thousands of people who collect
collect and
and consume
consume wild
wild fungi
fungi without
without any
any reported
reported
problems. Millions
problems. Millions of
of other people
people around the
the vvorld
world also
also regularly
regularly eat wild edible
fungi
fungi without any
any ill-health
ill-health effects,
effects, and it is
is important
important to
to keep
keep aasense
sense of
of perspective
perspective
when reviewing the reported incidents of poisoning.

Contamination
Contamination of of wild edible fungi
The Chernobyl
Chernobyl accident
accident in
in Ukraine
Ukraine inin the
the 1980s
1980s prompted investigations of radioactive
materials
materials in sources
sources of wild food and particularly wild edible fungi. fungi. Broader concerns
concerns
about the
the accumulation
accumulation of of heavy
heavy metals and pollutants by macrofungi
macrofungi have also
also been
been
expressed.
A study of
A of radiocaesium intake via
radiocaesium intake via consumption
consumption of of wild
wild fungi
fungi in
in the United
United
Kingdom concluded that
Kingdom concluded that intake
intake depended
depended more more onon the species
species eaten
eaten than thethe
weight consumed (Barnett et et al.,
at., 2001).
2001). Mycorrhizal fungi had a significantly
significantly greater
radioactivity compared to saprobic or parasitic
radioactivity compared parasitic species. Consumption of wild edible
species. Consumption
fungi
fungi in the
the United
United Kingdom
Kingdom is is small
small byby comparison
comparison with other
other countries
countries but
but the
the
study
study gives
gives a general indication of the potential health
health risks.
risks.
One reported
reported case
case of
of contamination concerned
concerned the
the accidental
accidental mixing
mixing of potentially
poisonous wild species
species with wild edible fungi imported
edible fungi imported by the United
United States
States (Gecan
(Gecan
and Cichowicz,
Cichowicz, 1993).
1993). Such events are rare, however,
however, and
and there are
are no known instances
of this causing any damage
damage to human health in Europe.

CULTIVATION OF EDIBLE
EDIBLE FUNGI
There
There are nearly
nearly aa hundred
hundred species
species of
of fungi
fungi that
that can
can be
be cultivated
cultivated (Annex
(Annex 4).
4). All
All
are saprobic.
are saprobic. Commercial
Commercial markets
markets are
are dominated
dominated by byAgaricus
Agaricus bisporus,
bisporus, Lentinula
Lentinula
edodes and
edodes and Pleurotus
Pleurotus spp.spp. (Table
(Table 18)
18)and
andthese
theseaccount
accountfor fornearly
nearlythree
three quarters
quarters of of the
the
cultivated mushrooms
cultivated mushrooms grown around the the world
world (Chang,
(Chang, 1999).1999). The major
major cultivated
cultivated
species are
species are grown
grown on a variety of organic substrates, including waste
substrates, including waste from
from producing
cotton and
and coffee.
coffee. TheThe technologies
technologies are are xvell
well established
established and and successful
successful mushroom
industries have been established
established in many countries. There has been a huge increase increase in
production
production in in the
the last
last ten
tenyears,
years, mostly
mostly as as aa result
result of of increased
increased capacity in China.
Reports from Africa
Africa (Mshigeni
(Mshigeni and Chang,Chang, 2000), Mexico (Martinez-Carrera
2000), Mexico (Martínez-Carrera et al., at.,
2001) and
2001) and Amazonia in Brazil (Pauli, 1999) suggest that
1999) suggest that mushroom cultivation
cultivation offers
offers
economic opportunities
opportunitiesas as well
well as
as nutritional
nutritional and and health
health benefits.
benefits. Small-scale
Small-scale cultivation
takes
takes place
place throughout
throughout China and and could
could provide
provide aa suitable suitable model
model forfor technology
technology
transfer.
transfer. The cultivation of of the
the paddy
paddy straw
strawfungus
fungus(Volvariella
(Volvariella volvacea)
volvacea) isis integrated
integrated
with rice production
production in in Viet
Viet Nam. Wherever
Wherever saprobic species are are cultivated
cultivated they
they require
require
a steady supply of raw materials. The expansion
materials. The expansion of of shi'itake
shi'itake production
production in Qingyuan,
China ("the
("the mushroom
mushroom capitalcapital of
of the
the world")
world") led ledtotoaaserious
serious depletion
depletionof oflocal
local forests
forests
that supplied the
the wood
wood on onwhich
whichtotogrow
growthisthisedible
ediblefungus
fungus(Pauli,
(Pauli,1998).
1998).
The number
The number of of saprobic
saprobic species
species being
being cultivated
cultivated is steadily steadily increasing
increasing and and
information
information andand practical
practical advice
advice are
are readily
readily available
available (Stamets, 2000). 2000). Ectomycorrhizal
Ectomycorrhizal
fungi
fungi can also
also bebe "cultivated".
"cultivated". Trees
Trees are inoculated
inoculated with with truffle
truffle fungus
fungus thatthat must
must
then infect the roots and and form
form thethe ectomycorrhizae.
ectomycorrhizae. The The trees
trees are
are carefully tended
tended to
encourage
encourage production of the truffles truffles (Plate
(Plate 4).4). Methods
Methods for for""cultivating"
cultivating" truffles
truffles are
constantly being
being refined
refined andand improved
improved (Hall
(Hall et et al.,
ai., 1998a).
1998a).
 21
PLATE 11
TYPES OF
TYPES OF MACROFUNGI
MACROFUNGI

fungi come in many shapes

Edible fungi shapes and sizes.
sizes. There
There are
are no
no consistent
consistent features
features (or
(or tests)
tests) that
that distinguish
distinguish them
them from
poisonous varieties. Examples
Examples are from Malawi
Malawi and photos byby Eric
Eric Boa,
Boa, unless stated otherwise.

1.1
1.1 Lactaron
Lactarius sp.
sp. White
White fluid
fluid appears
appears 1.2 Amanita loso,
1.2 loosii,edible.
edible.The
The sac
sac is
is a 1.3 Common
1.3 Common earear fungus,
fungus, Auricularia
after breaking the
the gills.
gills. Many species
species are distinctive feature of Amanita, a genus auricula-judae. Edible.
Edible. France.
France. Also
Also
edible and all
all are mycorrhizal. that includes
includes poisonous
poisonousspecies.
species. (photo:
(photo: vvidely
widely cultivated.
Paul
Paul Kirie)
Kirk)

1.4 Ramaria sp.

1.4 sp. There are
are aa number
number of
of similar
similar varieties
varieties caten
eaten 1.5
1.5 This Afroboletus has aa dense
Afroboletus has dense network
network of tiny pores on the
around the
the world
world underside of
of the
the cap.
cap.

1.6 (left) Lycoperdon sp.,

1.6
Norway. Puffballs are
widespread and eaten
regularly, though
regularly, though in
relatively small quantities.

1.7
1.7 (right) Cantharellus sp.sp.
The gills continue along part
uf
of the stem and the fmiting
fruiting
bodies have
have aa distinctive
distinctive
appearance.
22
PLATE
PLATE 2
FUNGIGROW:
HOW FUNGI GROW:mycorrhizas,
mycorrhizas,saprobes
saprobesand
and pathogens
pathogens

Fungi obtain their

their food
food symbiotically,
symbiotically, asas saprobes
saprobes or or parasites
parasites (pathogens).
(pathogens). There areare edible
edible macrofungi in each
category. The
category. The most valuable
valuable wild
wild species
speciesare areectomycorrhizal,
ectomycorrhizal, aaformform ofof symbiosis.
symbiosis.Ectomycorrhizal
Ectomycorrhizal roots
roots have
have aa
distinct though
though varied
varied appearance.
appearance. It
It is
is unusual
unusual toto see
see them
them clearly
clearly in
in sitie.
situ. Many saprobic macrofungi are edible.
edible.
Few pathogens are eaten. All examples
examples areare from
from Malawi
Malawi unless
unless stated
stated otherwise.
otherwise. All
All photos
photos by Eric Boa.

2.1
2.1 Ectomycorrhiza.
Ectomycorrhiza. The white 2.2 This
2.2 This very
very distinctive
distinctive yellow
yellow 2.3
2.3 These
These ectomycorrhizas
ectomycorrhizas are
are small
small and
covering on the roots
roots indicates
indicates the
the ectomycorrhiza is is associated with a fluffy. Mycelium in the soil
fluffy. soil can
can have
have aa
fungal sheath Cantharellus sp.
sp. similar appearance.
appearance.

2.4
2.4 Tracing
Tracing a fungus back to the
the host
host tree
tree isis possible
possible when aa 2.5 Agrocybe
2.5 Agrocybe aegerita, an edible saprobic
saprobic species
species growing
growing
physical connection to the
the roots
roots can
can be
be seen,
seen. here on a tree stump in
in Bologna,
Bologna, Italy.
Italy. Also
Also cultivated.
cultivated.

2.6 Paddy
2.6 Paddy straw
straw or
or Volvariella volvacea. 2.7
Volvariella volvacea. 2.7 Ma ze cob
Maize cob infected
infected by
by Ustilago
Ustilago 2.8 Armillaria mellea, a tree pathogen,
2.8
Commonly cultivated,
cultivated, it is
is a saprobic maydis, Bolivia.
maydis, Bolivia. Earlier stage infections at the base of a dead laburnum tree.
tree.
fungus. Indonesia. Edible,
fungus. Edible. are eaten as huitlacoche in Mexico. London. Edible
Edible
 23
23
PLATE 3
WHICH FUNGI
FUNGI ARE
AREEDIBLE?
EDIBLE? IDENTIFYING
IDENTIFYINGSPECIES
SPECIES

Edible species can be identified using local and scientific

scientific knowledge.
knowledge. Neither system
system is
is infallible: local
local practices
practices are
are
based on empirical
empirical evidence
evidence ofof edibility,
edibility, though
though local
local beliefs
beliefs may
may falsely
falsely exclude
exclude edible species. scientific name
species. A scientific name
provides access
access to published information
information on on properties,
properties, but
butconflicting
conflictingadvice
advice may
may exist.
exist. Used together,
together, local
local and
scientific knowledge
scientific knowledge are
are aa powerful
powerful guide
guide to properties ofof wild fungi. All photos byby Eric
Eric Boa
Boa unless
unless stated.
stated.

3.1 (left) This

(left) This French
pharmacy offers
offers local
local
assistance in identifying
edible species
species

3.2 (right) The second

oldest publication on wild
edible
edible fungi
fungi from
from China.
It includes
It includes descriptions
descriptions of
'species' and would havehave
been a useful reference
reference
book. (photo:
(photo: Warren
Warren
Priest)
l'riest)

3.3
3.3 (left) Paul Kirk
(left)
documents aa field
collection from Malawi.
Malawi.
Each specimen is given
reference number and
a reference
described before being
dried, and thus preserved
preserved
for further examination.
examination.

3.4 (right) Spore

Spore print of
Hypholoma fasciculare,
a poisonous species.
species. The
upper print
print isis after
after leaving
leaving
the cap for several hours;
the one below for for less
less
than an hour. Spore colour
helps to distinguish similar
similar
genera but not
not to to species.
species.

3.5 (right) Alessandra

Alessandra
Zambonelli of the
University of Bologna
with a unique collection
of truffle specimens
from around the world.
from
Collections are vital
reference sources for
reference
identifying fungi and
naming
nammg new species.

3.6 (left) Dried

Dried examples
examples
of truffles are carefully
labelled and
labelled and stored in the
collection.
 25

3 Management:
Management: wild edible
wild ediblefungi,
fung i,trees,
trees,
forest
forest users
users

M ULTIPLE USE
MULTIPLE USE OF FORESTS:
FORESTS: ISSUES AND CONFLICTS
AND CONFLICTS
The management
management of wild edible edible fungi and their
their sustainable
sustainable production mustmust address
address
two key
key topics:
topics: first,
first, forests
forests and
and their
theirmanagement
management andandsecond,
second, forest
forest users.
users. Successful
Successful
management
management of wild edible edible fungi
fungi balances
balances the impact
impact and
and effects
effects of
of collection
collection and
and
harvesting against the
harvesting against the wider
wider aims
aims of
of forest
forest management.
management. These
These wider
wider aims
aims are
are
determined by
by the
the relative
relative importance
importance of
of different
different forest
forest uses.
uses. Are
Are wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi
more valuable
valuable than other NWFP, for example,
example, and how do they they compare
compare in in financial
financial
benefits with
benefits with wood production?
production? Some
Some forests
forests have
have aa strategic
strategic as
as well
well as
as economic
economic
importance: they
importance: they protect
protect water
water catchments
catchments and and fragile sloping land;
fragile sloping land; they
they help
help to
conserve biodiversity.
The challenge
challenge for planners and policy-makers is to balance the competing demands
on forests
on forests and
and provide
provide aa framework
framework within within which
which forest
forest managers
managers can can operate
operate
effectively. For
effectively. For wild edible fungi this means minimizing the impact of of harvesting
harvesting while
while
allowing collectors fair and equitable
equitable access
access to forests; it means addressing the concerns concerns
of biologists who believe
believe that
that commercial
commercial extraction
extraction is is unsustainable
unsustainable while while allowing
allowing
local enterprises to develop. The sustainable production
local production of of wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi therefore
therefore
has social,
social, economic and even political dimensions.
Forest is used here in the general sense of areas areas where
where trees
trees either
either occur
occur naturally
naturally or
are planted. The bulk
bulk of
of wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi harvests
harvests inin terms
terms of ofvolume
volumeand andvalue
valuecomes
comes
from species
species that form mycorrhizal
mycorrhizal associations
associations with trees. Without the the mycorrhizas
mycorrhizas
the trees would growgrow poorly
poorly and
and thethe ecological
ecological integrity of forests around the the world
world
would be threatened.
threatened. The
The impact
impact of of wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi harvesting
harvesting should not disturb disturb
the mutual dependency
dependency of fungus and tree. tree. The
The biology
biology and and ecology
ecology of of wild
wild edible
edible
fungi are therefore important, as
fungi as is
is aa fundamental
fundamental knowledge
knowledge of of which
which species
species grow
with particular
particular trees.
trees. There
There areare still
still many
many gaps
gaps ininknowledge
knowledge concerning
concerning edible
edible
ectomycorrhizal
ectomycorrhizal fungifungi and
and tropical
tropical tree
tree species.
species.
Forestry users
Forestry users include
include those
those who
who obtain
obtain wood
wood products
products and and NWFP
NWFP (of which
wild edible
wild edible fungi
fungi are only
only one
one example).
example). Forests
Forests also
also provide
provide aa range
range of of services,
services,
some
some specific
specific toto particular
particular users
users and and others
others more
moregenerally
generallyvalued.
valued. Ecological
Ecological
functions
functions include
include protection of waterwater catchments,
catchments, erosion control and and conservation
conservation
of biodiversity. Forests provide socialsocial benefits, a place for leisure, leisure, sports and enjoying
nature. The relationship
relationship between
between harvesting wild wild edible
edible fungi
fungi and and other
other products
products and
services
services derived from forests needs to be understoodunderstood and and adjustments
adjustments made made toto practices
practices
and management guidelines.
guidelines.
Decisions such
Decisions such as
as these
these depend
depend on good data. There is is widespread
widespread concern about
unsustainable forest practices,
unsustainable forest including harvesting
practices, including harvesting of of wild
wild edible
edible fungi. This needs
fungi. This
to be
be carefully
carefully examined
examined using available
available datadata on
on yields,
yields, amounts
amounts harvested
harvested andand other
information about
about production.
production.These
These topics
topics are
are discussed
discussed later later in
in this
this chapter.
chapter.
Management of
Management of wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi has has tended
tended toto concentrate
concentrate on their biology biology and
and
ecology, particularly
ecology, particularly those of high economic value. There is is aa considerable
considerable literature
literature on
truffles, for example
example (Federation-Franqaise-des-Trufficulteurs,
(Federation-Fran<;aise-des-Trufficulteurs, 2001), 2001), but few studies
studies
of edible species Russula or Lactarius, many of which are
species of Russula are collected
collected andand consumed
consumed
locally in developing
locally developing countries. Researchers
Researchers are are paying
paying more attention to the the complex
complex
26 Wild
Wild edible
ediblefungi:
fungi: aa global
global ov erview of their use and importance to
overview to people
people

BOX
BOX4 4
Matsutake and
Matsutake and exports
exports to Japan
In Jap~p.,
Japan, Tricboloma rnatsutake ishighly
Tricholoma matsutake is highly regarded
regarded and eating
eating ceremonies
ceremonies are culturally important
important
(Hall et al., 1998a).
eta!', Originally collected from japan's
1998a). Originally Japan's forests,
forests, production
production declined steeply in the 1980s. 1980s.
The search for new new sources
sources identified
identified American
American matsutake
matsutakeasasan anacceptable
acceptablesubstitute
substitute(Tricholoma
(Tricholoma
magnivelare) and and itit was
was quickly-
quickly realized
realized that
that substantial amounts could be be harvested from the the Pacific
Pacific
northwestof
northwest ofNorth
NorthAmerica,
America,where
wherelocal
localuseusewas
was minimal.
minimal. TheThe burgeoning
burgeoningtradetradewith
withJapan
Japancoincided
coincided
with a downturn
downturn in in jobs
jobs in
inlogging
logging and
and timber
timberextraction.
extraction. Export
Export businesses
businesses based
based on TT matsutake
matsutake
have also been established in Sichuan,Sichuan, China
China (Winkler,
(Winkler, 2002;
2002; Yeh,
Yeh, 2000),
2000), Bhutan
Bhutan (Namgyel, 2000) 2000) and
notably the
the Democratic
Democratic People's
People's Republic
Republic of of Korea.
Korea.
E~i?ftsof
Exports of TT rnagnivelare
magnivelare and ot~.er.dosely
and other closely related
related species occur from
species oscur from North Africa, Turkey and
Me:l(;ico.bu~.
Mexico but details are sketchy. The amountsa';ll0unts earned
earned by by these
these countries
countries are
are small
small compared
compared withwith Asia
Asia
and North
NorthAmerica.
America. The The prices
prices paid
paidbybythe
·theJapanese
Japanesevaryvaryconsiderably
considerablydepending
depending on onthe
theavailable
available
supply each year and the quality quality of
of mushrooms
mushrooms when when they
they arrive
arrive at
at market.
market.
Matsutake
Matsutake is particularly
particularly valuable
valuable at at an early
early stage
stage ofof development
development and and this
this requires
requires careful
careful
searching in
searching in the upper humus humus layers
layers ofof forests.
forests. Some
Some collectors
collectors are
are not soso careful:
careful: they
they rake
rake the
the
ground to uncover
uncover emerging
emerging fruit bodies,
bodies, damaging the humus layer and affecting affecting future
future harvests.
harvests.
Matsutake is is aa mycorrhizal
mycorrhizal fungus
fungus andand efforts
efforts have
have been
been made
made to to "manage"
"manage" natural
naturalecosystems
ecosystems in in
the Republic
Re{?ublic of Korea and North NorthAmerica
A';llerica inin an
an attempt
attempttotomaximize
maximize production.
production.Annual
Annualyields
yields are
are
still heavily influenced by available
available rainfall andand ambient temperature at key times during the the year.
year.
(SeegilZ
(See Pilz and
and Molina (2002) for a general
(2002) for general review
review of activities
activities in
in North America.)
North America.)

relationships between
between biological,
biological, social
social and
and economic
economic issues,
issues, aa welcome move towards towards
establishing aa sound basis
basis for sustainable production of of wild
wild edible
edible fungi.
fungi .
Much
Much hashas been written, relatively
relatively speaking, about matsutake
speaking, about matsutake (Box (Box 4).
4). This
This is
is an
important
important export
export from
from several
several developing
developing countries
countries and there there have
have been
been several
several
accounts
accounts that examine
examine the commercial harvesting in
commercial harvesting in the
the wider
wider context
context of forests
forests and
forest
forest users (Winkler,
(Winkler, 2002; Yeh, 2000).
2002; Yeh, 2000).The
The Pacific
Pacificnorthwest
northwest of of north America
America is is
another area
area where
where management
management issues issues have
have been examined
examined in detail (Pilz and Molina, Molina,
2002; Tedder, Mitchell
2002; Tedder, Mitchell andand Farran,
Farran, 2002). These studies
2002) . These studies are particularly
particularly useful
useful in
in
describing collectors
collectors and
and collecting
collecting practices
practices and
and they
they provide
provide aa useful
useful contrast
contrast toto the
few studies carried out for subsistence
subsistence collections in developing countries (Lowore (Lowore and and
Boa, 2001).
Concerns havehave been
been expressed
expressed about declining productivity and disappearance
declining productivity disappearance of
certain species macrofungi
species of macro (Arnolds, 1995).
fungi (Arnolds, Attention has
1995). Attention focused on Europe
has focused Europe and and
one of the
the identified
identified issues
issues was the the impact
impact ofof increased
increased commercial
commercial picking in in eastern
eastern
Europe (Perini,
(Perini, 1998). Conservation of
1998). Conservation of fungi
fungi isis now an an established
established topic of of debate
debate
among mycologists. The debate has only just begun begun and
and itit is important
important thatthatititaddresses
addresses
the wider social
social and economic
economic issues
issues concerning harvesting
harvesting if if progress isis to
to be
be made
made inin
halting the decline
decline of
of any
any threatened
threatened edible
edible species.
species.
The following sections
sections examine
examine access
access to collecting sites, collectors and the the impacts
impacts
of harvesting.
harvesting. TheThe chapter
chapter proceeds
proceeds to an an examination
examination of published
published data on on yields
yields
and production
production before
before attempting
attemptingto toprovide
providepractical
practicaladvice
advice on on managing
managing wild
wild edible
edible
fungi for sustainable
sustainable production.

REGULATING COLLECTION
COLLECTION
There
There are
are widely
widely differing
differing rules
rules and
and policies
policies on
on the
the collection
collectionof
ofwild
wildedible
ediblefungi
fungi(see
(see
also Box 8,
8, Chapter
Chapter 4). Scandinavia has open access: anyone can pick edible fungi as
access: anyone as long
long
as
as they do
do not
not harm
harmproperty
property(Saastamoinen,
(Saastamoinen, 1999).
1999). This
This policy
policy has
has been
been challenged
challenged
by economic
economic migration from neighbouring
migration from countries, no
neighbouring countries, no longer
longer ppart
art of
of the
the former
former
Soviet Union, and the
Soviet the availability
availability of
of cheap
cheap labour
labour for
for collecting
collecting wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi and
and
Management: wild
wild edible
edible fungi, trees,
trees, forest users
users 27

wild berries.
wild berries. Similar changes in
Similar changes in eastern
eastern Europe
Europe have created new
have created new opportunities
opportunities for
commercial harvesting and
commercial harvesting and led to concernled to concern about unsustainable harvests
unsustainable harvests and and how
how to
regulate collections.
Controlling collectors
collectors is not not always
always easy.easy. After the Second World War War the Finnish
Government encouraged
Government encouraged greater greater harvesting
harvestingofofwild wild edible
edible fungi
fungi andand continues
continues to to
promote the the use
use ofof ananunderutilized
underutilizedresource resource(Flärkönen
(Harkonen and andJärvinen,
Jarvinen, 1993;1993; Salo,
Salo,
1999).Open
1999). Open access
accesstoto the the countryside
countryside isis aa tenet tenet of life
life in Sweden
Sweden and and Norway and
controlling
controlling the the collection
collection of of wild
wild edible fungi (and
edible fungi (and other NWFP) would would require
require aa
fundamental change
change in national
national policies.
policies.
"Overharvesting" isis a commonly
"Overharvesting" commonly expressed concern, both
expressed concern, both for
for commercial
commercial and and
subsistence collections.The
subsistence collections. The fearfear among
among forestforest managers
managersand and others
others isis that
that future
future
production of of wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi willwill decrease.
decrease. These are genuine concerns but there
genuine concerns
is
is a danger of taking draconian steps to regulate collectors without understanding the
collectors without
impact of harvesting, based on an incomplete knowledge of of how
how much
much is is collected
collected and and
what collectors do.
The main impetus
impetus for for regulating
regulating collectors
collectors isis where
wherecommercial
commercial harvesting
harvesting occurs.
occurs.
The introduction
introduction of of regulatory
regulatory schemes
schemes servesserves a number of different functions: functions:
• it attempts (in(in theory)
theory) to to limit
limit thethe amount
amountharvested;
harvested;
• it ensures
ensures thatthat collectors
collectors are are aware
aware of of best
bestpractice
practice (least
(least harmful
harmful pickingpicking
methods);
• it provides income.
income.
In Italy each
each province
province regulates
regulates who has has the
the right
right totocollect
collect truffles
truffles (Tuber
(Tuber spp.).
spp.).
Collectors have to pass a simple test that confirms confirms they are are aware
aware of how and and where
where
to harvest.
harvest. Around
Around30 30000000 licences
licences (each(each costing
costing around
around US$90)
US$90) were
were issued
issued in in Emilia
Emilia
Romagna in in 2001
2001 (Zambonelli,
(Zambonelli, 2002, 2002, personal
personal communication:
communication: Truffles Truffles and
andcollecting
collecting
porcini in Italy).
In Winema
Winema National
National Park, Park, Oregon,
Oregon, the the sale
sale ofofpermits
permits provides
provides aasubstantial
substantial
income,
income, though this is is highly
highly variable
variable (Table
(Table 8). 8). In
In Bhutan,
Bhutan, onlyonly token amounts are
earned from the the sale
sale of
of permits
permits (Namgyel,
(Namgyel, 2000). 2000).
Local communities also also administer permit permit schemes
schemes to to limit
limit access
access to valuable
valuable sites.
This system appears
appears to be be less
less successful
successful at reducing conflicts between neighbouring
communities and problems have have occurred in in regulating
regulating collection
collection of truffles in Spain Spain
(de Román,
Roman, 2002,2002, personal
personal communication:
communication: Trade Trade in niscalos from North Spain
niscalos from Spain to to
Catalonia andand truffle
truffle production). This is a reminder of the need to look closely at the
fairness of schemes
schemes that unfairly exclude people rather than than encourage
encourage equitable
equitable use use ofof
natural resources.
resources.
Collectors in developing
Collectors developing countries frequently collect collect for subsistence
subsistence uses and the the
edible fungi represent an important food resource. In
edible fungi represent an important food resource. In Malawi, forest officers are Malawi, forest officers are
concerned that allowing
allowing people to collect collect wild edibleedible fungi
fungi in protected
protected forest
forest areas
areas
will lead
lead to greater
greater extraction of wood products, products, particularly
particularly firewood (Lowore (Lowore and
Boa, 2001).
2001). There is no officially
officially registered commercial
commercial collecting
collecting inin Malawi
Malawi and and there
there
have been no attempts to introduce a permit
to introduce a permit system. system.
The success
success of regulation schemes schemes depends
depends on on who
who controls
controls or owns forests. It is is a
relatively straightforward
straightforwardmatter mattertotoregulate
regulatecollections
collectionsofofBoletus
Boletus edults
edulis inin commercial
commercial
pine plantations of South South Africa
Africa compared to the the more
more complex
complex problems
problems posed by by
multiple use of native forests in Malawi. Malawi. The pressurepressure to to regulate
regulate access
access to sites
sites comes
comes
from various
various sources,
sources, and and not
not allall involved
involved in forestry. A strong conservation conservation lobby lobby in in
the United States
States has
has sought to to limit
limit commercial
commercial harvestsharvests (McLain, Christensen and
(McLain, Christensen
Shannon, 1998).
1998).
The expansion
expansion of commercial harvesting harvesting in in Europe
Europe has has resulted
resulted inin the
the introduction
introduction
of regulations
regulations in in Poland
Poland (Lawrynowicz,
(Lawrynowicz, 1997); 1997); former
former Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia (now Serbia Serbia and
Montenegro) (Ivancevic,
(Ivancevic, 1997; Zaklina, 1998)
1997; Zaklina, 1998) and and Romania (Pop, 1997). 1997). Information
Information
about thethe success
success of thesethese schemes
schemes is sketchy and and highlights
highlights the the general
general difficulty
difficulty of of
28 Wild edible
Wild edible fungi:
fungi: a global overview of
of their
their use
use and
and importance
importance to
to people
people

TABLE 8
TABLE
Sale of permits for
for collecting
collecting matsutake
matsutakeininWinema
WinemaNational
NationalForest,
Forest, Oregon,
Oregon,1997-2002
1997-2002
YEAR PERMITS SOLD
SOLD VALUE US$
VALUE US$ END OF
Of SEASON
SEASON NOTES

1997 3 733
3733 365 939
365939 31 October Biggest crop since 1989
1998 1 246
1246 138 338
138338 7 November
November
1999 901 122 350
350 24 October
2000
2000 (512)
(512) (61 180)
(61 180) (21 September) Data incomplete. No
No information after this
this
date.
date.
2001
2001 not
not known
known 78 810
78810 4 November
2002 >1 200
>1200 >120 000
>120000 (4 October)
October) Interim
Interim data
Source: www.fs.fed.us/r6/winema/specialprojects.
source: www.fs.fed.usIr6/winema/specialprojects. Commercial
Commercial permits
permits are
are valid
valid for
forpicking
picking in Deschutes, Umpqua,
in the Deschutes,
Willamette in addition to
to Winema
Winema National
National Forest.
Forest. Only Winema
Winema publishes
publishes comprehensive
comprehensiveaccounts
accountsof
ofthe
the matsutake
matsutake
season (the "mushroom
"mushroom chronicles").
chronicles").

monitoring
monitoring the
the conditions
conditions set
set by
by aa permit.
permit. They
They often
often state
state how
how much
much can
can be collected
in a fixed
fixed time but it is
is difficult to check
check this
this and
and collect
collect penalties for transgressions.
transgressions.
Logging
Logging bansbans introduced in in China
China (Winkler,
(Winkler, 2002),
2002), the
the Philippines
Philippines (Novellino,
(Novellino,
1999), Canada
1999), Canada (Tedder,
(Tedder, Mitchell
Mitchell and
and Farran,
Farran, 2002)
2002) and
and elsewhere have opened
elsewhere have opened up
new
new opportunities
opportunities for for collecting wild edible
collecting wild fungi and
edible fungi and prompted
prompted concern
concern about
overharvesting.
overharvesting. In Siberia,
Siberia, the opposite
opposite effect
effect has
has happened:
happened: anan increase
increase inin logging
logging
activities
activities by foreign
foreign companies
companies hashas made
made it more difficult for local
local people toto collect
collect
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi (de
(de Beer
Beer and
and Zakharenkov,
Zakharenkov, 1999).
1999).
Successful controldepends
Successful control dependson on modifying
modifying regulations
regulationsthat
thatdodo not
not work
work andand
maintaining aa good dialogue
maintaining dialogue with
with collectors
collectors (Pilz
(Pilz and
and Molina,
Molina, 2002;
2002; see
see also
also Vance
Vance
and Thomas, 1995). A pragmatic
1995). A pragmatic approach
approach is
is needed
needed toto protect natural resources while
fair and equitable access
allowing fair access to collectors.

COLLECTORS AND
COLLECTORS AND LOCAL
LOCAL PRACTICES
PRACTICES
A recent
A recent study
study in
in Malawi
Malawi describes
describes what
what happened
happened when
when Mr
Mr Kenasi
Kenasi Affad
Affad went
went
collecting bowa
collecting bowa (wild
(wild edible
edible fungi)
fungi) near
near his
his home in Machinga.
Machinga. He was accompanied
by two researchers
researchers working for the Miombo Edible Fungi Project (Lowore and Boa,Boa,
2001).
"We set
"We set off at 6.00am, later than
6.00am, later than the normal time for start-off
start-off at
at 5.00am.
S.OOam. Kenasi
Kenasi is equipped with
nothing but the clothes
nothing he is
clothes he is wearing
wearing and
and aa bucket.
bucket. He
He isis barefoot
barefoot with
with no
no protection
protection from
from the
the
rain, which today is persistent but not heavy.
rain, heavy. He cannot afford to let
let the
the rain
rain put
put him
him off
off as
as bowa
bowa
is a rainy
collection is rainy season
season activity
activity and
and he
he must
must be
be prepared
prepared to get wet.
wet. This year the rains are still
frequent and heavy which
which isis good
good for
for the
the kunglokwetiti
kunglokwetiti 6and
andchzPatwe.
chipatwe.
He sets
sets off on a well trodden path towards
towards the
the places
places he knows where he shall find bowa.
shall find bowa. He
He has
has
observed the rain for the past
observed past day
day or
or two,
two, he
he knows
knows what
whatspecies
species are
are ready
ready at
at this
this time,
time, he
he knows
knows
where he
where he went
went last
last time
time and the condition
condition of the
the crop
crop when
when he
he was
was last
last there.
there. He
He uses
uses all
all this
this
information to decide
decide where to go. These days - the end of the
go. These the season
season - few bowa are found near near
to the home
home unlike
unlike early
early in in the
the season
season when
when they
they are
are found
found ininabundance.
abundance.
At this time of year the main main species found and the one preferred by customers
species found customers isis kunglokwetiti.
These are
These are found
found in rocky places and Kenasi
places and has to
Kenasi has to be sharp to spot them.
be sharp them. They
They appear
appear here
here and
and
there underneath
underneath droopy
droopytufts tuftsofofgrass.
grass.To
To pick
pickthem
themKenasi
Kenasi scoops
scoops the bowa from
the bowa from its
its base
base using
using his
finger and
finger and gently
gently lifts
lifts itit from
from thethe earth.
earth. He
He then
then breaks
breaks the
the bottom
bottom part of the stem
stem offoff and
and throws
throws
it away. He blows some of the remaining earth away and gently places places the bowa in the bucket. He He
continues.
continues.
Kenasi
Kenasi knows that certain
certain bowabowa areare found
found near
near certain
certain tree
tree species
species and
and that
that each
each year
year the
the same
same
type of bowa
bowa appear
appear in in the
the same
same places.
places. He also
also knows
knows that
that some
some species
species need a few days of rain
followed by sunshine before appearing whilst others need prolonged rain. Some take a few few days
days toto
emerge from a small
emerge from small fruit harvestable bowa,
fruit body to aa harvestable bowa, others
others take
take a few
few hours.
hours. This
This isis important
because
because then he knows when to to go
go back
back to
to the
the same
same place
place to
to look
look again
again for
for new
new bowa.
bowa.

6 Cantharellus species.
species.
Management: wild
wild edible
edible fungi, trees,
trees, forest users
users 29
--~-----------------------------------------------------

Kenasi shows us
Kenasi shows us the
the path
path to Naiswe where he will
will go
go tomorrow.
tomorrow. It will take about
will take about 3-4 hours
3-4 hours
place - then he can spend one hour
solid walking to reach the place hour collecting
collecting the bowa
bowa and
and come
come back
back
within another two two hours.
hours. ItItisis normal
normal for
foraacollection
collection trip
trip to
tolast
lastupuptotosix
sixhours.
hours.Kenasi
Kenasi aims
aims toto
fill
fill a whole bucket (about 15 15 plates)
plates) before setting off for home. He always always goes
goes alone
alone but may
meet other collectors whilst in the forest. Passing on information
Passing on information about the whereabouts
whereabouts of bowa
is sometimes
sometimes done
done but there is not much much point
point because
because it isis simply a matter of chancechance - one might
have missed what others will find. find . Kenasi
Kenasi will go collecting bowa from between 2 to 5 times a week, week,
depending on the the availability
availability of bowa and and customers.
customers.
In the past the eucalyptus were not there there but
but there
there was
was indigenous
indigenous woodland.
woodland . Bowa were were found
found
in abundance justjust close
close to
to the
the village.
village. Another
Another reason
reason why
why we we have
have toto travel
travel so
so far
far these
these days
days is is the
the
number of people collecting. simply want money so more and more
collecting. People simply more people think think ofof selling
selling
bowa. I can
can always
always find bowa, if if the weather
weather has
has been
been right,
right, but
butititcan
can take
take aa long
long time
time toto reach
reachthethe
place and
place and aa long
long time
time to fill whole bucket."
fill a whole
This short
short account
account graphically
graphically describes the type of problems that aa collector has to
cope with. Kenasi knows
knows where to look though he he also knows that he has to be be lucky
to make
make aa good
good collection.
collection. He
He comments
comments on on the
the loss
loss of
of native
native woodland,
woodland, where
where the
the
fungi are most abundant, and
and he
he says
says that
that he
he must
must travel
travel further
further to
tocollect
collectwild
wild edible
edible
fungi because now there are
are more
more collectors.
collectors.
Kenasi lives
Kenasi livesclose
closetoto the
the forest
forest and
and isis part
part of
of a community that depends
community that depends onon the
the
miombo
miombo woodland for food,food, income
income andand shelter.
shelter. Collecting
Collecting bowa
bowa isis an
an important
important
source of income for himhim but
but itit isis only
onlyone
oneway
wayof
ofearning
earning aa living
living from
from the
the miombo.
miombo.
Increasing
Increasing numbers
numbers of
of people
people have
have taken taken the
the opportunity
opportunitytotocollect,
collect,as
as Kenasi
Kenasi observes,
observes,
because in the area where he lives there is a good selling point on a major road near to
selling point to
the forest.
Kenasi is
is unusual because the collectors in Malawi are mostly women, as as is the case
in the
the United
United Repubiblic
RepubiblicofofTanzania
Tanzania (Flärkönen,
(Harkonen, 2002)
2002) and
and Burundi
Burundi (Buyck,
(Buyck, 1994b).
1994b).
Table
Table 9 describes
describes collectors and their practices
collectors and practices in aa number
number of ofdifferent
different countries.
countries.
In China
China most
most collectors
collectors are
are men.
men. Both
Both men
men and
andwomen
womenare areinvolved
involved ininMexico,
Mexico,
where there
there is
is extensive
extensive harvesting
harvesting each year. In Malawi
each year. Malawi the maximum
maximum time time taken
for collecting wild edible fungi
fungi and getting them to market
market is
is less
less than 24
24 hours. Any
Any
longer and the mushrooms
longer mushrooms for for sale
sale deteriorate
deteriorate and
and are
are worth
worth much
much less.
less. Women
Women in
Mzimba district in northern Malawi walk up
Malawi walk up to 10-15 km to get to the nearest market
in Mzuzu. This limits
limits collecting
collecting toto a six
six hour collecting
collecting trip (there and back)
back) from
their homes (Lowore,
(Lowore, Munthali
Munthali and Boa, Boa, 2002). Distances from
2002). Distances from house
house toto forest to
to
selling
selling points are shorter in Liwonde,
Liwonde, near
near Zomba
Zomba (Lowore
(Loworeand and Boa,
Boa, 2001)
2001) because
because of
the proximity ofof aa main
main road,
road, aa common
common selling
selling point
point for
for wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi in
in several
several
African countries (Plate
(Plate 6).
6).
In the
the Russian
Russian Federation
Federation andand Ukraine
Ukraine whole
whole families
families go on collecting
collecting trips
trips and
these appear to be
be more
more of
of aa social
social event
event than
than collecting
collecting in order
order to
to sell.
sell. The
The distances
distances
travelled
travelled to the
the best
best sites
sites can
can be
be substantial
substantial (Table
(Table 9).
9). Immigrants
Immigrants collect
collect wild edible
edible
fungi in the Klamath bioregion (northern
(northern California),
California), many of southeast Asian origin
(Richards and Creasy,
(Richards and Creasy, 1996), attracted by
1996), attracted by job
job opportunities.
opportunities. They soon realizerealize that
competition
competition isis fierce and that incomes
fierce and incomes are notnot guaranteed.
guaranteed. There havehave been
been some
some
clashes between collectors
clashes between and a general
collectors and general suspicion
suspicion of people
people from
from southeast
southeast Asia,
Asia,
partly because
because of their poor
poor English
English and
and aafailure
failure to
to observe
observe regulations
regulations about
about where
where
to pick.
pick. An
An account
account bybyananAmerican
Americanpicker
pickerofofmatsutake
matsutake(Moore,
(Moore,1996)
1996) provides
provides
a personal
personal account
account of some
some of
of the
the antagonism
antagonism that that migrant
migrant labour
labour may
may have
have to
to
overcome - successfully overcome in this particular
particular case.
case.
Where money
Where money is involved
involved in collecting
collecting wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi problems
problems may arise,arise,
sometimes
sometimes fuelled
fuelled by exaggerated
exaggerated stories
stories of
of potential
potential earnings.
earnings. Villages
Villages in
in Sichuan
Sichuan
engaged in
engaged in sustained
sustained battles
battles to
to determine local
local rights
rights to matsutake sites culminating in
sites culminating in
the sabotage of water supplies - they were without water for 45 days days - and destruction
bridge. One village
of a key bridge. threatened not
village threatened not only to continue their disruption of life in
30 Wild
Wild edible
edible fungi:
fungi: aa global overview of
of their use
use and
and importance
importance to
to people
people

TABLE 99
Collecting wild
Collecting wild fungi
fungiininthe
theUnited
UnitedRepublic
RepublicofofTanzania,
Tanzania, Mexico,
Mexico, the
theRussian
Russian Federation,
Federation,
Bhutan, Finland, India and China
China
ACTIVITY/ISSUE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

Who collects?
collects? women and
Mainly women and children
children though
though menmen bring
bring them
them home
home if they happen
happen uponupon
them.
Collecting Travel foot to
Travel by foot tosites.
sites. Open
Open access. No special
access. No special harvesting
harvesting methods are used used and
official
official regulation
regulationofofcollectors
collectorsisisabsent.
absent. People
People gogo out
outearly
earlyto
tocollect
collectbecause
because ofof
competition for edible
edible fungi - hinting
hinting at
at the
the importance
importanceof ofselling
sellingininlocal
localmarkets.
markets.
Local traditions,
Local traditions, Elderly country people whose
Elderly whose families hadhad lived
lived in
in the
thesame
same place
place for
forseveral
several
choice of
of species
species generations knew most about wild fungi. fungi. Many
Manymoremorespecies eaten in
species eaten in miombo
areas than hills. Boletes
areas than eschewedby
Boletes eschewed byall:
all:"even
"even monkeys
monkeyswon'twon't eat
eat them"
them" (monkeys
(monkeys
eat B. edulis in Malawi, however).
B. edulis however) . People
People were well aware aware of
of poisonous
poisonous varieties.
varieties.
Some groups of
Some groups of people
people will
will not eat
eat any
any wild
wild edible
edible fungi.
fungi. Educated
Educated people
people have
have
forgotten
forgotten almost
almost everything
everything about
about wild
wild fungi.
fungi.AAsimilar
similardiminishing
diminishingof oflocal
local
tradition
tradition can
can be
be found
found in in Malawi
Malawi and
and Zimbabwe.
Zimbabwe.

ACTIVITY//SSUE MEXICO

Who collects?
collects? Families and
Families and individuals
individuals of both
both sexes. Photos of
sexes. Photos of market places show only
places show only women
selling.
selling.
Collecting Collectors walk
Collectors walk 4-5
4-5 km a day,
day, carrying
carrying around
around 4-5 kg to to be
be sold
sold inin 5-7
5-7 hours.
hours.
Collectionstransported
Collections transported up up to
to 55
55 km;
km; not
not clear
clear ifif this is done by
is done by traders
traders and/or
and/or
collectors. Open access
access totosites.
sites.There
Thereare aregovernment
governmentregulations
regulations for for picking seven
seven
major species.
major species.
Local
Local traditions, All types
types of macrofungi
macrofungi are are collected. Longtradition
collected. Long tradition of wild
wild fungi
fungi use.
use. Knowledge
Knowledge
choice of
ofspecies
species as people
lost as people move
move from
from rural to urban
urban areas;
areas; acceptance
acceptance of of w
wild
ild fungi
fungi may
may
dwindle especially
dwindle especially as availability of
as availability of cultivated
cultivatedspecies
species increases. Generally low
increases. Generally low
frequency
frequency ofofpoisoning
poisoningcases.
cases.

ACTIVITY/1SSUE RUSSIAN FECIE/!!UlCIN [SIBERIA]

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Who collects?
collects? Families.
Collecting 5-6 km from boundaries
boundaries of of village
village or
or public
public transport
transportstops.
stops. Some drive 40-60
Some drive 40-60 km.
km.
No restrictions on
on access to sites,
access to sites, except
except nature
nature reserves and national
reserves and national parks.
parks. Daily
Daily
harvest could
harvest could be
be from
from 1515 to 100
100 kg per person
person in good years.
years .
Local
Local traditions, Long history of collecting which has
Long history intensified with worsening
has intensified worsening economic
economic situation.
choice of
of species
species More people unable
More people unableto to afford
afford imported
imported food
food while
while food
food distribution
distribution within
within the
Russian Federationhas
Russian Federation hasdeclined.
declined.Also,
Also,reduced
reducedemployment
employmentopportunities
opportunities in mining
mining
and forestry
forestry industries.
industries. 18-25
18-25species
species are regularly
regularly collected;
collected;Lactarius
Lactarius deliciosus
de/iciosus
and Boletus edulis most
Boletus edulis most important.
important. Poisoning
Poisoning incidents not noted
noted separately
separately for
for
this region
region but
butsee
see Table
Table 5 for reports
reports from
from other
otherparts
partsofofthe
theRussian
Russian Federation.
Federation .

ACTIVITY/ISSUE BHUTAN
BHUTAN

Who collects?
collects? Families.
Collecting
Collecting On foot. Some
On camp out
Some camp out and
and begin
begin collecting
collecting with torches very early
torches very early in
in the
the
morning because
because of of competition.
competition. Local farmers do
Local farmers do not
not allow
allow farmers
farmers from other
other
geogs to
geogs to visit their
their area.
area. The National Mushroom
Mushroom Centre
Centre has training
has provided training
on sustainable harvesting to 11 525525 farmers. Concern expressedabout
Concern expressed about damage
damage to to
matsutake mycelium in in soil
soil because
because of harvesting methods.
methods.
Local traditions,
Local traditions, Little known
Little known about
about tradition
tradition of
of wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi but
but thought
thought to
to be
be well
well
choice of
ofspecies
species established. Attention now
established. Attention now focused
focused on matsutake which had
matsutake which low, local
had a low, local value
value until
exports to
to Japan
Japan began.
began .

ACTIVITY/1SSUE FINLAND

Who collects? No gender

No gender or age
age differences
differences noted.
noted.
Collecting Collectors travel by public and
Collectors travel and private
private transport
transporttotosites.
sites.Open
Openaccess
access except
peoples' back
peoples' back yards.
yards.Collection
Collectionisisactively
activelyencouraged
encouragedfollowing
following inventory
inventory which
shows that only a small
shows that small proportion
proportion of ofthe
thewild
wildedible
ediblefungus
fungusresource
resourceisisused
usedeach
each
year.
Local traditions,
Local traditions, Official advice provided on best
advice provided best fungi to
to collect,
collect, originally
originally because
because of famine
choice of
of species
species conditions and later
later seeking
seeking to
to encourage
encourage best
best use
use of wild
wild food
foodresources.
resources . Western
Western
Finland favours
Finland favours different
different species to Karelians
species to Karelians inin East,
East,whose
whosetradition
tradition of
of collecting
and eating
eating isis much
much stronger.
stronger.

ACTIVITY/6SUE INDIA [MADHYA PRADESH]

Who
Who collects?
collects? Whole families involved but women
women more
more active.
active.
Collecting Tribal people well
Tribal people well acquainted
acquainted with
with habitat and
and period of
of fruiting.
fruiting.No
Norestrictions
restrictions on
on
accesstotocollecting
access collecting sites
sitesare
arementioned
mentioned..
Local traditions,
Local traditions, Several species
Several species are
are collected.
collected.
choice of
of species
species
Management: wild edible fungi, trees, forest users
users 31

ACTIVITYflSSUE
ACTIVITY/ISSUE CHINA IYvNNANj
Cf\INA [YUNNAN]

Who collects?
collects? Men are more interested
interested in
in collecting.
collecting.
Collecting
Collecting People do not go
People do go collecting
collecting on
onaaregular
regularbasis
basis because
because cultivated
cultivated species are
species are
available throughout
available throughout thethe year.
year.
Local traditions,
Local traditions, Only mountain areas are visited;
areas are visited; highest
highest number recounted by by one man was 33
was 33
choice of
of species
species edible species. People well aware
species. People aware ofofpoisonous
poisonousspecies.
species.

ACTIVITY tisSUE
AcrivrrdissuE CttlNA [SICf\t)ANiAND
CHINA [SICHUAN AlliED AREAS]
ANO ALLIED AREAS]

Who collects?
collects? Not stated.
stated.
Collecting
Collecting Most concern
concern about declines in matsutake production is
declines in is for
for Degen
Degen Tibetan
Tibet an
Autonomous Prefecture
Prefecture in northwest
northwest Yunnan.
Yunnan . Has Has the highest extraction rates rates
with clear
with clear decline
decline in in productivity.
productivity. This
This is
is linked
linked toto bad
bad harvesting
harvesting techniques
techniques
(raking). When soldsold byby size
size encourages damaging harvest
encourages damaging harvest methods. No declin decline
e in
productivity
productivity inin Litong's
Litong's Jumba
Jumba valley
valley where
where sold sold by
by weight.
weight. Collectors
Coll ectors of
of Cordyceps
Cordyceps
sinensis
sinensisinin Litang
Litang County
County are
are confined
confined to to legal
legal grazing grounds or to to forests
forests
where they
they have
have right
rightofofaccess.
access. Outsiders
Outsiders must must pay
pay aa fee
fee to local
local community
community
for collecting
for collecting and
and clashes
clashes have occurred.
occurred. Collection of of other
otheredible
ediblespecies
species is
is
widespread (Rijsoort
(Rijsoort andand Pikun,
Pikun, 2000).
2000) .
Local traditions,
Local traditions, Long tradition of
Long tradition ofcollecting
collectingedible
edibleand
andmedicinal
medicinalspecies.
species.
choice of
of species
species Matsutake not
not commonly
commonly collected
collected before
before 1988.
1988.

Sources: UNITED
UNITED REPUBLIC
REPUBLICOf TANZANIA - Hark6nen,
OF TANZANIA 2002;2002;
- Härkönen, MEXICO - Bandala,
MEXICO Montoya
- Bandala, andand
Montoya Chapela, 1997;
Chapela, Montoya
1997; -Esqu ive l
Montoya-Esquivel
et al.,
al., 2001
2001 and
andwww.semarnat.gob.mx.
www.semarnat.gob.mx.RussIANFEDERATION-Vladyshevskiy.Laletin
RUSSIAN FEDERATION - Vladyshevskiy, Laletin and 2000; BHUTAN
and Vladyshevskiy, 2000; BHUTAN - -
Namgyel, 2000.
Namgyel, 2000.FINLAND
FIN LAND - - Hark6nen, 1998; Pekkarinen
Härkönen, 1998; Pekkarinenand
andMaliranta,
Maliranta, 1978;
1978; INDIA
INDIA (MADHYAPRADESH)
(MADHYA PRADESH) - -Harsh,
Harsh, Rai
Rai and
and
Soni, 1999. CHINA (YUNNAN)
1999.CHINA (YUNNAN) - -Hark6nen, 2002;CHINA
Härkönen, 2002; CHINA (SICHUAN
(SICHUAN and
andallied
allied areas)
areas) - Winkler, 2002;
2002; Yeh,
Yeh, 2000.
2000.

the rival village

village but
but to "hide the pieces of the the water pipespipes inin the
the forest
forest so
so that
that they could
not be
be repaired"
repaired" (Yeh,
(Yeh, 2000). Such conflicts are unusual but when
2000). Such conflicts are unusual but when money becomes the
becomes the
main motive for collecting,
collecting, management of of collectors
collectors (and (and access
access to sites) needs careful
adjudication.
adjudication.
Most collectors
collectors work alongside
alongside each
each other without any any obvious
obvious problems.
problems. ThisThis
does
does not mean that they necessarily cooperate in harvesting. northern Spain,
mean that they necessarily cooperate in harvesting. In northern Spain,
Lactarius
Lactarius deliciosus (Mscalos)are
deliciosus (nfscalos) aresold
soldtoto buyers
buyers fromfrom Catalonia,
Catalonia, earning small small butbut
useful amounts of money.
money. Even close friends
friends refuse
refuse to reveal
reveal the the location of favourite
favourite
sites (de Roman, 2002,
2002, personal communication:
communication: Trade Trade in in niscalos
niscalos from North North Spain
Spain toto
Catalonia and
and truffle
truffle production).
Commercial collection
collection ofof wild
wild fungi
fungi is
is aa recent
recent andand small-scale
small-scale activity
activity in in Scotland.
Scotland.
Previously there was sporadic and minor picking for personal use. Landowners of the
mostly private forest areasareas involved expressed
expressed aa number
number of concernsconcerns about the influx
of collectors (Dyke and and Newton,
Newton,1999):
1999):
• unauthorized
unauthorized access
access by collectors to their land; land;
• lost revenue:
revenue: the owners did not benefit benefit from
from the the collections
collections on on their
their land;
land; they
they
were also unable to earn earn money
money from
from organized
organized fungalfungal forays
forays ifif the
the mushrooms
mushrooms
had already been
been picked;
picked;
• damage to resource (wild (wild edible
edible fungi and the forest); forest);
conflicts with
• conflicts with hunting (an important source source of of revenue for some landowners).
A total
total of
of 53
S3 percent
percent of ofcollectors
collectors interviewed
interviewed in Scotland Scotland did did not know know whowho
owned the land they collected
land they collected from. This study is a good example
is a good example of how to collect
to collect
information
information forfor developing
developing management
management plans.plans.
Collectors
Collectors come
come from
fromaawide
widerange
rangeof ofsocial
social classes
classes butbut the
the overall
overall impression
impression is is that
that
the majority areare poor
poor rural
rural people
people who
whohavehave traditionally
traditionally lived lived close
close toto the
the land
land and
and
for whom wildwild edible
edible fungi
fungi are a common and and often unrecorded
unrecorded source source of foodfood (De
Kesel, Codjia
Codjia and
and Yorou,
Yorou, 2002).
2002).

HARVESTING METHODS AND

HARVESTING AND APPROACHES
APPROACHES
Harvesting
The impact
impact of
of harvesting
harvesting wild edible
edible fungi is frequently
frequently raised
raised and aa recent
recent review
review
provides a helpful summary of key issues that are explored in further detail below (Pilz
and Molina,
Molina, 2002).
2002) .
32 Wild edible
Wild edible fun
fungi:
gi: aa global overview
overview of their use
use and
and importance
importance to
to people
people

Collecting wild
Collecting wild edible
edible fungi
fungi isis often
often compared
compared with with picking
picking fruit
fruit from
from a tree.tree.
Removing
Removing all all the
the fruit does not affect
affect future harvests
harvests unless
unless the tree is damaged,
damaged, but
might have an impact on regeneration.
regeneration. This appears
appears to be be true
true for
for wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi
but with some
some reservations:
reservations: removing unopened fruiting bodies bodies prevents dispersal of
spores. In some areas
spores. areas of Italy regulations
regulations prevent the collection first flush
collection of first flush of some
some
edible species
edible species (Zambonelli,
(Zambonelli, 2002,
2002, personal
personal communication:
communication: Truffles, Truffles, and
and collecting
collecting
porcinz in Italy).
porcini in Italy). (This makes
makes practical
practical sense too, since
sense too, since the earlyearly fruiting
fruiting bodies
bodies are are
often damaged
often damaged by by insects.) Some collectors
insects.) Some collectorsspreadspreadparts parts ofof the
the mushroom
mushroom cap cap to
encourage dispersal of spores.
A study in Switzerland showed showed that
that harvesting
harvesting all all the fruiting bodies
bodies ofof 15
15 species
species of
macrofungi over a ten-year period had no no significant
significant effect on production
production (Egli,
(Egli, Ayer
1990). If soils
and Chatelain, 1990). soils are
are compacted
compacted or or leaf
leaf litter
litter layers
layers are
are disturbed,
disturbed, this
this can
can
affect
affect production. Indiscriminate digging digging for truffles, for example, example, is is harmful.
harmful. Crude
raking to reveal young and immature matsutake damages damages the mycelium
mycelium present in the
upper layers of the soil. (The young fruiting bodies can be sold for a higher price.) price.) This
This
can be avoided
avoided by first identifying potential areas areas of matsutake, then using your hand hand
to locate the tell-tale bumps while generally
generally looking for signs of emerging fruit bodies
(Arora,
(Arora, 1999).
1999).
Most species
species of edible
edible fungi
fungi are
are picked
picked without causing causing any damagedamage since their
since their
fruiting
fruiting bodies
bodies and edible
edible parts are
are all
all above
above ground.
ground. The The search
search for
for truffles
truffles (Tuber
(Tuber
spp.) is
is often undertaken by by trained
trained dogs
dogs (Plate
(Plate 4)4) (Hall
(Hall et et al.,
al., 1998a).
1998a). The traditional
use of pigs is now banned in Italy because
pigs is because they are difficult to control control and
and sometimes
sometimes
eat the truffles. Truffle dogs are
Truffle dogs are not used in China and and random
random digging
digging used
used to to locate
locate
fruiting bodies will affect
affect future
future production.
The Swiss
The study also
Swiss study also showed
showed the the effect of trampling
effect of trampling on on the production
production of of one
one
chanterelle species. However,
chanterelle species. However, "normal"
"normal" yieldsyields were
were restored
restored onceonce thethe trampling
trampling
stopped (Egli,
(Egli, Ayer and Chatelain, 1990). Tramplingisisnot
1990). Trampling not thought
thought to to be a common
source
source of damage.
damage. The The number
number of of collectors
collectors per per unit
unit area
area of forest
forest is usually
usually low
and there
there isis no
no evidence
evidence that
thattrampling
tramplinghas hasaffected
affected yields
yields ininMalawi,
Malawi, for forexample.
example.
Commercial harvesting does
Commercial harvesting does increase
increase thethe pressure
pressure on on sites
sites though wild edible fungi fungi
usually occur over aa wide area and collectors keep apart in their their searches.
searches .

Enhancing
Enhanci productivity
ng productivity
The decline
decline in matsutake
matsutake production
production in Japan in in the
the 1980s
1980s prompted
prompted research
research on
how to to maximize
maximize yields
yields inin situ.
situ. Some
Some success
success waswas achieved,
achieved, although
although the
the increases
increases
in production
production failed
failed to stem
stem thethe overall
overall decline.
decline. In thethe Republic
Republic of of Korea
Korea methods
methods
included watering and
included watering and vegetation control (Koo
vegetation control (Koo and and Bilek,
Bilek, 1998).
1998). In Finland,
Finland, soil
soil
surface
surface treatments were examined
examined for enhancement
enhancement of the the production
productionofofGyro mitra
Gyromitra
esculenta Galkanen
(Jalkanen and Jalkanen,
Jalkanen, 1978).
1978). These
These approaches
approaches are are potentially
potentially costly and it
is not known
known howhowsuccessful
successful they
they have
have been
been inin increasing
increasing financial
financial returns.
An alternative is to manage forests in a -way that increases
way that increasesproduction
production of wild edible
fungi. Attempts havehave been made in the Pacific Pacific northwest of North NorthAmerica
America to to balance
balance
the production
production of ofwood
woodand and-wild
wildedible
ediblefungi
fungi(Weigand,
(Weigand, 1998).
1998). The
The conclusions
conclusions
of a study of of management
management of native native stands
stands of conifers in the
conifers in the United States and the
States and
production
production of ofwild
wild edible
ediblefungi,
fungi, including
including Tricholoma
Tricholoma matsutake
matsutake andand chanterelles,
chanterelles, are
are
summarized below (Pilz (Pilz and
and Molina,
Molina, 2002):
2002):
• Clear-cut
Clear-cut harvesting disrupts the
harvesting disrupts the production of of most
most edible
edible ectomycorrhizal
ectomycorrhizal
fungi for ten or more years.
years. ItIt only
only recovers
recovers once
once the
the fungi
fungi have
have re-established on on
trees that are old enough to provide necessary
trees necessary nutrients.
nutrients .
A thinned stand
• A stand (one
(one where
where trees
trees are
are selectively
selectively removed
removed to encourage
encourage growth
of remaining
remaining trees
trees and
and toto remove
remove weakweak specimens) introduces more
specimens) introduces more rain and and
sunshine and more rapid wetting and drying of the forest floor. floor. Heavy thinning at
one site of Douglas fir reduced chanterelle fruiting fruiting by 90 percent in the following
90 percent following
Management: wild
wild edible
edible fungi, trees,
trees, forest users 33

year. Less
year. Less frequent
frequent thinning
thinning might
might help
help to
to maintain fungal productivity
maintain fungal productivity but but the
loss of wood production
production might
might outweigh
outweigh the
the benefits.
benefits .
• Compaction
Compaction of soilsoil from
from logging
logging operations
operations reduces
reduces productivity
productivity while
while the
removal
removal of large
large branches makes itit easier
branches makes and safer
easier and safer to find wild
wild fungi
fungi without
without
necessarily increasing base productivity.
productivity.
The critical issue
issue in enhancing
enhancing production of of wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi is
is their
their economic
economic
importance compared
importance compared toto the value
value of wood production and other forest forest uses.
uses. This is
is
often poorly
poorly understood
understoodbecause
becauseaccurate
accuratedata
dataare
aremissing
missing on onthe
thevalue
value ofofharvests.
harvests.

MEASURING PRODUCTION
PRODUCTION
Yields
Data from
Data from experimental studies in
experimental studies in five
five countries
countries are
are summarized
summarized in Table Table 10.10.
Comparisons are
Comparisons are difficult
difficult to
to make
make because
because some
some studies
studies include
include all
all edible species while
species while
others measure the productivity
productivityof ofindividual
individualspecies.
species. Sampling
Sampling methods
methods also
also vary,
vary, with
with
plot size and total area
area monitored
monitored often
often too
too small
small to
to draw
drawanyanymajor
majorconclusions.
conclusions.
The results from Mexico
Mexico suggest that up to 11 759
suggest that 759 kg
kg per
per ha
ha of
ofwild
wildedible
edible fungi
fungi
can be
can be produced in a good year. Yields
a good year. Yields from other countries are usually much lower,
countries are usually much lower,
around 100100 kg per ha and less.
less. Natural fluctuations occur
occur from
from year
year to
to year
year (Villarreal
(Villarreal
and Guzmán,
and Guzman, 1985;
1985; Villarreal and Guzmán,
Villarreal and Guzman, 1986a; 1986b) and
1986a; 1986b) and without
without historical data
is difficult
it is difficult to draw any useful conclusions from a single year's production.
single year's production. There is is
aa clear
clear need
need to improve the quality
quality and
and range
range of
of data
data on
on yields.
yields. Concerns
Concerns have
have been
been
expressed about
expressed about "declining yields"
yields" yet there is also lack of
also a lack of published
published data
data that
that allow
allow
a closer examination
examination of the the impact
impact ofofcommercial
commercial collecting
collecting in
in Portugal
Portugal (Baptista-
(Baptista-
Ferreira, 1997)
1997) and the Russian Federation
Federation (Kovalenko,
(Kovalenko, 1997),
1997), for example.
example.

TABLE 10
TABLE
Yields of
Yields of wild
wild fungi from different
different countries
countries
COUNTRY DETAILS OF
DETAILS OF ANNUAL
ANNUALYIELDS
YIELDS AMOUNT (KG/HAl
AMOUNT (KG/HA) SOURCE

Russian Federation
Russian Federation "Most
"Most popular
popular (edible)
(edible) mushrooms"
mushrooms" 65-170 Vladyshevskiy, Laletin
Vladyshevskiy, Laletin and
(central Siberia)
Siberia) Vladyshevskiy, 2000
Vladyshevskiy,

Russian Federation
Russian Federation (a) Lactarius
(a) Lactarius torminosus,
torminosus, (b)
(b) "red-headed (a) 2-14
(a) Chibisov and Demidova,
Demidova,
(Arkhangelsk) ?Russula sp.
mushroom" - -?Russula
mushroom" sp. (b) 9 1998

Finland All edible

edible mushrooms
mushrooms at
atSotkamo
Sotkamo (a)
(a) 1976
1976 and
and (a) 30
(a) Koistinen, 1978
1978
(north) (b) 1977
1977 (b) 85

Finland
Finland Gyromitra esculenta (note fluctuations; 1973
esculenta (note and
1973 and 50-100 Jalkanen and Jalkanen,
Jalkanen, 1978
1978
1974 good;
good; 1975
1975 and 1976
1976 poor; 1977
1977 mediocre)
mediocre)

Estonia
Estonia Average for
Average for all
all edible
edible fungi
fungi at three sites, from
sites, from 124,
124, 499,143 Kalamees and
and Silver,
Silver, 1988
1988
(northwest) 81 *"
1978 to 81
1978to

Estonia
Estonia Average for
for (a) Suillus variegatus - one site and
(a) suillus 41
(a) 41 Kalamees and
and Silver,
Silver, 1988
1988
(northwest) (b) Lactarius
(b) Lactarius rufus
rufus -- three sites **
three sites (b) 20;
20; 24;
24; 405
405

Mexico All edible species from two sites

species from sites 85 Cruz and Zamora-
Lopez, Cruz
Lopez, Zamora-
Martinez, 1992
1992

Mexico All edible

edible species, two sites
species, two (a) and
sites (a) and (b)
(b) for 1983
1983 (a) 11 759; 234
234 Villarreal
Villarreal and
and Guzmán,
Guzman, 1985;
1985;
(Veracruz)
(Veracruz) and 1985
1985 respectively
respectively (b) 747; 180
180 1986a
1986a

Mexico (a) granulatus; (b) Cantharellus cibarius

Suillus granu/atus;
(a) Suillus 75
(a) 246; 75 Villarreal
Villarreal and
and Guzmán,
Guzman, 1985;
1985;
(Veracruz) (c) Amanita
(c) caesarea; (d) Boletos
Amanita caesarea; Boletus edulis
edulis (b)
(b) 4; 8 1986a
1986a
For 1983
1983 and 1985
1985 respectively (c) nd; 38
(c)
(d) 150; 9
(d)

United States
States (a)
(a) Tricholoma magnivelare; (b)
(b) Morchella spp.; (a) 3-15
(a) Pilz and
Pilz and Molina, 2002
2002
(Pacific northwest)
(Pacific northwest) (c)
(c) Cantharellus spp. (b) 1-6
(b)
(c) 2-
(c) 2- 0

Amounts are fresh weight or

are fresh or presumed
presumed to be
be so. Villarreal and
so. Villarreal and Guzman
Guzmándata
data based
basedon
onextrapolation
extrapolationfrom
fromtwo
two permanent
permanent plots
plots of
100m2
100 m' at each
each site.
* Insect reduces available
Insect damage reduces available harvest
harvest of
of non-L.
non-L. rufus
rufus edible species byaround
species by around 70
70 percent.
percent. nd
nd -- no data.
34 Wild
Wild edible
edible fungi:
fungi: aa global overview of their use and
and importance
importance to
to people
people

TABLE 11
TABLE
National production
National production of
of wild
wild edible fungi

COUNTRY
COUNTRY ITEM
ITEM (WILD EDIBLE
EDIBLE FUNGI) AMOUNT
AMOUNT SOURCE
(TONNES)
(TONNES)

Belarus
Bela rus "Resources" from
"Resources" from 1981
1981 to 1985
1985 53000
53 000 Malyi, 1987
1987

Canada Estimated annual

Estimated annual export
export 220-450 Geus, 1995
de Geus, 1995

Canada Chanterelles, boletes

Chanterelles, boletesand
and morels
morels "exported
"exported in a 1 000
1000 Wills and
and Lipsey,
Lipsey, 1999
1999
good year"

China Production
Producti on of
of boletes,
boletes, Lactarius
Lactarius deliciosus
deliciosus and
and 308 000
308000 Sun
Sun and Xu,
Xu, 1999
1999
"others" (?wild
(?wild edible
edible fungi):
fungi): 1998
1998

Estonia Average
Average annual export 1929-38
1929-38 22200
200 Peal,
Paal, 1999
1999

Finland Yields in (a)

(a) 1988,
1988, (b)
(b) 1992
1992 and
and (c)
(c) 1996
1996 (a)
(a) 1 050 Härkönen,
Harkbnen, 1998
1998
(b)
(b) 670
(c)
(c) 360

Poland Production of
Production of (wild) edible fungi in
in 1958
1958 3500
3 500 Bukowski, 1960
1960

Russian Collected annually by local people in

Collected in 19305
1930s 2040
2 040 Chibisov and Demidova,
Demidova, 1998
1998
Federation
(Arkhangelsk)

United States
States All wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungicollected
collected for
fortrade:
trade: 1992
1992 1776
1 776 Schlosser and Blatner, 1995
Schlosser and 1995
(WA, OR,
OR, ID)
ID)

Amounts are fresh

fresh weight or
or presumed
presumed to be be so in the absence
so in absenceof ofother
other information.
information. Production
Production data
data from
from boreal
borealand
and cold
cold temperate
temperate
countries, e.g.
countries, e.g. Lithuania,
Lithuania, vvere seentoo
were seen too late
late to be
be included
included in
in this
thistable
table(Lund,
(Lund,Pajari
Pajari and
andKorhonen,
Korhonen,1998).
1998). See
See Chapter
Chapter 4, section:
National and international trade,
trade, for
for related
related information
informationon onthe
thevalue
va lue of
ofwild
wilduseful
usefulfungi
fungi(edible
(edibleand
andmedicinal).
medicinal).

Table 11
Table 11 summarizes
summarizes national
national data
data on
on the
the amounts
amounts harvested
harvested of mostly commercial
species. Total production
species. Total production in
in any
any given
given period
period will
will be
be higher.
higher. Data
Data for
fordeveloping
developing
countries are poorly
poorly represented
represented andand an
an attempt
attempthashas been
been made
made to estimate
estimate the potential
potential
production
production forforTlaxcala
Tlaxcala state
state in
in Mexico,
Mexico, where
where wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi are
are widely
widely collected.
collected.
Tlaxcala has
has 83
83 000
000 ha
ha of forest of which 65 65 000 ha are conifers and broadleaves.
broadleaves. The
remaining area hashas only broadleaf species.
species. AA potential
potential yield of 1010 kg
kg per
per ha
ha per
per year
year for
for
all wild
all wild edible
edible fungi
fungi in the 65 000000 ha would provide a potential
potential harvest
harvest ofof 650
650 tonnes.
tonnes .
One ofof the
the main,
main, if not principal,
principal, limiting factors in how much is harvested and sold is
the time taken to collect
collect and bring the fungi to aa potential buyer.
buyer.
The important question of how how much
much ofof the
the total
total production
productionisis actually
actually harvested
harvested
any one year remains largely
in anyone largely unanswered,
unanswered, even
even for
for commercial
commercial species
species of
of wild
wild edible
edible
fungi.
fungi.

Inventory
Concerted efforts
efforts have been made to estimateestimate productivity of of commercial
commercial speciesspecies of
wild edible
edible fungi in North
NorthAmerica
America (Pilz
(Pilz and
andMolina,
Molina, 2002).
2002). Similar
Similar approaches were
used in Malawi to monitor
monitor production
productionofofedible
ediblespecies
species (Meke
(Meke in
in Boa
Boa et et al.,
at., 2000).
2000). A A
total of 250 50 m
25050 m xx 22 m
m plots
plots were
were assessed
assessedatatfive
fivenative
native(miombo)
(miombo)woodland
woodland sites sites from
from
1999
1999 to 2002
2002 and
and initial
initial results
results are
are available
available at
atwww.malawifungi.org.
www.malawifungi.org. Information
collected included
collected included the the number
number andand weight
weight of fruiting
fruiting bodies and their proximity to
bodies and to
trees (to examine mycorrhizal
mycorrhizal associations).
associations).
Fruiting
Fruiting bodies
bodies of macrofungi appear over
macrofungi appear over a potentially
potentially large
large area
area andand oneone
recommendation for for collecting
collecting yield data is to useuse long,
long, narrow
narrow plots,
plots, as
as noted
notedabove.
above.
This also
also minimizes
minimizes trampling
trampling damage
damage by field
field staff.
staff. The frequency
frequency of of observations
observations
depends
depends on when
when particular
particular species
species appear.
appear. Local
Local collectors
collectors have
have proved aa helpful
helpful
source of information
information in in Malawi.
Malawi.
More and better data are needed on yields and productivity to assist in drawing
yields and drawing up up
management plans.
plans. Further advice on methods for assessingassessingproduction
production of NWFPNWFP have
been published by by FAO
FAO(2001a).
(2001a).
Management:
Management: wild
wildedible
edible fungi,
fungi, trees,
trees, forest
forest users
users 35

Market surveys
surveys provide a guide to general productivity and are a simpler and lessless
costly way of collecting data, provided
collecting data, provided that significant amounts are
significant amounts are sold
sold to
to the
the public.
public.

