836 Musicology, §I, l : Nature -Defiritions
Schopenhauer), astronomers (J. E. Bode) and polymaths
(Mersenne, Kircher). There are 20th-century writers
such as Hans Kayser who might be called neo-
Pythagoreans, and 20th-century musicians such as
Hindemith for whom the music of the spheres has
remained a vital if metaphorical conoept (sec PLATo.
§11).
BIBLICX3RAPHY
A. Boeckh: `Über die Bildung der Weltseele im Timaeos dcs Platon',
Gcsammc/ie k/cme ScArfJfcn, iii (I£ipzig, 1866), 109RO
A. .v^o,n^`Th:i"s.. Die harmonikale Syribo:iik des -Áliertwru (Ccihoep£, or participant, carries with it a shift of method. The
1868)
C. von Jan: `me Harmonie der Spháren', P^i./oJogur, lii (1893),13
E. Frank: P/aío und dí.e foge#a#nfcm Pyíhagorser (Halle, 1923)
J. Handschin: `Ein mittelalterlicher Beitrag zur l.chre von der
Spharenhamonie', ZWw, ix (1926-7), 193
F. Comford: P/ajo's Cosmo/ogy avew York, 1937)
L.Spitzer:`ClassicalandChristianldeasofworldHarmony',rradi.¿z.o, involved, among them anthropology, ethnology, línguis-
ii (1944), 409"; iii (1945), 307i4
J. Handschin: `me Timaeus Scale', MD, iv (1950), 312
J. Hutton: `Some English Pocms in Praise of Music', Eng/í§Á
Mf.sce//anjJ, ii, ed. M. Praz (Rome. 1951), li3
R.Brumbaugh:P/aío'sMaítin.a/Í.ca//n.agínaíi-on(Bloomington,Ind.,
1954)
] . tE.aar.. ^!i±:.ica.Tyf tdana.. Vuii.tions on a Pyihagorean Them (üss.. information is availablc and no body of music theory
Harvard U., 1961)
R-.HaiTi"rsti.. Die Mwik der Engel: Uniersuchw\gen zur
M.y:*anscp_guu?g .des_ Mittel4_Lers (Beme zmd Mmi\c;h, lg62)
D. Walker: `Kepler's Celestial Music', Jo.w"/ o/ Íti Warówg and
Courtauld I"iiiuies, xxx (196]), 228
K.~}Peye:[-BÍwF:_Music of ilu Spheres ai.d ihe Dame of Death
Q'rinceton, 1970)
J. Haar: `Pythagorean Hamony or the Universe', DÍ.cíj.on«y o/ /Ác
Jíi-s/or)/ o/Ád¿as (New York, 1973), iv, 38f
JAMES HAAR
¥;PsiFJ\ogy _ (Fr. musicologie., Ger. Mwikwisse"chaf it, does not need to be justified as a branch of musicology;
Musikforsch:ung., \1. musicologiao.
1. Nature of musicology. 11. Disciplines of musicology.
111. National traditions of musicology.
1. Nalwe oí musicology
1.Definitions.2.Musicologyasscholarlymethod,3..Musicologyasan
area of knowledge. 4. Historical and systemaúc musicology.
1 . DEFiNiTioNS. The tem `musicology' has been defined
in many different ways, almost all of them reflecting one
of two fundamentally different viewpoints: they are for-
mulated in terms of either the methods of musicologists
or the subject matter of the study. "e two might be
thought mutually complementary, one defining the disci-
pline, the other the phenomena to be investigated. How-
ever, they represent a difference of philosophical stand-
point, one seeing Ít as an activity in whjch people
engage, the other as an area of knowledge that exists
regardless of that activity.
The approach through method places emphasis on
musicology as a fom of scholarship characterized by
the procedures of research, drawing attention to their
precision and rigou. A simple definition in these tems
would be: `the scholarly study of music'. Many
musicolorists would in fact prefer to describe their work
as `musical scholarship' (the latter word laying emphasis
on the attainment of leaming by the individual scholar)
rather than use a term whose meanings have become
clouded and confused through careless usage.
The approach through the subject matter, on the other
hand, in specifying the area often draws attention to that
which musicology has disregarded or undervalued. Thus
a committee of the AMS in 1955 defined it as `a field of
knowledge having as its object the investigation of the
art of music as a physical, psycholotical, aesthetic, and
cultural phenomenon' (JÁÁ4S, viii, 153). The last of
these fou attributes in particular dves the definition
considerable breadth, although music, and music as an
`art', remains fimily at the oentre of the investigation.
Yet a third view, which neither of these definitions
fully implies, has claimed the attention of musicolorists
in rccent years. This is the belief that the advanced study
of music should be c€ntred not on music but on Man, the
musician, acting within a social and cultural environ-
ment. This shift from music to Man, from product
(which tends to imply fixity, `composition') to producer
traditional apparatus of historical inquiry is not
designed to cope with the new elements that come into
play as music merges into a continuum of activities such
as ritual, dance and language, all govemed by social
forces: various contributing disciplines are now
tics, economics and sociology, which place the study
within the discipline of the social sciences. This type of
inquiry, which is associated with ethnomusicology, is
particularly appropriate where little or no historical
exists. Causality must be traced not through events in
time but through social forces which are present. For
this reason ethnomusicoioécai inquiry has been dir-
ected towards non-European music. Where, as with
China and lndia, historical information and a body of
music theory do exist, it has been possible to engage also
in such traditionally historical studies as those of nota-
tion, theoretical interpretation, archives and perfoming
practice. Ethnomusicolorists feel that their discipline
rather they would identify it with the main trmk. Har-
rison (1963) has expressed it in the following terms: `It
is the function of all musicology to be in fact ethno-
musicology; that is, to take its range of research to
include material that is temed "sociological" ' (Sce a/m
ETHNOMUSICOLCX3Y).
2. MusicoLOGy As scHOLARLy METHOD. To describe
musicology as a `method' is to imply that it proceeds
according to lorical principles; to call that method
`scholarly' is to imply that its processes are applied on a
well-infomed basis and operated on the soundest avail-
able criteria. In the broadest sense it implies that
musicology is `scientific'. `Science' in current vocab-
ulary is an extremely elastic tem: there is no word in
the English language that conveys the breadth of mean-
ing suggested by the Geman `Wissenschaft'. Both it and
the Latin tem `scientia' basically mean `knowledge', but
`Wissenschaft' can be appned with equal relevance to the
body of knowledge encompassing natural and cultural
phenomena.
Until the second half of the lgth century the study of
music was regarded not as an independent discipline but
as that part of general knowledge which gave theoretical
handling to specifically musical questions. It was
Chrysander who in 1863 contended that musicology
should be treated as a science in its own right, on a level
equal to that of other scientific disciplines. The quan-
titative methods of natural science had of course been
brought to bear on music as a physical phenomenon by
the ancient Greeks: the Pythagoreans studied number as
the prime condition of musical sound, and numerical
relationships as the underlying laws of harmony in
music, in man and in the spheres. This study continued
throughout the Middle Ages as part of ¢rs mwsi.ca, itself
part of the Quadrivium along with arithmetic, geometry
Musicology, §I, 3: Nature -Area of knowledge
and astronomy. Much later, in the lsth century, during 1645), the Académie Francaise (1635) and the
the years spanned by the careers of Joseph Sauveur Académie des lnscriptions (1663).
Musicology, insofar as it reflects the cultual aims of
(1653-1716), I.eonhard Euler (1707-83) and Emst
Chladni (1756-1827), attention was given to studies in
acoustics and the physics of sound. These thrce men,
significantly, were scientists by training: Sauveur and
Euler mathematicians, and Chladni a physicist.
Similarly in the lgth oentury many musica] scholars
wereinfluenoedbyHermannvonHelmholtz(182l-94),an
anatomist and physiologist, and Friedrich Carl Stumpf
(1848-1936), both of whom worked on the psychology
of hearing and sought to tive tandble explanations to
many aesthetic matters that had been considered intang-
ible. Their work played an important part in a general
trend towards determirism - a belief that all musical
phenomena and experiences have attributable causes.
It was during this latter period that the tem
`Musikwissenschaft' came into use. It appeared as early
as 1827, in the title of a work by the German education-
ist Johann Bemhard Loóer, and became established in
the early 1860s; its acceptance was reflected in the title
o{ [he iou:mal VierteljahrsschridTt für Musikwissemchaf t
founded in 1885, and that of the temi `Musikforschung'
ín the name of the Gesellschaft ffir Musikforschung
instituted by Commer and Eitner in 1868. The phrase
`musikalische Wissenschaft' had been in use since the
lsth century, and `Tonwissenschaft' since the second
half of the lsth century. `Musikoloóe' was uscd for a
subdivision in 1885 roughly equivalent to `ethno-
musicology' (see st below).
However, scholars in the historical and critical fields
of musicology have been more attracted by the spirit
than by the techniques of the natural sciences. When a
musicolorist speaks of scientific method, he usually has
in mind the methods of the socallcd cultual sciences:
history, sociology, anthropology and philosophy. These
disciplines share a common respect for the use of
critical standards in the treatment of evidence, for the
employment of objective criteria in the evaluation of the
sources, and for the responsibility of the scholar to
bring his findings to a community of informed
specialists.
Such principles of investigation, now taken for
granted, have not always been observed. They are, in
fact, of fáirly recent oririn, bom in Westem thought as
part of that intellectual current known as the
Enlightenment, the period in European history when
most of the pattems of modem humaristic scholarshjp
began to take shape. Cultural historians may differ as to
the precise time span, but most will agree in placing the
berinnings of the Enlíghtenment towards the end of the
17th century when the philosophical innovations of
Descartes had made their impact on European thought,
and when the methods of empiricism had replaced an
uncritical reliance on the authority of the Church or
myth. This was the time when the Benedictine scholars
of the Congregation of St Maur in Paris, led by Jean
Mabillon (1632-1707) and Bemard de Montfaucon
(1655-1741), established the principles of Latin and
Farti=:aE:Lae:ngdrda::ypti?cnigm#r=oantiñ.eEtmwoasstaupriadi;?nf
the figure of Voltaire and in the work of the pÁ[./osopÁcs
which culminated in the great French E#c}Jc/opéd¡.e.
From this period dates the establishment of some of the
major leamed societies and academies of science and
letters, notably those in Great Britain and France, the
Royal Society (1662, but dating informally back to
837
17th- and lsth-century society, is circumscribed by
strict spatial and temporal boundaries. It would be
incorrc€t to speak of musicology in the context of
ancient, medieval, or Renaissance ideas. The term is not
a label that can be affixed to any form of musical leam-
ing rcgardless of time or plaoc On the contrary, it can
be understood only as a manifestation of west European
thought during the past 250 years or more. Man's
musical experience has, undeniably, been accompanied
in every age and society by a body of esoteric know-
ledge. Musicology, however, is a phenomenon of the
modem world, and was until recently more or less
confined to the Westem and European dimensions of
that world. Its geographical confines have been respons-
ible for the shape the discipline has taken in the 20th
century, and also accounts for some of the criticism to
which it has been subjected in recent years.
3. MUSICOIOGy AS AN AREA OF KNOWLEDGE. The effort
to determine the scope of musicology as a special
province or aggregate of fields has prompted much
discussion. The issues have revolved around classifica-
tion: how are the various areas of study to be
distributed, or ordered along a scale of significance?
What one age regards as important may be given a
lesser position by the next. Attempts to define the scope
of musical scholarship lead almost inevitably towards an
arrangement in which certain areas are taken to
represent the core whíle others occupy auxiliary posi-
tions. Since the early 19th century historical studies
have occupied the centre ground, but each age brings its
own scale of values to bear on the general pattem, and
this leads to a constantly chanring disposition of em-
phasis. For example, a typical 18th¢entury framework
designed to contain the whole of musical leaming was
fashioned by Nicolas Etienne Framery in 1770.
Framery's `Tableau de la musique et de ses branches'
(see illustration) is a hierarchical scheme encompas§ing
the entire discipline of music, which is subdivided at
first level into three branches: acoustic, practical and
historical. Acoustics is then subdivided threc times, and
represents the quantitative sciences and metaphysics;
musical history is similarly subdivided to include the
study of music and of musicians, native and foreign, of
the past and present. Musical practice is broken down
into two parallel divisions, `Composition' and
`Exccution', which in tum yield further subdivisions,
sacred and secular, vocal and instrumental, native and
foreign, and then institutions and musical genres. A
place is also provided within musical practice for c€rtain
major interdisciplinary areas: music and poetry, music
and dance, music and theatrical setting, music and
elocution, the construction of instruments, music theory
and instruction. Framery's design is a thoroughly
rationalistic one, comprehensive, symmetrical and es-
sentially static.
A few years later the Góttingen music historian
Loahpanonf:¿5.pc[fiu£n::r,::,gé[í:4=j:ísp,mbertoeun#:[£utü£;:
die Theorie der Musik, insofiern sie Liebhabern imd
Kenruzrn notwendig und nützlich ist (1111). Th!e
scheme was revised and presented in an expanded form
in hj\s Allgemeine Geschichte der Mwik ¢i, 178&). Fo[-
kel offered a fivefold approach to musical knowledge
 838 Musicology, §I, 4: Natue -Historical and systematic
embracing the physics of sound, the mathematics of
sound, musical grammar, musical rhetoric and music
criticism. If history is not represented here it is because
Forkel took it for granted. Implicit in his scheme is a
concept of growth or progressive change in which the
unfolding of Man's musical powers is paralleled by hs
attainment of mastery in the arts of language. Forkel's
historical bias is best displayed in the organization of his
A!lgerrieine Litteratur der Musik (179Z), aL bi"og[aLphy
of writings on music from antiquity to Forkel's own
time. This work is divided into two main sections, one
devoted to the literature of music history, the other to
the literature of theory and practice. The fundamental
distinction made here between historical and non-
historical writings foreshadows a dichotomy that has
marked the discipline from Forkel's day to the present,
the distinction between historical and systematic
musicology.
4. HISTORicAL AND SysTEMATic MUsicoLmy. It was
Guido Adler who, in a paper printed in the first issue of
*S Yiertelja_hr!scprift
`Umfang, Methode undfüJZiel
Musikwissenschaft (i8SS) --
der Musikwissenschaft'
codified the division between the historical and the
systematic realms of music study and tabulated their
substance and method. The main outline, as repeated
with slight modifications in Adler's Me/Ao¿ der
Á4z4s!.kgescÁJ.cÁíe (1919, p.7), was as follows:
MUSICOLOGY
I.Thehistoricalfield(thehistoryofmusicarrangedbyepochs,peoples,
empires, countries, provinoes. towns, schools, individual artists):
TABLEAU DE LA MUSIQUE
ET DE SES
M U S I Q U E.
^ C o tJ S T I Q U E
A. Musical palaeography (semiography) (notations).
8. Basic historical categories (groupings of musical forms).
C. I.aws: (1) as embodied in the compositions of each epoch; (2) as
con®ived and taught by the theorists; (3) as they appear in the
practice of the arts.
D. Musical instruments.
11. The systematic field (tabulation of the chief laws applicable to the
various branchcs of music):
A.(t[onnv£S)?(82a):£ha:d(±:;í:r:,t).;°(3):feitohd®ye(:a=i:t|;Í'o)fthoE::!
temporal).
B.Acstheticsandpsychologyofmusic:comparisonandevalutionin
relation to the perceived subject§, with a complex of questions
related to the foregoing.
C. Music education: the teaching of (1) music in general; (2) har-
mony; (3) counterpoint; (4) composition; (5) orchestration; (6)
vocal and instrumental performance.
D.Musicology(investigationandcomparativestudyinethnography
and folklore).
Tbe `Musicology' of ll.D is the subdivision
`Musikologie' rather than `Musikwissenschaft', which
circumscribes the entire field.
In his tabulation Adler listed the auxíliary sciences of
musicology. These are, for the historical field: general
history, palaeography, chronology, diplomatic (i.e. the
form of manuscript documents), bibliography (i.e. the
fom of printed books), library and archíve science,
literary hjstory and languages; liturgical history; history
of mime and dance; biography, statistics of associations,
institutions and perfomances; and, for the systematic
field: acoustics and mathematics, physiology (aural sen-
sations), psychology (aural perception, judgment, feel-
ing), logic (musical thought), grammar, metrics and
8 RA N C H E S.
Musicology, §II,1 : Disciplines -Historical
poetics, education, aesthetics etc. More rcx)ent
methodologists, notably Hans-Heinz Dráger (1955),
have refined and modified Adler's scheme, adding for
example recording techniques, without chanring its es-
sential polarity. Dráger, however, introduced into his
scheme the categories of music sociology and interdisci-
plinary subjccts, though leaving the main weight heavily
on the two oridnal categories. In spite of the apparent
equilibrium of the two sections of Adler's outline, his-
tory carries the greater weight, as it did in Adler's
career as a musicolorist.
Systematic musicology is usually defined in negative
tems, as a configuration of disciplines that have little in
common except for the fact that they are non-historical
in nature. This concept has undergone a striking rever-
sal in recent years. Far from being a kind of `dumping
ground' for matters of secondary interest to historians,
the systematic approach has come to be regarded as
leading to fundamental research into the nature and
properties of music, not only as an art but as a
sociolorical, acoustical, physiolorical and psycholodcal
phenomenon. Moreover, all of Adler's historical subject
areas are capable of study from a non-historical view-
point, and such study has been attempted in some of
them - for example in the semiolodcal approach to
musical notations and in typological classifications of
musical foms. Systematic musicology, in the eyes of
such scholars as Walter Wiora, is not a mere extension
of the musicolodst's views but a complete reorientation
of his outlook towards the discipline. It calls for the
reopening of some of the basic questions that have
occupied men's minds from antiquity, and still call for
resolution in modem terms: What is music? What func-
tion does it perform in society? What is the role of value
in the musical experience? Of tradition? Perhaps what
emerges from this is that there are two fundamentally
different approaches to all musical material - one which
seeks to trace its development in the course of time
(sometimes called the `diachronic' view), and one which
examines it as a phenomenon among comparable phen-
omena, seeking to place it within a classification scheme
839
Historical thinking in the lsth century was inex-
tricably tied to an idea of progress. The history of music
in Bumey's terms was marked by a continuing advance
towards perfection thatg in his view, reached its zenith in
the music of his own day. Bumey's contemporaries,
Hawkins and Forkel, gave substantial support to this
view though with some modifications. In the lgth cen-
tury the naive belief in the perfectibility of Man and his
arts was replaced by more sophisticated concepts of
historical continuity derived from the theory of evolu-
tion and the metaphysics of Hegelian idealism. Histor-
ical phenomena came to be explained in tems of
biolodcal metaphors. Art forms and the cultures that
sustained them were treated as living organisms subjüt
to birth, growth, decline and dissolution. Linear
progress was replaced by cyclic progression, or by a
periodic fluctuation between phases such as the altemat-
ing Dionysian and Apollorian principles described by
Cuti Sz.chs Ln The Commonwealth of Art (1946).