PRACTICAL PLANNING: TO1NARDS

PRACTICAL TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION
The ultimate
ultimate aim
aim ofof managing
managing wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi is is to
to achieve
achieve sustainable
sustainable production.
The importance
importance of good good quality
quality data
data has
has been
been emphasized
emphasized and attention drawn to to
general issues
general issues of
of forest
forest management
management and and forest
forest users.
users. The first stepssteps inin formulating
formulating
a management
management plan plan are
are to describe and then analyse
describe and analyse the features
features of each
each production
Table 12
system. Table 12 suggests
suggests aa general
generalapproach
approach to to adopt
adopt with
with key questions to ask. ask.
Finland is
Finland is a rare
rare example
example of a country that that has
has actively
actively attempted
attempted to managemanage its
wild edible
edible fungi resources.
resources. They have actively
actively supported wild edible fungi fungi (together
with wild berries)
berries) since
since the
the Second
Second World
World War
War and theirtheir widely
widely published
published experiences
experiences
provide helpful pointers for other other countries.
countries. Mexico
Mexico has also shown a sustained sustained interest
interest
in managing wild edible fungi. fungi. Coordinated
Coordinated efforts
efforts have
have been
been made
made byby researchers
researchers and and
local and
local and regional government to understand the importance
regional government importance of of wild
wild edible
edible fungi and
manage
manage them for the benefit of people and the environment.
Much
Much of the the information
information required
required toto begin
begin thethemanagement
management planning
planning process
process is is
already available in countries such such asas China
China(Mao,
(Mao,1998)
1998) andand Turkey
Turkey(e.g.
(e.g. Gurer,
Gurer,2002,
2002,
personal communication:
personal Unpublished data
communication: Unpublished data on on wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi for
for Turkey).
Turkey). TheThe
former Soviet
former Soviet Union devoted
devoted much
much effort
effort totoinvestigating
investigating wild wild edible
edible fungi
fungi (Paal,
(Paal,
1998), although
1998), although perhaps
perhaps more
more from
from the viewpoint
viewpoint of the fungi fungi than
than their
their social
social and
and
economic
economic related
related features. This is
features. This is a general weakness in
general weakness in many
many countries
countries and an area area
where particular efforts are needed to improve knowledge.
Fair and equitable
equitable access
access to forests and forest resources
resources is issue. If people
is a critical issue.
believe they are
believe they are unfairly
unfairly excluded they may
excluded they may continue
continue to collect
collect but
but not
not observe
observe

TABLE 12
TABLE
Preparing management guidelines
Preparing management guidelinesfor
for wild
wild edible fungi

ToPIC
TOPIC QUESTIONS
QUESTIONS TO ASK/KEY POINTS

Ownership of
of forests
forests Public or private?
Public or private? State/region
State/region controlled
controlled oror under
under joint
joint management
management with with rural
people? As
people? As the
the number ofof stakeholders
stakeholders increases sothe
increases so the task
task of
of resolving
resolving who has
has
user rights
user rights and how
how these
these are
are moderated
moderated becomes
becomes more complex.
complex. Private
Private owners
may be
may be unaware
unaware of the value
value of
of WEF and this
WEF and this should
should be
be carefully explained so that
so that
they have
have realistic expectations about
realistic expectations about financial
financial returns
returns from
from potential
potential commercial
commercial
operations.

Relative importance
Relative importance of
of wild Commercial or personal? Firsti
Firstl consider the value
value of ofWEF
WEF by
by themselves
themselves and then then
edible fungi compare this
compare this with
with other
otherforest
forestproducts
productsand
andservices.
services. Review
Review allall WEF speciestogether
WEF species together
for
for preliminary
preliminary assessments
assessments and andlater
laterlook
lookmore
morecarefully
carefullyat
atthe
the value
valueofof different
different
types (which may
may vary
vary significantly).
significantly).Personal
Personal collections
collectionsinclude
includesubsistence
subsistence and
and
recreational uses (e.g. amateur
uses (e.g. amateur mycologists,
mycologists, field
field biologists).
Good and
Good and reliable data on on production
production and
and amounts
amounts harvested
harvested are
are essential
essential for
effective planning.
planning. IfIfthese
these data
datado
donot
notexist
existororare
arepatchy,
patchy,consult
consultcollectors
collectorstotoassess
assess
patterns of
of previous
previous use
use and
and consider
consider an inventory
inventory based
based on
on aa system
system of sample
sample plots.

Collectors and
Collectors and their practices
practices People profiles
People profiles and harvesting methods. Who are are the
the collectors:
collectors: are they local
local or
or
hired labour
labour brought
broughtininfrom
fromother
otherplaces?
places?Examine
Examine the
the harvesting
harvesting practices
practices and
and
assesstheir
assess theirimpact
impact on
on WEF
WEFresources
resourcesandandthe
theforest
forest and
and trees.
trees. Review
Reviewthe the need
need
to change
change practices and how collectors
practices and collectors could be
be encouraged
encouraged to to use
use less
less harmful
methods. Look
Look carefully at the other
other features
features of
ofcollector
collectorlivelihoods
livelihoodsso sothat
thatWEF
WEF can
can
be put inin wider
wider contexts.
contexts.

Legislation and regulations

Legislation Collecting permits
permits and
and right
rightofofaccess.
access. How
How are
are collections
collections of
ofWEF
WEF regulated
regulated and
and
do the current
current laws
laws support
support sustainable
sustainable use? The key
use? The keyprinciple
principle isisfair
fair and
and equitable
equitable
accesstotoforest
access forest resources
resourceswhich
which maintains
maintains a healthy balance between
between use use of
ofWEF
WEF and
and
other forest
forest uses. Examinecurrent
uses. Examine current legislation
legislation to
to see whether it is
see whether is enforceable and
reflects current needs
needs of users. Theguiding
users. The guiding principal
principal is
is pragmatism:
pragmatism: regulations
regulations that
that
work.
work .

Production and financial value

value Volume and value. Assess thison
Assess this onaanational
national scale
scalesince
sincedata
datawill
will be
be used
usedtoto develop
develop
government policies.
government policies. Weak
Weak data
data lead
lead to
to weak
weakpolicies
policiesand
andmanagement
managementofofWEF WEFhashas
been
been hampered
hampered by wrong perceptions
perceptions and knowledge
knowledge of ofcollecting
collectingpractices
practices and
and
their importance,
importance, particularly to rural
rural communities.
communities.
36 Wild
Wild edible
edible fungi:
fungi: aa global overview of
of their use
use and
and importance
importance to
to people
people

BOXS
BOX 5
Practical inventory: experiences
PractiCal.irtyentory: experiences from from Malawi
Malawi
An extensive review of
ive review of inventorysf~dies
inventory studies for for NWFP has revealed revealed the the poor quality
quality data
data that
that often
often
emerge atat the end of studies,
studies, and
and highlighted
highlighted the the general
generalpaucity
paucityof ofinformation
informationon onproductivity
productivity (FAO(FAO
2001a). This
200la). This isis aa critical
critical issue
issue ififforesters
foresters are
are to
to understand
understand the impact of harvesting practices on wild
fungi and to resolve
edible fungi resolve the competing
competing claims commercial interests
claims of commercial interests and
and other
other groups
groups that have
an instinctive suspicion of collectors (which (which often
often includes
includes thethe foresters
foresters themselves).
themselves).
:tV1~lawi, enumerators were hired in to
In Malawi, to collect
collect data from four major major sites.
sites. There were few major
problems
proi?lems apart
apart from
from thethe failure
failure of data collection
ofd::a collection at at one
one site
site which
which.was was resolved the next next year when
when aa
loca!0 non-governmental organiza~iq~.
local ngn-governmental organization (NGO)(NGO) helped. It took took at at least
least one season for all concerned
concerned to
be~gBS$J~miliar
become familiar withwith protoc~lsa~dj; f;$thniques. The rains
protocols and techniques. rains werepoor,inthe
were poor in the second and third year ye~r and
prod~~tivity
productivity consequently
consequentlylow. low. A good knowledge
Ago9d knowledgeof oflocal
localandandscientific
·scientific names
names ofof wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi
was a major benefit in interpreting the data. data.
The cost of of travelling
travelling to the the four
four sites
sites was
was high;
high; fuel
fuel isis expensive Malawi and
expensive in Malawi and budgets
budgets should
should
be calculated
calculated before finalizing
finalizing thethe location
location of plots. There may may be be little advantage
advantage in travelling
travelling afar
unless these sites are significantly
significantly different
different from
from those closer at hand. A computer computer datadata entry
entrysystem
system
was created at the very beginning
beginning and and was invaluable allowing yield
invaluable in allowing yield data
data to
to be
be entered swiftly and
accurately. It soon
soon became
became clear if wrongwrong data had been entered or or if there were unexplained gaps.
ifthere gaps. The
supervisors
supervisqrsused used this information to suggest improvements improvements in how enumerators e.numerators collected
collected data and
reI)Qrt~atheresults,
reported the results.
Analysis of the data and drawing conclusions have provedmoreI~~~iCtllt
have proved more difficult to to achieve,
achieve, partly
partly because
because
thef'~~ple
the people involved in the work worked '; far apart
apart and
and data collectio~was
data collection was continued up to the end end of
of
p~~ject.It
the project. It would
would havehave been bett~~?in
been better, in retrospect,
retrospect, to to stop
stopdata
datacollection
collectionearlier
earlier and
and toto give
give aa longer
perio~ottime
period of time (six(six months) for data dataan~lysis.
analysis.
More could be be done to provide practical advice
done to provide practical advice onon how
how to to take
takeinventories
inventories of ofwild
wild edible
edible fungi.
fungi.
There is a lot of of useful
useful information
informati0Il available
available on NWFPNWFP (FAO, (FAO, 2001a),
200la), but there
there is
is as
as yet no
no simple,
simple,
practical guide
guide that would encourageencourage more people people to measure
measure productivity and show them how to to
perform simple analyses
np,rt""rn simple analyses of the the data.
.

regulations
regulatians .oror pay permits
permits or .ortaxes.
taxes. People
Peaple routinely
rautinely avoid
avaid paying
payingofficial
.official taxes
taxes in
in
Italy when harvesting
Italy harvesting Boletus edulis and
Boletus edulis and truffles
truffles (Hall
(Hall et al., I998b).
1998b). Exclusion
Exclusian can can
also
alsa turn toto resentment.
resentment. InIn northwest
narthwest Spain
Spain in
in 2001,
2001, aa truffle
truffle site
site was
was crudely raked
overnight and
.overnight and "spoiled"
"spailed" for
far collection
callectian because previous resident
because a previaus resident .ofof an area waswas no
na
longer
langer allowed
all awed to obtain
.obtain aa collector's
collector's permit
permit for
far his
hisformer
farmervillage
village (de
(de Román,
Raman, 2002,2002,
personal
persanal communication:
cammunicatian: TradeTrade in niscalos from North
niscalos from North Spain
Spain toto Catalonia and and truffle
truffle
production).
production) .
The Scottish
Scattish Wild Mushraam
Mushroom Code'
Cadel provides
provides thethe following
fallawing guidelines
guidelines to
ta collectors
callectors
of edible and non-edible
.of nan-edible species:
species:
only pick what you
• .only yau will
will use;
use; wildlife need mushrooms
mushraams too; toa;
do not
• da nat pick until the
the cap
cap has
has opened
.opened out,
aut, and
and leave
leave those
thase that are past their best;
best;
care nat
• take care not to damage the main part of mushroom below
.of the mushraam belaw the
the surface
surface and not
nat
to
ta damage
damage its surroundings;
surraundings;
• scatter trimmings discreetly in the same area area the mushraam
mushroom came from;
only pick what you
• .only yau know
knaw andand take a field
field guide
guide tato identify
identify mushraams
mushrooms where yyou au
find them; some
same mushrooms
mushraams are poisonous
paisanaus and rare ones .ones should
shauld not
nat be
be picked;
picked;
• please .observe
observe special
special canditians
conditions that may apply to ta nature
nature reserves.
reserves.
Codes of
Cades .of practice are useful but again must be realistic if they are ta to be adopted.
adapted.
The loss
lass of
.of native
native forests
farests reduces
reduces the
the potential
patential production
praductian of
.of wild
wild edible
edible fungi.
fungi.
Planting
Planting exotic
exatic trees
trees opens
.opens up new
new possibilities,
passibilities, some
same of
.of which
which have
have already
already been
been

'7 Available
Available at:
at: wwwsbge.org.uk/researchkeltica/fungi/sustainability.htm.
www.rbge.org.uk/research/celtica/fungi/sustainability.htm.
Management: wild
w ild edible
edible fungi,
fungi, trees,
trees, forest users 37
- -- - - - - - -~ - - - - -- - -- -----

exploited. Boletus
exploited. edulis has
Boletus edulis has been
been introduced
introduced to South Africa and a small export trade
has been established
has established (Pott,
(Pott, 2002,
2002, personal
personal communication:
communication: Export
Export ofofBoletus
Boletus edulis
edulis
from South
South Africa).
Africa). This fungus is is not
not eaten
eaten locally.
locally. A eucalypt species
species from Australia,
planted in Madagascar,
planted Madagascar, hashas formed
formed mycorrhizal associations wllh
mycorrhizal associations with aa "native" edible
edible
Russula (Buyck, 2001).
2001). Similar
Similarinteractions
interactions involving
involving other
other wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi have
have been
been
observed in West Africa (Ducousso, Ba Ba and Thoen,
Thoen, 2002).
2002).
Planting exotic species does not, therefore, necessarily
species does impoverish the local
necessarily impoverish local mycota
(Ryvarden, Pierce
(Ryvarden, Pierce and Masuka,
Masuka, 1994) and may significantly
1994) and increase opportunities
significantly increase opportunities for
collecting WEF,
collecting WEF, asas has
has happened
happened withwith the
the planting
planting of Pinus
Pinus nigra in northwest Spain
Spain
and the commercial
commercial markets for Lactarius
Lactarius deliciosus that have
deliciosus that have developed
developed over
over the
the last
last
thirty years
years (de(de Roman,
Roman, 2002,
2002, personal
personal communication:
communication: Trade
Trade ininnéscalos
niscalos from North
North
Spain to
Spain to Catalonia
Catalonia and truffle production).
production). New
New Zealand
Zealand has
hasseized
seizedthe
theopportunity
opportunity toto
introduce edible
edible mycorrhizal
mycorrhizal fungi,
fungi, and
and the
thelack
lackofofcompeting
competingnative
nativespecies
species of
offungi
fungi isis
as aa positive
seen as positive opportunity
opportunity in in support
supportof ofcommercialization
commercialization(Hall
(Halland
andWang,
Wang, 2002).
2002).
38
38
PLATE
PLATE 4
TRUFFLE
TRUFFLE COLLECTING
COLLECTING IN ITALY
ITALY

The collection and cultivation of Tuber spp.

spp. is
is of commercial
commercial importance.
importance.Truffle
Trufflephotographs
photographsare
arefrom
fromUrbino,
Urbino,
Marche in Italy, and are of Tuber aestivum unless otherwise stated. All photos by
by Eric
Eric Boa.
Boa.

4i
4.1 Luna uncovers the
the truffles
truffles and
and awaits
awaits 4.2 Pierluigi displays thc
the truffles after
after 4.3 The clearing is
is aa truffle
truffle "orchard",
a reward. Dogs are
are easier to handle and digging them
digging them upup with the long-handled tartufaia
tartufaia (It.)
(It.) or
ortruffière
truffiere (Fr.).
(Fr.). Trees
Trees are
cause less damage than pigs
less damage tool. It has
has aa curved blade
blade at the
the end.
end. infected artificially
artificially with the fungus.
fungus .

4.4 Marking the test

test taken
taken by
by titruffle
uffle 4.5 Tuber aestivum, cut open ro
to show
show 4.6 The suppressed
suppressed vegetation
vegetation (brulée),
(brutee),
collectors in
collectors in Bologna
Bologna to
to confirm they flesh.
distinctive flesh. suggests Tuber
suggests Tuber aestivum is present.
know how and where to harvest.

Tuber excavatum,
4.7 Tuber excavatum, largely
largely worth- 4.8 Some truffle collectors raise and train
raise and 4.9 Tuber magnatum forfor sale
sale as
as a luxury
less.
less. Not all truffles are equally prized. their own dogs. Elvisio also sells
sells to
to other food, costing around US$35
US$35 per jar.
jar.
Present at the
the same
same site
site as
as T
T aestzvum.
aestivum. collectors.
 39
39
PLATE
PLATE 5
THE BOLETUS EDULIS
THE TRADE IN BOLETUS

These valuable and sought after wild fungi grow around the
valuable and the world
world yet
yet are
are not
noteaten
eaten in
incountries
countries such
suchasas Malawi.
Malawi.
The trade is
is dominated
dominated byby Italians,
Italians, both
bothatathome
home(factories)
(factories) and
and overseas
overseas (as
(as traders). Huge volumes are imported
imported
from China, eastern Europe and and southern
southern Africa.
Africa. Known
Known in in Italian
Italian as
as porcini, they are
porcini, they are dried
dried and
and sold presenTed,
preserved,
sometimes in
sometimes in mixtures
mixtures with other
other Boletos
Boletus species and other cultivated
species and cultivated mushrooms.
mushrooms . All photographs from from Borgo
Borgo
Val de Toro,
Val de Toro, Parma,
Parma, Italy,
Italy, unless
unless stated
stated otherwise, and taken by Eric Boa. Boa.

5.1 B.
5.1 edulis: produced
B. edulis: produced in abundance yet 5.2
5.2 Fresh
Fresh porcini
porcini being
being prepared for 5.3
5.3 Porcini
Porcini cooked and ready for
not eaten or collected.
collected. Pine plantation, cooking and preservation in brine, prior bottling ..
bottling..
Zomba plateau,
plateau, Malawi.
Malawi. to being sold.
to

5.4
5.4 Preparing
Preparing jars
jars of
of porcini and
and other 5.5 A range of mushroom products,
5.5 5.6 Dried
Driedand
andpreserved
preservedporcini
porcinion
onsale.
sale.
mushrooms. chanterelles and
including chanterelles and paddy straw.

5.7
5.7 Permits
Permits are
are required
required to
to collect
collect wild 5.8 Dried
5.8 Dried porcini
porcini from
from several
several countries 5.9
5.9 Porcini
Porcini and other mushrooms inin
fungi in this valley.
valley.Residents
Residentsand
andproperty
property are
are carefully
carefully graded.
graded. brine, as
as imported from overseas.
overseas.
owners pay less compared to "outsiders".
"outsiders" .

5.10
5.10 Other
Otherspecies
species of
of Boletos
Boletus are
are some-
some- 5.11 Pholiota nameko from China, also
5.11 Pholiota also 5.12
5.12 Young
Young specimens of porcini in
times mixed with
with porcini
porcini and
and sold,
sold. sold in mixtures with
with porcini.
porcini. brine.
 41

4 Importance
Importance to
topeople:
people:food,
food,
income, trade
income,

WILD EDIBLE
EDIBLE FUNGIFUNGI AND LIVELIHOODS
LIVELIHOODS
This chapter looks at
This at the
the -ways
ways in in which wild edible edible fungi
fungi areare important to people,people,
particularly those
particularly those in developing countries, and attempts to relate this information to the
way in which people live. Development support is is adopting
adopting new new approaches
approaches towards
helping
helping poor peoplepeople in in devloping
devloping countries.
countries. Pragmatic
Pragmatic and practicalpractical approaches
approaches to to
reducing poverty
poverty seekseek improvements
improvementssooner soonerrather
ratherthanthanlater.
later.Wild
Wildedible
edible fungi
fungi already
already
play an important
importantrole roleininthe
thelives
lives of
of many
many people
people and and more
more benefits
benefits could
could bebe achieved.
achieved .
A knowledge of the fungi fungi themselves
themselves is is important but but will
will not
not of
of itself
itself lead to changes
unless the choices
choices andand options
optionsdefined
definedby bylivelihoods
livelihoodsare areclosely
closelyexamined
examined(Box (Box 6)8.
6)8.
Wild edible fungi provide
edible fungi provide two main benefits benefits to people:
people: they are are aa source
source of of food
food
and income.
income. Around
Around six six percent
percentof ofedible
ediblespecies
species also
also have
have medicinal
medicinal properties
properties (next
(next
section; Table
section; Table 14).14). This
This contribution
contribution to human human welfare
welfare is is difficult
difficult toto assess
assess and has has
received little
received little attention.
attention. The medicinal
medicinal properties
properties of of mycorrhizal
mycorrhizal fungi fungi have
have not
not been
been
well investigated
investigated (Reshetnikov,
(Reshetnikov, WasserWasser and andTan,
Tan, 2001).
2001).
The aw-areness
awareness of ofwild
wild edible
ediblefungifungi andand their
their importance
importance to to people are generally
generally
poor. Subsistence
Subsistence uses uses in developing countries have
developing countries have often
often been
been ignored
ignored and and it is only
in recent years that initiatives
initiatives on NWFP NWFP have have begun
begun to to explain
explain their
their widespread
widespread use use
and roles
and roles in livelihoods.
livelihoods. There There hashas been
been much
much interest
interest in in the last years
years surrounding
surrounding
commercial harvesting
commercial harvestingofof matsutake
matsutake in in the
the Pacific
Pacific northwest
northwest of North NorthAmerica,
America,
supported by by aa substantial
substantial literature.
literature. However,
However, matsutake and the the continued
continued interest
interest
in truffles and truffle cultivation (Hall, (Hall, Zambonelli
Zambonelli and and Primavera,
Primavera, 1998) reflect aa very
1998) reflect very
different pattern
pattern of of use,
use, where
where wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi are
are seen
seen as a luxury food.
Beyond the glare of publicity of commercial harvests, information from development development
initiatives - for example China, Mexico and Turkey - has slowly
projects and national initiatives
been emerging. Commercial harvesting also benefits rural people people in in several
several countries
countries
but the
the sum
sum of of the
the money
money earned
earned is is less
less than the total benefits
benefits gained from widespread
subsistence uses. Substantial
subsistence uses. Substantial benefits
benefits are are derived
derived by people in developing developing countries,
countries,
and in particular the most most vulnerable
vulnerable communities
communities living living in rural locations - the "poor
of the poor".
poor".
Global
Global statistics
statistics areare not available
available and and the evidence
evidence to to support
support statements
statements about
widespread benefits isis based
widespread benefits first on
based first on case
case studies,
studies, discussed
discussed in more more detail
detail below,
below,
and second on more more anecdotal
anecdotal accounts.
accounts. Information has been been poorly documented
documented
in the past
past because
because of fewer fewer opportunities for for scientists
scientists to to study
study wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi inin
developing
developing countries. There have have alsoalso been
been cultural
cultural biases
biases against
against wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi
and an often
often unjustified
unjustified assumption
assumption that that they
theyareareof ofminor
minorimportance
importance(Piearce,
(Piearce, 1985;
1985;
Wasson
Wasson and Wasson,
Wasson, 1957).1957).The The latter
latter publication
publication has has done
done much to stimulate
stimulate wider
interest and
and more
more research
research(Table
(Table 13).
13).
Donor-funded projects on wild wild edible
edible fungi
fungi inin the
the United
United Republic
Republic of of Tanzania
Tanzania
(Flärkönen et
(Harkonen et al.,
aI., 1993),
1993), Malawi (Boa et al., 2000) and Benin (De Kesel, 2002, 2002, personal
personal

8 See www.livelihoods.org for

See www.livelihoods.org for further
further information and explanations of what is known as as the sustainable
livelihoods approach. Throughout
Throughout this
this chapter
chapterlivelihoods
livelihoods isis used
used in
in the
the broad
broadsense
sense of
of the
the means
means by
by
which people live.
live.
42 Wild edible
Wild edible fungi:
fungi: aa global
global overview
overview of
of their
their use
use and
and importance to people
people

BOX
BOX 66
Development projects
projects and
and wild
wild edible fungi
edihlefungi
Two
Two different approaches
approaches to wild edible fungi
fungi are
are compared.
compared. In
In the first hypothetical project, all the
species of wild edible fungi in a region are described and and nutritional
nutritionalcharacteristics
characteristicsare
areanalysed.
analysed. Local
Local
names are gathered and general
general observations
observations made
made about
about local
local marketing.
marketing.
In the second
second project, researchers
researchers assess sources of food and income for local communities.
assess sources communities. They
compare their relative importance and examine the the opportunities
opportunities and constraints to improved nutritionnutrition
and income, which
which include
include edible
edible fungi.
fungi. New
New schemes
schemes and
and initiatives
initiatives are
are agreed
agreed and piloted.
The two
two approaches
approaches are complementary
complementary but but the
the first project does
does not
not lead
lead toto change
change inin local
local
practices.
practices. The second project seeks to make make improvements
improvements to to the
the way
way people
people live
live based
based on
on available
available
information. More improvements
information.;\More improvements mightmight be
be achieved
achieved ifif better
bettertechnical knowledg~ was
technical knowledge avai~aple,
was available,
yet local
local communities
communities can can still
still plan
plan new
new initiatives
initiatives using
using local
local names
names for wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi or
or seek
seek
efficiencies in local
efficiencies in local marketing
marketing based
based on a clear
clear understanding of local practices
practices and opportunities.

communication: Wild
communication: Wild edible
ediblefungi
fungi from
from Benin)
Benin) havehave takentaken aa broader viewview of social
social
and economic
and economic issues related to
issues related to wild
wild edible
edible fungi.
fungi. National
National programmes
programmes in Mexico Mexico
have established aa sound
have established sound knowledge
knowledge of the many many species
species of wildwild edible
edible fungi
fungi usedused
throughout the the country
country(Villarreal
(Villarreal and and Perez-Moreno,
Perez-Moreno, 1989). 1989). Research
Research attention
attention is is
now being turned on on social
social and economic factors, encouraged by a wider awareness awareness of of
the importance of NWFP NWFP to to rural
ruraleconomies
economies and and people.
people.
The importance
importance of of wild edible fungi to people in developing countries may also have
gone unremarked for the the simple
simple reason
reason that many many of of the
the collections
collections areare for
for personal
personal
use (Yorou and De De Kesel,
Kesel, 2002).
2002). The limited
limited mycological
mycological expertise
expertise in West
West Africa
Africa is is
said to be responsible for the mistaken belief belief that
that itit isisaa"mushroom
"mushroom desert"
desert" (Ducousso,
Ba and Thoen, 2002).
2002). Reports from Ghana Ghana (Obodai
(Obodaiand andApetorgbor,
Apetorgbor,2001)2001) and and Sierra
Sierra
Leone (Down, 2002, 2002, personal
personal communication:
communication: Wild Wild edible fungi from Sierra Sierra Leone)
Leone)
indicate
indicate that local use is widespread.
widespread. The The regular
regular use use of wild edible fungi fungi in tropical
rain forests was revealed careful observations local practices were undertaken
revealed when careful observations of local practices were undertaken
in Brazil (Prance, 1984), now supported
1984), now supported by by evidence
evidence from from Kalimantan
Kalimantan (Leluyani,
(Leluyani, 2002,2002,
personal communication:
communication: EdibleEdible fungi
fungi ofofKalimantan)
Kalimantan) and andSarawak
Sarawak (Chin,
(Chin, 1988;
1988; Jones,
2002,
2002, personal communication: Wild edible fungi use use in in Sarawak).
Information is
Information is published
published in in aa number
number of of different
different places
places oror disciplines
disciplines (Table
(Table 2) 2) and
is sometimes presented in broader broader studies
studies ofofcommunities
communities (e.g. (e.g. Shackleton
Shackleton et et al.,
a!., 2002:
2002:
South Africa;
Africa; Ertrug, 2000: Turkey; Gunatilleke,
2000: Turkey; Gunatilleke, Gunatilleke
Gunatilleke and Abeygunawardena,
1993: Sri
1993: SriLanka).
Lanka).These
Theseandandmany
many other
other reports
reports listed in the reference section emphasize emphasize
that the contributions of wild edible fungi
that fungi to diet and income rural people
income of rural people should
should
not bebe underestimated.
underestimated.
The following sections take
following sections take aa closer
closer look
look at the types types of of benefits
benefits obtained
obtained from from
wild edible fungi.
fungi. Their relative
relative contributions to to livelihoods
livelihoods vary vary greatly.
greatly. A A meal
meal of of
wild mushrooms is aa delicacydelicacy in Switzerland
Switzerland or the United United States
States but
but aa necessity
necessity in in
Malawi. TheThe money earned from from selling
selling Lactarius
Lactarius deliciosus
deliciosus provides a small financial financial
fillip
fillip in northern
northern Spain
Spain (de
(de Roman,
Roman, 2002,2002, personal
personal communication:
communication: Trade Trade in in niscalos
niscalos
from North
North Spain
Spain toto Catalonia
Cataloniaand andtruffle
truffleproduction)
production) while while collecting
collecting morels
morels in in India
India
allows people
allows people to pay for sending their children children to to school
school (Singh
(Singh and Rawat,
Rawat, 2000).
2000).
The importance of of wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi from
from aa development
development perspective
perspective is is defined
defined by by
comparison with other other sources
sources of food and income. Alternatives do exist exist and
and proposals
proposals
to increase the use
increase the use and benefits
benefits of wild edible edible fungi
fungi will always be
will always be compared
compared with with
available options. The lure of jobs in the
available options. The lure of jobs in the tourist trade in Hunan, China, is an attractive
China, is an attractive
alternative to
alternative to climbing
climbing up up and
and down
down mountains,
mountains, with with no guarantee
guarantee of finding
finding wildwild
edible fungi
edible fungi toto sell
sell (Härkönen,
(Harkonen, 2002). 2002). TheThe contraction
contraction of of job
job opportunities
opportunities in in the
the
 to people:
Importance to people: food,
food, income,
income, trade 43

TABLE 13
13
Ethnoscientific studies
Ethnoscientific studies of
of wild
wild fungi with
withedible
edibleand
and medicinal
medicinal properties
properties

COUNTRY
COUNTRY WILD FUNGI
WILD FUNGI EMPHASIS
EMPHASIS SOURCE

Australia Useful
Useful (includes edible) species
(includes edible) speciesinin aboriginal
aboriginal culture Kalotas, 1997
Kalotas,
Balkan region
Balkan Medicinal
Medicinal species:
species: study of of eastern
eastern Slays
Slavs Didukh, 2001
2001
Brazil Study of
of Sanama
Sanama Indians
Indians (includes
(includes edible
ediblespecies)
species) Fidalgo and Prance,
Prance, 1976
1976
Canada
Canada Aboriginal plantplant use,
use, including edible and and medicinal wild fungi
medicinal wild Marles et
Maries etal.,
al., 2000
2000
China Comparison of
Comparison of Hunan
Hunan and and China
China (mostly
(mostlyedible
ediblespecies)
species) Härkönen, 2002
Hark6nen,
Guatemala Folklore concerning AmanitaAmanita muscaria
muscaria Lowy,
Lowy, 1974
General Fungi in folk medicine
Fungi in medicine Birks,
Birks, 1991
General The origins of
The of ethnomycology,
ethnomycology, as as aa discipline
discipline Davis,
Davis, 2000
General (Mexico)
(Mexico) Personal stories of
Personal stories of ethnomycology, myths myths and
and ceremonies
ceremonies Riedlinger, 1990
Riedlinger, 1990
Himalaya, eastern
Himalaya, Edible
Edible fungi of of medicinal
medicinal value
value Boruah and Singh,
Singh, 2001
2001
India Fungi in
Fungi in folk
folk medicine Vaidya and Rabba,
Rabba, 1993
1993
India, central Ethno-myco-medicinals Rai,
Rai, Ayachi
Ayachi and Rai,
Rai, 1993
1993
Japan Usesofoffungi
Uses fungi and
and lichens
lichens byby Ainu Yokoyama, 19751975
Malawi Edible, medicinal and species
Edible, used for
species used for ceremonial purposes
purposes Morris, 1992
1992
Mexico Medicinal mushrooms:
Medicinal traditions, myths
mushrooms: traditions, and knowledge
myths and Guzman,
Guzmán, 20012001
Nepal General observations (mainly(mainly edible
ediblespecies)
species) Adhikari and
and Durrieu,
Durrieu, 1996
1996
Nigeria Medicinal practices
practices in Yoruba
Yoruba culture Oso,
Oso, 1977
Papua
Papua New Guinea Mainly concerned
concerned withwith edible
ediblespecies
species Sillitoe, 1995
1995
Peru Fungi, mostly
Fungi, mostly edible,
edible, part
part of
of ethnobotanical study Franquemont et et at.,
al., 1990
1990
Poland Polish folk
Polish folk medicine Grzywnowicz, 20012001
Russian Federation
Russian Federation Khanty folk
Khanty folk medicine
medicine Saar,
Saar, 1991
Russian Federation,
Russian Federation, Medicinal mushrooms
Medicinal mushrooms in in nature Bulakh, 2001
2001
far east
east
Tanzania (United
Tanzania Comparesuse
Compares useofofwild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi with
with customs
customs in Hunan
Hunan in
in Hark6nen,
Härkönen, 2002;
2002;
Republic of) China Härkönen, Niemelä
Hark6nen, Niemela and
2003
Mwasumbi, 2003
Turkey Edible fungi,
Edible fungi, part of an ethnobotanical study Ertrug, 2000
2000
Zambia Customsand
Customs and folklore
folklore about
about mostly
mostly edible
edible species
species Piearce, 1981
1981

Note: See
Note: Seealso
alsoVolume
Volume33(1-2)
(1-2)of
of the
the International Journal of
of Medicinal
Medicinal Mushrooms
Mushrooms for abstracts
abstracts from aa conference
conference on medicinal
medicinal
mushrooms,
mushrooms, many
many of
of w hich have a ethnoscientific
which ethnoscientific slant.
slant.

forestry business
business does
does not
not mean
mean that
thatcollecting
collecting wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi isis either
either an
an attractive
attractive
or economic
economlC proposition,
proposltlon, even
even to people
people desperate
desperate for work
work (Tedder,
(Tedder, Mitchell and
Mitchell and
Farran,
Farran, 2002).
2002).

NUTRITION AND
ANDHEALTH
HEALTHBENEFITS
BENEFITS
Useful
Useful macrofungi consist of
macrofungi consist of those with edible
edible and
and medicinal
medicinal properties'.
properties 9 • There is
is
no easy distinction between the
no the two
two categories.
categories. Many
Many of
of the
the common
common edible
edible species
species
have therapeutic
have therapeutic properties; several
several medicinal mushrooms are also eaten
medicinal mushrooms eaten (Table
(Table 14).
14).
Ganoderma species
Ganoderma (ling zhi or
species (ling or reishi)
reishi) are
are the
the most
mostvaluable
valuable medicinal
medicinal mushrooms
mushrooms
(Plate 9):
(Plate 9): the
the global
global value
value of
of ganoderma-based
ganoderma-based dietary supplements has been estimated
to be US$1.6 billion (Chang and and Buswell,
Buswell, 1999).
1999).
Lentinula edodes
edodes and Volvariella
Volvariella volvacea are -widely cultivated edible
widely cultivated edible fungi
fungi with
with
medicinal properties. Only
medicinal Only Inonotus
Inonotus obliquus,
obliquus, out
outofofthe
the25
25 medicinal
medicinal species
species listed in
Table 14,
14, appears
appears not
not to be cultivated. Of
Of the
the 182
182 medicinal fungi
fungi reported in Annex 3
only 55 percent
percent are
are ectomycorrhizal
ectomycorrhizal (see
(see Reshetnikov,
Reshetnikov, Wasser
Wasser and Tan,
Tan, 2001).
2001). This
is probably an
is an underestimate
underestimate (Mao,
(Mao, 2000)
2000) since
since research
research efforts
efforts have
have concentrated
concentrated
on saprobic
saprobic species that can be
species that be cultivated,
cultivated, thus providing
providing a guaranteed
guaranteed supply and
uniformity of product.
There has been a spectacular increase of interest and commercial
commercial activity concerned
with dietary supplements, functional foods
supplements, functional foods and
and other
other products
products that are "more
"more than
than

9 Ceremonial, religious and

and other non-practical uses
usesof
ofwild
wild fungi are of relative
are of relative minor
minor importance and
and
are not discussed
are discuss ed here
here (see
(seeDavis,
Davis,1996
1996and
andRiedlinger,
Riedlinger,1990,
1990,for
formore
more information).
information).
44 Wild edible
Wild edible fungi:
fungi: aa global overview of
of their use
use and
and importance
importance to
to people
people
--------------------------------------------

TABLE 14
TABLE
Nutritional composition of some
some wild edible fungi
COMPOSITION, PERCENTAGE
CONIPOSITION, PERCENTAGE DRY
DRY WEIGHT

BINOMIAL COUNTRY
COUNTRY PROTEIN CARBOHYDRATE
CARBOHYDRATE FAT MINERAL MATTER
MINERAL MAUER (ASH)

Amanita
Amanita caesarea
caesarea France? (1)
France? 15 nk 14
14 10
Amanita loosii
Amanita loosii Democratic Republic
Democratic Republic of
of 20 nk nk nk
the Congo
Congo (2)
(2)
Amanita rubescens
rubescens Mexico (3)
Mexico 18
18 nk nk nk
Boletus edulis Turkey (7)
(7) 38
38 47 9
9 1

Boletus edulis Finland (8) 23 nk 2

2 77
Boletus erythropus Jordan (5)
(5) 15 57 1 88
Boletus frostii
Boletus frostii Mexico (3) 16 nk nk nk
Boletus loyo Chile (12)
(12) 22 50 1 66
Cantharellus cibarius Turkey (6)
(6) 21 62 55 22
Cantharellus cibarius Democratic Republic
Democratic Republic of 15 64 55 13
the Congo
Congo (10)
(10)
Lactarius phlebophyllum United Republic
United of
Republic of 30 51
51 9
9 5
5
Tanzania (7)
(7)
Lactarius deliciosus France? (1)
France? 23 nk 7
7 6
Lactarius deliciosus Chile (4)
Chile 27 28
28 7
7 6
Lactarius indigo Mexico (3) 13 nk nk nk
Lactarius torminosus Finland (8) 21
21 nk 22 7
Lactarius piperatus
Lactarius piperatus Turkey (6)
(6) 27 65 22 1

Ramaria
Ramaria flava Mexico (3) 14
14 nk nk nk
Ramaria
Ramaria flava Finland (8) 24
24 nk 22 6
Russula cyanoxantha France? (1)
France? 17
17 nk 88 8
Russula delica
Russula India (9) 17
17 nk
nk nk nk
Russula sp.
sp. Republic of
Democratic Republic 29 55 66 6
the Congo
Congo (10)
(10)
Suillus luteus Chile (4)
(4) 20
20 57
57 4 6
6

Suillus granulatus
Suillus granulatus Chile (4)
(4) 14
14 70
70 22 6
Terfezia c/averyi
claveryi Iraq (11) 88 17
17 nk 10
Termitomyces microcarpus 11 United Republic of 49
49 29
29 10
10 11
Tanzania (7)
(7)
Termitomyces microcarpus
Termitomyces microcarpus 22 United Republic
Republic of 35
35 37
37 66 23
Tanzania (7)
(7)
Termitomyces microcarpus
Termitomyces Democratic Republic
Republic of 33
33 38
38 5
5 14
the Congo
Congo (10)
(10)
Tricholoma populinum
Tricholoma populinum Canada (13)
(13) 13
13 70
70 99 7
Tricholoma saponaceum France? (1) 5
5 nk 77 8
Tirmania nívea
Tirmania nivea Iraq (11) 14
14 21 nk 5
5

nk - not
notknown.
known.Figures
Figures rounded
rounded to
tonearest
nearest whole
whole number.
number.
Sources: (1) Kiger, 1959
Sources: (1) assumed to
1959 - assumed to have
have tested
tested specimens
specimensfrom
from France
France but
but not stated; (2)
(2) Degreef
Degreef et
etal.,
al.,1997;
1997; (3)
(3) Leon-Guzman,
Leon-Guzman,
Silva and Lopez, 1997; (4)
(4) FAO,
FAO, 1998b;
1998b; (5)
(5) Ereifej
Ereifej and
and AI-Raddad,
Al-Raddad, 2000; (6) Caglarirmak,
2000; (6) Caglarirmak, Unal
Una I and
and Otles.,
Otles., 2002;
2002; (7)
(7) Härkönen,
Harkbnen,Saarimäki
Saarimaki
and Mwasumbi,
Mwasumbi,1994a;
1994a;(8)
(8)Kreula,
Kreula,Saarivirta
Saarivirtaand
andKarando,
Karando,1976;
1976;(9)
(9)Purkayastha
PurkayasthaandandChandra,
Chandra,1985;
1985;(10)
(10)Parent
ParentandandThoen,
Thoen,1977;
1977;(11)
(11)
Al-Naama,
AI-Naama, Ewaze
Ewaze and Nema,
Nema, 1988;
1988; (12) Schmeda-Hirschmannet
(12) Schmeda-Hirschmann etal.,
a/., 1999b;
1999b; (13) Turner, Kuhnlein
(13) Turner, Kuhnlein and Egger,
Egger, 1987.
1987.

just food" (Etkin

(Etkinand
andJohns,
Johns,1998;
1998; Wasser
Wasser etet al.,
aI., 2000).
2000). Although these new products
products
have clear economic potential, their relevance
relevance to developing countries is is at present
present still
still
marginal. Medicinal wild
marginal. Medicinal wild fungi
fungi are
are collected
collected in
in China.
China. There is aa substantial
substantial trade
trade of
of
Cordyceps sinensis
Cordyceps sinensisin
in Sichuan
Sichuan (Plate
(Plate 9)
9) (Priest,
(Priest, 2002,
2002, personal
personal communication: Edible
and medicinal
medicinal fungi in China
China and
andgeneral
generalinformation;
information; Winkler,
Winkler, 2002)
2002) and in in other
other
countries
countries such as
as Nepal.
Nepal. Rural
Rural people
people earn
earnsubstantial
substantial amounts
amounts from
fromcommercial
commercial
harvesting.
The main
main benefits
benefits of
of wild
wild useful
useful fungi
fungi are,
are, however,
however, as
as food.
food. They
Theyare
arecollected,
collected,
consumed and sold in in over
over 85
85 countries
countries (Annexes
(Annexes 1 and 2) and their contribution
contribution to
to
diets is
is discussed below.
below.
Importance to
to people:
people: food, income, trade 45

Nutritional value
value
The constituents of an
an edible
edible fungus
fungus are
are not
not necessarily
necessarily a good guide
guide to nutritional
nutritional
value (Breene, 1990). The digestibility of different components
1990). The components varies,
varies, while
while analytical
analytical
methods areare not
not always
always reliably
reliably used
used in
intesting
testing(Crisan
(Crisanand
andSands,
Sands,1978;
1978; Lau,
Lau, 1982).
1982).
The use of different techniques
techniques for
for analysing
analysing nutritional
nutritionalvalue
value also
also limits
limits aa comparison
comparison
of results
results from
from different
different studies
studies (Degreef
(Degreef etet al.,
aI., 1997).
1997). Estimates
Estimates of (usable)
(usable) protein
content should
should exclude
exclude chitin present
present in
in fungal
fungal cell
cell walls,
walls, for example. This is
example. This is not
always observed in
in studies.
studies.
A summary of nutritional analyses
A is presented
analyses is presented in
in Table
Table 14.
14.Note
Note the
the good
good protein
protein
and mineral
mineral content of of key
key wild
wild edible
edible species
species in their
their dry
dry state.
state. (Moisture
(Moisture content
content
varies
varies between about 85 85 and 95 percnet for the the fleshy
fleshy mushrooms
mushrooms and and similar
similar types.)
types.)
Edible species
species are low in in fat,
fat, contain
containessential
essential amino
amino acids
acids and
and useful
useful minerals
minerals and,
and,
though they
they are
are not
not energy-providing
energy-providing foods foods (Table
(Table 16),
16), they are a substantially
substantially better
source of nutrition
nutrition than
thanisis often
oftenassumed
assumed or orinferred
inferred (Richards,
(Richards, 1939).
1939).

Contribution to
Contribution to diet
Tables 15 and
Tables 15 and 16 compare the nutritional value
16 compare value of edible
edible fungi with other
other foodstuffs.
foodstuffs.
These data confirm that wild
wild edible
edible fungi are nutritious and
and aa suitable
suitable alternative
alternative for
well-known
well-known foodstuffs.
foodstuffs. They
Theycompare
comparefavourably
favourablyusing
usingstandard
standardmeasures
measuresthat
thatassess
assess
the nutritional
nutritional value
value of foods.
foods. The contribution to diet
diet will
will depend on the amounts
amounts
eaten by people, the species
species involved and the frequency of consumption
consumption (see
(see below).
below).
People regularly eat wild edible
edible fungi in many
many countries
countries and
and they
theymake
makeaavaluable
valuable
and often essential
and contribution to
essential contribution to diets, as shown
diets, as shown by aa study
study in
in Malawi
Malawi (Abbott,
(Abbott,
1999). This detailed study of
1999). This of eating
eating habits
habits in
in villages
villages revealed
revealed that
that 1.3
1.3 kg
kg of
of dried
dried leafy
leafy
vegetables and/or wild edible
vegetables andlor edible fungi was enough (when rehydrated) to feed feed a family of
four for two weeks
weeks (Abbott,
(Abbott, 1999).
1999).

BOX 77
Amino acids, proteirt~pd
Arnino acids, protein and the nutritional
nutritionalvalue of wild edible
valueo!wild edible fungi
Various measures (scores, indexes,
measures (scores, indexes,values)
values)basedbasedon on amino
amino acid
acid composition
composition are are used
used to
to compare the
nutritional value
nutritional value of wild edible fungi
fungi with
with other foods. Fat and carbohydrate
carbohydrate content
contentare are of
of less
less interest
they are rarely
because they rarely limiting factors
factors in diets.
diets. Feeding
Feeding studies
studies ofof edible
ediblefungi
fungiwould
wouldprovide
provide thethe most
most
evidence of
direct evidence of nutritional value but until now have have not been
been carried
carried out.
The
The AMINO
AMINO ACIDACIDSCORESCORE is based
is based ononthethe amountofofthe
amount themost
mostlimiting
limitingamino
aminoacidacidpresent
presentin in aa food
food
item in
in comparison
comparisonwith witha reference
a reference protein
protein (e.g.(e.g.
hens'hens'
eggs). The ESSENTIAL
eggs). The ESSENTIAL AMINO
AMINOACID ACIDINDEXINDEX
measures the presence of amino acids that people cannot
measures cannot synthesize
synthesize and and gives
gives a stronger indication
indication of of
potential nutritive
nutritive value.
value. However,
However, this this index
index does
does notnot indicate
indicate how
how well
well these
these essential
essential amino
amino acids
acids
are retained
retained and
andused
usedby bythe
thebody,
body,whichwhich is the reason
is the forfor
reason computing
computing the BIOLOGICAL
the BIOLOGICALVALUE, VALUE, itself
iFself
derivedfrom
derived from thethe ESSENTIALAMINO
ESSENTIAL AMINOACID ACIDTNDEX.
INDEX.
Th~ ESSENTIAL
The ESSENTIAL AMINOAMINO ACID
ACID INDEXES
INDEXES for wild
for wild edible
edible fungi
fungi compare
compare favourablywith
favourably withother
other foods
(Table 16).
(Table 16).Given
Giventhat
that there
there are
arerestricted
restricted sources
sourcesof ofprotein
proteinforfor rural
rural people
people in
in the
thedeveloping
developingcountries,
countries,
the contribution
contributionof ofwild
wildedible
ediblefungi
fungiisismore
moreimportant
importantthan thanwidely
widely recognized.
recognized. The NUTRITIONAL
The NUTRITIONAL
INDEXallows
INDEX allowscomparisons
comparisonstotobebemade madebetween
betweenwild wildedible
ediblefungi
fungiwithwith small
small amounts
amounts of high quality
protein and those
those that
that have
have large
large amounts
amounts of of aa lower
lower nutritional
nutritionalvalue.
value. The
The data
data inin Table
Table 15 show the
greatest range of values
values for the limited number number of of species
species tested.
The ultimate
ultimate contribution made made by by wild
wild edible
edible fungi to diets depends not only on on their
their intrinsic
intrinsic
as calculated
value as calculated byby these
these measures,
measures, but but thethe amounts (and species) eaten in
species) eaten in comparison
comparison with with other
foods. ,lhe
foods. The nutritional analyses
analyses showshow that wild edible edible fungi
fungi are
area.a vvaluable source of protein in the
aluable source the
developing counries
developing counries and
and have
have the
thepotential
potential to to contribute
contribute more tohumanto human diets
diets in
in many
many countries.
countries.
After Crisan
Crisan and
and Sands
Sands (1978).
(1978).
46
46 Wild
Wild edible
ediblefungi:
fungi: aa global
global overview
overview of their use and importance
importance to
to people
people

TABLE 15
TABLE
Estimated nutritional
Estimated nutritional values
values of some edible fungi
some edible fungi
SPECIES ESSENTIALAMINO
ESSENTIAL AMINO AOD
ACID INDEX
INDEX BIOLOGICAL
BIOLOGICAL VALUE
VALUE AMINO ACIDSCORE
AMINO ACID SCORE NUTRITIONAL
NUTRITIONAL INDEX

Agaricus bisporus *"

Agaricus bisporus 86.8 83.0 65.0 22 .0
22.0
Cantharellus cibarius
Cantharellus 94.2
94.2 91.0 68.0 3.31
3.31
Macrolepiota procera
pro cera 98.7
98.7 95.9
95.9 90.0 7.4
7.4
Suillus granulatus
Suillus granulatus 89.7 86.1 73.6 13.5
Termitomyces spp.
Termitomyces 86.3 82.4 - 23.9
World species
World species 87.6 83.8 61.6 16.0

*" cultivated.
cultivated. Based
Based on
on FAO
FAO reference
referen ce patterns
patterns and
and mean
mean values
va lues for
forspecies
species from
from several
several sources. Unpublished data
sources. Unpublished data prepared
prepared by
Graham Piearce.
Graham Piearce.See
SeeBox
Box6 6for
foraadiscussion
discussionofofnutritional
nutritional indicators.
indicators.

TABLE 16
TABLE
A general comparison
comparison of nutritional
nutritionalvalues
values of
ofvarious
variousfoods
foodscompared
compared to
tomushrooms
mushrooms
r----------,
ESSENTIALAMINO
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID
ACID INDEX
INDEX M AMINO ACID SCORE
AM/NO ACID SCORE M NUTRITIONAL INDEX
INDEX M

100 Pork,
100 Pork, beef, chicken 100 Pork 59 Chicken
,
99 Milk
99 Milk 98 Beef, chicken 43 Beef
91 Potatoes,
91 Potatoes, beans
beans 91 Milk 35 Pork
88 Maize
88 63 Cabbage 31 Soybeans
86 Cucumbers
86 59 Potatoes 26 Spinach
79 Groundnuts
79 Groundnuts 53 Groundnuts 25 Milk
76 Spinach,
76 Spinach, soybeans i) . . /:: 50 Maize 21 Beans
72 Cabbage
72 •.f!I!j~ 46 Beans 20 Groundnuts
69 Turnips
69 42 Cucumbers 17 Cabbage
53 Carrots
53 33 Turnips 14 Cucumbers
44 Tomatoes 31 Carrots 11 Maize
28 Spinach 10 Turnips
23 Soybeans 9 Potatoes
18 Tomatoes 8 Tomatoes
6 Carrots
M - shaded
shaded column shows
shows the
the range
range of
of values
va lues for
formushrooms.
mushrooms. Indexes
Indexes and
and scores calculated against
scores calculated against reference
reference patterns published by
by
FAO; biological
FAO; biological values closely
values close follow
ly foll ow essential
essential amino
amino acid
acidindexes.
indexes. Data
Data after
afterCrisan
Crisan and
andSands
Sands (1978).
(1978).

The shelf-life of wild

shelf-life of wild edible
edible fungi
fungi can
can be short
short but
but harvests
harvests are
are also
also preserved
preserved
in aa number
number ofof ways.
ways. In
Inthe
theRussian
Russian Federation
Federation and
and China
China wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi are
are
commonly preserved
preserved in in brine
brine (Plate
(Plate 8).
8). Russians
Russians also freeze wild edible fungi
fungi for later
use (Vladyshevskiy, Laletin and Vladyshevskiy, 2000). 2000). In southern
southern Africa,
Africa, edible
edible fungi
fungi
are eaten fresh
fresh and
and less
less commonly
commonly dried.
dried. Throughout
Throughout the miombo region of southern
Africa wild edible
Africa wild fungi are
edible fungi are an
an important
important source
source of nutrition at aa time
time of
of year
year when
when
other food
food supplies
supplies are
are low
low - the so-called "famine months".
so-called "famine months". Here the normal
normal diet
diet
consists
consists of nsima
nsima (a
(a maize
maize or
or cassava-based
cassava-based porridge)
porridge) to which
which relishes
relishes are
are added
added
(Plate 6). relishes provide key nutrients and
6). The relishes and add
add piquancy
piquancy toto the
thebland
blandnsima.
nsima.
Information on
Information on the
the amounts
amountsof ofwild
wildedible
ediblefungi
fungi consumed
consumedincludes:
includes:
• Mozambique: in in the
the north,
north, close
close toto the
the border
borderwith
withMalawi,
Malawi, people
people collect
collect from
6 to 1010 kilograms
kilograms of wildwild edible
edible fungi
fungi during a season (December
(December to to March).
March). It
was estimated thatthat each
each household
household ate ate 72
72 to
to 160
160 kg per year. Average consumption
Average consumption
of Termitomyces schimperiwas
Termitomyces schimperi wasreckoned
reckonedtoto be be 30-35
30-35 kg
kg per household per year.year.
Similar eating habits might be reasonably expected to occur in Malawi and
Similar eating habits might be reasonably expected to occur in Malawi and other
miombo
miombo regions.
regions. (Masuka
(Masukain inBoa
Boaetetal.,
al.,2000).
2000).
• Zimbabwe: households
households eateat up
up to 20 kg in a productive year but only 5-10 kg in
productive year
deforested
deforested areas
areas (Masuka,
(Masuka, 2002,
2002, personal
personal communication:
communication:Collection
Collectionof ofmushrooms
mushrooms
in Zinbabwe).
Zinbabwe) .
• Russian Federation
Federation - Siberia: peoplepeople collect 15-100
collect 15- kg in a year and
100 kg and eat
eat 80-90
80-90
percent directly.
directly. The population of Krasnoyarsk
Krasnoyarsk region
region is
is three
three million
million over
over an
an
area ofof 2.3
2.3 million
million km2;
km 2; it is
is estimated
estimated thatthat 40
40 percent
percent ofoffamilies
families collect
collect wild
wild
edible
edible fungi,
fungi, for personal
personal use,
use, recreation
recreation or sale sale (based
(based on
on interviews
interviews with 500500
Importance to
to people: food,
food, income,
income, trade 47

respondents).
respondents). Use
Use of
of wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi has
has increased
increased by 200-300 percent in
in recent
recent
years
years and now
now provides
provides 30-40
30-40percent
percentofofhousehold
householdincome.
income.(Vladyshevskiy,
(Vladyshevskiy,
Laletin and Vladyshevskiy,
Vladyshevskiy, 2000).
2000).
As a general rule, the poorer the
general rule, the people
people the
the more
more likely
likely they
they are
are to
to collect
collect and
and use
use
wild edible fungi.
fungi. Some
Some traditions are lost as as people become
become better educated
educated andand live
live
away from the land and
away from and they
they show
show an an increasing
increasing reluctance
reluctance to to eat
eat all
all but
but the most
common species
species (Box 3) 3) (Lowy,
(Lowy, 1974).
1974). InIn the
the Republic of Korea, China, the the Russian
Russian
Federation
Federation and Japan the tradition
tradition ofof eating
eating wild
wild edible
edible fungi is much stronger and and
appears to have
have withstood
withstood the
the changes
changes experienced
experienced elsewhere.
elsewhere.
Rural people
Rural people eat wild
wild edible fungi both as
edible fungi as a matter of choice and as as a food of last
last
resort. Little
Little reliable
reliable information
information is is available, however, on
available, however, on the
the use of of wild
wild fungi
fungi as
as
famine foods. In the
famine foods. the Russian
Russian Federation,
Federation, food
food distribution
distribution systems
systems have have collapsed
collapsed
and state subsidies
subsidies for food havehave disappeared, forcing people
disappeared, forcing people "back
"back to to the land". A A
renewed
renewed dependency on natural natural products
products hashas developed
developed andand traditions
traditions of ofcollecting
collecting
and eating
eating wild edible
edible fungi have
have been reinforced. The extentextent ofof these
these changes
changes is not
well
well understood but but emphasizes
emphasizes again
again that closeness
closeness to the
the land
land isis associated
associated with
with
eating wild edible
edible fungi.
fungi.

Contribution to health
health
Medicinal fungi are
Medicinal fungi are routinely
routinely used
used in
in traditional
traditional Chinese
Chinese medicine
medicine (TCM)
(TCM) and
and
awareness of their uses
awareness uses is
is increasing
increasing (Ying at., 1987;
(Ying et al., 1987; Hobbs,
Hobbs, 1995).
1995). Wild
Wild medicinal
medicinal
fungi are also collected and used in Mexico and several several other countries (Table 13) but
(Table 13)
widespread and regular
regular use
use isis most
most closely
closely associated
associated with China
China and
and Asian
Asian people.
people.
Medicinal fungi are
Medicinal fungi are often sold
sold in Chinese markets
markets though the contribution
contribution from
from wild
wild
harvests is still unclear (Chamberlain,
(Chamberlain, 1996). 1996).
Worldwide, the majority of sales
Worldwide, sales are from cultivated sources
sources though many species
species
are also collected from the wild wild (Table
(Table 17). The incentive for collecting wild Cordyceps
Cordyceps
sin ensisinin Tibet
sinensis Tibet Autonomous
Autonomous Region, Region, Sichuan (Winkler, 2002)
Sichuan (Winkler, 2002)and
and other
other parts of
of
China (see distribution map map in in Mao,
Mao, 2000)
2000) is to earn
earn money
money (Plate
(Plate 9).
9). Beyond China
China
there is no discernable international
international tradetrade in
in medicinal
medicinal fungi.
fungi.
The therapeutic
therapeutic benefits
benefits of of wild
wild fungi
fungi are
are summarized belowbelow (Table
(Table 17), noting that
17), noting
many are also consumed as food.

LOCAL MARKETING
LOCAL MARKETING AND AND INCOME
There are two distinct
distinct patterns
patternsof ofwild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi use:
use: for
for subsistence
subsistence or or personal
personal useuse
and commercial harvesting. Information
commercial harvesting. Information about personal collections collections isis scarce,
scarce, but
but the
extent of this practice is global and there are increasing
increasing reports
reports that help to demonstrate
demonstrate
the importance
importance of of WEF to to rural
rural people
people inin developing
developing countries.
countries. Many
Many more
more species
species are
eaten locally compared to the the small
small number
number involved
involved in in commercial
commercial harvesting.
Finland has the most
most detailed
detailed information
information on onpersonal
personalcollections
collections of
of wild
wild edible
edible fungi.
Wild edible fungi are a less
less important
important part
part ofof the
the diet
diet in
in Finland
Finland today,
today, in
in times
times of
of relative
relative
affluence, but there is still government support for
affluence, but for collecting
collecting them. There is a stronger
tradition of
of collecting
collecting and consuming
consuming wild edible edible fungi in the east east of Finland,
Finland, a region
region
where Karelian people originally from the Russian Federation have settled. Around 25
have settled.
percent of Karelian
Karelian families collect to
families collect to sell
sell in
in markets,
markets, though the amounts
amounts vary vary from
from
year to year
year because
because of fluctuating harvests. 1976 was
harvests. 1976 was aapoor
poor year
year and
and about 45 45 percent
families interviewed
of families intervieweddid did not
not collect
collect any
any wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi during
during this
this period.
period. Poorer
communities collected more often to to sell
sell in
in local
local markets (Härkönen,
(Harkonen,1998).
1998).
The total
total amounts
amounts sold
soldininlocal
localmarkets
marketscan canbe beconsiderable
considerable(Table
(Table 18).
18). Anecdotal
Anecdotal
evidence from
evidence from China
China points to huge quantities collected and taken to markets in small
collected and small
towns and from there
there to
to larger
larger cities
cities (Plate
(Plate 9).9). Preserving wild edible fungi in
edible fungi in brine isis
an important feature
an feature of this trade
trade and
and itit allows
allows much
much larger
larger quantities
quantities to be be offered
offered
for sale.
for The financial
sale. The contributions to
financial contributions to rural livelihoods
livelihoods areare not
not known thoughthough the the
48
48 Wild edible
Wild edible fungi:
fungi: aa global
global overview
overview of their use
use and importance to people

TABLE 17
TABLE
Properties and
Properties and features
features of
of 25
25 major medicinal macrofungi

BINOMIAL MEDICINAL USED AS FOOD?

USED FOOD? COLLECTION'
WILD COLLECTION' CULTIVATED COMMERCIAL
PROPERTIES PRODUCT
PRODUCT

Agaricus blazei
Agaricus blazei 11 "edible" ++ yes
yes no
Agro cybe aegerita
Agrocybe aegerita 4 yes ++ yes
yes yes
Armillaria
Armillaria me//ea
mellea 4 yes ++ yes yes
yes
Auricularia auricula-judae
auricula-judae 5 yes ++ yes yes
yes
Dendropolyporus umbellatus
Oendropolyporus 4 no +
+ yes no
Flammulina velutipes 5 yes ++ yes yes
yes
Fomes fomentarius
Fomes fomentarius 2 no +
+ yes yes
yes
Ganoderma applanatum 4 no +
+ yes yes
yes
Ganoderma lucidum 11
11 "edible" +
+ yes no
Grifola frondosa
frondosa 7 yes +
+ yes
yes yes
yes
Hericium erinaceus 4 yes + yes yes
yes
Hypsizygus marmoreus
Hypsizygus 1 yes + yes
yes no
lnonotus obliquus
Inonotus obliquus 4 no ++ no no
Laetiporus sulphureus 2 yes ++ yes yes
Lentinula edodes 11 yes + yes
yes no
Lenzites betulina
Lenzites 2 no 7
? 7no
?no yes
Marasmius androsaceus 2 7yes
?yes 7
? 7yes
?yes no
Oudemansiella mucida 1
1 "edible"
"edible" ++ yes no
Piptoporus betulmus
betulinus 2 no ++ yes yes
Pleurotus ostreatus 5
5 yes + yes yes
Pleurotus pulmonarius
Pleurotus 3 yes + yes yes
Schizophyllum commune 5 yes ++ yes no
Trametes
Trametes versicolor 5 "edible" + yes no
Treme//a fuciformis
Tremella fuciformis 5
5 "edible" + yes yes
Volvariella volvacea
volvacea 4 yes ++ yes yes
yes

'1 ++ minor
minor importance;
importance;++ ++significant
significantamounts
amountscollected.
collected.Both
Bothassessments
assessments areare in
in relation
relation to the total
total amounts
amountsused
used globally,
globally, including
including
cultivated production.
production.
Note: The 14 different
The 14 different medicinal properties consist of: 11-Antibiotic
cons ist of: -Antibiotic (includes
(includes antifungal,
antifungal, antibacterial,
antibacterial,antiparasitic
antiparasiticbut butnot
notantiviral);
antiviral);
2-
2 - Anti-inflammatory;
Anti-inflammatory;33-Antitumour;
- Antitumour; 4-4Antiviral; 5 -Blood
- Antiviral; pressure
5 - Blood pressure regulation;
regulation; 6-6Cardiovascular
- Cardiovasculardisorders;
disorders; 77 -- Hypercholesterola
Hypercholesterola
emia, hyperlipidaemia [high
emia, hyperlipidaemia [high cholesterol,
cholesterol, high
highfats];
fats];88-Antidiabetic;
- Antidiabetic;99- Immune-modulating; 10
-Immune-modulating; 10-- Kidney
Kidney tonic;
tonic; 11
11- -Hepatoprotective;
Hepatoprotective;
12 -- Nerve
12 Nerve tonic (? antidepressant; vague);
(7 antidepressant; vague); 13
13-- Sexual
Sexualpotentiator;
potentiator; 14
14-- Chronic
Chronic bronchitis
bronchitis (against).
(against).
Source: Wasser
Source: and Weis,
Wasser and Weis, 1999a.

widespread sale
sale of wild edible fungi within China and
edible fungi and the
the substantial
substantial export
export business
business
(over 60 percent of Boletus edulis imported
Boletus edulis imported by Italy comes comes from China - Borghi [2002, [2002,
personal
personal communication: Porcini and
communication: Porcini and other commercial
commercial wild wild edible
edible fungi
fungi inin Italy])
clearly demonstrates that substantial amounts of money are earned.
Experiences in
Experiences in Malawi
Malawi showed
showed that that money earned by by local
local collectors
collectors isis small
small but
but
substantial,
substantial, and that there
there is
is an
an expanding
expanding locallocal market for wild wild edible
edible fungi
fungi (Boa
(Boa et
aI., 2000).
al., Women frequently
2000). Women frequently go go on collecting trips in many parts of
collecting trips of southern
southern Africa
Africa
and a number of of reports
reports confirm
confirm the the importance
importance of of this
this activity
activity during
during the
the three-
three- to
to
four-month
four-month season
season each
each year
year (Richards,
(Richards, 1939;
1939; Thomson,
Thomson, 1954).
1954).
The distance from collecting
collecting sites
sites to potential markets
markets is is aa crucial
crucial factor
factor inin selling
selling
wild edible fungi.
fungi. The roadside markets at Liwonde Liwonde in in Malawi
Malawi are close to the the forest
forest
areas
areas where wild edible fungi are collected.collected. TheThe road is the main main thoroughfare
thoroughfare from from
Blantyre to Lilongwe
Lilongwe and and the
the makeshift
makeshift stalls
stalls sell round 5 tonnes of of wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi
during
during aa four-month
four-monthseason.
season. There
There isis no
no shortage
shortageof ofpeople
peoplewanting
wantingto tocollect
collectandandsell,
sell,
and this has led to increased competition
competition for for fungal
fungal resources:
resources: people
people now
now have
have to to walk
walk
further
further to
to collect
collect (Lowore
(Loworeand andBoa,
Boa, 2001).
2001).
The market
market structure
structure inin Malawi
Malawi is is typical
typical ofof many
many African
African countries
countries (e.g.
(e.g. Sierra
Sierra
Leone: Down,
Down, 2002,
2002, personal
personal communication:
communication:Wild Wild edible
edible fungi
fungi Sierra
Sierra Leone):
Leone): small-
small-
scale and local. Sales
Sales atat Liwonde
Liwonde and elsewhere depend on the the flow
flow of
of traffic
traffic and
and some
some
days few buyers stop. Some traders traders wait
wait until the end of the day day and
and buy
buy the
the unsold
unsold
Importance to
to people: food, income,
people: food, income, trade 49

BOX 8
Permits and regulating the collectors
One of the inevitable consequences of commercial harvesting is the introduction of pernaits. From
Bhutan to Serbia these are ostensibly introduced to regulate the impact of collectors and collecting
on future production of wild edible fungi, yet there is little evidence that the money paid to local
authorities is invested in the resources needed to police activities.
In Castilla León, northwest Spain, the permit system for collecting Lactarius deliciosus collapsed
in Buenavista de Valdavia when only four people bought permits in 2002, at a cost of US$30 for a
six-week season. The other collectors decided this was no longer necessary, mainly because the guards
from the Servicio de Protección de la Naturaleza proved to be increasingly ineffective in checking
permits. Local collectors were concerned about the influx of outsiders to collect the niscalos and were
insulted when asked to show their permits. There is no obvious friction between the local people and
visiting collectors from nearby villages, but several people said the permit system should be reinstated
since they were worried about the long-term prospects for mushroom production.
Around Borgo Val de Taro, Parma, in northern Italy, the permit system appears to work more
effectively. The local authority publishes the regulations each year, stating the conditions and costs of
collecting WEF. The rates vary from around US$5 for a one-day permit for local residents with slight
increases for non-residents. The differences are more marked for the six-month permits, with non-
residents paying up to twice as much (up to US$100) as local people. Collecting is restricted to three
or four days a week and a daily harvest of between 3 and 5 kg. This area is noticeably better off than
Buenavista de Valdavia, where the need to earn money from niscalos is more urgent.
In France, the increase in people collecting wild edible fungi has prompted the introduction of more
formal rules regarding when and how much can be collected. Daily limits of 5 kg are stated with no
collecting allowed on Tuesdays and Thursdays. A yearly permit costs around US$120.
Source,: Spain de Román (2002, personal communication: Trade in nz'scalos from North Spain to Catalonia and truffle
production), Italy, author's observations and Zambonelli (2002, personal communication: Truffles, and collecting
porcini in Ital)); France Bérelle (2002).

produce, moving
moving it quickly
quickly to
to more
more central
centralmarkets
markets ininthe
thebigger
biggercities.
cities. The
Theprices
prices
they offer are low but
but the
the alternatives
alternatives areare either to dry dry the
the fungi
fungi or
or discard
discard them.
them. Local
Local
markets in Madhya
Madhya Pradesh,
Pradesh, India,
India, are
are also
also small-scale
small-scale (Harsh,
(Harsh, RaiRai and
and Soni,
Soni, 1999)
1999) and
appear to operate in a similar manner, but
similar manner, but within
within towns
towns rather
rather than by the roads.
roads.
In the
the Russian
Russian Federation
Federation the the collapse
collapse of of state
state organizations
organizations and statestate buying
buying has
has
significantly affected the amounts of money people can earn
significantly affected the amounts of money people can earn from wild edible fungi
edible fungi
(Table 18). Previous
(Table 18). Previous displeasure
displeasureaboutaboutthe the low
low prices
prices offered
offered by by the
the state
state are, in
in
hindsight, viewed
viewed less
less harshly
harshly following
following the thecollapse
collapseof oflocal
localmarkets
markets(Vladyshevskiy,
(Vladyshevskiy,
Laletin and
and Vladyshevskiy,
Vladyshevskiy, 2000).
2000).
The removal
removal of state
state control
control inin China
China has has unleashed
unleashed aa greater
greater entrepreneurship,
entrepreneurship,
though
though it has
has not
not been
beenwithout
withoutits itsfailures.
failures .Factories
Factories forfor processing
processing matsutake
matsutake in
Sichuan are barely surviving
surviving (Winkler,
(Winkler, 2002); similar facilities
2002); similar facilities for
for producing
producing ganbajum
(Thelephora ganbajum) never
(Thelephora ganbajum) never operated
operated effectively
effectively andand were
were eventually shut down
eventually shut
(Rijsoort and Pikun, 2000). The local trade in ganbajum has continued, though
(Rijsoort and Pikun, 2000) . The local trade in ganbajum has continued, though
collectors spend longer
collectors spend longer in in cleaning
cleaning theirtheir harvest
harvestfor for market
market (up(up to
to two
two hours
hours per
per
kilogram). Consumers pay aa higher price for better better quality
quality produce.
produce.