In adopting these dynamic but deteministic explana-
tions of historical change, music took its cue from art
history. The art historians, having gained academic auth-
ority at least a generation in advance of their colleagues
in music, were in a position to share their concepts of
periodization, continuity and style. Many of the terms
used by music historians to subdivide the flow of time
(Renaissance, Mannerism, Baroque, Classicism) were
lifted from architecture and the other visual arts. Par-
ticularly influential in this respcct was the work of
Heinrich Wólfflin (1864-1945), the successor to Jacob
Burckhardt at Basle. For Wólfflin art history was €a
history without names', that is, it discounted biogra-
phical facts and concemed itself chiefly with forms and
styles determined by the innate artistic vision of the
creator and the beholder. The prime object for the his-
torian is the individual work of art approached through
those qualities it shares with other manifestations of the
culture. Viewed in this light, art history and musicology
as well are to be regarded as branches of cultural his-
tory. The cultural-historical emphasis was in part a
protest against positivism, a reaction against some of the

/ \
irrespective of the passage of time (the `synchronic' more ririd theories of historical progression mentioned
Zil-
dotiÉksaB.-
COHl.OsiTloN vodt

8h#:.mflod2u
'#ot#=.müodq- view). Neither can be sustained exclusive of the other,
but each has its value, and the two aspects exist in a
above. The aim of the cultural historian is to apprehend
the cohesive elements within a Éven culture. He seeks to
constant tension. Ultimately the synchronic view is the become so thoroughly immersed in `the spirit of the age'
more empirical (i.e. it deals rith things as they are) and (the Zeitgeist) that he can identify its imprint in every
the diachronic view the more interpretative (since the expression of the cultue - in costume and decoration,
past itself exists as a collection of images `frozen' in in institutions, ideas and art forms. Through an imagin-
time, between which the historian constructs lines of ative re-creation of a past society, the cultural historian
cause and effect). seeks to draw parallels and establish relationships that
cut across the traditional subject boundaries. The
prototype for this kind of historical writing on music
¥&sqR-d ffi. ". r- ii. mscipünes of rrtusicoiogy was fumished by August Wilhelm Ambros, a man
•-----\
lí'.:..'ÍI:E:ln =::`^': =r=.
Plllbd". ^fl..eEL T^ , ( , L I.yfc. 1. Historical method. 2. Theoretical and analytical method. 3. Textual whose wide cultural experience embraced not only the
Pú"*. C- 8..ii-T|[LiL H". criticism. 4. Archival research. 5. Lericography and terminology. 6. tonal but the visual arts as well. Ambros's approach was
ffi ü-,&`. Organology and iconography. 7. Perfoming practice. 8, Aesthetics and
r- ."l'.= "' d--;: =":.' m
L_ Lrr=
DI. criticism. 9. Dancc and dance history.
made more explicit in the style-orientated methodology
*. of the Viennese musicolorist Guido Adler (1855-
=. 1. HisTORicAL METHOD. The study of history requires a 1941). It was given a broad com3ptual foundation by
\--`-_\ theory of history, a framework of ideas or set of as-
l,o. . ,1 the philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey (1823-1911). In his
sumptions of which the historian may or may not be concept of Gei.síesgesc*i.cÁÍc, Dilthey expounded a
aware, but which guide his work (§ce HisTORio- methodology for the humane sciences as distinct from
GRAPHy). As the art historian E. H. Gombrich (1969) the mechanistic ones.
has observed: Although the approach through cultual history has
Without such an idea history could never be written at all. The infinite lost favour with some scholars in recent years, it still
arrayofdocumentsandmonumentswhichthepasthasbequeathedtous
`T.ablep:i de, l,a.musique.e.t.k ses branches' by Nicolas Etienne Frai'riery , from `Journal de mwique historique , théorique has its champions among modem musicolorists. One of
cannot be grasped without some principle of relevance, some theory
which brings order into the atomic facts as a magnet creates configura- its leading advocates was Wilibald Gurlitt (1889-1963)
et pratique' (Jaii::uary 1770) tions out of inert iron filing8. of the University of Freiburg. In Gurlitt's view `every
840 Musicology, §II, 2: Disciplines -Theory, analysis
stylistic epoch has its own beauty, its own mearing. and
occupies its own position on the scale of artistic values'
(1948). The pursuit of the urique concentration of
values expressed by a cultural epoch presents a chal-
lenge to the imagination and understanding. In the hands
of a sensitive and cultivated scholar the writing of cul-
tural history has the quality of a creative art. But the
method has traps for the unwary. It can lead to histor-
icism, to historical and aesthetic relativism, to the belief
that the only significant thing that can be observed about
a historical event or work of art is its particularity.
Furthemore, it encourages a superficial desire to seek
and to impose relationships where they may not be
present. It maintains the position that the function of the
musicolorist and the critic is to penetrate to the cultural
meaning of an art object and transfer that meaning
verbally to the mind of the hearer or observer. This
stress on the interpretative function of the scholar gave
rise to the doctrine of hemeneutics as articulated by
Hermann Kretzschmar (1848-1924) and his successor
at Berin, Amold Schering (1877-1941), in the early
years of the 20th century. In Schering's hands the
search for analogous symbols and meanings in music
and literature was carried to extremes in which certain
works by Beethoven were supplied with programmes
derived from the plays of Shakespeare and Schiller. (Sec
¢/s'o HERMENEUTICS and ANALYSIS, §111.)
Fundamental to the music hístorian is the concept of
style, for the historical phenomena with which he is
concemed are not biographical facts or events. These
are only the `factual' framework within which he views ms
object of attention: the musical substance of works of
art. Style is for hjm a classificatory concept: a style is a
set of features, and compositions in that style are com-
positions that have those features in common. Styles are
not fixed and mutually exclusive; they are arbitrary
ways of seeing data; they may overlap, and some may
wholly contain others. But a stylistic category, once it
has been set up, can function as a norm against which
data are assessed. It can be used as a test: for example, in
order to ascertain whether an anonymous composition
might reasonably be ascribed to a riven composer, or at
least to the orbit of a certain group of composers whose
style is well detemined; or to see whether a work whose
composer is known contains features of another style,
and thus to posit a line of influence from that style to the
composer or více versa. It is from a corpus of judgments
of this sort that broader stylistic categories can be esta-
blished: the style of the Renaissance, French 18th-
century style, operatic style and so on - styles defined by
time, by place and by function. Bukofzer (1957) said
that `the description of the oriSn and development of
styles, their intenelations, their transfer from one
medium to another, is the central task of musicology'.
Yet ultimately style is only a convenience: this part of
the task of musicology is the charting of the evolution of
music itself (sce dso STyLE).
2. THEORETICAL AND ANALYTICAL METHOD. Theory
and analysis differ in essenc€ from historical inquiry.
History is concemed with the arrangement of events in
time, and searches for chains of cause and effect which
bind those events. It tends also to stress the conscious
aspects of social life: the record of demonstrable past
events, the reasons in men's minds, the circumstanc€s
and conditions of life. Theory and analysis, on the other
hand, examine phenomena rather than events; they are
co"med with how things work rather than why they
arise; they deal not with arrangement in time, or caus-
ality, but writh relationships; they delve into the uncon-
scious since they seek to discover the structural laws
underlying complex phenomena (the laws of fom and of
style, for example, in music) and the processes by which
they operate (the process of hamony, or the com-
positional process).
Theory is by far the oldest branch of the study of
music, and arguably the broadest in scope. It has its
roots in the writings of the ancient Greeks and a power-
ful tradition extending through the Middle Ages and
Renaissance to modem times. Moreover other cultural
traditions, notably those of the Arab countries, Iran,
India, China and Japan, have bodies of theory which go
back at least 1000 years and cover similar subjects in a
way that is not matched by parallel lines of historical
inquiry. Analysis is a much more recent concept,
though its methods can be seen at work in the Middle
Ages and were clearly fomed by the 17th century.
As to the scope of music theory, it embraces the
examination of the fundamental materials of music (the
acoustics of pitch systems, tunings, scales, tonality,
interval ratios, consonance and dissonance, pulse, meas-
ure and duation), the structuring of such materials into
melody, counterpoint, hamony, rhythm and fom, the
expression of these structures in written form and their
realjzation through instrumental and vocal techniques.
It covers these from the points of view of the philoso-
pher, the composer, the notator, the perfomer, the
teacher and (more recently) the listener.
The Greek theoretical tradition dealt writh three broad
issues: the materials of scales, modes and melodic
motion (Aristoxenus, 4th century BC); musical intervals
as part of a cosmolorical system of ratios (the
Pythagoreans and Ptolemy, 2nd century); and the
effects of music on people and its uses in education
(Aristides Quintilianus, 3rd century). The principal
transmitters of Greek theory to the early Middle Ages
were Boethius (c480|c524), Cassiodorus (c485-c580)
and lsidore of Seville (c559Ú36). In certain respects
medieval theorists after them upheld the issues of Greek
theory: inheriting from Boethius a classification of
music into míÁ»dcz»a (cosmic), Á«»¢aM¢ (of the human
mind) and [."Ímmenídís ®ractical) they continued the
speculative discussion of music as part of the cosmos,
though with less strength than the theorists of the
Renaissance for whom it was once again a live issue;
they also continued to evolve the theory of scales and
modes in a powerful and central line of discussion which
extended unabated into the Renaissance (Tinctoris,
Aaron, Zarlino, Glarean and others); they were much
occupied with intervallic ratio, consonance and dis-
sonance. The great difference between these medieval
writers and the Greek theorists is that they can be seen
to have been battling with problems of a practical
nature: modal theory was concemed with executant pro-
blems such as how to make the transition from antiphon
to psalm verse smoothly, and intervallic theory with
how to generate polyphony in live performance without
running into tonal impasses (especially Mz4sz.c& e«-
chiriadis ari!d the 12lhfien+"ry Ad orgamm fiacienduin
treatises, but also the faburden and discant treatises of
the 14th and 15th centuries). Melodic and intervallic
theory were also concemcd with tonal orientation
through the gamut, solmization, the eminently practical
and spontaneous device of the Guidonian hand, and
Musicology, §II, 2: Disciplines -Theory, analysis 841
mm§i.cafcfa. (See a/so MODE, §11-111; MUsicA FICTA; on improvisation at the keyboard over a figured bass by
ORGANUM, §2J; SOLMIZATION, §1.) such writers as Agazzari (1607), Locke (1673) and
Moreover, medieval rhythmic theory tends to be Saint-Lambert (1680) and the theory of thoroughbass
method by Penna (1672), Heinichen (1728) and others.
presented in modem textbooks as part of the develop-
ment of notation. It is much more a process of reducing The acknowledgment, most radically by Rousseau
to some graspable framework the concepts of time, time (1683) and Masson (1699), that from among the eight
measurement and organization - concepts still over- modes theoretically available only two were used in
whelmingly problematic to modem philosophers. That practice, prepared for another momentous refomula-
framework had to serve performers in an aural tradition tion. This was Rameau's new conception of harmony
just as much as composers and literate performers. (1722). It rested on the principle of what is now called
Hence rhythmic notation was only a symptom and sur- `pitch class' - the identity of a note with all its octave
face marifestation of rhythmic conceptions that were replicates. This entailed the principle of inversion, where-
evolving and changing from at least as early as the sth by a triad might appear with any one of three bass
century. First, by reference to the `feet' of classical notes, and the con¢pt of fundamental bass - a bass
made up of the roots of all the chords in a progression,
poetic theory, rhythmic fomulac Q)ased on altemation
of long and short time units) were probably used one which underlies (without being fully sounded) and func-
after another in a chain which `filled up' available time. tions as the generator of that progression. Rameau's
Then the notion of intemally reorganizing these for- theory spread through the work of Marpurg, Kim-
mulae evolved. It was only at this stage, the tum of the berger, Fétis, Day and countless other theorists of the
12th century, that a notational system and accompany- late lsth and the 19th centuries, was further refined in
ing theory developed: the rhythmic modal system, with the work of Hugo Riemann and still powerfúlly influ-
formula chains rq)resented by ligature chains. ences modem hamonic thinking (including for example
Significantly, although modal theory was not expressed the theories of Hindemith and even the analytical fomu-
in notational temis until the 13th century (with lations of Allen Forte).
Johannes de Garlandia and Anonymous IV), discussion Two developments of the lsth and 19th centuries
of the .feet' of poetics can be found in Boethius, and their profoundly affected musical thought. The first was the
direct application to musical metre was stated as early as growth of a scientifically based acoustics, founded
1025ú by Guido of Arezzo. by Joseph Sauveur (1701), who himself influenced
The enomous step from modal rhythm to the men- Rameau, and continued by Hermann von Helmholtz
sual system of the later Middle Ages typifies the (1863) and Carl Stumpf (1883-90). The second was the
creation of fomal models for the construction of com-
process of theoretical fomulation. It involved a total re-
conceptualization of how music occupies the dimension positions. Such models can be found in the late
of time. In place of formulae being `packed' end to end Renaissance and the Baroque period, and even tracx;d
into a vacant time space, that time space itself was back to the Middle Ages, but did not talk, as did lgth-
`charted' by a metrical grid system not unlike the grid of century theory, in terms of specific musical identities. It
lonritude and latitude whích charts the earth's surface. was only with Koch (1793), Reicha (1832) and A. 8.
Of course, the earth's surface is two-dimensional Marx (1837J7) that the composer could find fomal
whereas time is onedimensional; but a more important models set out, like templates, ready to be filled with
difference is that medieval theorists ®articularly Franco musical content. Oridnally part of the tradition of
of Cologne, Jehan des Murs, Philippe de Vitry and Komposi.Í!.o"/eÁrc but subsequently, with Leichtentritt,
Marchetto da Padova) provided a system of several to become in its own right the branch Forme#/eÁre, this
approach still provides the basis for the identification of
grids based on differing subdivisions of note values at
several levels: the mood, time and prolation that con- such movement forms as sonata form, song form, varia-
stituted mensuration. (Sec a/so NOTATioN, §111, 24, tion form and so on. It was thus that a technique de-
and RHVTHM, §11, 5-7.) signed for the composer became a technique for the
It was in the early 17th century, with the doctrines of listener and analyst.
rhetorical device and of the Affcctions, associated with In the early 20th century Heinrich Schenker's
the seco%dc! praííi.ca, that the concept of the form of a questioning of the validity of chord labelling (i.e. the
piece of music, and hence the technique of formal analy- dving of an individual tonal identity to every chord in a
sis, had its origin. It appeared with the writings of passage of music) led to his radical idea that chords
Joachim Bumeistcr (in particular ÁfleÁ5z.ca poÉ'f(.ca, could be embellishments of underlying chords in just the
1606), and carried with it a teminology for describing way that notes can be embellishments of underlying
types of texture, vocal grouping, repetition, sequence notes. From this developed his concept of structural
and antiphony - a teminology derived from the tech- levels, each more `fundamental' and less embellished
niques of rhetorical discourse. The most elaborate that the last, and of `reduction' from surface structure to
analyses of musical devices and their associated emo- fundamental structure (Ursaiz) by passage through
tions were given by Johann Mattheson (1739; sec these levels (ScÁ!.cÁíe"). Schenker underpinned his
RHETORIC AND MUSIC). This approach to analysis entire scheme with the primacy of thc major triad; to
through definable affects has been revived in the 20th him every valid tonal composition was an activation of
oemtury in Kretzschmar's `hermeneutics' and Schering's the major triad, a realization of its fúll potential, a
`musical symboLism'. `composing out' of it. Schenker's theories have wide
The Baroque pcriod also produced a host of practical influence in modem German and Austrian theory, and
tutors for performers: manuals of the vocal embellish- have profoundly aff¢ted American theory and analysis,
ment of polyphonic lines in compositions. such as those but have penetrated only slightly to many other coun-
by Girolamo Dalla Casa and Bovicelli (1584, 1594), tries.
methods of playing instrumental divisions, such as that Not unrelated to Schenker's work, and broader in
by Christopher Simpson (1659), and above all manuals base though ultimately less influential, has been the
842 Musicology, §II, 3: Disciplines -Textual criticism
analytical work of Lorenz on Wagner's later operas.
Lorenz's work had two main aspects. Like Schenker he
sought large-scale tonal movement by tracing extended
tonal areas and charting them together. He had, how-
ever, a more general notion of tonal unity and worked
without a preconceived fundamental pattem. On the
other hand he defined temporal units of stmcture, using
elements of received For7ite#/ebrc with the addition of
his own arch form (BogeH/om), and then traced these
upwards to ever higher levels of structure in a hierar-
chical scheme which owes something to Schenker's
theory of structual levels. Through what might be
called macrotonality and macrorhythm Lorenz tried to
uncover the `large-scale architectonics' of music.
Rudolph Réti sought unity not in tonal movement but
in thematic material. For him the fundamental structur-
ing process in music from the lsth century onwards was
transformation. His method of analysis is that of reduc-
tion applied to the contrasting thematic materials of a
work so as to disclose an underlying intervallic motif.
Tbat motif is often found to be constantly present, satur-
ating the texture. However, Réti went further. His
analyses seek to show that composition proceeds by
thematic evolution, by transformation towards a goal of
intensification followed by thematic resolution. It ac-
counts for music as a linear phenomenon, unified by the
constant presence of the motif from which the transfor-
mation proceeds, not as a hierarchical phenomenon or
as a structure built of formal units. The method of the
British analyst Hans Keller similarly seeks the unity
that underlies contrasting themes. His `functional
analysis' seeks `the unifying /mc/z.o»s' of the living
organism which is a musical work of art'. It eschews
verbal description. In 1956 Keller evolved a method of
analytical demonstration which dispensed with the writ-
ten and spoken word altogether. "s relied exclusively
on sounded musical examples showing the `basic ideas'
from which themes are derived. Keller presented a series
of such analytical demonstrations through the medium
of radio.
In 1923 Knud Jeppesen published his study of
Palestrina's style and the dissonance. It was the first
truly scientific examination of a styLe, and was seen by
the author as a first step towards a study of `the laws of
musical evolution' based on comparison of variant
styles. Jeppesen, significantly, stated at the outset that
`music is, in its way, a language'. His study of melody,
hamony and dissonance is distributional; that is, it
locates all oocurrences of a particular element (the
downward leap from an accented crotchet, for example),
and examines the context within which each fdls in
order to discover the syntactical laws by which that
element is govemed. This is essentially the method by
which the linguist works when examining syntactic laws
in a language, and it is the method adopted by those
analysts who in recent years have explored musicaL
semiology, particularly Ruwet, Nattiez and Lidov.
Semiology sees music as a network of relations between
elements, all govemed by laws of structure. It compares
all elements with all other elements in the structure,
determining which may co€xist with which, and which
are inimical to each other. It does this for different levels
of structure (usually starting with the smallest elements
and ending with the definition of the largest structural
units), with the aim of a complete and rigorous
statement of structure as the final product. Semiology
strives above all for objectivity and achieves it through
the climination of all preconceived notions about the
music. Some American analysts have used linguistic
models, for example Forte in his `parsing' of structures
by Webem, and Kassler in his testing of Schenker's
theories; so too have Scandinavian scholars such as
Lindblom and Sundberg, in their work on melody (1970).
The objectivity of these methods invites the use of the
computer, whose logic ensures rigorous adherence to
the criteria that have been laid down, and which can
handle complex data in large quantities. For the latter
reason the computer lends itself well to the systematic
examination of an entire stylístic field, as in the
Princeton project on the style of Josquin's music.
Another extemal model that has been applied to
music is that of information theory. Using the methods
of this theory, Kraehenbuhl and Coons have sought to
a«ount for some of the expressive characteristics of
musical sequences (`Information as a Measure of
Experierice in M:Üsic', Journal of Aesthetics and Art
Cri.fz.ci.Sm, xvii (1958-9), 510). They address themselves
to the experience the listener undergoes when hearing a
work, and consider the listener's mind as a system which
at each point predicts what is to come on the basis of
what has already been heard. As the work proceeds, the
network of probabilities becomes more and more com-
plex. At any one point, by information theory, total
confirmation of a prediction yields `no infomation' (a
condition temed `redundancy'); partial confirmation
yields partial information, total non-confimation yields
maximum infomation (`entropy'). Put in another way,
that which lives up to expectations is least random, that
which constantly surprises is most random in structure.
This theory can be used in analysis to test the degree of
coherence of a work, to locate the high and low points of
intensity and the gradations between these points. It can
be used in composition to procure a desired formal
shaping.
The most important body of compositional theory
in the 20th oentury is undoubtedly that of serialism.
Schoenberg's work on 12-note method, and that of
l.eibowitz, Rufer, Rochberg and others, was continued
by the writings of Milton Babbitt, who has used group
theory to predict certain general properties of 12-note
compositions. Boulez has extended the discussion of set
organization to the parameters of duration, tempo,
dynamic, timbre, the control of texture and of the phy-
sical placing of sound sources, and to the coordination
of these parameters ¢ce SERIALISM and TWELVE-NOTE
COMPOSITION).
For the analysis of atonal music which is not serially
ordered Allen Forte has formulated the concept of
pitchi;lass sets (unordered sets of pitches irrespective of
octave redster), relations of identity and sirilarity be-
tween such sets, and interrelated groups of sets, known
as set complexes. This provides a coherent method for
determining pitch structure particularly useful in music
based on configurations of notes other than the major
and minor scales and on chords not formed by the
superposition of 3rds.
Sce a/So ANALysis and TmoR¥, TmoRis".
3. TEXTUAL CRiTicisM. Textual criticism embraces
several central sciences: palaeography (the dccipher-
ment of handwritings), diplomatic and bibliography (the
study of the formal make-up of manuscripts and printed
books respectively), editorship and collation (the iden-
tification of errors in the text of a dmument and the
Musicology, §II, 3: Disciplines -Textual criticism 843
reconciliation of variant readings). Ancillary to these matters on whích no confomity has been reached
are such sciences as the studies of printing techniques and among scholars), but also the much more fundamental
processes, of paper manufacture, of binding, of illumina- issues of how far editors should go in correcting and
tion and of book illustration. All these bodies of know- interpreting a text; and whether the variants of a part-
ledge contribute directly to the establishment of a criti- icular text are separate entities or lead back hier-
cal text. "e first five have venerable scholarly tradi- archically to an oriSnal exemplar, and thus whether the
tions extending back into the early lgth century; the readings dven in an edition of a work with many variant
rest have developed in the 20th century, with such sources should seek to establish by rcconstruction a
works as Charles Briquet's Les ú/!.graHcs (Geneva, hypothetical archetype, or simply present the best sur-
190lrl), AJ:Lzm Sbf5Nem:som's The Problem of the Missale viving text intact, or set out the variants or alternatives
£pecja/c (London, 1967) and Charlton Hinman's 7ltie in several textual traditions (see EDiTING).
Printing and Proofireadimg of the First Folio of In music, the concepts of `Urtext' and of critical
Stiricspeare (Oxford, 1963) as landmarks. edition are in principle distinct. Urtext attempts to
In the context of music, the decipherment of present the contents of an oridnal source free of all
notational systems (ekphonetic, neumatic, mensural, editorial additions (slurs, bowing marks, extra
tablature etc; sce NOTATioN, §1) foms an important dynamics etc): it is pure, yet is to some extent a transla-
part of musical palaeography - though the deciphement tion into modem notation. Further to the same end of
of verbal text matter remains a vital skill which is riven the spectrum is the so-called diplomatic transcription -
far too little attention by musicologists. The special a hand facsimiie of the oriánal notation still much used
demands of music on printing - multiple impression, the in German dissertations but properly replaced by the
production of specialist characters of highly complex photographic facsimile. The critical edition, at the other
kinds, engraving etc - all require study as procx)sses; end of the spectrum, is a presentation of the text after it
they carry their own peculiarities and tendencies to has been subjected to critical scrutiny and a certain
particular errors which must be known before the text construction placed on it.
can be fully elucidated (see PRINTING AND PUBLISHING Many scholars at the bednning of the 20th century
oF Music). The prooedures of music writing, of the pro- (e.g. Aubry and Beck) were trained as philologists
duction and copying of the musical source, are again before tuming to musical scholarship. They brought a
activities not yet fúlly appreciated in their own terms; to particular awareness of the problems of textual trans-
understand the `psychology' of the producer of a text mission, above all to the thomy field of medieval mono-
is half the battle in understanding the text itself (scc phony. The series Paléographie Musicale (1889-) pub-
SOURCES, MS, §1). lished by the monks of Solesmes exemplifies this dual
In the study of music printing the groundwork was approach to textual criticism which combines facsimiles
laid by scholars like Anton Schmid in his survey of the of oririnal sources with editions in more modem nota-
output of the Petrucci press (1845), by Robert Eitner, tion, later to be attempted systematically by Beck in his
and by Emil Vogel in his Bzb/i.oÍAek der gcd"ckíc# Corpus Cantilenarum Medii Aevi (1927-38) for all sur-
weltlichen Vocalmusik ltaliens (189Z). Vogetis work hais viving troubadour and trouvére song (never completed).
been carried on by Claudio Sartori in his Bz.ó/!.ografla me Solesmes monks have always been among the most
della musica strumentale italiana stampata in ltalia fino critical and scientific textual scholars and their recent
¢/ /700 (1952Ú8) and by Howard Mayer Brown in his text-analytical work in IÁ9 gr¢dz¢/ ro»zaz.» (Solesmes,
lnstru:mental Music Primted Before 1600 (\96S). Baisiuc 1957-) is highly sophisticated.
studies of early French music printers and publishers Textual criticism was itself a product of the search
have been made by Francois l,esure amd Geneviéve for authenticity which began in the lgth century and has
"bault, of the early English by Charles Humphries preoccupied 20th-century historical thought. In music
and William C. Smith, and of the early Viennese by this was manifested particularly in the production of
Alexander Weinmann. A model of descriptive biblio- critical editions of the works of leading composers.
graphy covering the activities of the earliest French Following the foundation of the Bach Gesellschaft in
music publisher, Pierre Attaingnant, is in Daniel 1850, European scholars started a series of
Hea.rtz:s Pierre Attaingnant, Royal Printer of Mustc Gesamtausgaben, definitive editions of the complete
(1970). The same kind of critical scrutiny directed to- works of Beethoven, Mozart, Lassus, Palestrina,
wards manuscripts draws on the techniques and re- Schubert, Schumann, Schütz and Victoria, among others.
sources of palaeography. Few of these sets reached the state of completeness
In manuscript studies much attention has been given envisaged by their editors, but they marked significant
in recent years to the 18th century. Studies involving steps in the development of editorial techniques and in
paper-making, the distribution of watermarks and hand- the bibliographical control of sources. Parallel to the
writing have brought about important revisions in the Gesamtausgaben were the Denkmáler sets devoted to
chronology of the works of J. S. Bach, Mozart and his the publication of `monuments' of national music.
father, and Haydn. Moreover, a new understanding Among the earlier projects of this nature were Franz
of the creative processes of composers - notably of Commer's Collectio Operum Musicorum Batavorum
Beethoven and Wagner - has been growing as a result of (1844-58), a pioneer edition of early Flemish music,
close examination of preparatory materials such as and Robert Julien van Maldeghem's rré§or mwsi.ca/
sketchbooks, drafts and preliminary scores. (1865-93). These established a continuing pattem of
The principles of editing are another supporting critical editions of historically significant music origin-
science of musicology. They embrace not only the sur- ating in Germany, Austria, France, Italy, Beldum, the
face questions such as how to distinguish editorial emen- Netherlands, England etc (scc EDiTioNS, HisTORicAL).
dation and interpretation from oridnal reading and how An important adjunct to text€ritical study is the
to lay out suppressed readings in a critical commentary compilation of inventories and cataloguing of primary
along with a description of sources (although these are source materials. The towering figure in this was
844 Musicology, §II, 4: Disciplines -Archival research
Robert Eitner (1832-1905) who published numerous
music catalogues and inventories in Mon¢fsAe/fe /ar
Áím5!.kgescAi.cftíe (1869-1904) and who brought the
results of his vast knowledge of Euopean archives
into evidenc in his ten-volume B(.ograpAz.§cA-
bibliograplrisches Quellen-I,exikon der Musiker .und
Musikgelehrtem der christlichen Zeitrechnung bis zur
Mz./Íe d¿§ /9. /dArAe¿rrdpr/S (1900U4). The ideals that
Eitner iritiatcd in this great work have served musical
scholarship for more than 60 years and are still alive in
the form of an `Intemational lnventory of Musical
Sources' (RISM) published under the auspices of the
lntemational Musicolotical Society and the lnter-
national Association of Music Libraries. The cata-
logues of the works of individual composers - those by
Kóchel for Mozart, Schmieder for J. S. Bach, Hoboken
for Haydn, Zimmerman for Purcell, Rufer for
SchcM=nberg, for example - often Sve infomation on the
textual transmission of each individual work, enabling
the user to locate all primary material and know its
status. The first part of Ludrig's Reperfor!.wm (1910)
was a model of another type of source catalogue: the
c¢fc!/og# r¢i.sonné of the materials of a repertory laid
out according to stylistic dictates and explained as an
evolutionary picture (Üee THEMATIC CATALOGUE).
4. ARCHivAL RESEARCH. Archives are the residue of
documents issued in the process of some sort of admini-
stration - whether it be of central govemment or a
private business, a ducal household or a parish chuch.
They are of interest to the historian for study of the
institution to which the archives refer, or for study of
people or objects or events concemed with that institu-
tion. Their essential feature is that they are generated
automatically in the process of administration, and this
makes them in principle different from almost all other
sources of history. Unlike a chronicle, a diary or a
newspaper report, they are not a conscious historical
record involving selection of fact according to some
criteriori. They record everyday detail as faithfully as
the unusual and the recorder is in the strict sense not a
participant in the events recorded. It is these factors that
historians in the mid-19th century recognized. As the
centralization of archives into principal depositories got
under way during the early part of the century and the
science of archive keeping began to develop, historians
tumed to them as obje€tive truth. `Ultimate history'
(Acton, 1896) seemed only a generation or two away.
National series of archive transcripts were begun:
Monumenta Germaniae Historica (1826-), Collection
de Documents lnédits sur l'Histoire de France (1850-),
the British Rolls Series and Calendars (1856-) and
others. Only slowly was it realized that the proper use of
archives could be made only after painstaking study of
how the administration itself worked, and that even then
error and fabrication could be uncovered.
In musicology there has been a little activity in
producing transcripts, either of entire series of
documents conceming musical administration (such as
Ei]:w"d Ri:mbai"h:rs The Old Cheque-book, or Book of
Remembrance of the Chapel Royal, Lo"don, 18]2);), o[
of selccted musical items from more general documents
(such as those in Casimiri's periodical jvofe d'arcA!.vi.o,
192442, relating to the Sistine Chapel in Rome. and
Lafontaine's 7lbe Jíz.#g'S Á4:ws[.ck, 1909, relating to the
English Chapel Royal). There has been an upsurge of
archival research in the patient combing of archives in
Italy by American and English scholars for evidence of
musical activities and institutions in the late medieval
and Renaissance city states (sec ARCHIVES AND MUSIC).
5. LExicoGRAPHy AND TERMIN0IOGy. The lexico-
graphy of music is a fom of applied scholarship the
object of which is to condense, organize (normally in
alphabetical order) and clarify the tems musicians use
to communicate their ideas about and their experience
of their art; it is commonly extended to include biogra-
phical material on individual musicians. This interest
has given rise to a long tradition of dictionary making
berinning with Brossard and extending through
Walther, Rousseau, Grassineau and Koch to such dis-
tinguished modem representatives of the genre as Apel's
Harvard Dictionary of Music (2|1969) aLnd the subúect
volume of the Rz.cma»» Á/lz«jk-ZÁ2jcz.kon (`Sachteil.,
12/1967). (See DICTI0NARiES AND ENcycLOPEDiAS OF
MUSIC.)
Musical dictionaries reflect the use of tems in all
kinds of primary sources, musical, theoretical and
documentary. At the same time, they themselves become
historical phenomena fumishing primary evidence of
the musical mentality of past eras. It is obvious that
tems change their meanings in time, that they coalesce
in groups or undergo mutations. The phenomenon of
`term-families' and their behaviou was of particular
interest to Wilibald Gurlitt who projected a
Handwórterbuch der mwikalischen Terminologie tha;`
wouLd trace the lineage of the vocabulary of music in a
manner similar to that used in the Ojt/ord E»g/ísA
Di.cÍz.o#arj). Such a handbook would provide a historical
analysis of musical terms according to their inherent
relationships and family groupings. His scheme is now
in the process of being realized by H. H. Eggebrecht:
the first issue of a handbook under Gurlitt's title came
out in 1972. The historical analysis of tems has its
obvious use as a means to gaining an understanding of
the development of concepts, but there is another aspect
oftherelationshipbetwc€nwordandmusicthatconfronts
the musicolorist with a perpetual dilemma - the need to
apply verbal symbols to an art that conveys its meanings
through the medium of sound. One can talk or write
about music, but the experience of music itself can
be known only through its own `language', the language
of sound. The effort to resolve the disparity between
verbal and tonal discourse has been a lifelong preoccu-
pation for Charles Seeger. He has seen little chance of .
brinring these two realms of meaning into complete
coincidence. It is the fate of the musicolodst to suffer
what Seeger called the `linguocentric predicament'.
6. ORGANOLOGy AND icoNOGRAPHy. The study of
musical instruments (organology) has attracted scholars
since at least the 17th century. Michael Praetorius in-
cluded in his S}J»Í¢gm¢ m«!.c«m (ii,1618) an important
section on instruments, with detailed illustrations drawn
to scale. Similar discussions are found in the encyc-
lopedic works of Mersenne (1636) and Kircher (1650).
Insofar as the modem study of historical performing
practices involves authentic reconstruction and restora-
tion of instruments of fomer centuries, it has benefited
from the observations of such early scholars.
The term `organology' was introduoed in 1941 by
Nicholas Bessaraboff. Bessaraboff felt that if a good
musicolorist ought to play an instrument whose music
wasofparticularinteresttohim,thenagoodorganolodst,
concerned with its acoustical design and mc€hanics,
Musicology, §II, 7: Disciplines -Performing practice 845
ought to be able to build a specimen. "is form of what pictorial biography and the iconography of music in
might be called `applied organology' has flourished since cultural life include Howard Mayer Brown, Alexandr
World War 11 and has made notable advances beyond Buchner, Reinhold Hammerstein, Edward Lowinsky
the achievements of such early 20th-century pioneers as and Emanuel Wintemitz.
As the scope of iconography has become apparent,
Dolmetsch, Galpin and the promulgators of the German
Orgc/bcwegcing of the 1920s. the need for bibliographical control at intemational level
Since the late 18th century an interest in ancient and was realized. The `Intemational Repertory of Musical
lconography' (RldlM) was established in 1971 to
exotic instruments has served an ethnomusicological
purpose by providing a common method of approach to catalogue all source materials (sce ICONCX3RAPH¥ oF
the music of diverse remote cultures. Guillaume André MUSIC).
Villoteau (1759-1839) made the first scientific study of
7. PERFORMiNG PRACTICE. Perfoming practice is the
Egyptian music largely on the basis of depictions of
study of the way music was performcd in past times.
instruments in ancient tombs and tmples. me study of
Indeed, the discipline can hardly be said to have existed
organology came into its own after the lgth¢entury
development of instrument museums in Westem (save to an unimportant extent in a few 16th-and 17th-
oentres: Berlin, Brussels, Cologne, Copenhagen, The century treatises that deal with the music of the ancient
Hague, Leipzig, Nuremberg, New York, Prague etc. Greeks and Romans) until after the various revivals of
Once these collections had become established, scholars earlier music began in the 19th century, for example
confronted new and fhiitful challenges of description Mendelssohn's perfomances of music by J. S. Bach and
the publication of historical editions of old music and of
and classification. Curt Sachs's jtca/-I€xikon dér
critical editions of the works of Bach, Handel and
MZÁsík(."Írmzc»/c (1913), the first effort to systematize
others. The existence of monumental and critical edi-
knowledge of musical instruments on a worldwide basis,
tions naturally led to more frequent performanc€s of
and the classificatory system devised jointly by Sachs `historical' music, although most performers in the lgth
and Erich von Hombostel were based on Victor
century and surprisingly many in the 20th have as-
Mahillon's extensive instrument collection in the
sumed that older music must be `improved' by perfom-
Brussels Conservatory. The study of musical in-
struments pcr sc became an important resource for ing it, for instance, on modem instruments with their
comparative musicology (e.g. Hombostel's adducing of greater volume and brilliance and generally better
mechanical efficiency. A number of musicians, on the
panpipe tunings as evidenü= of a cultural connection
between Brazil and Polynesia), but ethnomusicolorists other hand, realized that since the actual sound of music
have tended to favour subordinating a `purely' organ- is important to the understanding of it, perfomances of
older works might reveal unexpected meanings if they
oloÉcal approach to a more comprehensive penetration
were played in a manner as close as possible to that
of the individual musical contexts or styles involved.