NATIONAL AND
AND INTERNATIONAL
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
TRADE
The international trade in
in wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi has
has taken
taken place
place for many
many years.
years. In
In the
the
1880s New Zealand exported ear
1880s New ear fungus
fungus (Auricularia
(Auricularia polytricha)
polytricha) to China
China (Colenso,
(Colenso,
1884-85; Hall, Zambonelli
1884- 85; Hall, and Primavera,
Zambonelli and Primavera, 1998). In 1868,
1998). In 1868, France
France exported
exported aa
staggering 11 500
staggering 500 tonnes
tonnes of truffles
truffles (Tuber spp.)
(Tuber spp .) to Italy (Ainsworth,
(Ainsworth, 1976).
1976). Italy has
has
long imported
imported Boletus
Boletus edulis
edulis and truffles
truffles from
from different
different countries
countries (Plates
(Plates 44 and
and 5):
5):
50 Wild edible
Wild edible fungi:
fungi: aa global overview of their use
use and importance to people
people

TABLE
TABLE 18
Localcollection,
Local collection,marketing
marketing and
and use
useof
ofwild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi
COUNTRY
COUNTRY COLLECTIONS AND
COLLECTIONS AND USE
USE AMOUNT
AMOUNT SOURCE

Bhutan People regularly

People regularly collect
collect for personal
personal consumption not known
not Namgyel,
Namgyel, 2000
and sell
sell in markets.
markets. Some
Some matsutake were were sold
sold for personal
personal
previously in markets but but mostly
mostly by
by accident.
accident. People
People collections
sell to
sell to agents
agents who sell
sell to exporters.
Chile Cyttaria spp.,
Cyttaria spp., total
total collection in
in one
one season,
season, for local
local 500-700 kg Schmeda-Hirschmann
sale and
sale and consumption.
consumption. et al., 1999a
et 1999a
China (Sichuan)
China Many species collected and
species collected and eaten. Matsutake
Matsutake not known
known Winkler, 2002;
Winkler, 2002; Yeh,
Yeh,
"discovered" by
by Japanese
Japanese in 1988. Exported through
1988. Exported for
for personal
personal 2000
Kunming and ?Chengdu. Matsutake are
?Chengdu. Matsutake are bought byby collections
traders with access
traders to suitable
access to suitable transport,
transport, taken
taken to aa
town 65
65 km away and sold
away and sold on
on at
at aa profit
profit of
of 75%.
75%.
China
China (Yunnan) Daily collection of
Daily of edible
edible species in Guilong,
species in Guilong, Deqing 60-100 kg
kg Rijsoort and
and Pikun,
Pikun,
over an eight-month
eight-monthseason.
season. Sold
Sold locally.
locally. 2000
Congo Annual consumption in
in Shaba
Shaba region from local
local 20 000 tonnes Degreef et
et al.,
al., 1997
1997
(Democratic collection.
Republic of
Republic of the)
Estonia Self-picked mushrooms,
Self-picked mushrooms, average
average annual
annual amount
amount per 2.4 kg Paal and
Paal
capita Saastamoinen, 1998
1998
Finland 1. Gyromitra esculenta
esculenta bought
bought by
by trade
tradeinin(a)
(a)1988,
1988, (a)
(a) 109
109 tonnes
tonnes Härkönen, 1998
1. Hark6nen, 1998
(b) 1996. The
The Russian Federation is
Russian Federation is another possible
possible (b)
(b) 26
26 tonnes
2. Pekkarinen and
source.
Maliranta, 1978
1978
2. About two million
million people
people involved
involved in collecting
collecting
WEFand
WEF and berries
berriesfor
for personal
personal use
use or
or for
for sale. An
sale. An
average of 8% of
average of collectors
collectors sold their
their harvest
harvest inin 12
12
districts, 25%
districts, 25% inin North
North Karelia
Karelia and
and not
not at
at all
all for
for two
districts (1976 survey). Export
(1976 survey). Export activity
activity limited.
Germany For sale during summer
sale during summerofof1902,
1902,allallspecies.
species.Source(s)
Source(s) 400 tonnes Arnolds, 1995
ArnoIds, 1995
(Munich) of wild edible
edible fungi not
not known.
known.
India Daily harvest of morels
morels by
by experienced
experienced collectors,
collectors, all Up to
Up to 11 kg Singh and Rawat,
Rawat,
(Himalaya) for export. 2000
India Termitomyces heimii sold
Termitomyces heimii sold in 15 markets during
during one
one 2.5 tonnes Harsh, Rai
Rai and Soni,
Soni,
(Madhya year for local
year local consumption.
consumption. 1999
Pradesh)
Cannot be stored for for more
morethan
thanaaday;
day;some
some are
are
dried and
and eaten
eaten later.
later. T.
T. heimii does not get get price
price
premium itit deserves.
deserves. Medicinal polypores
polypores areare
collected but bought
collected bought atat low
lowprices
prices compared
compared to
retail price
price in
in New
New Delhi.
Delhi .
Italy Tuber spp.
spp. collected in average
average year,
year, including
including 50%
50% 160 tonnes
160 tonnes Hall et
et al.,
al., 1998a
1998a
hike for
for black
black market
market activity.
activity. Sold
Sold locally.
locally.
Malawi
Malawi All edible
edible species, sold in
species, sold in 2000
2000 over
over two
two months,
months, 55 tonnes
tonnes Boa etal.,
Boa et al., 2000
2000
(Liwonde) from approx.
approx. 10
10 small
small stalls.
stalls.
Mexico Huitlacoche
Huitlacoche (maize
(maize infected with
with Ustilago
Ustilago maydis)
maydis) 300-400
300-400 Villanueva, 1997
1997
(Mexico City)
City) sold in markets tonnes
Mexico Harvest from oneone day's
day's collecting,
collecting, all
allspecies
species 4-5 kg
kg Montoya-Esquivel et
et
(Tlaxcala) 2001
al., 2001
Russian Individual collection
collection of ofall
allspecies
species in favourable
favourable 15-100 kg Vladyshevskiy,
Vladyshevskiy, Laletin
Federation years. 80-90%
years. 80-90% are are for
for personal consumption, the
personal consumption, and Vladysheyskiy,
Vladyshevskiy,
(central Siberia)
Siberia) rest are sold.
sold. More families
families are
are freezing
freezing harvests.
harvests. 2000
2000
In north
north Taiga
Taiga people
peopleeat eatWEFWEF almost
almost every
every day.
day.
Marketing
Marketing hashas collapsed
collapsed as as state organizations have
have
declined:
declined : previously
previously GOSPROMKHOV
GOSPROMKHOV bought bought up
up to
000 tonnes
1 000 tonnes atat fixed
fixed prices
prices when harvest was was good
and purchase
purchase prices
prices were lower.
Tanzania
Tanzania Sold by the
Sold by the road
road (often close to the spot where
close to not known
known Härkönen,
Hark6nen, 2002
2002
(United
(United Termitomyces
Termitomyces grow) and and inin markets.
markets. There
There are
are
Republic of)
of) no known exports
exports from
from thethe United
UnitedRepublic
Republic of
of
Tanzania..
Tanzania
Turkey Collections from 13 13 villages
villages of
of (a)
(a) Cantharellus
Cantharellus (a) 7.6 tonnes Cavalcaselle, 1997
1997
cibarius; (b) Boletus edulis; (c)(c) Morchella sp.;
sp.; (d)
(d) (b) 2.5 tonnes
Lactarius sp.-
sp. total
totalvalue
valueofofUS$107
US$1 07 000.
000. Most forfor (c) 2.3 tonnes
local sale. Total volume 26
sale. Total 26 tonnes. Data
Data for
for1990.
1990. (d) 11.1
11.1 tonnes
tonnes
Zimbabwe Collection ofof Boletus
Boletus edulis
edulis per person
person per day, for
day, for 15-20 kg Masuka,
Masuka, 2002,
2002, pers.
pers.
export
export only.
only. comm.: Collection
of
of mushrooms
mushrooms inin
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe

Amounts are
Note: Amounts are fresh
fresh weight
weight or presumed to be
presumed to so in
be so in the
the absence
absenceofofother
other information.
information.
 to people:
Importance to people: food, income, trade
food, income, 51

the former
former Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia began exports of of B.
B. edulis
edulis in
in the
the 1970s
1970s (Borghi,
(Borghi, 2002,
2002, personal
communication: Porcini
Porcini and other
other commercial
commercial wild edible fungi in
edible fungi in Italy).
The exports ofof matsutake,
matsutake, chanterelles,
chanterelles, morels
morels and
and other
other "exotic"
"exotic"wild
wildedible
edible fungi
fungi
are a more recent event,
event, and where France once exported truffles truffles to Italy, China now
exports Tuber
Tuber sinosum.
sinosum. TheThe last
last 20
20 or 30
30 years hashas seen
seen an increasing movement of
increasing movement of
chanterelles, morels and Boletus
chanterelles, morels edulisfrom
Boletus edulis from the
the southern
southern to to the northern
northern hemisphere.
hemisphere.
Within Europe, thethe local
local supply
supply of
ofwild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi has
has failed
failed to
to meet
meet anan expanding
expanding
demand for "exotic
"exotic mushrooms"
mushrooms" (Plate
(Plate 9).
9).
The increased
increased demand
demand has provided
provided commercial opportunities for
commercial opportunities for countries
countries in
eastern Europe, Turkey, Mexico - to name a few.
Turkey, and Mexico few. The United States
States and Canada
Canada
have increased
have increasedexports
exportsofof aa number
number of
of wild
wild edible fungi, though
edible fungi, though they
they are
are most
most
associated with
associated with matsutake sent to to Japan
Japan (Box (Box 4). The Japanese
Japanese demanddemand for matsutake
has had
has had an important effect effect on the the livelihoods
livelihoods of people in Asia Asia andand North
North America.
America.
Tables 21,22
Tables 21, 22 and
and 2323 provide
provide an an overview
overview of of the
the global
global trade
trade in in matsutake.
matsutake.
The price paid
The paid forfor matsutake
matsutake variesvaries considerably,
considerably, depending
depending on on annual
annual harvests
harvests
around Asia and in the the United
United States
States and and Canada.
Canada. The The financial
financial benefits
benefits to collectors
collectors
are difficult to quantify,
quantify, although
although the thesigns
signs of ofincreased
increased -wealth
wealth are are clear
clear to to see
see in parts
of Sichuan.
Sichuan. In Kyanbga the money money earnedearned fromfrom selling
selling rnatsutake
matsutake and and Cordyceps
Cordyceps spp. spp.
provides 60 percent of
provides of cash
cash income
income (Winkler,
(Winkler, 2002).
2002). TheThe enthusiasm
enthusiasm for for collecting,
collecting,
clandestine planning
clandestine planning of of trips
trips (rising early in
(rising early in the morning and hunting with torches torches in in
Bhutan: Namgyel
Namgyel2000) 2000) and and sometimes
sometimes violent violent clashes
clashes between
between collectors
collectors (Yeh, (Yeh, 2000)
2000)
indicates the perceived attraction of of the
the potential
potential financial
financial rewards.
rewards.
The quality of of matsutake
matsutake significantly
significantly affects prices obtained
affects prices obtained by collectors. Exports
collectors. Exports
from the Republic
from Republic of Korea Korea are are worth
worth aasimilarsimilar amount
amount to to the
theDemocratic
Democratic People's People's
Republic of Korea
Republic Korea whenwhen averaged
averaged over over aa five-year
five-year period
period (Table
(Table 23) even though the the
average volume exported
average volume exported over over the
the same
sameperiodperiodwas was only
only about
about 25 25 percent
percent of of that
that for
the Democratic People's
People's Republic of Korea. Korea. The Italian
Italian traders
traders have
have provided technical
support to to improve
improve and andmaintain
maintainthe thequality
qualityofofBoletus
Boletusedulis
edulis exports
exports from
from Serbia,
Serbia, andand
there has been
been a steady
steady increase in the amounts amounts of of money
moneyearnedearnedat ataa national
national levellevel (Borghi,
2002,
2002, personal communication: Porcini Porcini and and other
othercommercial
commercial wild wild edible
edible fungi in in Italy).
Italy).
The amounts paid paid per
per kilogram
kilogram for for truffles
truffles (Tuber
(Tuber spp.)spp.) andand matsutake
matsutake generate generate
much interest but but this
this isis not
not necessarily
necessarily reflected
reflected in the amounts
amounts earnedearned by by collectors.
collectors.
It is possible to make a good living from from truffle collecting
collecting but but the numbers who benefit
are relatively small (Plate
relatively small (Plate 4). 4). Rural
Rural people
people earnearn useful
useful amounts
amounts in in aa short
short period
period of
time from collecting
collecting morels
morels (Morchella
(Morchella spp.) spp.) inin India
India(Prasad
(Prasadetetal., al., 2002)
2002) and and Pakistan
Pakistan
(Pakistan Economist,
(Pakistan Economist,2001), 2001),but but trade
trade in in Nepal and and Afghanistan
Afghanistan appears appears to be be less
less
lucrative.
lucrative. The morels are collected collected in the HimalayaHimalaya and and collectors
collectors can can earn
earn US$US$ 6-7 6- 7
per day. The total money money earnedearned in in aa season
season provides 20-30 percent of of the
the annual
annual cashcash
income in 140 140 villages (Singh
(Singh and Rawat, 2000) 2000) and an annual income of of US$150
US$150 from
another
another survey
surveyof of11600
600 families
families inin 4040 villages
villages (Prasad
(Prasad et et al.,
a!., 2002)
2002)
In Turkey,
Turkey, around 11 11 tonnes
tonnes of of fresh
fresh Lactarius
Lactarius delicious
delicious were sold in in 13
13 villages
villages
(Table18).
(Table 18).The Thetotal
total annual
annual value
value of of four
four key wild wild edible
edible species
species was was around
around
US$100000,
US$100 000,aasubstantial
substantialsourcesource of of local
local income.
income.The The role
role ofof traders
traders is is important in in
facilitating local markets
facilitating local markets and and the
the international
international trade. trade. They provide transport, credit credit
and even technical
technical support. More importantly, importantly, they they provide
provide some some guarantee
guarantee of of aa sale.
sale.
They also
also benefit
benefit financially
financially from the higher prices when produce is is sold on, and and this
this
has attracted some criticism (Harsh, Rai
has Rai and Ayachi,
Ayachi, 1993).
1993). But But without
without traders there there
would be be no no export
export markets
markets and and this
this would
wouldreduce
reduce the thesubstantial
substantial benefits
benefits earnedearned
locally and nationally from the commercial
locally commercial harvesting of wild edible fungi. fungi.
The sale
sale ofof harvesting
harvesting permits
permits (Chapter
(Chapter3,3,sectionsectionRegulating
Regulatingcollection)
collection) and and local
local
taxes are
taxes are other sources
sources of potential
potential revenue.
revenue. It has has been
been estimated
estimated that twice twice the the
officially recorded
officially recorded harvests
harvests of of Tuber
Tuber spp. spp. take
take place
place in a year (Hall, Zambonelli Zambonelli and
Primavera, 1998). Similar estimates
1998). Similar estimates and and higher have been made made for for former
former Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia
52 Wild edible fungi:
Wild edible fungi: a global overview of their use
use and importance to people
---------- --------~

TABLE 19
19
World production
production of
ofcultivated
cultivatedmushrooms
mushrooms
ITEM
ITEM 1986 1989/90
1989/90 1994 1997
1997 2001"
2001."

World production
production (tonnes)
(tonnes) 2 182 000
2182000 3 763 000
3763000 4 909 000
4909000 66202000
202 000 77500000
500 000
China production
production(cYo)
(%) 54 70
Value
Value world production
production (US$(US$ billion) 7.5 16
16 22.5
Agaricus bisporus (%) 56
56 38 38 32 nd
Len tinula edodes
Lentinula edodes (shi'itake)
(shi'itake)(%)
(%) 14
14 10 17
17 25 nd
Pleurotus
Pleurotus spp.
spp. (%)
(%) 88 24 16
16 14 nd

*" 2001
2001 figures are
are estimates
estimates based
based on 5 percent annual increase
increase in volume and
and 55 percent
percent increase
increase in value at 1994
1994 prices.
prices.
Sources:
Sources: Chang,
Chang, 1991;
1991; Chang
Chang and Miles,
Miles, 1991.
1991.

TABLE 20
Value of
Value of wild
wild useful fungi collected
collected by country of origin
COUNTRY
COUNTRY COLLECTION
COllECTION AND
AND EXPORT
EXPORT VALUE US$
VALUE US$ SOURCE
(MILLIONS)
(MILUONS)

Canada
Canada Before tax revenue of
Before of 16
16 companies
companies involved in in 15-27 Wills
Wills and
and Lipsey,
Lipsey, 1999
1999
harvesting, buying
harvesting, buying or
or selling
selling all
all wild
wild edible
edible fungi.
fungi.
Around
Around 66 000
000 collectors
collectors are
are involved.
involved. Range
Range is
is for
for
"bad" and
and "good"
"good"years.
years.

China (a) Cordyceps

Cordyceps annual harvest
harvest 1949
1949 toto mid-1980s.
mid-1980s. (a) 5-20
(a) Winkler, 2002
2002
(Sichuan) Cordyceps sinensis harvest in Litang
(b) Cordyceps (b) 1.2-1.8
1.2-1.8

China Tricholoma matsutake,

Tricholoma matsutake, income for
for farmers.
farmers. 5-6 Winkler, 2002
2002
(west Sichuan)

Chile
Chile (salmuerados) and dried (deshidratados) wild
Salted (salmuerados) (a) 1.8
(a) FAO, 1993a
FAO,
edible fungi
fungi exported,
exported, 1980-
1980 -1990.
1990.Annual
Annualvalue:
value: (a)
(a) (b) 1.3-2.8
(b)
average (b)
average (b) range
Mexico Tricholoma magnivelare for
Tricholoma for export:
export: (a)
(a) 1996;
1996; (b)
(b) 1997.
1997. 1.1
(a) 1.1 www.semarnat.gob.mx
(in six
six states) Involves 3 000
Involves 000 families. (b) 0.6
Turkey Terfezia boudieri, Boletus
Boletus sp.,
sp., Morchella sp., (a) 14.4
(a) Sabra and Walter, 2001
Sabra 2001
cibarius for export
Cantharellus cibarius export in
in(a)
(a) 1991
1991 (b)
(b) 1999
1999 (b) 9.5

United
United States
States (a) morels;
(a) morels; (b)
(b) chanterelles;
chanterelles; (c)
(c) matsutake; (d) boletes. (a) 5.2
(a) Schlosserand
Schlosser and Blatner,
Blatner, 1995
Data for
Data for 1992.
1992. (b) 3.7
(c) 8
(c)
(d) 2.3

Zimbabwe Boletus edulis

Boletus edulis for
for export in
in one
one year.
year. Said to involve
Said to 1.5 Boa et
et a/.,
al., 2000
2000
2 000-5 000 collectors.
2

and a range of commercially important

importantspecies
species (Ivancevic,
(Ivancevic, 1997). Revenue from
1997). Revenue from permits
and taxes does not always
always reflect the amounts ofof wild
wild edible
edible fungi collected.
The income
The income from
from commercial
commercial harvesting
harvesting is
is uncertain.
uncertain. Fluctuating
Fluctuating harvests
harvests and
and
competing supplies from
competing supplies from other
other countries
countries can
can result in
in wide
wide fluctuations
fluctuations in
in prices
prices
offered, particularly with truffles and matsutake. The quality of of the
the collected
collected produce
produce
is
is also
also important and attention
attention to to this
this detail
detail isis aasimple
simple way
way of ofmaximizing
maximizing income
income
for collectors. The increased
collectors. The supply of chanterelles
increased supply chanterelles to to the United Kingdom
Kingdom during
during
the 1990s
1990s has depressed
depressed the wholesale
wholesale price by by two-thirds
two-thirds (Livesey,
(Livesey, 2002,
2002, personal
personal
communication: Import of wild edible
communication: Import fungi to the UK),
edible fungi UK), though
though increased
increased volumes
volumes
exported byby Poland
Poland(Table
(Table 20)
20) have
have increased
increased total revenues.
revenues.
The overall effect is that there are few
effect is few who
who make make their
their sole
sole living
living from
from collecting
collecting
wild edible fungi.
fungi. There is is no evidence
evidence from
from commercial
commercial collecting
collecting (Dyke
(Dyke and
and Newton,
Newton,
1999) to
1999) to support a quoted income
income of of around
around US$3US$3 000 000 from
from aa week's
week's endeavours
endeavours in
the United
United Kingdom
Kingdom (Rotheroe,
(Rotheroe, 1998).
1998). The
The commercial
commercial trade in wild wild edible
edible fungi
fungi
has, however, earned many
however, earned many countries
countries substantial
substantial amounts
amounts of money.
money. TheThe Democratic
People's Republic of Korea
Korea earned
earned US$150
US$150 million from matsutake exports exports toto Japan
Japan
over a five-year
five-year period (Table
(Table 23).
23). More detailed
detailed studies
studies are needed to examine
examine how
collectors benefit from thisthis trade.
trade.
The patchy datadata on
on volumes
volumes of of exports
exports for
for key keycommercial
commercial species
species suggest
suggest that
relatively small amounts
relatively small amounts are involved
involved (Table
(Table 24).24). Poland
Poland exported
exported just
just over
over 99000
000
Importance to
to people: food,
food, incorne, trade
income, trade 53
53

tonnes of chanterelles
chanterelles in 1984, the former
1984, the former Soviet Union around 3 000 tonnes.
Soviet Union tonnes. Turkey
exported
exported 730
730 tonnes
tonnes ofofBoletus
Boletus edulis
edulis in 1990 while India, Pakistan, Nepal, Afghanistan
Afghanistan
and possibly Iran
Iran collect
collect around
around 22 000
000 tonnes
tonnes fresh
fresh weight
weight of
of morels
morels in
in aa year.
year. The
The
benefits to rural
rural livelihoods
livelihoods are
are significant
significant and widespread and
and large
large numbers of of people
earn significant amounts of of money.
money.

World trade in in cultivated

cultivated mushrooms
mushrooms
There
There has been
been aa spectacular
spectacular increase
increase in -world production over
world production over the
the last ten
ten years
years
(Table 19).
(Table 19).In
In 1997
1997 shi'itake
shi'itake (Lentinula
(Lentinula edodes) and Pleurotus spp. together exceeded
edodes) and exceeded
the value ofof sales
sales of Agaricus bisporus,
bisporus, aa mushroom
mushroom celebrated more for itsits shape
shape than
than
its taste. An estimate of world production
productionforfor2001,
2001, based
based on
on figures
figures for 1997,
1997, puts the

21
TABLE 21
Matsutake 1:
1: domestic production and imports
imports in
in tonnes
tonnes to
to Japan,
Japan, 1950-99
1950-99

YEAR DOMESTIC PROD. IMPORTS % IMPORT DOMESTIC AND IMPORTS CONSUMPTION AS A % OF 1950

1950
1950 6 448
6448 0 0o 6 448
6448
1955
1955 3 569
3569 0 0o 3 139
3139 49
1960
1960 3 509
3509 0 0o 3 509
3509 54
1965
1965 1 291
291 0 o0 1291
1 291 20
1970
1970 1 974
1974 0 o0 1 974
1974 31
1975
1975 774 0 o0 774 12
1980
1980 457 362* 44 819 13
1982 484 551 53 1035
1 035 16
1984 180 1 082
1082 86 1262
1 262 20
1986 199 980 83 1 179 18
1988 406 1 430
1430 78 1 836
1836 28
1989/90 199 2 210
2210 92 22409
409 37
1993 na 1 943 [1 943]
[1943]
1994 na
na 3622
3 622 [3622]
1995 na
na 3 515
3515 [3 515]
[3515]
1996 na 2 703
2703 [2 703]
[2703]
1997 na 3 059
3059 [3059]
[3 059]
1998 257 3 248
3248 93 3 505
3505 54
1999 147
147 2 674
2674 95 2 821
2821 44
* first
first year
year that
that imports
imports are
are noted.
noted. na data not available. Domestic
na - data production from 1993
Domestic production to 1997
1993 to thought to
1997 thought to be
be around
around 200
200 tonnes
year.
per year.
Source:
Source: Data
Data have
have been
been collected
collected from various
various authors.
authors.The
The original
originalsource
sourceappears
appearsto
tobe
beJapanese
Japanese trade
trade statistics.
statistics. See
See www.fintrac.com
www.fintrac.com
for data
data from
from 1993
1993 to
to 1997.
1997.

22
TABLE 22
Matsutake 2: exports to
to Japan
Japan in
in tonnes
tonnes by
by various
various countries,
countries, 1993-97
1993-97
COUNTRY 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 AVERAGE FIVE-YEAR VALUE
TONNES/YEAR US$ MILLIONS

Bhutan* 1 1 2 3 3 2 1

Canada"*
Canada** 279 447 340 510 618 439 95
China* 1 064
1064 1 127
127 1 192
192 152
1 152 1076
1 076 1 122 270
270
Korea (Democratic
Korea 888 156
156
People's Republic
People's Republic of)*
of)* 383 1760
1 760 1 141
141 541 615
Korea (Republic
Korea (Republic of)*
of)" 131
131 139 633 170 249 264 169
169
Mexico** 2 22 36 23 99 18 6
see below
see below (26) (35) (56) (42) (14)
Morocco""*
Morocco*** 20 73 1 86 125 61
61 12
Turkey**"
Turkey*** 0 2 4 44 80 26
26 4
United States**
5tates** 51 47 164 172
172 284 144 33
* Tricholoma matsutake. ** TT. magnivelare.
Tricholoma matsutake. ***probably
magnive/are. ""* probablyT T.caligatum.
caligatum.Includes
Includesfresh
fresh and
and chilled.
chilled.
Note: The export tonnage
tonnage from
from aa "Mexican
"MexicanGovernment
Governmentdatabase"
database"(Martínez-Carrera et al.,2002)
(Martinez-Carrera etal., 2002)isis shown
shown in
in italics
italics and
and includes
includes data
for 1998
for 1998 (24
(24 tonnes);
tonnes); 1999
1999 (14
(14 tonnes)
tonnes) and
and 2000
2000 (4
(4 tonnes).
tonnes).
Source: www.fintrac.com..
Source: www.fintrac.com
54
54 Wild
Wild edible
edible fungi:
fungi: aa global
global overview of their use and importance to
and importance to people
people

TABLE 23
TABLE
Matsutake 3:
3: value of
of exports
exports to
toJapan
Japan by
byvarious
variouscountries,
countries. 1993-97
1993-97
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 TOTAL TOTAL
COUNTRY
YEN, MILLION YEN, MILLION YEN, MILLION YEN, MILLION YEN, MILLION YEN, MILLION LAS, MILLION

Bhutan 55 4 9 17 16 51 0.5
Canada 1 840
1840 1891
1 891 11 506 22690
690 2559
2 559 10 486
10486 95
95
China 5 494
5494 5 746
5746 5249
5 249 66631
631 6579
6 579 29699
29 699 270
Korea (Democratic
Korea
People's Republic
People's Republic of) 2291
2 291 6 928
6928 4 074
4074 1060
1 060 2794
2 794 17147
17 147 156
Korea (Republic
Korea (Republic of) 2321
2 321 2 653
2653 6 719
6719 3076
3 076 3815
3 815 18584
18 584 169
Mexico 78 100 206 156 73 613 6
6
Morocco 117 340 6 368 449 1280
1 280 12
Turkey 0
o 4 12
12 140 256 412 4
United States
States 491 253 782 931 1 153 3 610
3610 33
Total 12 637
12637 17 919
17919 18 563
18563 15 069
15069 17694
17 694 81 882
81882 745
Grand total
Grand total
(US$, million)
(US$, million) 115 163
163 169 137 161 745
745
US$1==110
US$1 110Yen.
Yen.Grand
Grandtotal
total includes
includesseveral
severalcountries
countriesthat
thatwere
were minor
minor and
and irregular
irregular exporters.
exporters. Data
Data include
include fresh
fresh and
and chilled
chilled
matsutake.
matsutake .
Source: www.fintrac.com.
Source: www.fintrac.com.

TABLE 24
TABLE
Volume of
Volume of exports of named
named wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi from
fromselected
selected countries
countries (in tonnes)
COUNTRY YEAR BOLETUS EDULIS CHANTERELLES MORELS.

Lithuania)
Baltic states (86% Lithuania) 1998 nd 3500
3 500 nd
India annual none? nd 50-60
50-60
Pakistan 1999 none none 79
Poland 1984 nd 9 179
9179 nd
South Africa
South annual 100-200 none none
none
Turkey 1989 22 11
11 47
47
1990 730 160 nd
1996 nd 13
13 152
152
1997 nd 18 100
100
1998
1998 nd
nd 375
375 46
46
1999
1999 nd
nd 94 104
104
2000 nd 15
15 44
44
Yugoslavia (former - now
Yugoslavia (former now Serbia
Serbia 1993
1993 5 186
5186 2 605
2605 37
and Montenegro) 1994
1994 1 212
1212 631
631 2
2
1995
1995 33792
792 1 502 3
3
Zimbabwe annual 100
100 20-30 none
none
evidence of
nd - no data. none - no evidence
nd exports.** dry
of exports. dry weight.
weight. All
Allother
otherdata
dataare
areassumed
assumed to be
be fresh weight.
weight.
Sources: PakistanEconomist.
Sources: Pakistan Economist,2001;
2001;Boa
Boaeteta/.,
al., 2000;
2000;Gurer,
Gurer,2002,
2002,personal
personalcommunication:
communication:Unpublished
Unpublishedtrade
trade data
data on wild
wildedible
edible
fungi
fungi for
forTurkey;
Turkey; Kaul,
Kaul,1993;
1993; Kroeger,
Kroeger, 1985;
1985; Pott,
Pott, 2002,
2002, personal
personal communication:
communication: Export
Export of
ofBoletus
Boletus edulis
edulis from
fromSouth
SouthAfrica;
Africa;Sabra
Sabra
and Walter,
Walter, 2001
2001

global value
global value of cultivated
cultivated mushrooms at aroundaround US$23
US$23 billion. This exceeds value
exceeds the value
of many other commodities.
The trade in wild edible fungi
fungi and the business cultivated mushrooms
business of cultivated mushrooms havehave both
both
steadily expanded.
expanded. Packets of wild wild and
and cultivated
cultivated species
species are
are sold
sold in
in shops
shops (Plate
(Plate9).
9).
Sales
Sales of wild edible
edible fungi
fungi have
have risen
risen steadily
steadily as
as the
the range
range of
ofcommercial
commercial species
species on
on
sale in the United
United Kingdom
Kingdom has has increased.
increased. In
In China,
China, customers
customers have
have been
been observed
observed toto
prefer the wild
wild species,
species, when in season, to the cultivated mushrooms that that are
are available
available
all year round
round (Priest,
(Priest, 2002,
2002, personal
personal communication:
communication: Edible
Edible and medicinal fungi in
medicinal fungi
China and
and general
general information).
information).
Cultivated mushrooms
Cultivated mushrooms are are now China's biggest
biggest "vegetable" export and
"vegetable" export and there
there are
significant numbers of of relatively
relatively small-scale producers in countries such as
small-scale producers as Viet Nam
and
and Indonesia
Indonesia (Gunawan,
(Gunawan, 2000). Both China
2000). Both China andand Viet
Viet Nam
Namexport
exportcultivated
cultivated
mushrooms to to Europe
Europe(Plate
(Plate 5).
5).
 55
PLATE
PLATE 6
EDIBLE FUNGI
EDIBLE FUNGI IN AFRICA

Photosfrom
Photos fromthe
theUnited
UnitedRepublic
Republic of Tanzania
of Tanzania by Marja
by Marja Härkönen;
Harkonen; HarryHarry
Evans Evans for Ghana.
for Ghana.
All others by Eric
Eric Boa.
Boa.

6.1 (right) Roadsides

6.1
are a common selling
are
point
point in
in Malawi.
Malawi. Traders
Traders
rarely venture
, rarely venture beyond
markets and collectors
markets
must come
must come to them if
they chose
they chose not to sell
~ themselves.

6.2 (left)
6.2 (left) Made from dried
Uapaca leaves,
Uapaca leaves, this basket
is used
is used to store dried
mushrooms (and leafy
vegetables) collected
vegetables) collected from
the forest. Malawi.
Malawi,

6.3 (left)
6.3 (left) A
A collector
collector returns
returns with a
mornings'
mornings' harvest.
harvest.Malawi.
Malawi.

6.4 (above)
6.4 (above) Cleaning aa successful
successful
harvest (Termitomyces).
(Termitomyces). United
Republic of
of Tanzania.
Tanzania.

6.5
6.5 (right)
(right) Cooking
Cookingchanterelles.
chanterelles. This
This
mushroom stew is is usually eaten with
maize or cassava
cassava porridge. United
Republic ofof Tanzania.
Tanzania.

6.6 (left)
(left) Termitomyces on their way
Termitomyces on
to aa local
local market in
in Ghana.
G hana.

6.7 (above) Wild edible fungi

fungi are
are
also sold dried. United Republic
Republic of
Tanzania.
6.8
6.8 (right)
(right) Carefully
Carefull yexcavating
excavating
Termitomycesin
Termitomyces in the
the U
United
nited Republic
of Tanzania.
Tanzania, Compare the the size
size with
with
the species
species from Ghana.
56
PLATE
PLATE 7
EDIBLE FUNGI
EDIBLE FUNGI IN
IN LATIN
LATIN AMERICA
AMERICA AND THE
THE CARIBBEAN
CARIBBEAN

The strong
strong tradition
traditionof
ofcollecting
collecting and
and eating
eating wild
wild edible
edible fungi extends from Mexico
Mexico to Guatemala and then appears
to stop
stop abruptly.
abruptly. Only
Onlyoneonerecord
record(shown
(shownhere)
here)from
fromBolivia
Bolivia isis known.
known. The
The Caribbean
Caribbean also
also lacks
lacks aa tradition
tradition of
of
eating wild
eating wild edible fungi yet,
edible fungi yet, once more, Haitians
Haitians regularly
regularly eat djon
djon djon
djon wherever
wherever they
they migrate.
migrate. Photos
Photos from
from
Guatemala by Roberto Flores;
Guatemala Flores; New
New York
York bybyGene
GeneYener;
Yetter; mushroom
mushroomfair, fair, Oaxaca
Oaxaca by
by Fabrice
Fabrice Eduard,
Eduard, seller
seller by
by
Marshall; Bolivia
Elaine Marshall; Bolivia by Eric Boa.

7.1
7.1 Mushroom
Mushroomfair
fair to
toraise
raiseawareness
awareness of
ofedible
edible species.
species. 7.2 Local
7.2 Local market in
in Oaxaca,
Oaxaca, Mexico;
Mexico; wild edible fungi shown
Oaxaca, Mexico. on right (?Amanita) and in front of vendor.
(?Amanita) and

7.3 Patznn
7.3 Patzun market,
market, Guatemala. Lactarius 7.4
Guatemala. Lactarius 7.4 Roadside
Roadside vendor,
vendor, Guatemala,
Guatemala, with 7.5 Gregoria
Gregoria was the onlv
only vendor
deliciosus and
deliciosus and L.
L. indigo
indigo for sale
sale (hand in Lactarius deliciosus
deliciosus and
and Amanita
Amanita calip- of k'allampa (Quechuana.'
k'allampa(Quechua nameme for
basket). troderma. Leucoagaricus hortensis) in
Leucoagaricus hortensis) in Cochabamba
market, Bolivia.
market, Bolivia.

7.6 Haitian
7.6 Haitian communities
communities around the world regularly buy
regularly buy 7.7 Fresh
Fresh djon
djon djon are cultivated in Haiti and exported to
cultivated in to
djon djon,
djon djon, a Psathyrella
Psathyrella sp.
sp. Brooklyn, New York. the United States,
States, Canada and other countries.
countries. Brooklyn,
Brooklyn,
New York.
York.
 57
PLATE 8
EDIBLE FUNGI IN
EDIBLE FUNGI IN ASIA

Photos from
from Bhutan
Bhutan by
byAlessandra
Alessandra Zambonelli;
Zambonelli; Viet N
Nam
am and Kunming by Mar a Chamberlain; southern China
Maria China
by Marja Härkönen,
Hirkonen, all
all other China
China photos
photos by
by Warren
Warren Priest.
Priest.

8.1 (left) /14atsutake

Matsutake (Tricholoma
(Tricholoma
rnatsutake) Bhutan.
matsutake)

8.2 (above)
8.2 (above) Preparing matsutake for
export to Japan from Bhutan.
Bhu tan. Quality
has an important bearing
has bearing on
on the
the prices
prices
obtained.

8.3
8.3 (right) Selling chanterelles
(right) Selling chanterelles and
and
Ramaria
Ramaria sp.
sp . (in
(in hand),
hand), Thimpu,
Thimpu, Bhutan.
Bhutan.

8.4 Cultivating
CultivatingAgartcus
Agaricus bisporus,
bisporus, 8.5
8.5 Collector's
Collector's basket,
basket, northern 8.6 Huge
8.6 Huge amounts
amounts of
of wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi
Pohkara, Nepal.
Nepal. Sponsored
Sponsored by
by Japanese
Japanese Viet Nam. are brine. Chengdu, China.
are sold in brine.
aid project.

8.7 (left)
(left) Termitomyces are good
Termitomyces are good baby
food in Hanyuan
Hanyuan county,
county, Sichuan,
Sichuan,
China.

8.8
8.8 (above)
(above) Lyophyllum
Lyophyllum decastes,
decastes, for
sale in Kunming, China.

1 8.9
8.9 (right)
(right) A
China.
A collector
collector in
in southern
southern
 59

5 Realizing the
thepotential:
potential:prospects,
prospects,
actions, opportunities
actions, opportunities

KEY FACTS
FACTS
The major
major features
features of
of wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi based
based ononthis
thisfirst
firstglobal
globalassessment
assessmentare:are:
• 2 327 recorded wild
2327 wild useful
useful species;
species; 2 166 areare edible
edible and this book
book hashas noted
noted 11069
069
used as food, with at at least
least 100
100 other "known
"known food"
food" species
species still
still lacking
lacking published
evidence;
• 470 species
species have
have medicinal
medicinal properties,
properties, of which 133 are neither eaten or said to be
133 are be
edible; aa further
edible; further 181 species have
181 species have other
other properties
properties and used valued by people, e.g.
religious, as
religious, as tinder;
• they are collected, consumed and sold in over over 80
80 countries worldwide;
global amount collected each
• global each year is several million tonnes with aa minimumminimum value
value
of US$2 billion.
The major benefits
The benefits and features
features of wild
wild edible
edible fungi,
fungi, as
as discussed
discussed in Chapters
Chapters 22
and 4, are:
• they are a valuable source of nutrition, often often with
with associated
associated health
health benefits;
benefits;
• they are
are an
an important
important source
source of
of income
income for
for communities
communities and and national
national economies;
economies;
• key species
species are
are ectomycorrhizal
ectomycorrhizal and and help
help to sustain
sustain tree
tree growth
growth and and healthy
healthy
forests;
• they are
are especially
especially valuable
valuable to rural people in developing
developing countries.

GENERAL CONSTRAINTS
Much of the the original
original work
work onon edible
edible fungi
fungi has
has concentrated
concentrated on on the
the mycological
mycological or
scientific aspects and,
scientific aspects and, although
although much still remains
remains to be be done,
done, the
themost
mostsignificant
significant
gaps in information
gaps information and and knowledge
knowledge concern
concern social
social and
and economic
economic aspects
aspects of
of use.
use.
Little is known about
about collectors
collectors and
andcollecting
collecting practices,
practices, for
for example,
example, or
or the
therelative
relative
importance of of wild
wild edible
edible fungi compared with alternative
alternative sources of food or income.
Sustainable production of of wild
wild edible
edible fungi is not only
only about
about how
howto tomaximize
maximize yields
yields
but
but how
how toto balance
balance this
this resource
resource with
with other
otheruses
uses and
and users
users of
offorests.
forests.
Despite significant
Despite significant gaps
gaps in
in knowledge
knowledge itit isis also
also important
important to to emphasize
emphasize that
that
significant advances have been made in describing the features of commercial
commercial harvesting
harvesting
in different countries. There is a considerable body of published information from the
United States
States and
and Canada,
Canada, for
for example,
example, and
and Chinese
Chinese researchers
researchers have
have also
also provided
provided
new insights concerning
concerning the
the use
use of
of wild edible
edible fungi that demonstrate
demonstrate their
their widespread
widespread
importance.
importance. In central,
central, southern
southern and
and now
nowwest
westAfrica,
Africa, development
development projects
projects have
have
explored local
explored local use
use of wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi while
while national
national programmes
programmes in
in Mexico
Mexico andand
Turkey have sustained local research programmes over a long period of
of time.
time.
Now isis an
an appropriate
appropriate time
time to
to identify
identify the
the most
most important
important topics
topics that
that need
need
further
further investigation.
investigation.The
The following
following section
sectiondiscusses
discusses research
research priorities
priorities in
inmycology,
mycology,
diet, fungal ecology (mycorrhizas) and storage
diet, storage - how to make
make better
better use
use of
of annual
annual
production. These
These are
are key
key areas
areas where more
more information
information isis needed.
needed. There are many
questions about
questions about how bestbest toto manage
manage wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi and
and to toachieve
achieve sustainable
sustainable
production
production and
and this
this topic
topicisisexamined
examined in
in more
moredetail
detail in
inthe
thesubsequent
subsequentsection.
section.Table
Table
25 summarizes the keykey issues
issues involved
involved and
and discusses
discusses them in in relation
relation to
tocommercial
commercial
harvesting and subsistence uses.
60 Wild edible ffungi:
Wild ungi: a global overview of
of their
their use
use and
and importance
importanceto
topeople
people

Table 25
Table 25 and
and Table
Table 12
12 attempt
attempt to
to develop
develop aa practical
practical approach
approach toto management
management that
will be of use to forest
will forest managers.
managers. The two common
common constraints
constraints for
for exploring
exploring the
the full
full
potential of wild edible fungi are a poor knowledge
knowledge of current activities
activities and a lack of
reliable data.

RESEARCH PRIORITIES:
RESEARCH PRIORITIES:WILD
WILD EDIBLE
EDIBLE FUNGI
Identification of
Identification ofspecies
species
The tropical mycota is poorly poorly known
known and and concern
concern has has been
beenexpressed
expressed by by scientists
scientists
about the incomplete state of taxonomic knowledge (Meijer, 2001).
about the incomplete state of taxonomic knowledge (Meijer, 2001). Steady progress has
been made in in naming
naming new new species
species of of macrofungi
macrofungi (e.g. (e.g. Verbecken
Verbecken et et al.,
al., 2000;
2000; Afyon,
1997) and
1997) and while
while there
there isis still
still much
much to to do there
there isis no
no obvious
obvious evidence
evidence that gapsgaps in
in
taxonomic knowledge are limiting the use use ofof wild
wild edible
edible fungi.
fungi. Local
Local classifications
classifications
provide a useful
useful guide
guide to edible
edible and "not "not eaten"
eaten" species
species (these may be
(these may poisonous or
be poisonous
not). Scientific identifications can
Scientific identifications can help
help toto clarify
clarify thethe edibility
edibility of species and further
species and
information about
about thethe identification
identification of of macrofungi
macrofungi is is always
always helpful.
helpful.
The resistance
resistance to to eating wild fungi
eating wild fungi is is often based
based on aa fear fear of
of eating
eating poisonous
poisonous
mushrooms and
mushrooms and this
this does
does limit
limit the use use ofof edible
edible species
species and
and attempts
attempts to expand
expand
local markets
local markets (Lowore and and Boa,
Boa, 2001).
2001). Throughout
ThroughoutsouthernsouthernAfrica
AfricaBoletus
Boletus edulis
edulis isis
produced
produced in in pine
pine plantations
plantations but butisis not
noteaten
eatenlocally.
locally. Suitable
Suitable publicity and reassurance
from recognized authorities will help to overcome overcome suspicion but concerted concerted efforts
efforts are
are
needed to change
needed deep-seated suspicion
change deep-seated suspicion of of wild
wild fungi.
fungi. Efforts
Efforts toto promote
promote wildwild edible
edible
fungi locally
fungi locally are
are best
best concentrated in areas areas where they are already eaten.
Simple local
Simple local guides
guides thatthat illustrate
illustrate useful
useful edible
edible species
speciesfor for aa region
region are moremore
widely needed.
widely needed. Comprehensive
Comprehensive field field guides
guides are are of
of greatest
greatest useuse but are moremore costly
costly
and complicated to produce.
produce. Guides
Guides to to edible
edible species
species are not not in
in themselves
themselves sufficient:
sufficient:
they must be supported
supported by by public
public campaigns
campaigns that seek to reassure people people about which
species are
species are safe
safe to
to eat.
eat. The "recognized
"recognized authorities"
authorities" refers
refers to both
both scientists
scientists who
who
can identify macrofungi
can macrofungi and and local
local people
people with similar
similar skills
skills acquired
acquired from personal
experience
experience of what is is safe
safe to
to eat
eat and with a knowledge of local traditions.

Nutritional status
status
The nutritional
The nutritional benefits of wild
benefits of wild edible
edible fungi
fungi have
have notnot been
been fully
fully explored.
explored. The
The
published information
published information is is of variable quality
variable quality and analytical
analytical procedures need to be
procedures need to be
standardized (Breene,
(Breene, 1990).
1990). The range of wild species
species that have been analysed is still
small and little isis known
known about variation within species that that occur in different
different countries,
e.g.
e.g. chanterelles
chanterelles and Boletus edulis. Research
Boletus edulis. Research isis needed
needed on on species
species that have
have greatest
greatest
market potential and efforts should be made made toto highlight
highlight the
the nutritional
nutritional properties
properties and
and
advantages.
advantages. ManyMany people
people judge
judge the
the dietary
dietary value
value ofof mushrooms
mushrooms with with little
little knowledge
knowledge
of their
their true
true properties
properties(see
(see Chapter
Chapter2,2,section
sectionononEdibility
Edibilityandandpoisonous
poisonous fungi
fungi and
Chapter
Chapter 4, 4, section
section on
onNutrition
Nutrition and
and health benefits for further
benefits for further information).

Mycorrhizas
The links between wild edible
edible fungi
fungi and tree hosts are
are well
well known for
for economically
economically
important
important species
species such
such as
as Boletus
Boletus edulis
edulis and Tuber
Tuber spp.
spp. Cantharellus spp. form
Cantharellus spp. form
mycorrhizae with many
many tree
tree species
species in tropical countries. There is an expanding body
of information about many other edible fungustree associations
edible fungus-tree associations but
butthis
this has
has not
not been
been
assembled in the
assembled in the form ofof aa database,
database, for
for example,
example, that would
would allow
allow for
for predictive
predictive
searches. The search
searches. The search for
for matsutake
matsutake in in Asia was assisted
Asia was assisted by
by aa knowledge
knowledge of of its
its tree
hosts (Namgyel,
(Namgyel, 2000) and this
2000) and this approach would assist
assist in prospecting
prospecting for other wildwild
edible fungi.
fungi . Knowledge about
about the
the mycorrhizal
mycorrhizalpartners
partnersofofedible
ediblespecies
speciesofofAmanita,
Amanita,
Lactarius and Russula
Russula is steadily increasing
increasing (e.g.
(e.g. Verbecken
Verbecken andand Buyck,
Buyck, 2002).
2002).
There are potentially large areas of
large areas of miombo woodland in Malawi
miombo woodland which are
Malawi which are not
accessible to local
accessible to local collectors
collectors working
working on foot, and
and aa better
better knowledge
knowledge of
of which
which edible
edible
Realizing
Realizing the
the potential:
potential:prospects,
prospects, actions,
actions, opportunities
opportunities 61

mycorrhizal species
mycorrhizal grow with which trees would help
species grow help to
to identify
identify productive
productive areas.
areas.
In general terms, a database of mycorrhizal associations,
associations, linking edible species
species toto tree
tree
hosts would help
help planners
planners and
and forest
forest managers.
managers. TheThe database
database would needneed to
to indicate
indicate
how well the association had been
been established.
established. Physical links between macrofungi and
trees were relatively simple
simple to trace during oneone short
short exercise
exercise in
in Malawi
Malawi (Plate 2) and
published work hashas already
already confirmed
confirmed associations.
associations. Even statements
statements such as as "found
growing in association with" would
would assist
assist attempts
attempts to
to identify
identifyareas
areas where
where wild
wild edible
edible
fungi might occur.
occur.

Storage
Wild edible fungi
Wild fungi often have
have aa short
short period during which theythey cancan be
be eaten. They then
either rot or
or shrivel
shrivel up.
up. They
They can
can be
be preserved
preserved in a variety of waysways and used used at a later
later
date. Some species are readily dried and the the flavour
flavour of
of Boletus edulis isis enhanced
Boletus edulis enhanced by by this
this
process (Plate 5). Chanterelles have a longer viable
viable period
period than many other other wild
wild edible
edible
species
species and this enhances their marketability.
marketability. Truffles also store
Truffles also store well,
well, but many otherother
edible fungi
fungi are highly perishable. In China,
China, edible
edible fungi
fungi are
are commonly
commonly preserved
preserved inin
brine and sold
sold in
in caskets
caskets (Plate
(Plate 8).
8). They are
are also
also exported inin this
this form
form toto Italy.
Italy.
The technology
technology forfor preserving
preserving wild
wild edible
edible fungi is simple but maymay require
require capital
capital
investment. Drying
Drying mushrooms
mushroomsisis more
more suited
suited to
to subsistence
subsistence users
users and simple methods
used in Malawi - dried fungi are stored in natural containers made with dried leavesleaves of
Uapaca kirkiana,
kirkiana, a native tree - have wider applications
applications (Plate
(Plate 6).
6).
Preserving edible fungi in brine also has has wider
wider applications
applications and
and substantially
substantially increases
the use and value of wild edible fungi fungi in China. The success this approach depends
success of this
on having the equipment and raw materials materials to carry out thethe preservation
preservation process,
process, but
it is important toto determine
determine first
first whether
whether edible
edible fungi
fungi in brine
brine are
are acceptable
acceptable to the
intended market. There
There isis no experience
experience of this method in in Africa
Africa in rural communities,
communities,
for example, and market research is
example, and is needed
needed before
before contemplating
contemplating preservation
preservation in in brine
brine
on a wide scale.
scale.
Although some wild fungi are dried in southern southern Africa
Africa (Plate
(Plate 6),
6), there is scope
scope for
for
expanding this approach. If suitable drying methods are not already used, others could
be
be adapted
adapted from other
other areas
areas ofof agriculture
agriculture (e.g. drying seeds).
(e.g. drying seeds). ItIt isis important
important in all
these efforts
these efforts to increase the supply of wild
increase the wild edible fungi that
edible fungi that they first
first concentrate
concentrate on
regions where they are already popular
popular and,
and, second,
second, that
that any
any new
new storage
storage methods
methods are
are
developed jointly with
with local
local communities.
communities.

EFFECTIVEMANAGEMENT
EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT
The main objective of managing wild edible fungi is to ensure sustainable production. production.
This is achieved
achieved by examining their biology, ecology and
biology, ecology and patterns of use in relation to to
other uses
uses of forests and
and the
the groups
groups of ofpeople
peopleinvolved
involved (Chapter
(Chapter3).3). Table
Table 1212 outlines
outlines
the key topics that
that need
need to
to be
be addressed.
addressed. Table
Table 25 offers
offers a structured
structured approach towards
towards
achieving sustainable production
achieving sustainable production of of wild
wild edible
edible fungi and forests.
The key to success
success is having a sound knowledge of what people do in the the forest
forest and
and
why, and assessing
assessing thethe relative
relative importance
importance and and priority
priority of benefits
benefits obtained (products
and services)
services) and related
related activities.
activities. When planning
planning projects
projects or
orinitiatives
initiatives specifically
specifically
on wild edible
edible fungi, the objectives
objectives of forest
forest management
management need to be be clearly
clearly stated:
stated:
production
production forests
forests are
are managed
managed for for different
different purposes
purposes compared
compared toto protected
protected forests.
forests.
The starting
starting point
point for
for any
anymanagement
management plan plan is,
is, however,
however, the wildwild edible
edible fungi
fungi
themselves.Reliable
themselves. Reliabledatadata are
are needed
needed on on yields
yields and
and productivity.
productivity. Recent
Recent advice
advice on on
NWFP inventory
inventory methods
methods suggests
suggests how this this information
information might be be obtained
obtained (FAO,
(FAO,
2001a). Lists
2001a). Lists ofof species
species areare needed
needed together
together with information
information on on their
their relative
relative
importance to local
local people.
Sustainable useuse of wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi depends
depends on minimizing the impact of harvesting
procedures on on the
the fungus
fungus resource and the forest.forest . At the same time, information
same time, information about
about
62 Wild edible
Wild edible fungi:
fungi: a global overview of
of their
their use
use and
and importance
importance to
to people
people

TABLE 25
TABLE
Information needs
Information needs and issues concerningsustainable
issues concerning sustainableuse
useofofwild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi
Key ISSUE.S
KEY ISSUES COMME~CII'1L COLLECTIONS
COMMERCIAL COLLECTIONS PeRSONA,l USE/LOCAL
PERSONAL Use/LoCP.lSALES
sA,les

Species:
Species: which ones
ones The range is
The range is small
small and
and well known. Buyers
Buyers The range
The range ofof species
species isismuch
muchgreater
greater though
though
are collected may require confirmation
confirmation of
ofspecies:
species: there not
not all
all are
are of
ofequal
equalimportance.
importance.LocalLocalnames
names
are many more tropical
tropical species of chanterelles
species of can be
can be helpful
helpful in
in overcoming
overcoming difficulties
difficulties
than exist
exist in Europe.
Europe. Boletus edulis from
Boletus edulis in naming species. Note the
species. Note the importance
importance of of
China hasaavery
China has verydifferent
different flavour
flavour to those confirming that edible fungi are actually
from
from Europe.
Europe. eaten ("food").
eaten ("food").
Hall et a/.,
al., 2003: general introduction
2003 : general introduction De Kesel,
De Codjia and
Kesel, Codjia and Yorou, 2002: Benin

Collectors: who
who are
are These may be
These may be local
local or
or from outside. Conflicts
Conflicts Mostly for
for subsistence usesthough
subsistence uses though note
they occur within and
and between
between groups
groups depending
depending collecting for aa hobby
collecting hobby in the
the North.
North.
on the
the value
value of
ofspecies
species being collected.
collected. The
The Subsistence users
Subsistence usersvary
varygreatly
greatly in
in social and
importance of
ofincome
income earned
earned by
by collectors
collectors characteristicsand
economic characteristics and this
this will
will require
should be
be established.
established. careful
careful study.
study.

Härkönen,
Hark6nen, 1998:
1998: ethnic groups in
in Finland
Finland McLain, Christensen and Shannon,
Shannon, 1998:
1998: USA
USA
Lowore and
and Boa,
Boa, 2001:
2001: Malawi
Malawi

Harvests: how much

Harvests: The lure
The lure of
of high prices may leadlead to the use
use Harvests are usually small-scale
Harvests are small-scale and
and according
and impact
and of
of harmful
harmful methods
methods (both
(both deliberately
deliberately and
and to de
de facto
facto rules
rules established
established by
by communities.
communities.
unknowingly).
unknowingly). Compulsory
Compulsory training
trainingexists
exists in
in Data are needed
Data are needed toto determine the relative
the United
United States and truffle
States and truffle collectors
collectors must value of collections to rural
value of rural people.
people.
pass an
pass an exam
examinin Italy
Italy before
before being allowed to to Information
Information on
on this
this topic
topic isis generally
generally weak.
weak.
buy a permit.
permit.
Malyi, 1987:
1987: Belarus
Belarus
lvancevic, 1997: Yugoslavia
Ivancevic,

Regulation:: use
Regulation use of Permits are
are sold in several countries but may
several countries The concerns
The concernsareareless
lessabout
aboutthethe amounts
amounts
permits prove difficult
difficulttotomonitor.
monitor.Schemes
Schemes may
may need
need collected than the
the general
general presence
presence ofof
modification
modification andand aa review
review of
ofexperiences
experiences in collectors in protected
collectors in protected forests,
forests, leading to
to
other
other countries
countries could
could be helpful.
helpful. concerns about damage
concerns about damage to forests
forests and
and
increased risk
increased risk of
of fires
fires in
insome
someplaces
places(USA).
(USA).
Pilz et
Pilz et al.,
al., 1999: wild edible fungi,
1999: wild fungi, USA
USA
Villarreal and
and Perez-Moreno,
Perez-Moreno, 1989:
1989: Mexico
Mexico

Access: who has

Access: who has rights Commercial harvesting
Commercial harvesting often prompts
prompts aa closer
closer The low
The low intensity
intensity use
use associated with personal
associated with
for collecting
collecting inspection ofof who
who owns
owns or
orhas
has rights
rightsof
ofaccess
access collections is
collections is rarely an issue compared to
issue compared
to sites. State-
State- oror community-run
community-run forests
forests are
are general concerns about extraction
concerns about extraction of
ofNWFP
NWFP
more difficult
more difficult to
to manage
manage compared
compared to private from protected
protectedforests
forests and
andconservation
conservation areas.
areas.
plantations.
plantations.
Singh and
Singh and Rawat,
Rawat, 2000:
2000: morels
morelsfrom
from India
Yeh, 2000:
Yeh, 2000: matsutake
matsutake in China

Trade: who buys

Trade: buys and There
There isis aastrong
strongimperative
imperative for for trading Markets in
Markets in southern Africa are small and by
sells systems
systems to to develop
develop inin aa fair and effective the road and this limits
limits the
the amounts
amounts sold.
sold.
manner. Intermediaries
manner. Intermediaries are are frequently
frequently Local trading
Local trading isis often
often low-key and relatively
thought to
thought to exploit
exploitcollectors
collectors butbut they
they also
also straightforward.
provide credit,
credit, aa dependable
dependable chain for for selling
ensure that
and ensure that products
products getget to the market.
market. Lowore and Boa,
Boa, 2001:
2001 : Malawi

Namgyel, 2000: Bhutan

Bhutan

Yields and
and The potential threat
The potential threatposed
posed byby unsustainable
unsustainable Yields help to assess
Yields help assess thethepotential
potential for
productivity: amounts
amounts harvests must be
harvests must be determined
determined from an commercialization inin local
local markets.
markets.
accurate knowledge
accurate knowledge of yields
yields and
and productivity
productivity
data over
overseveral
severalyears.
years. Vladyshevskiy, Laletin and
Vladyshevskiy, and Vladyshevskiy,
Vladyshevskiy, 2000:
2000:
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
Kujala, 1988:
1988: Finland
Finland

Markets: amounts China hasaasubstantial

China has substantial"internal"
"internal" export
export Market surveys
Market are aa useful
surveys are usefulmethod
method for
traded, exports
exports market with large
large amounts
amounts flowing from estimating how
howmuch
much isis co//ected
collected locally.
locally. They
They
forest to
to major
majorcities.
cities. Elsewhere
Elsewhere exports
exports are
are also help
also help to
to demonstrate
demonstratethe thepotential
potential for
for
to Europe
Europe and
and North
North America.
America. AnAnawareness
awareness expanding
expanding local
localsales.
sales.
of
of relative
relative labour
labourcosts
costs determines market
market
opportunities. Montoya-Esquivel etet a/.,
al., 2001:
2001 : Mexico;
Mexico;
Boa
Boa et al., 2000:
2000: Malawi
www.fintrac.com:
www.fintrac.com: export
export data
data from
from several
several
countries
countries

users: who are

Forest users: are The collection
The collection of
of high
high value
value species be
species may be Rapid appraisal
appraisal methods
methods have
have greatly
greatly
they and
and the relative
relative the main output
output from
from aa forest
forest and
and therefore increased knowledge of
increased knowledge of forest
forest users.
users. Careful
importance
importance of
ofWEF
WEF management
management objectives
objectives should
should bebe set
set analysis of wild
analysis of wild edible fungi
fungi use
use is
is needed
needed-
collections accordingly. reports of
general reports of forest users maynot
users may not report
report
such
such practices.
Tedder, Mitchell
Tedder, andFarran,
Mitchell and Farran,2000: Canada
2000:Canada
Campbell,
Campbell, 1996: miombo, southern Africa
1996: miombo,
Realizing
Realizing the
thepotential:
potential:prospects,
prospects, actions,
actions, opportunities
opportunities 63

Forest management:
management: A careful examination
examination of
offorestry
forestryobjectives
objectives intensity use
Low intensity presents few
use presents few immediate
relative importance
importance with an
an analysis of major products
analysis of products and
and threats to
threats to production forests though a wider
forests though
of wood
wood versus
versus non- services
services isisneeded
neededtotoplan
plan effectively
effectively for knowledge of of WEF collecting may alter this
WEF collecting
wood forest
forest products
products multiple use.
multiple use. current perception.
and specifically wild
edible fungi Alexander et
Alexander eta/.,
al., 2002:
2002: USA
USA Lund, Pajari
Lund, Pajari and
and Korhonen,
Korhonen, 1998: boreal and
1998: boreal
cold temperate forests
cold forests

Biodiversity: Conservation concerns must address the A major

major concern
concern in tropical
tropical countries
countries is
is the
the
conservation status of
of needs of
needs of all forest
forest users,
users, including commercial
commercial poorly
poorly described
described mycota.
mycota. Studies are currently
currently
wild edible
edible fungi and
and collections. These cause particular
These cause particular concern
concern hampered by
hampered by aa lack
lack of
of suitably
suitably trained
trained
other
other plants
plants because of
because of perceived
perceived losses and damage
losses and taxonomists. AA knowledge of
taxonomists. of ectomycorrhizal
ectomycorrhizal
causes.Issues
causes. Issuescancanonly
onlybeberesolved
resolvedwith
with good associationswould
associations wouldhelphelpinin identifying
identifying
and reliable data and a soundsound understanding
understanding production ofofwild
wildedible
ediblefungi
fungi- -as
ashappens
happens
of what
of what peop/e
people dodo and
and why.
why. with Tuber
with Tuber spp.
spp. in
in Europe.
Europe.

Perini, 1998:
1998: Europe Tibiletti and
and Zambonelli,
Zambonelli, 1999:
1999: Italy

other forest uses

uses should bebe gathered.
gathered. Some
Some uses
uses of a forest may be incompatible and
incompatible and
adjustments to their
their management
management might be be required.
required.
Balancing the
Balancing the needs
needs of forest users
users in
in developing
developing countries
countries is
is often
often complicated
complicated
because the pressures
because the pressures on forest resources are great
resources are great and users have a weak voice
users have a weak voice in
in
management objectives.
deciding management objectives. User
User groups
groups must
must be able
able to
to express their needs
express their needs and
and
feel that their opinions have
feel have been taken into account.
account.

COMMERCIALIZATION AND AND CULTIVATION

CULTIVATION
Commercialization
Thereare
There aresometimes
sometimes unrealistic
unrealistic expectations
expectations aboutabout
moneymoney to be from
to be earned earned from exporting
exporting
wild edible fungi.
fungi. Much depends on the cost cost of
of labour andand access
access to markets. Exports
from North
NorthAmerica
Americahave havesuffered
suffered because
because harvesting
harvesting wildwild edible
edible fungi
fungi isis cheaper
cheaper in in
eastern Europe and and transport
transportcosts
costsare
areless.
less. The
Thetiming
timingof offruiting
fruitingseasons
seasons will
will affect
affect
the prices that
that can
can be
be achieved.
achieved. When
When fruiting
fruiting seasons
seasons overlap
overlap in in different
different countries,
countries,
supplies
supplies of common
common edibleedible species
species (e.g.
(e.g. chanterelles)
chanterelles) willwill increase
increase and prices prices will
will
drop.
drop. There
There are are yearly
yearly fluctuations
fluctuations in in production,
production, whichwhich are are difficult
difficult to to predict,
predict,
and fluctuating
fluctuating prices
prices paid for species
species creates uncertainty and
creates uncertainty and a potentially unstable
marketplace.
This
This is notnot totosay
saythat
thatsuccessful
successful export
export businesses
businesses cannot
cannot be be sustained,
sustained, but it it
requires careful planning, the ability to withstand the the ebb
ebb and
and flowflow ofof the
the market
market placeplace
and timely delivery of a good quality quality product.
product. That
That isis why
why initiatives
initiatives to to expand
expand local
local
markets are aa better
better way
way to tocommercialize
commercialize wild wild edible
edible fungi.
fungi. TheyThey willwill still
still require
require
attention to detail
detail (getting
(getting produce to to market
market quickly)
quickly) butbut the
the potential
potentialchallenges
challenges are are
smaller and more manageable,
manageable, thus increasing
increasing the chances
chances of success.
success.
Evidence of this comes from local markets in southern southern Africa
Africa and and Mexico
Mexico that that have
have
developed out of of local
local initiatives,
initiatives, often with little
little or
or no
no assistance
assistance from from governments
governments
or development projects. The
development projects. The role of researchers
researchers and and NGOs in in these
these circumstances
circumstances
is build on existing trading systems and identify where minor changes might
is to build on existing trading systems and identify where minor changes might lead
lead
to major improvements. The The following
following example
example illustrates
illustrates the potential of this simple simple
approach.
In Mzimba region in the north north of
of Malawi,
Malawi, women walk long distances distances in in order to
meet traders,
meet traders, who buy enthusiastically when the opportunity
enthusiastically when opportunity arises.
arises. The strong local
demand for wild edible fungi guaranteesguarantees goodgood market
market prices
prices yet yet only a small number
small number
of collectors sell their produce directly.
collectors sell More commonly,
directly. More commonly, they they sellsell to
to the
the traders
traders who
sell in
sell in the market at twicetwice the
the price.
price. Efforts
Efforts areare now
now being
being made
made to to encourage
encourage more
collectors
collectors to sell directly and to arrange trading points closer to the collectors'
collectors' homes,
homes,
thus increasing the amounts they can can supply to to local
local markets
markets (Lowore,
(Lowore, Munthali
Munthali and and
Boa, 2002).
64 Wild edible
Wild edible ffungi:
ungi: aa global
global overview
overview of their
their use
use and
and importance to people
people

BOX 99
Productq~~lityand
Product quality and its
its importance .for trade
f 9ttrade
The roadside
roadside sellers
sellers of WEF in Malawi Ma1ilWi are aware that customers will pay more for species species that are are
fresh
fresh and presented
presented in in an
an attractive
attractive manner.
.manner. They They clean
clean fruiting
fruiting bodies
bodies and
and select
select which
which onesones areare
placed
placed at the topstops ofof piles
piles on
on their
their stalls,
stalls, but
but onon the
thewhole
wholetheytheyspendspendrelatively
relatively little
little time
time ininthese
these
actions.
actions. The differences
differences in in money earned are small. The
are small. The most important thing is to to get
get the
the WEF
WEF as as
quickly
quickly as they can can from forest
forest toto stall.
stall.
As the value of the
As the species
species increases
increases so so too
too does
does the increased
increased priceprice that collectors
collectors and and traders
traders
can expect
expect to be be paid.
paid. The
The differences
differences in quality between between matsutake arriving from
matsutake arriving from China
China andand the
Republic of Korea in Japan is i~we~iately
Republic. immediately apparent to anyone comparing cort1p~ring boxes. The specimensspecimens from
the Republic
Repu?lic .of of Korea
Korea areare less d~~ll~gesh1(eatly
less damaged, neatly displayed
displayed and and in in. p.ri~e
prime condition, thus satisfying
satisfying.thethe
discerning needs
discerning needs of the Japanese
Japanese cusBpmers
customers who who will
will bebe prepared
prepared to to pay top prices.
Getting fresh specimens
specimens to market
market is is aa considerable
considerable challenge. The. The physical appearance
appearance of fruiting
bodies isis obviously important
important and and customer
customerpreferences
preferences mustmust be be observed.
observed. SomeSome species
species discolour if
the gills or cap are damaged
gills or damaged and and they must be handled with care. The buyers have have to make sure that
fruiting bodies are not infested
infested with insects some collectors
insects - some collectors try try to hide these
these atat the
the bottom of trays
but such
such tricks
tricks rarely
rarely gogo undetected
undetected for for long.
long. Depending
Depending on the the soil
soil where
where thethe fungi
fungi grow,
grow, some
some
preliminary cleaning of gills and gaps may be needed to to remove
remove particles.
particles. Spurassis
Sparassis crispa and other other
species with honeycomb caps
species with caps readily
readily accumulate
accumulate grit, which is is difficult
difficlllt to remove.
remove.
Pic~ing fruiting
Picking fruiting bodies
bodies at the CP~~~%t stage
th? correct stage of development is · important.
of development ~~f0rtant. As As they
they mature
mature somes~me
species become
species<become woody woody and much}essdesirable while others, s~chas Coprinus comatus, quickly
much less desirable while others, such as Coprinus comatus,
dissolve or rot away.
away. The simple consequence for for collectors is is that
that inferior specimens
specimens are are graded
graded lower
lower
and are
are worth
worth less.
less. All
Allthings
thingsbeing
beingequal,
equal,somesomeprovenances
provenancesofofBoletus Boletus edulis
edt/lis have
have different
different taste
taste
characteristics. Knowledgeable buyers in Italy can identify the country of origin by smelling the dried
fruiting bodies. This This in turn determines the price that the buyers will pay for a particular market. market.
The most spectacular
spectacular difference
difference in in the
the financial outcomes of
financial outcomes of product
product quality
quality is is shown by by the
the
dramatically different amounts of money earned by by the
the Democratic
Democratic People's
People's Republic
Republic of of Korea
Korea andand
the Republic of Korea Korea on on exports
exports of ofmatsutake.
matsutake.Despite
Despite exporting
exporting only only264264 tonnes
tonnes overoverfive
five years,
years,
compared
compared to to 888
888 tonnes
tonnes fromfrom the Democratic People's
the /Democratic People's Republic of of Korea,
Korea, thethe Republic
Republic of of Korea
Korea
earned nearly
nearly 1515 percent
percent more
more(Tables 22 and 23).
(Tables22and23).
Sources: Lowore
Sources: Lowore and Boa (2001),
(2001), author's observations
observations and
andZambonelli
Zambonelli(2002,
(2002,personal communication: Truffles. ·and
communication:Truffles, and
collecting porcini in Italy)
Italy )

Cultivation
There are possibilities
There possibilities for expanding
expanding the
the cultivation
cultivation of
of edible
edible fungi.
fungi. Larger-scale
Larger-scale
methods
methods are
are unsuited
unsuited to local
local communities
communities that lack
lack the
the money
money to to establish
establish such
such
businesses. Smaller-scale
Smaller-scaleapproaches
approaches ("backyard
("backyard cultivation") are described in Stamets
(2000) and widely
(2000) and widely used
used throughout
throughout China.
China. These
These have
have aa greater
greater potential
potential for rural
rural
people who cultivate paddy-straw as part of of integrated
integrated farming
farming systems in Viet Nam,
Viet Nam,
for example.
example.

THE FUTURE
THE FOR WILD
FUTURE FOR WILD EDIBLE
EDIBLE FUNGI
The increased interest and
increased interest and importance
importance of
of NWFP have
have helped
helped to raise
raise the profile
profile of
of
worldwide. Well-publicized commercial harvesting in North
wild edible fungi worldwide. North America
America
since the 1990s
since the and the
1990s and the expansion of exports
expansion of from eastern
exports from Europe and China
eastern Europe China have
have
raised awareness of wild edible fungi and there is now a substantial and significant trade
trade
from developing
developing to developed
developed countries.
countries. A
A growing
growing interest
interest in
in medicinal
medicinal mushrooms
mushrooms
has attracted commercial interests, though
commercial interests, though there
there has
has always
always been
been aa strong
strong demand
demand in
Asia for Ganoderma
Ganoderma and other key
key species.
species.
The expansion in commercial harvesting and
and international
international trade has
has led
led to
to widespread
widespread
concern about
about overharvesting
overharvesting and
and damage
damage to fungal
fungal resources and toto forests.
forests . There
There is
is
Realizing
Realiz ing the potential:
potential: prospects,
prospects, actions, opportunities 65

aa danger of of restricting
restricting commercial
commercial harvesting
harvesting without examining examllllllg available
available data data or
identifying the
identifying the need
need to collect data data to answer
answer important questions questions about impact impact and and
sustainability. A
sustainability. A recent
recent attempt
attempt to restrict collections of matsutake matsutake in in the
the United States
States
was rejected
was rejected following
following aa closercloser look
look at at this
this resource
resource and and its
its current pattern of of use
use
(Mushroom,
(Mushroom, the Journal
Journal of ofWild
Wild Mushrooming,
Mushrooming, 2002).
The concerns regarding subsistence uses in developing countries are more generally generally
about sustainable use of natural resources. The key to to developing
developing wild edible edible fungi as as
either a local
either food or source
local food source of of income
income is to examine
examine the different aspects aspects of use use and
and
harvesting and to learn more
harvesting more about
about local
local practices
practices and and community
community needs. needs.
There has
There has been
been muchmuch enthusiasm
enthusiasm for for NWFP-based
NWFP-based development,
development, particularly
particularly in in
protected forests.
forests. Some
Some caution is is needed
needed in in assessing
assessing the potential
potential benefits
benefits of of this
this
strategy and threethree commonly
commonlyheld heldbeliefs
beliefs require
requirecloser
closerinvestigation
investigation(Belcher,
(Belcher, 2002):
2002):
1.NWFP
1. NWFP contribute
contribute more more than timbertimber to to the
the livelihoods
livelihoods and and welfare
welfare of peoplepeople
living in
living in or near forests, particularly in in hard
hard times.
times.
Exploitation causes
2. Exploitation causes less damage
damage compared
compared with timber harvesting and is a sounder
basis
basis for sustainable forest management.
management.
Increased commercial
3. Increased commercial harvestsharvests addadd toto the value
value of (tropical)
(tropical) forests
forests and thereby
increasesthe
increases the incentive
incentivetoto maintain
maintainthem themrather
rather thanthan convert
convert themthem to to other land
uses.
There is
There is better than expected
expected evidence
evidence to to support
support the the first
first two
two points for for wild
wild
fungi while
edible fungi while noting the need for more data and better better information.
information. ItItisis less
less clear
clear
whether commercial harvests harvests helphelp to protect forests.
forests. The mycorrhizal
mycorrhizal associations
associations of
key wild edible fungifungi do, however,
however, emphasize
emphasize the the unique
unique rolerole they
they play
play in
in maintaining
maintaining
tree health.
The global
The global trade in in wild
wild edible
edible (ectomycorrhizal)
(ectomycorrhizal) fungi fungi has
has been
been estimated
estimated at at
US$2
US$2 billion (Hall(Hall et et al.,
al., 2003).
2003). The
The true
true value,
value, however,
however, includes
includes the the value
value of of wild
wild
edible fungi to
edible fungi to the millions
millions of rural people around the world world who who gain
gain benefits
benefits from
eating them (food they would otherwise otherwise have to buy or or go
go without)
without) and and money
money from from
collecting.
There are compelling reasons for expecting expecting a brighter future future for
for wild
wildedible
ediblefungi:
fungi:
they maintain the the health
health of of forests;
forests; they
they are
are aa valuable source of nutrition
nutrition and and income.
income.
New initiatives
initiatives should concentrate
concentrate on on expanded
expanded use use andand benefits
benefits inin areas
areas that already
already
have aa strong tradition of
have of wild
wild edible
edible fungi.
fungi. Export opportunities
opportunities also exist but
also exist but are
are
inherently moremore risky.
risky.
During the the preparation
preparation of of this
this book
bookinformation
information on onwild
wildedible
edible and and wild
wilduseful
useful
fungi was stored in in aa simple
simple database. This has has been
been extensively
extensively updated and and modified
modified
with the assistance
assistance of Dr Paul Paul Kirk
Kirk of of CABI
CAB! Bioscience
Bioscience and can be queried over the
Internet (www.wildusefulfungi.org).
(www.wildusefulfungi.org). Summary Summary information
information on over over 22600600 species
species is is
available and the original records from over 11 000 references
available and references and and lists
lists published
published around
the world
world can can be
be viewed.
viewed. This This new
newWeb Web site
site also
also provides
provides aa simple
simple means
means for for checking
checking
valid and preferred names
valid names of of WEF
WEF species.
species.
66
PLATE 99
EDIBLE AND MEDICINAL FUNGI
EDIBLE AND FUNGI IN ASIA
ASIA

All photos
photos by
by Eric
EricBoa
Boaexcept
exceptCordyceps
Cordyceps sinensis
sinensis photos by
by Warren
Warren Priest.
Priest.

9.1 Packaging
Packaging for
for Phallus 9.2 Dried Phallus impudicus.
impudicus. 9.3 Dried mores,
morels, bought
bought in
in
impudicus. Belgium.

.0 that. t,
Mtl
.pkntl. w4tatt0Itie,. .31

forip1m.no.Gernbitsx
,
744,-302 .0 Saal, , ,

ow,thi 174,1.1a.,
lx,lar,a4,
Ianswgrht.no...0.162gai potztYa,
,mIw é.. iwompek
9.4 (left)
9.4 (left) Dried
Dried Cantbayellus
Cantharellus
kiegesz., mrd.rntele ,,ektalne4 kDitinas
.11,,sd. fan,. .61, 1.14.
adanmeel
cibarius for sale in Hungary.
cibarius
toVnaskpiri megbr.
&
9.5 (above)
9.S (above) Fresh Hydnum
repandum (left - note spines,
spines, sans
sans
gills) and
gills) and Hypsizygus tessulatus for
sale in
sale in aa UK
UK supermarket.
9.6 (right) Ganoderma, dried,
(right) dried, sold
sold
for medicinal purposes
for purposes.. Singapore.
Singapore.