Icónography, the study of visual materials related to heard by the oridnal audiences. Obsolete instrumental
music, shares the subject matter of organology insofar techniques and conventions of performance (improvis-
ing embellishments, realizing keyboard parts from
as it is concemod with the representation of instruments
in works of art, but the musical infomation to be gained figured and unfigured basses, adding implied acciden-
from prints, paintings, sculpture and other visually tals, inventing appropriate scoring where none is
apprehended artefacts covers a wide territory, embrac- indicated and so on) have had to be releamt. An
ing performing practice, music sociology, the arts of the important landmark in the history of the revival of older
musical practices was the publication in 1915 of Arnold
musical theatre and the portraiture of musicians. It
Dolmetsch's book on the interpretation of music in the
provides information about such specific matters as the
size of a concert room, the way of holding a bow, the 17th and lsth centuries, and a number of other studies
construction of an instrument, the size and grouping of a appeared about the same time or in the following few
choir, operatic costume and stage design. It often sup- decades: Beyschlag on omamentation (1908), F. T.
Amold on figured bass (1931) and Robert Haas on
plies the sole surviving evidence on a question of organ-
ology or perfoming practice; for historical questions in performing practice in general (1931). Much of this
early work centred on the problems of performing
ethnomusicology it is frequently the only available type
of evidence. music by J. S. Bach and his contemporaries.
Since World War 11 scholars have developed and
The realization of the vast potential of visual mater-
refined many of the conclusions about the way music
ials in affording infomation not available through any
other medium began in the first two decades of the 20th was perforined in the 17th and 18th centuries, and they
century in the work of Buhle, Galpin, Scheurleer and have begun to investigate similar problems in earlier and
otheis. Ki:"ky's Geschichte der Musik in Bildern later repertories. Robert Donington, murston Dart,
(1929) was the first significant publication in the field.
Frederick Neumann, Sol Babitz, Michael Collins and
But Kinsky's modest effort, designed for musical Putnam Aldrich have been important among postwar
amateurs, was greatly expanded in the subsequent scholars in advancing ideas about performing Baroque
M"i.kgescÁi.cÁfe j.# Bi./dém (1961~), a multi-volume music; their ideas have not always been accepted by the
work founded by Heinrich Besseler and Max Schneider. musical world or even by the scholarly community.
With the growth of research has come an awareness Instrument makers and perfomers, as well as profes-
of the many reasons for distrusting iconographical sional scholars, have had an important influence, and
evidence: lack of skill on the part of the artist, copying books like that on harpsichord making by the American
of other traditions or styles, imaginative invention or the builder Frank Hubbard have had an influence as wide as
basing of imagery on theatrical scenery or action, or or wider than that of his instruments.
symbolic purpose. Consequently iconography has Scholarly work on the perfomance of music since
become more analytical and interpretative in nature. 1750 has been scant (but there is an important study by
Distinguished scholars of instrumental iconography, Paul and Eva Ba-dura-Skoda on performing conven-
846 Musicology, §II, 8: Disciplines -Aesthetics, criticism Musicology, §III,1 : National traditions -France 847
tions in Mozart's keyboard music) and so instrument which rejected emotional and programmatic interpreta- 111. National traditions of m.isicology. ]ust aJs ihere whose research oentred on the music of the Middle Ages
makers and instrumentalists have led the way in teach- tions of music, a formalism that has been followed by are recognizable national styles in musical composition, and antiquity. He was among the first to transcribe the
ing how late lsth- and early lgth-century music was Combarieu, Stravinsky, Langer and others. Kurth's so too are there pattems in scholarship that owe their music of Machaut and the Chastelain de Couci, and he
performed in its own time. The revival of medieval and theory of music as a stream of tension, and as expres- character to the presence of national traditions, ideas made a rather misguided effort to restore the musical
Renaissance music, on the other hand, has involved the sion of the will (in the Schopenhauerian sense) belongs and institutions peculiar to a given country or language notation of ancient Greeoe to modem practice. A model
active collaboration of makers, players and scholars. To to the same line of thought. Kretzschmar, on the other group. The objectives of scholarship are intemational, of erudition of another kind was presented by Guillaume
a greater extent even than the study of later music, hand, took the view that music had meaning and but it is instructive to follow the various native strands André Villoteau (1759-1839), who was chosen to ac-
research into the performance of music before 1500 emotional state, and that these could be directly and note how they fuse into the total pattem. The pres- company Napoleon's amy to Egypt as a member of a
involves the evaluation of archival notices, literary deduced. There is now an important body of Marxist ent discussion nevertheless can only make passing scientific commission to study the culture of that
works and works of art with musical subject matter, as aesthetic theory in music, particularly in the work of reference to the principal events and individuals within country. His monographs treating of Egyptian music,
well as the analysis of theoretical treatises and the Lissa and Supiéié, Many composers have contributed the major countries. musical instruments and iconography are pioneer works
evidence of the musical sources themselves. For these brilliantly to the theory of aesthetics, among them of ethnomusicology.
earlier repertories, moreover, the traditional tasks of Wagner and Busoni, Henry Cowell, Hindemith, 1. France. 2. Italy. 3. Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries. 4. The central position in French musicology in the first
Gemany and Austria. 5, Other west Euopean countries, 6. The Soviet
editors - to add mL4§z.ca jócí¢ and the texts in vocal Schoenberg, Sessions, Schaeffer and Stockhausen. (Scc Union. 7. Eastem Europe. 8. The United States of America.
half of the lgth century was occupied by Francois-
compositions in a way that makes them easier to sing - AESTHETICS 0F MUSIC.) Joseph Fétis (1784-1871), whose range of musical
overlap with those of scholars and performers con- 1. FRANCE. If modem musicology is a product of the activity was extraordinarily comprehensive, embracing
cemed to understand the conventions of performance in 9. DANCE AND DANCE HISTORy. Dance history offers Enlightenment, then France is the lodcal place to betin history, theory, music education, composition and the
earlier times. (Scc a/So PERFORMING PRACTICE.) valuable inforination for the musicoloSst as it does for a discussion of national schools. French leaming was sociology of music. Prodigious in energy and prolific in
the historian of theatre and the anthropolorist. It emulated throughout Europe as the source and centre of output, Fétis dominated the music scholarship of his
8. AESTHETICS AND CRITICISM. Aesthetic questions are provides specific data on questions of tempo, phrasing, rationalism. The rationalistic spirit revealed itself first of generation, overshadowing the work of all his col-
present in almost all types of musicological writing. rhythm and style in performance. In particular, it can all in the work of the lexicographers, in the dictionaries leagues. He is best known today for his B¡.ograpÁi.e
They arise when music historians discuss the role of supply mardns of tempo and pattems of articulation of Sébastien de Brossard and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, zÁr¡z.vcrse//c des m.Ásf.cz.c»s, pumshed in eight 'volumes
music in a social milieu or the impact of personal en- and accentuation for the perfomer. It can also offer culminating in the great E#c})c/opédz.e of Diderot and between 1833 and 1844. The joumal Revac me4sz.ca/e,
vironment on individual musical development, or liken additional evidence conceming many aspects of D'Alembert, and beyond that in the musical volumes of which he founded in 1827, served as a medium for the
music to other arts, or define the terms of a specific Renaissance and Baroque improvisatory practices. For the EHc/c/opédi.e méíAodz.gz# (1791~1818) edited by expression of his views as a critic and historian until it
style; they are raised by acousticians who seek their the authentic re-creation of early musical theatre - !.%/er- Framery, Ginguené and Momigny. French leaming merged with Schlesinger's j!cv# cÍ gazcf fc m"i.ca/e in
bases in physical properties; they are invoked by medi., masques, ballets and operas - it fumishes not only was also disseminated in the writings of a group of 1835. In 1833 Fétis left Paris to become director of the
analysts as foundations for theories and methods of the essential choreographic components but also a wide aestheticians (the Abbé Dubos, Crusaz, Batteux and Brussels Conservatory. His series of historical concerts
operating, and underlie their attitudes towards musical range of evidence as to stage production and physical Chabanon) all preoccupied in some degree with the with commentary, riven in Paris between 1832 and
material, the process of hearing and the function of movement. It makes possible the presentation of func- classic concept of art as `imitation of nature'. Much of 1835, awakened public interest in the music of the past.
performance; they appear constantly in the writings of tional dance music in its full context and heightens their argument was channelled into the prevailing con- With Raphael Kiesewetter he was one of the first to
music critics wherever the criteria for judgment of stylistic awareness in the performer of non-functional, troversy over the merits of French as against ltalian stress the importance of the Netherlands school in the
craftsmanship, imarination in composition, and tech- stylized dance music such as the English virrinal reper- Opera. hístory of early European music. In a competition set by
nical skjll and interpretative insight in performance tory, the keyboard suites of J. S. Bach and the minuet France had less to offer in writings on music history. the Dutch govemment for the best essay on the subject
come into play; they penetrate the works of iconogra- movements of Haydn and Mozart. `The Contribution of the Netherlanders to the History
After the efforts of Pierre Bonnet-Bourdelot early
phers and experts in performing practic€, just as they do The writing of dance history goes back at least to the in the c€ntury there was only one work of any of Music in the 14th, 15th and 16th Centuries', Fétis's
the deliberations of performers, when leaping the gap - 17th century. Authors as early as Praetorius, Mersenne, significance - J.-B. de la Borde's four-volume Essai. swr text was rated a close second and was published along
imaginative, despite its historical conditioning - be- Mattheson and Cahusac showed a historical sense in la m:usique ancienne et moderne (\780), zi provocí*tive with Kiesewetter's prizewinning work.
tween evidence and statement or performance. They are their discussion of dance. The iritial impetus to modem but uneven work important chiefly for the attention it In the shadow of Fétis's vigorous personality, a dis-
thus expressed in many different styles of writing: scien- dance history was Sven by the publication of important draws to the early French chanson. In 1756, however, tinguished group of French music scholars was active in
tific, scholarly, literary, philosophical. They also occu 1 5th-century dance manuals at the beSnning of the 20th a Benedictine monk, Philippe-Josq)h Caffiaux, had pro- the first half of the lgth century, including Adrien de La
outside the literature of musicology, in systematic century: Closson published the Brussels basse danse duced a systematic history of music from pre-history Fage (1805Ú2), a pupil of Choron and friend of Baini
philosophical writings from Pythagoras to Leonard manuscript in 1912, Mazzi two ltalian manuscripts in to contemporary times in seven volumes, but it was O'alestrina's biographer) in Rome. La Fage's interests
Meyer, and in general histories of art and culture. 1914 and 1915, and Scholderer the manual of Michel de never published (MS in F-P#). Finally, the theoretical ranged from plainchant and the music of the Near East
Musical aesthetics seeks to answer the questions Toulouse in 1936. works of Rameau were fundamental to French musical to music bibliography and source studies in general.
`What does music mean?', `What is the place of music in The groundwork of modem scholarly investigation leaming in the 18th century; they provided a focal point He collaborated with Choron on the latter's Nowveaw
human life, and in the system of reality?', `What is was laid by the generation of Aeppli, Bukofzer, for the discussion of a host of crucial problems con- manuel complet de m:usique vocale et i:nstrumentale
excellence in music?'. Answers have been provided by Gombosi, Kinkeldey, Pruniéres, and above all Sachs, fronting composers and scholars alike. (1838-9) and wrote his own Hi§foz.rc gé#éra/c db /a
some of the world's greatest philosophers: Plato and with his W'lc/ÍgcscAz.cÁíe des rai.zes (1932). A shift to- After the disruptive events of the French Revolution mw§z.gaü e/ d¿ /a da7)s'e (1844) emphasizing ancient and
Aristotle, St Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Kepler, wards the practical exccution of historical dances, their a new generation of music scholars came to the fore. oriental practices. His best-known book was published
Leibriz, Descartes, Rousseau, Kant, Hegel, Schopen- steps and features of style came in the 1950s with the Prominent among them was Alexandre Choron (1771- posthumously under the title Essa¡.s de d!.pÍÁérogmpfti.e
hauer, Nietzsche and Marx. Scholars in acoustics and writings and activities of Mabel Dolmetsch, Melusine 1834), a man of broad knowledge and high didactic m"i.ca/c (1864), a collection of notes and commentary
psychology. such as Stumpf, Helmholtz and Seashore, Wood and Karl Heinz Tauber. A more recent gene- aims who was director of the Opéra in 1816 and for a related to early printed and manuscript sources, many
have made a large contribution. So have general aes- ration of researchers, most of them university-trained, brief period was involved in efforts to establish the Paris of them deriving from Baini's library. Several of these
theticians like Adomo, Croce, Langer and Zucker- has since brought recognition to the field of dance his- Conservatoire as the `Ecole Royale de Chant et de French scholars were archivists or librarians associated
kandl. tory as a scholarly discipline: Ingrid Brainard, Meredith Déclamation'. His lifelong objective was to revitalize the with one or more of the Parisian collections undergoing
Specialist writing in musical aesthetics extends back Ellis Little, Wendy Hilton, Julia Sutton and Shirley training of musicians in France and to raise the level of rapid expansion at that time. One such was Auguste
to the Middle Ages, above all in the speculative tradition Wynne. Parallel with this has come the study and publi- musical understanding of the public in general. He was Bottée de Toulmon (1797-1850), a lawyer by training
which was inherited from classical Greek philosophy, cation of musical sources by Frederick Crane, Daniel well versed in the German and classical writings on who served as librarian of the Conservatoire from 1831
and which extended through the Renaissance to the Heartz, Lawrence Moe, Eileen Southem and John M. music, but ltaly remained for him the prime source of to 1848; he produced a number of important mono-
early Baroque period. It was with the theory of emotive Ward. The broader social and political context of dance musical excellence, as demonstrated in his best-known graphs. on the medieval chanson, medieval musical
meaning in music, the socalled doctrine of the has been explored by Marie-Francoise Christout, Jean- woik, Primcipes de composition des écoles d'Italie instruments, and the life of Guido of Arezzo.
Affections, that aesthetics took on a sharply different Michel Guilcher, Jean Jacquot, Francois Lesure apd (1808,. in three volumes; 2/1816, in six). As a teacher, An interest shared by many of these early 19th-
character. Scheibe and Mattheson were the most impor- Margaret MCGowan. Se,veral systems have been evolved writer and administrator, Choron exerted a profound century French musicologists was the improvement of
tant figures in the development of this theory. In the for notating dance, of which Labanotation, devised by influence on his contemporaries. church music performance through the reconstniction
lgth century Hanslick's theory of music as `sounding Rudolf von Laban, is the most widely used. (Scc a/so A more direct precursor of modem historical of organs and restoration of the authentic corpu§ of the
fom in motion' founded a line of aesthetic thought DANCE.) methods was Frangois-Louis Peme (`1772-1832), chant. A leader in this movement was Joseph Louis
 848 Musicology, §III, l : National traditions -France Musicology, §III, 2: National traditions -Italy 849
d'Ortigue (1802T66), best known for his DÍ.cfz.onnczi.rcGeneviéve Thibault, Jacques Chailley, Amand represents an intemational and interdisciplinary enter- Rome a remarkable collection of manuscripts and tran-
liturgique, historique et théorique de plain-chcmt et deMachabey, Elisabeth Lebeau, Nanie Bridgman, prise of an ambitiousness that is wholly French.
me#z.gwc d'ég/z.se ( 1854, in collaboration with Théodore
Vladimir Fédorov, Paul Henry Lang and Dragan £:ipÉ3:asryw¥tchMüriísTeart:Lyo;°¥dDíj%Wü?S¥.intothecathe-
Nisard). Others concemed with chant reform include La Plamenac. 2. ITAL¥. Before the 20th century the state of A second area of activity in the lgth oentury is
Fage, Jean-Louis-Félix Danjou (1812Ú6), who with The Société Frangaise de Musicologie was founded in musicology in ltaly presented a strange contrast be- rcpresented by the extremely valuable (if not invariably
Stéphan Morelot (1820-99) edited the Jzevw ¢ /a 1917 with Lionel de La Laurencie as its first president tween the richness of the country's archives and the accurate) documentary work of `local' music historians,
mpsique religieuse. populaire, et classique [iom \84S to and has published the jRcvwe dg mmsj.co/ogi.e since 1922. failue of its scholars to make the bcst use of them. such as Francesco Caffi's on the music at St Mark's,
1849, Alexandre Vincent (1797-1868) and Félix For a short time after World War I France served as Italían scholarship of the 19th and early 20th centuries Venice, and Gaetano Gaspari's on that of S Petronio,
Clément (1822-88). In its critical approach to chant the home of the lntemational MusicoloScal Scx:iety, Bologna. Perhaps the most important of these local
produced little to compare with Einstein's study of
sources the work of these men foreshadowed that of the the ltalian madrigal, Haberl's collected edition of historians was Francesco Florimo, whose well-known
promoting its activities and publishing its joumal, thc
monks of Solesmes later in the century. Another impor- Palestrina's music, or the pioneer work on several im- account of the Neapolitan conservatories appeared in
tant figure, Aristide Farrenc, compiled jointly with his ?ull.etín de lq soc_i_é_té .`P_nion musicologiqri' (192l+i).
In the years since World War 11, French musicology has fou volumes (1880-83). This interest in local music
portant ltalian composers undertaken by foreign
wife, the pianist and composer Jeanne-Louise Famenc, a undergone significant developments. One important fac- scholars. The reasons for this may be sought in the history, often motivated by a scholar's pride in the place
23-volume set of early keyboard music, Le Trésor des tor in its growth has been the consolidation under one national temperament, in the fáilure of universities to where he was bom or brought up, has been continued in
Pianistes (1861-72). A selcx)tion of early vocal music administration of the three major music libraries in stimulate interest in historical studies, in the lack of the 20th century (usually on a more scientific basis), for
was edited by Le Prince de la Moskowa (son of Paris, the Bibliothéque de l'Opéra, the Bibliothéque funds available for research, in the haphazard organiza- example by Francesco Vatielli at Bologna, Raffaele
Marshal Ney) in his l l-volume Jtecwcz./ dés mrccawx du Conservatoire and the music division of the tion of certain libraries (a situation not entirely Casimiri at Rome, Ulisse Prota-Giurleo at Naples,
dé m"i.ga¢ mci.e##e (1843). Charles Bordes (1863- Bibliothéque Nationale. Some of the most productive remedied today), and perhaps also in the sheer quantity Mario Fabbri at Florenc€, and Roberto Pagano in
1909) was responsible for an ,4níÁo/ogi.c des maí}rcS scholars in France have been associated writh this newly of material available. One result of all this was that Sicily.
t€l!€i.:.::. _k Xve _au rvIle siécle aLnd Hemry Expert founded institution: Frangois Lesure, Nanie Bridgman scholars worked, often in isolation, on whatever came Petrobelli's third category comprises lgth¢entury
(1863-1952) produced several well€dited sets of and Vladimir Fédorov. In 1953 Jacques Chailley nearest to hand, and it is only quite recently that a writers with a more comprehensive outlook. The inter-
Renaissance French music. Of great significance still is became professor of music history at the Sorbonne and broader sphere of interest and a more sophisticated ests of Abramo Basevi (1818-85) extended to contem-
the work of Edmond de Coussemaker (1805-76), a director of the Musicological lnstitute at the University methodology have raised the status of ltalian porary German music as well as older ltalian music,
Franco-Belgian lawyer who came to medieval studies of Paris. Among the senior scholars of this period were musicology to intemational levels. as did those of Alberto Mazzucato at the Milan
through reading Fétis's Rcv" m"z.ca/e. Best known Marc Pincherle, a specialist in the violin music of the Italy's contribution to music theory in the lsth and Conservatory. Mazzucato's ideas on music history were
among his editions is ScrzzJJorc¿r?¡ de mz/Sz.c¢ mcd).z. Úevz. late Baroque and Classical periods, and Geneviéve lgth centuries should not be overlooked, however. Bur- systematically presented in the writings of his pupil
(1864-76), an anthology of medieval writings on music Thibault (Countess of Chambure) who encouraged and ney met numerous leamed musicians, collectors, theor- Amintore Galli. An attempt to cover early ltalian music
modelled on a similar collection produced by Martin influenced scholarship throughout the world, ists and historians during his ltalian tour (1770), and comprehensively was made by Luiri Torchi in his
Gerbert nearly 100 years earlier (see st below), the even before this F. A. Calegari, his pupil Vallotti, and L'Arte Musicale in ltalia, projected in 34 volumes, of
particularly in the fields of the 16th¢entuy chanson,
Scriptore_s ecclesiastici de musica sacra (\784). organology and iconography. Tartini at Padua were looking for a theoretical basis for which only seven reached publication. At about the
All of these scholars, with the exception of Fétis, The humanities division of the Centre National de music founded on mathematical principles. Vallotti's same time Oscar Chilesotti brought out a nine-volume
were amateurs in the best sense; they were largely self- la Rccherche Scientifique has since the early 1950s ideas were systematically expounded in treatises by L. set of early French and ltalian music, mostly. for lute
taught in music, and pursued careers as doctors, lawyers brought small intemational groups of musical specialists A. Sabbatini published in Venice about the end of the and guitar, under the title Biblioteca di Raritá
and public officials. The French were slow in giving together for intensive discussion of chosen problems. century. Sabbatini had been a pupil at Bologna of Padre Musicali.
institutional support to research in music: it was not Some of these `colloques', many under the direction of Martini, a central figüre in the ltalian musical An influential figure in the early part of the 20th
until 1872 that a chair in music history was added to the Jean Jacquot, have explored the intenelationship of Enlightenment, whose reputation as a historian and century was Fausto Torrefranca, whose writings were
staff of the Conservatoire. By the second half of the 19th theorist was unsurpassed. His three-volume Síorz.a db//¢ motívz\*ed by nz\tionalísm (IÁz origini italiane del roman~
poetry and music, and theatre and music, while others
century, however, French musicology began to take on have centred on instrumental music, acoustics, style, the m"z'c¢ (1757-81), though incomplete, badly propor- Íi.cjsmo ma4s!.ca/e, 1930) and by the `neo-idealistic'
a professional character: a new generation of scholars Renaissance and Baroque, and the lsth and 20th cen- tioned and maned by archaic methodology, was of wúde philosophy and historiographic methods of Benedetto
had emerged, some, notably the medievalist Pierre turies. Their proceedings have been published within the influence; and his two-volume Saggi.o /o«dbmcnía/e C\oce (IÁa vita musicale dello spirito, \9\OD. Fo\lo`rins
Aubry (1874-1910) and Jules Ecorcheville (1872-
general series l,e Choeur des Muses, which also includes pratico di contrqppunto (1174-S) wajs a,n ad"ired text- in the same trend was Andrea Della Corte, co-author
1915), harshly critical of Fétis's dogmatism and editions. book on the contrapuntal practice of the old and new with Guido Pannain of the first large-scale ltalian his-
frequent inaccuacies. A major effort to establish The search for a fully deployed `science' of music is styles. Martini's interest in the past as a lesson for the tory of music (1936). Gaetano Cesari was the first
France as the centre of musical leaming was made by still a strong intellectual current in France. The early present was very similar to ours, and his voluminous ltalian scholar to profit from a thorough musicological
Albert Lavignac (1846-1916) and Lionel de La acoustical work of Piene Schaeffer in his experimental correspondence and library (now in /-Bc) represent in training, which hc reoeived in Munich from Sandberger
Laurencie (1861-1933) who joined forces to edit the studio, whích started in 1942 and later came under the the first place a source of infomation about musical and Kroyer. In 1931 he founded the historical series
g[esíi Emcycloi)édie de la musique et dictiormaire du auspices of the ORTF, led eventually to his fomulation activity in the broadest sense. His methods were lstituzioni e Monumenti dell'Arte Musicale ltaliana, on
Co#serv¢Íoz.re (1920-31). La Laurencie himself of a .morphology and typology' of all musical objects in modelled on those of Muratori, the founder of modem which Giacomo Benvenuti, another Sandberger pupil,
produced the definitive study ¿'éco/c/raHcaj# ¿ vJ.o/on his rrcH.fé des o¿y.cÍs m"z.ca!¿]r (1966). The same spirit ltalian historiography, in nearby Modena. also worked. Benvenuti inaugurated another important
¢ £%//}i á yz.o/fj. (1922+). Romain Rolland (1866- fired the theoretical fomulations of Pierre Boulez, Petrobelli (,4cÁí, xliii, 1971) has identified three main series, I Classici Musicali ltaliani, in 1941. The lstituto
1944) was one of the many contributors to the notably in his essay `Technique musicale' in Penscr /a lines of activity in lgth-century ltalian musicology. The ltaliano per la Storia della Musica, founded in 1938,
E#c];c/opédz.c. Marie Bobillier (1858-1918), who pub- mz#z.gwe azi/.owrd'Á%¡. (1964), and also the rigorous first, which he rcferrcd to as the `true' Italian tradition, published Casimiri's edition of Palestrina and works by
nshed under the name Michel Brenet, was a prolffic analytical apparatus of Nicolas Ruwet and Jean-Jacques concemed primarily with sacred music, can be traoed at other Renaissance and Baroque composers. More
writer on early French music. Henry Pruriéres (1886- Nattiez in their musical semiotics (sÉ.e SEMIOLOGY). It is least as far back as Pitoni (1657-1743). Though conser- rccently ltalian musicology has eamed intemational
1942) founded a new jievwc maAfi.ca/c in 1920. most fully expressed in the scheme to establish an vative and even archaic in his own music, he must be recognition through the work of such scholars as Nino
The first French doctoral dissertation on a musical lnstitut de Recherche et de Coordination Acoustique/ regarded as a forerunner in historical musicology. His Pinotta and Pierluid Petrobelli.
subject was completed by Jules Combarieu in 1894: £es Musique (IRCAM), headed by Boulez and housed on Notizie dei maestri di cappella, co"airins copíoÜs A central figure in musical activity and organization
rapports de la musíque et de la poésie. This wais [oHlowed the ccntral Parisian site known as the `Petit-Beaubourg' infomation on some 1500 musicians active in Rome during the 20th century was Guido Maria Gatti, author
a year later by Romain Rolland's study Z,'orí.gj.w d. within a vast complex of buildings constituting a centre and elsewhere between 1000 and about 1700, was never of several books, editor with Andrea Della Corte of
fÁéáírc /yw.g#e modbr7®e. It was Rolland who occupied for contemporary art. This institute is to have four what was long the standard ltalian musical dictionary,
published, but Baini drew on it for his study of
the first chair in music history at the Sorbonne, bedn- divisions: the Section lnstruments et Voix, investigating Palestrina (1828) and for his projected Síor!.a dé//a general editor of the dictionary and encyclopedia IÁz
ning in 1904. He was suoceeded by André Pirro (1869- natural sounds under the direction of Vinko Globokar; c¢/7pe//a ponfz#cía. The former is a key document in the mé«z.c¢, and music editor of two other encyclopedias. In
1943), one of the dants of modem French musicology. the Studios de Musique Electronique et Electro- history of music biography and a starting-point for the 1920 he founded the pcriodical J/ píano/or/e, which in
In addition to his basic research in the music of the late Acoustique under Luciang Bério; the Département des 19th¢entury cult of Palestrina and tbe a ccppe//a style. 1928 became the Rasseg»a m"z.ca/e; publication ceased
Baroque (J. S. Bach, Schütz and Buxtehude) and the Ordinateurs, investigating sound synthesis under Jean- It was soon followed by a sevcn-volume edition of in 1962, but a series of geéa!dgmz. followed. The most
15th century, Pirro claimed a long line of.distinguished aaude Risset in collaboration with lannis Xenakis; Palestrina's works edited by Pietro Alfieri. Following in authoritative ltalian music periodical from 1894 until it
pupils including Yvonne Rokseth, Jeanne Marix, and the `unite mobile' under Diego Masson. It the tradition of Baini, the Abbé Santini assembled at oeased publication in 1955 was the Jtz.ví§fa m84s(.cdc
850 Musicology, §III, 3: National traditions -Great Britain
Í.Ía/íczra¢, published by the Bocca brothers of Turin;
others include Ricordi's Gazzeíía mwz.ca/c d¡. Mi./ano
(1842-1966, with several changes of title), and JVoíe
d'¢rcAz.vz.o, a mine of documentary infomation on early
ltalian music and musicians which Raffaele Casimiri
edited from 1924 until his death in 1943.
In an effort to place ltalian musicology on a sounder
footing the Associazione dei Musicolori ltaliani was
founded at Ferrara in 1908 by Guido Gasperini. An
important result was the publication between 1909 and
1941 of a series of catalogues of ltalian libraries and
archives. The project remained unfinished and the
results were uneven, but many of the catalogues were
of outstanding quality, notably those of the Biblioteca
Estense in Modena and the Biblioteca del Conservatorio
di Musica in Naples. The association's activities ceased
after Gasperiri's death in 1942, but a new organization,
the Societá ltaliana di Musicoloüa, was founded in
1964 with its own joumal, the R!'vísía z'Ío/(.an¢ dz.
mwsí.co/ogz.a; and in 1967 Italian Radio supported the
£ounda:ti\on o[ tbe Nuova rivista musicale italiana. Simce
1966 the Ufficio Ricerca Fondi Musicali ltaliani,
directed by Claudio Sartori, has been engaged in the
finding and cataloguing of musical material.
Italian universities were slow to recognize the import-
ance of musicological studies. Musicology in ltaly thus
owes much to a group of research institutes supported,
in part, by public funds. The lstituto di Studi Verdiani at
Pama, the Accademia Tartiniana at Padua and the Fon-
dazione Rossini at Pesaro are all engaged in scholarly
research into those composers whose names they bear,
and the Cini Foundation at Venice has assembled
an important collection, in photographic rqroduction,
of Venetian musical sources, as well as organizing con-
ferences on Venetian opera. Courses and conferences
are also arranged each year at Certaldo, Boocaccio's
birthplace, for the study of 14th- and 15th-century
music, and at Siena by the Accademia Chiriana, whose
valuable bulletin, CAz.gí.¢rza, is published by Olschki of
Florence. The same publishers issue important series of
monographs (Historiae Musicae Cultores) and editions
(e.g. Archivium Musices Metropolitanum Medio-
lanense). Another important research joumal, .4#a/ccfa
maÁ§z.co/ogz.c¢, is published by the Geman-Italian
lnstitute at Rome.
3. GREAT BRITAIN AND THE COMMONWEALTH COUN-
TRms. Musicology in Britain has grown out of certain
particularly strong and long-lived traditions: the collect-
ing and study of musical instruments, the science of
acoustics, the perforring of early music (with the allied
practices of textual criticism and editing) and to some
extent also the collecting and editing of folksong. The
development of music history as a scholarly discipline
came, in a sense, rather later, although it has roots
extending back to the 17th century. Its pre-Victorian
manifestations were very much part of the amateur
tradition of music study that has always been an element
of British musicology. In those earlier times, all music
other than contemporary music was termed `ancient
music' and thought of as the domain of the `antiquary'.
Roger North (1653-1734) stands at the beginning of
the English Enlightenment and was a man in whom the
spirit of the Enlightenment was clearly visible. Further-
more, he represents an abiding tradition in British
musical scholarship in placing emphasis on music not as
a subject for speculation but as a living art to be enjoyed
and understood in performance. North, a member of a
distinguished fámily, was trained for a career in law but
retired in 1688 to devote himself to music and garden-
ing. He regarded himself as an amateur musician. He
cultivated music in its widest dimensions, was fascinated
by the ideas that move men to create it, and filled
notebooks with observations related to theory and
musical composition, history, aesthetics and perform-
ing practice. These views were consolidated in a series
o[ t[ezLhses o£ w:hich The Mwicall Grammarian a,rid
j]4émo!'res o/ Mz«z.ck were the most important. He con-
tinually redrafted and revised his writings but never
brought them to publication. North, though not a
profound music historian or speculative theorist, had
vision and a lively curiosity, and was free from
pedantry.
A more traditionally orientated musician was J. C.
Pepusch (1667-1752). His fame rests chiefly on his
association with John Gay as musical arranger of Zlbc
Beggar's Opera (1728), but his contemporaries knew
him as a student of ancient music and theory. The
crowning achjevements of English music historiography
in the lsth century were the general histories of Charles
Bumey and John Hawkins. Hawkins's Gcmra/ H¡.sfor}J
of the Science and Practice of Music a,ppeaired co"phc+e
in five volumes in 1776. The first volume of Bumey's
General History of Music from the Earliest Ages to the
Prcse#j was issued in the same year, but the author did
not finish his work until 1789. The magnitude of these
accomplishments is astonishing considering that
Hawkins and Bumey worked independently and without
significant antecedents.
The two main preoccupations of l gth¢entury music
historians were church music and the Elizabethan
`Golden Age' of English music. The critical study of
church music arose at about the time that the monks of
Solesmes were berinning their work in France on plain-
chant; it was associated in part with the Oxford
Movement for liturScal refom, and later with the so-
called English Renaissance at the end of the century.
Two scholars represent the study of church music at the
tum of the century: Walter Howard Frere (1863-
1938), Bishop of Truro, and Edmund H. Fellowes
(1870-1951), a minor canon of St George's Chapel,
Windsor. Frere was concemed with the study of
medieval plainchant, but he also did much to establish
the foms of liturgy in late medieval England, par-
ticularly the Use of Sarum, and produced editions of the
main Sarum iiturécai books. His work was continued
by Anselm Hughes (1889-1974). Fellowes produced
his sta,rida;rd history o[ English Cathedral Music firom
Edward Vl to Edward VII (1942) i.nd bLograLphies o£
Byrd (1923, superseded by a second in 1936) and
Gibbons (1925), as well as studies of the English mad-
rigal and its composers and many editions of 16th-and
17th-century sacred and secular music (see below).
The first important 20th-century history of music in
Enstísh wí*s The Oxfiord History of Music (\90L-5),
written from very different standpoints by H. E. Wool-
dridge, Hubert Parry, J. A. Fuller Maitland, Henry
Hadow, Edward Dannreuther and H. C. Colles, with an
introductory volume by Percy Buck. Parry in par-
ticular, in his volume on the 17th century, took a
Darwinían evolutionary approach to music history
which he had already applied in 7lbc Árí o/ Áí#sz.c
(\893, c:n:líTrgpd írs The Evolution of the Art of Music,
Intemational Scientific Series, lxxx, 1896), and which
Musicology, §III, 3: National traditions -Great Britain
has characterized much English historical writing since.
T:h!£ s;"ccessor `o OHM, The New Oxford History of
Mz«z.c, was Lmder the dircction of Egon Wellesz and
Jack Westrup - two great Oxford historians, the latter
one of the most influential minds in English music his-
toriography - and Gerald Abraham, noted particularly
for his work on Russian and east European music.
Another scholar of profound influence, in England and
intemationally, was Edward J. Dent (1876-1957),
professor at Cambridge, whose main field of research
was ltalian Baroque opera, and who did much to bring
little-known music of the past and present to a wider
audience.
British historical writing prides itself on its strong
critical tradition, cultivating descriptive and evaluative
prose. An interest in musical aesthetics goes back to the
lsth century, with a group of writers concemed chiefly
with the relationship between music and poetry. Its
principal member was Charles Avison, a composer~
critic whose Essay on Musical Expression zLp:peaLred h
1752. A few years later John Brown published his
Dissertation on the Union and Power, the Progressions,
Separations, and Corruptions of Poetry cmd Music
(1763), which was followed by Daniel Webb's Oóser-
vations on the Correspondence between Poetry and
Áí"z.c (1769) and James Beattie's Essa)/s o# Pocír)/ ¢#d
Music (\776).