*4 1,

OM-8211275
Nhk,

Shops advertise
9.7 Shops advertise chongcao
chongcao(Cordyceps
(Cordycepssinensis)
sinensis)- the 9.8 Cleaning chongcao
9.8 chongcao inin Kangding,
Kangding, China in
orange "sticks" on the left - in
orange in Xining,
Xining, China.
China, preparation for selling.
preparation selling.
 67

6 Sources of advice and

Sources of
information

MYCOLOGICAL EXPERTISE
MYCOLOGICAL EXPERTISE
One ofof the
the most
most common
common areas areas where
where technical
technical advice
advice isis sought is in in identifying
identifying
specimens and obtaining
obtaining aa scientific name. There are mycologists in all major countries, countries,
both developed and and developing,
developing, though
though their
theirexperience
experience of of macrofungi
macrofungi may may bebe limited
limited
to particular groups. Many mycologists
mycologists work with microfungi microfungi and in other other applied
applied
areas such as
areas as plant pathology.
Experts on edible
Experts edible fungi
fungi are likely to be be most
most knowledgeable
knowledgeable about the the cultivated
cultivated
species. Wild edible fungi have not been the focus concerted research until
species . Wild edible fungi have not been the focus of concerted research until the
last ten or twenty
last twenty years
years andand professional
professional expertise
expertise is is subject
subject toto the
the vagaries
vagaries ofof short-
short-
term funding,
funding, particularly when it comes to the the study
study ofof subsistence
subsistence uses.
uses. Individual
Individual
researchers maintain
researchers maintain aa close
close professional
professional interest
interest in in wild
wild edible fungi, though this is
edible fungi, is
often broad-based and and not
notspecialized
specialized in in the
the identification
identification of ofspecies.
species.
There are,
There are, however, various professional
however, various professional groups groups withwith aa shared
shared interest
interest in edible
edible
fungi which
fungi which meetmeet on aa regular
regular basis.
basis. Individual
Individual members
members are are dispersed around the
dispersed around
world. The best known example
world. example is is the Edible Ectomycorrhizal Group, which can be
contacted viavia aa Web site listed in in Table
Table 28.28 .
There areare a number of institutes based in Europe and North NorthAmerica
America which
which have
have an
international outreach and and these
these are
are listed
listed below.
below. The major major herbaria
herbaria where
where reference
reference
collections of macrofungi are
collections are stored are based in developeddeveloped countries,
countries, although efforts
efforts
are being made to establish
establish collections
collections elsewhere.
elsewhere. Mycological expertise in identifying
specimens isis available
specimens available inin major
major countries
countries such such as as Mexico
Mexico and and China.
China. It is not
not always
always
clear which
clear which institute or individual
individual might
might be be able
able toto assist
assist with
with identifications
identifications and and the
the
best general advice is is to look viavia general Web sites sites or Internet
Internet search
search engines.
engines.
On the the -wider
wider issues
issues of ofNWFP,
NWFP,ethnoscience,
ethnoscience, participatory
participatory approaches
approaches to to
development and
development and other disciplines
disciplines relevant
relevant to the use of of wild
wild edible
edible fungi,
fungi, FAO is is aa
good starting point
point for
for assistance.
assistance.
Mycological societies
Mycological societies exist
exist in
in many
many different
different countries
countries and are are aa useful
useful starting
starting
point for enquiries (see Table
for enquiries (see Table 28 28 for details of
details of WebWeb sites).

FIELD GUIDES TO
FIELD GUIDES TO WILD (EDIBLE)
(EDIBLE) FUNGIFUNGI
There are many field
field guides to macrofungi,
macrofungi, which include information on on edible
edible and
and
poisonous species.
species. They are intended for naturalists
naturalists and
and people
people who
who gogo collecting
collecting for
for
the occasional mushroom
mushroom to to eat.
eat.Detailed
Detailed field
field guides
guides contain
contain scientific
scientific descriptions ofof
species, expressed in
species, expressed in aa concise
concise andand unambiguous
unambiguous language
language that isis often difficult for the
non-specialist
non-specialist to understand.
understand. Shorter
Shorter pocketbooks
pocketbooks are are available which rely more on
available which on
photographs andand have
have only
only short
shortwritten
writtendescriptions
descriptionsofofspecies.
species. Both
Both types
types of
ofguide
guide
are useful for identifying species but they are mostly written written for
for audiences
audiences in developed
countries and have,
have, therefore, aa limited
limited use
use in developing
developing countries.
There are few books
books that
that address
address thethe topic
topicof ofwild
wildedible
ediblefungi
fungispecifically
specifically from
from
a people perspective
perspective andand most of the the relevant
relevant information
information is is scattered
scattered across
across a wide
range of disciplines (see Table
disciplines (see Table 22 forfor more
more information).
information). The
The best general
general introduction
introduction
on wild edible
edible fungi, including helpful details details about uses, is a book first published in
uses, is
New Zealand
Zealand (Hall
(Hall et at., 1998a).
et al., 1998a). A newnew edition
edition was
was published
published in in 2003
2003 (Hall et at.,
et al.,
68 Wild edible
Wild ediblefungi:
fungi: aa global
global overview
overview of their use and importance
importance to
to people
people

TABLE
TAB LE 26
Sourcesofoftechnical
Sources technicaladvice
adviceand
andinformation
information on
on wild
wild edible fungi
fungi
ORGANIZATION
ORGANIZATION CONTACT DElAILS
CONTACT DETAILS NOTES

CABI
CABI Bioscience
Bioscience Bakeham Lane
Bakeham Lane Incorporates the
Incorporates the International
International Mycological
Mycological Institute; herbarium;
Egham
Egham publications; reference
publications; reference library; taxonomic expertise;
expertise; broad
Surrey
Surrey TVV20
TW20 9TY development experience;
experience; databases
databases and Index Fungorum.
Fungorum .
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
www.wildusefulfungi.org;
w ww.wildusefulfungi .org;www.cabi-bioscience.org
www.cabi-bioscience.org
Royal Bot
Royal Botanic Gardens,
anic Gardens, The Herbarium
The Herbarium; taxon
Herbarium; taxonomic expertise inin macrofungi;
omic expertise macrofungi; centre
centre for
for
Kew
Kew Surrey TVV9
Surrey TW9 3AB Economic Botany
Economic Botany(including
(including edible
edible fungi);
fungi); reference
reference library.
United Kingdom
www.rbgkew.org.uklscihortlmycolexp.htm
www.rbgkew.org.uk/scihort/mycolexp.htm
National
Nat ional Museum Belgium Domein van Bouchot Taxo nomic expertise;
Taxonomic expertise;wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi;; herbarium,
B-1860 Meise
B-1860 international links;
links; publications.
publications.
Belgium
Belgium
www.br.fg ov.be
www.br.fgov.be
Crop
Cro p and Food
Food Research
Research PB 470
PB Technologydevelopment.
Technology development.Growing
Growingtruffles
truffles and
and other
other wild
Institute Christchurch edible fungi in "managed"
edible "managed" conditions.
conditions.
New Zealand
www.crop.cri.nzipsp/em-mushrooms/index.htm
www.crop. cri.nzlpsp/em-mushrooms/index. htm

TABLE
TABLE 27
Field guides
Field guides and
and Web
Web sit
sites for identifying
es for identifying macrofungi
macrofungi and
and edible
edible varieties
varieties
COUNTRY
COUNTRY INFORMATION ANDSOURCE
INFORMATION ANO SOURCE

Argentina Horak, 1995:

Gamundi and Horak, macrofungi, pocketbook w
1995: macrofungi, with
ith colour
co lour photos.
photos.In
In Spanish.
Spanish.
Benin De Kesel,
De Kesel, Codjia
Codjia and Yorou., 2002: selected photographs,
photographs, species
species descriptions.
descriptions. In
In French.
French .
Bulgaria
Bulgaria lordanov, Vanev
Vanev and Fakirova, 1978:
1978: edible and
and poisonous
poisonous species, in Bulgarian. Drawings.
species, in Drawings.
Burundi Buyck, 1994b:
Buyck, 1994b: annot
annotated
ated guide
guide to
toedible
ediblespecies
species In
In French.
French. Photographs.
Photographs.
China
China The
The most
most cino rehensive and
cinorehensive andbest
bestillustrated
illustrated guide
guide isis Mao,
Mao, 2000,
2000,aastunning
stunning compendium
compendium of of field
field
withh extensive
mycology wit extensive colour
colour photographs.
photographs.YingYingetetal.,
aI.,7988:
1988:edible
ediblespecies,
species, in
in Chinese
Chinese [not
[not
seenl
seen].. Mao, 1998: Edible
Mao, 1998: Edib le species,
species, in
in Chinese.
Chinese. Ying
Ying et al.,
aI., 1987:
1987: medicinal species,
species, in Chinese
Ch inese [not
[not
seen]. www.im.ac.cn:
seen]. www.im.ac.cn: has
has photographs of of major
majoreconomic
economicspecies.
species.
Colombia
Colombia Franco-Molano, AAldana-Gomez
Franco-Molano, ldana-Gomez and and Halling,
Hailing, 2000:
2000:guide
guideto to macrofungi,
macrofungi, photographs.
Costa Rica
Rica Two excellent
excellent guides
guides w with
ith good
good colour
colour photographs
photographsand andSpanish
Spanish and
and English
English text areare available
available
(Mata,, 2003;
(Mata 2003; HaHalling
lling and Mueller,
Mueller, 2003).
2003) .
India Purkayastha and Chandra,
Chandra, 1985: useful summary
1985: useful summaryof of edible
edible species,
species,nutrition
nutrition data.
data . No
No
photographs
photo grap hs or drawings.
drawings.
Israel Wasser, 1995:edible
Wasser, 1995: edible an
andd poisonous species, in Russian
species, in Russianandand Hebrew
Hebrew [not
[not seen].
seen] .
Italy Testi, 1999
Testi, 1999isisaapopular
popular guide,
guide, one
one of many published. EdibleEdible fungi
fungi from
fromBasilicate
Basi licateare
aredescribed
described
in Tagliavini
Tag liavini and Tagliavini, 2001.. Both
Tagliavini, 2001 Both guides
guides have
havephotographs
photographs andand are
are in
in Italian
Italian..
Japan lmazeki
Imazeki et et al.,
aI., 1988:
1988: fungi
fungi ofofJapan,
Japan,ininJapanese
Japanese butbut species names in
species names in English
English andand many
many fine
fine
photos.
Korea ofl
Korea (Republic of) Park and Lee,
Park 1999: guide
Lee, 1999: guide to Korean
Korean mushrooms.
mu shrooms. NotNot seen
seen - in Korean.
Korean .
Kyrgyzstan El'chibaev,
E/'chibaev, 1964:
1964: edible
edibl e mushrooms,
mushrooms, drawings,
drawings,ininRussian.
Russian .
Lao People's
lao http://giechgroup.hp.infoseek.co.jp/kinokoleng.html:
http://giechgroup. hp .infoseek.co.jp/kinoko/eng.htm/: mostly mostly photographs,
photographs, limited
limited text.
text.
Democratic Republic
Malawi www.malawifungiorg:
www.ma lawifungi.org:edible
ediblespecies,
species, with
w ithphotographs,
photographs, reports
reports and
and database
database of
of local
local names.
names.
Morris,
M orris, 1987:
1987: edible
edible species. Drawings.
species. Drawings.
Mexico www.semamatgob.mx: edible,
www.semarnat.gob.mx: edible,poisonous
poisonousand
andmedicinal
medicinalspecies,
species, in Spanish. Textand
Spanish . Text and photographs.
photographs.
Poland www. grzyby.pl: brief
www.grzyby.pl: brief guide
guide to
tocommercial
commercial species,
species, with photographs,
photographs, in
in Polish
Polish and
and English.
English.
Russian Federation
Russian Federation Vasil'eva,
Vasil'eva, 1978: edible, po
1978: edible, poisonous
ison ous and medicinal species,
species, inin Russian, seenonly
Russian, seen onlyinin translation
translation..
(far
(far east)
east) There are
are many
many popular
popular guidesguides toto field mushrooms,
mushrooms, and and thethe following
following is
is a useful
useful and readily
available example.
example. ItItisis ininRussian
Russian and
and has
ha sdrawings:
drawings:Sergeeva,
Sergeeva, 2000.
2000...
Southern Africa Ryvarden, Piearce
Ryvarden, Piearceand
and Masuka
Masuka., 1994:describes
., 1994: describesmacrofungi
macrofungi in in general,
general, including
including edible
ed iblespecies.
species.
Photographs.
Photographs.
van -der -Westhuizen and Eicker,
van 1994:general
Eicker, 1994: general guide
guide to
to macrofungi,
macrofungi, photographs
photographsand andspecies
species
descriptions
descript ions of most
most relevance
relevance to South South Africa.
Africa.
Spain
Spain Rodriguez et al.
al. (1999)
(1999) macrofungi with with notes
notes onon edibility,
edibi lity,colour
colourphotos,
photos,ininSpanish.
Spani sh.
Tanzania (United Hárktinen,
Harkonen, Niemelä
Nieme la and
and Mwasumbi,
Mwasumbi,2003. 2003 .
Republic of)
of)
Tibet Autonomous Mao
Mao and
andJiang,
Jiang, 1992:
1992: Economic
Economic macrofungi,
macrofungi,ininChinese
Chinese [not
[notseen].
seen] .
Region,China
Region,China
Turkey www.ogm.gov.tr/: edible
www.ogm.gov.tr/: ediblespecies,
species, in English.
English. Photographs and short text.
text.
Uganda Katende,
Kate nde, Segawa
Segawa and and Birnie,
Bimie, 1999:
1999: limited range
range of
ofedible
ediblespecies,
species, drawings.
Ukraine Zerova and
and Rozhenko,
Rozhenko, 1988:
1988: edible
edibleand
andpoisonous
poisonousspecies,
species, ininRussian.
Russian . Drawings.
Drawings.
Wasser, 1990:guide
Wasser, 1990: guide tto
o edible
edib le and
and poisonous
poisonou sspecies
species of
of Carpathians.
Carpathians.
United Kingdom Phillips
Phillips et
et al.,
aI., 1983:
1983: edible
edib leand
andpoisonous
poisonou sspecies,
species, excellent
excellent photographs.
photographs.
United States
States Arora, 1986: popularr guide
1986: popula guide to all macrofungi with
with many
many photographs.
photographs.
www.mykoweb.com:
www.mykoweb.com: edible edible species,
species, photographs, descriptions.
descriptions.
Molina et
et al.,
aI., 1993:
1993: major edible
edib le species in Pacific
species in Pacificnorthwest,
northwest, photographs
photographs..
Sources of
Sources of advice
advice and
and information 69

TABLE 28
TABLE
General Web sites
General Web sites on
on wild
wild edible fungi
fungi and
and related
related topics
topics
ADDRESS COMMENTS
COMMENTS

http://mycology.cornell.edu
http://mycology.comell .edu Virtual Library on Mycology.
Library on Main portal
Mycology. Main portalfor
for information
information on fungi, including
including
useful species.
useful species.Good
Goodstarting
startingpoint
point for
for general enquiries.
enquiries.
www.mushworld.com One of the
the most
most useful
useful of
ofmany
many "commercial"
"commercial"sites
sitesinvestigated.
investigated .Access
Access is free
is free
once you have
have registered. Has reports
registered. Has reports on
on mushroom
mushroom production
production (cultivated) and
has aa good
has good global coverage.
coverage .
http://.mycorrhiza.ag.utk.edu
http://.mycorrh iza. ag .utk. ed u International Directory
International Directory of ofMycorrhizologists.
Mycorrhizologists. Links
Links to
tosites
sites on
on edible
edible
ectomycorrhizal
ectomycorrhizal mushrooms,
mushrooms, listslists scientists
scientists and
and has
has many other
other useful
useful
background information.
background information. Good Good general
general reference
reference point.
point.
www.indexfungorum.org
www.indexfungorum .org Essential reference
Essential referencetool. tool. Check
Checkspecies
speciesnames
namesofofallallfungi,
fungi, including
including macrofungi,
and also
and also the
the correct
correct authorities.
http://gmr.landfood.unimelb.edu.au/ Multilingual guide
Multilingual guidetotofungus fungusnames,
names,including
includingChinese.
Chinese. DoesDoes not
not have
have aa special
special
-plants/
-plantsl emphasison
emphasis on wild
wild fungi.
www.malawifungi.org Wild useful
useful fungi
fungi of ofMalawi
Malawiwith
witha asearchable
searchabledatabase
database of of local
local names
names and
scientific equivalents.
scientific equivalents. Project Project reports
reports can
can be
be downloaded;
downloaded; photographs of many many
_______________________________s~ p_e_
ci_e_
species s_
aare
__
rea_available.
v_a_ila_b_l_e_. _____________________________________________
www.im.ac.cn
www.im .ac.cn Economic fungi
Economic fungi of of China.
China. Many
Many photographs;
photographs; wayvvard
wayward spellings
spellings ofof scientific
scientific
names.
wvvw.semarnat.gob.mx
www.semarnat.gob.mx Excellent site
Excellent site (in
(in Spanish)
Spanish)giving
givingdetails
detailsofofmajor
majorwild
wildedible
edible fungi
fungi from Mexico,
Mexico,
including full
full descriptions
descriptions and
and photos.
photos.
--------------------------------~------ --~-------------------------------
w_w_w~ . g,--r_zY,--b___y",p'_I___________________Edible
wvvw.grzyby.pl
__ E 1e_ffungi
_d_i_b _ g'_iof
_u_n~ _o_fPoland
_Pol a nd (some
(som e text
text ininEnglish).
Eng I ish) .
http://fungimap.rgb.vic.gov.au General information
General information on on edible
edibleand
and poisonous
poisonous species of Australia
species of Australia..
www.fintrac.com Contains useful
Contains usefultrade
tradedata
datafrom
from 1993-
1993-97
97 for "mushroom"
"mushroom" exports
exports to selected
selected
countries and specifically for matsutake
matsutake exports
exports to
toJapan.
Japan .
www.fungi.com Fungi Perfecti,
Fungi Perfecti, aa commercial
commercial company
companyspecializing
specializingininthe
the cultivation
cultivation of gourmet
gourmet
and
and medicinal mushrooms. Good general
mushrooms. Good general information
information andand many
many links.
links.
wwvv.mycopat.slu.se/mycorrhiza/
www.mycopat.slu.se/mycorrhiza/ Edible mycorrhizal mushrooms. Two international
mushrooms. Two international conferences
conferences have
have been
been held
held
edible/home.phtml
ed ible/home.phtml and
and the site gives information on
gives information on talks
talks and other
other matters
matters of
of general
general relevance
relevance
to
toWEF.
WEF.
www.mushroomthejournal.com The
The journal ofof wild
wild mushrooming,
mushrooming, published
published inin the
theUnited
UnitedStates
States with
witharticles
articles
available online. Presents
Presents aa very
very practical
practical approach
approach andand analysis
analysis of
of mushroom
mushroom
collecting and although slanted
slanted towards the amateur
amateur in in the
the United
United States,
States, itit
explores universal issues
explores universal issues(regulation
(regulation of
of collectors)
collectors) of broader
broader relevance.
relevance.
www.fs .fed.us
vvww.fs.fed.us lnforrnation
Information on on commercial
commercial harvesting
harvesting in the Pacific
Pacific northwest ofof the
the United
United
States, including detailed accounts
States, including accounts from Winema
Winema National
NationalForest.
Forest.
www.vvildusefulfungi.org
www.wildusefulfungi .org

2003). A
2003). A dictionary of
of edible
edible fungi
fungi contains
contains lists
lists of
ofspecies
species from
from several
several developed
developed
and developing
and countries and
developing countries and local
local names
names.. ItIt is aa useful
useful but
but not
not essential
essential reference
reference
(Chandra,
(Chandra, 1989).
1989).

Country guides
Most field guides
guides are based
based on species found in temperate
species found temperate regions.
regions. There
There isis aa plethora
plethora
of such guides from the United
United States
States while countries in western Europe
Europe are
are also
also well
served. Key examples
served. Key are listed
examples are listed in
in Table
Table 27
27 but the emphasis
emphasis is
is on less
less well known
books
books from developing countries. Most
developing countries. Most are
are out
out of print
print and
and only
only available
available from
from
specialist libraries. Guides published
published inin the
the United
UnitedStates
States (e.g.
(e.g. Arora, 1986) Europee
1986) and Europ
(e.g. Phillips
(e.g. Phillips et
et al.,
al., 1983)
1983) can
can still
still be
be purchased
purchased or readily consulted in libraries.
libraries.

INFORMATION ON MEDICINAL
INFORMATION MEDICINAL AND AND POISONOUS
POISONOUS MUSHROOMS
MUSHROOMS
Many edible
Many edible fungi
fungi also
also have
have medicinal
medicinal properties.
properties. Thc
The International
International Journal
Journal of of
Medicinal Mushrooms began publication
publication in
in 1999
1999 and contains
contains review
review articles
articles as well
w ell as
original contributions. For
original For aa general
general overview
overview sce
see Hobbs
Hobbs (1995).
(1995).
All
All guides
guides to macrofungi
macrofungi include
include descriptions
descriptions of poisonous
poisonous species. There isis a
species. There
colour atlas
atlas devoted to poisonous species
species though the examples are of species
examples are species found
found inin
developed countries, some of which will also occur in developing countries (Bresinsky
(Bresinsky
and Besl, 1990).
70 Wild fungi: a global overview of
Wild edible fungi: of their
their use
use and
and importance
importancetotopeople
people

WEB SITES
SITES
The Internet is
The is aa useful
useful source
source ofof information
information but the the quality
quality and
and accuracy
accuracy ofof this
this
information can can be difficult to assess. Type the
assess. Type the word
word "mushroom" or or "edible
"edible fungus"
fungus"
into aa search
search engine
engine such
such as
as Google
Google (www.google.com)
(www.google.com) and and aabarrage
barrage of
ofWeb
Web addresses
addresses
will appear. The sites listed in Table Table 2828 are
are aa starting
starting point
point for investigations and notes
have
have been provided to indicate
been provided indicate how useful
useful they were
were during the preparation
preparation of thisthis
book. Most
Most sites
sites listed
listed in
in Table
Table 28 emphasize fungi first first and uses
uses by people second - if
at all.
all.
Table
Table 2828 is
is only aa selection
selection ofof available
available Web
Web sites
sites that
that include
include wild
wild edible
edible fungi.
fungi.
For more
more detailed
detailed searches
searches of reliably published
published information there is no substitute for
thorough literature
literature reviews
reviews ofof journals
journals and
and other
otherprofessionally
professionally published
published sources.
sources .
Table 2828 includes
includes examples
examples of of country-specific
country-specific Web Web sites,
sites, and
and attention is drawn to to the
the
excellent information available
excellent information available for Mexico.
Mexico.
 71

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31 - 41.
31-41.
Zaklina, M.
Zaklina, M. 1998.
1998. Edible mycorrhizal
mycorrhizal mushrooms
mushrooms in Serbia - problems with protection. 2nd
International Conference
Conference on on Mycorrhiza,
Mycorrhiza,Uppsala,
Uppsala,Swcdcn,
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1998 (available
(available at
www.mycorrhiza.ag.utk.edu).
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Zamora-Martinez, M.C.,
Zamora-Martinez, M.e., Alvardo,
Alvardo, G. G. &&Dominguez,
Dominguez,J.M. J.M.2000.
2000.Hongos
HongosSilvestres
Silvestres
Comestibles region
Comestibles region dede Zacualtipan,
Zacualtipan, Hidalgo.
Hidalgo. Pachuca,
Pachuca, Hidalgo,
Hidalgo, Mexico,
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INIFAP CIR-
CENTRO#.
Zamora-Martinez, M.C.,
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Reygadas, G.F. G.F. & & Cifuentes,
Cifuentes,J.J.1994. 1994.Hongos
H ongoscomestibles
comestibles
silvestres
silvestres dede la
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subcuenca Arroya El Zorrillo, Distrito Federal.
Zorrillo, Distrito Federal. Coyoacan, DF DF Mexico,
Mexico,
INIFAP.
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1984. Mushroom
Mushroom distribution
distribution and and the diversity
diversity ofof habitats
habitats inin Tibet,
Tibet, China.
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McIlvainea, 6(2):6(2): 15-20.
15-20.
Zang,
Zang, D.C.
D.e.1988a.
1988a. Collybia
Collybia albuminosa
albuminosa at at Lianshan
Lianshan District.
District. Zhongguo
Zhongguo Shiyongjun
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bimonthly journal),
journal), 77(overall
(overall No.No.29)(1):
29)(1): 28-31.
28- 31.
Zang,
Zang, M.M. 1988b.
1988b. An interesting
interesting edible
edible mushroom:
mushroom: Agaricus
Agaricus gennadii. Zhongguo
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Zang,
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Doi,Y.Y. 1995.
1995. Secotium jimalaicum sp.
Secotium jimalaicum sp. nov.
nov.from
from Nepal
Nepal -- a folklore concerning
the food of of abominable
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17(1): 30-32.
30- 32.
Zang,
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1990. An
Anendemic
endemic and and edible
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fungus -- Endophyllus
Endophyllus yunnanensis
yunnanensis
from China.
China. Zhongguo
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9(3):
3-5.
3- 5.
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Zhongguo
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11(3):19.19.
Zang, M.M. & & Yang,
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1991.Agrocybe
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18.
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Zerova, M.Y.
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Chinapopular
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China Scientific
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Zhuang,
Zhuang,Y. Y. 1993.
1993. Characterization
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Zhongguo Shiyongjun (Edible Fungi of China: a bimonthly journal), 13(6):
Shiyongjun (Edible 13(6): 22-23.
Zhuang,
Zhuang,Y. Y. 8c
& Wang,
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1992. Applied research for for second
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Gastrodia elata.
elata.
Quality of of Gastrodia
Gastrodia elata
elata with
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11 (6): 5-6.
5- 6.
 89

ANNEX
ANNEX 11

Summary of
Summary of the
the importance
importance of
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi by
by region
region
and country
and

GROUPS
Countries
Countries are
are arranged
arranged in
in six
six regions.
regions.
• Africa
• Asia
Asia
• Europe
• North
North and
andCentral
CentralAmerica
America[includes
[includes Caribbean
Caribbean region]
region]
• Oceania
• South America

SOURCES OF
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
INFORMATION
The country
country summaries
summaries highlight
highlight key
key information
information onon wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi though
though details
details
are often sparse, particularly on
on thethe broader
broadersocial
social and
and economic
economic contexts
contexts of
of use.
use. Lists
Lists
of "edible"
"edible" species
species published
published in
in the
the mycological
mycological literature
literature are
are of
of very
very limited
limited use
use unless
it is made clear
clear which ones
ones are
are actually
actually eaten.
eaten.
Two
Two comprehensive reviewson
comprehensive reviews on wild
wild fungi
fungi in
in Africa
Africa south
south of the
the Sahara
Sahara have
have
been particularly useful:
useful: Rammeloo
Rammeloo and and Walleyn
Walleyn (1993)
(1993) for edible
edible fungi
fungi and
and Walleyn
Walleyn
and Rammeloo
and Rammeloo (1994) for poisonous
(1994) for poisonous and and useful
useful fungi.
fungi. Key
Key references
references areare noted
noted
separately.
For many countries
countries little
little or
or no published
published information
informationon onwild
wild edible
edible fungi was found.
found.
There are some clues to suggest that local use does does occur but has yet to to be
be described.
described.
No details
details of wild edible fungi use in
fungi use in Rwanda
Rwanda were
were found
found yet neighbouring
neighbouring Burundi
Burundi
has regular collecting,
has collecting, sale
sale and
and consumption.
consumption. Few details
details were
were found
found for
for Viet
Viet Nam
Nam and
none for Myanmar yet there are cultural links links to
to China,
China, thethe country with the strongest
tradition of
of wild
wild edible
edible fungi.
fungi. Little
Little information
information isis available
available on Angola though itit has has
large tracts
large tracts of miombo woodland that are are productive
productive in in neighbouring
neighbouring countries.
countries.

TRADE AND
TRADE AND EXPORTS
EXPORTS
Information is
Information is often incomplete
incomplete and
and widely
widely dispersed and trade
dispersed and trade data
data are
are missing
mlsslllg
for important
for important exporting
exporting countries.
countries. Overall,
Overall, the best
best information
information available
available is
is at
www.fintrac.com but only
only covers
covers 1993-97.
1993-97.

FUNGI THAT APPEAR

FUNGI APPEAR ON STAMPS
STAMPS
A comprehensive
comprehensive description
description of all
all fungal
fungal species
species (mostly
(mostly macrofungi)
macrofungi) that
that have
have
appeared
appeared on stamps
stamps since
since Romania
Romania produced
produced the thefirst
firstexamples
examplesinin1958
1958isisavailable
available
(McKenzie, 1997). Most
(McKenzie, 1997). Most ofof the 11 400
400 examples
examples areare edible
edible species.
species. Medicinal
Medicinal and
poisonous
poisonous varieties also appear.
varieties also appear. The
The list
list of species
species appearing
appearing onon stamps
stamps is useful
useful
for countries
countries where
where few
few othcr
other sources
sources ofofinformation
informationare areavailable,
available, for
for example
example the
the
Democratic People's
People's Republic
Republic of
of Korea.
Korea. Small
Small island nations exploit
exploit colourful
colourful species
species
to increase
increase revenue
revenue from
from stamp
stamp sales
sales and the
the examples
examples used
used are
are therefore
therefore a poor
poor
indication of local importance.
90 Wild edible
Wild edible fungi:
fungi: aa global
global overview
overview of
of their
their use
use and
and importance to people
people
-----------------------------------

Africa

No information
information was was found
found onon wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi and
and other
other useful
useful species
speCles for the
the
following countries:
Cape Verde;
Verde; Chad; Comoros; Djibouti;
Djibouti; Equatorial
Equatorial Guinea;
Guinea; Eritrea;
Eritrea; Gambia;
Gambia;
Liberia; Mali;
Mali; Mauritania; Niger; Sao Sao Tome and Principe; Seychelles;
Seychelles;
St Helena; Sudan; Togo; Western SaharaSahara
Two frequently citedcited reviews
reviews appear
appear as:
as: R+W
R+W (Rammeloo
(Rammeloo and
and Walleyn,
Walleyn, 1993)
1993) and
and
W+
W + R (Walleyn
(Walleyn and
and Rammeloo,
Rammeloo, 1994).
1994).
For general information
information on on NWFP
NWFPin inAfrica
Africa seesee FAO (2001b). The only information
(2001b). The
found on on fungi
fungi as
as emergency
emergency (famine)
(famine) food
food concerned
concerned refugees
refugees from Mozambique
Mozambique
who fled
fled to
to Malawi
Malawi in in the
the1980s
1980s (Wilson
(Wilson etetal.,
al., 1989).
1989).

COUNTRY USE OF
USE OF WILD
WILD EDIBLE
EDIBLE FUNGI
FUNGI

ALGERIA Has exported

Has exported matsutake
matsutake in in minor quantities toto Japan,
Japan, most likely Tricholoma
Tricholoma
caligatum. Desert
caligatum. truffles occur
Desert truffles occur but few
few details
details are
are given
given (Alsheikh
(Alsheikh and
and Trappe,
Trappe,
1983). There
1983). There are
are possibly
possibly exports
exports to
to Spain (Borghi, 2002,
Spain (Borghi, personal communication:
2002, personal communication:
Porcini and
Porcini and other
other commercial
commercial wild
wild edible
edible fungi in
in Italy).
Italy).

ANGOLA There is limited information

There is informationthat
thatedible
ediblespecies
species are
are collected
collected and
and used
used locally
locally
(FAO, 2001
(FAO, 2001a). Isolatedexamples
a). Isolated examplesof of wild
wild edible species are given
species are given in R+W. Angola
R+W. Angola
has miombo
has miombo woodland
woodland similar to
to neighbouring
neighbouringcountries
countrieswhere
whereedible
ediblespecies
species are
are
regularly collected and consumed. Further investigation
consumed. Further investigation is required.
required.

BENIN
BENIN Recent work
Recent work reveals an extensive
reveals an extensive range of of species
species that are
are consumed
consumed locally
locall y (De
(De
Kesel, Codjiaand
Kesel, Codjia andYorou,
Yorou,2002)
2002)and
anda along
longtradition
traditionof
ofeating
eating wild
wild edible
edible fungi. FewFew
are openly sold.
are sold.

BOTSWANA R+W lists

R+W lists aa few
few species.
species.Desert
Deserttruffles
trufflesare
areeaten
eaten and
and exported
exported but harvests are very
harvests are very
variable (Taylor
(Taylor etet a/.,
al., 1995).
1995).

BURKINA FASO
BURKINA FASO R+W lists
R+W lists aa few
few species.
species.AA study
study of
of ectomycorrhizal fungi
fungi (Sanon,
(Sanon, Ba Ba and
and Dexheimer,
Dexheimer,
1997) confirms that
1997) confirms that edible
ediblespecies
species occur, though use
occur, though use as food isis not
as food notdiscussed.
discussed.

BURUNDI Many different

differentspecies
species occur and are collected and sold
sold each year by rural people
each year people
(Buyck, 1994b).
(Buyck, 1994b). There
There are
are distinct
distinct preferences for species among Africans and
species among
European expatriates.
European

CAMEROON Several reports

Several reports and records have appeared and are
records have are summarized
summarized in
in R+W.
R+W. No
No
suggestion of
suggestion of major use of w
use of wild
ild edible fungi
fungi but
butcommonly
commonly collected
collected and
and eaten.
eaten.

CENTRAL AFRICAN
CENTRAL R+W speciesfrom
R+W list species from several
several sources.
sources.Forest
Forestdwellers
dwellersappear
appearto
to make
make the
the
REPUBLIC greatest use of
greatest use of wild
wild fungi though
though this
thiscould
could reflect
reflectmore
moredetailed
detailedstudies
studies of
ofthese
these
communities.

CONGO [REPUBLIC
[REPUBLIC OF]
OF] R+W haslittle
R+W has little information. A
A poorly
poorly studied
studied country
country where
where wider
w ideruse
use might
mightbe
be
expected.

CONGO, DEMOCRATIC
DEMOCRATIC Many publications
publications and
and much
much research
research interest reveal
reveal widespread
widespread and
and significant
significantuse
use
REPUBLIC THE
REPUBLIC OF THE of wild
wild edible
ediblespecies.
species. Most reports concentrate on the Shaba
Shaba region (e.g.
(e.g. Degreef,
Degreef,
(FORMER
(FORMER ZAIRE) 1992). Information
1992). Information also
also in
in R+W.
R+W.

COTE D'lvOIRE
COTE D'IVOIRE R+W list only
R+W list only aa few
few records,
records, but
but there
there are
are suggestions
suggestionsthat
thatuse
useofofwi
wild edible fungi
ld edible fungi
has been under-recorded and
has been and that
thatseveral
several species
species are consumed
cons umed and traded.
traded.

EGYPT Only one short account

account has
has been found
found (Zakhary
(Zakhary et
et a/.,
al., 1983).
1983). No
No evidence to
suggest that wild edible fungi are
suggest that are either abundant
abundant oror routinely
routinely used.
used.

ETHIOPIA Only two

two short
shortreports
reportsare
areknown
known(Abate,
(Abate,1999;
1999;Tuno,
Tuno,2001).
2001). No
Noevidence
evidence to
tosuggest
suggest
widespread use or
widespread use or importance
importance of
of wild
wild edible fungi.
fungi .
 1: Summary
Annex 1: Summary of th
thee importance of
of wild edible ffungi
ungi by region and
and country
country 91

COUNTRY
COUNTRY USE OF
USE OF WILD
WILD EDIBLE
EDIBLE FUNGI
FUNGI

GABON R+Wcontains
R+W containstwo
two records
recordsgleaned
gleanedfrom
fromearlier
earlierreport
report which
which named
named 23
23different
different
types of WEF
WEF but using local names
names for most
most (Walker,
(Walker, 1931), suggesting common
1931), suggesting common
consumption.

GHANA
GHANA R+Wcontains
R+W containsfew
few records.
records.Information
Information from the
the Forestry
Forestry Research Institute of
Research Institute of
Ghana confirms
Ghana confirms that
that several speciesare
several species arecollected
collectedand
andused
used(Obodai
(Obodaiand
andApetorgbor,
Apetorgbor,
2001) .
2001).

GUINEA
GUINEA W+R has one
W+R has one record
record.. Much wider
wider use
use is
is expected
expected and
and may
may have
have escaped
escaped detection
detection
because collection
because collection is
is essentially local and
and seasonal.
seasonal.

GUINEA-BISSAU No information
No information on
on wild
wild edible
edible found
found though
thoughaastudy
study of
ofmycorrhizal
mycorrhizal fungi
fungi confirms
confirms
the presence
presence of
of edible
ediblevarieties
varieties(Thoen
(Th oe nand
andBa,
Ba, 1989).
1989).

KENYA R+W and

R+W and W+R
W+Rcontain
contain several
severalrecord
records butthere
s but there isis no
no evidence
evidence to
to support
widespread collecting or trading.
widespread collecting

LESOTHO R+W has

R+W hasone
onerecord
recordofofaatermite
termitefungus
fungus.. No
Noother
other information
information available but note
note
the presence
presence of forest
forest tree
tree species
species (pines) associatedwith
(pines) associated with edible mycorrhizal fungi.
fungi.

LIBYAN ARAB
LIBYAN Only one passing
Only reference to
passing reference to desert truffles
truffles (Alsheikh
(Alsheikh and
and Trappe,
Trappe, 1983).
1983).
JAMAHIRIYA
JAMAHIRIYA

MADAGASCAR R+W and

R+W and W+R
W+R note
note several
several edible
edible species though precise
species though of collection,
precise details of collection,
consumption and sale
sale are obscure
obscure (Bouriquet, 1970). No
(Bouriquet, 1970). No exports
exports are
are known
known.. More
More
detailed studies are needed given thethe clear
clear signs
signs of major
major activities
activities (Buyck,
(B uyck, 2001).
2001).

MALAWI A small
A small country
country with
with a well-established
well-establishedtradition
tradition of using wild edible fungi. ItIt has
using wild has
been well studied
been studied by
by comparison
comparison with
withsimilar
similarcountries
countries(R+W;
(R+W;W-FR;
W+R; Morris,
Morris, 1987;
1987;
Boa et
Boa et aI.,
al., 2000).
2000). See
Seealso
alsowww.malawifungi.org
www.malawifungi.org..

MAURITIUS A few
few records
records exist
exist (R+W;
(R+W; W+R;
W+R; Peerally, 1979) but
Peerally, 1979) but no details are
are available.
available.

MOROCCO Macrofungi are

are well-described
well-described and
and aa range
range of ofedible
ediblespecies
species occur
occur (Malencon
(Malencon
and Bertault, 1975).
and Their significance
1975). Their significance to to local
local people
people isis not
not well known.
known. ItItisis aa
small-scale exporter of mushrooms
small-scale exporter mushrooms (sic) to Japan,
(sic) to Japan, including
including a matsutake relative
(Tricholoma caligatum - see
(Tricholoma Kytovuori, 1989).
see Kytovuori, 1989).

MOZAMBIQUE A country
country rich
rich ininedible
ediblespecies.
species. These are routinely
These are routinely collected,
collected, consumed
consum ed and
and sold
sold
internally but
but details
details are
are sketchy
sketchy (Uaciquete,
(Uaciquete, Dai and Motta,
Motta, 1996;
1996; Boa etal.,
Boa et al.,2000).
2000) .
Further study is required. ThereThere are also suggestions
suggestions of
of B. edulis exports
B. edulis exports to
to Italy via
companies based
companies based inin South
South Africa
Africa (Borghi, 2002,
2002, personal
personal communication:
communication: Porcini and
other commercial
commercial wild wild edible
edible fungi in Italy).
Italy) .

NAMIBIA A few
few isolated
isolated records
records (R+W
(R+W and
and W+R).
W+R). No major useuse of wild
wild edible
ediblespecies
species is
is
indicated but
but there
there are
are regular
regularexports
exports of
ofdesert
deserttruffles
truffles(Taylor,
(Taylor, 2002,
2002, personal
personal
communication:: Edible
communication Edible fungi
fungi eaten
eaten and
and traded
tradedin
inBotswana
Botswana andand Namibia).
Namibia) .Useful
Useful
macrofungi occur
macrofungi occur in
in the
theNamib
Namibdesert
desert(Jacobson
(Jacobson 1996).
1996).

NIGERIA Brief lists

lists of edible species arenoted,
species are noted, mostly
mostly inin connection
connection wwith
ith the
the Yoruba
Yoruba people
people
(R+W and
(R+W and W+R).
W+R). Several
Severalothers
others reports
reports exist
exist (e.g.
(e.g. Oso,
Oso, 1975)
1975)but
but they
they often repeat
repeat
details published previously.
previously.

RWANDA No records
No records in
in R+W
R+Wor
or W+R
W+Rbut
but information
information from
from Burundi
Burundi (Buyck,
(Buyck, 1994b)
1994b) is relevant.
is relevant.

SENEGAL Accounts of
Accounts of ectomycorrhizal species confirm that
species confirm that edible
edible species
species are
are present (Thoen
(Thoen
and Ba,
and 1989) but
Ba, 1989) but little
little isis known
known about
abouttheir
theiruse
usebybylocal
localpeople
people(Ducousso,
(Ducousso,BaBa and
and
Thoen,
Thoen, 2002).
2002) .

SIERRA LEONE
LEONE Only one passing
passing reference (to(to Termitomyces)
Termitomyces) was found
found (Pegler
(Pegler and
and Vanhaecke,
Vanhaecke,
1994). Mende
1994). Mende women
women collect
collect and sell
sell edible fungi
fungi in
inSegbwema
Segbwema andand presumably
presumably
this occurs in other local
occurs in local markets
markets (Down, 2002, personal communication
2002, personal communication:: Wild edible
fungi Sierra
fungi Sierra Leone).
Leone) . Further study is
is required.
required .

SOMALIA No information was

No information was found
found and
and there
there isis no
no indication
indication of
ofwidespread
widespread or
orregular
regularuse
use
(R+W)..
(R+W)

SOUTH
SOUTH AFRICA
AFRICA Much mycological
mycological information
information butbutdetails
detailson
onlocal
localnon-European
non-Europeanpreferences
preferences and
and
practices are only slowly being
practices are being revealed
revealed (Shackleton
(Shackleton etal.,
et al.,2002).
2002).See
SeeR+W
R+W andand
W+R for further
furtherdiscussions.
discussions. Termitomyces collected and
Termitomyces collected and sold
sold in
in KwaZulu
KwaZulu (van(van der
Westhuizen andand Eicker,
Eicker, 1994). There are
1994). There are regular
regular exports
exports of
of Boletus edulis from pinepine
plantations
plantations (Marais,
(Marais, 2002,
2002, personal communication:
communication : Collecting
Collecting B.B. edulis
edulis in
in South
South
Africa) which
which began
began in
in the
the1970s
1970s (Pott,
(Pott, 2002,
2002, personal communication: Export of
personal communication: of
B. edulis from South Africa).
B. edulis
92 Wild edible
Wild edible fu
fungi:
ngi: aa global
global overview
overview of
of their
their use
use and
and importance to people

COUNTRY
COUNTRY USE OF
USE OF WILD
WILD EDIBLE
EDIBLE FUNGI
FUNGI

SWAZILAND Few details available

Few details available about
about local
local use. Irregular exports
use. Irregular exports of
of boletes in small
small quantities
to Europe
Europe during the
the 1990s
1990s have occurred and
have occurred and appear
appear to
to still take place
place (Borghi,
2002, personalcommunication
2002, personal communication: Porciniand
: Porcini andother
othercommercial
commercialwild wildedible
ediblefungi
fungi in
in
Italy).

TANZANIA
TANZANIA [UNITED R+W
R+W andand W+R
W+R list
list many
many species.
species.Good
Gooddescriptions
descriptionsavailable
availableofofaawwide range of
ide range of
REPUBLIC OF]
REPUBLIC edible fungi that
thatareare regularly
regularlycollected,
collected, consumed
consumed and sold
sold locally.
locally. Different
Different
species eateninin Miombo
species eaten Miombo woodland
woodland andand mountainous
mountainous areas. An excellent and
areas. An and well
illustrated guide toto wild
wildmushrooms
mushrooms has has been
been published
published (Härkönen,
(Hark6nen, Niemelä
Niemela and
Mwasumbi, 2003).
2003) .

TUNISIA
TUNISIA Only one short report
report on
on desert
desert truffle
trufflewas
wasfound
found(Alsheikh
(Alsheikhand
andTrappe,
Trappe,1983).
1983).
A minor and
and irregular
irregular exporter
exporter of
of"mushrooms",
"mushrooms",possibly
possibly to
toSpain
Spain (Borghi,
(Borghi, 2002,
2002,
personal communication: Porcini
personal communication: Porcini and
and other
other commercial
commercialwild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi in Italy).
Italy) .

UGANDA R+Wcontains
R+W containsonly
only aafew
few records.
records.AAwider
wider and
and stronger
stronger tradition
tradition isis indicated
indicated (see
(see
Katende et
Katende et al.,
a/., 1999).
1999). Information
Information from Burundi
Burundi isis relevant
relevant (Buyck,
(Buyck, 1994b).
1994b).

ZAMBIA Widespread,
Widespread, common and significant
significant use
use of
of wild
wildedible
ediblespecies
species has
has been
been well
well
described (e.g.
described (e .g.(Pegler
(Peglerand
andPiearce,
Piearce,1980;
1980;Piearce,
Piearce,1981).
1981). R+W
R+W and
and W+R summarize
W-1-1:2 summarize
records.
records.

ZIMBABWE
ZIMBABWE Wild edible
edible fungi
fungiare
arecommonly
commonlycollected,
collected, sold
sold and
and consumed.
consumed. Boletus
Boletus edulis isis
exported to
to Europe
Europe(Boa
(Boaet
eta/.,
al.,2000).
2000) .See
See also
also Ryvarden,
Ryvarden, Piearce
Piearce and Masuka
Masuka (1994)
(1994)
and W+R.
and W+R. Local
Localtraditions
traditions have
have been
been investigated
investigated inin some
somedetail
detail only
only in
in the last 10
to 15
15 years
years and are less well described
less well described compared
compared to to Malawi and
and Zambia.
Zambia . Further
Further
attention is
is warranted.
warranted .
Annex 1:
I: Summary of
of the
the importance
importance of
of wild edible fungi by region
region and country 93

Asia

No information
information was
was found
found on
on wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi and
and other
other useful
useful species
specIes for
for the
the
following countries
countries or
or regions:
regions:
Azerbaijan;
A Bahrain; Brunei;
zerbaijan; Bahrain; Brunei; Cambodia;
Cambodia; Cyprus; Gaza Strip; Georgia;
Kazakhstan; Maldives;
Maldives; Oman; Qatar; Syrian Syrian Arab
Arab Republic;
Republic; Tajikistan;
Tajikistan;
Timor-Leste; United Arab
Arab Emirates;
Emirates; Uzbekistan;West
Uzbekistan;West Bank;Bank; Yemen
Yemen
The proximity
The proximity of Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan and and Georgia
Georgia toto countries
countries with
with aa known
known tradition
tradition of
wild edible fungi (e.g.
(e.g. Armenia and Turkey) suggests
suggests a wider useuse of wild edible fungi
fungi
than
th an has been reported. Anecdotal
Anecdotal information indicates that Kazakhstan
indicates that Kazakhstan hashas "little
"little
or no" tradition
tradition of
ofwild
wild edible
edible fungi.
fungi. The
The use
use of
ofwild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi in
in Tajikistan
Tajikistan and
Uzbekistan is expected
expected but has yet to be be confirmed.
confirmed. So So too for
for Cambodia:
Cambodia: there
there is
is aa
tradition among tribal
tribal people
people in
in the
the region
region of
ofusing
using wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi (Hosaka,
(Hosaka, 2002,
2002,
personal communication: Laos edible fungi) See
Laos edible See Plates 8 and 9.

COUNTRY
COUNTRY USE OF
USE OF WILD
WILD EDIBLE
EDIBLE FUNGI
FUNGI

AFGHANISTAN A few
few vvild
wild edible
ediblespecies
species are
are described
described (Batra, 1983).
1983). Morels are exported
exported (Sabra
(Sabra
and Walter, 2001).
2001).

ARMENIA A range ofof available

available edible
ediblespecies
species are
are collected, consumed
consumed and traded locally.
locally.
Exports have
Exports have not
not been
been reported (Nanaguylan,
(Nanaguylan, 2002,
2002, personal communication:
communication : Edible
Edible
fungi
fungi in
in Armenia).
Armenia).

BANGLADESH Small-scale use by

Small -scale use by Chakma
Chakma people
people in Hill
Hill Tracts
Tracts has
has been noted
noted (Siddiqi,
(Siddiqi,1998).
1998).

BHUTAN A small-scale exporter of

small -scale exporter of matsutake
matsutake to Japan
Japan but important
importantto
tothe
thelocal
localeconomy.
economy.
Wild edible
edible species
species are regularly sold
sold in
in markets
markets though
thoughspecies
species and
and amounts
amounts are
are
not known
known (Namgyel,
(Namgyel, 2000).
2000) .

CHINA The leading producer,

The leading producer, user
userand andexporter
exporterofofwild
wild edible
ediblefungi
fungi in
in the
the world withwith
a long and
and notable
notable tradition
traditionofofusing
usingmedicinal
medicinalspecies.
species. There
There are
are significant
significant
exports of matsutake
matsutake to
to Japan
Japan though
though harvesting
harvesting practices
practices are
are causing concern for
causing concern for
sustainable production
production ininsome
some areas
areas (Winkler, 2000).
2000). Truffles and Boletus edulis
exported more
more recently
recently in
in significant
significantquantities
quantitiestotoEurope
Europe(Borghi,
(Borghi,2002,
2002,personal
personal
communication: Porcini and and other commercial wild edible fungi
commercial wild fungi inin Italy).
Italy).
General lists of of species
species in regular
regular use
use have
have been published
published outside
outsideChina
China (e.g.
(e.g.
Hall et al.,
Hall al., 1998a) but should
1998a) but should be
be consulted
consulted together
together with
with an an expanding
expandingChinese
Chinese
Literature.. See
Literature Mao and Jiang,
See Mao Jiang, 1992
1992 for
for Tibet Autonomous
Autonomous Region;
Region; Ying
Ying et
eta/.,
a/., 1987;
1987;
Ying
Yi ng et
et al.,
al ., 1988.
1988. Zhongguo
Zhongguo Shiyongjun
Shiyongjun [Edible
[Edible Fungi
Fungi of
ofChina]
China] regularly
regularlypublishes
publishes
information but
information butininChinese.
Chinese . Few
Few accounts
accounts of fungi
fungi sold
sold in
in markets
markets have
have been
been
published (Chamberlain,
published (Chamberlain, 1996)
1996)though
though this
this is
is aa widespread
widespread and and important
important activity.
For med
For medicinal
icinal species
species generally
generallysee
see Hobbs
Hobbs (1995).
(1995).
The best
best guide and source of information
source of information on
on field
fieldmycology
mycologyand
andspecies
species of
of WEF
WEF is
is
Mao, 2000).
2000).

HONG KONG
KONG SPECIAL
SPECIAL Chang and
Chang and Mao (1995) is aa comprehensive
(1995) is comprehensiveaccount
accountofof macrofungi
macrofungi and their
their useful
useful
ADMINISTRATIVE
ADMINISTRATIVE characteristics (in Chinese).
Chinese). This has
has aa wider relevance
relevance to
to China.
China .
REGION,
REGION, CHINA
94 Wild edible
Wild edible fungi:
fungi: aa global overview of
of their use
use and
and importance
importance to
to people
people
------------------------------------------

INDIA Lists of
Lists of edible
edible species
speciesfrom
from the
the exte
extensive mycological records
nsive mycological records areare difficult
difficult to
to
interpret and
interpret and social
social and
and economic
economic aspects are poorly studied. For
aspects are For general
information see
information see Purkayastha
Purkayastha and and Chandra,
Chandra, 1985.
1985. Studies
Studies of of local
local use
use include:
include: Harsh,
Harsh,
Rai and
Rai and Ayachi,
Ayachi, 1993;
1993; Harsh,
Harsh, Rai
Raiand
andSoni,
Soni,1999;
1999;Adhikary
Adhikary etal.,
et al., 1999.
1999. Morels
Morels
are collected
are collected for export
export ininHimalayan
Himalayanregions
regions(FAO,
(FAa, 1993b)
1993b) and and are
are of
of economic
economic
importance. Further
importance. studies are
Further studies areneeded,
needed,particularly
particularlyinin hill
hill areas
areaswhere
wheretribal
tribal people
people
live, e.g.
live, Tripura and Mizoram.
e.g. Tripura

COUNTRY USE OF
USE WILD EDIBLE
OF WILD EDIBLE FUNGI
FUNGI

INDONESIA Very little information

Very informationhas has been
been published
published though
though there
there isis clear
clear evidence
evidence of
widespread use use and market
market selling
selling (Burkhill,
(Burkhill,1935;
1935;Heyne,
Heyne,1927;1927; Rifai,
Rifai, 1989).
1989). There
There
is much interest
is much interest in cultivating
cultivating fungi
fungi(e.g.
(e.g. Gunawan,
Gunawan, 2000)
2000) andand these
these are widely
widely
available. The extensive
available. The extensive literature
literature on NWFP
NWFP hashasfew
fewdetails
detailsofof wild
wild edible fungi
though local
though local sources
sources in Kalimantan
Kalimantan (Leluyani,
(Leluyani, 2002,
2002, personal
personal communication:
Edible
Edible fungi of of Kalimantan)
Kalimantan) listed
listed over
over ten
ten different
differenttypes
typesregularly
regularlycollected
collected and
and
consumed in forest
consumed forestareas,
areas, mostly
mostlysaprobic
saprobicspecies.
species. Canned
Canned Scleroderma
Scleroderma spp. spp. are
are
sold (Ducousso,
(Ducousso, Ba Ba and
and Thoen,
Thoen, 2002).
2002). Published
Published records
records of agarics
agarics and boletes
boletes are
are
available at at www.mycena.sfsu.edu
www.mycena.sfsu.edu and and include
includeseveral
several common
commonedible ediblespecies.
species.

IRAN
IRAN Truffles occur
Truffles occur but
but their
their significance
significance to
to local
local people
people isis not
not known
known(Saremi,
(Saremi,
Ammarellou andand Mohammadi,
Mohammadi,2002).
2002). Other
Otheredible
edibleand
andmedicinal
medicinalspecies
species have
have
been recorded
been recorded (see
(see Niemela
Niemelä andand Uotila,
Uotila, 1977; Isiloglu and
1977; Isiloglu and Watling, 1992)
1992) in the
the
mycological literature.
mycological

IRAQ Only one passing reference [to desert

passing reference desert truffles]
truffles] isis known
known(Al-Naama,
(AI-Naama,Ewaze
Ewaze and
and
Nema, 1988).

ISRAEL The recent arrival of of many

many Russians
Russians has hasintroduced
introduced aa strongly
strongly mycophilic influence
influence
(Wasser,1995),
(Wasser, 1995), thoughthere
though thereisisstill
stilllittle
littleavailable
availableinformation
information onon how
how collection
collection
and consumption
and consumption of wild wild edible
edible fungi
fungihas haschanged.
changed. Previously
Previously there was
was only
limited interest
interest ininaafew
fewkey
keyspecies.
species.

JAPAN It has
has aa notable
notable and
and significant
significant tradition
tradition of of collecting,
collecting, consuming
consu ming and
and selling
se lling wild
wild
useful fungi (e.g.
useful (e.g. Kawagoe,
Kawagoe, 1924;
1924; Stamets, 2000). There
Stamets, 2000). Thereisisan
anextensive
extensiveliterature
literature
on macrofungi (e.g.
on (e.g. Imazeki et 1988) and
et al. , 1988) and research
research onon wild
wild edible
ediblespecies,
species,
particularly matsutake.
matsutake. Japan is aa major
Japan is major importer
importer ofof matsutake
matsutake and
and related
related species
species
from around
from world..
around the world

JORDAN Several species

Several speciesare
are consumed
consumed locally (Cavalcaselle, 1997; Sabra
(Cavalcaselle, 1997; Sabra and
and Walter, 2001).
2001).

KOREA [DEMOCRATIC
KOREA There is undoubtedly
There is undoubtedly a strong
strong local tradition of
local tradition ofcollecting
collecting and
and consuming
consuming wild
wi ld
PEOPLE'S
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC
REPUBLIC OF)
OF] edible fungi but
but information
informationisisscarce.
scarce. There are significant
There are significant exports
exports of
of matsutake
matsutake to
to
Japan (www.fintrac.com).
Japan (www.fintrac.com).

KOREA [REPUBLIC
[REPUBLIC OF]
OF) It has
has aa strong
strong local
localtradition
tradition of using
using wild edible fungi and
and is
is a major
major exporter of
matsutake to Japan. For further
Japan. For further information,
information,see
see Kim
Kim and
and Kim
Kim (1990).
(1990).

KUWAIT account with aa passing

Only one account reference to
passing reference to desert truffles is
is known (Alsheikh
(Alsheikh and
and
Trappe, 1983).
Trappe, 1983).

KYRGYZSTAN A comprehensive list of

of edible
ediblespecies
species has
has been published (El'chibaev,
(EI'chibaev, 1964)
1964) which
suggests widespread
suggests widespread if not
not necessarily
necessarily significant
significant use
use of
ofwild
wildspecies.
species.

LAO PEOPLE'S
PEOPLE'S A list of
of edible
edible species
species wwith
ith photos
photos is is available at http://giechgroup.hp.infoseek.
http://giechgroup.hp.infoseek.
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
REPUBLIC co.jp/kinoko/eng.html. NWFP studies include
NWFP studies include references
referencestotowi wild edible fungi (Rijsoort
ld edible (Rijsoort
and Pikun,
Pikun, 2000).
2000). Local use isis widespread
Local use widespread (Hosaka,
(Hosaka, 2002,
2002,personal
personalcommunication:
communication:
Laos edible fungI)
Laos edible fungi) but poorly
poorly described.
described . Further
Further studies are needed
studies are needed to to reveal
reveal more
details
details about the use of wild edible fungi by
use of by hill
hill people
people generally
generally in
in the
the region.
region .

LEBANON Several speciesare

Several species arelocally
locallycollected
collected though
though apparently
apparently use
use is
is small
small scale and may not
scale and not
be widespread (Sabra
be (Sabra and Walter, 2001).
2001) .

MALAYSIA Termite fungi

fungi are
are regularly
regularlycollected
collectedand
andsold
sold(Pegler
(Peglerand
andVanhaecke,
Vanhaecke, 1994).
1994).
Mycological reports from
Mycological from Sarawak
Sarawak (Chin,
(Chin, 1988; Chin, 1998)
1988; Chin, 1998) hint
hint at regular
regular use
use
of
of wild
wildedible
ediblespecies,
species, confirmed
confirmedby byanecdotal
anecdotalaccounts
accounts(Jones,
(Jones, 2002,
2002, personal
personal
communication:
communication : Wild
Wild edible
edible fungi
fungiuse
use in
inSarawak).
Sarawak) .

MONGOLIA No information
No information was found but similar
was found similar traditions to
to neighbouring
neighbouring countries
countries (e.g.
(e.g.
China) are expected.
expected .

MYANMAR Termite fungi are

are recorded
recorded in
in the
the mycological
mycological literature
literature(Pegler
(Peglerand
andVanhaecke,
Vanhaecke,
1994) and
1994) and are
are undoubtedly
undoubtedly eaten,
eaten, but no
no other
other details
details have
have been
been found.
found. However,
However,
similar patterns of use
similar are expected
use are expected inin the
the hill regions
regions based
based onon traditions
traditions in
in
neighbouring countries.
countries.
Annex
A nnex 1:
1: Summary of
of the importance
importance of
of wild
w ild edible
edible fungi
fu ngi by
by region
region and
andcountry
country 95
95

NEPAL Widespread
Widespread collection, sale and consumption
sale and consumption occur
occur (e.g.
(e.g. Adhikari
Adhikari and
and Adhikari,
1996),with
1996), with most
most activity
activity in the hill
hill regions.
regions.

PAKISTAN Only limited

limited information
informationwas
wasfound.
found .Morels
Morelsare
arecollected
collected and
and exported
exported (FAO,
(FAa,
1993b). Mycological reports
1993b). reports do
do not
notdescribe
describelocal
localpractices
practicesororpreferences
preferencesfor
forspecies
species
(Batra, 1983;
(Batra, Syed-Riaz and
1983; Syed-Riaz and Mahmood-Khan,
Mahmood-Khan, 1999).
1999).

COUNTRY USE OF
USE OF WILD EDIBLE
EDIBLE FUNGI
FUNGI

PHILIPPINES
PHILIPPINES A comprehensive
comprehensive mycological
mycological paper
paper(Mendoza,
(Mendoza,1938)
1938)lists
listsover
over50
50species,
species, many
many
with
with local
local names
names and
and suggesting
suggesting widespread
widespread use. This information
use. This information is
is not
not included
included in
in
the
the annexes. Forest dwellers
annexes. Forest dwellers in
in Palawan
Palawan also
alsoeat
eatwild
wild edible
edible fungi (Novellino,
(Novellino, 1999).
1999).

SAUDI
SAUDI ARABIA Limited information
information on
ondesert
desert truffles
truffles(Tirmania)
(Tirmania) only
only was
was found
found (Bokhary
(Bokhary and
and
Parvez, 1993).
Parvez, 1993).

SINGAPORE
SINGAPORE A significant importer
importer andand user
user of
of edible
edible fungi
fungi though
thoughmostly,
mostly,ititisissuspected,
suspected, of
of
the
the cultivated
cultivated species
species (Jones and Lim,
(Jones and Lim, 1990).
1990).AAstrong
strongcultural
cultural influence
influence from
from the
Chinese tradition is
Chinese tradition is expected.
expected .

SRI
SRI LANKA
LANKA Local collectionsoccur
Local collections occurbut
but limited
limited information
information was
was found (Gunatilleke,
(Gunatilleke, Gunatilleke
Gunatilleke
and Abeygunawardena, 1993).
1993). Termite fungi
fungi occur
occur and
and are
are presumably
presumably eaten
eaten
(Pegler and Vanhaecke,
Vanhaecke, 1994).
1994).

TAIWAN
TAIWAN PROVINCE
PROVINCE OF
OF Similar tradition to
Similar tradition to mainland
mainland China
China though information
information not
notactively
actively gathered.
gathered. Long
Long
CHINA
CHINA tradition ofofmycological
tradition mycologicalresearch
research on
on the
thehigher
higherfungi
fungi(see
(seeChen,
Chen, 1987).
1987).

THAILAND There isis aanotable

There notabletradition
tradition of collection, selling and consumption
selling and consumption butbut on
only one
ly one
detailed report
reportwas
wasfound
found(Jones,
(Jones,Whalley
Whalleyand
andHywel-Jones,
Hywel-Jones, 1994).
1994).

TURKEY
TURKEY There is aa strong
There is strong but perhaps
perhaps still relatively small
small export
export industry
industry to
to Europe,
Europe,
based predominantly on the collection of
based predominantly of wild
wild edible
ediblefungi
fungi(Gurer,
(Gurer, 2002,
2002, personal
personal
communication: Unpublished trade data on wild wild edible
edible fungi
fungiininTurkey).
Turkey). Mycological
Mycological
reports suggest
suggest w widespread
idespread use and significance
use and significance (e.g.
(e.g. Afyon,
Afyon, 1997;
1997; KasKasik and Ozturk,
ik and Ozturk,
1995). See
1995). Seealso
alsowww.ogm.gov.tr/
www.ogm.gov.tr/ and Sabra and Walter (2001).
Sabra and (2001).

TURKMENISTAN Hasexported
Has exported ""mushrooms"
mushrooms" to Germany, most probably wild edible
Germany, most edible species
species
(www.fintrac.com).
(www.fintra c. com).

VIET
VIET NAM
NAM There are clear
There are clear indications
indications of widespread local use and collecting
use and collecting in the upland
upland
areas
area (Chamberlain,2002,
s (Chamberlain, 2002,personal
personalcommunication
communication: Wildedible
: Wild ediblefungi
fungi in
in Viet Nam)
Nam)
but this isis poorly documented.
documented . NWFP investigationsfrequently
NWFP investigations frequently mention
mention wild
wild edible
fungi
fungi (e.g.
(e .g.Rijsoort
Rijsoort and
and Pikun,
Pikun, 2000).
2000) . Paddy
Paddy straw
straw (Volvariella
(Vo/variella spp.)
spp .) occurs
occurs naturally
in lowland
lowland areas
areas and
and is
is also cultivated. Other
Other cultivated
cultivatedspecies
species such
such as shiitake and
as shiitake and
ear fungi (Auricularia
ear (Auricularia spp.)
spp.) are
are sold fresh
fresh and dried in in markets
markets in
in Ho
Ho Chi
Chi Minh
Minh city.
city.
96 Wild
Wild edible
edible fungi:
fungi: aa global overview of
of their use
use and
and importance
importance to
to people
people

Europe

The macrofungi
The macrofungi of of Europe,
Europe, asas defined
defined byby the
the present
present boundaries
boundaries of of the
the European
European
Union and contiguous countries, are well known and described. Finland has
described. Finland has the
the most
most
comprehensive literature on collection and use of edible fungi and has
comprehensive has paid
paid particular
particular
attention to their
their importance
importance for people.
people.
Information on on edible
edible fungi from Liechtenstein,
Liechtenstein, Malta and and Iceland
Iceland waswas not found.
found.
Countries fall in to two two broad
broadgroups:
groups: first,
first, nations
nations with
withweak
weakeconomies,
economies, usually
usually
with a significant
with significant local tradition of using
local tradition using wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi and some
some which
which alsoalso
export; second, wealthier countries that import
export; second, wealthier countries that import but may
may not have a strong tradition of
have a strong tradition
collecting. Romania
collecting. Romania isis an an example
example ofof the
the first
first group
group and
and the Netherlands
Netherlands an an example
example
of the second. (The Netherlands is
second. (The is the largest global exporter
largest global exporter ofof button
button mushrooms-
mushrooms
Agaricus bisporus - and third exporter
exporter after
after China
China andand the
the United
UnitedStates
States of
of all
all cultivated
species.)
The easing
The easing of economic
economic andand political
political barriers
barriers inin the
the early
early1990s
1990s has
has stimulated
stimulated
exports from former
former Soviet
Soviet countries,
countries, Balkan
Balkan states
states and
and Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia specifically (Perini,
1998).Within
1998). Within the the richer
richer countries
countries of Europe collecting wild edible
collecting wild edible fungi
fungi is mostly
mostly
for small-scale personal use
small-scale personal use and
and is
is of minor economic
economic importance to the the collectors,
collectors,
though there
there is
is aa growing
growing individual
individual interest in in collecting
collecting truffles and porcini
porcini in in Italy
(Zambonelli, 2002,
(Zambonelli, 2002, personal
personal communication: Truffles, and collecting
Truffles, and porcini in
collecting porcini in Italy).
See Plates 3 and 4.
See 4.
For accounts
accounts of of wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi collected
collected from boreal
boreal and
and cold
cold temperate
temperate forests
forests
see
see Lund, Pajari and Korhonen
Korhonen(1998).
(1998).

COUNTRY USE OF
USE OF WILD
WILD EDIBLE
EDIBLE FUNGI
FUNGI

ALBANIA It has exported limited

has exported limited quantities of
of edible
edible fungi
fungi to
toItaly,
Italy,probably
probablyBoletus
Boletusedulis
edulis
(Borghi, 2002, personal communication:
2002, personal communication: Porcini
Porcini and
and other
other commercial
commercial wild edible
fungi in Italy) and a few other types,
types, but there is no regular
regular trade.
trade.

BELARUS Wild edible

edible species are described
species are describedbriefly
briefly (Malyi,
(Malyi, 1987)
1987) but
but without
without details
details of
oflocal
local
practices. Also
practices. Also exports
exports wild
wild species
speciesininsmall
smallquantities
quantities to
to Italy (Borghi,
(Borghi, 2002,
2002, personal
communication: Porcini and other
Porcini and other commercial wild edible fungi in
commercial wild in Italy)
Italy) and
and other
other
unspecified countries
countries(011ikainen,
(Ollikainen, 1998).
1998).

BOSNIA AND
AND Exports "mushrooms",
Exports "mushrooms", including Boletus edulis to Italy (Borghi,
(Borghi, 2002,
2002, personal
personal
HERZEGOVINA communication: Porcini and other
Porcini and other commercial wild edible fungi in
commercial wild in lta/y).
Italy). No
No other
other
information or
information orreports
reportshave
have been
been seen.
seen.

BULGARIA Major exporter

exporter of
of "wild
"wildmushrooms".
mushrooms".Edible
Edibleand
andpoisonous
poisonousspecies
species have
have been
described in
described in the mycological literature
literature(lordanov,
(Iordanov,Vanev
Vanev and
and Fakirova,
Fakirova, 1978)
1978) though
though
local traditions
local traditions are
are not
not well known.

CZECH REPUBLIC
REPUBLIC A minor
minor exporter
exporter to
to neighbouring
neighbouringGermany,
Germany, assumed
assumed toto be
be mostly
mostly from
from the wild.
wild.
Local collecting
Local collecting and consumption was was regulated some
some time
time ago
ago (Pilát,
(Pilat, 1951)
1951) and
and
appear to
to be
be mostly
mostly for
forinternal
internalconsumption
consumption(Sisak,
(Sisak,1998).
1998).

CROATIA Exporter but activities disrupted by

Exporter by civil
civil strife.
strife. Exact
Exact details are unclear but see
see
comments for
comments for Serbia and Montenegro.
Serbia and Montenegro.

ESTONIA Known to have

Known have a strong
strong trad
tradition
ition of
oflocal
local use
use and
and research
research on on wild
wild edible fungi
(Kalamees and
(Kalamees and Silver,
Silver,1988).
1988).Production
Productiondata
dataindicate
indicateitit isis aa minor
minor exporter (Paal and
(Paal and
Saastamoinen, 1998),
Saastamoinen, 1998),atatleast
leastfrom
from 1993
1993toto 1997
1997 (www.fintract.org).
(www.fintract.org).
Annex 1: Summary of
of the
th e importance of
of wild edible ffungi
ungi by region and
by region and country 97

COUNTRY USE OF
USE OF WILD EDIBLE
EDIBLE FUNGI
FUNGI

FINLAND Traditions vary

Traditions vary from
from the mycophilic
mycophilic east,
east, influenced by by its
its proximity
proximity totothe
theRussian
Russian
Federation,
Federation, to the
the less enthusiastic west,
less enthusiastic west, taking
taking its influences
influences from Sweden
Sweden
(Härkönen,
(Hark6nen, 1998). There has
1998). There hasbeen
beenofficial
official encouragement
encouragement to to collect
collect edible
edible fungi since
since
the Second
Second World War and discussions and research
discussions and researchon oninventory
inventory and
and long-term
long-term yield
studies (Rautavaara, 1947;
1947; Koistinen,
Koistinen,1978);
1978);access
access to
to lands
lands (Saastamoinen,
(Saastamoinen,1999);
1999);
local mushroom advisors
advisors (Mildh,
(Mildh, 1978;
1978; Härkönen,
Hark6nen, 1988).
1988).

GREECE Commonly collected and usedused in rural

rural areas
areas from
from forests
forests (Diamandis,
(Diamandis, 1997).
1997). Few are
Few are
sold in farmers' markets
sold markets though
though there
there have
have been
been increases in commercial
increases in commercial picking
picking
which are
are causing
causing concern
concern (Diamandis,
(Diamandis, 2002).
2002). Have been
been eaten since
since ancient times
(Hettula,
(Hettula, 1989).
1989).

HUNGARY
HUNGARY Exports and has
Exports and hasaalocal
localtradition
tradition of
of collection
collection and consumption,
consumption, but few published
published
details are available apart
apart from
fromlists
listsofofspecies
species (Grunert
(Grunert and
and Grunert,
Grunert,1995).
1995).

ITALY
ITALY Extensiveimports
Extensive imports of of Boletus
Boletus edulis
edulis (porcini)
(porcini) from
from a wide range of of countries,
countries,
extending
ext ending to to China
China (over
(over 60%
60% of of imports
importsaccording
according to toBorghi,
Borghi,2002,
2002, personal
personal
communication: PorciniPorcini andand other commercial
commercial wild wild edible fungifungi inin Italy)
Italy) and
and
southern Africa. See (Hallet
See (Hall eta/.,
al., 1998b) for general
1998b) for general information
information on on porcini.
porcini. Recently,
Recently,
an inferior
inferi or Tuber
Tuber from
from China
China has
has been
been imported
imported (Hall,(Hall, Zambonelli
Zambonelli and and Primavera,
Primavera,
1998a; Zang
1998a; Zang andand Pu,
Pu, 1992).
1992).SeeSeeBuller
Buller(1914)
(1914)for forhistorical
historical perspective.
perspective. In In the
the past
the collection
collection of wild edibleedible fungi was was important
important to to the
the livelihoods
livelihoods of of many
many people
in the northern
northern regions.
regions. While
While there
thereisis still
still aa strong
strong interest
interestin incollecting
co llectingandandeating,
eating,
particularly porcini and truffles, their theireconomic
economic importance
importance to to local
local people
people has
has
declined.
declined . Still,
Still, there isis aa strong
strong commercial
commercial interest
interest in in both
both groups
groups of fungi with with
demand
dema nd outstripping
outstripping local local supply
supply (Borghi,
(Borghi, 2002,
2002, personal
personal communication: Porcini Porcini
and other
other commercial
commercial wild wildedible
ediblefungi
fungiininItaly).
Italy).Italy
Italyhashasananimpressive
impressivemycological
mycological
tradition
tradition but
butthere
thereisis aapaucity
paucity ofofinformation
informationon onlocal
localtraditions
traditionsand anduses
uses of
of WEF by
WEF by
people.

LATVIA Relatively minor

Relatively minor exporter atat least
least from
from 1993
1993 to
to 1997
1997 (www.fintrac.com).
(www.fintrac.com). ItIthas
has aa
similar local
local tradition
traditionofofuse
usecompared
compared totoEstonia
Estonia and
and Lithuania
Lithuania(Vilkriste,
(Vilkriste,1998).
1998). For
For
selected list of
ofedible
ediblespecies
species see
see Urbonas,
Urbonas, Kalamees
Kalamees and
and Lukin
Lukin (1974).
(1974).

LITHUANIA Major exporter to

to Germany
Germany over the period 19931993 to 1997
1997 but in variable quantities
(www.fintrac.com). Around
Around190190edible
ediblespecies
species are
are listed
listed by
by Butkus
Butkus et
etal.
al. (1987).
(1987).
Further information
informationavailable
availableininRutkauskas
Rutkauskas(1998).
(1998).

MACEDONIA [THE
[THE Regular exporter,
Regular exporter, including Boletus
Boletus edulis
edulis to
to Italy
Italy(Borghi,
(Borghi,2002,
2002, personal
personal
FORMER YUGOSLAV
FORMER communication:: Porcini
communication Porciniand
andother
other commercial
commercialwild wildedible
ediblefungi
fungi inin Italy)
Italy) and
andwith
with aa
REPUBLIC OF]
REPUBLIC suggested strong tradition
traditionofoflocal
localuse
use(Bauer-Petrovska
(Bauer-Petrovska et eta/.,
al., 2001).
2001).

IVIOLDOVA
MOLDOVA Minor
M inor exports
exports of
of Boletus
Boletus edulis
edulis to
to Italy
Italy (Borghi,
(Borghi, 2002,
2002, personal
personal communication:
Porcini and
Porcini and other
other commercial
commercial wild
wild edible fungi in in Italy).
Italy) . Likely
Likely to
to have
have aa similar
tradition
traditionofofcollecting
collectingand
anduse
usetotothe
theRussian
Russian Federation.
Federation.

POLAND Europe's leading

Europe's leading exporter
exporter of "mushrooms"
"mushrooms" and and aamajor
majorsource
source of ofrevenue.
revenue. ItIt isis said
said
to be a the
the pioneer in protecting
pioneer in protecting wild edible fungi with
with legislation
legislation introduced
introduced in in
1983 (Lawrynowicz, 1997).
1983 (Lawrynowicz, 1997).Also
Alsohas
hasaastrong
stronglocal
localtradition
tradition in
in the
the poorer regions
(Snowarski, 2002,
(Snowarski, 2002,personal
personalcommunication
communication: Wild edible
: Wild edible fungi
fungi in Poland). For general
Poland) . For general
information
informationsee
see www.
www. grzyby.pl
grzyby.pl and
and Kalinowski
Kalinowski (1998).
(1998).

ROMANIA Major exporter

exporter ofof wild
wildedible
ediblefungi
fungi(Pop,
(Pop,1997),
1997), with
withBoletus
Boletus edulis
edulis sent
sent to
to Italy
Italy on
on
a regular basis (Borghi, 2002,
basis (Borghi, personal communication
2002, personal communication:: Porcini and other
other commercial
commercial
wild edible fungi in
in Italy).
Italy).

FEDERATION
RUSSIAN FEDERATION A strong and lengthy tradition
strong and tradition of
ofcollecting
collect ing andand consuming
consuming wild edibleedible fungi
fungi exists
exists
(Wasson
(Wasson and and Wasson,
Wasson,1957).
1957).Precise
Precise details
det ail s ofofcurrent
currentuse
usearearedifficult
difficultto
to find
find though
though
there isis an impressive mycological literature
impressive mycological literature andand history
historyofofresearch
research on onspecies
species
(e.g.
(e .g. Dudka
Dudka and
and Wasser,
Wasser, 1987;
1987; Vasil'eva,
Vasil ' eva, 1978;
1978; Wasser, 1990). It is the second
Wasser, 1990). second most
most
important country
country or
or region
region for
for wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi after
afterChina
China in in terms
terms of amounts
amounts
collected
collected but trails in
in value
value of
of exports though these
exports - though these have
have occurred
occurred forfor many
many years
years
(Paal,
(Paal, 1998).
There is
There is aa certain
certain fearlessness
fearlessnessininpicking
picking fungi
fungi as indicated by regular poisoning
as indicated poisoning and
and
(Chibisov and
even deaths (Chibisov and Demidova,
Demidova, 1998; Evans, 1996).
1998; Evans, 1996). Concern
Concern has
has been expressed
been expressed
about rampant exports
exports in "hundreds of tons",
tons " , with
withSt
St Petersburg
Petersburg a "much exploited
region"
region" (Kovalenko,
(Kovalenko, 1997).
1997).

SERBIA AND
SERBIA Exports of
Exports of Boletus
Boletus edulis
edulis to
to Italy began
began in in the
the1970s
1970s (Borghi,
(Borghi, 2002,
2002, personal
personal
MONTENEGRO [FORMER
[FORMER communication:
communication: Porcini and other commercial
Porcini and commercial wild wild edible fungi
fu ngi in
in Italy)
Italy) and
and regularly
regularly
YUGOSLAVIA]
YUGOSLAVIA] ever since. Exports
Exports increased
increased significantly
significantly in the
the 1990s,
1990s, of
of B.B. edulis
edulis andand other
otherspecies,
species,
with
with significant
significant rises
rises in the numbers
numbers of of people
people earning
earning aa living
living from
from commercial
commercial
activities (Ivancevic, 1997). In
(Ivancevic, 1997). In sharp
sharp contrast
contrast, there are
, there are weak
weak local
local traditions
traditions ofofuse
use
(Zaklina, 1998).
1998).
98 Wild edible fun
Wild edible fungi:
gi: a global overview of
of their
their use
use and
and importance
importancetotopeople
people

COUNTRY USE
USE OF
OF WILD EDIBLE FUNGI
WILD EDIBLE FUNGI

SLOVAKIA
SLOVAKIA Unconfirmed reports
Unconfirmed reports of widespread collecting are
widespread collecting are similar
similar to
to traditions in
in
neighbouring countries,
neighbouring countries, for
for example
example Poland.
Poland.

SLOVENIA
SLOVENIA Moderate amounts are exported, including
including Boletus
Boletus edulis
edulis to
to Italy.
Italy. ItIt has
ha s aa notable
notable
though
though not
notnecessarily strong local
necessarily strong local tradition
tradition (www.matkurja.com).
(www.matkurja .com).

SPAIN (AND ANDORRA)

SPAIN Sharply differing
Sharply differing tradition
traditionss ofof local
local use
use with
with the
the strongest
strongest existing
existing among
among the the
mushroom-loving Catalans
mushroom-loving Catalans and and also
also Basque
Basque people. Their interests
interests drive
drive much
much
of the internal
internal trade
tradeininWEF.
WEF. There is an important
is an important trade
trade inin Lactarius
Lactarius deliciosus
de/iciosus
(níscalos)from
(niscalos) from northwest
northwest SpainSpain (Castilla
(CastillayyLeon)
Leon)totoCatalonia
Cataloniawhilewhiletruffles
truffles are
are of
of
increasing importance to
increasing to local
local people
people ininthe
thePyrenees
Pyrenees (de(de Roman,
Roman, 2002, personal
personal
communication: Trade
communication: Trade in in niscalos
niscalosfrom
from North
North Spain
Spain toto Catalonia
Catalonia andand truffle
truffle
production). ForFor a comprehensive
comprehensive accountaccount of of wild
wild edible fungi
fungi seesee Martínez,
Martinez, Oria
aria de
de
Rueda and
Rueda and Martinez (1997). Spanishtraders
(1997). Spanish tradersvisit
visit Portugal
Portugal forfor commercial
commercial activities
while French
while French collectors
collectors cross
cross over toto Spain
Spain for
fortruffles.
truffles.See
Seealso
also(Wasson
(Wassonand andWasson
Wasson
(1957) for
(1957) for historical
historical information on on local
local traditions.
traditions .

UKRAINE
UKRAINE Possessessignificant
Possesses significantresources
resourcesthat
thatare
arehighly
highlyvalued
valued byby local
local people
people (Zerova
(Zerova
and Wasser, 1972; Zhang,
Wasser, 1972; Zhang, 1999).
1999). There
There hashasbeen
been much
much concern
concern expressed
expressed about
about
contamination by by radioactive
radioactive materials following the
materials following the Chernobyl
Chernobyl accident
accident but
but this
this
is overshadowed by
is overshadowed by the
the dramatic rise
rise in
in deaths
deaths from
from eating
eatingpoisonous
poisonousspecies
species
(Vachuska and
(Vachuska and Vachuska,
Vachuska,2000),
2000),events
eventslinked
linkedto
to aa w
weak
eak economy and a desperate
search for
search for food (Almond,
(Almond,2002).
2002) .

Collections in the
Collections the following
followin g countries
countries are
are essentially
essentially for
for occasional
occasional individual
individual use.
coinments concern exports and imports, depending on available
General comments available information.

COUNTRY
COUNTRY USE OF WILD
USE OF EDIBLE FUNGI
WILD EDIBLE FUNGI

BELGIUM
BELGIUM AND Exports speciesbut
Exports species but details
details vague
vague. Scientistshave
. Scientists havemade
mademajor
majorcontributions
contributions to
to
LUXEMBOURG
LUXEMBOURG African Mycology
Mycology (Rammeloo,
(Rammeloo, 1994).
1994).

DENMARK
DENMARK Small-scaleand
Small-scale and infrequent
infrequent local
local collections
collections only
only(Plum,
(Plum, 1998).
1998).

FRANCE
FRANCE Major importer
importer andand exporter
exporter (sometimes
(sometimes from third
third party
partycountries
countries e.g.
e.g. Portugal,
Portugal,
Spain). At
Spain). At one
one time
time exported
exported large
large quantities of truffles
truffles to
toItaly
Italy(Ainsworth,
(Ainsw orth,1976).
1976).
There is
There is aa strong
strong tradition
tradition of
ofcollecting
collectingand
andeating
eatingWEF
WEFininthe
thesouth
south(e.g.
(e. g.Gascony,
Gascony,
Provence)
Provence) but but published
published information
information on local
local traditions has
has not been
been found

GERMANY
GERMANY Major importer
importer of
of wild
wildedible
ediblefungi,
fungi,e.g.
e.g. chanterelles.
chanterelles .

IRELAND Major exporter

exporter but
but mostly
mostly (only?)
(only?) cultivated
cultivated species to the
species to the United
United Kingdom
(www.fintrac.com).
(www.fintrac.com) .

NETHERLANDS Europe's leading exporter of

Europe's leading of mushrooms,
mushrooms, mostly
mostl y cultivated
cultivatedspecies.
species.

NORWAY Common edible

edible species such as
species such aschanterelles
chanterellesand
and boletes
boletes are
are collected
collected ffor
o r personal
personal
use.
use.

PORTUGAL
PORTUGAL Local traditions are weak (Martins et
Local traditions et al.,
al., 2002)
2002) and this has been exploited by
has been
traders from Spain
traders and France
Spain and Francewho
whohave
havecreated
createdaa"flourishing
"flourishing and
and uncontrolled
uncontrolled
commercial"
commercial " business (Baptista-Ferreira, 1997):
business (Baptista-Ferreira, 1997):hundreds
hundredsofof tonnes
tonnes of
of Boletus
Boletus edulis
edulis
and related
related species
species are exported.

SWEDEN
SWEDEN Chanterelles and other
Chanterelles and other common
common edible
edible species are sold
species are sold but there
there is
is no
no strong
strong
tradition
tradition of
ofcollecting.
collecting.There
There isis an
an increased interest in
increased interest in cultivating truffles.
truffles .

SWITZERLAND
SWITZERLAND There is fierce competition
is fierce competition by by collectors
collectors for
forlocal
localresources
resources(see
(see Egli, Ayer and
Egli, Ayer and
Chatelain, 1990) Some
Chatelain, 1990). Someinformation
information on on imports
imports of of wild edible fungi isis presented in
presented in
Wills and
and Lipsey
Lipsey (1999).
(1999) .

KINGDOM
UNITED KINGDOM Major importer
importer of of mushrooms,
mushrooms, particularly from from Ireland
Ireland (see
(see www.fintrac.com).
Small-scale commercializationof
Small-scale commercialization of wild
wild edible fungi hashas begun
begun andand there
there isis aa useful
useful
study of
of collectors
collectors and
and the
the developing
developingtradetrade(Dyke
(Dykeand
andNewton,
New ton,1999).
1999).Concerns
Concerns
about
about overpicking
overpicking andand damage
damage caused collectors has
caused by collectors has led
ledto
to the
the introduction
introduction
of
of local
local regulations
regulationsatatseveral
several sites
sites in
in southern
southern England
England (e.g.
(e.g.New
NewForest,
Forest, Epping
Epping
Forest).
Annex I:
1: Summary
Summary of
ofthe
the importance
importance of
ofwild
wild edible
edible fungi by
by region
region and
and country
country 99

North and
and Central
Central America
America

See Plate
See Plate 7.7. No
No information was
was found on wild
wild edible
edible fungi and othcr
other useful
useful species
species
for the following
following countries:
countries:
Antigua and
and Barbuda;
Barbuda; Antilles,
Antilles, Netherlands;
Netherlands;Bahamas;
Bahamas; Barbados;
Barbados; Belize;
Belize; Bermuda;
Bermuda;
British Virgin Islands;
Islands; Cayman Islands; Dominica; Dominican Republic;
Islands; Dominica; Republic; Grenada;
Guadeloupe; Martinique; Monserrat;
Monserrat; Nicaragua;
Nicaragua; Panama;
Panama; Puerto
Puerto Rico;
Rico;
Saint Kitts and Nevis;
Nevis; Saint
Saint Lucia;
Lucia; Saint Pierre and Miquelon;
Miquelon; Saint
Saint Vincent and
the Grenadines; Trinidad andand Tobago;
Tobago; United
United States
States Virgin
Virgin Islands
Islands

COUNTRY
COUNTRY USE OF
USE OFWilD
W. EDIBLE
EDIBLE FuniGi
FUNGI

CANADA Exports to Japan

Exports to and to Europe.
Japan and Europe. Several described the
Several publications described the expansion
expansion in
collection and
and trade of wild edible
edible fungi,
fungi, principally
principally from
from British
British Colombia
Colombia (the
(the
"Pacific northwest")
northwest")(see
(see Redhead,
Redhead, 1997;
1997; Tedder,
Tedder, Mitchell
Mitchell and
and Farran,
Farran, 2000).
2000). Some
Some
United States
States publications include Canada their discussions
Canada in their (Pilzand
discussions (Pilz and Molina,
Molina,
2002). First nation
2002). First nation people have
have collected and
and used
used for
for many
many years
years (Marles
(Maries et
et al.,
a/.,
2000).

COSTA RICA
COSTA Studies on the
Studies on the diversity
diversity of
of macrofungi are well advanced, though without
advanced, though without any
any clear
clear
emphasis on edible species
emphasis on species (Mata-Hidalgo, 1999).
1999). Lists
Lists of edible
edible and
and poisonous
poisonous
species (Saenz,Lizano
species (Saenz, Lizano and
and Nassar,
Nassar,1983)
1983)confirm
confirmweak
weak local
local traditions.
traditions.

CUBA There is little

There is little or no apparent tradition
tradition of
ofusing
using wild
wild edible
ediblefungi
fungi(Minter,
(Minter,2002,
2002,
personal communication:
personal communication: Edible
Edible fungi
fungí in Chile,
Chile, Cuba and Argentina).
Cuba and Argentina).

EL
El SALVADOR
SALVADOR Exports to
Exports to Germany
Germany but irregular
irregular and
and small
small scale.
scale. Intensive agriculture
agriculture and
and
deforestation suggests few collections
suggests few collectionsare
aremade
madethough
though note
note strong
strong tradition
tradition in
in
nearby Guatemala.

GUATEMALA Strong tradition

Strong tradition ininthe
theWestern
Western Highlands
Highlands (Flores,
(Flores, 2002, personal communication:
2002, personal communication:
Guatemala edible fungi;
Guatemala fungi; Flores,
Flores, Bran
Bran and Honrubia,
Honrubia, 2002;
2002; de Leon,
Leon, 2002). An
2002). An
account of
account of poisoning (Logemann
(Logemann et et al.,
al., 1987)
1987)points
pointsto
to the
the wider
wider significance
significance ofof
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi though
thoughagain
againmainly
mainlyininthe
thewestern
westernhighlands.
highlands.Local
Local edible
edible species
species
have been
have been documented (Sommerkamp
(Sommerkamp and Guzmán,Guzman, 1990) and historical
1990) and historical accounts
accounts of of
use exist (e.g. Lowy,
use Lowy, 1971).
1971).

HAITI
HAITI Haitian expatriates
expatriates regularly
regularlybuy
buydjon
djondjon,
djon,a Psathyrella
a Psathyrellaspecies
species(Nieves-Rivera,
(Nieves-Rivera,
2001), which
2001), which is cultivated only
is cultivated only in
in Haiti
Haiti(Yetter,
(Yetter, 2002,
2002, personal
personal communication:
communication:
Edible fungi from Haiti;
Edible Haiti; for
forsale
sale in
in Brooklyn;
Brooklyn; link
link to
toeating
eatingPsathyrella
Psathyrella in
in Africa)
Africa) and
and
exported around the world.
world. Local
Local details
details of
of production
production areare sketchy.
sketchy. AA few other
other
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi are
are collected
collected andand some
some information
information isis available
available in
in Alphonse,
Alphonse, 1981,
1981,
but this reveals
reveals few details.
details.

HONDURAS Extensive areasofofnatural

Extensive areas natural pine
pine forest
forest are
are associated
associatedwith
with good
good wild edible
edible fungi.
fungi.
There isis aatradition
There tradition in the west,
west, close to the border with
close to with Guatemala,
Guatemala, where
where
around three
three or
orfour
fourspecies
species are
are sold
sold in
in local
local markets
markets (House,
(House, 2002,
2002, personal
personal
communication:
communication: Wild edible fungí fungi in
in Honduras).
Honduras).

JAMAICA Minor
Minor and
and irregular
irregular exports
exports of
of"mushrooms"
"mushrooms"to toGermany
Germany(www.fintrac.com)
(www.fintrac.com)
but details
details are
are sketchy. Thereisisno
sketchy. There noobvious
obvioustradition
tradition of
of wild
wild edible fungi in
in the
the
Caribbean with the major known exception
Caribbean with exception of Haiti.
100 Wild edible
Wild edible fungi:
fungi: aa global overview of their use
use and importance to people

COUNTRY USE OF WILD EDIBLE FUNGI

MEXICO One
One of the most
most important
importantcountries
countries for
foruse
use and
and significance
significance of collections
collections to local
local
people. It is
people. unusual in
is unusual in the extent to
to which
which this
thishas
has been
been described
described by local
local scientists
scientists
(seeVillarreal
(see Villarreal and
and Perez-Moreno
Perez-Moreno (1989)
(1989) for
for aa good
good summary). For good
summary). For good online
access
accesstoto key
key information seeSEMARNAT
information see SEMARNAT (2002).
(2002). Small-scale
Small-scale exports
exports ofof selected
selected
species. Wild fungi
species. Wild fungi also
also play
playa a strong cultural
cultural role
role(Riedlinger,
(Riedlinger, 1990).
1990). There
There isis a
vigorous body of researchers vvorkingon
researchers working onwild
wildedible
ediblefungi
fungi and
and regular
regular publications
publications
that
that are
are now
now turning
turningtheir
theirattention
attentiontoto
key social
key socialand
andeconomic
economicissues.
issues.

UNITED STATES
STATES Major exporter to Japan
Japan of matsutake but also also a notable importer
importer from
from aavvide
wide
range of places.
range Has aa rich
places. Has rich literature
literature and tradition
traditionininmycological
mycologicalsciences
sciences and
and isis
the academic
academic "home"
"home"ofofethnomycology
ethnomycology(see (seeSchultes
Schultes 1940;
1940; Riedlinger
Riedlinger 1990).
1990). The
The
tradition
traditionofoflocal
localuse
useand
andcollections
collections isis much
much less than that
less than that suggested
suggested by the vast
scientific canon.
scientific canon. That
That which
which doesdoes exist
exist owes
owesmuchmuchtotothe
the cultural
cultural background of
immigrants from Europe
Europe andand Japan (lessisisknown
Japan (less knownabout
about the
the influence ofof Chinese
Chinese
immigrants; see also notes
see also notes above
above on on Haiti).
Haiti). However, there are also
However, there also significant
accounts by
accounts by native Americans
Americans (e.g.(e.g. Keewaydinoquay, 1998).1998).
Most recent interest has centred
has ce on the export-driven collections
ntred on collections and
and subsequent
subsequent
huge expansion
huge expansion of
of commercial activities and
commercial activities and trade
trade centering around the the Pacific
Pacific
northwest. This
This trade has been stimulated
has been stimulated byby a decline
decline in
in forestry jobs and the
demand matsutake in
demand for matsutake in Japan. There isis an
Japan. There an extensive
extensiveliterature
literature on
on this
this topic (see
(see
Pilz and
Pilz and Molina, 2002
2002 for
for aa comprehensive
comprehensive review).
Annex 1: of the importance
I: Summary of importance of
of wild edible fungi by region
region and country 101

Oceania

No information
information was
was found
found on
on wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi and
and other
other useful
useful species
speCIes for
for these
these
countries:
countnes:
Cook
Cook Islands;
Islands; French
French Polynesia;
Polynesia; Guam;
Guam; Kiribati;
Kiribati; Marshall
Marshall Islands;
Islands; Micronesia;
Nauru; New
New Caledonia;
Caledonia; Niue;
Niue; Northern
NorthernMariana
MarianaIslands;
Islands;Palau;
Palau; Samoa;
Samoa; American
Samoa, Solomon Islands; Tonga; Vanuatu
Samoa,

COUNTRY
COUNTRY USE OF
USE OF WILD
WILD EDIBLE
EDIBLE FUNGI
FUNGI

AUSTRALIA There is
There is useful
useful account of
of aboriginal
aboriginaluse
use(Kalotas,
(Kalotas, 1997).
1997).

FIJI
FIJI A brief
A brief account
account (Markham, 1998) describesaaweak
1998) describes weaktradition
traditionof
of collecting
collecting from
from the
wild.

NEW ZEALAND
NEW Most notable forfor the
thesuccessful researchand
successful research anddevelopment
development efforts
efforts in cultivating
cultivating
Tuber spp.
Tuber spp. (see
(seeHall
Halletetal.
a/.(1998a)
(1998a)for
for general
general information).
information). Once
Once exported
exported relatively
relatively
large amounts of of Auricularia
AuriculariatotoChina
China(Colenso,
(Colenso, 1884-85).
1884-85).

PAPUA NEW
PAPUA NEW GUINEA An informative ethnomycological
An ethnomycological study study of
of one
one group of highland people
people hints at a
widespread importance (Sillitoe,
more widespread (Sillitoe, 1995). An account
1995). An account of wild edible
edible fungi
fungiused
used
by the Gadsup
Gadsup people
people also
also lists
lists many
manyspecies
species used
used locally
locally (Shaw,
(Shaw, 1984),
1984), including
including
"Amanitas and Russulas",
Russulas", butbut the
the original sources of this
sources of this information
information (Heim,
(Heim, 1964)
1964)
has not been
has been seen.
seen.
102
102 Wild edible
Wild edible fungi:
fungi: aa global overview of
of their use
use and
and importance
importance to
to people
people

South America

There are few comprehensive

There accounts of
comprehensive accounts of wild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi for
for the
the region
region but note
note
two papers that
that present
present useful
useful information:
information: first,
first, Paraná
Parana in
in Brazil
Brazil (Meijer,
(Meijer, 2001) and,
2001) and,
second,
second, the Mercosur region comprising Argentina,
Argentina, Chile and Uruguay (Deschamps,
(Deschamps,
2002). See Plate 7.
7.
No information
information was
was found
found for
for these
these countries:
countries:
French Guiana; Guyana;
Guyana; Paraguay;
Paraguay; Suriname;
Suriname; Venezuela

COUNTRY USE OF
OF WILD
WILDEDIBLE
EDIBLE FUNGt
FUNGI

ARGENTINA Morels are

Morels are collected
collected and
and sold
sold locally, and there are commercial collections of
locally, and of
Suíllus luteus
Suillus lute near Bariloche
us near Bariloche (Gamundi,
(Gamundí, 2002,
2002, personal
personalcommunication:
communication: Edible
Edible fungi
fungi
collected in Argentina).
Argentina). Cyttaria
Cyttaria species are eaten
species are eaten in
in the south (Minter, Cannon
Cannon and
Peredo, 1987).
Peredo, 1987).AArecent
recentoverview
overviewof of wild
wild edible
edible fungi in
in the
the Mercosur
Mercosur regions
regions has
has
been published
been published (Deschamps,
(Deschamps, 2002).
2002).

BOLIVIA No information
No information found
foundon onlocal
localuse.
use. An
An Indian
Indianlady
ladywas
was selling
selling Leucoagaricus
Leucoagaricus
hortensis in Cochabamba
Cochabamba market in in March
March 2001
2001 and suggests that some collection
suggests that
occurs (personal observation)
occurs (personal observation). Thevendor
. The vendorwas
wasthe
theonly
onlyperson
personoffering
offering wild
wild fungi
fungi
for
for sale
sale (and in quantities
quantities of
ofless
less than aa kilogram).
kilogram).

BRAZIL
BRAZIL A country with
with aa rich
rich mycological
mycological tradition in in science but weak
science but weak tradition
tradition inin use
use
of wild
wild edible
ediblefungi.
fungi Ethnomycological
. Ethnomycologicalstudies
studiesininAmazonia
Amazonia(Prance,
(Prance,1984)
1984)reveals
reveals
small-scale but important
small-scale but important use that hints at wider collections
use that collections for other
other forest
forest
dwellers in Colombia, Bolivia,
Bolivia, Peru
Peru and Venezuela. Despite significant
Venezuela. Despite significant Italian
Italian
migration toto Rio
Rio Grande
Grande do do Sul
Sui there is
is no reported
reported collections,
collections, even
even though
though pines
pines
are widely planted (Schifino-Wittmann,
are (Schifino-Wittmann, 2002,2002, personal
personal communication: Eating Eating
fungi in
in south
south Brazil).
Brazil) . The
The influence ofof aa large
large ethnic
ethnicJapanese
Japanese population
population is is also
also
curiously muted though
curiously though Agaricus
Agaricus blazei,
blazei, aa medicinal
medicinal species, was apparently first
species, was first
discovered by
discovered by someone
someone of Japanese descent.The
Japanese descent. Thefungus
fungus isis exported
exported to Japan. The The
small-scaleuse
small-scale useofofwild
wild edible
edible fungi
fungi among Europeans
Europeans isiscommented
commented on on by
by Meijer
Meijer
(2001).

CHILE
CHILE Suillus lute
Suillus luteus
us is exported from
is exported from forest
forestplantations
plantations(see
(seeFAO,
FAO,1998a).
1998a). There
There isis aa
local Indian tradition
local Indian tradition [Mapuche]
[Mapuche] of eating
eating Cyttaria,
Cyttaria, a curious
curious golf-ball
golf-ball like fungus
fungus
parasitic on Nothofagus (Minter,
(Minter, Cannon
Cannon andand Peredo,1987).
Peredo, 1987). A comprehensive
comprehensive list of of
fungi eaten
eaten locally
locally is
is available (FAO, 1998b)and
(FAO, 1998b) andearlier
earlier information
information provides
provides details
of harvesting
harvesting operations
operationsininRegion
RegionVII
VII(FAO,
(FAO, 1993a).
1993a).

COLOMBIA
COLOMBIA A recent guide to macrofungi
A macrofungi (Franco-Molano,
(Franco-Molano, Aldana-Gomez
Aldana-Gomez and Halling,
Halling, 2000)
2000)
includes edible species
includes edible speciesbut
but has
hasnonoinformation
information on
on local
local practices in the
practices in the Andean
Andean
region.

ECUADOR Irregular and small-scale exporterof

small-scale exporter of pine
pine boletes,
boletes,principally
principally ifif not wholly toto
the United
United States
States (Rojas
(Rojas and Mansur,
Mansur, 1995). Suillus luteus
1995). Suillus luteus isis the
the principal species
species
involved (Hedger,
(Hedger, 1986).
1986).

PERU A preliminary list

list of
of wild
wildedible
ediblefungi
fungidoes
doesnot
nothave
havedetails
detailsof
oflocal
localpractices
practices
(Remotti and
and Colan,
Colan, 1990). An ethnoscientific
1990). An ethnoscientific study
study suggests widespread collections
suggests widespread
by rural people
people (Franquemont
(Franquemont et etal.,
al.,1990).
1990).

URUGUAY A recent overview

overview ofof wild
wildedible
ediblefungi
fungihas
hasbeen
beenpublished
published(Deschamps,
(Deschamps,2002).
2002). This
This
lists several
several species
speciesthat
that are traded
traded (see
(see Annex
Annex 2).
2).
 103

ANNEX 2

Country records of wild

records of wild useful
fungi (edible,
(edible, medicinal
medicinal and
and
other uses)
other uses)

This list
This list includes over 22 800
includes over 800 records
records from
from 85 85 countries
countries and
and waswas prepared
prepared from from a
preliminary database record of published information. Information from from thethe Republic
Republic
of Korea,
Korea, Japan
Japan andand Taiwan Province of
Taiwan Province of China
China is is not included
included and recordsrecords fromfrom
European countries
European countries are are limited
limited (Box
(Box 2).
2). The
The mycological
my cological literature
literature is is extensive
extensive in in
many developed
developed countries but often often there
there isis nono clear
clear indication
indication ofof which
which species
species are
are
eaten asas "food". The UnitedUnited States
States and Canada records are from the Pacific northwest
region or from
region from reports
reports on onfirst
firstnation
nationpeople
people(aboriginals).
(aboriginals). Australia
Australia records
records are are for
for
aboriginal use only.
only.
Unnamed speciesspecies are excluded unless there is no other other named
named species
species for that genusgenus
from aa particular
particular country.
country. Thus
ThusAgaricus
Agaricussp. sp. isis not
notincluded
includedififAgaricus
Agaricuscampestris
campestris has has
been recorded.
Only uses
uses of practical
practical or or economic
economic importance
importance have have been
been included;
included; ceremonial or
religious uses are omitted.
uses are
Square brackets e.g. [edible],
[edible], indicate
indicate uncertainty
uncertainty about the use use in the
the source
source ofof the
the
information.
Taxonomists
Taxonomists use use various
various ways
ways to qualify
qualify aa species
species names:
names: cf.d . and
and aff.
aff. indicate
indicate
that the
the specimen
specimen examined
examined was close close to
to the
the species
species name
name given
given (e.g.
(e.g. Amanita aff. aff.
rubescens)
rubescens) but but they
they are not 100 100 percent certain. The letters s.l. s.l. mean sensu lato
mean sensu lato or
or "in
the broad sense".
sense".
A complete
complete listlist of all species
species and
andcountries
countries can be besearched
searched atwww.wildusefulfungi.org.
at ww-w.wildusefulfungi.org.
This contains all details
This details about recorded
recorded uses
uses and and properties
properties and and includes
includes Japan and
Russia (Sergeeva, 2000) and
(Serge eva, 2000) and a comprehensive
comprehensive list of wild edible fungi from China China(Mao,
(Mao,
2000). This searchable
2000). This searchable database
database currently
currently holds over 6 000 records from 108
000 records 108 countries
and provides
provides valid
valid names
names of ofspecies.
species.

AFGHANISTAN
AFGHANISTAN ARGENTINA
1. Batra, 1983;
1. 1983; 2. Sabra
Sabra and Walter, 2001
2001 1. Deschamps, 2002;2.2.Gamundf
Deschamps, 2002; Gamundi and
and Horak, 1995
1995

Morchella edible (2)

(2) Cyttaria hariotii
Cyttaria hariotii food (2)
(2)
Podaxis pistillaris
Podaxis pistillaris edible (1)
(1) Morchella elata
e/ata food (1)
(1)
Morchella intermedia food (1)
(1)

ALGERIA
ALGERIA
Phlebopus bruchii
Phlebopus bruchii food
food (1)
(1)
1. Alsheikh and Trappe, 1983;
1. 1983; 2. Kytovuori,
Kytovuori, 1989
1989 Suillus luteus
Suillus food
food (2)
(2)

ARMENIA
Tirmania nivea
Tirmania edible
edible (1)
(1)
Nanaguylan, 2002,
2002, personal communication
communication
Tirmania pinoyi
Tirmania pinoyi edible
edible (1)
(1)
Tricholoma nauseosum edible
edible (2)
(2) Agaricus bisporus food
food
Agaricus campestris food
food
Agaricus silva
Agaricus ticus
silvaticus food
food
ANGOLA
Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993
Rammeloo 1993
Armillaria me//ea
Armillaria mellea food
food
Calocybe gambosa food
food
Macrolepiota
Macrolepiota procera
procera edible Cantharellus cibarius
cibarius food
Termitomyces sp.
sp. edible Lactarius deliciosus
deliciosus food
food
104 Wild edible fungi:
Wild edible fungi: a global overview of
of their
their use
use and
andimportance
importancetotopeople
people

Lepista nuda food Amanita masasiensis

Amanita masasiensis food (4)
(4)
Lepista personata food strobilaceovolvata
Amanita strobilaceovolvata food (4)
(4)
Macrolepiota excoria
Macrolepiota excoriata
ta food Amanita subviscosa
Amanita subviscosa food (4)
(4)
Macrolepiota procera
procera food Amanita xanthogala food (4)
(4)
Pleurotus eryngii food Auricularia cornea
cornea food (4)
(4)
Pleurotus ostreatus food Boletus pseudoloosii food (4)
(4)
granulatus
Suillus granula tus food Boletus sp.
Boletus sp. food
food (3)
(3)
lute us
Suillus luteus food Calvatia subtomentosa food
food (3)
(3)
congolensis
Cantharellus congolensis food
food (4)
(4)
Cantharellus floridulus
Cantharellus food (4)
(4)
AUSTRALIA
AUSTRALIA
Kalotas, 1997
1997 Cantharellus
Cantharellus platyphyllus
platyphyllus food (4)
(4)
Chlorophyllum cf. cf. molybdites food
food (4)
(4)
Battarrea stevenii not known Clitocybe s.l.
5.1. sp.
sp. food (3)
(3)
Boletus sp.
Boletus sp. edible Clitocybula sp.sp. food (3)
(3)
Choiromyces aboriginum
Choiromyces aboriginum food Craterellus beninensis food (4)
(4)
Cyttaria gunnii
Cyttaria food Craterellus
Craterellus cornucopioides food (3)
(3)
Fistulina hepatica food Daldinia concentrica medicinal (3) (3)
Montagnites candollei
candollei not known Gerronema sp.
Gerronema sp. food (3)
(3)
Mycoclelandia
Mycoclelandia bulundari food, medicinal
food, medicinal Gymnopus luxurians food (6)
(6)
Phellinus rimosus medicinal Hebeloma termitaria
Hebeloma termitaria food (4)
(4)
Phellorinia herculeana
herculeana other - dye
dye Inocybe gbadjii
Inocybe gbadjii food (3)
(3)
Phellorinia strobilina not known Inocybe squamata food (6)
(6)
Pisolithus tinctorius
Pisolithus tinctorius food, medicinal
medicinal Lactarius baliophaeus food (4)
(4)
Podaxis pistillaris
Podaxis other -- cosmetic
cosmetic Lactarius densifolius food (4)
(4)
Polyporus eucalyptorum food, tinder
food, Lactarius edulis food (4)
(4)
Polyporus mylittae
mylittae food Lactarius flammans food (4)
(4)
sanguineus
Pycnoporus sanguineus medicinal Lactarius gymnocarpoides
Lactarius food (4)(4)
sp.
Secotium sp. medicinal Lactarius latifolius
Lactarius latifolius food (3)(3)
Lactarius luteopus
Lactarius food (4)(4)
BELARUS
BELARUs
pseudogymnocarpus
Lactarius pseudo gymnocarpus food (6)(6)
Malyi, 1987
Malyi,1987 Lactarius pumilus
pumilus food (3)(3)
Lactarius saponaceous
saponaceous food (4)(4)
Armillaria
Armillaria me/tea
mellea edible
Lactarius species
Lactarius species 11 food (3)(3)
Boletus edulis edible
Lactarius species
Lactarius species 77 food (3)(3)
Cantharellus cibarius edible
Lactarius tenellus food (4)(4)
Gyromitra esculenta
esculenta edible
Lactarius
Lactarius volemoides food (3)(3)
Lactarius deliciosus edible
Lentinus sp.
Lentinus sp. food
food (3)
(3)
Lactarius
Lactarius necator edible
Lentinus
Lentinus tuber-regium
tuber-regium food
fo od (4)
(4)
Lactarius
Lactarius torminosus edible
Lentinus velutinus food (3)
(3)
aurantiacum
Leccinum aura ntiacum edible
Lentinus squarrosulus food (4)
(4)
Leccinum scabrum edible
edible
Lepista
Lepista dinahouna food (3)
(3)
Morchella esculenta
esculenta edible
Lepista sp.
sp. food (3)
(3)
Suillus lute
Suillus luteus
us edible
Leucoagaricus bresadolae food (4)
(4)
Tricho/oma
Tricholoma flavovirens edible
Leucoagaricus sp. sp. nov.? food (2)
(2)
Tricholoma portentosum
Tricholoma portentosum edible
Leucoagaricus sp. sp. food (3)
(3)
Xerocomus subtomentosus
Xerocomus edible
Lycoperdon sp. sp. food (3)
(3)
Macrocybe
Macro cybe lobayensis food (4)
(4)
BENIN
BENIN Marasmius becolacongoli
Marasmius becolacongoli food (3)
(3)
1. Antonin
Antonin and
and Fraiture,
Fraiture, 1998;
1998; 2.
2. De
De Groote,
Groote, 2002;
2002;
Marasmius heinemannianus
Marasmius edible
edible (1)(1)
De Kesel,
3. De Kesel, 2002,
2002, personal
personal communication;
communication;
De Kesel
4. De Kesel Codjia
Codjia and
and Yorou,
Yorou, 2002;
2002; 5.
5. WalJeyn
Walleyn Marasmius
Marasmius heinemannianus food (4)
(4)
and Rammeloo,
Rammeloo, 1994;1994; 6.Yorou
6.Yorou and
and De
De Kesel,
Kesel, 2002;
2002; Marasmius spp. spp. food (3)
(3)
7. Yorou et al., 2002
et al., 2002 Nothopanus hygrophanus food (3)
(3)

Agaricus bisporus food (6)

(6) Octaviania ivoryana food (4)
(4)

Agaricus bulbillosus food (4)

(4) sudanicus
Phlebopus sudanicus food (4)
(4)

Agaricus goossensiae
Agaricus goossensiae food (4)
(4) cystidiosus
Pleurotus cystidiosus food (4)
(4)

volvatulus
Agaricus vo/vatulus food (4)
(4) Pleurotus djamor food (3)
(3)

Agrocybe howeana food (3)

(3) Pleurotus sp.
Pleurotus sp. food (3)
(3)

Amanita aff.
Amanita aff. rubescens
rubescens food (4)
(4) Polyporus sp.
Polyporus sp. medicinal (5) (5)

Amanita
Amanita craseoderma
craseoderma food (4)
(4) Psathyrella sp.
Psathyrella sp. food (2)
(2)

food (4) Psathyrella tuberculata

Psathyrella tuberculata food (4)(4)
Amanitacrassiconus
Amanita crassiconus (4)
Amanita loosii
loosii food (6)
(6) Rubinoboletus roseo-albus food (3)(3)
 2: Country records
Annex 2: records of
of wild useful fungi (edible,
(e dible, medicinal and other uses)
uses) 105

Russula aff.
Russula aff. virescens food (3)
food (3) Favolus
Favolus brunneolus
brunneolus (1)
food (1)
Russulacellulata
Russula ce/tu/ata var.
var. nigra
nigra food (4)
food (4) Favolus
Favolus striatulus
striatulus food (1)
(1)
Russula cellulata
Russula ce//u/ata food (4)
food (4) Favolus
Favolus tesselatus food (1)
(1)
Russula compressa
Russula food (6)
food (6) Gloeoporus conchoides
concho ides (1)
food (1)
Russula congoana
Russula con goana food (4)
food (4) Gymnopilus
Gymnopilus earlei food (1)
(1)
Russula grise
Russula griseaa food 7
food Gymnopilus hispidellus
Gymnopilus food (1)
food (1)
Russula meleagris
Russula meleagris food (4)
food (4) Hydnopolyporus palmatus
Hydnopolyporus palma tus food
food (1)
Russulaoleifera
Russula oleifera food (4)
(4) Lactocollybia aequatorialis
Lactocollybia aequatorialis (1)
food (1)
Russulapseudopurpurea
Russula pseudopurpurea food (6)
(6) Lentinus
Lentinus crinitus (1)
food (1)
Russula testacea
Russula testa cea food (6)
(6) Lentinus glabra
glabratus
tus food (1)
(1)
Schizophyllum commune
Schizophyllum commune food (4)
(4) Lentinus strigosus food (1)
(1)
Termitomyces aurantiacus
Termitomyces aurantiacus food (4)
food Lentinus velutinus
Lentinus food (1)
(1)
Termitomyces clypea tus
clypeatus food (4)
(4) Leucocoprinus cheimonoceps (1)
food (1)
Termitomyces fulginosus
Termitomyces fulginosus food (4)
(4) Neoclitocybe byssiseda
Neoclitocybe byssiseda (1)
food (1)
Termitomyces letestui
Termitomyces letestui food (4)
(4) Pholiota bicolor
Pholiota (1)
food (1)
Termitomyces medius
Termitomyces food (4)
(4) Pleurotus concavus
concavus food (1)
(1)
Termitomyces microcarpus
Termitomyces food (4)
food Polyporus aquosus food (1)
food (1)
Termitomyces robustus
Termitomyces food (4)
(4) Polyporus
Polyporus indigenus
indigenus (1)
food (1)
Termitomyces schimperi
Termitomyces food (4)
(4) Polyporus sapurema (1)
food (1)
Termitomyces stria tus
striatus food (4)
(4) Polyporus stipitarius
Polyporus stipitarius food (1)
food (1)
Tylopilus sp.
sp. food (3)
(3) Polyporus tricholoma
Polyporus (1)
food (1)
Volvariella earlei
Volvariella food (4)
(4) Pycnoporus
Pycnoporus sanguineus food
food (1)
(1)
Volvariella volvacea
volvacea food (4)
(4) Trametes cubensis food (1)
food (1)
Trametes ochracea food
food (1)
(1)
Trichaptum trichomallum
Trichaptum trichomallum food (1)
food (1)
BHUTAN
Namgyel, 2000
BULGARIA
Albatrellus
Albatrellussp.
sp. [edible]
lordanov, Vanev
Vanev and Fakirova,
Fakirova, 1978
1978
Calocera viscosa
viscosa [edible]
Cantharellus cibarius edible Agaricus
Agaricus arvensis
arvensis [edible]
Coprinus sp.
Coprinus sp. [edible] Agaricus
Agaricus aura ntius
aurantius not known
Gomphus floccosus
floccosus edible Agaricus bulbosus
bulbosus not known
Hygropho rus russula
Hygrophorus russula [edible] Agaricus
Agaricus campestris
campestris [edible]
Lactarius hatsudake
Lactarius [edible] Agaricus comptulus
comptulus not known
Lactarius piperatus edible Agaricus macula
Agaricus maculatustus not known
Lycoperdon pyriforme
pyriforme edible Agaricus pseudoaurantiacus not known
Lyophyllum fumosum
fumosum [edible] Agaricus
Agaricus silvaticus
silvaticus [edible]
Ramaria
Ramaria sp.
sp. [edible] Albatrellus con
Albatrellus fluens
confluens [edible]
Suillus pictus [edible] Albatrellus ovinus [edible]
Tricholoma matsutake
Tricholoma food Amanita
Amanita argentea
argentea [edible]
Amanita
Amanitacaesarea
caesarea [edible]
Amanita fu/va
fulva [edible]
BOLIVIA
BOLIVIA
Boa, 2001, personal
Boa, 2001, personal communication
communication Amanita pustulata
pustulata not known
Amanita
Amanita rubens
rubens not known
Leucoagaricus
Leucoagaricus hortensis
hortensis food Amanitarubescens
Amanita rubescens edible
edible
Amanita
Amanitaspissa
spissa [not eaten]
eaten]
BOTSWANA Amanita
Amanita vaginata
vaginata [edible]
1. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993;
1. 1993; 2.
2. Taylor et
et al.,
al., Amanitopsis vaginata
vaginata [edible]
1995
1995 Amanitopsis vaginata
vaginata var.
var. alba
alba [edible]

Morch ella conica

Morchella conica edible (1)
(1) Amanitopsis
Amanitopsis vaginata
vaginata var.
var. [edible]
plumbea
plumbea
Terfezia boudieri
Terfezia boudieri edible
edible (1)
(1)
Amanitopsis
Amanitopsis vaginata
vaginatava r.
var. [edible]
[edible]
Terfezia pfeilii
Terfezia pfeilii food
food (2)
(2) umbrinolutea
umbrinolutea
Armillaria
Armillaria me/lea
mellea edible
edible
BRAZIL Armillaria
Armillaria ostoyae
ostoyae not
not known
known
1. Prance, 1984; 2.
Prance, 1984; 2. www.agaricus.net
www.agaricus.net Boletos
Boletus aereus
aereus [edible]
[edible]
Boletos
Boletus bulbosus
bulbosus not
not known
known
Agaricus blazei medicinal (2)
(2)
Boletus caudicinus
Bo/etus caudicinus not
not known
known
Auricularia
Auriculariafuscosuccinea
fuscosuccinea food
food (1)
(1)
Boletos
Boletus communis
communis not
not known
known
Collybia pseudocalopus food
food (1)
(1)
Boletuscrassus
Boletos crassus not
not known
known
Collybia subpruinosa food
food (1)
(1)
Boletos
Boletuscyanescens
cyanescens not
not known
known
Favolus
Favolus brasiliensis food
food (1)
(1)
Boletos
Boletus edulis
edulis edible
edible
106 Wild
Wild edible
edible fungi:
fungi: a global overview of
of their
their use
use and
and importance
importanceto
topeople
people

Boletus elegans [edible] He/ve/la

Helvella mitra not known
Boletus
Bole tus erythropus
erythropus [edible] Helvella monacella
He/ve/la mona cella not known
Boletus esculentus not known Helvella nivea
He/ve/la nivea not known
Boletus leucophaeus not known He/ve/la
Helvella sulcata not known
Boletus
Bole tus luridus
luridus [edible]
[edible] Hydnum repandum edible
Boletus miniatoporus
Boletus not known Hygrocybe punicea [edible]
Boletus purpureus
Boletus not known Hygrophorus ebumeus
eburneus [edible]
Boletus
Bole tus reg ius
regius [edible] Hygrophorus puniceus
puniceus not known
Boletus rhodoxanthus
Boletus not known Hygrophorus russula
Hygrophorus russula [edible]
Boletus rufus
Boletus not known Ixocomus bovinus
lxocomus not known
Boletus scaber [edible] Ixocomus ele
Ixocomus elegans
gans not known
Boletus subtomentosus [edible] lute us
Ixocomus luteus not known
Boletus sulphureus not known Krombholzia aurantiaca not known
Boletus tuberosus not known Kuehneromyces
Kuehneromyces mutabilis [edible]
Boletus versipellis not known Laccaria amethystina
Laccaria amethystina edible
Bovista gigantea
Bovista not known Laccaria laccata edible
Bovista nigrescens not known Lactarius deliciosus edible
Calocybe gambosa edible Lactarius pergamenus not known
known
Calvatia
Calva tia caelata
cae/ata [edible] Lactarius piperatus
Lactarius piperatus edible
Calvatia
Calva tia maxima
maxima not known Lactarius torminosus
Lactarius [edible]
Calvatia
Calva tiautriformis
utriformis [edible] Lactarius vellereus edible
Camarophyllus pratensis [edible] Lactarius volemus edible
Cantharellus cibarius edible Laetiporus sulphureus [edible]
Cantharellus clavatus not known Langermannia gigantea edible
Cantharellus infundibuliformis
Cantharellus infundibuliformis [edible] Lasiosphaera gigantea
Lasiosphaera gigantea not known
Cantharellus tubiformis
Cantharellus tubiformis edible Leccinum aurantiacum
aura ntiacum [edible]
Chroogomphus rutilus
Chroogomphus rutilus [edible] Leccinum scabrum edible
Clavaria
Clavaría formosa not known Lepista
Lepista nuda [edible]
Clavaria pallida
Clavaria pallida not known Lepista personata
Lepista edible
C/avaria pistillaris
Clavaria pistillaris not known Limacium ebumeum
Limacium eburneum not known
C/avariadelphus
Cia pistillaris
va riadelph us pistillaris edible Lycoperdon caelatum [edible]
Clitocybe geotropa
Clitocybe [edible] Lycoperdon
Lycoperdon echinatum not known
Clitocybe gibba
Clitocybe [edible] Lycoperdon gemmatum
Lycoperdon gemma tum edible
Clitocybe infundibuliformis
Clitocybe infundibuliformis [edible] Lycoperdon perla tum edible
Clitocybe laccata not known Lycoperdon pyriforme
Lycoperdon pyriforme edible
Clitocybe maxima not known Macrolepiota procera
procera edible
Clitocybe nebularis edible Macrolepiota rhacodes
rhacodes edible
Clitocybe odora edible Marasmius alliaceus not known
known
Clitocybe olearia not known Marasmius caryophylleus edible
Clitocybe phosphorea not known Marasmius oreades edible
Clitocybe viridis not known Marasmius scorodonius
scorodonius [edible]
Clitopilus prunulus [edible] Morchella conica
conica [edible]
Collybia badia
Collybia not known Morchella esculenta
esculenta edible
Coprinus atramentarius
Coprinus atramentarius [edible] Morchella esculenta
Morchella esculenta var. var. not known
known
vulgaris
Coprinus coma
comatustus edible
Coprinus porcelanus not known
Morchella rimosipes
rimosipes not known
Nevrophyllum clavatum
clavatum not known
Cortinarius praestans [edible]
Craterellus clavatus not known
crisp us
Phallus crispus not known
known

Craterellus cornucopioides
Craterellus comucopioides edible
Phlegmacium praestans not known
Pholiota caperata not known
Den tinum repandum
Dentinum not known
Pleurotus
Pleurotus ostrea tus
ostreatus edible
edible
Fistulina buglossoides
buglossoides not known
known
Pleurotus ostrea
Pleurotus tus f.f. salignus
ostreatus salignus [edible]
[edible]
Fistulina hepatica
Fistulina edible
Pleurotus
Pleurotus ostreatus
ostreatus var.
var. [edible]
[edible]
Flammulina velutipes
Flammulina [edible]
columbinus
columbinus
Gomphidius glutinosus edible
Pleurotus
Pleurotus pulmonarius
pulmonarius [edible]
[edible]
Gomphidius viscidus
viscidus not known
known
Pluteus
Pluteus cervinus
cervinus edible
edible
Gomphus clavatus edible
Polyporus con fluens
confluens not known
Gyromitra esculenta
esculenta [edible]
Polyporus
Polyporus ovinus
ovinus not known
Gyroporus castaneus
castaneus [edible]
Polyporus squamosus
Polyporus squamosus edible
edible
Gyroporus cyanescens
Gyroporus cyanescens [edible]
Pseudohydnum
Pseudohydnum gelatinosum
gelatinosum [edible]
He/ve//a crispa
Helvella edible
Ptychoverpa bohemica
Ptychoverpa bohemica edible
edible
He/ve//a lacunosa
Helvella edible
Annex 2:
2: Country records
records of
of wild useful ffungi
ungi (edible, medicinal and other uses)
uses) 107

Ramaria aurea
Ramaria edible Cantharellus
Cantharellus splendens edible (1)
(1)
Ramaria botrytis
Ramaria botrytis edible Cantharellus symoensii
Cantharellus edible (1)
(1)
Ramaria flava
Ramaria [edible] Clavaria
C/avaria albiramea
albiramea edible (1)
(1)
Ramaria mairei
Ramaria [edible] Collybia aurea
Collybia aurea edible (1)
(1)
Rhodopaxillus personatus
Rhodopaxillus not known
known Lactarius edulis edible (1)
(1)
Rhodophyllus sinua
Rhodophyllus tus
sinuatus not known Lactarius inversus edible (1)
(1)
Rozites caperatus edible Lactarius kabansus edible (1)
(1)
Russula
Russula alutacea
alutacea edible Lentinus tuber-regium
Lentinus (1)
[edible] (1)
Russula cyanoxantha
Russula cyanoxantha edible spectabilis
Macrocybe spectabilis edible (1)
(1)
Russula
Russula emetica
emetica [edible] Phlebopus colossus
Phlebopus colossus [edible] (2)
(2)
Russula
Russula olivacea [edible] cystidiosus
Pleurotus cystidiosus (1)
edible (1)
vesca
Russula vesca [edible] Russula cellulata
Russula ce//u/ata (1)
edible (1)
Russula virescens
Russula [edible] Russula phaeocephala
Russula phaeocephala edible (1)
(1)
Russula xerampelina
Russula xerampelina edible Suillus luteus
Suillus edible (1)
(1)
Sarcodon imbrica tus
imbricatus edible Termitomyces letestui
Termitomyces letestui (1)
edible (1)
Scleroderma citrinum
Scleroderma citrinum [edible] Termitomyces
Termitomyces microcarpus edible (1)
(1)
Scleroderma vulgare
Scleroderma not known
known Termitomyces
Termitomyces robustus (1)
edible (1)
Scutiger confluens not known
known Termitomyces striatus
Termitomyces stria tus (1)
edible (1)
Scutiger ovinus [edible] Termitomyces
Termitomyces titanicus
titanicus edible (1)
edible (1)
Suillus bovinus [edible]
granulatus
Suillus gran ulatus [edible]
CAMEROON
CAMEROON
Suillus grevillei
Suillus grevillei [edible] 1.
1. Pegler
Pegler and
and Vanhaecke,
Vanhaecke, 1994;
1994; 2.
2. Rammeloo
Rammeloo and
Suillus luteus edible Walleyn, 1993
1993
Tricholoma columbetta
Tricholoma not known edible (2)
edible (2)
Cantharellus pseudocibarius
Cantharellus
Tricholoma equestre
Tricholoma not known
Lepiota discipes
discipes edible (2)
edible (2)
Tricholoma flavovirens
Tricholoma edible
Marasmius hungo
Marasmius hungo edible (2)
edible (2)
Tricholoma georgii
Tricholoma georgii not known
Mycena
Mycena aschi edible
edible (2)
(2)
Tricholoma personatum
Tricholoma not known
Mycena bipindiensis
Mycena bipindiensis edible (2)
edible (2)
Tricholoma portentosum
Tricholoma porten tosum edible
Termitomyces
Termitomyces stria tus
striatus edible (1)
(1)
Tricholoma russula
russula not known
Tricholoma rutilans
Tricholoma rutilans not known
Tricholoma terreum
Tricholoma [edible] CANADA
CANADA

Tricholoma tigrinum
Tricholoma tigrinum not known 1. Maries
1. Marles et
etal.,
a/., 2000;
2000; 2. Tedder, Mitchell and
Tedder, Mitchell
Farran,
Farran, 2002; 3. www.for.gov.bc.ca
2002; 3. www.for.gov.bc.ca
Tricholomopsis rutilans
Tricholomopsis [edible]
Verpa conica
Verpa [edible] Actinogyra muehlenbergii food, medicinal
medicinal (1)
(1)
Verpa digitaliformis
Verpa digitaliformis not known Agaricus campestris
campestris food (3)
(3)
Xerocomus badius [edible] Agaricus silvaticus
silvaticus edible
edible (2)
(2)
Xerocomus chrysenteron edible Amanita muscaria
Amanita muscaria medicinal
medicinal (1)(1)
Xerocomus subtomentosus edible Armillaria
Armillaria me//ea
mellea food (3)
(3)
Armillaria
Armillaria ostoyae
ostoyae edible
edible (2)
(2)
Boletus edulis
edulis food (3)
(3)
BURKINA FASO
Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993
1993 Cantharellus cibarius food (3)
(3)
Cantharellus formosus edible (2)
edible (2)
Coprinus edible Cantharellusinfundibuliformis
Cantharellus infundibuliformis edible
edible (2)
(2)
Phlebopus sudanicus edible Cantharellus subalbidus edible
edible (2)
(2)
Cetraria islandica medicinal (1)(1)
BURUNDI
BURUNDI C/adina stellaris
Cladina food (1)
(1)
1. Buyck,
1. Buyck, 1994b;
1994b; 2.
2. Walleyn
Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994
1994 Craterellus cornucopioides
Craterellus comucopioides food (3)
(3)
Evernia mesomorpha medicinal (1)(1)
Afroboletus
Afroboletus luteolus
luteolus edible (1)
(1)
Fomes fomentarius
Fomes fomentarius other - tinder
tinder (1)
(1)
Amanita loosii edible
edible (1)
(1)
Fomitopsis
FQmitopsis pinicola
pinicola medicinal, tinder
tinder
Amanita
Amanita rubescens
rubescens edible
edible (1)
(1) (1)
(1)
C. cibarius var.
C. cibarius var. defibulatus
defibulatus edible (1)
(1) Gyromitra
Gyromitra esculenta
esculenta [edible]
[edible] (3)
(3)
Cantharellus congolensis edible (1)
(1) food
food (3)
Hericium abietis
abietis (3)
Cantharellus
Cantharellus cyanescens
cyanescens edible (1)
(1)
Hericium
Hericium erinaceus
erinaceus [edible]
[edible] (3)
(3)
Cantharellus cyanoxanthus edible (1)
(1)
Hydnum repandum
repandum edible (2)
edible (2)
Cantharellus densifolius edible (1)
(1)
Hypomyces lactifluorum
Hypomyces lactifluorum food
food (3)
(3)
Cantharellus platyphyllus
platyphyllus edible (1)
(1) lnonotus
Inonotus obliquus
obliquus medicinal
medicinal (1)(1)
Cantharellus pseudocibarius edible (1)
(1) lschnoderma
Ischnoderma resinosum
resinosum medicinal
medicinal (1)(1)
Cantharellus
Cantharellus ruber edible (1)
(1) Laccaria
Laccaria laccata
laccata edible
edible (2)
(2)
c. rufopunctatus
C. rufopunctatus var.
var. edible (1)
(1) Lactarius deliciosus
Lactarius deliciosus food
food (3)
(3)
ochraceus
108
108 Wild
Wild edible
edible fungi:
fungi: aa global overview
overview of th eir use and
their and importance
importance to
to people
people

Laetiporus sulphureus edible (2) Gyromitra esculenta

esculenta edible (1)
(1)
Langermannia gigantea
Langermannia food (3) Lactarius deliciosus edible (1)
(1)
Lepista nuda
Lepista food (3) Macrolepiota procera
procera edible (1)
(1)
Lycoperdon perlatum
Lycoperdon perlatum food (3) Morchella conica
conica edible,
Macrolepiota rhacodes
Macrolepiota rhacodes edible (2)
(2) medicinal (1)
(1)
Marasmius oreades food (3)
(3) Pholiota edulis edible (1)
(1)
Marche//a
Morchella elata food (3)
(3) Ramaria
Ramaria subaurantiaca food (1)
(1)
Myriosc/erotinia caricis-
Myriosclerotinia caricis- medicinal (1)
(1) Suillus
Suillus luteus food (1)
(1)
ampullaceae Volvariella speciosa
Volvariella speciosa edible (1)
(1)
sulcata
Parmelia su/cata medicinal (1)
(1)
Pleurocybella
Pleurocybella porrigens edible (2)
(2)
CHINA
ostreatus
Pleurotus ostrea tus food (3)
(3) Birks, 1991; 2.
1. Birks, Cao, 1991;
2. Cao, 1991; 3. Chamberlain, 1996;1996;
Polyozellus multiplex
Polyozellus multiplex edible (2)
(2) 4. and Shen,
4. Dong and Shen, 1993;
1993; 5. Gong andand Peng,
Peng, 1993;
1993;
Ptychoverpa bohemica food (3)
(3) al., 1998a;
et a/.,
6. Hall et 1998a; 7.7. Härkönen,
Hark6nen, 2002;
2002; 8.
8. He,
He, 1991;
1991;
9.
9. Huang, 1989;
1989; 10. Li,Li, 1994; 11. Liu,
Liu, 1990; 12.
12. Liu
Liu
Russula xerampelina
Russula xerampelina edible (2)
(2)
1982; 13. Guozhong, 2002,
and Yang, 1982; 2002, personal
personal
Sparassis crispa
Sparassis crisp a edible (2)
(2) communication; 14.
communication; 14. Zang,
lang, 1984;
1984; 15.
15. Pegler and
Suillus cavipes food (3)
(3) Vanhaecke,
Vanhaecke, 1994; 16. Tu, 1987; 17.
Tu, 1987; 17. Winkler, 2002;
2002;
Trametes
Trametes suaveolens medicinal, tinder 18. www.zeri.org; 19.
18. www.zeri.org; 19. Xiang
Xiang and
andHan,
Han,1987;
1987; 20.
20.
(1) Yang, Yang, 1992;
Yang, 1990; 21. Yang, 1992; 22. Yang andand Yang,
Yang,
1992;
1992; 23.
23. lang,
Zang, 1988b;
1988b; 24.
24. lang Petersen, 1990;
Zang and Petersen, 1990;
Tricholoma caligatum
Tricholoma food (3)
(3)
25. lang
25. Zang and Pu, Pu, 1992; 26.26. lang
Zang and Yang, 1991;1991;
Tricholoma magnivelare
Tricholoma edible (2)
(2) 27. lang, 1988a; 28. lhuang,
Zang, 1988a; 1993; 29.
Zhuang, 1993; 29. lhuang
Zhuang and
Usnea
Usnea hirta
hirta medicinal (1)
(1) Wang, 1992
1992

Agaricus arvensis edible (6)

edible (6)
CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
CENTRAL REPUBLIC Agaricus augustus edible (6)
edible (6)
1. Rammeloo
1. Rammeloo and
and Walleyn, 1993;
1993; 2. Walleyn and Agaricus bisporus edible (6)
edible (6)
Rammeloo, 1994
1994
Agaricus bitorquis
Agaricus bitorquis edible (6)
edible (6)
Agaricus subedulis edible (1)
(1) Agaricus blazei
Agaricus edible
edible (5)
(5)
Collybia attenuata
Collybia attenuata edible (2)
(2) Agaricus campestris edible (6)
edible (6)
Ganoderma curtisii
Ganoderma medicinal (2)
(2) Agaricus gennadii
Agaricus gennadii (23)
edible (23)
Lentinus araucariae edible (1)
(1) Agaricus silvaticus
Agaricus silvaticus edible (6)
(6)
Lentinus brunneofloccosus edible (1)
(1) Agaricus silvicola
Agaricus silvicola edible (6)
(6)
Lignosus sacer medicinal (2)
(2) Agrocybe
Agro cybe cylindracea edible (6)
(6)
Macrolepiota africana
africana edible (1)
(1) Agrocybe
Agro cybe salicacicola edible
edible (26)
(26)
Phlebopus sudanicus edible (1)
(1) Albatrellus confluens
Albatrellus confluens edible
edible (6)
(6)
Polyporus rhizomorphus
Polyporus rhizomorphus other - string
string (2)
(2) Aleuria aurantia edible
edible (6)
(6)
Schizophyllum commune
commune edible (1)
(1) Amanitacaesarea
Amanita caesarea edible (6)
(6)
Termitomyces clypeatus
c/ypeatus edible (1)
(1) Amanita
Amanita fu/va
fulva edible (12)
(12)
Termitomyces schimperi
Termitomyces edible (1)
(1) Amanita rubescens
Amanita rubescens edible (6)
(6)
Volvariella vo/vacea
volvacea edible (1)
(1) Amanita vaginata
vaginata edible
edible (6)
(6)
Xylaria
Xylaria papyrifera medicinal (2)
(2) Armillaria
Armillaria me//ea
mellea [edible] (6)
(6)
Armillaria
Armillaria tabescens
tabescens edible
edible (6)
(6)
auricula-judae
Auricularia auricula-judae edible
edible (6)
(6)
CHILE
1. FAO,
1. FAO, 1998b;
1998b; 2.
2. Minter,
Minter, Cannon
Cannon and
and Pereda,
Peredo, 1987;
1987; Auricularia polytricha edible
edible (6)
(6)
3. Schmeda-Hirschmann et
3. a/., 1999a
etal., 1999a Bankera
Bankera fuligineoalba medicinal (18)
(18)

food (1)
(1) russellii
Boletellus russellii edible
edible (6)
(6)
Armillaria
Armillaria me//ea
mellea
Boletinus pinetorum
pinetorum edible (12)
edible (12)
Auricularia
Auricularia auricula-judae
auricula-judae edible (1)
(1)
Boletus aereus
Boletus aereus edible
edible (6)
(6)
Auricularia polytricha
polytricha edible (1)
(1)
citrifragrans
Boletus citrifragrans edible
edible (14)
(14)
Boletus loyo food (1)
(1)
edulis
Boletus edulis edible
edible (17)
(17)
Clitocybe nebularis food (1)
(1)
Boletus speciosus
Boletus speciosus edible
edible (6)
(6)
Coprinus atramentarius
Coprinus atramentarius edible (1)
(1)
violaceofuscus
Boletus violaceofuscus edible (6)
edible (6)
Coprinus coma tus
comatus edible (1)
(1)
Calocybe gambosa edible
edible (18)
(18)
Cyttaria berteroi
Cyttaria [edible]
[edible] (3)
(3)
Calvatia
Calva caelata
tia cae/ata edible
edible (6)
(6)
Cyttaria darwinii
Cyttaria food (2)
(2)
Calvatia
Calva tia liIacina
lilacina edible
edible (6)
(6)
Cyttaria espinosae
espinosae food (2)
(2)
cibarius
Cantharellus cibarius edible
edible (6)
(6)
Cyttaria hariotii
Cyttaria hariotii edible
edible (1)
(1)
Catathelasma
Catathelasma ven tricosum
ventricosum edible
edible (14)
(14)
Cyttaria hookeri
Cyttaria edible (1)
(1)
Chroogomphus rutilus
Chroogomphus edible
edible (6)
(6)
Cyttaria johowii
Cyttaria johowii [edible] (3)
(3)
Clavaria purpurea
C/avaria purpurea edible
edible (6)
(6)
Fistulina hepatica edible
edible (1)
(1)
Clitocybe clavipes
Clitocybe c/avipes edible
edible (6)
(6)
Flammulina velutipes food (1)
(1)
Clitocybe geotropa edible
edible (6)
(6)
Gyromitra antartica edible (1)
(1)
Annex 2: Country
Country records
records of
of wild useful
useful fungi (edible,
(edible, medicinal and other
other uses)
uses) 109

Clitocybe nebularis
C1itocybe edible (6)
(6) Leucopaxillus
Leucopaxi I lusgiganteus
giganteus edible (6)
(6)
C1itopilus
Clitopilus prunulus (6)
edible (6) Lobaria sp.
Loba ria sp. food (7)
(7)
Collybia radicata
Collybia (12)
edible (12) Lycoperdon perlatum
Lycoperdon perlatum edible (6)
Coprinus atramentarius
Coprinus atramentarius edible (6) Lycoperdon pyriforme
Lycoperdon pyriforme edible (6)
Coprinus cinereus edible (6) Lyophyllum decastes
decastes edible (6)
Coprinus comatus edible (6) Lyophyllum sykosporum edible (6)
Coprinus mica
micaceus
ceus edible (6) Macrolepiota procera edible (6)
Cordyceps militaris
Cordyceps milita ris medicinal (5)
(5) Macrolepiota rhacodes
Macro/epiota rhacodes (6)
edible (6)
Cordyceps sinensis edible (6)
(6) Marasmius androsaceus medicinal (18)
(18)
claricolor var.
Cortinarius claricolor var. edible (6)
(6) Marasmius
Marasmius oreades edible (6)
edible (6)
turmalis
turma lis edible (6)
(6)
Morchella conica var.
var. rigida edible
Cortina rius collinitus
Cortinarius collinitus (6)
edible (6) Morchella crassipes
Morchella crassipes edible (6)
edible (6)
Cortinarius elatior
Cortinarius elatior edible (6)
edible (6) Morchella deliciosa edible
edible (6)
(6)
Cortinarius praestans edible (6)
(6) Morchella elata edible (6)
Cortinarius purpurascens edible (6) Morchella esculenta
escu/enta edible (6)
rufo-olivaceus
Cortinarius rufo -olivaceus (3)
food (3) M. esculenta var.
M. escu/enta var. rotunda
rotunda edible (6)
Craterellus cornucopioides
Craterellus cornucopioides edible (12)
edible (12)
M. escu/enta
M. esculenta var.
var. umbrina
umbrina edible (6)
Cryptoporus volvatus medicinal (14)
(14) M. esculenta var.
M. escu/enta var. vulgaris edible (6)
edible
Dictyophora echinovolvata
echinovolvata edible (6)
(6) Neolentinus adhaerens
adhaerens edible (14)
Endophallus yunnanensis edible (24)
edible (24) Neolentinus lepideus edible (6)
Fistulina hepa tica
hepatica edible (6)
(6) Omphalia lapidescens
lapidescens medicinal (18)
(18)
Flammulina velutipes
velutipes (6)
edible (6) Oudemansiella mucida edible (6)
Fomes fomenta rius
Fomes fomentarius medicinal (18)
(18) Paecilomyces sinensis
Paecilomyces sin ensis medicinal (10)
medicinal (10)
Ganoderma applanatum
applanatum medicinal (11)
(11)
Panellus serotinus edible (6)
edible (6)
Ganoderma lucidum
Ganoderma edible (6) Phaeolepiota
Phaeolepiota aurea edible (6)
Ganoderma sinense medicinal (18)
(18) Phallus
Phallus fragrans
fragrans edible
edible (14)
(14)
Ganoderma
Ganoderma tsugae edible (6)
Phallus impudicus
Phallus impudicus edible
edible (6)
Gastrodia e/ata
Gastrodia elata edible (29)
Phellinus baumii
Phellinus baumii medicinal (7)
Grifola frondosa
Grifola frondosa edible (6)
(6) Pholiota
Pholiota adiposa edible (6)
edible
Hericium clathroides
clathroides edible
edible (6)
(6) Pholiota aurivella
aurivella edible (6)
(6)
Hericium coralloides edible
edible (14)
(14)
Pholiota nameko
nameko edible (6)
(6)
Hericium erinaceum edible
edible (14)
(14) Pholiota squarrosa
squarrosa edible (6)
(6)
Hericium ramosum
ramosum edible
edible (14)
(14) Pleurotus abalonus
abalonus edible (6)
(6)
Hydnum repandum edible
edible (6)
(6)
Pleuro tus citrinopileatus
Pleurotus citrinopileatus edible (6)
(6)
Hygrophorus arbustivus
arbustivus edible (6)
(6) Pleurotus cornucopiae food (3)
(3)
Hygrophorus
Hygrophorus russula
russula edible (6) Pleurotus
Pleurotus eryngii var.
var. ferulae edible
edible (18)
(18)
Hypsizygus
Hypsizygus marmoreus edible (22)
(22)
Pleuro tus floridanus
Pleurotus floridanus edible
edible (20)
(20)
Kuehneromyces muta bilis
mutabilis edible
edible (6)
(6)
Pleurotus ostreatus
ostreatus edible (6)
(6)
Laccaria laccata food (3)
(3) Pleurotus pulmonarius edible
edible (14)
(14)
Laccocephalum mylittae
Laccocephalum mylittae edible
edible (6)
(6) Pleuro tus sapidus
Pleurotus edible
edible (14)
(14)
Lactarius akahatsu edible
edible (6)
(6) Polyozellus multiplex
Polyozellus multiplex edible
edible (21)
(21)
Lactarius camphoratus edible
edible (4)
(4) Polyporus
Polyporus crista tus
cristatus not
not edible
edible (12)
(12)
Lactarius deliciosus edible
edible (6)
(6) Polyporus squamosus
squamosus edible (6)
(6)
Lactarius hatsudake edible (6)
(6) Polyporus
Polyporus tubaeformis medicinal
medicinal (7)
(7)
Lactarius quietus edible (6)
(6)
Polyporus umbellatus edible (6)
(6)
Lactarius sanguifluus edible
edible (6)
(6) Polystictus unicolor
Polystictus unicolor medicinal (18)
(18)
subindigo
Lactarius subindigo food (7)
(7)
Psathyrella candolleana
cando Ileana edible
edible (6)
(6)
Lactarius volemus edible
edible (6)
(6)
Pseudohydnum
Pseudohydnum gelatinosum edible
edible (14)
(14)
Laetiporus sulphureus
sulphureus edible (14)
(14) Ptychoverpa bohemica edible (8)
(8)
Langermannia gigantea
gigantea edible (11)
(11) sp.
Ramalina sp. food (7)
(7)
Laricifomes
Laricifomes officinalis edible (6)
(6) Ramaria botrytis
Ramaria botrytis edible
edible (6)
(6)
Leccinum scabrum edible
edible (6)
(6) Ramaria
Ramaria flavobrunnescens edible (12)
(12)
Lentinula
Lentinula edodes
edodes edible (14)
(14) Ramaria obtusissima edible (6)
(6)
Lentinus
Lentinus javanicus
javanicus edible (14)
(14) Rama ria stricta
Ramaria stricta food, medicinal
medicinal (3)
(3)
Lentinus sajor-caju
sajor-caju edible (16)
(16)
Rhizopogon piceus
piceus edible (9)
(9)
Le pista caespitosa
Lepista edible
edible (6)
(6)
Rhizopogon
Rhizopogon rubescens
rubescens edible (6)
(6)
Lepista
Lepista irina edible (6)
(6) Rhodophyllus
Rhodophyl/usclypea tus
c/ypeatus edible (6)
(6)
Lepista luscina
luscina edible (6)
(6) Rhodophyllus
Rhodophyllus crassipes
crassipes edible (6)
(6)
Lepista
Lepista nuda edible (6)
(6) Rozites caperatus
caperatus edible (6)
(6)
Lepista personata
personata edible (6)
(6) Russula
Russula alutacea edible (6)
(6)
Lepista sordida edible (6)
(6) Russula cyanoxantha
Russula cyanoxantha edible (6)
(6)
110 Wild
Wild edible
ediblefungi:
fungi: aa global
global overview of their use and
and importance
importance to
to people
people