Occasional reviews of music and musical per-
fomances began to appear during the second half of
the lsth century in monthly joumals such as the
Gentlernan's Magazine aind European Magazine, but it
was not until the early lgth century, with such publica-
tions as Zlfic fformo#z.co# (1823-33) and the Á4lwJ.ca/
Wor/d (1836-91) that independent music joumalism
was fimly established. The Mg4§z.ca/ rz.mcs, which has
been in continuous publication since 1844, combines
unusually wide coverage of musical events with well-
informed criticism and articles of general and scholarly
interest. The ÁíwS¡.ca/ Á7!fi.gwa7.)) (1909-13) was short-
lived but set a new standard in the presentation of
musical scholarship, while both the title and the contents
of Á4z4w.c & Leííers (founded 1920) are representative
of the best traditions in English musicology. Since 1940
the broad approach of Áf#si.c & Lcf fcrs has been com-
plemented by the more closely analytical emphasis of
another quarterly joumal, Á4lwsz.c Rcvjcw. Newspaper
music joumalism has always been of a high standard,
elegant and well informed. Among the most famous
critics in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were
George Bemard Shaw, Emest Newman and Neville
Cardus, and these have been followed by Martin
Cooper, William Mann, Jeremy Noble, Andrew Porter,
Stanley Sadie and others in the principal newspapers
and weekly and monthly magazines. Critical and histor-
ical traditions come together in the work of writers such
as the Handel scholar Winton Dean, the medievalist
John Stevens and the writer on Geman and Russian
Romantic music John Warrack.
The tradition of collecting musical instruments is a
very old one, and Britain houses several fine collections
which fumish primary material for research. These
include the Russell Collection of keyboard instruments
in Edinburgh, the Bate Collection of wind instruments
in Oxford, the Colt Collcction of keyboard instruments
in Kent, and the collections at the Ashmolean, Oxford,
and the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Homiman
Museum and the Royal College of Music, London.
851
Francis Galpin (1858-1945), working at the same time
as Hombostel and Sachs, was one of the first to write in
a scholarly way about instruments in his O/d Eng/i§A
/m§ÍreÁ{?¢e»Í§ o/ Mz«z.c (1910). He investigated not only
European instruments but also those of the Near East,
and his private collection numbered more than 500
instruments. The Galpin Society, founded in 1946, pub-
lishes an annual joumal which is indispensable to any-
one interested in early ihstruments, with articles by such
scholars as Philip Bate, Anthony Baines and Peter
Williams (who also edits the important OrgaH year
Book, founded 1970). The quarterly EarJ); Áíws!.c, which
started publication in 1973, devotes many of its pages to
articles on instruments.
The twin traditions of perfoming and editing early
music go back to the 18th century. Pepusch was one of
the founders of the Academy of Ancient Music in the
1720s, the first of a series of associations devoted to the
performance of early music. Others were the Apollo
Society (1731), the Madrigal Society (1741) and the
Noblemen's and Gentlemen's Catch Club (1761). The
repertory of these sinring societies was drawn from
Englishandltalianpartsongsofanearlierperiodtogether
with contemporary catches and dees.
The members of the Dolmetsch family were the most
infiuential figures in the early 20th century in brinring
about perfomances of Renaissance and Baroque music
on authentic instruments such as lutes, viols, recorders
and crumhoms. Amold Dolmetsch (1858-1940) pion-
eered the accurate restoration of old instruments and the
making of reproductions; he also researched and edited
early instrumental music, and instituted festivals of
early music. The Viola da Gamba Society (founded
1956) and the Lute Society (1948) continue to encour-
age authentic perfomance, and produce their own jour-
nals as forums for the discussion of perfoming practice,
instruments and sourcx}s. This activity resulted in the
setting up from the 1950s onwards of many instrument
makers who based their designs on original instruments,
as well as of a number of professional groups whose
players were thoroughly versed in early performing
practice and whose singers were trained in vocal
production and omamentation appropriate to specific
musical styles.
The performance of 17th- and lsth-oentury opera,
particularly the operas of Monteverdi, Purcell and
Handel under Westrup at Oxford University from the
1920s onwards and under Anthony Lewis at
Birmingham University in the 1940s to 1960s, was an
important venture. Lewis, on the staff of the BBC from
1935 and in charge of music on the Third Programme
in the mid-1940s, brought such music to a still wider
public. The spirit of all these operatic ventures derived
from the work and teaching of Dent, who saw perform-
ance as the ultimate goal of scholarship.
The histories by Bumey and Hawkins were remark-
able for their extensive examples of early music, and the
English were among the first to edit early music on a
large scale. A collection, C¢Íñedra/ Áfwsz.c, was
projected by John Alcock and Maurice Greene and
completed by William Boyce between 1760 and 1778.
The edition, representing a continuous tradition from
Tye and Tallis to Purcell and Croft, was further revised
and expanded in 1790 by Samuel Amold. It was Amold
who made the first collected edition of the works of a
major composer, namely Handel. The set was issued in
180 instalments between 1787 and 1797 and, for its
852 Musicology, §III, 3: National traditions -Great Britain
time, was a creditable undertaking, but unfortunately great emphasis on research into folksong and popular
Amold, for all his enthusiasm, was not equipped to fúlfil music. The tradition extends from Bishop Percy's
his promise that the work would be `correct, uniform, Reliques (\765) aind T3dwziid ]onests Mwical and
and complete'. The many collections of catches and
dees that appeared at intervals thoughout the century
displayed great antiquarian interest. One of the most
conspicuous examples of this kind was Thomas
W8[me;"'s Collection of . . . Caiches, Canoms, amd Glees
(cl775-), which contained 652 pieoes, many of thein
transcribed from 16th-century sourc€s. Another edition
devoted to the music of the past was William Crotch's
Specimens of Various Styles of Music (18Ín-&), o"e o£
the first historical antholories of music designed for
teaching purposes. Crotch's selection is unusual in the
amount of folk or national music that it contains, of
both Eastem and Westem origin. John Stafford Smith
published a similar anthology in 1812 under the title
Mwica Amtiqua: a Seleciion of Music of ihis and other
Countries from the Commencernmi of the 12th to the
Begiming of the 18th Century.
The British Musical Antiquarian Society published
music of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods, and also
of Purcell, between 1840 and 1847 (three decades
before Eitner began his Pú/jka/!.one»). The Purcell
Society, founded in 1876, embarked on its edition of
Purcell's music in 1878, in collaboration writh the pub-
lishing fim of Novello; it was eventually completed
with volume xxxiii in 1965. In 1898 John Stainer pub-
lished his collection of medieval music, D«/a}7 and A!.S
Co#Ícmporarz.es. The earliest English counterparts of
the great German and Austrian Denkmáler editions,
which began in 1892, were the publications of the
Plainsong and Mediaeval Music Society (founded 1888)
which date from 1891 onwards: Edmund Fellowes's 36-
volume English Madrigal School (1913-24) and 32-
volume English School of Lutenist Song-writers (1920-
32), and the jointly edited Tudor Church Music (1922-
9). Fellowes also produoed a collected edition of the
works of Byrd (1937-50). Thurston Dart later revised
much of Fellowes's work, as well as engaring in several
important projects of his own. His editorial methods,
which combined exact scholarship with sympathetic
awareness of the needs of perfomers, were widely
imitated. He was associated with the most important
series of scholarly editions to appear since World War
11, Musica Britannica, launched in 1951 by the Royal
Musical Association, with Anthony Lewis as general
editor and Stainer & Bell as publishers.
As early as 1851 a leamed society had been founded
in London `for the cultivation of the ari and science of
music'. This was the Musical lnstitute of London,
presided over by John Hullah. It was dissolved two
years later, but in 1874 the Musical Association (sincc
1944 the Royal Musical Association) was founded by
John Stainer and William Pole `for the investigation and
discussion of subjects connccted with the art and science
of music'. Tbe `science' referr€d to was acoustics, a
study strongly cultivated in Britain from the mid-19th
century to the mid-20th by such scholars as Pole him-
self (a civil enrineer by profession), Alexander Ellis,
James Jeans and Alexander Wood; its major practical
manifestation was the scientifically designed Royal
Festival Hall, built in 1951. Since its formation the
RMA has extended its activities, and its published
Proceedings, togplher wri:fh ai Research Chronicle, now
constitute a major contribution to English musicology.
From its earliest times British musicology has placed
Poetical Relicks of the Welsh Bards (1784) to the Z"h
century. Joseph Rltson (1752-1803) introduced critical
methods in place of the casual amateurism of Percy, and
the Anglican clergyman John Broadwood was one of
the first to collect (in 1843) songs directly from the lips
of living singers. His methods were followed by his
niece, Lucy Broadwood, and by another clergyman,
Sabine Baring-Gould. Two of the leading lgth¢entury
students of British popular song were Edward F. Rim-
bault (1816-76) and William Chappell (1809-88).
Rimbault was a versatile if not vcry precise scholar
who played an active part in the formation of both the
Musical Antiquarian and the Percy Societies. William
Chappell is best remembered for his Popw/m ÁfaÁ§z.c o/
ÍÁe O/t*n ri.me (1845-9), a work of enduring value.
Towards the end of the oentury Frank Kidson, Cecil
Shaip and Ralph Vaughan Williams were collecting and
editing folksongs - still part of a living tradition. Kidson
was a founder-member of the Folk Song Society in
1898; Shap and Vaughan Wimams later bccame mem-
bers. In 1932 the society joined with the English Folk
Dance Society (founded 1911) to form the English Folk
Dance and Song Society. More recent studies in English
folk music have owed much to the research and
activities of Maud Karpeles, A. L. Lloyd and Frank
Howes, editor of the Fo/k So»g Jowr»a/ and its suc-
ck5ssoi t:he Journal of the English Folk Darice and Song
Soci.ef)/ from 1927 to 1945.
Many younger British scholars have adopted a more
anthropolodcal approach to the study of Britain's folk
music, and much research has been undertaken into the
folk music of non-European countries, notably by Hugh
Tracey, A. M. Jones and John Blacking on African
music, Laurence Picken on Chinese music and Turkish
folk instruments, and an important group of scholars at
the School of Oriental and African Studies, London
University.
In 1740 the young James Grassineau, encouraged by
Pepusch, publishcd Á M"z.ca/ Dz.cÍz.onary. This turned
out to be something more than the mere translation of
Brossard's Dz.cfz.o»czf.rc that had been planned, and was
in fact the first substantial work of its kind in the
English language. Busby's Comp/cíe D!.cÍ!.omr}7 (1786),
Bumey's articles for Rees's Jvew C)/c/opaedftz (1802-
20), Busby's Á4lwsz.ca/ Bi.ograpÁy (1814) and Sainsbury's
Dz.cÍz.onarjJ o/ Mwz.cíarzs (1824) are among the more
important lexicographical works betwc€n Grassineau's
and the first edition of Grove's Dz.cÍz.onarj; o/ AfleÉsj.c and
Áf"z.cz.a". This was completed in 1890 and, in its
subsequent revisions, has remained the most com-
prehcnsivc and authoritative English-language work of
its kind. Percy Scholes's Ojx/ord Compa»z.o« fo AíaÁ§z.c
(1938) showed a more idiosyncratic approach to lcxico-
graphy, but contained much information not readily
accessible elsewhere, and Eric Blom's Everyma7i'S
Di.cíi.onary o/ Áím§J.c ( 1946) was more useful and reliable
than its small size might suggest. Both these works
subsequently appeared in several new editions.
The role of the universities in the advancement of
British musicology was not a prominent one before
World War 11, although the influence of isolated
scholars such as Donald Tovey at Edinburgh and Dent
at Cambridge was profound on those students who came
into contact with them. Oxford and Cambridge have
Musicology, §III, 4: National traditions -Germany, Austria
continued to play a leading role, partly because of their
rich archival resources, but also because of the example
and teaching reforms of Jack Westrup at Oxford and
Thurston Dart and his predecessors at Cambridge. Dart
was also for a time professor at King's College, London
University, and his influence was felt by a whole
generation of British scholars. Many other British
universities now have important music faculties, several
of which encourage research at postgraduate level.
The development of musicological studies in the
English-speaking countries of the Commonwealth is
relatively recent. Only in the case of New Zealand have
the traditional ties with Great Britain remained strong,
through the interchange of scholars. Peter Platt, an
English scholar trained at Oxford, taught at Otago
(1957-75); John Steele, a New Zealander, studied early
English keyboard music at Cambridge and retumed to
teach at Otago; and several New Zealand scholars have
settled in Britain. In Australia, American models have
tended to prevail, for example in the graduate school
established at Adelaide under Andrew D. Mccredie and
in the links between conservatory and music department
there and at other centres. English scholars have, how-
ever, held important posts, notably David Gamver and
Donald Peart; Peart and Frank Callaway have been
particularly active in music education studies. Other
active scholars are Gordon Anderson, Peter Dennison
and David Tunley. Two university departments, at Perth
and Adelaide, are concemed in the publication of valu-
able musicological yearbooks. Canadian musicology has
naturally been orientated towards the USA rather than
Great Britain (or France), and there are several signifi-
cant graduate schools, notably at Toronto University,
on the American pattem; music education is a favoured
field of study. Notable scholars include Helmut
Kallmann, Maria Rika Maniates, Hugh MCLean and H.
Colin Slim.
4. GERMANy AND AUSTRiA. During the course of the
18th century the centre of gravity in music moved from
south to north European countries. The same was true
of music scholarship. Two names, from among many,
may be mentioned as representative of that trend. One
was Martin Gerbert (1720-93), abbot of St Blasien,
who first submitted the music of the Middle Ages to
critical scholarship. His history of sacred music, De
cm/z. ef mm§!.c¢ Sacrcr (1767), was used heavily by
Bumey and Forkel, as was his anthology of medieval
tieariises, Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra (\784:).
The other was Emst Ludwig Gerber (1746-1819) who
began by revising and expanding the biographical
entries in Walther's ZÁ2jc¡.co# (1732) and concluded by
producing a biographical reference work on a scale
ur\preoede;n:ted €or bis time.. Historisch-biographísches
Lc]íz.kom der ronkñ"Í/er (1790-92), followed by a
[oíui-vo+"me Neues tistorisch-biograplrisches Lexikon
der ro7¡k##s//er (1812-14).
Gemany led the rest of Europe in establishing the
academic discipline of modem music scholarship. The
German university system provided the institutional
framework within which the new field could evolve; as a
result, Geman musicology of the lgth century estab-
lished a record of productivity unrivalled by any other
nation. Critical editions, definitive biographies, biblio-
graphies and catalogues were issued in a profusion that
was not disrupted by two world wars. At the same time
the emerring discipline enjoyed an enviable relationship
853
with the press. The great publishing houses of Breitkopf
& Hártel and C. F. Peters in Leipzig, and Schott in
Mainz, were generous in their support of scholarly
activity, not only in the publication of editions and
research monographs but through the issuing of per-
iodicals to spread the results of research. The
Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, Gounded in 1798 in
I+eipzig by Friedrich Rochhtz, was the prime example of
such a journal. It served as a model for Cac!./!.a, pub-
lished by Schott in Mainz and edited successively by
Gottfried Weber and Siegffied Dehn from 1824 to
1848, imd zLlso [or the Berliner allgemeine musikalische
Zc[./c.wg, edited by A. 8. Marx from 1824 to 1830.
Another important joumal of criticism was Robert
Schumann's Nezfe Zez.iscAr7/Í/ür Mz«z.k, which began its
long run in 1834 and still continues. By the end of the
19th century Geman musicology had reached a high
level of professionalism clearly reflccted in such jou-
riaLls ím .he Vierteüahrsschrift für Musíkwissenschaft
edited jointly by Chrysander, Spitta and Adler from
lgss to lü94, .he Jahrbuch der Musikbibliothek Peters,
1894-1940, founded by Emil Vogel, and 'Robert
Fji+ner.s Monatshefte fuiiur Musikgeschichte,1809-190S.
Johann Nikolaus Forkel (1749-1818) stands at the
head of the new breed of academic musician that came
into being in the early lgth century. He spent the
greater part of his career at the Georg-August
University at Góttingen, which he first attended in 1769
as a student of jurisprudence, and afterwards served as
organist of the university church and as music director
in 1779; he was awarded an honorary doctorate in
1787. Among Forkel's many important publications
was the first musicolodcally orientated bibliography of
m"st^c books (Allgemeine Litteratur der Musik, 1792), a
hi!story o£ rrNsjric (Allgemeine Geschichte der Musik,
1788-1801), and the first attempt at a biography of J. S.
Baich (Über J. S. Bachs l,eben, Kunst und Kunstwerke,
1802). Góttingen in the late 18th century was a centre
of lively intellectual activity. The university was
founded in 1734 by the Elector of Hanover, who was
also George 11 of England; it was noteworthy for its
Anglo-Gemian studies and for a school of `universal
historians' that developed there under the leadership of
such men as Johann Christoph Gatterer, J. C. Schólzer
and Johann von Müller. They advocated a view of his-
tory that extended far beyond the traditional emphasis
on political and military affairs, and provided a frame-
work for Forkel's studies in the history of music.
Forkel was not an isolated example. In 1779, the year
in which he was appointed university music director at
Góttingen, Daniel Gottlob Türk (1750-1813) was
granted a similar post at Halle, where he lectured in
music history, theory and aesthetics. From that time
onwards a widening circle of Geman uriversities and
research institutes brought music into their curricula
with men such as Franz Joseph Fróhlich at Würzburg,
Christian Friedrich Michaelis at Leipzig, Ferdinand
Gassner at Giessen, Adolf Bemhard Marx at Berlin, and
Carl Breidenstein at Bonn. Breidenstein was the first
musician to occupy a professorial chair in music (1826),
but it was not until 1870 that the Viennese music critic
Eduard Hanslick became the first to bear the title
Pro/cssor ord¡.#ar!.ws in music history and aesthetics at
the University of Vienna. The first German professor-
ship of equal rank was held by Gustav Jacobsthal at the
University of Strasbourg in 1897. Between 1904 and
1960 no fewer than 21 German universities inaugurated
854 Musicology, §III, 4: National traditions -Germany, Austria
full professorships at the level of ord!.#ar].wS, and their
first occupants make an impressive list of scholars:
1904 Berlin: Hermann Kretzschmar
1909 Munich: Adolf Sandberger
1915 Bonn: Ludwig Schiedermair
1918 Halle: Hermann Abert
1920 Breslau: Max Schneider
1920 Góttingen: Friedrich Ludwig
1920 I.eipzig: Hemann Abert
1921 Heidelberg: Theodor Kroyer
1928 Kiel: Fritz Stein
1929 Freiburg: Wilibald Gulitt
1932 Cologne: Theodor Kroyer
1935 Frankfürt am Main: Joseph Müller-Blattau
1944 Kónigsberg: Hans Engc]
1946 Mainz: Franz Amold Schmitz
1946 Marburg: Hans Engel
1946 Münster: Wemer Korte
1947 Jena: Hans Joachim Moser
1952 Tübingcn: Walter Gerstenberg
1956 Hambug: Heinrich Husmann
1958 Saarbrücken: Joseph Müller-Blattau
1960 Würzburg: Georg Reichert
The German uriversity system provided academic ranks
for a host of other distinguished scholars who con-
tributed to the growing literature of their field. An out-
standing example was Hugo Riemann (1849-1919), the
dominant figure in Geman musicology in the opening
years of the 20th century. In the range and authority of
his writing and teaching, Riemann invites comparison
with Fétis (see §1 above). Both men had a universal
appetite for knowledge. In a letter to Hans Huber in
1898, inquiring about a possible position at the
University at Basle, Riemann modestly described his
special province as `music theory from A to Z, music
history, including aesthetics and acoustics, keyboard
instruction and perfoming practice'. Apart from his
numerous monographs and manuals, Riemann made a
number of important editions of early music (for
example, volumes of music by the Mannheim school in
Denkmáler der deutscher Tonkunst), and some 50 vol-
umes of early chamber music under the title Colledum
Musicum. His Á41c«i.k IÁ.xz.ko», first published in 1882,
maintains hjs enormous influence in its 12th edition
(1959-75).
Parallel to the Viennese school of Classical com-
posers there was a `Viennese school of musical scholar-
ship' in the lgth ¢ntury that exerted considerable
influence on the development of musicology in the
German-speaking countries. me central figure was
Raphael Georg Kiesewetter (1773-1850), a civil ser-
vant in the office of the Austrian War Ministry (it was
he who was successful against Fétis in the competition
for the prize essay on the music of the Netherlanders).
His interest in eariy secular vocal music led to a com-
prehensive treatment of the subject extending from the
early Middle Ages to the birth of the monodic style
(Schícksale und Beschaf :fenl.eit des weltlichen Gesamges,
1841). He also conducted investigations into Arabian
music, tuning and temperament, and the musical
instruments of the Middle Ages. He was the author of an
outline history of music, the first of its kind, based on
cultural epochs identified with the careers of the great
creative musicians of the past (GcscAi.cÁfe d7r cwro-
páisch-abendlámdischen Musik, 1834). A yo"nger co^-
league of Kiesewetter in the ministry office was Franz
Sales Kandler (1792-1831) who took the advantage
afforded by his diplomatic status to travel extensively in
ltaly observing and transcribing early music, the results
of which he sent back to Vienna for Kiesewetter. Kand-
ler established a close relationship with the Roman
historian and biographer of Palestrina, Giuseppe Baini,
and in fact prepared a condensed Geman translation of
Baini's work. A member of the same circle of music-
loving public officials was Aloys Fuchs (1799~1853),
an avid collector of musical autographs to whom we
owe the preservation of a great many of the autograph
scores of Viennese composers.
Anton Schmid (1784-1847), head of the music
division of the Austrian National Library, was a
specialist in the history of music printing. He produced
aii Ím:poTta:nt "onograLph Ottaviano dei Petrucci da
Fossombrone . . . imd seíme Nachfolger im 16. Jahrh:w'i-
déríc (1845), and contributed a series of bibliographical
papers to the periodical CÓc!./Ía based on the library's
holdings in early printed music. He is also rememtx3red
as the author of the first critical biography of Gluck
(1845).
The leading music historian of the late lgth century
was a product of the Viennese group, although he was
bom near Prague. He was August Wilhelm Ambros
(1816-76), a nephew of Raphael Kiesewetter and a man
of broad cultural experience. His Gescflz.cbfe dgr Á4lcA§i.k
appeared in fou volumes between 1862 and 1878.
Ambros's death interrupted the work before it had pro-
gressed much beyond 1600, but his observations on
early polyphony, based on original research, set the
standard for all subsequent research in this area.
Hanslick's successor as professor of music at the
University of Vienna was Guido Adler (1855-1941),
whose long career spanned the most productive period
in Austro-Gerinan musicology. With Chrysander and
Spitta. he was co-editor of the Fr¡.eríe/jaÁrsJCÁr]/f /#r
rdir,J;'fw.``;S:Z:cftÉ%áÉáyea.s3lesroih.eniouunnsíe,rnanóqs,:enn:ircaí
(1894-). Adler's work was always historical in ap-
proach, but he saw that to write a comprehensive
history of music was beyond the powers of any 20th-
century scholar to accomplish alone. He collaborated
with some of the most distinguished specialists of his
gerierariion to prod:"c£ ai Handbuch der Musikgeschichte
(1924, 2/1930) that served as a basic text for students
of historical musicology for the first half of the cen-
tury.
The tasks German musicology set for itself in the
19th century were far-ranging and the results were often
brilliant, establishing the boundaries and the substance
of the discipline until at least the end of World War 11.
Faced with a flood of newly discovered source
materials, many of the major names of this period
contributed monumental catalogues, bibliographies, and
thematic indexes. Among the most influential of these
were Robert Eitner's ten-volume Bz.ograpÁz.sc^-
bibliographisches Quellen-I.exikon (\900Ú4;) ar+d
Eiiiner a,rid HZL:berYs Bibliographie der Musik-
Sammelwerke des XVI. und XVII. Jahrh:imderts
(1877), Friedrich Ludwig's Jteperíor!.gtm org¢#orwm
recentioris et motetorum vetustissimi stili, .\|\ (19\0.,
later completed by Gennrich), Emil Vogel's Bib/i.oÍ*ek
der gedmckten weltlichen Vocalmusik ltaliens (1&92:),
and Johannes Zahn's six-volume Dj.e Me/odí.cn dcr
deutschen evangelischem Kirchenlieder (l.8Ü9-9T).
A high standard was established for thematic index-
ing by the classic achievements of Nottebohm for
Beethoven's works (1868; fully revised by Halm and
Kinsky, 1955) and Ludwig von Kóchel for Mozart's
(1862, 3/1937 ed. Einstein, 6/1964). Among the new
directions taken by German scholarship in the later
Musicology, §III, 4: National traditions -Germany, Austria 855
19th century was the Gesamtausgabe, the complete the enforced emigration for racial reasons of many of
edition of the works of a major composer. This was Gemany's and Austria's foremost musicologists,
frequently a joint enterprise involving the cooperation of including Willi Apel, Manfred Bukofzer, Hans David,
several editors. From the founding of the Bach Alfred Einstein, Karl Geiringer, Otto Gombosi, Paul
Gesellschaft in 1851, and its pioneer effort to publish allNettl, Curt Sachs, Leo Schrade and Emanuel
Bach's works, the pattem was set for a series of critical Wintemitz, to name but a few who fled from Europe.
editions for such composers as Handel (1858), Not only were Gcrman universities severely crippled by
Palestrina (1862), Mozart (1876), Schubert (1883), this removal of so many scholars, but the country as a
Beethoven (1884) and Lassus (1894). Parallel to these whole was cut off from the extraordinary growth of the
series of editions was the appearance of studies of the discipline in other parts of the world, especially the
life and works of individual composers, using USA, where most of Gemany's displaced musicolorists
increasingly refined musicological methodology. Philipp had settled.
Spitta's remarkable two-volume study of J. S. Bach Since 1945 the traditions of scholarship fomerly
(|873-80) became a model for such studies. characterizing Geman musicology have slowly been
During the first third of the 20th century German restored, althoust many of the postwar achievements
musicology advanced rapidly along these lines, and the belong, at least for West Gemany, to broader cooper-
profusion of scholarly publications that appeared placed ative efforts within an intemational framework; in East
German scholars in the front rank of musicology. From Germany the chief emphasis has lain on the study of
a long list of notable musicoloasts may be singled out music in relation to different kinds of social system. The
Heinrich Besseler for his studies of medieval and concems of scholars before the 1930s with such projects
Renaissance music; Hans Joachim Moser, especially for as complete editions continue. Many of the old complete
his studies of German church music; Johannes Wolf for editions have been discontinued and new ones have
his works on musical notation; Peter Wagner for his begun to replace them, for example for Schütz, Bach,
study of Gregorian chant and history of the mass Handel and Mozart. Among the factors re-establishing
(1914); Amold Schering for his history of the oratorio Gemany and Austria as centres of musicolorical ac-
(1911), history of the music of Leipzig (1927,1941), complishment has been the continuing generous support
study of performing practice in early music (1931) and of publishing houses. Not only have those firms with
aesthetic study of symbolism in music (1941). Schering distinguished heritages, like Breitkopf & Hártel, Schott
also contributed a new kind of musicological tool, the and Universal, remained active in musicology, but new
anthology of old music Gescft¡.ctifc der M"z.k z.J3 firms such as Bárenreiter and Henle have become
Bcz.spíe/e# (1931), and Georg Kinsky compiled his an- prominent. The appearance of good, scholarly editions
thology of pictorial material relating to music history has moved hand in hand with the study of performing
Geschichte der Musik in Bildern (1929). Emst BÜcken, practicx}, manifested in practical terms by such groups
expanding Adler's original concept of a collaborative as the Capella Antiqua of Munich and the Concentus
history written by specialists, edited and himself Musicus of Vienna.
contributed to the monumental ten-volume H.andb#cA Although established before World War 11 (in 1924),
d¿r Mws!.kwísseJ"cAa/Í (1927-31). Its volumes were by Bárenreiter under the leadership of its founder Karl
some of the most distinguished German musicoloüsts of Vótterle must be considered the single most import.ant
these generations: Robert Lachmann, Curt Sachs, publisher of musicological work in the postwar decades.
Heinrich Besseler, Robert Haas, Hans Mersmann, Otto Among an extraordinary series of new complete edi-
Ursprung and Friedrich Blume. tions, catalogues, facsimile editions and smaller pub-
In the same period Erich von Hombostel and Curt lications, its greatest single enterprise has been Di.e
Sachs carried out the basic work of classification and Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart., the ffst [zLscLc,Le
historical investigation of musical instruments; the sig- appeared in 1949, the last 30 years later. Prepared under
nificant results were published in Sachs's Rca/-I€xz.kor! the distinguished editor and scholar Friedrich Blume,
der Musikinstruinente (1913) amd Handbuch der this vast research encyclopedia (14 volumes and two of
Musikinstrumentenkunde (1920). ALs ez.ch ruew gerLerz.- supplements) perhaps symbolizes better than any other
tion of university students completed doctoral courses work the position of Geman musicology in the s%ond
in musicology, and as German publishers expanded half of the 20th century. Edited with profound
their support of musicolorical research of all kinds, it knowledge and care for detail, MGG has long been
seemed certain that Gemany would always dominate reckoned the most important single source of
musicology on the intemational level. Indeed, it was musicological knowledge for almost every facet of
through Geman initiative - by Oskar Fleischer and Westem music history. It is, nevertheless, an
Max Seiffert - that the lntemationale Musikgesellschaft intemational effort, with a large proportion of articles
was founded in 1899. It was disbanded in 1914, but by scholars from the world at large. While the work's
during the Beethoven centenary celebrations in Vienna emphasis is profoundly German, Á4GG was the first
in 1927 a new organization, the lntemationale intemational musicolodcal effort of any size to be
Gesellschaft für Musikwissenschaft, was founded, with brought to completion.
Guido Adler as honorary president and Peter Wagner As before the collapse of Germany during World
as president. War 11, musicology again has a prominent role in most
However, as with all aspects of German and Austrian German universities. While several senior figures long
culture and life, the politics of National Socialism led remained influential (Bruno Stáblein, Walter Wiora),
to destruction and to the end of German domination in many important teaching posts are held by a middle
musicology. The subsequent collapse of the nation dur- generation of scholars (including Carl Dahlhaus, Hell-
ing World War 11 was one reason for the deterioration mut Federhofer and Ludwig Finscher), whose range of
of musicolorical scholarshjp. A second reason, how- interests is wide and whose names become increasingly
ever, grew out of the darkest aspects of the Nazi era - significant through their own work and their
 856 Musicology, §III, 5: National traditions -Western Europe (other countries)
participation in intemational meetings and research
projects. While the German monopoly in musicology
has clearly been broken for ever, it is also clear that
German musicological scholarship has regaincd a
central position in the intemational community of
scholars.
5. OTHER WEST EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. The smaller
countries of westem Europe have naturally leant heavily
on their larger neighbours in the development of musi-
colodcal studies, and in particular many of them
have leant on Gemany. Their own traditions have been
relatively late in developing and have not always been
distinctive - depending, to some extent, on the musical
past of the country concemed. A typical case is that of
Switzerland, at the junction of three larger cultures.
Scholars in that country have worked extensively on the
hístory of Swiss music (notably the Protestant psalm),
and have been avid in the production of dictionaries and
periodicals; but apart from a continuing interest in
medieval and Renaissance studies it would be hard to
discover any national pattem in the work of such dis-
tinguished scholars of different generations as Peter
Wagner, Jacques Handschin, Kurt von Fischer (a pro-
foundly influential figure intemationally) and Martin
Staehelin. The activities of the Schola Cantorum
Basiliensis, with whích August Wenzinger and Wulf
Arlt have worked, show an interest in the practical
application of musicolorical knowledge.
Studies of perfoming practice, and of instruments,
have characterized musicology in the Low Countries,
typified by the instrument collecting of D. F. Scheurleer
(1855-1927) and more recently by the conservation
work of J. H. van der Meer, the performances of Gustav
Leonhardt, the pubtications of Frits Knuf, and the
historical in§trument designs of Flentrop. Historical
musicology (and the Dutch society for its study, the
Verenidng voor Nederlandse Muziekgeschiedenis,
founded in 1868 -the oldest in the world) is represented
in the Netherlands by Albert Smijers, the first reader in
the subject at a Dutch university (Utrccht, 1928), editor
of the Josquin edition and student of other Franco-
Flemish music, as well as the teacher of a generation
of Dutch scholars including Eduard Reeser; also by
scholars as diverse in their interests as Joseph Smits van
Waesberghe, a chant scholar, and Frits Noske, whose
work on song and opera covers the 17th to lgth
centuries and whose interest in socio-musicology
represents a significant new trend.\ The convergence of
historical, sociolorical and ethnomusicolorical tradi-
tions (inherited primarily through Jaap Kunst,
organoloóst and scholar of lndonesian music) typifies
Dutch musicology in the 1970s. In Belrium, Robert
Julien van Maldeghem (1810-93) produced an edition
of early Flemish music in 29 volumes, defective as to
editorial procedure but a valuable source for later
scholars; and Edmond vander Straeten issued an eight-
volume work documenting the activities of early
Flemísh musicians throughout Europe during the period
of their greatest influence, £o m«sz.gzóÉ. actx Pa);s-Bas
atia"Í /e XJYc si.éc/c (1867-88). Musicolorical studies
were introduced at universities in 1931, partly through
Emest Closson's initiative; a specially influential figure
was Charles van den Borren, who at Brussels and Liége
taught Suzanne Clercx-Lejeune, Albert vander Linden
and Robert Wangemée; his son-in-law was Safford
Cape, with whom he founded the Pro Musica Antiqua
ensemble. A tradition of ecclesiastical musical studies
is represented by Jozef Robijns and René Bemard
Lenaerts.
Similar traditions have influenced Spanish musi-
cology, with such scholar-priests as Hidni Anglés. José
Maria Llorens Cisteró and José López{alo prominent
in the uncovering of their country's heritage of
c"lesiastical music. But important work was early
accomplished by M. H. Eslava y Elizondo (1807-78) in
his ten-volume Lira Sacro-Hispana and F. A. Barbieri
(1823-94) in his edition of the 15th-and 16th-century
Cancionero Musical de Palacio. The true father of
modem Spanish musicology, however, was Felipe
Pedrell (1841-1922), a composer, teacher, writer and
music editor. He is best known for his editions of sacred
music by early Spanish composers, Hispania Schola
Musica Sacra (1894-8), and keyboard music by
Cabezón, and especially for the complete edition of the
works of Víctoria; another important student of the
national musical past, besides Anglés, was José Subirá
Puig, a prolific writer particularly on Spanish dramatic
music.
Scandinavian scholars, though much occupied with
their national musical past, have tended to look to the
Geman-speaking countries, particularly Switzerland,
for their training. Tobias Norlind (1879-1947), the
senior Swedish figure, studied at l.eipzig and Munich; his
pupil Carl-Allan Moberg (1896-1978), considered the
founder of Swedish musicology, studied in Vienna and
Fribourg; and Moberg's successor, Ingmar Bengtsson,
studied in Basle. Moberg's research embraced early
Swedish music and Swedish folksong, and Bengtsson
worked on J. H. Roman and other Swedish composers
before tuming to socio-musicolorical studies. Also
influential in Sweden was the influx of refugee scholars
from Germany in the 1930s. In Denmark musicology
has been longer established: Angul Hamerik (1848-
1931) was awarded the earliest doctorate in music
(1892) and obtained the first lectureship in musicology
at Copenhagen (1896); he was a teacher of Erik
Abrahamsen (in 1926 the first Danish professor of
musicology) and the great Palestrina scholar Knud
Jeppesen (the first professor at Árhus, 1946). Jens
Peter Larsen's work on the Classical era, and the involve-
ment of several Danish scholars in Byzantine studies,
have helped dve the country's musicology a special
character as well as an intemational standing. In
Norway the first musicoloScal chair was established in
1956 at Oslo, for Olav Gurvin (1893-1974), who had
studied in Heidelberg and Berlin; he and Ole Sandvik
(1875-1976) had dven the first regular university
lectures in music in 1937-9. Folk music studies form
the bulk of these men's work; the investigation of the
national musical past, including the Protestant church
music tradition, has always oocupied an important place
in Scandinavia. The founder of Finnish musicology was
llmari Krohn (1867-1960), who studied at Leipzig
and Weimár, and founded the Finnish Musicological
Society in 1916; his chief work was on theory, chuch
music and Finnish folk music. The research of Erik
Tawaststjerna on Sibelius and his contemporaries
is among the most notable recent Finnish musical
scholarship.
6. THE SOVIET UNioN. Scholarly investigation of
Russian music history began in the lsth century,
especially after the rule of Peter the Great (1689-1725),
Musicology, §III, 7: National traditions -Eastem Europe
when sustained contacts with west European countries
were established. The first significant publications were
by foreigners in Russia, for example Leonhard Euler's
rGn/amÉ.n novac ÍAÉ7orz.ae mwi.cae (1739) and a lecture
by Georg-Wolfgang Krafft (1701-54) on consonance
(delivered in Latin in 1742 and published in Russian in
1744). Both wcre well-known mathematicians. Jacob
von Stáhlin (1709-85) was the first to publish infoma-
tion about music in Russia, `Nachrichten von der Musik
in Russland' in Haigold's Be}7/age7i ziir7i »É>z/vÉ.rdizdgríe7z
Hc#s'/¢zd, ii (Riga and Leipzig, 1770). The first music
periodical established in Russia was published by a
German: Johann Daniel Gerstenberg's Maga§!.# m"z.ca/
dé SÍ. Péícrs¿oairg (1794). Towards the end of the lsth
oentury the Russians began investigating their musical
legacy by collecting folksongs (Trutovsky) and studying
the rich domain of church music. The first to assemble
data on Russian chant was Evfimy Bolkhovítinov
(1767-1837), better known as Metropolitan Evgeny of
Kiev, whose 1797 lecture on the subject was publjshed
two years later.