Russula delica
Russula edible (6)
(6)
CONGO [DEMOCRATIC
CONGO [DEMOCRATICREPUBLIC
REPUBLIC OF
OF THE]
THE)
Russula depallens
Russula not known
known (12)
(12) 1. Degreef et
1. et al.,
al., 1997;
1997; 2. Pegler and
2. Pegler and Vanhaecke,
Vanhaecke,
Russula pectinata
Russula pectinata not known
known (12)
(12) 1994; 3.
1994; 3. Rammeloo
Rammeloo and and Walleyn,
Walleyn, 1993; 4, Walleyn
1993; 4. Walleyn
Russula rubra
Russula edible (12)
(12) and Rammeloo, 1994 1994
vesca
Russula vesca edible (6)
(6) Agaricus
Agaricus erythrotrichus edible (3)
(3)
Russula virescens
Russula edible (12)
(12) Agaricus goossensiae
Agaricus goossensiae edible (3)
(3)
Sa rca don aspratus
Sarcodon edible (6)
(6) Agaricus nivescens
Agaricus nivescens edible (3)
(3)
Sa reo don imbricatus
Sarcodon edible (14)
(14) Agaricus volvatulus edible (1)
Schizophyllum commune
commune edible (6)
(6) Amanita aurea
aurea edible (1)
(1)
Scleroderma sp. sp. medicinal (12)
(12) Amanita goosensiae
Amanita goosensiae edible (3)
(3)
Shiraia bambusicola
bambusico/a medicinal (18)
(18) Amanita loosii edible (1)
(1)
Sparassis crispa edible (6)
(6) robusta
Amanita robusta edible (1)
(1)
Sporisorium
Sporisorium cruentum food (13)
(13) Amanita zambiana
zambiana edible (3)
(3)
Suillus bovinus
Sui/Ius bovinas edible (6)
(6) Amanitopsis pudica edible (4)
Sui/Ius granu/atus
Suillus granula tus edible (6)
(6) Auricularia auricula-judae
auricu/a-judae edible (3)
edible (3)
Suillus grevillei
Sui/Ius grevillei edible (6)
(6) Auricularia delicata
delicata edible (3)
(3)
Sui/Ius
Suillus lute us
lateas edible (6)
(6) Auricularia polytricha edible (3)
edible (3)
Termitomyces albuminosus edible (27)
(27) Auricularia tenuis edible (1)
(1)
Termitomyces clypeatus edible (6)
(6) Bondarzewia berkeleyi
Bondarzewia edible (3)
(3)
Termitomyces cylindricus edible (15)
(15) Camarophyllus subpratensis edible (3)
edible (3)
Termitomyces eurhizus edible (15)
(15) Cantharellus cibarius edible (3)
edible (3)
Termitomyces heimii
Termitomyces heimii edible (20)
(20) C. cibarius
C. cibarius var.
var. defibu/atus
defibulatus edible (1)
(1)
Termitomyces microcarpus edible (15)
edible (15) C. cibarius
C. cibariusvar.
var.latifolius
latifolius edible (1)
edible (1)
vermicu/aris
Thamnolia vermicularis [food] (3)
(3) Cantharellus congolensis edible (1)
edible (1)
The/ephora
Thelephora ganbajun food (3)
(3) Cantharellus cyanoxanthus edible (3)
(3)
The/ephora
Thelephora vialis not edible
edible (12)
(12) Cantharellus densifolius edible (1)
(1)
Trametes
Trametesrobiniophila
robiniophila edible (28)
(28) Cantharellus incarnatus
Cantharellus incamatus edible (1)
(1)
Trametes
Trametes sanguinea
san guinea medicinal (18)
(18) Cantharellus luteopunctatus
Cantharellus luteopunctatus edible (1)
(1)
Trametes
Trametes versicolor
versicolor edible (6)
(6) Cantharellus miniatescens edible (1)
(1)
Tremella aurantia
Tremella aurantia edible (6)
(6) platyphyllus
Cantharellus platyphyllus edible (1)
(1)
Tremella
Tremella foliacea edible
edible (6)
(6) Cantharellus pseudofriesii
pseudofriesii edible (3)
(3)
Tremella fuciformis
Tremella fuciformis [medicinal] (3)
(3) Cantharellus ruber edible (1)
(1)
Tremella lutescens
lutescens edible
edible (14)
(14) Cantharellus
Cantharellus rufopunctatus edible (1)
(1)
Tremella mesenterica edible
edible (6)
(6) Cantharellus
Cantharellus symoensii
symoensii edible (1)
(1)
Tricholoma bakamatsutake
Tricholoma bakamatsutake edible (17)
(17) Clavaria albiramea
Clavaria edible (1)
(1)
Tricholoma caligatum
Tricholoma caligatum edible (6)
(6) Collybia piperata
Collybia piperata edible (3)
Tricholoma
Tricholoma flavovirens edible (6)
(6) Cookeina sulcipes
Cookeina sulcipes edible (3)
edible (3)
Tricho/oma
Tricholoma magnivelare
magnive/are edible (6)
(6) Corditubera bovonei
bovonei edible
edible (4)
(4)
Tricholoma matsutake
matsutake edible (17)
(17) Cotylidia aurantiaca
aurantiaca edible
edible (1)
(1)
Tricholoma mongolicum
Tricholoma mongolicum edible (11)
(11) Craterellus aureus
aureus edible
edible (3)
(3)
Tricholoma portentosum
Tricholoma portentosum edible (6)
(6) C. comucopioides
C. cornucopia ides var.
var. edible (1)
edible (1)
Tricholoma quercicola
quercico/a edible (17)
(17) cornucopioides
Tricholoma saponaceum edible (6)
(6) C. cornucopioides
C. var.
cornucopioides var. edible
edible (3)
(3)
parvisporus
Tricholoma sejunctum edible
edible (6)
(6)
Tricholoma
Tricholoma terreum
Cymatoderma
Cymatoderma elegans
eleganssubsp.
subsp. edible
edible (1)
(1)
edible
edible (6)
(6)
infundibuliforme
in fundibuliforme
Tuber aestivum edible (6)
(6)
Goossensia cibarioides
Goossensia cibarioides edible (3)
edible (3)
Tuber bruma/e
brumale edible (6)
(6)
Gymnopilussp.
Gymnopilus sp. edible (3)
edible (3)
Tuber indicum edible (25)
(25)
Hypholoma wambensis
wambensis edible
edible (3)
(3)
Tuber me/anosporum
melanosporum edible (6)
(6)
Lactar/as
Lactarius engastas
angustus edible
edible (3)
(3)
Tuber rufum edible (6)
(6)
Lactarius congolensis
Lactan/as edible
edible (4)
(4)
sinosum
Tuber sinosum edible
edible (6)
(6)
Lactarius edulis edible
edible (1)
(1)
Tyromyces sulphureus
Tyromyces sulphureus medicinal
medicinal (18)
(18)
Lactarius Inversas
inversus edible
edible (1)
(1)
Umbilicaria esculenta
esculenta edible (6)
edible (6)
Lactarius kabansus
Lactarius kabansus edible (1)
edible (1)
sp.
Usnea sp. medicinal
medicinal (1)
(1)
Lactar/as latifolius
Lactarius latifolius edible (1)
edible (1)
Volvariella bombycina
bombycina edible
edible (6)
(6)
Lactarius pellicu/atus
pellica/atas f.f. edible (3)
edible (3)
Volvariella esculenta
esculenta edible
edible (19)
(19) pallidus
Volvariella volvacea
volvacea edible
edible (6)
(6) Lactan/as pseudovolemus
Lactarius pseudovolemus edible
edible (1)
(1)
Wolfiporia
Wolfiporia extensa
extensa edible
edible (6)
(6) Lactarius sesemotani
Lactan/as edible
edible (3)
(3)
Wynnella silvicola
silvicola edible
edible (2)
(2) Lentinus citrinas
citrinus edible (4)
edible (4)
Len tinas sajor-caju
Lentinus sajor-caja edible (3)
edible (3)
Lentinus squarrulosus edible (3)
edible (3)
Annex 2: Country records of
Annex 2: of wild
w ild useful ffungi
ungi (edible, medicinal and other
other uses)
uses) 111

Len tinustuber-regium
Lentinus tuber-regium edible (3)
edible (3) Chlorophyllum molybdites
Chlorophyl/um edible
edible
Lentinus velutinus edible (4)
edible (4) Col/ybia
Collybia anombe edible
edible
Lenzites elegans medicinal, Collybia
Collybia oronga edible
edible
[poisonous] (4) Leucocoprinusgandour
Leucocoprinus gandour edible
edible
Lepiota henningsii
Lepiota edible (3)
edible (3) Phlebopus
Phlebopus sudanicus
sudanicus edible
edible
Leucoagaricus bisporus edible
edible (3)
Leucocoprinus discoideus edible (3)
edible (3)
COSTA
COSTA RICA
RICA
Macrolepiota africana edible (3)
edible (3) Saenz,
Saenz, Uzano Nassar, 1983
Lizano and Nassar,
M. gracilenta
M. gracilenta var.
var. goossensiae
goossensiae edible (1)
edible (1)
Macrolepiota procera
procera edible (1)
edible (1) Agaricus silvaticus
Agaricus silva ticus edible
Macrolepiota prominens edible (3)
edible (3) Amanita caesarea
Amanita caesarea edible
edible
Macrolepiota zeyheri edible (3)
edible (3) Amanita gemmata edible
edible
Marasmius arborescens edible (4)
edible (4) Amanita inaurata edible
Marasmius buzungolo
Marasmius buzungolo edible (3)
edible (3) Amanita muscaria
Amanita muscaria hallucinogen,
hallucinogen,
poisonous
poisonous
Marasmius crinis-equi
Marasmius other -- jewelry (4)
other (4)
Amanita rubescens
Amanita rubescens edible
edible
Marasmius grandisetulosus
Marasmius edible (4)
edible (4)
Amanita vaginata
vaginata edible
edible
Marasmius piperodora
Marasmius piperodora edible (4)
edible (4)
Armillaria me/lea
mellea edible
Nothopanus hygrophanus edible (3)
edible (3)
Armillaria tabescens
Armillaria tabescens edible
edible
Oudemansiella
Oudemansiella canarii edible (4)
(4)
Aspropaxillus lepistoides edible
Peziza vesiculosa edible (3)
(3)
Phallus indusia tus
indusiatus medicinal (4)
Cantharellus cibarius edible
Collybia distorta
Co//ybia edible
Phlebopus colossus
Phlebopus colossus [edible] (4)
(4)
Pleurotus djamor
djamor Collybia
Collybia dryophila edible
Pleurotus edible (3)
(3)
Pluteus cervinus var.
var. ealaensis
ealaensis
Collybia
Collybia familia edible
edible (3)
(3)
Psathyrella spadicea
Co//ybia platyphylla
Collybia platyphyl/a edible
spadicea edible (1)
(1)
Coprinus comatus edible
Pseudocraterellus laeticolor
Pseudocraterellus laeticolor edible (1)
(1)
Pycnoporus sanguineus Cortinarius
Cortinarius purpurascens
purpurascens edible
medicinal (4)
Craterellus cornucopioides edible
Ramaria ochracea edible (4)
(4)
Fistulina hepatica edible
Russula atrovirens
Russula atrovirens edible (3)
(3)
Russula ce//u/ata edible (1)
He/ve/la
Helvella lacunosa edible
Russula cellulata (1)
Russula cyclosperma
Hericium erinaceus
erinaceus edible
Russula edible (3)
(3)
Russula diffusa var.
var. diffusa Hydnum
Hydnum umbilicatum edible
Russula diffusa edible (1)
(1)
Russula hiemisilvae
hiemisilvae Hygrophorus penarius edible
Russula edible (1)
(1)
Laccaria amethystina
Laccaria amethystina edible
Russulapseudostriatoviridis
Russula pseudostriatoviridis edible (3)
(3)
Russula Laccaria laccata edible
Russula roseoalba edible (3)
(3)
Russula roseostriata
Lacrymaria
Lacrymaria velutina edible
Russula roseostriata edible (3)
(3)
Russula sese
Lactarius deliciosus edible
sese edible (3)
(3)
Russula sesena gula
Lactarius
Lactarius indigo edible
sesenagula edible (3)
(3)
Russula striatoviridis Lactarius mitissimus edible
Russula striatoviridis edible (3)
(3)
Schizophyllum commune Lactarius vellereus
vel/ereus edible
edible (1)
(1)
Scleroderma bovonei Lepista
Lepista nuda edible
Scleroderma edible (3)
(3)
Termitomyces aurantiacus Leucopaxillus giganteus edible
aurantiacus edible (3)
(3)
Termitomyces clypeatus Lyophyllum
Lyophyllum aggregatum edible
edible (3)
(3)
Termitomyces entolomoides Macrolepiota gracilenta edible
Termitomyces entolomoides edible (2)
(2)
Termitomyces Macrolepiota procera
procera edible
Termitomyces globulus edible (3)
(3)
Marasmius oreades edible
edible
Termitomyces
Termitomyces letestui edible (1)
(1)
Termitomyces mammiformis Melanoleuca
Melanoleuca grammopodia edible
edible
Termitomyces mammiformis edible (3)
(3)
Morchella esculenta
esculenta edible
edible
Termitomyces microcarpus edible (1)
(1)
Termitomyces robustus Morchella esculenta
esculenta var.
var. edible
edible (3)
(3)
rotunda
Termitomyces schimperi
schimperi edible (1)
(1)
Mycena pura edible
edible
Termitomyces
Termitomyces stria tus
striatus edible (2)
(2)
Panaeolus cyanescens
Panaeolus cyanescens hallucinogen
T
T. striatus
striatus var.
var: aura ntiacus
aurantiacus edible (1)
(1)
Pleurotus
Pleurotus ostreatus
ostreatus edible
edible
Termitomyces
Termitomyces titanicus edible (3)
(3)
Pleurotus
Pleurotus salignus
salignus edible
edible
Trogia infundibuliformis
Trogia infundibuliformis edible
edible (3)
(3)
Pluteus
Pluteus cervinus
cervinus edible
edible
Volvariella bombycina
bombycina edible (3)
(3)
Psilocybe
Psilocybe aztecorum
aztecorum hallucinogen
Volvariella parvispora
parvispora edible (3)
(3)
Psilocybe cubensis
Psilocybe cubensis hallucinogen
Xerocomus
Xerocomus pallidosporus
pallidosporus edible
edible (3)
(3)
Psilocybe mexicana
Psilocybe mexicana hallucinogen
Rhodophyllus
Rhodophyl/us aprilis
aprilis edible
edible
[REPUBLIC OF
CONGO [REPUBLIC OF THE] Russula atropurpurea
Russula atropurpurea edible
edible
Rammeloo and Walleyn,
Walleyn, 1993
1993 Russula chamaeleontina
Russula chamaeleontina edible
edible
Armillaria
Armillaria distans
distans edible Russula cyanoxantha
Russula cyanoxantha edible
edible
edible
112
112 Wild edible fu
Wild edible fungi: overview
ngi: a global overv iew of their use and importance to people

Russula erythropus
Russula erythropus edible ~ycena flavescens
Mycena flavescens edible (2)
(2)
Russula
Russula lepida
le pida edible Phlebopus colossus
Phlebopus colossus [edible] (4)
(4)
Russulaminutula
Russula minutula edible Pluteus subcervinus edible (2)
(2)
Russula viscida
Russula edible Psathyrella sp.
sp. edible (2)
(2)
Volvariella bakeri
Volvariella edible Schizophyllum commune edible,
edible, medicinal
medicinal (2)
(2)
Volvariella bombycina edible Termitomyces sp.
Termitomyces sp. edible (2)
(2)
Volvariella
Volvariella speciosa
speciosa edible Volvariella volvacea
volvacea edible (3)
(3)
Xerula radicata edible

GREECE
GREECE
COTE D'IVOIRE
COTE O'IVOIRE Diamandis, 2002,
Diamandis, 2002, personal
personal communication
communication
1. Ducousso, Ba and Thoen, 2002;
Ducousso, Ba 2002; 2.
2. Locquin,
Locquin, 1954;
1954;
3. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994;
3. 1994; 4. Rammeloo and and Agaricus arvensis
arvensis food
Walleyn, 1993
1993 Agaricus campestris
campestris food
Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca edible
edible (4)
(4) Amanita
Amanita caesarea
caesarea food
Hygrophoropsis mangenotii
Hygrophoropsis mangenotii edible
edible (2)
(2) spp.
Boletus spp. food
sp.
Russula sp. food
food (1)
(1) Cantharellus cibarius food
food
Termitomyces striatus
Termitomyces striatus edible (3)
(3) Coprinus sp.
sp. food
Lactarius deliciosus food
Macrolepiota sp.
~acrolepiota sp. food
EGYPT
EGYPT
Pleurotus ostrea tus
ostreatus food
Zakhary et
Zakhary etal.,
al., 1983
1983
sp.
Ramaria sp. food
Agaricus campestris
campestris edible
Agaricus rodmani
Agaricus edible
GUATEMALA
Collybia sp.
Collybia sp. edible
Flores, 2002, personal
Flores, 2002, personal communication
communication

Agaricus campestris food

ETHIOPIA
Agrocybe aegerita food
Tuno, 2001
2001
Amanita caesarea
Amanita caesarea food
Lentinus sp.
sp. edible Amanita calyptroderma food
Schizophyllum commune edible Amanita hemibapha
hemibapha food
Amanita rubescens
Amanita rubescens food
Ful
FIJI
Armillaria me//ea
mellea food
Markham, 1998
1998 Auricularia delicata food
Boletus edulis food
Auricularia
Auricularia sp.
sp. food
Cantharellus cibarius food
Cantharellus ignicolor
Cantharellus ignicolor food
GABON Cantharellus odoratus
Cantharellus odoratus food
1. Rammeloo
1. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993;
1993; 2. Walleyn and
and Catathelasma ventricosum
Catathelasma food
Rammeloo, 1994.
Rammeloo, 1994. Note: another
another 15+
15+ types
types are
are Clavulina cinerea food
listed in Walker,
Walker, 1931
1931 by local name
name only
only
Cortinarius praestans food
Cantharellus sp.
Cantharellus sp. edible (1)
edible (1) He/ve//a crispa
Helvella food
Daldinia sp.
sp. medicinal (2)
(2) He/ve//a lacunosa
Helvella food
Lentinus tuber-regium edible
edible (1)
(1) Hydnum repandum
Hydnum food
Polyporus
Polyporus rhizomorphus other -- string
stri ng (2)
(2) Hygrophorus russula
Hygrophorus russula food
Pycnoporus sp.
Pycnoporus sp. medicinal (2)
(2) Hypomyceslactifluorum
Hypomyces lactifluorum food
Laccaria
Laccaria amethystea food
Laccaria bicolor
Laccaria bicolor food
GHANA
1. Ducousso,
1. Ducousso, Ba
Baand
and Thoen,
Thoen, 2002; 2. Obodai
2002; 2. Obodai and Laccaria
Laccaria laccata food
Apetorgbor,
Apetorgbor, 2001;
2001; 3.
3. Rammeloo
Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993;
1993; Lactarius corru gis
corrugis food
4. Walleyn and
and Rammeloo,
Rammeloo, 1994
1994 Lactarius deliciosos
deliciosus food

Agaricus campestris
campestris edible (3)
(3)
Lactarius indigo
Lactarius food

Agaricus goossensiae
goossensiae edible (3)
(3)
Lactarius rubrilacteus
Lactarius rubrilacteus food

Auricularia
Auricularia sp.
sp . edible, medicinal Lactarius salmonicolor
Lactarius salmonicolor food
(2) ~orchella esculenta
Morchella esculenta food
Calva tiaexcipuliformis
Calvatia excipuliformis medicinal (2)
(2) Pleurotus sp.
Pleurotus sp. food
Cantharellus floridulus
Cantharellus floridulus food (1)
(1) Ramaria
Rama ria araiospora
ara iospora food
Coprinus mica
Coprinus ceus
micaceus edible (2)
edible (2) Ramaria botrytis
Ramaria food
Daldinia concentrica medicinal (2)
medicinal (2) Ramaria flava
Ramaria food
Ganoderma lucidum
Ganoderma medicinal (2)
(2) Russula
Russula delica food
Lentinus tuber-regium
Lentinus medicinal (2)
(2) Schizophyllum commune food
~acrolepiota
Macrolepiota procera
procera edible (3)
(3) Tremella
Tremella reticulata food
 Country records
Annex 2: Country records of
of wild
wild useful
useful fungi (edible,
(edible, medicinal and
and other
other uses)
uses) 113
113

Tricholoma
Tricholoma flavovirens food C/avicorona pyxidata
Clavicorona pyxidata edible
sp.
Trogia sp. food Clavulina cristata
C/avulina cristata edible
Clavulinopsis he/yola
C/avulinopsis helvola edible
Clavulinopsis miyabeana
C/avulinopsis miyabeana edible
edible
GUINEA
Walleyn and Rammeloo,
Rammeloo. 1994
1994 clavipes
Clitocybe clavipes edible
Clitocybe fragrans
fragrans [edible],
[edible]. medicinal
medicinal
Lepiota grassei
grassei edible Clitopilus prunulus
prunulus edible
Collybia acervata [edible]
GUYANA
GUYANA Collybia butyracea [edible]
Simmons,
Simmons, Henkel and
and Bas,
Bas. 2002
2002 Collybia confluens
Collybia edible
edible
Collybia
Collybia dryophila [edible]
Amanita perphaea
perphaea edible
edible
Coprinus coma
Coprinus tus
comatus [edible], medicinal
[edible]. medicinal
Coprinus micaceus
micaceus [edible],
[edible]. medicinal
medicinal
HONG KONG
KONG SPECIAL
SPECIAL ADMINISTRATIVE
ADMINISTRATIVE REGION,
REGION, CHINA
CHINA Coprinus
Coprinus plicatilis edible,
edible. medicinal
Chang
Chang and Mao,
Mao, 1995
1995
Coprinus radians edible,
edible. medicinal
Agaricus abruptibulbus
Agaricus abruptibulbus edible Coprinus
Coprinus sterquilinus edible,
edible. medicinal
medicinal
Agaricus arvensis edible, medicinal
edible. Craterellus aureus edible
edible
Agaricus bisporus edible, medicinal
edible. Craterellus cornucopioides edible
Agaricus campestris edible, medicinal
edible. Crepidotus
Crepidotus applana tus
applanatus edible
Agaricus comtulus edible Crepidotus mollis
mollis edible
Agaricus micromegethus edible Cyathus
Cya thus stercoreus
stercoreus medicinal
medicinal
Agaricus placomyces [edible] Cystoderma amianthinum
Cystoderma amianthinum edible
Agaricus purpurellus [edible] Cystoderma terrei
Cystoderma terrei edible
Agaricus rubellus edible palmatus
Dacrymyces palma tus edible
Agaricus semotus [edible] Dacryopinax spathularia
spathularia edible
Agaricus silvaticus edible Dictyophora duplicata
duplicata edible,
edible. medicinal
medicinal
Agaricus silvicola edible D. indusiata
D. indusiata f. lutea edible
edible
Agrocybe cylindracea
cylindracea edible,
edible. medicinal
medicinal Dictyophora multicolor
Dictyophora [medicinal]
Agro cybe dura
Agrocybe edible,
edible. medicinal
medicinal Flammulina velutipes edible
edible
Agrocybe farinacea edible Fomes fomentarius
Fomes fomentarius medicinal
Agrocybe paludosa edible Fomitopsis ulmaria
Fomitopsis ulmaria medicinal
Agro cybe pediades
Agrocybe pediades edible Ganoderma applanatum
Ganoderma medicinal
Agrocybe praecox edible, medicinal
edible. Ganoderma capense
capense medicinal
Amanita rubescens
Amanita rubescens edible Ganoderma
Ganoderma lobatum medicinal
Amanita vaginata [edible]
[edible] Ganoderma lucidum medicinal
Amanita virgineoides
virgineoides edible Ganoderma
Ganoderma sinense
sinense medicinal
medicinal
Ama uroderma nigrum
Amauroderma medicinal Ganoderma tenue
Ganoderma medicinal
Ama uroderma rude
Amauroderma rude medicinal Ganoderma tropicum
Ganoderma tropicum medicinal
Armillaria me/lea
mellea edible,
edible. medicinal
medicinal Ganoderma tsugae
Ganoderma medicinal
Astraeus
Astraeus hygrometricus medicinal Geastrum triplex
Geastrum triplex medicinal
Auricularia auricula-judae edible, medicinal
edible. Gomphus clavatus edible
edible
Auricularia delicata
delicata edible, medicinal
edible. Grifola frondosa edible, medicinal
edible.
Auricularia
Auricularia fuscosuccinea
fuscosuccinea edible Gyro don lividus
Gyrodon edible
Auricularia polytricha edible, medicinal
edible. Gyroporus castaneus
castaneus [edible]
Boletus emodensis edible Hericium erinaceus
erinaceus edible, medicinal
edible.
Boletus griseus edible Hexagonia apiaria
Hexagonia medicinal
Boletus speciosus
speciosus [edible] Hirschioporus abietinum
Hirschioporus abietinum medicinal
Bovista plumbea
Bovista edible, medicinal
edible. Hirschioporus fuscoviolaceum medicinal
Bovistella sinensis
sinensis medicinal Hohenbuehelia petaloides edible
Calocera cornea
Calocera edible Hygrocybe cantharellus
Hygrocybe edible
Calocera viscosa
viscosa edible Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca
Hygrophoropsis edible
Calocybe leucocephala
Calocybe edible Hygrophorus eburneus
Hygrophorus edible
Ca/vatia caelata
Calvatia cae/ata medicinal
medicinal Hypsizygus marmoreus
Hypsizygus marmoreus edible
edible
Calva tíacraniiformis
Calvatia craniiformis edible,
edible. medicinal Ischnoderma resinosum
Ischnoderma medicinal
medicinal
Ca/vatia cyathiformis
Calvatia cyathiformis edible,
edible. medicinal Kobayasia nipponica
Kobayasia nipponica edible
edible
Ca/vatia liIacina
Calvatia lilacina edible, medicinal
edible. Kuehneromyces mutabilis
Kuehneromyces mutabilis edible
edible
Camarophyllus virgineus
Camarophyllus edible Laccaria amethystea
Laccaria amethystea edible
edible
cinereus
Cantharellus cine reus edible Laccaria laccata
Laccaria edible
edible
Cantharellus cinnabarinus
Cantharellus cinnabarinus edible Lacrymaria velutina
Lacrymaria velutina edible
Cerrena unicolor
Cerrena unicolor medicinal Lactarius akahatsu
Lactarius edible
Clavaria
Cia va ria vermicularis edible Lactarius deliciosus
Lactarius deliciosus edible
114 Wild edible
Wild edible fungi:
fungi: aa global
global overview
overview of
of their
their use
use and
and importance to people
people

Lactarius hatsudake edible, medicinal

medicinal Pleurotus ostrea
Pleurotus tus
ostreatus edible, medicinal
medicinal
Lactarius hygrophoroides
Lactarius hygrophoroides edible, medicinal
medicinal Pleurotus pulmonarius edible
Lactarius volemus edible, medicinal
medicinal Pleurotus rhodophyllus
Pleurotus rhodophyllus edible
Langermannia gigantea
Langermannia edible, medicinal
medicinal Pleurotus spodoleucus edible
Lanopila nipponica
Lanopila edible Pluteus leoninus
Pluteus edible
Lentinellus cochleatus edible Pluteus pellitus
Pluteus pellitus edible
Len tinula edodes
Lentinula edible, medicinal
medicinal Pluteus tricuspidatus
Pluteus edible
Lentinus sajor-caju edible Polyporus alveolaris medicinal
Lentinus strigosus edible Polyporus arcularius edible, medicinal
medicinal
Len tinus tigrinus
Lentinus tigrinus edible Polyporus elegans medicinal
medicinal
Lepiota aspera
aspera edible Polyporus umbellatus
Polyporus edible, medicinal
medicinal
Lepiota clypeolaria [edible] Psathyrella cando
Psathyrella candolleana
Ileana edible
Lepiota ventriosospora edible
edible Psathyrella piluliformis
Psathyrella piluliformis edible
Lepista nuda
Lepista edible
edible Psathyrella
Psathyrella rugocephala edible
Lepista sordida
Lepista edible Pulveroboletus ravenelii
Pulveroboletus [edible], medicinal
[edible].
Leucoagaricus pudicus
Leucoagaricus pudicus [edible] Pycnoporus cinnabarinus
Pycnoporus medicinal
medicinal
Leucocoprinus cepaestipes
cepaestipes [edible]. medicinal
[edible], medicinal Pycnoporus coccineus
coccineus medicinal
medicinal
Limacella glioderma
Limacella edible
edible Ramera
Ramaria apiculata edible
Lycoperdon asperum medicinal Rhizopogon
Rhizopogon rubescens
rubescens edible
Lycoperdon perla
Lycoperdon perlatum
tum edible, medicinal
medicinal Russula aeruginea
Russula aeruginea edible
Lycoperdon pusillum
Lycoperdon medicinal Russula crustosa
Russula edible, medicinal
medicinal
Lycoperdon pyriforme
Lycoperdon pyriforme edible, medicinal
medicinal Russula delica
Russula edible, medicinal
medicinal
Lycoperdon spadiceum medicinal Russula emetica
Russula [medicinal]
Lyophyllum fumosum edible
edible Russula foetens
Russula foe tens [medicinal]
Lyophyllum ulmarium
Lyophyllum edible
edible Russula //lacea
Russula lilacea edible, medicinal
medicinal
Lysurus mokusin
Lysurus mokusin medicinal Russula san
Russula sanguinea
guinea edible, medicinal
medicinal
Macrocybe lobayensis edible
edible Russula
Russula senecis [medicinal]
Macrolepiota procera
procera medicinal
edible, medicinal vesca
Russula yesca medicinal
edible, medicinal
Macrolepiota
Macrolepiota rhacodes
rhacodes medicinal
edible, medicinal Russula virescens
Russula edible, medicinal
medicinal
Marasmiellus ramealis medicinal
edible, medicinal Sarcoscypha coccinea edible
Marasmius cohaerens edible, medicinal Schizophyllum commune edible
Marasmius crinis-equi edible
edible Scleroderma
Scleroderma bovista edible, medicinal
medicinal
Marasmius maximus edible
edible Scleroderma citrinum
Scleroderma citrinum [medicinal]
Marasmius oreades edible, medicinal
medicinal Scleroderma flavidum
Scleroderma flavidum medicinal
Marasmius personatus edible
edible Scleroderma polyrhizum
Scleroderma polyrhizum edible, medicinal
medicinal
Marasmius purpureostriatus
purpureostria tus edible Scleroderma verrucosum
verrucosum medicinal
Megacollybia
Megacollybia platyphylla edible, medicinal
medicinal Strobilomyces
Strobilomyces con fusus
confusus edible
Melano/euca
Melanoleuca alboflavida edible Strobilomyces strobilaceus edible, medicinal
medicinal
Melanoleuca
Melano/euca melaleuca
melaleuca edible Stropharia coronilla edible, medicinal
medicinal
Mycena pura edible Stropharia rugosoannulata edible
Neolentinus
Neo/entinus lepideus edible, medicinal Stropharia semiglobata edible, medicinal
medicinal
Ossicaulislignatilis
Ossicaulis lignatilis edible Suillus americanus
Suillus americanus edible
Oudemansiella mucida
Oudemansiella edible, medicinal Suillus brevipes edible
Panellus
Panellus serotinus edible Suillus
Suillus granulatus edible, medicinal
medicinal
Panellus
Panellus stipticus [medicinal] Suillus
Suillus lactifluus edible
Phallus impudicus edible, medicinal Suillus subluteus edible
Phallus
Phallus rubicundus [medicinal] Suillus tomentosus
Suillus tomentosus edible
Phallus tenuis medicinal Termitomyces albuminosus
Termitomyces albuminosus edible, medicinal
edible,
Phellinus
Phellinus concha tus
conchatus medicinal Termitomyces clypeatus
clypeatus edible
Phellinus igniarius medicinal Termitomyces microcarpus
Termitomyces edible
Pholiota flammans
flammans edible, medicinal Trametes albida
Trametes albida medicinal
Pholiota highlandensis
highlandensis edible Trametes
Trametes hirsuta medicinal
Pholiota nameko
nameko edible, medicinal Trametes orientalis
Trametes orientalis medicinal
Phylloporus rhodoxanthus
rhodoxanthus edible Trametes pubescens medicinal
Pisolithus
Pisolithus tinctorius medicinal Trametes versicolor
Trametes versicolor medicinal
Pleurocybella porrigens
Pleurocybella porrigens edible Tremella fuciformis
Tremella fuciformis edible, medicinal
edible,
Pleurotus citrinopileatus
citrinopileatus edible, medicinal
medicinal Tricholoma imbricatum
Tricholoma edible
Pleurotus cornucopiae
cornucopiae edible Tricholoma pessundatum
Tricholoma edible
Pleurotus cortica tus
corticatus edible, medicinal Tricholoma rutilans
Tricholoma [edible]
Pleurotus cystidiosus
cystidiosus edible Tylopilus ballouii
Tylopilus ballouii edible
Pleurotus flexilis
Pleurotus edible Volvariella bombycina edible, medicinal
Annex 2:
2: Country records
records of
of wild useful
useful fungi (edible,
(edible, medicinal and other
other uses)
uses) 115

Volvariella speciosa
speciosa edible Morchella esculenta
esculenta edible (3)
(3)
V speciosa
V var. gloiocephala
speciosa var. [edible] Mycenastrum corium edible (4)
(4)
Volvariella vo/vacea
volvacea edible, medicinal
medicinal Parmotrema
Parmotrema sp. sp. other - spice
spice (7)
(7)
Wolfiporia extensa
extensa edible, medicinal
medicinal Peltigera canina medicinal (1)
(1)
Xerocomus chrysenteron edible Phallus impudicus
Phallus impudicus medicinal (4)
(4)
Xeromphalina campanella
campanella edible Phellorinia inquinans
Phellorinia edible (10)
(10)
Xerula radicata edible Pleurotus eryngii
Pleurotus edible (6)
(6)
Xylaria polymorpha medicinal Pleurotus fossula tus
fossulatus edible (6)
(6)
Pleurotus ostrea
ostreatus
tus edible (6)
(6)
Podabrella microcarpa
Podabrella edible (4)
(4)
INDIA
1. Birks,
1. Birks, 1991;
1991; 2.
2. Boruah
Boruah et eta/.,
al., 1996;
1996; 3.
3. Singh
Singh Podaxis pistillaris
Podaxis pistillaris edible (6)
(6)
and Rawat, 2000;
2000; 4.
4. Harsh,
Harsh, Tiwari
Tiwari andandRai,
Rai, 1996;
1996; Podoscypha nitidula
Podoscypha nitidula edible (6)
(6)
5. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994;
5. 1994; 6. Purkayastha R. flavobrunnescens
R. flavobrunnescensvar. var.aurea
aurea food (9)
(9)
and Chandra, 1985;
1985; 7.
7. Richardson,
Richardson, 1991;
1991; 8.8.Sarkar,
Sarkar,
R. flavobrunnescens var.
R. [edible] (9)
(9)
Chakraborty and
and Bhattacharjee,
Bhattacharjee,1988; 1988; 9.9. Sharda,
Sharda,
formosoides
formoso ides
Kaushal and Negi,
Kaushal Negi, 1997;
1997; 10.
10. Sharma
Sharma and and Doshi,
Doshi,
1996
1996 R. flavobrunnescens
R. flavobrunnescensvar. var.typica
typica food (9)
(9)
Ramaria obtusissima
Ramaria food (9)
(9)
Agaricus campestris edible (6)
(6) Ramaria sandaracina
Ramaria [edible] (9)
(9)
Amanita vaginata
vaginata edible (6)
(6) Ramaria san guinea
sanguinea food (6)
(6)
Astraeus hygrometricus
Astraeus edible (6)
(6) Ramaria subbotrytis
Ramaria subbotrytis food (9)
(9)
Auricularia delicata edible (6)
(6) Russula
Russula delica edible (6)
(6)
Boletus edulis edible (2)
(2) Russula densifolia
Russula densifo/ia edible (6)
(6)
Bovista
Bovista apedicellata medicinal (4)
(4) Schizophyllum commune edible (6)
(6)
Bovista
Bovista gigantea edible (6)
(6) Scleroderma radicans edible (4)
(4)
Calocybe
Calocybe indica edible (8)
(8) Scleroderma verrucosum
Scleroderma edible (6)
(6)
Calvatia
Calvatia cyathiformis edible (4)
(4) Sparassis crispa
Sparassis edible (6)
(6)
Cantharellus cibarius
cibarius edible (6)
edible (6) Termitomyces albuminosus
Termitomyces albuminosus edible (6)
edible
Cantharellus
Cantharellus floccosus
floccosus edible (2)
(2) Termitomyces clypea tus
c/ypeatus edible (5)
Cetrariastrum
Cetrariastrum sp,sp. other
other -- spice
spice (7)
(7) Termitomyces eurhizus
Termitomyces edible (8)
C/avaria
Clavaria aurea edible (6)
(6) Termitomyces heimii
Termitomyces he/mi edible (4)
Clitocybe
Clitocybe sp.
sp. edible (6)
(6) Termitomyces microcarpus
Termitomyces edible (8)
(8)
Collybia
Collybia sp.
sp. edible (6)
(6) Termitomyces radicatus
Termitomyces edible (5)
Coprinus acumina
acuminatustus edible (6)
(6) Termitomyces stria tus
striatus edible (5)
Coprinus
Coprinus atramentarius edible (6)
(6) Tricholoma sulphureum
Tricholoma sulphureum food
food (6)
(6)
Coprinus comatus edible (6)
(6) sp.
Tuber sp. edible (6)
Cyathus
Cyathus limbatus medicinal (4) Volvariella diplasia edible (8)
(8)
Daldinia concentrica
concentrica medicinal (4) Volvariella terastria
terastria edible (6)
(6)
Entoloma microcarpum edible (6)
(6) Volvariella volvacea
volvacea edible (8)
(8)
Evemia
Evernia prunastri other --
other Xylaria polymorpha medicinal (4)
perfume (7)
(7)
Ganoderma lucidum
Ganoderma medicinal (4)
Geastrum fimbria
Geastrum fimbria tum edible (4)
(4) INDONESIA

Geastrum triplex
Geastrum triplex edible (4)
(4) 1. Burkhill, 1935;
1. 1935; 2.
2. Ducousso,
Ducousso, Ba
Ba and Thoen, 2002
2002

Geopora sp.
sp. edible
edi ble (6)
(6) Auricularia auricula-judae
auricula-judae food, medicinal
medicinal (1)
(1)
sp.
He/ve//a sp.
Helvella edible (6)
(6) Clitocybe hypocalamus food (1)
(1)
Lactarius
Lactarius deterrimus edibl
ediblee (6)
(6) sp.
Marasmius sp.
Marasmius food (1)
(1)
Lactarius
Lactarius princeps
princeps edible (6)
(6) Polyporus grammocephalus food (1)
(1)
Langermannia gigantea edible (6)
(6) Russula sp.
5p. edible (1)
(1)
Lentinula edodes
edodes edible (6)
(6) Scleroderma sp.
sp. food (2)
(2)
Lentinus sajor-caju
sajor-caj u edible (6)
(6) Termitomyces albuminosus
Termitomyces food (1)
(1)
Lentinus subnudus edible (6)
(6)
Lepiota mastoidea edible (6)
(6)
IRAQ
Limacella sp.
Limacella sp. edible (6)
(6)
1. AI-Naama,
Al-Naama, Ewaze and Nema,
Nema, 1988;
1988; 2. Alsheikh
Aisheikh
Lycoperdon
Lycoperdon pusillum edible (4)
(4) and Trappe,
Trappe, 1983
1983
Lycoperdon pyriforme
Lycoperdon pyriforme edible (6)
(6)
Terfezia
Terfezia claveryi
claveryi edible (1)
(1)
Macrocybe
Macrocybe gigantea edible (6)
(6)
Tirmania nivea edible (2)
(2)
Macrocybe
Macrocybe loba yensis
lobayensis edible (8)
(8)
Tirmania pinoyi
Tirmania pinoyi (2)
edible (2)
Macrolepiota procera
procera edible (6)
(6)
Marasmius
Marasmius sp.
sp. ed ible (8)
edible (8)
Microporus xanthopus medicinal (4)(4)
Morchella angusticeps
angusticeps edible
edib le (3)
(3 )
116 Wild edible
Wild edible fun
fungi:
gi: aa global
global overview
overview of
of their
their use
use and
and importance to people
people

ISRAEL
Lepista nuda
Lepista edible
Wasser,
Wasser, 1995 Lycoperdon gemma
Lycoperdon gemmatum
tum edible
Lycoperdon pyriforme
Lycoperdon pyriforme edible
Pleurotus eryngii var.
Pleurotus var. ferulae edible
edible
Macrolepiota excoriata
excoriata edible
Suillus granulatus
Suillus granulatus edible
edible
Morchella conica
conica edible
Volvariella speciosa
Vo/variella speciosa edible
edible
Morchella intermedia
Morchella edible
Paxillus atrotomentosus
Paxillus atrotomentosus edible
JORDAN Pleurotus eryngii
Pleurotus edible
1. Ereifej and
and Al-Raddad,
AI·Raddad, 2000;
2000; 2.
2. Sabra
Sabra and
and Pleurotus ostreatus edible
Walter, 2001
2001
Polyporus squamosus edible
Agaricus campestris
campestris food
food (2)
(2) Ptychoverpa bohemica
Ptychoverpa edible
Boletus aestivalis food
food (2)
(2) Ramaria flava
Ramaria edible
Boletus erythropus edible (1)
(1) Russula aeruginea
Russula aeruginea edible
Cantharellus cibarius food
food (2)
(2) Russula
Russula delica edible
Ento/oma
Entoloma c/ypeatum
clypeatum edible (1)
(1) Russula nitida
Russula nitida edible
Lactarius deliciosus
deliciosus food
food (2)
(2) Russula
Russula olivascens edible
Lepista nuda food
food (2)
(2) Russula
Russula rosacea edible
Lyophyllum
Lyophyllum decastes
decastes food
food (2)
(2) Russula sardonia
Russula sardonia edible
edible
Pleurotus eryngii
eryngii food
food (2)
(2) Sarcodon imbricatus
Sarcodon imbricatus edible
edible
Scleroderma citrinum
Scleroderma citrinum [edible]
Tricholoma portentosum
Tricholoma portentosum edible
KENYA
KENYA
1. Pegler
1. Pegler and Vanhaecke,
Vanhaecke, 1994; 2. Rammeloo and
Walleyn, 1993;
1993; 3. Walleyn and
and Rammeloo,
Rammeloo, 1994
1994 LAO PEOPLE'S
LAO PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC
DEMOCRATICREPUBLIC
REPUBLIC
1. Hosaka,
1. Hosaka,2002,
2002,personal
personalcommunication;
communication;2.2.http/!
http//
campestris
Agaricus campestris edible (2)
(2)
giechgroup.hp.infoseek.co.jp/kinoko/eng.html
Coprinus sterquilinus
Coprinus sterquilinus edible (3)
(3)
Engleromyces goetzei
Engleromyces goetzei medicinal (3)
(3) Amanita hemibapha
hemibapha food (1)
(1)
Langermannia wahlbergii
Langermannia wahlbergii other -- dye
dye (3)
(3) Amanita vaginata
vaginata [edible] (2)
(2)
Lignosus sacer medicinal (3)
(3) Amanita virgineoides
virgineoides [edible] (2)
(2)
Macrolepiota dolichaula (2)
edible (2) Armillaria sp.
Armillaria sp. [edible] (2)
(2)
Phlebopus sudanicus [hallucinogen] (3) (3) Cantharellus luteocomus
Cantharellus [edible] (2)
(2)
Podaxis pistillaris
Podaxis pistillaris other -- dye
dye (3)
(3) Collybia acervata [edible] (2)
(2)
Psilocybe merdaria
Psilocybe merdaria hallucinogen, Coprinus dissemina
disseminatus
tus [edible] (2)
(2)
poisonous (3)
(3) Ganoderma lucidum
Ganoderma [medicinal] (2)(2)
Termitomyces eurhizus
Termitomyces edible
edible (2)
(2) Hygrocybe cantharellus
Hygrocybe cantharellus [edible] (2)
(2)
Termitomyces stria tus
striatus edible (1)
edible (1) Hygrocybe conica [edible] (2)
(2)
Hygrocybe punicea
Hygrocybe [edible] (2)
(2)
Laccaria amethystea
Laccaria amethystea [edible] (2)
(2)
KOREA [DEMOCRATIC
[DEMOCRATICPEOPLE'S
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC
REPUBLIC OF]
OF]
Wang, Hall
Hall and
and Evans,
Evans, 1997
1997 Laccaria laccata
Laccaria [edible] (2)
(2)
Lactarius vo/emus
Lactarius volemus [edible] (2)
(2)
Tricholoma matsutake
Tricholoma edible Leccinum extremiorientale
Leccinum extremiorientale [edible] (2)
(2)
Lentinus strigosus food (1)
(1)
KUWAIT Lyophyllum sp.
sp. [edible] (2)
(2)
Alsheikh and Trappe,
Aisheikh Trappe, 1983
1983 Macrolepiota procera
pro cera [edible] (2)
(2)
Oudemansiella sp.
Oudemansiella sp. [edible] (2)
(2)
Tirmania nivea edible
Pycnoporus coccineus [other] (2)
(2)
Tirmania pinoyi
Tirmania food, medicinal
medicinal
Ramaria medicinal (1)(1)
Russula food (1)
(1)
KYRGYZSTAN Russula densifolia
Russula densifolia [edible] (2)
(2)
El'chibaev,
EI'chibaev, 1964
1964 Russula
Russula virescens [edible] (2)
(2)
Armillaria me//ea
Armillaria mellea edible
edible Schizophyllum commune
Schizophyllum food (1)
(1)
Bovista plum/sea
plumbea edible
edible Suillus granulatus
Suillus granulatus [edible] (2)
(2)
Calvatia
Ca/va tia caelata
cae/ata edible
edible Termitomyces food (1)
(1)
Cantharellus cibarius edible
edible Trametes
Trametes versicolor [medicinal] (2)(2)
Coprinus
Coprinus atramentarius edible
edible
Coprinus comatus [edible] LESOTHO
Flammulina velutipes edible Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993
1993
Gyromitra
Gyromitra esculenta
esculenta [edible]
Termitomyces edible
Lactarius deliciosus edible
edible
Laetiporus sulphureus edible
edible
Leccinum scabra edible
Annex 2: Country
Country records
records of
of wild useful
useful fungi (edible,
(edible, medicinal and other
other uses)
uses) 117

LIBYAN
LIBYAN ARAB JAMAHIRIYA
ARAB JAMAHIRIYA
Microporus sanguineus
Microporus san guineus [edible] (1)
(1)
Alsheikh and
and Trappe,
Trappe, 1983
1983 Morchella intermedia
Morchella edible (3)
(3)
Mutinus bambusinus [edible] (1)
(1)
Tirmania nivea
Tirmania edible
edible
Phaeolus
Phaeolus manihotis
manihotis [edible] (1)
(1)
Tirmania pinoyi
Tirmania pinoyi edible
edible
Phallus
Phallus armeniacus
armeniacus [edible] (1)
(1)
Phallus
Phallus impudicus
impudicus [edible] (1)
(1)
MADAGASCAR Phlebopus colossus
colossus edible (3)
(3)
1.
1. Bouriquet, 1970; 2.
Bouriquet, 1970; 2. Ducousso
Ducousso,, Ba
Ba and
Pleurotus
Pleurotus dactylophorus
dactylophorus [edible] (1)
(1)
Thoen, 2002; 3. Rammeloo and and Walleyn,
Walleyn, 1993;
1993;
4. Richardson, 1991;
1991; 5. Walieyn
Walleyn and Ramrneloo,
Rammeloo, 1994
1994 Podaxon termitophilus
Podaxon termitophilus [edible] (1)
(1)
Polyporus croceoleucus
croceo/eucus [edible] (1)
(1)
Agaricus campestris edible
edible (5) Polystictus sp.
sp. [edible] (1)
(1)
Agaricus silvicola [edible] (1)
(1)
Ramaria
Ramaria stricta [edible] (1)
(1)
Amanita hovae
hovae edible
edible (3) Roccella sp.
sp. other - dye
dye (4)
(4)
Amanita robusta
robusta [edible] (1)
(1)
Russula
Russula cyanoxantha
cyanoxantha [edible] (1)
(1)
Amanita vaginata [edible] (1)
(1) Russula
Russula madagassensis
madagassensis edible (5)
Anthurus pentulus [edible] (1)
(1)
commune
Schizophyllum commune edible (3)
(3)
Armillaria he/mi
heimii [edible] (1)
(1) [edible] (1)
(1)
Strobilomyces
Armillariella elegans
Armillariella elegans [edible] (1)
(1)
Strobilomyces
Strobilomyces coturnix
coturnix edible (5)
(5)
Aseroe sp.
Aseroé sp. [edible] (1)
(1) Sui/Ius granulatus edible (3)
(3)
Suillus
Auricularia auricula-judae [edible] (1)
(1)
Terfezia
Terfezia decaryi [edible] (1)
(1)
Boletus bouriqueti
Boletus bouriqueti [edible] (1)
(1)
Tricholoma scabrum edible (3)
(3)
Boletus colossus
Boletus colossus [edible] (1)
(1)
Volvariella esculenta
esculenta [edible]
[edible] (1)
(1)
Cantharellus cibarius [edible] (1)
(1)
Volvariella volvacea
volvacea edible
edible (3)
(3)
Cantharellus cyanoxanthus [edible] (1)
(1)
Xerocomus chrysenteron [edible] (1)
[edible] (1)
Cantharellus
Cantharellus eucalyptorum food (2)
(2) edible (3)
(3)
Xerocomus versicolor edible
Cantharellus madagascariensis [edible] (1)
Cantharellus
Chlorophyllum edible
edible (3)
madagascariense
madagascariense MALAWI
Chlorophyllum molybdites
Chlorophyllum (3)
edible (3) 1. Rammeloo
1. Rammeloo and
and Walleyn, 1993; 2. Walleyn and
1993; 2.
Rammeloo, 1994;
Rammeloo, 1994;see
seealso
alsowww.malawifungi.org
www.malawifungi.org
Clathrus madagascariensis
Cfathrus [edible] (1)
Cfavaria
Clavaria miniata
mm/ata [edible] (1) Afroboletus
Afroboletus costatisporus
costatisporus edible
edible (1)
(1)
Collybia tamatavae
Collybia (3)
edible (3) Afroboletus luteolus
luteolus edible
edible (1)
(1)
Cortina rius largus
Cortinarius edible (5)
(5) Agaricus bingensis
bingensis edible
edible (1)
(1)
Cyathus
Cyathus stercoreus
stercoreus [edible] (1) campestris
Agaricus campestris edible
edible (1)
(1)
Galiella javanica
Galiella javanica medicinal (5)(5) croceolutescens
Agaricus croceolutescens edible
edible (1)
(1)
Ganoderma lucidum
Ganoderma [edible] (1)
(1) Agaricus endoxanthus
endoxanthus edible
edible (1)
(1)
Geastrum
Geastrum fimbria tum
fimbriatum [edible] (1)
(1) Amanita
Amanita bingensis
bingensis edible
edible (1)
(1)
lnocybe
Inocybe [edible] (1)
(1) Amanita
Amanita ca/opus
calopus edible
edible (1)
(1)
lnocybe
Inocybe tulearensis
tulearensis [edible] (5)
(5) Amanita flammeola
flammeola edible
edible (1)
(1)
Laccaria edulis
Laccaria edible (3)
(3) Amanita fu/va
fulva edible
edible (1)
(1)
Lactarius rubroviolascens [edible] (1)
(1) Amanita
Amanita goosensiae
goosensiae edible
edible (1)
(1)
Len tinus berteri
Lentinus berteri [edible] (1)
(1) Amanita hemibapha
hemibapha edible
edible (1)
(1)
Len tinus tuber-regium
Lentinus tuber-regium edible (3);
(3); Amanita
Amanita muscaria
muscaria II ucinogen,
hallucinogen,
ha
medicinal (5)(5) poisonous, (2)(2)
Lenzites palisoti [edible] (1)
(1) Amanita
Amanita praeclara
praeclara [edible],
[edible).
Lepiota aspera
aspera [edible] (1)
(1) insecticidal
insecticidal (2)
(2)
Lepiota imerinensis
imerinensis [edible] (1)
(1) Amanita rhodophylla edible
edible (1)
(1)
Lepiota
Lepiota madagascariensis
madagascariensis [edible] (1)
(1) Amanita robusta
robusta edible
edible (1)
(1)
Lepiota madirokelensis
madirokelensis edible (3)
(3) Amanita rubescens
Amanita rubescens edible
edible (1)
(1)
Lepiota rabarijanonae
rabarijanonae [edible] (5)
(5) Amanita vaginata
vaginata edible
edible (1)
(1)
Lepiota roseoalba
roseoalba [edible] (5)
(5) Amanita zambiana
zambiana edible
edible (1)
(1)
Leucocoprinus badhamii
badhamii [edible] (1)
(1) Auricularia auricula-judae
auricula-judae edible
edible (1)
(1)
Leucocoprinus imerinensis (3)
edible (3) Auricularia delicata
de/icata edible
edible (1)
(1)
Leucocoprinus nanianae (5)
edible (5) Cantharellus
Cantharellus cibarius
cibarius edible
edible (1)
(1)
Leucocoprinus tanetensis edible (3)
(3) Cantharellus
Cantharellus congolensis
congolensis edible
edible (1)
(1)
Lycoperdon
Lycoperdon endotephrum edible (5)
(5) Cantharellus longisporus edible
edible (1)
(1)
Lysurus periphragmoides
Lysurus periphragmoides [edible] (1)
(1) Cantharellus tenuis edible
edible (1)
(1)
Macrocybe
Macro cybe spectabilis edible (3)
(3) Clavaria albiramea
Cfavaria albiramea edible
edible (1)
(1)
Macrolepiota
Macrolepiota excoria ta
excoriata [edible] (1)
[edible] (1) Collybia con
Collybia confluens
fluens edible
edible (1)
(1)
M. excoria ta var.
excoriata var. rubescens
rubescens (3)
edible (3) Collybia dryophila
dryophila edible
edible (1)
(1)
Macrolepiota procera
pro cera [edible]
[edible] (1)
(1) Coprinus disseminatus
disseminatus edible
edible (1)
(1)
M. procera var.
var. vezo
vezo edible
edible (5)
(5) Cymatoderma dendriticum
dendriticum edible
edible (1)
(1)
118 Wild
Wild edible
ediblefungi:
fungi: aa global
global overview
overview of their use and importance to
to people
people

Gyroporus castaneus
Gyroporus castaneus edible (1) MAURITIUS
lnocybe
Inocybe [edible] (1)
[edible] (1) 1.
1. Rammeloo
Rammeloo and
and Walleyn, 1993; 2.
Walleyn, 1993; 2. Walleyn and
Lactarius gymnocarpus
Lactarius edible (1) Rammeloo, 1994
Rammeloo,
pipera tus
Lactarius piperatus edible (1)
Coprinus castaneus
Coprinus casta neus edible (2)
Lactarius vellereus edible (1)
Macrocybe spectabilis
Macrocybe spectabilis [edible] (2)
(2)
Lentinus cladopus
cJadopus edible (1)
Pseudohydnum gelatinosum
Pseudohydnum gelatinosum edible (1)
Lentinus squarrulosus edible (1)
Tricholoma mauritianum
Tricholoma mauritianum edible (1)
Lepista caffrorum
Lepista caffrorum edible (1)
Volvariella volvacea
volvacea (1)
edible (1)
Macrocybe lobayensis edible (1)
Macrolepiota dolichaula edible (1)
Macrolepiota procera
procera edible (1) MEXICO

Micropsalliota brunneosperma
brunneosperma edible (1) 1. Lopez,
1. Lopez, Cruz
Cruz and
and Zamora-Martinez, 1992; 2. Mata,
Zamora-Martinez, 1992;
1987;
1987; 3.3. Montoya-Esquivel,
Montoya-Esquivel, 1998;
1998; 4.
4. Montoya-
Montoya-
Perenniporia mundula
Perenniporia medicinal (2)
(2) Esquivel
Esquivel et a/., 2001
et al., 2001;; 5.
5. Moreno-Fuentes
Moreno-Fuentes et et
Phlebopus colossus
colossus edible (1) aI. , 1996; 6. Richardson,
a/., Richardson, 1991;
1991; 7.
7. Villarreal and
Villarreal and
Phlebopus sudanicu~
Phlebopus sudanicu; edible (1) Perez-Moreno, 1989;
Perez-Moreno, 1989; 8.8.www.semarnat.gob.mx;
www.semarnat.gob.mx;
Polyporus brasiliensis edible (1)
9. Zamora-Martinez,
Zamora-Martinez, Alvardo and Dominguez, 2000; 2000;
10. Zamora-Martinez, Reygadas
Reygadas and Cifuentes, 1994
1994
Polyporus moluccensis edible (2)
Psathyrella atroumbonata
Psathyrella atroumbonata [edible] (2)
(2) Agaricus arvensis food (8)
(8)
Psathyrella candolleana
Psathyrella edible (1)
(1) Agaricus augustus food (8)
(8)
Pulveroboletus aberrans edible (1)
(1) Agaricus bisporus var.
var. albidus edible (7)
edible (7)
Pycnoporus sanguineus
Pycnoporus edible (1)
(1) Agaricus bisporus var.
Agaricus bisporus var. bisporus
bisporus edible (7)(7)
Rubinoboletus luteopurpureus edible (1)
Rubinoboletus (1) Agaricus
Agaricus bitorquis (8)
food (8)
Russula afronigricans
Russula afronigricans edible (1)
(1) Agaricus campestris food (8)
(8)
Russula cyanoxantha
Russula cyanoxantha edible (1)
(1) Agaricus comtulus food (8)
(8)
Russula delica
Russula del/ca edible (1)
(1) Agaricus essettei food (8)
(8)
Russula ochroleuca
Russula ochroleuca edible (1)
(1) Agaricus
Agaricus fuscofibrillosus food (8)
(8)
Russula rosea
Russula edible (1)
(1) Agaricus impudicus food (8)
(8)
Russula schizoderma
Russula schizoderma edible (1)
(1) Agaricus placomyces
placomyces edible (8)
(8)
Schizophyllum comm une
commune edible (1)
(1) Agaricus silvaticus food (8)
(8)
Stereopsis hiscens edible
edible (1)
(1) Agaricus silvicola
silvico/a food (8)
(8)
Suillus granulatus
Suillus granulatus edible
edible (1)
(1) A. squamuliferus var. caroli food (8)
(8)
Suillus luteus
Suillus edible
edible (1)
(1) Agaricus subperona
subperonatus tus food (8)
(8)
Termitomyces aura ntiacus
aurantiacus edible
edible (1)
(1) Agaricus subrutilescens food (8)
(8)
Termitomyces clypeatus
cJypeatus edible
edible (1)
(1) Agro cybe vervacti
Agrocybe edible (10)
edible (10)
Termitomyces
Termitomyces eurhizus edible
edible (1)
(1) Albatrellus
Albatrellus ovinus
ovinus food (8)
(8)
Termitomyces microcarpus
microcarpus edible
edible (1)
(1) Aleuria
Aleuria aura ntia
aurantia edible (7)
(7)
Termitomyces robustus
Termitomyces edible
edible (1)
(1) Amanita
Amanita caesarea
caesarea food (8)
(8)
Termitomyces schimperi
Termitomyces schimperi edible
edible (1)
(1) caesarea ff.. sp. americana
A. caesarea food (7)
(7)
Termitomyces stria tus
striatus edible
edible (1)
(1) Amanita calyptratoides (7)
edible (7)
Termitomyces
Termitomyces titanicus edible
edible (1)
(1) Amanita
Amanita calyptroderma
calyptroderma (10)
edible (10)
Trogia infundibuliformis
Trogia infundibuliformis [edible] (2)
(2) Amanita
Amanita ceciliae
ceciliae food (8)
(8)
Tubosa eta brunneosetosa
Tubosaeta brunneosetosa edible
edible (1)
(1) Amanita
Amanitacrocea
crocea (8)
food (8)
Vascellum
Vascellum pratense edible
edible (1)
(1) Amanita
Amanita flavivolva
flavivolva [edible], medicinal,
[edible].
Volvariella volvacea
volvacea edible
edible (1)
(1) (8)
insecticidal (8)
Xerocomus
Xerocomus pallidosporus
pallidosporus edible
edible (1)
(1) Amanita
Amanita flavoconia
flavoconia food (8)
(8)
Xerocomus
Xerocomus soyeri
soyeri edible
edible (1)
(1) Amanita
Amanita flavorubescens
flavorubescens edible (3)
(3)
Xerula radicata
radicata edible
edible (1)
(1) Amanita
Amanita fu/va
fulva food (8)
(8)
Amanita
Amanita gemmata
gemmata edible (10)
edible (10)
Amanita
Amanita inaurata
inaurata food (8)
(8)
MALAYSIA
Amanita
Amanitamusca
muscariaria medicinal,
medicinal,
1.
1. Burkhill,
Burkhill, 1935;
1935; 2.
2. Pegler
Pegler and
and Vanhaecke,
Vanhaecke, 1994
1994 insecticidal (8)
(8)
insecticidal
Termitomyces albuminosus food
food (1)
(1) Amanita
Amanitarubescens
rubescens food
food (8)
(8)
Termitomyces clypeatus
cJypeatus edible
edible (2)
(2) Amanita
Amanita tuza
tuza food (8)
food (8)
Termitomyces entolomoides
Termitomyces entolomoides edible
edible (2)
(2) Amanita
Amanita umbonata
umbonata food (8)
food (8)
Termitomyces eurhizus edible
edible (2)
(2) Amanita
Amanita vaginata
vaginata food
food (8)
(8)
Termitomyces heimii
Termitomyces heimii edible
edible (2)
(2) Arachnion
Arachnion album
album food
food (8)
(8)
Termitomyces microcarpus
microcarpus edible
edible (2)
(2) Armillaria
Armillaria luteovirens
luteovirens food (8)
food (8)
Termitomyces
Termitomyces stria tus
striatus edible
edible (2)
(2) Armillaria
Armillariame//ea
mellea food
food (8)
(8)
Armillaria
Armillaria ostoyae
ostoyae food
food (8)
(8)
Armillaria
Armillariatabescens
tabescens food
food (8)
(8)
Auricularia
Auricularia auricula-judae
auricula-judae edible
edible (8)
(8)
 Country records
Annex 2: Country records of
of wild
wild useful
useful fungi (edible,
(edible, medicinal and
and other
other uses)
uses) 119

delicata
Auricularia delicata edible (7) Coprinus comatus
Coprinus coma tus edible (7)
(7)
Auricularia fuscosuccinea
Auricularia fuscosuccinea edible (8) Cortinarius glaucopus food (4)
(4)
Auricularia mesenterica
Auricularia mesenterica edible (8) Craterellus
Craterellus cornucopioides food (8)
food
Auricularia polytricha
Auricularia polytricha edible (8) Craterellus
Craterellus fallax food
food (8)
Boletellus ananas food (8)
(8) Cronartium conigenum ed ib le (7)
edible
Boletellus betula
Boletellus food (8)
food (8) Daldinia concentrica med icinal (8)
medicinal (8)
Boletellus russellii food (8)
(8) Enteridium lycoperdon
Iycoperdon edible (7)
(7)
Boletinus
Boletinus lakei edible (7)
(7) Entoloma abortivum
Entoloma food (7)
(7)
Boletos aestivalis
Boletus (8)
food (8) Entoloma clypeatum food (4)
(4)
Boletus atkinsonii
Boletus atkinsonii edible (3)
(3) Favolus
Favolus alveolarius
alveolarius edible (7)
edible (7)
Boletus barrowsii
Boletus barro wsii edible (7)
(7) Favolus
Favolus brasiliensis edible (7)
(7)
Boletus bicoloroides
Boletus food (8)
food (8) Flammulina
Flammulina velutipes food (8)
(8)
Boletos edulis
Boletus edulis (8)
food (8) Fomitopsis
Fomitopsis pinicola medicinal (8) (8)
Boletus
Boletus erythropus
erythropus food (8)
(8) Fuligo septica edible (7)
Boletus
Boletus felleus edible (10)
(10) Ganoderma lobatum
Ganoderma lobatum medicinal (8)
Boletus
Bole tusfrostii
frostii (8)
food (8) Gautieria mexicana
mexicana edible (3)
(3)
Boletus
Boletus luridiformis
luridiformis edible (3)
(3) Geastrum saccatum
sacca tum medicinal (8) (8)
Boletos luridus
Boletus edible (7) Geastrum triplex
Geastrum triplex food (8);
food (8); medicinal
Boletus (2)
Boletos michoacanus food (8)
(8)
Boletus
Boletus pinicola
pinicola (8)
food (8) Gomphidius glutinosus
Gomphidius glutinosos edible (7)
Bole tuspinophilus
Boletus pinophilus (4)
food (4) Gomphus clavatus (8)
food (8)
Boletos
Boletus regius edible (8) Gomphus floccosus
floccosus · food (8)
(8)
Boletos
Boletus reticula tus
reticulatus (8)
food (8) Gomphus kauffmanii
Gomphus kauffmanii food (8)
food (8)
Boletus variipes food (8)
(8) Gyrodon
Gyrodon merulioides ed ible (7)
edible (7)
Bovista plumbea
Bovista plumbea var. food (8)
(8) Gyromitra infula
Gyromitra food
food (8)
(8)
ovalispora
ova/ispora Gyroporus castaneus edible
edib le (7)
(7)
Chalciporus
Chalciporus piperatus
piperatus edible (7)
(7) Hebeloma
Hebel orna fastibile
fastibile food
food (8)
(8)
Calvatia cyathiformis
Calvatia cyathiformis food (8)
food (8) Hebeloma mesophaeum food (4)
food (4)
Camarophyllus pratensis edible (7) He/ve//a acetabulum
Helvella acetabulum food (4)
(4)
Cantharellula umbonata
Cantharellula edible (7)
(7) Helvella
He/ve/la crispa food
food (8)
(8)
Cantharellus cibarius
cibarius food (7)
(7) He/ve/fa elastica
Helvella food (8)
(8)
Cantharellus odora
Cantharellus odoratus
tus food (7)
(7) He/ve/la infula
Helvella infula food (4)
(4)
Cantharellus tubiformis
Cantharellus tubiformis food (8)
(8) Helvella
He/ve//a lacunosa food
food (8)
(8)
Chlorophyllum molybdites
molybdites edible (7)
(7) Hericium caput-ursi edible (7)
(7)
Chroogomphus jamaicensis
Chroogomphus food (4)
(4) Hericium coralloides
Hericium edible (7)
(7)
Chroogomphus rutilus
Chroogomphus food (8)
(8) Hericium erinaceus food (8)
(8)
Chroogomphus vinicolor
Chroogomphus (8)
food (8) Hohenbuehelia petaloides
petaloides edible
edible (7)
(7)
C/avaria vermicularis
Clavaria food (8)
(8) Hydnopolyporus
Hydnopolyporus fimbria tus
fimbriatus edible (7)
edible (7)
C/avariadelphus
Cia va riadelph us cokeri food (8)
(8) Hydnopolyporus palmatus food (8)
(8)
Clavariadelphus pistillaris
Clavariadelphus pistillaris food (8)
(8) Hydnum repandum food (8)
(8)
Clavariadelphus truncatus
Clavariadelphus truncatus food (8)
(8) Hygrocybe nigrescens
nigrescens food (8)
(8)
Clava riadelphus unicolor
Clavariadelphus unicolor food
food (8)
(8) Hygrophoropsis auranbaca
aurantiaca food (8)
(8)
Clavicorona pyxidata
Clavicorona food (8)
(8) Hygrophorus chrysodon
chrysodon food (8)
(8)
C/avulina
Clavulina cinerea
cinerea (8)
food (8) Hygrophorus niveus
niveus food (8)
(8)
Clavulina cristata
cristata edible (7)
edible (7) Hygrophorus purpurascens food (8)
(8)
C/avulina rugosa
Clavulina edible (10)
(10) Hygrophorus russula
russula food (8)
(8)
Climacocystis
Climacocystis borealis
borealis edible (3)
(3) Hypomyces lactifluorum
Hypomyces lactifluorum food (8)
(8)
Clitocybe clavipes food (7)
(7) Hypomyces
Hypomyces macrosporus edible
edible (10)
(10)
Clitocybe gibba
Clitocybe food, medicinal
medicinal (8)
(8) Laccaria
Laccaria amethystina
amethystina food (8)
(8)
Clitocybe nebularis
Clitocybe food (8)
(8) Laccaria
Laccaria bicolor
bicolor food (8)
(8)
Clitocybe odora
odora edible (8)
(8) farinacea
Laccaria farinacea edible
edible (7)
(7)
Clitocybe squamulosa
squamulosa edible (3)
(3) Laccaria laccata food (8)
(8)
Clitocybe
Clitocybe suaveolens
suaveolens food (8)
(8) Laccaria proxima
Laccaria proxima food (8)
(8)
Clitopilus prunulus
prunulus food (8)
(8) Laccaria scrobiculatus
Laccaria scrobiculatus edible
edible (1)
(1)
Collybia acervata
acervata (7)
edible (7) Lactarius carbonicola
carbonicola edible
edible (3)
(3)
Collybia butyracea
butyracea food (8)
(8) Lactarius deliciosos
deliciosus food (7)
(7)
Collybia confluens food (8)
(8) Lactarius indigo
Lactarius indigo food (7)
(7)
Collybia dryophila food (4)
(4) Lactarius piperatus
piperatus food (8)
(8)
Collybia polyphylla edible (8)
(8) Lactarius salmonicolor
Lactarius salmonicolor food (8)
(8)
Cookeina sulcipes
sulcipes edible
edib le (7)
(7) Lactarius sanguifluus edible (7)
(7)
Cookeina
Cookeina tricholoma
tricho/oma edible (7)
(7) Lactarius scrobiculatus
scrobiculatus food (8)
(8)
120 Wild edible
Wild edible fungi:
fungi: a global overview of
of their use
use and
and importance
importance to
to people
people

Lactarius subdulcis edible (10) Pseudohydnum gelatinosum

gelatinosum edible (8)
(8)
Lactarius vellereus edible (7) Psilocybe zapotecorum
Psilocybe zapotecorum edible,
Lactarius volemus food (8)
(8) hallucinogen (8)
(8)

Lactarius yazooensis food (4)

(4) Pycnoporus sanguineus
sanguineus medicinal (8)
(8)
Laetiporus sulphureus food (8)
(8) Ramalina ecklonii
Ramalina ecklonii edible (8)
(8)

Langermannia gigantea
Langermannia food, medicinal (8) Ramaria aurea
Ramaria food (7)
(7)

Leccinum aurantiacum
Leccinum food (8)
(8) Ramaria bonii
Ramaria bonii edible (3)
(3)

Leccinum chromapes
Leccinum edible (7)
(7) Rama ria botrytis
Ramaria botrytis food (8)
(8)
Leccinum rugosiceps edible (3)
(3) Ramaria botrytoides
Ramaria botrytoides edible (3)
(3)

Lentinula boryana
boryana food (7)
(7) Ramaria cystidiophora
Ramaria edible (3)
(3)

Len tinus conchatus

Lentinus edible (7)
(7) Ramaria flava
Ramaria edible (8)
(8)

Lepiota aspera
aspera edible (7)
(7) Ramaria
Ramaria flavobrunnescens food (7)
(7)
Lepiota clypeolaria
c/ypeolaria edible (8)
(8) Ramaria rosella edible (3)
(3)

Lepista
Lepista irina edible (7)
(7) Ramaria
Ramaria rubiginosa food (8)
(8)

Lepista nuda food (8)

(8) Ramaria
Ramaria rubripermanens food (4)
(4)

Lepista personata edible (7)

(7) Ramaria san guinea
sanguinea edible (3)
(3)

Lycoperdon candidum
candidum edible (7)
(7) Ramaria
Ramaria stricta edible
edible (7)
(7)

Lycoperdon marginatum
Lycoperdon marginatum edible (3)
(3) Rhizopogon
Rhizopogon food (8)
(8)

Lycoperdon oblongisporum
Lycoperdon oblongisporum edible (7)
(7) Rhodophyllus
Rhodophyllus clypeatus
c/ypeatus food (8)
(8)

Lycoperdon peckii
Lycoperdon peckii food (8)
(8) Roccella other - dye (6) (6)

Lycoperdon perla
Lycoperdon perlatum
tum food (7)
(7) caperatus
Rozites capera tus food (8)
(8)

Lycoperdon pyriforme
Lycoperdon pyriforme food (8)
(8) Russula aciculocystis
Russula aciwlocystis edible
edible (3)
(3)

Lycoperdon rimulatum
Lycoperdon rimulatum (7)
edible (7) Russula
Russula alutacea food (8)
(8)

Lycoperdon umbrinum
Lycoperdon umbrinum food (8)
(8) Russula
Russula brevipes food (7)
(7)

L. umbrinum
L. umbrinum var. floccosum
floccosum edible (7)(7) Russula cyanoxantha
Russula cyanoxantha food (8)
(8)

Lyophyllum decastes
decastes food (7)
(7) Russula
Russula delica
de//ca food (4)
(4)

Lyophyllum ovisporum food (4)

(4) Russula
Russula densifolia
densifolia edible (7)
(7)
Macrolepiota procera
pro cera edible
edible (8)
(8) Russula
Russula emetica
emetica edible (9)
(9)
Macropodia macropus
macropus food (8)
(8) Russula
Russula lepida
lepida food (8)
(8)

Marasmius albogriseus
Marasmius edible
edible (7)
(7) Russula
Russula lutea
lutea food (8)
(8)

Marasmius oreades food (8)

(8) Russula
Russula macropoda
macropoda edible (3)
(3)

Melanoleuca evenosa
Melano/euca evenosa edible (7)(7) Russula mariae
Russula mariae food (4)
(4)

Melanoleuca grammopodia
Melanoleuca edible
edible (7)
(7) Russula mexicana
Russula edible (10)
(10)

Melanoleuca melaleuca
melaleuca edible
edible (7)
(7) Russula nigricans
Russula nigricans food (8)
(8)

Merulius incamatus
incarnatus food
food (8)
(8) Russula olivacea
Russula olivacea food (8)
(8)

Morchella angusticeps
angusticeps edible (10)
(10) Russula
Russula ornaticeps
orna ticeps edible (3)
(3)

Morchella conica
conica food
food (8)
(8) Russulaqueletii
Russula queletii edible (10)
(10)

Morchella costata
costata edible (7)
(7) Russula romagnesiana
Russula romagnesiana food (4)
(4)
Morchella crassipes
Morchella crassipes food (8)
(8) Russula rubroalba
Russula rubroalba edible (3)
(3)

Morchella elata
elata food
food (8)
(8) vesca
Russula vesca edible (7)
(7)

Morchella esculenta
eswlenta food
food (8)
(8) Russula xerampelina
Russula xerampelina food (4)
(4)

Mycena pura food (8)

(8) Sarcodon imbricatus
Sarcodon food (8)
(8)

Neolentinus lepideus
lepideus edible (8)
(8) Sarcoscypha
Sarcoscypha coccinea food (8)
(8)

Neolentinus ponderosus
ponderosus food (5)
(5) Sarcosphaera eximia
Sarcosphaera food (4)
(4)

Oudemansiella canarii
Oudemansiella canarii food (8)
(8) Schizophyllum commune edible
edible (7)
(7)
Panus
Panus crinitus
crin/tus edible (7)
(7) Schizophyllum fasciatum
fascia tum edible
edible (7)
(7)

Paxina acetabulum
Paxina acetabulum food (8)
(8) Sparassis crispa
Sparassis food (8)
(8)

Peziza badia
Peziza badia food (8)
(8) Strobilomyces
Strobilomyces con fusus
confusus edible (7)(7)

Pholiota lenta
Pholiota food (4)
(4) Strobilomyces floccopus food (8)
(8)

Pleurotus cornucopiae edible (7)

(7) Stropharia coronilla food (4)
(4)

Pleurotus djamor
Pleurotus djamor food (8)
(8) Suillus acidus edible
edible (7)
(7)

Pleurotus dryinus food (8)

(8) Suillus americanus food (8)
(8)

Pleurotus /evis
levis food (8)
(8) Suillus brevipes food (8)
(8)

Pleurotus ostreatoroseus edible (7)

(7) Suit Ius cavipes
Suillus cavipes food (8)
(8)

Pleurotus ostrea tus

ostreatus food (7);
(7); Suillus granulatus food (8)
(8)
medicinal (8) (8) Suillus
Suillus hirtellus food (8)
(8)
Pleurotus smithii
Pleurotus smithii edible
edible (7)
(7) Suillus luteus food (8)
(8)
Pluteus aurantiorugosus
Pluteus aurantiorugosus food (8)
(8) pseudobrevipes
Suillus pseudobrevipes food (4)
(4)
Pluteus cervinus
Pluteus food (7)
(7) Suillus tomentosus food (8)
(8)
Pogonomyces hydnoides
Pogonomyces food (8)
(8) Tephrocybe atrata
Tephrocybe atrata edible
edible (10)
(10)
Psathyrella spadicea edible
edible (10)
(10) Thelephora paraguayensis medicinal (2)(2)
Annex 2: Country
Country records
records of
of wild
wild useful
useful fungi (edible,
(edible, medicinal and
and other
other uses)
uses) 121

Trametes
Trametes versicolor
versicolor medicinal (8) Terfezia
Ter fezia leonis edible (5)
(5)
Tremella con
concrescens
crescens edible
edible (8) Tirmania nivea
nivea edible (1)
edible (1)
Tremellodendron schweinitzii
Tremellodendron edible
edible (8)
(8) Tricholoma caligatum
Tricholoma edible
edible (5)
(5)
Tricholoma flavovirens
Tricholoma flavovirens food
food (8)
(8) Tricholoma nauseosum
nauseosum edible (2)
(2)
Tricholoma magnivelare
Tricholoma magnivelare food
food (8)
(8) Tuber oligospermum
Tuber oligospermum edible (3)
(3)
Tricholoma sejunctum
Tricholoma food
food (8)
(8)
Tricholoma
Tricholoma ustaloides edible
edible (10)
(10)
MYAN MAR
MYANMAR
Tricholoma vaccinum
Tricholoma edible
edible (10)
(10) Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994
1994
Tylopilus felleus
Tylopilus food (4)
(4)
Ustilago maydis
Ustilago food (7)
(7) Termitomyces
Termitomyces eurhizus edible
edible
Vascellum curtisii
Vascellum curtisii edible (7)
(7)
Vascellumintermedium
Vascellum intermedium food (8)
(8) NAMIBIA
Vascellum
Vascellum pratense
pratense edible (7),
(7), 1. Rammeloo
1. Ramrneloo and
and Walleyn,
Walleyn, 1993; 2. Taylor
1993; 2. Taylor et
et al.,
al.,
medicinal
medicinal (8)(8) 1995; 3. Walleyn
1995; 3. VValleyn and
and Rammeloo, 1994
1994
Vascellum
Vascellum qudenii
qudenii food, medicinal
medicinal (8)
(8)
Battarrea stevenii
Battarrea stevenii medicinal;
Volvariella bombycina
Volvariella edible (7)
(7) cosmetic
cosmetic (3)
(3)
Volvariella volvacea
volvacea edible (7)
(7)
Terfezia pfeilii
Terfezia pfeilii food (2)
food (2)
Xanthoconium separans
Xanthoconium separans edible (7)
(7) edible (1)
Termitomyces schimperi
Termitomyces (1)
Xerocomus
Xerocomus badius edible (7)
(7) Termitomyces
Termitomyces umkowaanii
umkowaanii edible (1)
(1)
Xerocomus
Xerocomus chrysenteron edible (8)
(8)
spadiceus
Xerocomus spadiceus edible (8)
(8)
NEPAL
Xeromphalina campanella medicinal (8)
(8)
1. Adhikari,
1. Adhikari, 1999; 2. Adhikari and
1999; 2. and Durrieu,
Durrieu, 1996;
1996;
Richardson, 1991;
3. Richardson, 4. Zang
1991; 4. Zang and Doi, 1995
1995
MOZAMBIQUE
Agaricus
Agaricus bitorquis food (1)
food (1)
1. Uaciquete,
1. Uaciquete, Dai
Dai and
and Motta, 1996;
1996; 2.
2. Wilson,
Cammack and Shumba,
Shumba, 1989
1989 Agaricus campestris edible (1)
edible (1)
Agaricus silvicola food (1)
(1)
Afroboletus
Afroboletus luteolus
luteolus food (1)
(1)
Agaricus subrufescens
subrufescens food (1)
food (1)
Amanita hemibapha food (2)
(2) Amanita caesarea
Amanita caesarea food (1)
(1)
Armillaria me/lea
mellea food (1)
(1) Amanita chepangiana
chepangiana edible (2)
(2)
Auricularia auricula-judae
auricula-judae food (2)
(2) Amanita hemibapha
hemibapha edible (1)
(1)
Boletus edulis food (1)
(1) Amanita vaginata
vaginata edible (2)
(2)
Cantharellus cibarius food (2)
(2)
Armillaria
Armillaria me//ea
mellea edible (1)
(1)
Cantharellus densifolius food (1)
(1) sp.
Astraeus sp.
Astraeus edible
edible (2)
(2)
Cantharellus longisporus food (2)
(2)
Auricularia auricula-judae
auricula-judae edible
edible (1)
(1)
Cantharellus pseudocibarius food (1)
(1) Auricularia delicata
delicata edible
edible (1)
(1)
Cantharellus symoensii food (1)
(1) Auricularia mesenterica
mesenterica edible (1)
(1)
Coprinus micaceus
micaceus food (1)
(1) Auricularia polytricha
polytricha edible (1)
edible (1)
Len tinus squarrulosus
Lentinus squarrulosus food (2)
(2)
Boletus edulis edible (2)
edible (2)
Leucoagaricus leucothites
Leucoagaricus leucothites food (1)
(1) Bole tus luridus
Boletus edible
edible (2)
(2)
Micropsalliota brunneosperma
brunneosperma food (2)
(2) Boletus vitellinus edible (2)
edible (2)
Phlebopus colossus
colossus food (2)
(2)
Cantharellus cibarius
cibarius food (1)
(1)
Psathyrella candolleana
Psathyrella food (2)
(2)
Cantharellus odoratus
odoratus edible (1)
(1)
Schizophyllum commune
Schizophyllum food (1)
(1)
Cantharellus subalbidus edible (2)
(2)
Termitomyces food
food (1)
(1) Cantharellus subcibarius edible (1)
(1)
Termitomyces clypeatus food
food (2)
(2) Cantharellus
Cantharellus tubiformis edible (2)
(2)
Termitomyces eurhizus food
food (2)
(2)
Clavaria
Clavaria vermicularis edible (2)
(2)
Termitomyces
Termitomyces microcarpus food
food (2)
(2)
Clavulina cinerea
cinerea food (1)
(1)
Termitomyces
Termitomyces schimperi food
food (2)
(2)
C/avulina
Clavulina cristata
cristata food (1)
(1)
C/avulinopsis fusiformisis
Clavulinopsis fusiform edible (2)
(2)
MOROCCO Collybia butyracea
butyracea edible (2)
(2)
1. Alsheikh and Trappe,
1. Trappe, 1983;
1983; 2. Kytovuori,
Kytovuori, 1989;
1989; Coprinus coma
Coprinus comatus
tus edible (2)
(2)
3. Moreno-Arroyo
3. Moreno-Arroyo eta/.,
et al.,2001;
2001;4.4.Richardson,
Richardson, 1991;
1991;
5. FAG,
5. FAO, 2001
2001bb
Cordyceps
Cordyceps sinensis
sinensis medicinal (1)
(1)
Craterellus cornucopioides
cornucopioides edible (1)
(1)
Agaricus bisporus
bisporus edible (5)
edible (5)
Crepidotus mollis
mollis [edible] (2)
[edible] (2)
Boletus edulis edible
edible (5)
(5)
Evernia prunastri
Evernia prunastri other --
Cantharellus cibarius edible (5)
(5) perfume (96)
(96)
Evernia prunastri
Evernia prunastri other --
other Fibroporia vaillantii
Fibroporia medicinal (2)
(2)
perfume (4) (4)
Fistulina hepatica
Fistulina medicinal (2)
(2)
Morchella sp.
Morchella sp. edible
edible (5)
(5)
Flammulina velutipes
Flammulina edible (1)
(1)
Pleurotus
Pleurotus ostrea tus
ostreatus edible (5)
edible (5)
Ganoderma
Ganoderma applanatum medicinal (2)
(2)
Pseudevernia
Pseudevernia furfuracea other --
Ganoderma lucidum [medicinal] (2)
(2)
perfume (4) (4)
122
122 Wild
Wild edible
edible fungi:
fungi: aa global overview of their use and
and importance
importance to
to people
people

Geastrum sp.
sp. edible (2)
edible (2) NIGERIA
NIGERIA
Grifola frondosa food (1)
food (1) 1. Alofe,
1. and Oke,
Alofe, Odeyemi and Oke, 1996;
1996; 2.
2. Oso,
Oso, 1975;
1975;
Hericium clathroides
Hericium edible (1)
edible (1) Rammeloo and
3. Rammeloo and Walleyn,
Walleyn, 1993; 4. Walleyn and
1993; 4.
Rammeloo,
Rammeloo, 1994
1994
Hericium coralloides
Hericium food (1)
food (1)
Hericium erinaceus
Hericium erinaceus food (1)
food (1) Agro cybe broadwayi
Agrocybe broadwayi food (2)
(2)
Hericium flagellum
Hericium flagellum food (1)
food (1) Armillaria me/lea
mellea edible (3)
(3)
Hericium laciniatum
Hericium edible (2)
edible Auricularia auricula-judae food (2)
(2)
Hydnum ranceo-foetidum
Hydnum [edible] (1)
[edible] (1) Calvatia cyathiformis
Calvatia cyathiformis food, medicinal
medicinal (2)
(2)
Hydnum repandum
Hydnum repandum food (1)
(1) Chlorophyllum molybdites edible (3)
(3)
lnonotus hispidus
Inonotus medicinal (2)
medicinal Coprinus africanus food (2)
(2)
Laccaria amethystina
Laccaria amethystina food (1)
(1) Lentinus subnudus edible (1)
(1)
Laccaria laccata
Laccaria food (1)
(1) tuber-regium
Lentinus tuber-regium food (2);
(2); medicinal,
Lactarius deliciosus food (2)
(2) cosmetic (4)
(4)
Lactarius piperatus
Lactarius piperatus edible (2)
(2) Lentinus velutinus
velutinus medicinal (4)
(4)
Lactarius volemus
Lactarius edible (2)
edible Macrocybe
Macro cybe lobayensis food (2)
(2)
Laetiporus sulphureus food (1)
(1) Panus
Panus flavus (2)
medicinal (2)
Lentinula edodes food (1)
(1) Phallus aurantiacus [poisonous].
[poisonous],
Lycoperdon sp.
sp. edible (2)
edible (4)
medicinal (4)
Macrolepiota procera edible (2)
(2) Pleurotus squarrosulus food (2)
(2)

Marasmius oreades edible

edible (2)
(2) Psathyrella atroumbonata
Psathyrella atroumbonata food (2)
(2)

Meripilus giganteus food (2)

(2) Schizophyllum commune food (2)
(2)

Morchella con/ca
conica edible (1)
(1) Termitomyces clypea
Termitomyces clypeatus
tus (2)
food (2)
Morchella deliciosa
deliciosa edible (1)
(1) Termitomyces globulus
Termitomyces globulus (2);
food (2);
animal poison
poison (4)
(4)
Morchella elata [eilible] (1)
[edible] (1)
Termitomyces mammiformis
Termitomyces mammiformis (2)
food (2)
Morchella esculenta edible (1)
(1)
microcarpus
Termitomyces microcarpus (2);
food (2);
Morchella smithiana [edible] (1)
(1) medicinal (4)
(4)
Morchella esculenta
esculenta var.
var. edible (1)
(1) robustus
Termitomyces robustus food (2)
(2)
vulgaris
Termitomyces stria
Termitomyces striatus
tus (3)
edible (3)
Pholiota nameko edible (2)
(2)
Volvariella esculenta
esculenta (2)
food (2)
Pleurotus circinatus
Pleurotus circinatus edible (1)
(1)
Volvariella volvacea
Volvariella volvacea food (2)
(2)
Pleurotus cornucopiae
Pleurotus cornucopiae edible (1)
(1)
Pleurotus dryinus food (1)
(1)
Pleurotus nepalensis edible (1)
(1) PAKISTAN
PAKISTAN

Pleurotus ostrea tus

ostreatus food (1)
(1) 1. Batra, 1983;
1983; 2.
2. Gardezi,
Gardezi, 1993;
1993; 3.
3. FAO,
FAO, 1993b;
1993b;
4. Pegler and Vanhaecke,
Vanhaecke, 1994;
1994; 5.
5. Syed-Riaz
Syed-Riaz and
var. magnificus
P ostreatus var. edible (1)
Mahmood-Khan,
Mahmood-Khan, 1999 1999
Pleurotus pulmonarius edible (1)
Pluteus cervinus food (1)
(1) Agaricus augustus edible (2)
edible (2)
Polyporus arcularius food (1)
(1) Agaricus campestris
campestris edib le (2)
edible (2)
Polyporus badius edible (1) Agaricus placomyces edible (2)
edible (2)
Polyporus brumalis medicinal (2)
(2) Agaricus rodmani edible
edib le (2)
(2)
Pycnoporus cinnabarinus
Pycnoporus edible
edible (2)
(2) Agaricus silvaticus
silvaticus edible (2)
edible (2)
Ramaria aurea food (2)
(2) Agaricus silvicola edible
edible (2)
(2)
Ramaria botrytis
Ramaria botrytis food
food (1)
(1) Armillaria
Armillaria me/lea
mellea edible (5)
edible (5)
Ramaria flava
Ramaria food
food (2)
(2) Cantharellus cibarius
cibarius edible (5)
edible (5)
Ramaria formosa
Ramaria edible (2)
(2) Craterellus cornucopioides edible (5)
edible (5)
Ramaria fuscobrunnea
Ramaria food
food (1)
(1) Flammulina velutipes edible (5)
edible (5)
Ramaria obtusissima food
food (1)
(1) Macrolepiota
Macrolepiota procera
procera edible (5)
edible (5)
Rhizopogon luteolus edible (2)
(2) Morchella
Morchella angusticeps
angusticeps edible (3)
edible (3)
Russula chloroides
Russula ch/oroides food
food (2)
(2) Morchella
Morchella conica
conica edible (3)
edible (3)
Russula delica
Russula del/ca edible (2)
(2) Morchella
Morchella esculenta
esculenta edible (3)
edible (3)
Russula nigricans
Russula nigricans edible
edible (2)
(2) Podaxis pistillaris
Podaxis pistillaris edible (1)
edible (1)
Russula virescens
Russula food
food (2)
(2) Termitomyces clypea
Termitomyces clypeatus
tus edible
edible (4)
(4)
Scleroderma citrinum
Scleroderma citrinum edible
edible (1)
(1) Termitomyces eurhizus
eurhizus edible (4)
edible (4)
Scleroderma texense
texense edible
edible (1)
(1) Termitomyces he/mil
heimii edible (4)
edible (4)
Secotium himalaicum
Secotium edible
edible (149)
(149) Termitomyces
Termitomyces microcarpus
microcarpus edible
edible (4)
(4)
Termitomyces eurhizus food
food (1)
(1) Termitomyces radicatus
Termitomyces radicatus edible (4)
edible (4)
Trametes hirsuta
hirsuta medicinal (2)
(2) Termitomyces stria
Termitomyces striatus
tus edible (4)
edible (4)
Tremella mesenterica
mesenterica edible
edible (2)
(2)
Volvariella
Volvariella volvacea
volvacea food
food (1)
(1)
Xerula
Xerula radicata
radicata food
food (1)
(1)
 records of
Annex 2: Country records of wild
w ild useful
useful ffungi
ungi (edible, medicinal and other
other uses)
uses) 123
-------------------------------

PAPUA
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
GUINEA PHILIPPINES
PHILIPPINES
Sillitoe, 1995
1995 1. Novellino,
1. Novellino, 1999;
1999; 2. Pegler and Vanhaecke,
Vanhaecke, 1994.
1994.
Seealso
See alsoMendoza,
Mendoza, 1938
1938-- records
records not included
included
Armillaria sp.
sp. not eaten
eaten
?spp.
Agaricus ?spp. food (1)
(1)
Auricularia polytricha
Auricularia polytricha not eaten
eaten
Ganoderma ?spp.
Ganoderma ?spp. food (1)
(1)
erythropus var.
Boletus erythropus var. edible
novoguineensis Pleurotus ?spp.
Pleurotus ?spp. food (1)
(1)
Boletus nigrovio/aceus
Boletus nigroviolaceus edible Polyporus ?spp.
?spp. food (1)
(1)

Bondarzewia montana
Bondarzewia edible Termitomyces eurhizus edible (2)
(2)
Cantharellus edible Termitomyces microcarpus edible (2)
(2)
Collybia sp.
sp. not eaten
eaten Termitomyces stria
striatus
tus edible (2)
(2)
Cortinarius sp.
Cortinarius sp. edible
Grifola frondosa
frondosa edible POLAND
POLAND
Gymnopilus novoguineensis not eaten
eaten www.grzyby.pl
Inocybe sp.
sp. edible
Armillaria me/lea
mellea food
Laccaria amethystea
Laccaria edible
Auricularia auricula-judae
auricu/a-judae food
Lactarius edible
Boletus edulis food
Lentinula lateritia
Lentinu/a edible
Cantharellus cibarius food
Lentinus araucariae edible
Lactarius deliciosus food
Lentinus umbrinus not eaten
eaten
Leccinum griseum food
Micro porus affinis
Microporus affinis edible
Leccinum scabrum food
Microporus xanthopus not eaten
eaten
Macrolepiota procera
procera food
Oudemansiella
Oudemansiella canarii edible
Pleurotus ostreatus
Pleurotus ostrea tus food
Phaeomarasmius affinis
Phaeomarasmius affinis edible
Rozites caperatus food
Phellinus senex not eaten
not
Russula cyanoxantha
Russula cyanoxantha food
Phollota
Pholiota austrospumosa
austrospumosa edible
Tricholoma equestre food
Phylloporus bellus
bellus not eaten
not
Xerocomus
Xerocomus badius food
Pleurotus djamor
Pleurotus djamor edible
Xerocomus
Xerocomus subtomentosus food
arcu/arius
Polyporus arcularius edible
Polyporus
Polyporus blanchetianus edible
Polyporus ten uiculus
tenuiculus edible ReUNION
RÉUNION

Pycnoporus coccineus
coccineus other -- Rammeloo and Walleyn,
Walleyn, 1993
1993
raw material
Volvariella volvacea
volvacea edible
Pycnoporus sanguineus edible
Ramaria fistulosa edible
edible
Russula amaendum
Russula amaendum edible
edible RUSSIAN FEDERATION
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Russula eburneoareolata
Russula eburneoareolata edible
edible 1. Saar, 1991; 2.
Saar, 1991; 2. Vasil'
Vasil'eva, 1978. Note:
eva, 1978. Note: This
This is
is only
for the
for theRussian
Russian far
far east.
east.
Russula pseudoamaendum
Russula pseudoamaendum edible
edible
Strobilomyces velutipes edible
edible Agaricus campestris
campestris edible (2)
(2)
Trametes versicolor
Trametes not eaten
not Agaricus
Agaricus placomyces
placomyces edible (2)
(2)
Trogia sp.
sp. edible
edible Agaricus silvaticus edible (2)
(2)
Agaricus silvicola
silvicola edible
edible (2)
(2)
Aleuria
Aleuria aura ntia
aurantia [edible]
[edible] (2)
(2)
PERU
PERU
1. Diez,
1. Diez, 2003,
2003, personal
personal communication:
communication: Collecting Amanita
Amanita caesareoides
caesareoides edible
edible (2)
(2)
Boletus edulis for
for commercial
commercial purposes
purposes in
in Peru;
Peru; 2. Amanita
Amanita crocea
crocea edible
edible (2)
(2)
Remotti and
and Colan,
Colan, 1990
1990 Amanita
Amanita muscaria
muscaria poisonous
poisonous (2);(2);
medicinal (1)(1)
Auricularia delicata
delicata edible (2)
(2)
Amanita vaginata
vaginata edible
edible (2)
(2)
Auricularia
Auricularia fuscosuccinea
fuscosuccinea edible (2)
(2)
Armillaria
Armillaria mellea
mellea edible
edible (2)
(2)
Boletus edulis food (1)
(1)
Auricularia auricula-judae
auricu/a-judae edible
edible (2)
(2)
Favolus
Favolus alveolarius edible (2)
(2)
Auricularia polytricha edible
edible (2)
(2)
Favolus brasiliensis edible (2)
(2)
Bo/etinus asiaticus
Boletinus asiaticus edible (2)
(2)
Lentinus conchatus
conchatus edible (2)
(2)
Boletinus
Bo/etinus paluster
pa/uster not
not known
known (2) (2)
Pleurotus
Pleurotus concavus
concavus edible
edible (2)
(2)
Boletus
Boletus calopus
ca/opus edible
edible (2)
(2)
Pleurotus ostreatus edible
edible (2)
(2)
edulis
Boletus edulis not
not edible
edible (2)
(2)
Pleurotus
Pleurotus roseopilea tus
roseopi/eatus edible
edible (2)
(2)
Boletus erythropus
erythropus edible
edible (2)
(2)
Pluteus cervinus
cervinus edible
edible (2)
(2)
Bole tus luridus
Boletus edible (2)
edible (2)
Polyporus arcularius edible
edible (2)
(2)
Bole tus regius
Boletus edible
edible (2)
(2)
Polyporus
Polyporus san guineus
sanguineus edible
edible (2)
(2)
B.
B. tomentososquamulosus
tomentososquamulosus not
not edible
edible (2)
(2)
Schizophyllum edible
edible (2)
(2)
brevilamellatum Bovista plumbea
plumbea edible
edible (2)
(2)

Schizophyllum commune edible

edible (2)
(2)
Buchwaldoboletus
Buchwaldobo/etus spectabilis
spectabilis edible
edible (2)
(2)

Volvariella
Volvariella bakeri edible
edible (2)
(2) Ca/ocybe gambosa
Ca/ocybe edible (2)
edible (2)
124
124 Wild
Wild edible
edible fungi:
fungi: aa global overview of their use and
and importance
importance to
topeople
people

Ca/vatia excipuliformis
Calvatia excipuliformis (2)
edible (2) Hygrophorus
Hygrophorus lucorum (2)
edible (2)
Calvatia
Calva tiautriformis
utriformis edible (2) Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus
olivaceoalbus (2)
edible (2)
Camarophyllus niveus edible (2)
(2) Hygrophorus pudorinus
pudorinus (2)
edible (2)
Camarophyllus pratensis edible (2)
edible (2) Hygrophorus
Hygrophorus russula
russula (2)
edible (2)
Camarophyllus virgineus not known (2) (2) lnonotus
Inonotus obliquus
obliquus medicinal
medicinal (1)
Cantharellus cibarius edible (2)
edible (2) mutabilis
Kuehneromyces muta bilis (2)
edible (2)
Cantharellus floccosus
floccosus edible (2)
edible (2) Laccaria amethystina
Lacearía amethystina (2)
edible (2)
Catathelasma ven tricosum
ventricosum edible (2)
edible (2) Laccaria laccata
Lacearía (2)
edible (2)
Chalciporus piperatus
Chalciporus piperatus edible (2)
(2) Lactarius chrysorrheus (2)
edible (2)
Chroogomphus rutilus
Chroogomphus rutilus edible (2)
(2) controversus
Lactarius contro versus (2)
edible (2)
Clavaria
Clavaria purpurea
purpurea (2)
edible (2) Lactarius deliciosus edible (2)
(2)
Clavariadelphus
C/avariadelphus pistillaris
pistillaris (2)
edible (2) Lactarius
Lactarius flavidulus (2)
edible (2)
Clavariadelphus
C/avariadelphus sachalinensis (2)
edible (2) Lactarius insulsus (2)
edible (2)
Clavariadelphus truncatus
Clavariadelphus edible (2)
edible (2) Lactarius japonicus
japonicus (2)
edible (2)
C/avulina amethystina
Clavulina edible (2)
edible (2) Lactarius necator
Lactarius (2)
edible (2)
Clavulina
Clavulina cristata edible (2)
(2) Lactarius piperatus
Lactarius piperatus edible (2)
(2)
Clitocybe infundibuliformis
Clitocybe infundibuliformis (2)
edible (2) Lactarius pubescens (2)
edible (2)
Clitocybe
Clitocybe nebularis (2)
edible (2) Lactarius pyrogalus (2)
edible (2)
Clitocybe odora
Clitocybe (2)
edible (2) Lactarius repraesentaneus
Lactarius (2)
[edible] (2)
Clitocybe suaveolens edible (2)
(2) Lactarius resimus edible (2)
(2)
Clitopilus prunulus edible (2)
(2) Lactarius
Lactarius rufus (2)
edible (2)
Collybia contorta
Coilybia contorta (2)
edible (2) Lactarius scrobiculatus edible (2)
(2)
Collybia dryophila
Collybia (2)
edible (2) Lactarius torminosus
Lactarius edible (2)
edible
Coprinus atramentarius
Coprinus atramentarius (2)
edible (2) Lactarius trivialis
Lactarius edible (2)
edible
Coprinus coma
comatus
tus (2)
edible (2) Lactarius
Lactarius uvidus [edible]
[edible] (2)
Coprinus micaceus edible (2)
(2) Lactarius vellereus edible (2)
edible
Cortinarius alboviolaceus (2)
edible (2) Lactarius volemus edible (2)
edible
Cortinarius armeniacus edible (2)
(2) Laetiporus sulphureus edible (2)
edible
Cortinarius armilla tus
armillatus (2)
edible (2) Langermannia gigantea
Langermannia edible
edible (2)
Cortinarius collinitus
Cortinarius edible (2)
(2) Leccinum
Leccinum aura ntiacum
aurantiacum edible
edible (2)
Cortinarius glaucopus edible (2)
(2) Leccinum
Leccinum chromapes
chromapes edible (2)
(2)
Cortinarius orichalceus edible (2)
(2) Leccinum extremiorientale
Leccinum extremiorientale edible (2)
(2)
Cortinarius prasinus edible (2)
(2) Leccinum
Leccinum holopus
holopus not known
known (2)
(2)
Craterellus cornucopioides
Craterellus comucopioides edible (2)
(2) Leccinum
Leccinum oxydabile
oxydabile edible (2)
(2)
Flammulina velutipes
Flammulina edible (2)
(2) Leccinum
Leccinum scabrum
scabrum edible
edible (2)
Fomes fomentarius
Fomes fomentarius medicinal (1)
(1) Leccinum testaceoscabrum
Leccinum edible
edible (2)
maculatus
Gomphidius maculatus edible (2)
(2) Lepista
Lepista glaucocana
glaucocana edible
edible (2)
purpurascens
Gomphidius purpurascens edible (2)
(2) Leucoagaricus
Leucoagaricus leucothites edible
edible (2)
Gomphus clavatus edible (2)
(2) Leucocortinarius bulbiger
Leucocortinarius bulbiger edible
edible (2)
Gyromitra ambigua
Gyromitra edible (2)
(2) Limacella illinita
Limacella illinita edible
edible (2)
Gyromitra esculenta
esculenta not known
known (2) (2) Lycoperdon perlatum
Lycoperdon perlatum edible
edible (2)
Gyromitra infula not known
known (2) (2) Lycoperdon
Lycoperdon pyriforme [edible]
[edible] (2)
Gyromitra
Gyromitra ussuriensis
ussuriensis edible (2)
(2) Lyophyllum connatum
connatum edible
edible (2)
He/ve//a
Helvella crispa edible (2)
(2) Lyophyllum
Lyophyllumdecastes
decastes edible (2)
edible
Hericium erinaceus
erinaceus edible (2)
(2) Lyophyllum ulmarium edible (2)
edible
Hydnotrya tulasnei edible (2)
(2) Macrolepiota procera
procera edible (2)
edible (2)
Hydnum repandum edible (2)
(2) Macrolepiota puellaris
puellaris edible (2)
edible
Hygrocybe
Hygrocybe cantharellus edible (2)
(2) Marasmius oreades edible (2)
edible
Hygrocybe coccinea
coccinea edible (2)
(2) Marasmius scorodonius edible (2)
edible
Hygrocybe conica
conica edible (2)
(2) Melanoleuca brevipes
brevipes edible (2)
edible
Hygrocybe
Hygrocybe laeta edible (2)
(2) Melanoleuca grammopodia edible (2)
edible (2)
Hygrocybe obrussea
obrussea edible (2)
(2) Melanoleuca verrucipes
verrucipes not
not known
known (2)
(2)
Hygrocybe psittacina edible (2)
(2) Morchella
Morchella conica
conica edible (2)
edible (2)
Hygrocybe punicea edible (2)
(2) Morchella
Morchella esculenta
esculenta edible (2)
edible (2)
Hygrocybe unguinosa edible (2)
(2) Otidea onotica
onotica edible
edible (2)
(2)
Hygropho rus agathosmus
Hygrophorus edible (2)
(2) Oudemansiella edible (2)
edible (2)
Hygrophorus camarophyllus edible (2)
(2) brunneomarginata
brunneomarginata
Hygrophorus chrysodon edible
edible (2)
(2) Oudemansiella mucidamucida edible (2)
edible (2)
Hygrophorus eburneus edible
edible (2)
(2) serotinus
Panellus serotinus edible (2)
edible (2)
Hygrophorus
Hygrophorus erubescens
erubescens edible
edible (2)
(2) Paxillus
Paxillus involutus edible (2)
edible (2)
Hygrophorus limacinus
limacinus edible
edible (2)
(2) Phaeolepiota aureaaurea edible (2)
edible (2)
Annex 2: Country
Country records
records of
ofwild
wild useful
useful fungi (edible,
(e dible, medicinal and
and other
other uses)
uses) 125
125

Phallus impudicus
Phallus not edible
edible (2)(2) Suillus subluteus
Suillus subluteus edible
edible (2)
(2)
Phellinus igniarius
Phellinus medicinal (1)(1) Suillus variegatus
Suillus edible (2)
(2)
Pholiota aurivella
Pholiota edible (2)
(2) Suillus viscidus edible (2)
(2)
Pleurotus citrinopileatus
Pleurotus citrinopileatus edible (2)
(2) Tremiscus helvelloides
Tremiscus helvelloides edible (2)
(2)
Pleurotus ostrea
Pleurotus tus
ostreatus edible (2)
(2) Tricholoma atrosquamosum
atrosquamosum edible (2)
(2)
Plicaria
Plica ria badia
badia edible (2)
(2) Tricholoma
Tricholoma fulvum edible (2)
(2)
Plateas
Pluteus cervinus edible (2)
(2) Tricholoma
Tricholoma orirubens edible (2)
(2)
Pluteus coccineus
coccineus edible (2)
(2) Tricholoma
Tricholoma portentosum edible (2)
(2)
Polyporus squamosus edible (2)
(2) Tricholoma
Tricholoma terreum edible (2)
(2)
Porphyrellus
Porphyrellus atrobrunneus edible (2)
(2) Tricholomopsis decora edible (2)
(2)
Porphyrellus
Porphyrellus pseudoscaber
pseudoscaber edible (2)
(2) Tricholomopsis rutilans
rutilans edible (2)
(2)
Pseudohydnum
Pseudohydnum gelatinosum edible (2)
(2) Tylopilus neofelleus
Tylopilus neofe//eus not edible
edible (2)
(2)
Psiloboletinus lariceti edible (2)
(2) Volvariella speciosa
speciosa edible (2)
edible (2)
Ptychoverpa bohemica edible (2)
(2) Xerocomus badius edible (2)
edible (2)
Ramaria aurea
aurea edible (2)
(2) Xerocomus chrysenteron
Xerocomus edible (2)
edible (2)
Ramaria botrytoides
Ramaria botrytoides edible
edible (2)
(2) Xerocomus rubellus
Xerocomus edible (2)
edible (2)
Ramaria flava edible
edible (2)
(2) Xerocomus subtomentosus
Xerocomus subtomentosus edible (2)
edible (2)
Ramaria formosa
formosa not edible
edible (2)(2)
Ramaria
Ramaria invalii not edible (2)(2)
SAUDI ARABIA
ARABIA
Ramaria obtusissima
obtusissima not edible (2)(2) 1. Aisheikh
1. Alsheikh and Trappe,
Trappe, 1983; 2. Bokhary
1983; 2. Bokhary and
and
Ramaria
Ramaria pulcherrima edible
edible (2)
(2) Parvez, 1993;
Parvez, 1993;3.3. Kirk
Kirk et
eta/.,
al., 2001
2001
Rhizopogon
Rhizopogon roseolus
roseolus edible (2)
(2)
Parmelia austrosinensis
austrosinensis food (3)
(3)
Rhodophyllus aprilis
aprilis edible (2)
(2)
Terfezia claveryi
Terfezia edible
edible (2)
(2)
Rhodophyllus
Rhodophyllusclypea tus
clypeatus edible (2)
(2)
Tirmania nivea edible (1)
(1)
Rozites caperatus
caperatus edible (2)
(2)
Russula adusta
adusta edible (2)
(2)
Russula aeruginea
Russula aeruginea edible (2)
(2) SENEGAL

Russulaalbonigra
Russula albonigra edible (2)
(2) 1. Ducousso,
1. Ducousso, Ba
Baand
and Thoen,
Thoen, 2002;
2002' 2.
2. Thoen
Thoen and
edible (2)
(2) Ba,1989
Ba, 1989
Russula alutacea
Russula alutacea
Russula aurata
Russula aurata edible (2)
(2) Afroboletus
Afroboletus costatisporus
costatisporus [edible] (2)
(2)
Russula consobrina
Russula consobrina edible (2)
(2) Amanita
Amanitacrassiconus
crassiconus [edible] (2)
(2)
Russula cyanoxantha
Russula cyanoxantha edible (2)
(2) Amanita hemibapha
hemibapha [edible] (2)
(2)
Russula delica
Russula del/ca edible
edib le (2)
(2) Amanita
Amanita rubescens
rubescens [edible] (2)
(2)
Russula emetica
Russula emetica edible (2)
(2) Cantharellus congolensis [edible] (2)
(2)
Russula flava
Russula edible (2)
(2) Cantharellus pseudofriesii [edible] (2)
(2)
Russula foetens
Russula foe tens edible (2)
(2) Gyrodon intermedias
intermedius food
food (1)
(1)
Russula fragilis
Russula fragilis edible (2)
(2) Lactarius gymnocarpus
Lactarius [edible] (2)
(2)
Russula
Russula olivascens edible (2)
(2) Phlebopus sudanicus food (1)
(1)
Russula pectinatoides
Russula pectinatoides edible
edible (2)
(2) Polyporus medicinal (122)
(122)
Russula punctata
Russula punctata edible (2)
edible (2) Russula
Russula foetens
foetens [edible] (2)
(2)
Russula queletii
Russula queletii not known
known (2) (2) Russula
Russula pectinata
pectinata [edible] (2)
(2)
vesca
Russula vesca edible
edible (2)
(2) Tubosaeta
Tubosaeta brunneosetosa
brunneosetosa [edible] (2)
(2)
Russula virescens edible
edible (2)
(2)
Russula xerampelina
Russula xerampelina edible (2)
(2)
SIERRA LEONE
LEONE
Sarcodon imbrica tus
imbricatus edible (2)
(2)
Pegler and Vanhaecke,
Vanhaecke, 1994
1994
Sarcodon
Sarcodon lobatus edible
edible (2)
(2)
coccinea
Sarcoscypha coccinea edible (2)
edible (2) Termitomyces stria
Termitomyces tus
striatus edible
Scutiger ovinus edible
edible (2)
(2)
crispa
Sparassis crispa edible
edible (2)
(2)
SINGAPORE
Strobilomyces floccopus
flo ccopus edible
edible (2)
(2) Burkhill, 1935
1935
Stropharia rugosoannulata
rugosoann ulata edible
edible (2)
(2)
Suillus abietinus
abietinus edible
edible (2)
(2) albuminosus
Termitomyces alb uminosus food
Suillus americanus edible
edible (2)
(2)
Su//las bovinus
Suillus bovinus edible
edible (2)
(2) SLOVENIA
SLOVENIA
Su//las cavipes
Suillus edible
edib le (2)
(2) www.matkurja.com
granula tus
Suillus granulatus edible
edible (2)
(2)
Agaricus bitorquis
Agaricus bitorquis edible
Suillus grevillei
Suillus grevillei edible
edible (2)
(2)
Agaricus campestris
campestris edible
Suillus luteus
Suillus edible
edible (2)
(2)
Amanita
Amani ta caesarea
caesarea edible
Suillus pictus
Suillus edible
edible (2)
(2)
Amanita
Amanita rubescens
rubescens edible
Suillus placidus
Suillus edible (2)
(2)
Armillaria me/lea
mellea edible
Suillus plorans
Suillus ediblee (2)
edibl (2)
126 Wild fungi:
Wild edible fun gi: a global overview of
of their
their use
use and
and importance
importancetotopeople
people

Astraeus hygrometricus not edible

edible Clitocybe
Clitocybe geotropa food (2)
(2)
Boletus aestivalis edible Clitocybe nebularis food (2)
(2)
Boletus erythropus
Boletus erythropus edible Coprinus comatus
Coprinus food (2)
(2)
Calocybe
Calocybe gambosa edible Craterellus cornucopioides
Craterellus cornucopioides food (2)
(2)
Cantharellus cibarius edible HelveIla leucomelaena
Helvella food (2)
(2)
Coprinus comatus edible HelveIla monachella
Helvella food (2)
(2)
Craterellus cornucopioides edible Hydnum repandum
Hydnum food (2)
(2)
Leccinum griseum
Leccinum edible Hydnum rufescens
rufescens food (2)
(2)
Leccinum scabrum edible Hygrophorus eburneus food (1)
(1)
Leccinum testaceoscabrum
Leccinum testaceoscabrum edible Hygrophorus latitabundus
Hygrophorus latitabundus food (3)
(3)
Macrolepiota procera edible Hygrophorus limacinus food (2)
(2)
Macrolepiota rhacodes
rhacodes edible Hygrophorus o/ivaceoalbus
olivaceoa/bus food (2)
(2)
Morche//a esculenta
Morchella edible Hygrophorus russula
russula food (1)
(1)
Pleurotus ostreatus
Pleurotus ostreatus edible Lactarius deliciosus food (2)
(2)
Russula cyanoxantha
Russula cyanoxantha edible Lactarius sanguifluus
Lactarius sanguifluus food (2)
(2)
Tricholoma portentosum
Tricholoma portentosum edible Leccinum aurantiacum
Leccinum aurantiacum food(
food( 2)2)
Xerocomus badius
Xerocomus edible Leccinum lepidum
Leccinum lepidum food
food (2)
(2)
Xerocomus subtomentosus
Xerocomus subtomentosus edible Lepista nuda
Lepista food
food (2)
(2)
Lepista personata
Lepista personata food
food (2)
(2)
Leucopaxillus candidus food
food (2)
(2)
SOMALIA
Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993
1993 Leucopaxillus lepistoides food (2)
(2)
Macrolepiota procera
procera food (2)
(2)
Agaricus amboensis edible Macrolepiota rhacodes
rhacodes food (2)
(2)
Agaricus campestris edible Marasmius oreades food (2)
(2)
Morchella esculenta
esculenta food (2)
(2)
SOUTH AFRICA
SOUTH AFRICA Pleurotus eryngii
Pleurotus food (2)
(2)
1. Pegler
Pegler and Vanhaecke,
Vanhaecke, 1994
1994; 2.
2. Walleyn
Walleyn and
and Pleurotus nebrodensis food (2)
(2)
Rammeloo, 1994
1994 Pleurotus ostrea tus
ostreatus food (2)
(2)

[edible] (2) Rhodocybe truncata

Rhodocybe food (2)
(2)
Amanita excelsa
Amanita excelsa (2)
Amanita foetidissima
foetidissima [edible] (2)
(2) Russula cyanoxantha
Russula cyanoxantha food( 2)2)

Amanita muscaria
muscaria Russula virescens
Russula virescens food (2)
(2)
hallucinogen,
poisonous (2)
(2) Suillus bellinii
Suillus bellinii food (2)
(2)
Amanita rubescens
Amanita rubescens [edible] (2)
(2) Suillus bovinus
Suillus food (3)
(3)
Helvella lacunosa
He/ve//a [edible] (2)
(2) Suillus granulatus
Suillus granulatus food (2)
(2)
Hericium coralloides [edible] (2)
(2) Suillus luteus
Sui/Ius food( 2)2)
Lepista caffrorum
Lepista caffrorum [edible] (2)
(2) Suillus variega tus
variegatus food (3)
(3)
Macrolepiota
Macrolepiota rhacodes
rhacodes [edible] (2)
(2) Terfezia
Terfezia arenaria
arena ria food (2)
(2)
Psilocybe
Psilocybe semilanceata hallucinogen (2)
(2) Terfezia claveryi
Terfezia food (2)
(2)
Suillus
Suillus granulatus [edible] (2)
(2) Terfezia leptoderma
Terfezia leptoderma food (2)
(2)
Termitomyces striatus
Termitomyces striatus edible (1)
(1) Tricho/oma equestre
Tricholoma food (2)
(2)
Tricholoma goniospermum
Tricho/oma goniospermum food (2)
(2)
Tricholoma portentosum
Tricho/oma porten tosum food (2)
(2)
SPAIN
SPAIN
Tricholoma terreum
Tricholoma food (2)
(2)
1. Cervera
1. Cervera and
and Colinas
Colinas 1997;
1997;2.2.Martinez,
Martinez, Oria de
Rueda and
Rueda and Martinez,
Martinez, 1997;
1997; 3.
3. Martinez,
Martinez, Florit
Florit and
and Tuber aestivum
Tuber aestivum food (2)
(2)
Colinas (1997) Tuber brumale
Tuber brumale food (2)
(2)
Tuber
Tuber melanosporum
melanosporum food (2)
(2)
Agaricus
Agaricus arvensis
arvensis food (2)
(2)
Agro cybe aegerita
Agrocybe food (2)
(2)
Amanita
Amanita caesarea
caesarea food (2)
(2) SRI
SRI LANKA
LANKA

Amanita
Amanita ponderosa
ponderosa food (2)
(2) Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994
Pegler 1994
Armillaria
Armillaria me//ea
mellea food (2)
(2) Termitomyces eurhizus
Termitomyces edible
Boletus aereus food (2)
(2) Termitomyces micro
Termitomyces microcarpus
carpus edible
Boletus aestivalus food (2)
(2)
Boletus edulis food (2)
(2)
food (2) TANZANIA [UNITED
[UNITEDREPUBLIC
REPUBLIC OF]
OF]
Boletus pinicola
Boletus pinicola (2)
1. Harkönen,
Harkbnen, Saarimaki and Mwasumbi,
Mwasumbi, 1994e;
1994a;
Boletus reg
Boletus regius
ius food (2)
(2)
2. Hárkönen,
Harkbnen, Saarimaki and Mwasumbi,
Mwasumbi, 1994b;
1994b;
Boletus reticulatus
Boletus food (2)
(2) 3. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993;
1993; 4. Walleyn and
and
Calocybe gambosa
Ca/ocybe food (2)
(2) Rammeloo, 1994
Rammeloo, 1994
Cantharellus cibarius food (2)
(2)
Agaricus campestris edible
edible (3)
(3)
Cantharellus lutescens
lutescens food (2)
(2)
Amanita tanzanica
tanzanica edible
edible (2)
(2)
Cantharellus tubaeformis
Cantharellus food (2)
(2)
Amanita zambiana
zambiana edible
edible (2)
(2)
Annex 2:
Annex 2: Country records of wild useful fungi
fungi (edible, medicinal and other uses)
uses) 127
127

Armillaria me/lea
mellea edible (2)
(2) Russula
Russulaheterophylla
heterophylla food (1)
(1)
Auricularia delicata
Auricularia delicata edible (2)
(2) Russula
Russula lepida
lepida food (1)
(1)
Auricularia fuscosuccinea
Auricularia fuscosuccinea edible (2)
(2) Russula
Russula nigricans
nigricans (1)
food (1)
Auricularia polytricha
Auricularia polytricha edible (2)
(2) Russula
Russula sanguinea
san guinea food (1)
food (1)
Cantharellus congolensis edible (2)
(2) Russula
Russula violeipes
violeipes food (1)
food (1)
Cantharellus isabellinus edible (2)
(2) Russula
Russula virescens food (1)
(1)
Cantharellus platyphyllus
Cantharellus edible (2)
(2) Termitomyces
Termitomyces aurantiacus
aurantiacus food (2)
(2)
Cantharellus symoensii edible (2)
(2) Termitomyces
Termitomyces c/ypeatus
dypea tus food (2)
(2)
Coprinus cinereus edible (2)
(2) Termitomyces
Termitomyces globulus
globulus food (2)
(2)
Entoloma argyropus
Entoloma edible (3)
(3) Volvariella volvacea
volvacea food (1)
food (1)
Hypholoma sub viride
subviride not eaten (2)
(2)
Kuehneromyces muta bilis
mutabilis edible (3)
(3)
TUNISIA
TUNISIA
Lactarius gymnocarpus
Lactarius gymnocarpus edible (2)
(2) Aisheikh Trappe, 1983
Alsheikh and Trappe, 1983
Lactarius kabansus food (2)
(2)
Lactarius pelliculatus
Lactarius pelliculatus edible (2)
(2) Tirmania nivea edible
Lactarius phlebophyllus
Lactarius phlebophyllus food (2)
(2)
Lactarius rubroviolascens edible (2)
(2) TURKEY
TURKEY
Len tinus sajor-caju
Lentinus sajor-caju edible (3)
(3)
1. Afyon, 1997;
1. 1997; 2. Caglarirmak, Unal
Unal and
and Otles,
Otles,
Len tinus tuber-regium
Lentinus tuber-regium edible (3),
(3), 2002;
2002; 3.3. Demirbas,
Demirbas, 2000; 4. Sabra
2000; 4. Sabra and
and Walter,
Walter, 2001;
2001;
medicinal (4)
(4) 5. httpl/www.ogm.gov.tr/;
5. http//www.ogm.gov.tri; 6. Yilmaz, Oder
6. Yilmaz, Oder and
and
Lenzites ele gans
elegans edible (3)
(3) Isiloglu, 1997
1997
Leucoagaricus leucothites
Leucoagaricus leucothites edible (3)
(3)
bisporus
Agaricus bisporus (6)
food (6)
Leucoagaricus rhodocephalus
Leucoagaricus edible (4)
(4)
Agaricus bitorquis
bitorquis edible (3)
(3)
Lignosus sacer medicinal (4)
(4)
campestris
Agaricus campestris food (6)
(6)
Macrolepiota
~acrolepiota procera
procera edible (3)
(3)
silvicola
Agaricus silvicola edible (3)
(3)
Phellinus sp.
sp. medicinal (4)
(4)
Amanita caesarea
Amanita caesarea edible (5)
(5)
Pleurotus djamor
Pleurotus edible (2)
(2)
Armillaria
Armillaria me/lea
mellea ed ible (5)
edible (5)
Polyporus moluccensis
moluccensis edible (2)
(2)
Boletus edulis food (4)
(4)
Russula cellulata
Russula ce//u/ata food (2)
(2)
Cantharellus cibarius food (4)
(4)
Russula ciliata
Russula ciliata edible (2)
Chroogomphus rutilus
Chroogomphus edible
edible (5)
(5)
Russula compressa
Russula edible (2)
(2)
Coprinus comatus
Coprinus coma tus food
food (1)
(1)
Russula congoana
Russula con goana edible
edible (2)
(2)
Cortinarius variecolor edible (5)
edible (5)
Russula heimii
Russula he/mil edible (1)
(1)
Craterellus cornucopioides
cornucopioides edible (5)
edible (5)
Russula hiemisilvae
Russula hiemisilvae edible (2)
(2)
Fistulina hepatica
Fistulina edible (5)
edible (5)
Russula liberiensis
Russula edible (1)
(1)
Helvella
He/ve//a lacunosa food (1)
food (1)
Russula phaeocephala
Russula phaeocephala edible (1)
(1)
Hericium coralloides food
food (6)
(6)
Russula sublaevis
Russula sublaevis edible (1)
(1)
Hydnum repandum
Hydnum edible (5)
edible (5)
Russula tanzaniae
Russula tanzaniae edible (1)
(1)
Hygrophorus chrysodon edible
edible (5)
(5)
granula tus
Suillus granulatus edible (2)
(2)
Laccaria
Laccaria laccata edible
edible (3)
(3)
Termitomyces aura ntiacus
aurantiacus edible (2)
(2)
Lactarius deliciosus food (6)
(6)
Termitomyces eurhizus edible,
ed ible,
medicinal (2)
(2) pipera tus
Lactarius piperatus food
food (2)
(2)
Termitomyces
Termitomyces letestui food
food (2)
(2) Lactarius sa
Lactarius salmonicolor
lmonicolor food
food (6)
(6)
Termitomyces microcarpus edible
edible (2)
(2) Lactarius volemus edible
edible (5)
(5)
Termitomyces
Termitomyces sin gidensis
singidensis food
food (2)
(2) Laetiporus sulphureus edible (5)
edible (5)
Volvariella bombycina
bombycina edible
edible (3)
(3) Lycoperdon perlatum
Lycoperdon perlatum food
food (6)
(6)
Volvariella volvacea ~acrolepiota
Macrolepiota procera
procera edible
edible (5)
(5)
volvacea edible (3)
(3)
~orchella
Morchella conica
conica food (6)
(6)
~orchella
Morchella crassipes
crassipes edible
edible (1)
(1)
THAILAND
~orchella deliciosa
Morchella deliciosa edible
edible (5)
(5)
1. Jones,
Jones, Whalley
Whalley and Hywel-Jones,
Hywel-Jones, 1994;
1994; 2.
2. Pegler
Pegler
and
and Vanhaecke,
Vanhaecke, 1994;
1994; 3.
3. Stamets,
Stamets, 2000
2000
Morchella
~orchella elata edible
edible (1)
(1)
~orchella
Morchella esculenta
esculenta food
food (6)
(6)
Auricularia
Auriculariasp.
sp. food
food (1)
(1) M. esculenta
~. var. rotunda
esculenta var. edible
edible (5)
(5)
Cantharellus cibarius food
food (1)
(1) Pleurotus cornucopiae edible
edible (5)
(5)
Cantharellus
Cantharellus minor food
food (1)
(1) Pleurotus eryngii
eryngii food
food (1)
(1)
Lentinula
Lentinula edodes
edodes food
food (1)
(1) Pleurotus ostrea tus
ostreatus food
food (6)
(6)
Lentinus praerigidus food
food (1)
(1) Polyporus squamosus edible (5)
edible (5)
Pleurotus
Pleurotus cystidiosus
cystidiosus food
food (3)
(3) Rhizopogon luteolus edible (5)
edible (5)
Russula aeruginea
Russula aeruginea food
food (1)
(1) Rhizopogon roseolus
roseolus food
food (6)
(6)
Russula
Russula de//ca
delica food
food (1)
(1) Rhizopogon rubescens
Rhizopogon rubescens edible
edible (5)
(5)
Russula densifolia
Russula densifolia food
food (1)
(1) Russula delica
Russula del/ca food
food (6)
(6)
Russula foetens
Russula foe tens food (1)
(1) crisp a
Sparassis crispa edible
edible (5)
(5)
128 Wild
Wild edible ffungi:
ungi: aa glo bal overview of
global of their use
use and
and importance
importance to
topeople
people

Suillus
Su//tus bovinus
bovinus edible (5) Cfitocybe
Clitocybe nebularis [edible]
Su//tusgrevillei
Sui/Ius grevillei edible (5)
edible (5) Cfitocybe olearia
Clitocybe o/earia [edible]
Suillus
Su//tus lute us
luteus edible (5)
edible (5) Cfitocybe
Clitocybe rivulosa [edible]
Terfezia boudieri
Terfezia boudieri food (4)
(4) Clitopilus prunulus
Cfitopilus prunulus [edible]
Tricholomapopulinum
Tricholoma populinum food (1)
(1) Collybia butyracea
Collybia [edible]
Tricholoma terreum
Tricholoma edible (5) Coprinus coma
comatus
tus [edible]
Tuber aestivum edible
edible (4) Coprinus micaceus [edible]
Tuber borchii
Tuber borchii edible
edible (4) Cortinarius crass us
Cortinarius crassus [edible]
Xerocomus badius edible
edible (5) Cortinarius
Cortina rius mucosus [edible]
Cortinarius multiformis
Cortinarius multiformis [edible]
Cortinarius
Cortina rius varius [edible]
UGANDA
1. Katende, Segawa
Segawa and Birnie, 1999;
1999; 2. Pegler and Entoloma clypeatum
clypeatum [edible]
1994; 3. Rammeloo and
Vanhaecke, 1994; and Walleyn,
Walleyn, 1993
1993 Entoloma
Entoloma rhodopolium [edible]
Flammulina velutipes
Flammulina [edible]
Agaricus bingensis edible (3)
edible (3)
Gomphidius glutinosus [edible]
Armillaria
Armillaria me//ea
mellea edible (1)
(1)
Gyrodon lividus
Gyrodon [edible]
Lentinus prolifer
Lentinus prolifer edible (1)
(1)
Gyromitra esculenta
escu/enta [edible]
Termitomyces
Termitomyces aurantiacus edible
edible (1)
Gyroporus castaneus
castaneus [edible]
Termitomyces
Termitomyces eurhizus edible (1)
(1)
Gyroporus cyanescens
Gyroporus cyanescens [edible]
Termitomyces letestui
Termitomyces letestui edible
edible (1)
Hydnum repandum
repandum [edible]
Termitomyces
Termitomyces microcarpus edible
edible (1)
Hygropho rus hypothejus
Hygrophorus [edible]
Termitomyces
Termitomyces robustus edible
edible (3)
Hypholoma capnoides
capnoides [edible]
Termitomyces striatus
Termitomyces (2)
edible (2)
Hypholoma epixanthum
epixanthum [edible]
sp.
Tricholoma sp. edible (3)
edible (3)
mutabilis
Kuehneromyces muta bilis [edible]
Laccaria
Laccaria laccata [edible]
UI<RAINE
UKRAINE Lactarius acris [edible]
Zerova
Zerova and Rozhenko, 1988
and Rozhenko, Lactarius
Lactarius controversus
controversus [edible]
Lactarius
Lactarius deliciosus [edible]
Agaricus arvensis
arvensis [edible]
[edible] Lactarius
Lactarius glyciosmus
glyciosmus [edible]
Agaricus bisporus
Agaricus bitorquis
Agaricus bitorquis [edible] Lactarius helvus [edible]
[edible]

Agaricus campestris
campestris [edible]
[edible]
Lactarius insulsus
Lactarius insulsus [edible]
[edible]

Agaricus macrosporus
macrosporus [edible]
[edible] Lactarius lignyotus
lignyotus [edible]

Agaricus
Agaricus placomyces
placomyces [edible]
[edible] Lactarius necator
necator [edible]
[edible]
Agaricus silvaticus [edible] Lactarius pallidus
pallidus [edible]
[edible]
[edible]
Amanita
Amanita caesarea
caesarea [edible] Lactarius piperatus [edible]
[edible]
Amanita
Amanita excelsa
excelsa [edible]
Lactarius porninsis [edible]
Lactarius quietus
quietus [edible]
Amanita porphyria [edible]
Lactarius repraesentaneus
repraesentaneus [edible]
Amanita
Amanita rubescens
rubescens [edible]
resimus
Lactarius resimus [edible]
Amanita vaginata
vaginata [edible]
Lactarius rufus [edible]
Amanita xanthodermus
xanthodermus [edible]
Armillaria
Armillaria me//ea
mellea [edible] Lactarius sanguifluus
sanguifluus [edible]
scrobiculatus
Lactarius scrobiculatus [edible]
Astrosporina asterospora
asterospora [edible]
Boletus appendiculatus [edible] Lactarius semisanguifluus [edible]

Boletus aurantiacus [edible]

[edible]
Lactarius subdulcis [edible]
Bo/etus
Boletus ca/opus
calopus Lactarius torminosus [edible]
[edible]
[edible]
[edible]
Boletus edulis Lactarius vellereus [edible]
[edible]
[edible]
Lactarius
Lactarius vie tus
vietus [edible]
Boletus elegans
e/egans [edible]
[edible]
Lactarius
Lactarius violascens
violascens [edible]
Boletus erythropus
erythropus [edible]
[edible]
vo/emus
Lactarius volemus [edible]
Boletus
Boletus impolitus [edible]
[edible]
Boletus luridus [edible]
[edible] Lactarius zonarius [edible]

Boletus regius [edible]

[edible] Langermannia gigantea [edible]
[ed ible]

Boletus rubellus [edible]

[edible] Lepiota lilacea
lilacea [edible]
[edible]
Boletus
Boletus scaber [edible] Lepista
Lepista irina [edible]
[edible]
scaber [edible]
Lepista nuda
nuda [edible]
[edible]
Boletus subtomentosus
subtomentosus [edible]
[edible]
Boletus vanegatus
variegatus [edible]
[edible] Leucopaxillus giganteus [edible]
[edible]

Calvatia utriformis
Calvatia utriformis [edible] Lycoperdon
Lycoperdon perlatum [edible]
Lyophyllum
Lyophyllum decastes
decastes [edible]
Cantharellus cibarius [edible]
Chalciporus piperatus
piperatus [edible]
[edible] Macrolepiota
Macrolepiota excoria ta
excoriata [edible]
Clitocybe
Cfitocybe aurantiaca
aurantiaca [edible]
[edible] Macrolepiota
Macrolepiota procera
procera [edible]
Clitocybe
Cfitocybe clavipes
clavipes [edible]
[edible]
Marasmius alliaceus [edible]
Marasmius oreades [edible]
Annex 2: Country records
Annex 2: records of
of w ild useful fungi
wild fungi (edible, medicinal and other uses)
uses) 129
129

Marasmius prasiosmus
Marasmius [edible] Tylopilus
Tylopilus felleus [edible]
Marasmius scorodonius
Marasmius scorodonius [edible] Volvariella
Volvariella bombycina [edible]
Morchella esculenta
Morchella esculenta [edible] Xerocomus badius
Xerocomus [edible]
Paxillusatrotomentosus
Paxillus atrotomentosus [edible] Xerocomus chrysenteron
Xerocomus [edible]
Paxillus involutus
Paxillus involutus [edible] Xerocomus
Xerocomus parasiticus [edible]
Pholiota squarrosa
Pholiota [edible]
Pleurotus ostrea
Pleurotus tus
ostreatus [edible]
URUGUAY
Pluteus cervinus
Pluteus cervinus [edible]
[edible]
Deschamps,
Deschamps, 2002
Porphyrellus pseudoscaber
Porphyrellus pseudoscaber [edible]
[edible]

Ramaria mairei
Ramaria mairei [edible]
[edible] Gymnopilus spectabilis food
Rozites caperatus
Rozites caperatus [edible]
[edible] Lactarius deliciosus food
Russula adusta
Russula adusta [edible]
[edible] Laetiporus sulphureus food
Russulaaeruginea
Russula aeruginea [edible]
[edible] Rhizopogon luteolus
Rhizopogon food
Russula alutacea
Russula alutacea [edible]
[edible] Rhizopogon roseolus food
Russulaatropurpurea
Russula atropurpurea [edible]
[edible] Suillus granulatus
Suillus granulatus food
Russula
Russula aurata
aura ta [edible] Tricholoma
Tricholoma sulphureus
sulphureus food
Russula badia
Russula badia [edible]
[edible]

Russulabrunneoviolacea
Russula brunneoviolacea [edible]
[edible]
UNITED STATES OF
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Russula
Russula caerulea [edible]
[edible] 1. Birks,
1. Birks, 1991;
1991; 2.
2. Lincoff
Lincoff and
and Mitchel, 1977;
1977;
Russula claro flava
Russula claroflava [edible]
[edible] 3. Singer,
3. Singer, 1953;
1953;4.4.www.mykoweb.com
www.mykoweb.com
Russula cyanoxantha
Russula cyanoxantha [edible]
[edible]
Agaricus
Agaricus arvensis edible (4)
(4)
Russula decolorans
Russula decolorans [edible]
[edible]
augustus
Agaricus augustus edible (4)
(4)
Russula de//ca
Russula delica [edible]
[edible]
benesii
Agaricus benesii edible (4)
(4)
Russula
Russula emetica [edible]
[edible]
Agaricus bernardii
bemardii edible (4)
(4)
Russula farinipes
Russula farinipes [edible]
[edible]
bisporus
Agaricus bisporus edible (4)
(4)
Russula
Russula fe//ea
fellea [edible]
[edible]
Agaricus bitorquis edible
edible (4)
Russula firmula
Russula firmula [edible]
Agaricus campestris
campestris edible (4)
(4)
Russula foetens
Russula foetens [edible]
Agaricus cupreobrunneus
cupreobrunneus edible (4)
(4)
Russula heterophylla
Russula heterophylla [edible]
Agaricus fuscofibrillosus edible
edible (4)
(4)
Russula integra
Russula integra [edible]
[edible]
Agaricus fuscovelatus
fuscovelatus edible
edible (4)
(4)
Russula
Russula lepida [edible]
[edible]
Agaricus lilaceps
lilaceps edible
edible (4)
(4)
Russula maculata
Russula maculata [edible]
Agaricus pattersonae
pattersonae edible (4)
edible (4)
Russula melliolens
Russula melliolens [edible]
[edible]
Agaricus perobscurus edible (4)
edible (4)
Russula mustelina
Russula mustelina [edible]
[edible]
Agaricus silvicola
silvicola edible (4)
edible (4)
Russula
Russula nigricans [edible]
[edible]
subrutilescens
Agaricus subrutilescens edible (4)
edible (4)
Russula ochroleuca
Russula ochroleuca [edible]
[edible]
Aleuria aurantia edible
edible (4)
(4)
Russula paludosa
Russula paludosa [edible]
Amanita calyptrata
calyptrata edible (4)
(4)
Russula pectina ta
Russula pectinata [edible]
[edible]
Amanita
Amanita constricta
constricta edible (4)
(4)
Russula
Russula rosea [edib le]
[edible]
Amanita
Amanita pachycolea
pachycolea edible (4)
edible (4)
Russula san guinea
Russula sanguinea [edible]
[edible]
Amanita vaginata
vaginata edible (4)
edible (4)
Russula sardonia
Russula sardonia [edible]
[edible]
Amanita
Amanita ve/osa
ve/osa edible
edible (4)
(4)
Russula vesca
vesca [edible]
[edible]
Armillaria
Armillaria me/lea
mellea edible
edible (4)
(4)
Russula
Russula virescens [edible]
[edible]
Armillaria
Armillaria ponderosa
ponderosa edible
edible (4)
(4)
Russula xerampelina
Russula xerampelina [edible]
Battarrea phalloides medicinal (1)
medicinal (1)
Sarcodon imbricatus
Sarcodon [edible]
[edible]
Boletus aereus
Boletus aereus edible
edible (4)
(4)
Scleroderma aura ntiacum
aurantiacum [edible]
Boletus appendiculatus
appendiculatus edible
edible (4)
(4)
Scutiger ovinus [edible]
Boletus edulis
edulis edible
edible (4)
(4)
Sparassis crispa [edible]
Boletus
Boletus trunca tus
truncatus edible
edible (4)
(4)
Strobilomyces floccopus [edible]
Boletus zelleri
zelleri edible
edible (4)
(4)
Suillus bovinus [edible]
Bovista pila medicinal (1)
(1)
Suillus cavipes
cavipes [edible]
[edible]
Bovista
BO vistaplumbea
plumbea medicinal (1)
medicinal (1)
Suillus gran ulatus
granulatus [edible]
Ca/vatio
Calvatia craniiformis
craniiformis medicinal (1)
medicinal (1)
Tricholoma flavovirens [edible]
Ca/vatia
Calvatia cyathiformis
cyathiformis medicinal (1)
medicinal (1)
Tricholoma
Tricholoma imbricatum [edible]
Calvatia utriformis
Calvatia utriformis medicinal (1)
medicinal (1)
Tricholoma populinum
Tricholoma populinum [edible]
[edible]
Camarophyllus pratensis
pratensis edible
edible (4)
(4)
Tricho/oma
Tricholoma porten tosum
portentosum [edible]
[edible]
Cantharellus
Cantharellus cibarius
cibarius edible
edible (4)
(4)
Tricholoma robustum [edible]
Cantharellus
Cantharellus subalbidus
subalbidus edible
edible (4)
(4)
Tricholoma saponaceum
saponaceum [edible]
Cantharellus tubiformis edible
edible (4)
(4)
Tricholoma terreum
terreum [edible]
Chroogomphus vinicolor
vinicolor edible
edible (4)
(4)
Tricho/omopsis
Tricholomopsis rutilans [edible]
Clitopilus prunulus
prunulus edible (4)
edible (4)
Tuber aestivum [edible]
[edible]
130 Wild
Wild edible
ediblefu ngi: aa global
fungi: global overview
overview of their use and importance
importance to
to people
people

Coprinus coma tus

comatus edible (4)
(4) ZAMBIA
Craterellus cornucopia
Craterellus cornucopioides
ides edible (4)
edible Piearce, 1980;
1. Pegler and Piearce, 1980; 2. Piearce,
Piearce, 1981;
1981 ; 3.
Entoloma bloxamii
Entoloma bloxamii edible (4)
edible Rammeloo
Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993;
1993; 4. Walleyn and
and
Rammeloo, 1994
1994
Entoloma madidum
Entoloma edible (4)
edible
Flammulina velutipes
Flammulina edible (4)
(4) Afroboletus costatisporus
Afroboletus costatisporus edible (2)
(2)
Floccularia albolanaripes
Floccularia albolanaripes edible (4)
edible Amanita flammeola
flammeola food (1)
(1)
Geastrum medicinal (1)
medicinal (1) Amanita zambiana food (1)
(1)
Gomphus clavatus
Gomphus edible (4)
(4) Cantharellus cibarius food (1)
(1)
Helvella
He/ve//a lacunosa edible (4)
(4) Cantharellus densifolius food (1)
(1)
Hericium abietis
Hericium edible (4)
(4) Cantharellus longisporus food (1)
(1)
Hericium erinaceus edible (4)
(4) Cantharellus miniatescens food (1)
(1)
Hericium ramosum edible (4)
(4) pseudocibarius
Cantharellus pseudocibarius food (1)
(1)
Hydnum repandum
Hydnum edible
edible (4)
(4) gymnocarpus
Lactarius gym no carpus food (1)
(1)
Hydnum umbilicatum
Hydnum edible (4)
(4) Lactarius kabansus (1)
food (1)
Hypsizygus tessulatus food (3)
(3) Lactarius piperatus
Lactarius piperatus (1)
food (1)
Laccaria amethysteo-
Laccaria amethysteo- (4)
edible (4) Lentinus cladopus
cladopus (3)
edible (3)
occidentalis
Macrolepiota
M acrolepiota procera
procera food (1)
(1)
Lactarius deliciosus edible
edible (4)
(4)
(4)
Polyporus moluccensis
moluccensis edible (4)
Lactarius rubidus
Lactarius rubidus edible (4)
edible (4)
Schizophyllum commune food (1)
(1)
Lactarius rubrilacteus
Lactarius rubrilacteus edible (4)
edible (4)
edibl e (2)
(2)
Suillus granulatus edible
Laetiporus sulphureus edible
edible (4)
(4) food (1)
(1)
Termitomyces clypeatus
Termitomyces
Leccinum manzanitae
Leccinum manzanitae edible
edible (4)
(4)
(1)
Termitomyces eurhizus
Termitomyces food (1)
Leccinum scabrum
Leccinum edible
edible (4)
(4)
Termitomyces medius
Termitomyces food (1)
(1)
Lepista nuda
Lepista edible
edible (4)
(4)
Termitomyces micro
micro carpus
carpus food (1)
(1)
Leucoagaricus leucothites
Leucoagaricus leucothites edible
edible (4)
(4)
Termitomyces
Termitomyces schimperi food (1)
(1)
Lycoperdon perlatum
Lycoperdon perlatum edible
edible (4);
(4);
Termitomyces
Termitomyces titanicus
titanicus food (1)
(1)
medicinal (1)(1)
Vanderbylia ungulata
Vanderbylia medicinal (4)(4)
Lycoperdon pyriforme
Lycoperdon pyriforme medicinal (1)
(1)
Macrolepiota rhacodes
Macrolepiota rhacodes edible (4)
(4)
Marasmius oreades edible (4)
(4) ZIMBABWE
Morchella deliciosa
deliciosa edible
edible (4)
(4) Boa et
et a/.,
al., 2000
2000
Morganella subincarnata
subincarnata medicinal
medicinal (1)
(1) Amanita aurea
aurea food
Pleurotus ostreatus edible
edible (4)
(4) Amanita loosii food
Pluteus cervinus edible
edible (4)
(4) Amanita zambiana
zambiana food
Sarcodon imbricatus
Sarcodon edible
edible (4)
(4) Cantharellus cibarius food
Sparassis
Sparassis crispa edible
edible (4)
(4) Cantharellus congolensis food
Suillus brevipes
Sui/Ius edible
edible (4)
(4) Cantharellus miniatescens food
Suillus pun gens
pungens edible
edible (4)
(4) Cantharellus symoensii food
Suillus tomen tosus
tomentosus edible
edible (4)
(4) Lactarius kabansus
kabansus food
Tricholoma flavovirens edible
edible (4)
(4) Lycoperdon
Lycoperdon food
Tricholoma
Tricholoma magnivelare edible
edible (4)
(4) Russula cellulata
Russula cellulata food
T pessundatum
pessundatum var.
var. edible
edible (2)
(2) Termitomyces clypeatus
clypeatus food
populinum
Termitomyces schimperi
Termitomyces food
Tulostoma
Tulostoma brumale medicinal (1)
(1)
Volvariella speciosa
speciosa edible
edible (4)
(4)
Xerocomus chrysenteron
Xerocomus edible
edible (4)
(4)

VIET NAM
VIET
Burkhill,
Burkhill, 1935
1935

Amanitina manginiana food

YUGOSLAVIA (NOW SERBIA

YUGOSLAVIA SERBIA AND
AND MONTENEGRO)
MONTENEGRO)
1. Richardson, 1988;
1988; 2.
2. Zaklina,
Zaklina, 1998
1998

Bo/etus
Boletus food
food (2)
(2)
Cantharellus cibarius food
food (2)
(2)
Craterellus comucopioides
cornucopioides food
food (2)
(2)
Evernia
Evernia prunastri other --
other
perfume (1)
(1)
 131

ANNEX 33

A global list of wild

wild fungi
fungi used
used
as food,
as food, said
said to
to be
be edible
edible or
or with
with
medicinal properties
medicinal

These records are

are taken
taken from
from more
morethan
than140
140sources,
sources, including
including papers,
papers, books,
books,websites
web sites
and other contacts.
and contacts. Full details
details are held in aa database
database established
established byby the
the author.
author. TheThe
species names
species names areare as
as they
they appear
appear in the
the original
original publication
publication withwith the
the exception
exception of
obvious spelling mistakes or where the preferred
preferred name
name has
has changed
changed (Table 5). For mode
(Table 5).
of nutrition
nutrition (saprobic,
(saprobic, mycorrhizal
mycorrhizaletc.)
etc.) see
see Chang
Changand
andMaoMao(1995);
(1995); Wang,
Wang, Buchanan
Buchanan
and Hall (2002
(2002 ) lists edible fungi
lists edible fungi that are mycorrhizal. The mycological
mycological literature doesdoes
not always
always make
make it clear
clear whether anan "edible"
"edible" fungus
fungus isis eaten.
eaten. There must be be aa clear
clear
report to
to warrant
warrant thethe description
description of
of "food"
"food" under
underthe
thecolumn
columnlabelled
labelled "use".
"use". More
More
species
species are listed at www.wildusefulfungi.org.

(m) medicinal properties

BINOMIAL USE BINOMIAL USE
USE

Afroboletus costatispora
Afroboletus costatispora edible Agaricus rodmani edible
Afroboletus luteolus food rubel/us
Agaricus rubellus edible
Agaricus abruptibulbus
Agaricus edible silvaticus
Agaricus silvaticus food
Agaricus amboensis edible silvicola
Agaricus silvicola food
Agaricus arvensis food (m)
(m) Agaricus squamuliferus var. var. caroli food
Agaricus augustus food Agaricus subedulis edible
Agaricus benesii edible Agaricus subperonatus food
Agaricus
Agaricus bernardii edible Agaricus subrufescens
Agaricus subrufescens food
Agaricus bingensis edible Agaricus subrutilescens
Agaricus subrutilescens food
Agaricus bisporus food (m)
(m) Agrocybe
Agro cybe aegerita food
var. albidus
Agaricus bisporus var. edible Agro cybe broadwayi
Agrocybe broadwayi food
bisporus
Agaricus bisporus var. bisporus edible Agrocybe cylindracea edible
edible
Agaricus bitorquis
bitorquis food Agrocybe farinacea
farinacea edible
edible
Agaricus blazei (m)
edible (m) Agrocybe paludosa edible
edible
Agaricus campestris
campestris food (m)
(m) Agrocybe paras/tica
parasitica edible
edible
Agaricus comtulus food Agrocybe pediades edible
edible
Agaricus croceolutescens
Agaricus croceolutescens edible Agrocybe sal/cae/cola
Agrocybe salicacicola edible
edible
Agaricus cupreobrunneus edible Agrocybe vervacti edible
edible
endoxanthus
Agaricus endoxanthus edible Albatrel/us confluens
Albatrellus confluens edible (m)
(m)
Agaricus erythrotrichus
erythrotrichus edible Albatrellus
Albatrel/us ovinus
ovinus food
essettei
Agaricus essettei food Aleuria aurantia edible
fuscofibril/osus
Agaricus fuscofibrillosus food Amanita alliodora
al/iodora medicinal
Agaricus fuscove/atus
Agaricus fuscovelatus edible Amanita
Amanita aurea
aurea food
Agaricus gennadii
gennadii edible Amanita bingensis
bingensis edible
Agaricus goossensiae
Agaricus goossensiae edible Amanita caesarea
Amanita caesarea food
Agaricus impudicus food Amanita caesarea
Amanita caesarea f. sp.
sp. americana food
Agaricus lilaceps edible Amanita caesareoides
Amanita caesareoides edible
Agaricus macrosporus
Agaricus macrosporus edible Amanita ca/opus
Amanita calopus edible
Agaricus micromegethus edible Amanita calyptrata
calyptrata edible
Agaricus nivescens
nivescens edible Amanita calyptratoides
calyptratoides edible
Agaricus pattersonae edible Amanita calyptroderma
calyptroderma food
Agaricus perobscurus edible Amanita
Amanita ceciliae
ceciliae food
Agaricus placomyces
placomyces edible Amanita chepangiana
Amanita chepangiana edible
132 Wild edible
Wild edible fungi:
fungi: a global overview of
of their
their use
use and
and importance
importancetotopeople
people

BINOMIAL
BINOMIAL USE BINOMIAL USE

Amanita constricta
constricta edible Boletus appendiculatus
Boletus edible
Amanita
Amanita crocea
crocea food Boletus atkinsonii
Boletus atkinsonii edible
Amanita flammeola
flammeola food Boletus barrowsii
Boletus barrowsii edible
Amanita flavoconia
flavoconia food Boletus bicoloroides
Boletus bicoloroides food
Amanita
Amanita flavorubescens
flavorubescens edible Boletus ca/opus
calopus edible
Amanita fu/va
fulva food Boletus citrifragrans
Boletus edible
Amanita gemmata
gemmata edible Boletus edulis food (m)
(m)
Amanita
Amanita goosensiae
goosensiae edible Boletus emodensis edible
Amanita hemibapha
hemibapha food Boletus erythropus
Boletus food
Amanita hovae edible
edible Boletus erythropus var.
var. edible
Amanita inaurata
inaurata food novoguineensis
Amanita loosii food Boletus felleus edible
Amanita muscaria
muscaria medicinal Boletus frostii
Boletus frostii food
Amanita pachycolea
pachycolea edible Boletus griseus edible
Amanita perphaea food Boletus /oyo
loyo food
Amanita rhodophylla edible
edible Boletus luridiformis
Boletus luridiformis edible
Amanita robusta edible
edible Boletus luridus edible
Amanita rubescens
rubescens food Boletus michoacanus food
Amanita tanzanica
tanzanica edible
edible Boletus nigroviolaceus edible
Amanita tuza food Boletus pinicola food
Amanita umbonata food Boletus pinophilus
Boletus pinophilus food
Amanita vaginata
vaginata food Boletus regius edible
Amanita ve/osa
Amanita velosa edible Boletus reticulatus food
Amanita virgineoides
virgineoides edible Boletus separans
separans edible
Amanita zambiana food Boletus
Boletus speciosus
speciosus edible
Aman/tina
Amanitina manginiana
manginiana food Boletus trunca tus
truncatus edible
Amanitopsis pudica edible
edible Boletus variipes
variipes food
Amauroderma niger medicinal Boletus violaceofuscus
violaceofuscus edible
Amauroderma rude medicinal Boletus vitellinus
vitellin us edible
Ara chnion album
Arachnion food Boletus zelleri edible
Armillaria
Armillaria distans
distans edible
edible Bondarzewia berkeleyii
Bondarzewia edible
Armillaria luteovirens
luteovirens food Bondarzewia montana
montana edible
Armillaria
Armillaria me//ea
mellea food (m)
(m) Bovista
Bovista apedicellata medicinal
Armillaria
Armillaria ostoyae
ostoyae food Bovista gigantea
Bovista edible
Armillaria
Armillaria ponderosa
ponderosa edible Bovista pila medicinal
Armillaria
Armillaria tabescens
tabescens food Bovista plumbea
plumbea (m)
edible (m)
Aspropaxillus
Aspropaxillus /epistoides
lepistoides edible Bovista plumbea
Bovista plumbea var. ovalispora
var. ovalispora food
Astraeus hygrometricus edible (m)
(m) Bovista pusilla
Bovista medicinal
Aureobasidium pullulans
pullulans var.
var. medicinal Bovistella sinensis
sinensis medicinal
pullulans
pullulans Buchwaldoboletus specta
Buchwaldoboletus bilis
spectabilis edible
Auricularia auricula-judae
auricula-judae food (m)
(m) Calocera
Calocera cornea edible
Auricularia delicata
delicata food Calocera viscosa
viscosa edible
Auricularia
Auricularia fuscosuccinea
fuscosuccinea edible Calocybe gambosa food (m)
(m)
Auricularia
Auricularia mesenterica
mesenterica edible (m)
(m) Calocybe indica
Calocybe edible
Auricularia polytricha
polytricha edible Calocybe leucocephala
Calocybe edible
Auricularia tenuis
tenuis edible Calvatia bovista medicinal
Bankera fuligineoalba
Bankera fuligineoalba edible Calvatia
Calva tia caelata
cae/ata (m)
edible (m)
Battarea phalloides medicinal Calva tiacraniiformis
Calvatia craniiformis medicinal
Battarrea stevenii medicinal Calvatia cyathiformis
Calvatia cyathiformis food
Bjerkandera fumosa medicinal Calvatia excipuliformis
Calvatia edible (m)
(m)
Boletellus ananas
ananas food Calvatia lilacina
Calvatia liIacina edible
Boletellus betula food Ca/vat/a purpurea
Calvatia purpurea edible
Boletellus emodensis
emodensis edible Calvatia utriformis
Calvatia utriformis edible (m)
(m)
Boletellus russellii food Camarophyllus niveus edible
Boletinus
Boletinus asiaticus
asiaticus edible Camarophyllus pratensis edible
Boletinus lakei edible Camarophyllus subpratensis edible
Boletinus pinetorum
Boletinus pinetorum edible Camarophyllus virgineus edible
Boletopis
Bo/etopis leucomelaena
leucomelaena edible Cantharellula umbonata edible
Boletus aereus
aereus edible
Boletus aestivalis
aestivalis food
Annex 3: A
A global list of w ild fungi
wild fungi used as
as food,
food, said
said to
to be
be edible
edible or with medicinal properties
properties 133

BINOMIAL USE BINOMIAL USE

USE

Cantharellus cibarius food (m)

(m) C/avariadelphus unicolor
Clavariadelphus unicolor food
Cantharellus cibarius var. edible C/aviceps purpurea
Claviceps purpurea medicinal
defibulatus Clavicorona pyxidata
pyxidata food
Cantharellus cibarius var.
Cantharellus cibarius var. latifolius
latifolius edible C/avulina amethystina
Clavulina amethystina edible
Cantharellus cinereus
cinereus edible Clavulina cinerea food
Cantharellus cinnabarinus edible C/avulina cristata
Clavulina food
Cantharellus congolensis
congolensis food Clavulina rugosa
rugosa edible
Cantharellus cyanescens
Cantharellus cyanescens edible C/avulinopsis fusiformis
Clavulinopsis fusiformis edible
Cantharellus cyanoxanthus edible Clavulinopsis he/yola
C/avulinopsis helvola edible
Cantharellus densifolius
Cantharellus densifolius food C/avulinopsis miyabeana
Clavulinopsis edible
Cantharellus eucalyptorum
Cantharellus eucalyptorum food Climacocystis
Climacocystis borealis
borealis edible
Cantharellus floccosus edible Clitocybe clavipes
c/avipes food
food
Cantharellus floridulus
Cantharellus floridulus food Clitocybe
Clitocybe geotropa edible
Cantharellus formosus edible Clitocybe gibba food
Cantharellus ignicolor
Cantharellus ignicolor food Clitocybe hypocalamus
hypocalamus food
Cantharellus incarnatus edible Clitocybe infundibuliformis
Clitocybe infundibuliformis edible
Cantharellus infundibuliformis
Cantharellus infundibuliformis edible Clitocybe nebularis food
Cantharellus isabellinus edible Clitocybe odora edible
Cantharellus longisporus
Cantharellus food Clitocybe squamulosa
squamulosa edible
Cantharellus luteocomus
Cantharellus edible Clitocybe suaveolens
suaveolens food
Cantharellus luteopunctatus
Cantharellus luteopunctatus edible C/itopilus abortivus
Clitopilus medicinal
Cantharellus miniatescens food Clitopilus prunulus food
Cantharellus minor
Cantharellus minor food Collybia acervata edible
Cantharellus odoratus
Cantharellus food Collybia anombe
anombe edible
Cantharellus platyphyllus edible Collybia
Collybia attenuata edible
Cantharellus pseudocibarius food Collybia aurea edible
Cantharellus pseudo friesii
pseudofriesii edible Collybia butyracea
Collybia food
Cantharellus ruber
Cantharellus ruber edible Collybia con fluens
confluens food
Cantharellus rufopunctatus
Cantharellus rufopunctatus edible Co//ybia contorta
Collybia contorta edible
Cantharellus
Cantharellus rufopunctatus edible Collybia distorta
Collybia edible
var. ochraceus
Collybia dryophila
Collybia dryophila edible
Cantharellus splendens edible
Collybia familia
Collybia edible
Cantharellus subalbidus edible
Collybia oronga
Collybia edible
Cantharellus subcibarius edible
Collybia piperata
Collybia edible
Cantharellus symoensii
symoensii food
Collybia platyphylla
Collybia platyphylla edible
Cantharellus tenuis edible
Collybia polyphylla
Collybia edible
Cantharellus tubiformis
Cantharellus tubiformis food
Collybia pseudocalopus food
Catathelasma imperiale
Catathelasma imperiale edible
edible
Co//ybia radicata
Collybia edible
edible
Catathelasma ven tricosum
ventricosum food
Collybia subp ruinosa
subpruinosa food
Cerrena unicolor
Cerrena unicolor medicinal
Collybia tamatavae
Collybia edible
edible
Cetraria islandica medicinal
Coltricia cinnamomea
Coltricia medicinal
Chalciporus piperatus
Chalciporus piperatus edible
edible
Cookeina sulcipes edible
Chlorophyllum madagacariense
madagacariense edible
edible
Cookeina tricholoma
Cookeina edible
edible
Ch/orophyllum
Chlorophyllum molybdites edible
Coprinus acuminatus
Coprinus edible
Choiromyces aboriginum
Choiromyces aboriginum food
Coprinus africanus food
Choiromyces meandriformis
Choiromyces meandriformis edible
edible
Coprinus atramentarius
atramentarius edible (m)
Chroogomphus jamaicensis
Chroogomphus food
castaneus
Coprinus castaneus edible
Chroogomphus rutilus
Chroogomphus rutilus food
Coprinus cinereus edible
Chroogomphus vinicolor
Chroogomphus food
Coprinus
Coprinus coma
comatustus edible
Cladina stellaris
Cladina food
Coprinus disseminatus edible
Cladonia spp.
spp. medicinal
micaceus
Coprinus micaceus food
C/avaria albiramea
Clavaria albiramea edible
Coprinus sterquilinus edible
Clavaria
C/avaria aurea edible
Corditubera bovonei
Corditubera edible
C/avaria coralloides
Clavaria food
Cordyceps militaris
Cordyceps militaris medicinal
Clavaria purpurea
Clavaria purpurea edible
Cordyceps
Cordyceps ophioglossoides medicinal
C/avaria vermicularis
Clavaria food
sinensis
Cordyceps sinensis edible (m)
(m)
Clavariadelphus cokeri food
Coriolus consors medicinal
Clavariadelphus
Cia pistillaris
va riadelph us pistillaris food
Cortinarius alboviolaceus edible
C/avariadelphus sachalinensis
Clavariadelphus edible
Cortinarius armeniacus
armeniacus edible
C/avariadelphus truncatus
Clavariadelphus food
134
134 of their
Wild edible fungi: a global overview of use and
their use and importance to people
people

BINOMIAL
BINOMIAL USE BINOMIAL USE

Cortina rius armillatus

Cortinarius armilla tus edible Favolus brunneolus
Favolus brunneolus food
food
Cortina riusclaricolor
Cortinarius claricolor var.
var. turmalis
turmalis edible Favolus striatulus
Favolus striatulus food
food
Cortinarius collinitus
Cortinarius collinitus edible tesselatus
Favolus tessela tus food
food
Cortinarius elatior
Cortinarius elatior edible Fibroporia vaillantii
Fibroporia vaillantii medicinal
Cortina rius glaucopus
Cortinarius glaucopus food
food Fistulina hepatica
Fistulina food (m)
(m)
Cortinarius largus
Cortinarius largus edible Flammulina velutipes
Flammulina food (m)
Cortina rius orichalceus
Cortinarius edible Floccularia
Floccularia albolanaripes edible
Cortina rius praestans
Cortinarius praestans food
food Fames fomentarius
Fomes fomenta rius medicinal
Cortinarius prasinus edible Fomes melanoporus
Fomes melanoporus medicinal
Cortina rius pseudosalor
Cortinarius pseudosalor edible Fomitopsis pinicola medicinal
Cortinarius purpurascens edible Fomitopsis
Fomitopsis ulmaria medicinal
Cortinarius rufo-olivaceus food
food septica
Fuligo septica edible
Cortinarius tenuipes edible Galiella
Galiella javanica medicinal
Cortinarius variecolor
Cortinarius edible Ganoderma applanatum
Ganoderma applanatum medicinal
Cotylidia aurantiaca
Cotylidia aurantiaca edible Ganoderma capense
Ganoderma capense medicinal
Craterellus aureus
Craterellus edible Ganoderma curtisii
Ganoderma medicinal
Craterellus cornucopioides
Craterellus food (m) Ganoderma
Ganoderma lobatum medicinal
C. cornucopioides
C. cornucopioides var.
var. edible Ganoderma lucidum edible (m)
(m)
comucopioides
cornucopioides Ganoderma sinense
Ganoderma sinense medicinal
C. cornucopioides
C. comucopioides var.
var. parvisporus edible Ganoderma tenue medicinal
Craterellus fallax
Craterellus food
food Ganoderma
Ganoderma tropicum medicinal
Crepidotus applanatus edible Ganoderma tsugae
tsugae edible (m)
(m)
Crepidotus mollis
Crepidotus edible Gastrodia elata edible
Cronartium conigenum edible Gautieria mexicana
mexicana edible
Cryptoderma citrinum
Cryptoderma medicinal Geastrum fimbriatum
Geastrum fimbriatum edible
Cryptoporus volvatus medicinal Geastrum
Geastrum hygrometricum medicinal
Cyathus bimba
Cyathus tus
limbatus medicinal sacca tum
Geastrum saccatum medicinal
Cyathus stercoreus
Cyathus stercoreus medicinal Geastrum triplex
Geastrum triplex food (m)
(m)
Cymatoderma den driticum
dendriticum edible sp.
Geopora sp.
Geopora edible
edible
C. e/egans
C. eleganssubsp.
subsp.infundibuliforme
infundibuliforme edible Gloeoporus conchoides
conchoides food
Cystoderma amianthinum
Cystoderma amianthinum edible Gloeostereum incarnatum edible
edible
Cystoderma terreii
Cystoderma terreii edible Gomphidius glutinosus edible
edible
Cyttaria darwinii
Cyttaria food Gomphidius maculatus edible
edible
Cyttaria espinosae
espinosae food Gomphidius purpurascens
purpurascens edible
edible
Cyttaria gunnii
Cyttaria food Gomphus clavatus
clavatus food
Cyttaria hariotii
Cyttaria hariotii food Gomphus f/occosus
Gomphus floccosus food
Cyttaria hookeri
Cyttaria edible Gomphus kauffmanii
Gomphus kauffmanii food
palma tus
Dacrymyces palmatus edible Goossensia cibarioides
Goossensia cibarioides edible
edible
Dacryopinax spathularia edible Grifola frondosa
frondosa edible (m)
edible (m)
Daedaleopsis con fragosa var.
confragosa medicinal Grifola gargal food
tricolor
Gymnopilus earlei food
Daldinia concentrica
concentrica medicinal
Gymnopilus hispidellus food
Dictyophora echinovolvata edible
Gyrodon intermedius food
Dictyophora indusiata f. lutea
lutea edible
Gyrodon lividus edible
edible
Elaphomyces granulatus
Elaphomyces granulatus medicinal
Gyrodon merulioides edible
edible
Endophyllus yunnanensis edible
Gyromitra ambigua
ambigua edible
edible
Engleromyces goetzii
Eng/eromyces goetzii medicinal
Gyromitra antartica edible
edible
Enteridium /ycoperdon
Iycoperdon edible
Gyromitra esculenta
esculenta edible
edible
Entoloma abortivum
Ento/oma food
Gyromitra
Gyromitra infula food
Entoloma
Ento/oma aprilis edible
Gyromitra
Gyromitra ussuriensis
ussuriensis edible
edible
Entoloma
Ento/oma argyropus
argyropus edible
Gyroporus
Gyroporus castaneus
castaneus edible
edible
Entoloma
Ento/oma bloxami
bloxami edible
Hebeloma
Hebe/oma fastibile food
Entoloma
Ento/oma clypeatum
clypeatum food
Hebeloma
Hebe/oma mesophaeum
mesophaeum food
Entoloma
Entolomacrassipes
crassipes edible
He/ve//a
Helvella acetabulum food
Entoloma madidum
madidum edible
He/ve//a crisp a
Helvella crispa food
Entoloma microcarpum
microcarpum edible
He/ve/la
Helvella elastica
elastica food
Evernia mesomorpha medicinal
medicinal
He/ve/la
Helvella ínfula
infula food
Favolus a/veo/arus
alveolarus edible
He/ve//a
Helvella lacunosa
lacunosa food
Favolus brasiliensis food
Hericium abietis food
 A global list
Annex 3: A list of wild
wild ffungi as food,
ungi used as food, said
said to
to be
be edible
edible or
or w
with properties
ith medicinal properties 135
- -- --------------

BINOMIAL USE
USE BINOMIAL
BINOMIAL USE

Hericium caput-ursi
Hericium edible Laccaria
Laccaria edulis
edulis edible
Hericium clathroides
Hericium edible Laccaria
Laccaria farinacea
farinacea edible
Hericium coralloides
coral/oides edible Laccaria
Laccaria laccata
laccata food
Hericium erinaceus
erinaceus food (m)
(m) Laccaria
Laccariaproxima
proxima food
Hericium flagel/um
Hericium flagellum food Laccaria
Laccaria scrobiculatus
scrobicula tus edible
Hericium laciniatum
Hericium edible Laccocephalum mylittae
Laccocephalum mylittae edible
Hericium ramosum edible Lacrymaria velu
velutina
tina edible
Heterobasidion annosum medicinal Lactarius
Lactarius akahatsu food
Hexagonia
Hexagonia apiaria medicinal Lactarius angustus edible
Hirschioporus abietinus medicinal Lactariusannulatoangustifolius
Lactarius annulatoangustifolius food
Hirschioporus fuscoviolaceus
fuscoviolaceus medicinal Lactarius camphoratus
Lactarius camphoratus edible
Hohenbuehelia petaloides
Hohenbuehe/ia edible Lactarius
Lactarius carbonicola edible
Hydnopo/yporus fimbria
Hydnopolyporus tus
fimbriatus edible Lactarius
Lactarius chrysorrheus
chrysorrheus edible
Hydnopolyporus palmatus food
food Lactarius
Lactarius congo/ensis
congolensis edible
Hydnotrya tulasnei
Hydnotrya tulasnei edible Lactarius controversus
Lactarius contro versus edible
Hydnum repandum
Hydnum food Lactarius
Lactarius corruguis
corruguis food
Hydnum
Hydnum umbilicatum edible Lactarius
Lactarius deliciosus food
Hygrocybe cantharel/us
Hygrocybe cantharellus edible Lactarius deterrimus
Lactarius deterrimus edible
Hygrocybe coccinea
coccinea edible Lactarius denigricans
Lactarius denigricans food
Hygrocybe
Hygrocybe con/Ca
conica edible Lactarius densifolius
Lactarius densifolius food
Hygrocybe laeta edible Lactarius
Lactarius edulis edible
Hygrocybe nigrescens
nigrescens food Lactarius
Lactarius flavidulus
flavidulus edible
Hygrocybe obrussea
obrussea edible Lactarius gymnocarpoides
Lactarius gymnocarpoides food
Hygrocybe psittacina
psittacina edible Lactarius
Lactarius gymnocarpus food
Hygrocybe punicea edible Lactarius hatsudake
Lactarius hatsudake food
Hygrocybe unguinosa
unguinosa edible Lactarius heimii
Lactarius heimii food
Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca food Lactarius indigo
Lactarius indigo food
Hygrophoropsis mangenotii
Hygrophoropsis mangenotii edible Lactarius
Lactarius insulsus
insulsus edible
Hygrophorus agathosmus edible Lactarius inversus
inversus edible
Hygropho rus arbustivus
Hygrophorus edible Lactarius japonicus edible
Hygropho rus camarophyl/us
Hygrophorus camarophyllus edible Lactarius kabansus food
Hygrophorus
Hygrophorus chrysodon
chrysodon food Lactarius laevigatus
Lactarius food
Hygrophorus eburneus
eburneus edible Lactarius laeticolor
Lactarius laeticolor edible
Hygrophorus
Hygrophorus erubescens
erubescens edible Lactarius latifolius
Lactarius latifolius edible
Hygrophorus
Hygrophorus limacinus
limacinus edible Lactarius luteopus
Lactarius food
Hygrophorus lucorum
lucorum edible Lactarius medusae food
Hygropho
Hygrophorusrus niveus
niveus food Lactarius mitissimus edible
Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus
olivaceoalbus edible Lactarius necator
Lactarius necator edible
Hygrophorus penarius
penarius edible Lactarius pel/iculatus
Lactarius pelliculatus edible
Hygrophorus pudorinus edible Lactarius pel/iculatus
Lactarius pelliculatus f.f. pal/idus
pallidus edible
edible
Hygrophorus purpurascens
purpurascens food Lactarius phlebophyl/us
Lactarius phlebophyllus food
Hygrophorus
Hygrophorus russula
russula food Lactarius piperatus
Lactarius food
Hypholoma
Hypholoma sublateritium food Lactar/os princeps
Lactarius princeps edible
Hypholoma wambensis edible Lactarius pseudovo/emus
Lactarius pseudovolemus edible
edible
Hypomyces lactifluorum
Hypomyces lactifluorum food Lactarius pubescens edible
edible
Hypomyces macrosporus
Hypomyces edible
edible Lactarius pyrogalus
Lactarius edible
edible
Hypsizygus
Hypsizygus marmoreus food quietus
Lactarius quietus edible
edible
Hypsizygus tessulatus food Lactarius resimus edible
edible
Ileodictyon cibarium
I/eodictyon edible Lactarius rubidus
Lactarius rubidus edible
Inocybe sp.
Inocybe sp. edible Lactarius rubrilacteus
Lactarius rubrilacteus food
Inonotus hispidus
hispidus medicinal
medicinal Lactarius rubro
rubroviolascens
violascens edible
Inonotus obliquus
obliquus medicinal
medicinal Lactarius rufus edible
Ischnoderma resinosum
resinosum medicinal
medicinal salmonicolor
Lactarius salmonicolor food
Kobayasia
Kobayasia nipponica edible
edible Lactar/os sanguifluus
Lactarius sanguifluus edible
edible
Kuehneromyces
Kuehneromyces mutabilis edible Lactarius scrobiculatus food
Laccaria
Laccaria amethystea food Lactarius sesemotani edible
edible
Laccaria amethysteo-occidentalis
Laccaria amethysteo-occidentalis edible Lactarius subdulcis edible
edible
Laccaria amethystina
Laccaria amethystina food Lactarius subindigo
subindigo food
Laccaria bicolor
Laccaria bicolor food Lactarius tanzanicus food
136 Wild fungi: aa global overview
Wild edible fungi: overview of their
their use
use and
and importance to people
people

BINOMIAL USE BINOMIAL USE

USE

Lactarius torminosus edible

edible Lepista nuda food (m)
(m)
Lactarius triyialis
Lactarius trivialis edible
edible Lepista persona
personata ta food
Lactarius vellereus edible
edible sordida
Lepista sordida edible
Lactarius volemoides
vo/emoides food Leucoagaricus bisporus edible
Lactarius volemus
vo/emus food (m)
(m) Leucoagaricus hortensis food
Lactarius xerampelinus food Leucoagaricus leucothites
leucothites food
Lactarius yazooensis food Leucoagaricus rhodecephalus
Leucoagaricus rhodecephalus edible
Lactocollybia aequatorialis
Lactocollybia food Leucocoprinus cheimonoceps food
Laetiporus sulphureus food Leucocoprinus discoideus edible
Lampteromyces japonicus medicinal Leucocoprinus gandour
Leucocoprinus gandour edible
Langermannia gigantea
Langermannia edible (m)
(m) Leucocoprinus imerinensis edible
Lanopila nipponica
Lanopila edible Leucocoprinus nanianae edible
Lariciformes officianalis
Lariciformes officianalis edible (m)
(m) Leucocoprinus tanetensis edible
Lasiosphaera fenzlii
Lasiosphaera fenzlii medicinal Leucocortinarius bulbiger
Leucocortinarius bulbiger edible
Leccinum aurantiacum
Leccinum food Leucopaxillus giganteus edible
Leccinum chromapes edible Lignosos
Lignosus sacer medicinal
Leccinum extremiorientale
Leccinum extremiorientale edible Limacella
Limacella glioderma edible
Leccinum griseum food Limacella iIIinita
Limacella illinita edible
Leccinum manzanitae
Leccinum edible Lobaria pulmonaria
Lobaria pulmonaria medicinal
Leccinum oxydabile
Leccinum edible Lobaria sp.
Loba ria sp. food
Leccinum rugosiceps edible Lycoperdon asperum
Lycoperdon medicinal
Leccinum scabrum food Lycoperdon candidum
Lycoperdon edible
Leccinum testaceoscabrum edible Lycoperdon endotephrum
Lycoperdon endotephrum edible
Leccinum versipelle
Leccinum edible Lycoperdon gemma
Lycoperdon gemmatum tum edible
Lentinellus cochleatus edible Lycoperdon
Lycoperdon marginatum edible
Lentinula boryana
boryana food Lycoperdon
Lycoperdon oblongisporum edible
Lentinula edodes
edodes food (m)
(m) Lycoperdon peckii food
Lentinula
Lentinula lateritia edible Lycoperdon perlatum
Lycoperdon perla tum food (m)
(m)
Lentinus araucariae edible Lycoperdon pusilum edible (m)
(m)
Lentinus brunneofloccosus
brunneofloccosus edible
edible Lycoperdon pyriforme
Lycoperdon pyriforme food (m)
(m)
Lentinus critinus edible
edible Lycoperdon rimulatum
Lycoperdon rimula tum edible
Lentinus cladopus edible
edible Lycoperdon spadiceum
spadiceum medicinal
Len tinos conchatus
Lentinus edible
edible Lycoperdon
Lycoperdon umbrinum food
Len tinos crinitus
Lentinus food Lycoperdon
Lycoperdon umbrinum var.var. edible
Lentinus glabratus food floccosum
Lentinus
Len tin us javanicus edible
edible Lyophyllum aggregatum
Lyophyllum edible
Lentinus praerigidus
praerigidus food Lyophyllum connatum edible
Lentinus prolifer
Lentinus prolifer edible
edible Lyophyllum
Lyophyllum decastes
decastes food (m)
(m)
Lentinus
Lentinus sajor-caju
sajor-caju edible Lyophyllum fumosum
fumosum edible
Lentinus squarrulosus
Lentinus squarrulosus food Lyophyllum ovisporum
Lyophyllum oyisporum food
Lentinus
Lentinus strigosus
strigosus food Lyophyllum shimeji edible
Lentinus subnudus edible Lyophyllum sykosporum edible
Lentinus tigrinus edible Lyophyllum ulmarium
Lyophyllum edible
Lentinus tuber-regium food (m)
(m) Lysurus mokusin
Lysurus mokusin medicinal
Lentinus velutinus
velutinus food (m)
(m) Macrocybe gigantea
Macrocybe gigantea edible
edible
Lenzites betulina
Lenzites betulina medicinal Macrocybe lobayensis
Macro cybe loba yensis food
Lenzites elegans edible Macrocybe spectabilis food
Lepiota espera
aspera edible Macrolepiota africana
africana edible
Lepiota clypeolaria
clypeolaria edible Macrolepiota dolichaula edible
Lepiota discipes
discipes edible Macrolepiota excoria
Macrolepiota ta
excoriata food
Lepiota grassei
grassei edible Macrolepiota excoria
Macrolepiota excoriata var.
ta var. edible
rubescens
Lepiota henningsii
Lepiota edible
Macrolepiota gracilenta edible
Lepiota madirokelensis edible
Macrolepiota gracilenta var.
var. edible
Lepiota mastoidea edible goossensiae
Lepiota ventriosospora edible Macrolepiota procera
Macro/epiota pro cera food
caespitosa
Lepista caespitosa edible Macrolepiota procera
procera var.
var. vezo
vezo edible
Lepista caffrorum
Lepista caffrorum edible Macrolepiota prominens edible
Lepista glaucocana edible Macrolepiota puellaris edible
Lepista irina
Lepista edible Macrolepiota rhacodes
rhacodes edible
Lepista luscina
luscina edible Macrolepiota zeyheri edible
 3: AA global list
Annex 3: list of
of wild
wild fungi
fungi used
used as
as food,
food, said
said to
to be
be edible
edible or
or with
with medicinal properties
properties 137

BINOMIAL USE BINOMIAL USE

Macropodia macropus
macropus food Oudemansiella
Oudemansiella venoslamellata edible
edible
Marasmius albogriseus
Marasmius edible Pachyma hoe
Pachyma len
hoelen edible
Marasmius androsaceus
Marasmius androsaceus medicinal
medicinal Paecilomyces sinensis medicinal
Marasmius arborescens edible Panellus serotinus edible
edible
Marasmius buzungolo
Marasmius buzungolo edible Panellus
Panellus stipticus
stipticus medicinal
Marasmius caryophylleus
Marasmius caryophylleus edible Panus conchatus
Panus conchatus edible
Marasmius
Marasmius crinis-equi edible Panus
Panus crinitus
crin/tus edible
edible
Marasmius grandisetulosus
Marasmius edible Panus
Panus flavus medicinal
Marasmius heinemannianus
Marasmius heinemannianus edible Parmelia austrosinensis food
Marasmius hungo
Marasmius hungo edible Parmelia sulcata medicinal
Marasmius maximmaximus us edible Paxillus atrotomentosus
Paxillus atrotomentosus edible
Marasmius oreades food Paxillus invo/utus
Paxillus involutus edible
edible
Marasmius persona
personatustus edible Paxina acetabulum
Paxina food
Marasmius piperodora
Marasmius piperodora edible canina
Peltigera canina medicinal
Marasmius purpureostriatus
Marasmius purpureostria tus edible Perenniporia mundula
mundula medicinal
Marasmius scorodonius
Marasmius scorodonius edible
edible Peziza badia
Peziza food
Melanoleuca alboflavida
Melanoleuca edible
edible Peziza vesiculosa edible (m)
Melanoleuca brevipes edible
edible Phaeangium
Phaeangium lefebvrei edible
Melanoleuca evenosa
evenosa edible
edible aurea
Phaeolepiota aurea edible
Melanoleuca grammopodia
Melanoleuca edible Phaeolus schweinitzii
Phaeolus schweinitzii medicinal
Melanoleuca melaleuca food Phaeomarasmius affinis
Phaeomarasmius affinis edible
Meripilus
Meripi/us giganteus food fragrans
Phallus fragrans edible
Merulius
Merulius incarna
incarnatus tus food Phallus
Phallus impudicus edible (m)
Microporus affinis edible
edible Phallus indusia
indusiatus
tus medicinal
Micro porus xanthopus
Microporus xanthopus medicinal Phallus tenuis medicinal
Micropsalliota brunneosperma
brunneosperma food
food Phellinus rimosus
Phellinus rimosus medicinal
Morchella angusticeps
angusticeps edible
edible Phellinus baumii
baumii medicinal
Morchella conica
conica food Phellinus
Phellinus concha tus
conchatus medicinal
medicinal
Morchella conica var. rigida
conica var. edible
edible Phellinus igniarius medicinal
medicinal
Morchella costata
costata edible Phellinus nigricans medicinal
medicinal
Morchella crassipes
Morchella crassipes food Phellorinia inquinans edible
edible
Morchella deliciosa
deliciosa edible (m)
(m) Phlebopuscolossus
Phlebopus colossus food
Morchella elata food sudanicus
Phlebopus sudanicus edible
edible
Morchella esculenta
esculenta food (m)
(m) Pholiota adiposa
adiposa edible
edible
Morchella esculenta var. rotunda
esculenta var. edible
edible Pholiota aurivella
aurivella edible
edible
Morchella esculenta var. umbrina
esculenta var. edible Pholiota austrospumosa
austrospumosa edible
edible
Morchella esculenta
esculenta var. vulgaris
vulgaris edible
edible Pholiota bicolor food
Morchella intermedia edible Pholiota edulis
edu/is edible
edible
Morganella subincarnata
subincarnata medicinal Pholiota highlandensis
highlandensis edible
edible
Mycena aschi
aschi edible Pholiota lenta
lenta food
food
Mycena
Mycena bipindiensis edible Pholiota lubrica
lubrica edible
edible
Mycena flavescens
flavescens edible Pholiota nameko
nameko edible
edible
Mycena
Mycena pura food squarrosa
Pholiota squarrosa edible
edible
Mycenastrum corium edible Phylloporus rhodaxanthus
Phylloporus edible
edible
Mycoleptodonoides aitchisonii edible Picoa carthusiana
Picoa edible
edible
Myriosclerotinia
Myriosclerotinia caricis-ampullacea
caricis-ampullacea medicinal betulinus
Piptoporus betu/inus medicinal
Neoclitocybe
Neoclitocybe bissiseda
bissiseda food Pisolithus tinctorius
Pisolithus tinctorius medicinal
Neolentinus adhaerens
Neolentinus edible Pleurocybella porrigens
Pleurocybella porrigens edible
edible
Neolentinus lepideus
lepideus edible Pleurotus
Pleurotus abalonus
abalonus edible
edible
Neolentinus ponderosus
ponderosus food Pleurotus circina
Pleurotus circinatus
tus edible
edible
Nothopanus hygrophanus edible Pleurotus citrinopilea tus
citrinopileatus edible
edible
Omphalia lapidescens
lapidescens medicinal Pleurotus
Pleurotus concavus
concavus food
food
Onnia tomentosa
Onnia medicinal Pleurotus cornucopiae food
food
Ophiglossum engelmannii
Ophiglossum medicinal cystidiosus
Pleurotus cystidiosus edible
edible
Ossicaulislignatilis
Ossicau/is lignatilis edible Pleurotus djamor
djamor food
food
Otidea onotica
Otidea edible Pleurotus dryinus
dryinus food
food
Oudemansiella brunneomarginata
Oudemansiella brunneomarginata edible Pleurotus eryngii food
food
Oudemansiella canarii food Pleurotus eryngii var,
var. ferulae edible
edible
Oudemansiella mucida mucida edible Pleurotus ferulae edible
edible
138
138 Wild
Wild edible
edible ffungi:
ungi: aa global ov erview of their use
overview use and
and importance
importance to
to people
people

BINOMIAL
BINOMIAL USE
USE BINOMIAL USE
USE

Pleurotus flexilis
Pleurotus edible Psathyrellapululiformis
Psathyrella pululiformis edible
Pleurotus floridanus
Pleurotus edible Psathyrella rugocephla
Psathyrella rugocephla edible
Pleurotus fossula
fossulatus
tus edible Psathyrella spadicea edible
Pleurotus
Pleurotus lelevis
vis food Pseudocraterellus laeticolor
Pseudocraterellus laeticolor edible
Pleurotus nepalensis edible Pseudohydnum
Pseudohydnum gelatinosum edible
Pleurotus ostreatoroseus edible Psiloboletinus lariceti
Psiloboletinus edible
Pleurotus ostrea
ostreatus
tus food (m)
(m) spp.
Psilocybe spp. medicinal
Pleurotus ostrea
Pleurotus tus var.
ostreatus var. edible Psilocybe zapotecorum
Psilocybe zapotecorum edible
magnificus Ptychoverpa bohemica food
Pleurotus pulmonarius
Pleurotus edible Pulveroboletus aberrans edible
Pleurotus rhodophyllus
Pleurotus edible Pycnoporus
Pycnoporus cinnabarinus edible (m)
Pleurotus roseopileatus
Pleurotus edible Pycnoporus coccineus medicinal
Pleurotus sal/gnus
salignus edible Pycnoporus sanguineus food (m)
(m)
Pleurotus sapidus edible Ramalina
Ramalina ecklonii edible
Pleurotus smithii
Pleurotus smithii edible Ramaria
Ramaria apiculata edible
Pleurotus spodoleucus edible Ramaria
Ramaria araiospora
araiospora food
Pleurotus squarrosulus food Ramaria
Ramaria aurea food
P//caria
Plica badia
ria badia edible Ramaria
Ramaria bonii
bonii edible
Pluteus aurantiorugosus
Pluteus aurantiorugosus food Ramaria botrytis
Ramaria botrytis food
Pluteus cervinus food Ramaria botrytoides
Ramaria botrytoides edible
Pluteus cervinus var.
var. ealaensis
ealaensis edible
edible Ramaria cystidiophora
Ramaria cystidiophora edible
Pluteus coccineus
coccineus edible Ramaria fistulosa edible
Pluteus leoninus edible Ramaria flava food
Pluteus pellitus
Pluteus pellitus edible Ramaria
Ramaria flavobrunnescens food
Pluteus subcervinus edible var.
flavobrunnescens var.
Ramaria flavobrunnescens food
Pluteus tricuspidatus edible aurea
Podabrella microcarpa
Podabrella edible Ramaria
Ramaria formosa edible
Podaxis pistillaris
Podaxis pistillaris (m)
edible (m) Ramaria
Ramaria fuscobrunnea
fuscobrunnea food
Podoscypha nitidula
Podoscypha nitidula edible Ramaria obtusissima
obtusissima food
food
Pogonomyces hydnoides
Pogonomyces hydnoides food Ramaria ochracea edible
edible
Polyozellus multiplex
Polyozellus multiplex edible Ramaria pulcherrima
Ramaria pulcherrima edible
edible
Polyporus alveolaris
Polyporus medicinal Ramaria rosella edible
edible
Polyporus aquosus food Ramaria
Ramaria rubiginosa food
food
Polyporus arcularius food Ramaria
Ramaria rubripermanens food
food
Polyporus badius edible Ramaria san guinea
sanguinea food
food
Polyporus
Polyporus blanchetianus edible Ramaria stricta edible
edible
Polyporus brasiliensis edible Ramaria subaurantiaca food
food
Polyporus elegans medicinal
medicinal Ramaria
Ramaria subbotrytis food
f ood
Polyporus grammocephalus food Rhizopogon luteolus edible
edible
Polyporus indigenus food
food Rhizopogon
Rhizopogon piceus
piceus edible
edible
Polyporus moluccensis
moluccensis edible Rhizopogon
Rhizopogon roseo/us
roseolus edible
edible
Polyporus
Polyporus mylittae food (m)
(m) Rhizopogon
Rhizopogon rubescens
rubescens edible
Polyporus rugulosus medicinal Rhodophyllus aprilis
aprilis edible
Polyporus sanguineus edible Rhodophyllus
Rhodophyllus clypea tus
clypeatus food
food
Polyporus sapurema food Rhodophyllus
Rhodophylluscrassipes
crassipes edible
Polyporus squamosus
squamosus edible Rigidoporus sanguinolentus
sanguinolentus medicinal
Polyporus stipitarius food Rigidoporus ulmarius
ulmarius medicinal
Polyporus tenuiculus edible Rozites caperatus food
food
Polyporus tinosus
tinosus medicinal Rubinoboletus luteopurpureus
luteopurpureus edible
Polyporus
Polyporus tricholoma food Russula aciculocystis
Russula edible
ed ible
Polyporus tubaeformis
Polyporus tubaeformis medicinal
medicinal Russula adusta
Russula adusta edible
edible
Polyporus tuberaster medicinal
medicinal Russula aeruginea
Russula aeruginea food
food
Polyporus umbella tus
umbellatus edible (m)
edible (m) Russula afronigricans
Russula afronigricans edible
ed ible
Polystictus unicolor
Polystictus unicolor medicinal
medicinal Russula albonigra
Russula albonigra edible
edible
Porphyrellus atrobrunneus
Porphyrellus atrobrunneus edible
edible Russula alutacea
Russula alutacea food
food
Porphyrellus
Porphyrellus pseudoscaber
pseudoscaber edible
edible Russula amaendum
Russula amaendum edible
edible
Psathyrella atroumbonata
Psathyrella atroumbonata food Russula atropurpurea
Russula atropurpurea edible
edible
Psathyrella candolleana food Russula atrovirens
Russula atrovirens edible
edible
Psathyrella coprinoceps
coprinoceps food Russula aurata
Russula aurata edible
edible
Psathryella hymenocephala food Russula brevipes
Russula brevipes food
food
Annex 3: A global list of
of wild fungi used as food, said
sa d to be edible or with
w ith medicinal
medicinal properties 139
139

BINOMIAL
BINOMIAL USE
USE BINOM IAL
BINOMIAL USE
USE

Russula ce/tu/ata
Russula cellulata food viscida
Russula viscida edible
Russula chamaeleontina
Russula chamaeleontina edible Russula xerampelina
Russula xerampelina food
Russula chloroides
Russula chloroides edible aspratus
Sarcodon aspratus food
Russula ciliata
Russula edible imbricatus
Sarcodon imbrica tus food
Russula compressa
Russula edible Sarcodon lobatus
Sarcodon edible
edible
Russula con
Russula congoana
goana edible coccinea
Sarcoscypha coccinea food
food
Russula consobrina
Russula consobrina edible eximia
Sarcosphaera eximia food
Russula cyanoxantha
Russula cyanoxantha food brevilamellatum
Schizophyllum brevilamellatum edible
edible
Russula cyclosperma
Russula edible Schizophyllum communecommune food
food (m)
(m)
Russula delica
Russula food fascia tum
Schizophyllum fasciatum edible
edible
Russula densifolia
Russula densifolia food Scleroderma bovonei
Scleroderma bovonei edible
edible
Russula diffusa
Russula diffusa var.
var. diffusa edible Scleroderma citrinum
Scleroderma citrinum edible
edible
Russula eburneoareolata
Russula eburneoareolata edible Scleroderma flavidum
Scleroderma flavidum medicinal
medicinal
Russula emetica
Russula edible radicans
Scleroderma radicans edible
edible
Russula erythropus
Russula erythropus edible texense
Scleroderma texense edible
edible
Russula flava
Russula edible verrucosum
Scleroderma verrucosum edible (m)
(m)
Russula
Russula foetens food glucanicum
Sclerotium glucanicum medicinal
medicinal
Russula
Russula fragilis edible Scutiger ovinus edible
edible
Russula
Russula heimii
heimii edible Secotium himalaicum edible
edible
Russula
Russulaheterophylla
heterophylla food Secotium sp.
Secotium sp. medicinal
Russula
Russula hiemisilvae
hiemisilvae edible bambusico/a
Shiraia bambusicola medicinal
medicinal
Russula lepida
Russula lepida food Sparassis crispa
crisp a food
food
Russula liberiensis
Russula liberiensis edible Sphaerothallia esculenta
esculenta food
food
Russula lutea
Russula food Sporisorium
Sporisorium cruentum food
food
Russula macropoda
Russula macropoda edible Stereopsis hiscens edible
edible
Russula madegassensis
Russula edible Stereum
Stereum hirsutum medicinal
Russula mariae
Russula food membranaceum
Stereum membranaceum medicinal
Russula mexicana
Russula edible Strobilomyces con fusus
confusus edible
Russula
Russulaminutula
minutula edible Strobilomyces coturnix
Strobilomyces coturnix edible
Russula
Russula nigricans
nigricans food Strobilomyces floccopus food
Russula
Russula nitida
nítida edible Strobilomyces velutipes
Strobilomyces edible
Russula
Russula ochroleuca
ochroleuca edible Stropharia
Strop haria coronilla food
Russula
Russula olivacea
olivacea food Stropharia rugosoannulata
Stropharia edible
edible
Russula
Russula olivascens edible Suillus
Suillus abietinus edible
edible
Russula
Russula ornaticeps
orna ticeps edible Suillus acidus edible
Russula
Russulapectinatoides
pectinatoides edible Suillus americanus
Suitlus food
Russula
Russula phaeocephala
phaeocephala edible Suillus bovinus edible
Russula
Russula pseudoamaendum
pseudoamaendum edible Suillus brevipes food
Russula
Russulapseudostriatoviridis
pseudostriatoviridis edible Suillus cavipes food
Russula
Russulapunctata
punctata edible
edible Suillus granula
granulatus tus food
Russula
Russulaqueletii
queletii edible Suillus
Suillus grevillei edible (m)
Russula
Russula romagnesiana
roma gnesiana food Suillus hirtellus
Suillus hirtellus food
Russula
Russula rosacea edible Suillus
Suillus lactifluus
lactifluus edible
Russula
Russula rose
roseaa edible Suillus
Suillus lute us
luteus food (m)
(m)
Russula
Russula roseoalba
roseoalba edible Suillus placidus
Suillus placidus edible
Russula
Russularoseostriata
roseostriata edible Suillus plorans
Suillus edible
Russula
Russula rubra
rubra edible Suillus pseudobrevipes
Suillus food
Russula
Russularubroalba
rubroalba edible Suillus pun
Suitlus gens
pungens edible
Russula
Russula sanguinea
san guinea food Suillus subluteus
Suitlus subluteus edible
Russula
Russula sardonia
sardonia edible Suillus tomentosus
Suillus food
Russula
Russula schizoderma
schizoderma edible Suit Ius variegatus
Su//tus variegatus edible
Russula sese edible Suillus viscidus edible
Russula
Russula sesenagula
sesena gula edible Tephrocybe atrata
Tephrocybe atrata edible
Russula
Russulastriatoviridis
striatoviridis edible
edible Terfezia
Terfezia arena ria
arenaria edible
Russula
Russula sublaevis
sublaevis edible
edible Terfezia
Terfezia boudieri
boudieri edible
Russula
Russula tanzaniae
tanzaniae edible
edible Terfezia
Ter fezia claveryi
claveryi edible
Russula vesca
vesca edible
edible Terfezia
Ter fezia leonis
leonis edible
Russula
Russula violeipes food
food Terfezia pfeilii
Terfezia pfeilii food
food
Russula virescens
Russula food (m)
food (m) Termitomyces albuminosus
Termitomyces albuminosus food
food
140
140 Wild edible
edible fungi:
fungi: a global overview of
of their
their use
use and
andimportance
importancetotopeople
people

BINOMIAL
BINOMIAL USE BINOMIAL USE
USE

Termitomyces aurantiacus
aurantiacus food
food Tricholoma pessundatum edible
edible
Termitomyces clypea
Termitomyces c/ypeatus
tus food
food Tricholoma pessundatum var.
var. edible
edible
Termitomyces cylindricus edible populinum
populinum
Termitomyces entolomoides
Termitomyces entolomoides edible Tricholoma populinum
Tricholoma populinum food
food
Termitomyces eurhizus food Tricholoma
Tricholoma portentosum edible
edible
Termitomyces
Termitomyces fuliginosus edible
edible Tricholoma quercicola
quercicola edible
edible
Termitomyces
Termitomyces globulus food Tricholoma saponaceum
saponaceum edible
Termitomyces
Termitomyces heimii
he/mi/ edible
edible Tricholoma scabrum
scabrum edible
Termitomyces letestui
Termitomyces letestui food Tricholoma sejunctum
sejunctum food
Termitomyces
Termitomyces mammiformis
mammiformis food Tricholoma spectabilis edible
Termitomyces medius food Tricholoma sulphureum food
Termitomyces microcarpus food (m)
food (m) Tricholoma
Tricholoma terreum edible
Termitomyces radica
radicatus
tus edible Tricholoma ustaloides
ustaloides edible
Termitomyces robustus
Termitomyces food vaccinum
Tricholoma vaccinum edible
Termitomyces schimperi
Termitomyces food Tricholomopsis decora edible
Termitomyces singidensis food Tricho/omopsis rutilans
Tricholomopsis rutilans edible
Termitomyces striatus
Termitomyces stria tus edible Trogia infundibuliformis
Trogia infundibuliformis edible
Termitomyces striatus
Termitomyces stria var.
tus var. edible Tuber aestivum food
aurantiacus Tuber borchii
Tuber food
Termitomyces titanicus
Termitomyces titanicus food Tuber brumale
Tuber edible
Termitomyces umkowaanii
Termitomyces umkowaanii edible Tuber californicum
Tuber californicum edible
Thelephora ganbajum
Thelephora food gibbosum
Tuber gibbosum edible
Thelephora para
Thelephora paraguayensis
guayensis medicinal Tuber
Tuber hiemalbum edible
edible
Tirmania
Tirmania africana edible Tuber indicum edible
Tirmania
Tirmania nivep edible Tuber
Tuber magnatum food
Tirmania pinoyi
Tirmania pinoyi edible Tuber
Tuber melanosporum food
Trametes
Trametes albida
albida medicinal mesentericum
Tuber mesentericum edible
Trametes cubensis
Trametes food Tuber moschatum
moschatum edible
Trametes hirsuta
Trametes hirsuta medicinal Tuber oligospermum
Tuber oligospermum edible
Trametes ochracea
Trametes food Tuber rufum
Tuber rufum edible
Trametes orientalis
Trametes orientalis medicinal Tuber sinosum food
Trametes pubescens medicinal Tubosaeta brunneosetosa
Tubosaeta edible
Trametesrobiniophila
Trametes robiniophila edible Tulostoma brumale
Tulostoma medicinal
Trametes sanguinea
Trametes medicinal Tylopilus ballouii
Tylopilus ballouii edible
Trametes suaveolens
Trametes medicinal Tylopilus felleus
Tylopilus food
Trametes versicolor
Trametes versicolor edible (m) Tyromyces sulphureus
Tyromyces sulphureus medicinal
Tremella aurantia
Tremella aurantia edible (m) Umbilicaria esculenta
esculenta food (m)
(m)
Tremella concrescens
concrescens edible Umbilicaria muehlenbergii
Umbilicaria food
Tremella foliacea
Tremella edible Usnea hirta
Usnea hirta medicinal
Tremella fuciformis
Tremella fuciformis edible (m)
(m) Ustilago esculenta
esculenta food (m)
(m)
Tremella lutescens
Tremella lutescens edible Ustilago maydis
maydis food (m)
(m)
Tremella mesenterica
Tremella edible (m) Vanderbylia
Vanderbylia ungulata medicinal
Tremella reticulata
Tremella reticulata food Vascellum curtisii
Vascellum curtisii edible
Tremellodendron schweinitzii
Tremellodendron edible Vascellum gudenii
Vascellum gudenii edible
Tremiscus helvelloides
Tremiscus he/vello/des edible Vascellum intermedium
Vascellum intermedium food
Trichaptum trichomallum
Trichaptum food Vascellum
Vascellum pratense edible
Tricholoma atrosquamosum
Tricholoma edible Verpa conica
Verpa edible
Tricholoma bakamatsutake
Tricholoma bakamatsutake edible Volvariella bakeri
Volvariella bakeri edible
Tricholoma caligatum
Tricholoma caligatum food Volvariella bombycina
Volvariella edible
Tricholoma equestre
Tricholoma food Volvariella diplasia
Volvariella edible
Tricholoma flavovirens
Tricholoma flavovirens food Volvariella esculenta food
food
Tricholoma fulvum
Tricholoma edible Volvariella parvispora
Volvariella edible
Tricholoma imbricatum
Tricholoma edible Vo/variella speciosa
Volvariella edible
Tricholoma japonicum
Tricholoma japonicum edible Volvariella terastria
Volvariella teras tria edible
Tricholoma magnive/are
Tricholoma magnivelare food
food Volvariella volvacea
volvacea food (m)
(m)
Tricholoma matsutake
Tricholoma food (m)
(m) Wolfiporia extensa
Wolfiporia extensa edible (m)
(m)
Tricholoma mauritianum
Tricholoma mauritianum edible Wynnella silvicola edible
Tricholoma mongolicum
Tricholoma edible Xanthoconium separans
separans edible
Tricholoma muscarium
Tricholoma edible Xerocomus badius
Xerocomus food
Tricholoma orirubens
Tricholoma edible Xerocomus
Xerocomus chrysenteron edible
Annex 3: A
A global list of wild fungi used as food,
food, said
said to
to be edible
edible or with medicinal properties
properties 141

BINOMIAL
BINOMIAL USE

Xerocomus
Xerocomus pallidosporus edible
Xerocomus
Xerocomus rubellus edible
Xerocomus soyeri edible
Xerocomus spadiceus edible
Xerocomus
Xerocomus subtomentosus food
Xerocomus versicolor edible
Xeromphalina campanella
campanella edible (m)
(m)
Xerula radicata
radicata medicinal
medicinal
Xylaria papyrigera medicinal
Xylaria polymorpha medicinal
Xylosma
Xylosma flexuosum edible
 143

ANNEX 4

Edible and
Edible and medicinal
medicinal fungi
fungi that
that can
can
be cultivated

This
This list of
of 92
92 names
names has
has been
been prepared
prepared from
from Stamets
Stamets (2000)
(2000) and Chang
Chang andand Mao
Mao
(1995). The == sign
(1995). The sign denotes the name
name asas original
original published
published and
and which
which has
has since
since been
been
changed. This list contains only
only saprobic
saprobic species
species and
and excludes
excludes ectomycorrhizal
ectomycorrhizal species
species
such as truffles (Tuber spp.) that are
are managed
managed in natural
natural habitats.
habitats.

BINOMIAL BINOMIAL BINOMIAL

Agaricus
Agaricus arvensis
arvensis
Agaricus augustus
Agaricus bisporus
Agaricus
Agaricus bitorquis
Agaricus blazei
Agaricus brunnescens
brunnescens
Agaricus campestris
Agaricus
Agaricus subrufescens
subrufescens
Agrocybe aegerita
aegerita
Agrocybe cylindracea
cylindracea
Agro cybe molesta
Agrocybe
Agro cybe praecox
Agrocybe
Albatrellus
Albatrellus spp.
spp.
Armillaria
Armillaria me//ea
mellea
Auricularia auricula-judae
Auricularia fuscosuccinea
Auricularia fuscosuccinea
Auricularia polytricha
Auricularia
Ca/vatia gigantea
Calvatia gigantea
Coprinus coma
comatus
tus
Daedalea quercina
Dictyophora duplicata
Dictyophora duplicata
Flammulina velutipes
Flammulina
Fomes fomentarius
Fomes fomentarius
Ganoderma applanatum
Ganoderma applanatum
Ganoderma
Ganoderma curtisii
Ganoderma lucidum
Ganoderma
Ganoderma ore gonense
oregonense
Ganoderma sinense
sinense
Ganoderma tenus
Ganoderma tsugae
Grifola frondosa
frondosa
Hericium coralloides
Hericium erinaceum
Hypholoma capnoides
capnoides
Hypholoma sublateritium
Hypholoma
Hypsizygus marmoreus
Hypsizygus marmoreus
Hypsizygus tessulatus
lnonotus
Inonotus obliquus
obliquus
Kuehneromyces muta bilis
mutabilis
Laetiporus sulphureus
Laricifomes officinalis
(= Fomitopsis
Fomitopsis officinalis)
Lentinula edodes
Lentinus strigosus
(=Panus
(=Panus rudis)
rudis)
Lentinus tigrinus
Lentinus
Lentinus tuber-regium
Lepista nuda
Lepista
Lepista sordida
Lyophyllum fumosum
Lyophyllum
Lyophyllum ulmarium
(=Hypsizygus ulmarium)
(=Hypsizygus ulmarium)
Macrocybe gigantea
Macrocybe gigantea
(=Tricholoma
(= giganteum)
Tricholoma giganteum)
Macrolepiota procera
pro cera
Marasmius oreades
Morchella angusticeps
angusticeps
Morchella esculenta
esculenta
Neolentinus lepideus
(=Lentinus lepidus)
Oligoporus
Oligoporus spp.
spp.
Oudemansiella radicata
Oxyporus nobilissimus
Panellus serotinus
Panellus serotinus
(=Hohenbuehelia serotina)
Paneolus subalteatus
Paneolus subalteatus
Paneolus tropicalis
Paneolus tropicalis
Phallus
Phallus impudicus
Phellinus spp.
spp.
Pholiota nameko
nameko
Piptoporus betulinus
betulin us
Piptoporus indigenus
Pleurocybella
Pleurocybella porrigens
Pleurotus citrinopilea tus
citrinopileatus
Pleurotus cornucopiae
Pleurotus cystidiosus
cystidiosus
Pleurotus
Pleurotus djamour
Pleurotus eryngii
euosmus
Pleurotus euosmus
Pleurotus
Pleurotus ostrea tus
ostreatus
Pleurotus pulmonarius
Pleurotus rhodophyllus
Pleurotus rhodophyllus
Pluteus cervinus
Polyporus indigenus
Polyporus
Polyporus saporema
Polyporus umbellatus
Polyporus
(= Dendropolyporus
umbellatus)
Psilocybe cyanescens
Schizophyllum commune
Sparassis
Sparassis crispa
Stropharia rugusoannulata
Stropharia
Trametes
Trametes cinnabarinum
Trametes versicolor
Trametes
Tremella
Tremella fuciformis
Volvariella bomba cyina
bombacyina
yo/varíe/la
Volvariella volvacea
volvacea
V volvacea var.
V volvacea var. gloiocephala
gloiocephala
 145

ANNEX 55
•
Wild edible fungi
fungi sold
sold in
In local
local
markets

The following
following examples
examples are mostly
mostly from
from developing
developing countries.
countries. ItItisisaasmall
smallselection
selection
of the manymany species that are sold around the world,
species that world, particularly
particularly for China. Popular
species such
species such asas Boletus
Boletus edulis,
edulis, Cantharellus cibarius and Pleurotus
Pleurotus ostreatus
ostreatus are
are sold
sold
in many countries
countries and
and are
are not
notlisted
listedbelow.
below. Species
Species sold
sold in
in Malawi
Malawi or or Mozambique
Mozambique
markets are available
available separately (www.malawifungi.org).
(www.malawifungi.org). ThereThere are
are markets for edible
edible
fungi
fungi in the the Unitcd
United Republic
Republic ofofTanzania
Tanzania (Flärkönen,
(Harkonen, 1995)
1995) and
and Burundi
Burundi (Buyck,
(Buyck,
1994b) but
1994b) but further
further information is needed on the species sold. Some
species sold. Some market
market reports
reports list
list
only local
local names.
names .
'":. indicates species
species that are also cultivated;
cultivated; it is
is not always made clear
always made clear whatwhat origin these
have in some markets.

ARMENIA
Dictyophora indusiata
Dictyophora indusiata"*
Nanaguylan, 2002, personal communication
2002, personal Flammulina velutipes*
Flammulina velutipes"
Ganoderma lucidum*
Ganoderma lucidum"
Agaricus
Agaricus campestris
campestris
Hericium erinaceus"
erinaceus*
Agaricus
Agaricus silvaticus
silvaticus
Hydnum repandum
Hydnum
Armillaria
Armillaria me//ea
mellea
Lactarius akahatsu
Lactarius
Ca/ocybe
Ca/ocybe gambosa
Lactarius deliciosus
Cantharellus cibarius
Lactarius hatsudake
Lactarius
Lactarius deliciosus
Lactarius subindico
Lactarius subindico
Lepista nuda
Lepista
Lyophyllum decastes
Lyophyllum de castes
Lepista persona ta
personata
Pleurotus ostrea tus *
ostreatus
Macrolepiota
Macro/epiota excoria ta
excoriata
Ramaria stricta
Ramaria
Macrolepiota procera
Macro/epiota procera
Russula spp.
Pleurotus
Pleurotus eryngii
Tricholoma
Tricholoma matsutake
Suillus granulatus
Suillus granulatus Tricho/oma
Tricholoma quercicola
Suillus luteus
Suillus
Umbilicaria esculenta
Umbilicaria escu/enta

BOLIVIA
BOLIVIA
GUATEMALA
Boa, 2001, personal
Boa, 2001, personal communication
communication Flores, 2002, personal
Flores, 2002, personal communication
communication
Leucoagaricus hortensis Hypomyces lactifluorum
Hypomyces lactifluorum
Ramaria
Ramaria araiospora
CHilE
CHILE Tremella reticulata
Tremella reticulata
Minter, 2002,
2002, personal
personal communication Tricholoma flavovirens
Tricho/oma

Cyttaria espinosae
espinosae
INDIA
INDIA
Purkayastha and
Purkayastha and Chandra,
Chandra, 1985
CHINA
CHINA
Chamberlain,
Chamberlain, 1996;
1996; Härkönen,
Hark6nen,2000;
2000;Priest,
Priest,2002,
2002, Coprinus acuminatus
Coprinus
personal communication; Winkler,
personal Winkler, 2002
2002 Tricholoma sulphureum
Tricholoma sulphureum
Agaricus blazei*
blazei"
Auricularia auricula-judae"
auricula-judae * INDONESIA
INDONESIA
Boletus (i(in
n the
the broad
broadsense)
sense) Ducousso, Ba
Ducousso, Ba and
and Thoen, 2002
2002
Boletus edulis
Scleroderma spp.
spp.
Cordyceps sinensis*
Cordyceps sinensis"
146 Wild edible fung
fungi:
i: aa global overview of th
their
eir use
use and importance to people

KUWAIT Gyromitra
Gyromitra infula
Alsheikh
Aishe ikh and
and Trappe,
Trappe, 1983
1983 Hebeloma fastibile
Hebeloma fa stibile
Hebeloma mesophaeum
Tirmania pinoyi
Tirmania pinoyi
He/ve//a acetabula
Helvella
He/ve/la
Helvella crispa
crispa
LAo PEOPLE'S
LAO PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC
DEMOCRATICREPUBLIC
REPUBLIC He/ve/la
Helvella elastica
elastica
Hosaka, 2002, personal
Hosaka, 2002, personal communication
communication He/ve/la
Helvella infula
He/ve/la
Helvella lacunosa
lacunosa
Amanita
Amanita hemibapha
hemibapha
nigrescens
Hygrocybe nigrescens
Panus
Panus rudis
Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca
Hygrophoropsis
sp.
Ramaria sp.
Hygrophorus chrysodon
spp.
Russula spp.
Hygrophorus niveus
Hygrophorus
Schizophyllum commune
commune
Hygrophorus russula
sp.
Termitomyces sp.
Hypomyceslactifluorum
Hypomyces lactifluorum
Laccaria amethystina
Laccaria amethystina
MADAGASCAR
MADAGASCAR Laccaria bicolor
Laccaria bicolor
Ducousso, Ba and Thoen, 2002
Ducousso, Sa 2002
Laccaria laccata
Laccaria
Cantharellus eucalyptorum
eucalyptorum Lactarius
Lactarius deliciosus
Lactarius indigo
Lactarius indigo
Lactarius salmonicolor
Lactarius salmonicolor
MEXICO
MEXICO
Lactarius yazooensis
Montoya-Esquivel, 1998; Villarreal and
and Perez-
Perez-
Moreno, 1989a;
1989a; wwvv.semarnat.gob.mx
www.semarnat.gob.mx Laetiporus sulphureus
Leccinum aurantiacum
Leccinum aurantiacum
Agaricus campestris
campestris Len tinula boryana
Lentinula
Agaricus
Agaricus silva ticus
silvaticus
Lepista nuda
Lepista
Amanita
Amanita caesarea
caesarea Lycoperdon perlatum
Lycoperdon perlatum
Amanita
Amanita caesarea
caesarea var. americana Lycoperdon pyriforme
Lycoperdon pyriforme
Amanita fu/va
fulva Lyophyllum decastes
Lyophyllum de castes
Amanita
Amanita rubescens
rubescens Lyophyllum ovisporum
Amanita tuza
tuza Marasmius oreades
Amanita vaginata
vagi nata Marche//a con/ca
Morchella conica
Armillaria
Armillaria me//ea
mellea Morchella crassipes
Morchella crassipes
Armillaria
Armillaria ostoyae
ostoyae Morchella elata
Armillaria
Armillariatabescens
tabescens Morchella esculenta
esculenta
Boletus bicoloroides
Boletus Paxina acetabulum
Paxina
Boletus edulis Pholiota lenta
lenta
Bole tus frostii
Boletus frostii Pluteus aura ntiorugosus
aurantiorugosus
Boletus pinicola Pluteus cervinus
Boletus
Boletus pinophilus Ramaria aurea
Boletus reticulatus Ramaria botrytis
Ramaria botrytis
Boletus variipes Ramaria
Ramaria flavobrunnescens
Ca/vatia cyathiformis
Calvatia cyathiformis Ramaria
Ramaria rubiginosa
Cantharellus cibarius
Cantharellus
Ramaria
Ramaria rubripermanens
Cantharellus odoratus
Cantharellus odoratus Rhodophyllus abortivus (Entoloma
(Entoloma abortivum?)
abortivum 7)
Cantharellus tubaeformis
Cantharellus tubaeformis Rozites caperatus
caperatus
Chroogomphus jamaicensis Russula
Russula alutacea
Chroogomphus rutilus
Chroogomphus rutilus Russula brevipes
Russula
Chroogomphus vinicolor
Chroogomphus vinicolor Russula cyanoxantha
Russula cyanoxantha
Clavariadelphus trunca tus
truncatus Russula
Russula delica
del/ca
C/avicorona pyxidata
Clavicorona pyxidata Russula mariae
Russula mariae
C/avulina cinerea
Clavulina Russula olivacea
Russula oliva cea
Clitocybe clavipes
clavipes Russula romagnesiana
Russula romagnesiana
Clitocybe gibba
Clitocybe Russula
Russula xerampelina
xerampelina
Collybia dryophila
Collybia Sarcodon imbrica tus
imbricatus
Cortinarius glaucopus eximia
Sarcosphaera eximia
Craterellus cornucopioides Sparassis
Sparassis crisp
crispaa
Craterellus fallax
Craterellus Stropharia coronilla
Stropharia
Entoloma clypeatum
Entoloma Suillus american
Suillus americanus
us
Gomphus clavatus Suillus brevipes
Suillus
Gomphus floccosus
floccosus Suillus cavipes
Gomphus kauffmanii
Gomphus kauffmanii Suillus
Suit granulatus
Ius granulatus
Annex 5: Wild edible fungi sold in local markets 147

Suillus luteus Russula violeipes

Russula violeipes
Suillus pseudobrevipes
pseudobrevipes Volvariella volvacea"
Volvariella volvacea *
Tricholoma flavovirens
Tricholoma
Tricholoma magnivelare
Tricholoma
TURKEY
Tylopilus felleus
Tylopilus Sabra and
Sabra and Walter,
Walter, 2001
2001
Ustilago maydis
Boletos edulis
Boletus
Cantharellus cibarius
NEPAL sp.
Rhizopogon sp.
Adhikari, 1999;
1999; Adhikari
Adhikari and
and Durrieu,
Durrieu,1996
1996 Ter feziaboudieri
Terfezia boudieri
Cantharellus cibarius
Clavulina cinerea ZAMBIA
C/avulina cristata
Clavulina Pegler and Piearce,
Piearce, 1980
Craterellus cornucopioides
Craterellus
Amanita zambiana
zambiana
Grifola frondosa
Cantharellus cibarius
Hericium erinaceus"
erinaceus*
Cantharellus densifolius
Hericium flagellum
Hericium flagellum**
Cantharellus longisporus
Hydnum repandum
Hydnum
Cantharellus miniatescens
Laccaria amethystina
Laccaria amethystina
Cantharellus pseudocibarius
Laccaria laccata
Laccaria
Lactarius kabansus
Laetiporus sulphureus
Schizophyllum commune
Meripilus giganteus
Termitomyces clypeatus
c/ypeatus
Pluteus cervinus
cervi nus
Termitomyces microcarpus
Polyporus arcularius
Termitomyces
Termitomyces titanicus
Ramaria aurea
Ramaria
Ramaria botrytis
Ramaria flava
Ramaria
Ramaria fuscobrunnea
Ramaria obtusissima
obtusissima
Termitomyces eurhizus
Termitomyces

SENEGAL
SENEGAL
Ducousso, Ba
Ducousso, Ba and
and Thoen,
Thoen, 2002

Gyrodon intermedius
Gyrodon intermedios
Phlebopus sudanicus

TAIWAN
TAIWAN PROVINCE
PROVINCE OF CHINA
CHINA
Kawagoe, 1924
1924

ustilago esculenta
Ustilago esculenta

TANZANIA [UNITED
[UNITEDREPUBLIC
REPUBLIC OF]
OF]
Harkbnen, Saarimäki
Harkonen, Saarimaki and Mwasumbi 1994a
1994a

Lactarius kabansus
Lactarius phlebophyllus
Lactarius phlebophyllus
Russula cellulata
Russula ce//u/ata
Termitomyces
Termitomyces letestui
Termitomyces
Termitomyces sin gidensis
singidensis

THAILAND
Jones, Whalley
Jones, Whalley and Hywel-Jones,
Hywel-Jones, 1994
1994

sp.
Auricularia sp.
Auricularia
Cantharellus
Cantharellus minor
Len tinula edodes*
Lentinula edodes"
Len tinus praerigidus
Lentinus praerigidus
Russula
Russula aeruginea
aeruginea
Russula lepida
Russula lepida
Russula
Russula sanguinea
san guinea
 FAO
FAO TECHNICAL
TECHNICAL PAPERS

NON-WOOD FORESTPRODUCTS
() -WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS

1. Flavours and fragrances of plant origin (1995)

(1995)

2. Gum naval stores:

stores : turpentine and rosin
rosin from pine
pine resin
resin (1995)
(1995)

3. Report of the International Expert

Expert Consultation on Non-Wood
Non-Wood Forest
Forest Products
Products (1995)
(1995)

4. Natural colourants and dyestuffs (1995)

(1995)

5. Edible nuts (1995)

6. Gums, resins and latexes of plant origin

origin (1995)
(1995)

7. Non-wood forest products for rural

rural income
income and
and sustainable
sustainable forestry (1995)
(1995)

8. Trade restrictions affecting international

international trade in
in non-wood
non-wood forest
forest products
products (1995)
(1995)

9. Domestication and
Domestication and commercialization of non-timber forest products
in agroforestry systems (1996)
in

10. Tropical palms

palms (1998)
(1998)

11. Medicinal plants for forest conservation and

and health
health care
care (1997)
(1997)

12. Non-wood forest products from conifers (1998)

(1998)

Resource assessment of non-wood forest products

13. Resource
Experience and biometric principles (2001)

14. Rattan - Current research issues and prospects

prospects for conservation and
and sustainable
sustainable
development (2002)

Non-wood forest products from temperate broad-leaved trees (2002)

15. Non-wood

16. Rattan
Rattan glossary and Compendium glossary with emphasis on Africa (2004)
(2004)

17. Wild edible fungi - A global overview of their use and importance to people (2004)

The FAO Technical Papers

Papers are
are available
available through
through the
the authorized
authorized FAO
FAO Sales
Sales Agents
Agents

publications-sales@fao.org
 _
9- o
/7%>\

Wild
Wild edible
edible fungi
fungi are
are an important group
group of
of non-wood
non-wood forest
products: they are used as both
used as both food
food and
and medicine
medicine and
and provide
provide
income to many
many forest
forest users and traders.
users and traders. This
This publication
publication
reviews the characteristics of
of fungi biology
biology and
and ecology,
ecology,
as well
as well as fungi management
as fungi management and
andtheir
their importance to people.
Information is
is provided that will
will help
help forestry
forestry technicians,
technicians,
nutritionists, natural resource
nutritionists, natural resource planners,
planners, policy-makers
policy-makers
and other stakeholders concerned appraise the opportunities
opportunities
and
and constraints in promoting
promotingthe
thesustainable
sustainable use
use
of wild edible fungi.

•
\ ,

ISBN 92-5 05157-7 ISSN 1020-3370

II 111111111
9 789251 051573
TC/M Y5489E/1/07.04/3000

cc
-4Qr1 II 1