Some early l gth-century Russian writers preferred to
study European music. Count Grigory Orlov (1777-
1826), for example, published his Essaz. Swr /'bz.sÍo!.re d¿
/a msÁsz.g% cn /fa/z.e (1832), and Alexander Ul.ib.i.shev
(1794-1858) and Wilhelm von Lenz (1808~83) their
writings on Mozart and Beethoven.
Prince Vladimir Odoyevsky (1804Ú9), though
basically an amateur, played an important role in the
study of Russian music and may be viewed as one of the
founders of musicology in Russia. Despite some earlíer
work, it was in the 1860s that the scholarly invest-
igation of Russian chant history began, with the
research of lhitry Razumovsky (1818-89), Stepan
Smolensky (1848-1909), Ivan Voznesensky (1838-
1910) and especially Vasily Metallov (1862-1926) and
Anatoly Preobrazhensky (1870-1929).
Apart from an article by Alexey Veselovsky in
Rwsskz.Í. vcsf#g.k (1866), the first significant attempt at a
history of Russian music in the Russian language was
Vladimir Mikhnevich's Jsíori.c¿cskJ.)Je cíywdi. mssko)J
zhizri: ocherk istorii muztkí v Rossü v kulturno-
obshchestvennom otnoshenii (mstorical stuües o[
Rus§ian life: essay on the history of music in Russia in
relationship to culture and society'; St Petersburg,
1879). In the next four decades, which led to the
establishment of the Soviet Union, a number of writers
specialized in aspects of Russian music history.
Probably the most significant were Vsevolod
Cheshikhin (1865-1934), a historian of Russian opera,
and Nikolay Findeyzen (1868-1928), founder and
editor of the important periodical Rwsk¢ya
m¢ñka/'#¢}J¢ gazeí¢ (1893-1918) and of the annual
Á4wzj.ka/'#a))a síarz.#a (`Musical past'; 1903-11).
Findeyzx3n.s li\Sewo-k, Ocherki po istorii muz#ki v Rossii s
drevneyshikh vremyon do kontsa XVIIl v. (EssaLys on (he
history of music in Russia from thc earliest times to the
end of the 18th century'; 1928-9), is still the most
comprehensive survey of Russian music. The high level
of analytical and historical musicology attained in the
pre-revolutionary period is also exemplified in articles
by a variety of writers on the 19th century and on
contemporary music in the periodical
Á4aizj.ka/'#i)7
sovre»ze7irzz.k (`The musical contemporary'; 1915-17),
edited by Andrey Rimsky-Korsakov (1878-1940),
biographer of his father and a first-rate scholar.
There were significant developments between the
857
wars. Perhaps most far-reaching and intemationally
recognized was the publication of original scores of
Musorgsky's works under the editorship of Pavel
Lamm, starting in 1928. This gave a strong impetus to
systematic, critical study of sourc€s. Even more signifi-
cant were attempts to recxamine the basic postulates of
music as an art, its components and its impact on the
listener. These problems were studied from a theoretical
point of view with a strong tendency to fomulation in
Marxist tems and, from the 1930s, in accordance with
the officially promulgated concepts of socialist realism.
Among the leaders of these studies were Boris
Asaf 'yev (who also wrote under the pseudonym lgor
Glebov), a scholar of great erudition who formulated
the concept of !.#ÍoHaíiFz.j/a dealing with the creation of
audio-imagery by association wúth familíar melodic pat-
tems, and Boleslav Yavorsky, the creator of a con-
c€pt of harmonic rhythm in his theory of `auditory
gravitation'. Important in the historical field since the
mid-1930s has been Tamara Livanova, whose works,
especially her classic book OcAerk(. !. mafcr¡.¢/í po í.§/ori.z'
russkoy muzükal 'noy kulturi (EssaLys í.nd docurr\ents on
the history of Russian musical culture'; 1938), are
among the most scholarly in Russian musicology, as are
also Boris Yarustovsky's on dramatugy. A number of
scholars have tried to write comprehensive hístories of
world music, notably Roman Gruber.
Most of the younger scholars active since 1945 have
specializcd in aspects of Russian music and of other
ethnic groups in the USSR, and the number of publica-
tions has greatly increased. Periodicals and yearbooks
appear in growing numbers. Music bibliography has not
only kept up with current publications but also given
retrospective coverage (for example in Livanova's
Muzikal'naya bibliografiya russkoy periodicheskoy
pccbafz. XJX v.). Lexicography has also developed: Boris
Shteynpress and lzrail' Yampol'sky are prominent
in this area. Yury Keld.i.sh, author of a history of
Russian music and an account of music in lsth-century
Russia, was chief editor of a collective history of music
of the peoples of the USSR (Jsíor!.}7a mwzi.kz. narodov
Sssj{); he is also the editor of the largest Russian music
encyc\opeüa„ Muzükal'naya entsiklopediya, z.nd chíe[
editor of the first Russian equivalent of the Denkmáler
series under the title Pamyatniki Russkoy Muz.iki. There
are many biographical studies of Russian composers
and their works; Semyon Ginzburg compiled an an-
thology of Russian art music up to Glinka (Jsforz.}Ja rz#-
skoy muz{ki v notníkh obraztsakh), Emd st"ües o£
Russian chant have been resumed. A notable theorist is
Lev Mazel', while Vladimir Protopopov is active in
Westem and Russian polyphony. Abram Gozenpud
works on Russian opera; scholars of folk traditions
include lsaly Zemtsovsky and Robert At`ayan
(Amenian music).
7. EASTERN EUROPE. As with the Soviet Union,
musicology has in the past been preoccupied with par-
ticular fields: with the history of church music and
opera, with local music history, and increasingly with
folk music. Marxist ideology has in recent years fos-
tered the systematic and social study of music, and it is
in this part of the world that the SocioLOGy oF MUsic
has become an independent discipline with rigorous
standards.
The first important musicoloScal publication on
Polish music was the biographical dictionary £¢s
858 Musicology, §III, 8: National traditions -USA
musiciens polonais et slaves ancíens et modernes (18S])
by the pianist and amateur scholar Wojciech Sowiñski
(1805-80). In the same year Józef Sikorski (1813~96)
founded a significant periodical, Jt%cÁ mwzj/czn);, but it
lasted only five years. An anthology of the rich legacy of
church music, Monumenta Musices Sacrae in Polonia
(1885-96), was initiated by Józef Surzyhski (1851-
1919). Much of the work of the lgth-century scholars
dealt with Chopin, including that of Maurycy
Karasowski, also the author of the first history of opera
±n Pola.nd (Rys ltistoryczny opery polskiej, 18S9). The
first full-scale history of Polish music seems to have
been that by Aleksander Poliñski, Dzz.e/.e mwz)/k¡. po/-
ski.e/. (1907). No fewer than eight Poles obtained doctor-
ates in musicology at German universities in the first
decade of the 20th century. In 1911 the first chair in
musicology was established in Poland, in Kraków. By
World War 1 a group of scholars was already producing
significant and lasting work. Among the next generation
of scholars were Hieronim Feicht, Józef Chomihski and
Zofia Lissa, a leading thinker in musical aesthetics
and historiography and one of the most infiuential musi-
colodsts in eastem Europe. The two main centres of
publication for music scholarship are Warsaw and
Kraków, to which must be added Bydgoszcz, where
triennial conferences have been held since 1966 under
the title Musica Antiqua Europae Orientalis for scholars
of eastem European music. The youngest generation
includes Stefan Jarociñski, Boguslaw Scháffer, Zygmunt
M. Szweykowski and Miroslaw Perz.
Romania had a forerunner of musicology in the
humanist Dimitrie Cantemir (1673-1723), who wrote a
description of Romanian music ( 1716), studied Tukish
music and devised a notational system for recording it.
Before the 20th century there were individual attempts
at collecting church music, notably by Anton Pann
(1797-1854); Eusebius Mandyczewski (1857-1929),
the great scholar and editor active in Vienna, was of
Romanian origin. Modem scholarship began only after
World War 1 with the ethnomusicological studies of
Constantin Bráiloiu and the musicological work of
George Breazul and loan D. Petrescu (1884-1970),
who studied church music and its relationship to
Byzantine music. The younger generation of scholars
includes Viorel Cosma; his generation has worked par-
ticularly on the history of Romanian music, with special
emphasis on the music of Enescu.
In Bulgaria, except for some studies in folk music,
scholarly activities did not really begin until the work of
lvan Kambuov and Stojan Brashovanov, author of
the first history of Bulgarian music (1946). Since 1945
there has been a much greater emphasis on scholarly
work, supported by the lnstitute of Musicology founded
in 1948 as part of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences.
An important writer on Bulgarian music is Venelin
Krastev, author of several monographs; he was respons-
ible for the first comprehensive encyclopedia of
Bulgarian music.
The first systematic gathering of data about Czech
"sicians see:ms to be the Allgemeines historisches
KjzJzsÍ/er-Z,cJ¥z.ko# (1815) of Bohumír Dlabaé. The begin-
nings of a more systematic study of the Czech and
Slovak musical past appear in the works of Otakar
Hostinsky (1847-1910), who trained a generation of
scholars, among them Dobroslav Orel, Otakar Zich and
most notably Vladimir Helfert (1886-1945), a fine
scholar particularly active after the creation of an
independent Czechoslovakia in 1918. Otakar Sourek
(1883-1956) devoted himself to the study of Dvoíák.
The three most important centres of musicological
S::|:sr,,ar:c,T:Pti%e,ar:mdgr£FeddE;ati;s:ahvuari:ns,páargñ|ñ:
joint editor of the dictionary Cc£kos/ovemskj) Ác¿deb#Í'
s/ovnz'k (1963-5). The important centre in Bmo was
long directed by Jan Racek, who has not only written a
comprehensive history of Czech music up to the begin-
ning of the lgth oentury and been principal editor of the
series Musica Antiqua Bohemica, but has specialized
particularly in ltalian monody. The Bratislava group
was fomed around Orel. The finest anthology of Czech
music before Smetana was prepared by Jaroslav
Pohanka (1924-64). Historical studies are well sup-
ported by a profusion of periodicals and publications of
high quality.
Hungarian musical scholarship before 1918 was
closely tied to that of Austria. Liszt's writings about
gypsy music aroused much interest in traditional folk
music, on which Kodály and Bártok later contributed
studies. The first Hungarian music periodical, Z€»észe/z.
£%°Íé[(`¥bursáí:ari,]:#detÉ'kí]Wfisar:::Td(etd88[i];§§)°d?g
much to make Hungarian music known in other coun-
tries. Modem musicological studies came into their own
after 1918, especially in the work of Bence Szabolcsi,
pre-eminent as a student of the distant past as well as of
more recent developments in Hungarian music; Otto
Gombosi, a medievalist of unusually broad erudition;
and Dénes Bartha, well known for his work on Haydn
as well as on Hungarian music. The Haydn studies of
László Somfái (¿ 1934) are in the forefront of present
research on the composer.
In Yugoslavia the lgth-century beginnings of music
historiography can be traoed to those areas belonging to
the Austrian Empire before 1918. Perhaps the most
significant figure was the ethnomusicolodst Franjo
Kuhaé (1834-1911), who fancifully claimed Croatian
origin for Haydn, Tartini and Liszt. In Slovenia Peter
Radics published Fra# MwsJ.ca z.J. Kr¢!.# (1877), which
marks the beginning of interest in the Slovenian musical
past; the first true scholar, however, was Josef Mantuani
(1860~1933), long active in Vienna. Dragan Plamenac
(¿ 1895) is a scholar of intemational reputation whose
interests have centred on the music of the 14th to 16th
centuries; his contributions to scholarship include an
edition of Ockeghem's works. The greatest progress in
musicology since 1945 has been achieved in Sloveria; at
the University of Ljubljana the first and so far the only
chair of musicology was founded in 1962. It is occupied
by Dragotin Cvetko, the most erudite and best-informed
modem scholar in Yugoslavia. In Croatia the teacher
and author Josip Andreis has trained a whole genera-
tion of fine scholars; and lvo Supiéié has created an
important centre for the sociology and aesthetics of
music in Zagreb. In Serbia the beginrings of music
historiography were made by the composer~scholars
Miloje Milojevié (1884-1946) and Kosta Manojlovié
(1890-1949). Several studies on the history of Serbian
music have been produced by Stana Durié-Klajn (ó
1908), editor of a number of joumals. Musicological
studies are mainly centred on research institutes in
Belgrade (founded in 1948), Zagreb (1967) and
Ljubljana.
8. THE UNITED STATES 0F AMERICA. Musicology was
Musicology, §III, 8: National traditions -USA
slow to respond to Ralph Waldo Emerson's call for
distinctive American contributions to humanistic disci-
plines in an address `The American Scholar' (1837), for
the field was at that time scarcely in existence in a
formal sense in Europe. It began in the USA in the later
l gth century with distinctive though necessarily isolated
achievements by scholars who lacked the institutional
bases that were later created by the development of the
field as an intellectual enterprise. To its earliest phase
belong such efforts as J. S. Dwight's Jowr#¢/ o/ Á4risi.c
(1852-81), which included material on music history,
and the work of Lowell Mason, who combined the roles
of music teacher, editor and collector of rare music.
Intellectually more distinguished though geographically
more isolated was the achievement of A. W. Thayer
(1812-97), the great pioneer of serious Beethoven bio-
graphy, who spent all his later life as United States
consul at Trieste.
The first important American-based scholar, in the
true sense, was Oscar George Theodore Sonneck
(1873-1928), who was bom in the USA, trained in
Germany, and for 15 years was chief of the Music
Division of the Library of Congress (1902-17). Son-
neck was not only instrumental in building the great
music collection of the Library of Congress; he was also
the author of essays and studies on a variety of musico-
historical subjects and the compiler of a bibliography
of early American music and of a richly annotated
Catalogue of Opera ljbrettos Primted before 1800
(1914). He was also the founder-editor of the Á4:m§z.ca/
0%arferJ}; ®ubüshed by G. Schirmer) which began pub-
lication in 1915 and remains the most widely circulated
American periodical containing serious writing on
music.
Betweén the wars American musicology began to
establish its roots in American institutions of higher
leaming, and fomed the professional ties that would
make possible its growth as a scholarly discipline. As
early as 1915 the Á4lmsz.ca/ gc/aríer/)J had issued a pro-
gramme for the field in an article by Waldo Selden Pratt
entitled `On Behalf of Musicology'. Although the term
`musicology' at first rang strangely in American ears,
the field by the early 1930s was fast acquiring in
academic circles the status aa)orded to any other branch
of humanistic scholarship. A seminal figure in the estab-
lishment of musicology in the American university was
Otto Kinkeldey (1878-1966). Like Sonneck, Kinkeldey
was trained in Germany, where he was not only
awarded the PhD but was also in 1910 named Royal
Prussian Professor of Musicology at the University of
Breslau. On retuming to the USA in 1914 he became
head of the Music Division of the New York Public
Library, and in 1930 professor of musicology at
Comell University, the first such chair to be established
in an American university. Kinkeldey was the first
president of the American Musicolorical Society.
On 3 June 1934, in a private house at 25 Washington
Square North, New York, nine people founded the
American Musicological Society. In the mid-1970s the
society, whose Jozfr7¡a/ has been issued regularly since
1950, had a national membership of more than 3000,
and it has long been accepted as the central professional
association for music scholarship in America. In addi-
tion to the annual meeting of the entire society, its 15
constituent regional chapters hold their own regular
meetings throughout each year, at which scholarly
papers are dven. In 1961 the society was host to the
859
eighth congress of the lntemational Musicological
Society in New York, and in 1977 to the twelfth
congress at Berkeley, Califomia. Althoust members of
the AMS are active in every field of study, the main line
of American musicology has so far been undeniably
directed towards the Westem historical tradition. In
1954 the Society for Ethnomusicology was founded;
this serves as a focus for the active field of eth-
nomusicology and issues its own joumal,
EÍ¢#omz¿sz.co/og)/. Like the AMS in 1934, the Society
for Ethnomusicology was accepted in 1955 by the
American Council of Leamed Societies as a constituent
member. Yet despite this fomal separation there are
many signs of mutual awareness of the common inter-
ests that can unite traditional musicological disciplines
and their ethnomusicoloScal counterparts. For example,
the important set of essays entitled Á4:c#i.co/ogy (1963),
published in the series Humanistic Scholarship in
America, was written by two scholars who were then
principally distinguished for their work in music his-
tory, Frank Ll. Harrison (from Great Britain) and
Claude V. Palisca, and by the ethnomusicolodst Mantle
Hood. More recently Harrison has devoted himself to
full-time teaching and research in the field of
ethnomusicology.
Since the first American PhD in musicology was
awarded at Comell University in 1932 (to J. Murray
Barbour), the field has spread widely among univer-
sities. Music ín any form was relatively late in entering
American university curricula as a separate subject, but
it has undergone enormous growth in the past 75 years.
Today few universities or colleges in the USA can fáil to
offer, in addition to practical vocal and instrumental
music-making, at least elementary courses devoted to
music theory and to music history in one or more of its
phases. Many offer much more, including courses in
theory, analysis and related fields, and a füll range of
courses in the history and literature of music, often
supplemented by courses in one area or more of non-
Westem music.
The large number of PhDs awarded in musicology
since 1945 is indicative of a growing population of
American-trained scholars, but also indicates the crea-
tion of university positions on a larger scale than before,
although conditions of economic retrenchment have
recently reduced the earlier trend. In part, the significant
role of American musicology in every field of study now
being pursued in the discipline is attributable to its
substantial number of practitioners, to the location of its
research bases in universities, and to the research support
available to American scholars through such private
organizations as the Guggenheim Foundation, the
American Council of l.eamed Societies and the
federally supported National Endowment for the
Humanities. Even more, it is attributable to the contri-
butions of a score of eminent scholars who, in the gen-
eration after Kinkeldey, actually created the field in its
more modem forms in the USA. Among these seminal
teacher-scholars were three of the founder-members of
the AMS: Gustave Reese, Charles Seeger and Oliver
Strunk. The first and last of these trained generations of
scholars at, respectively, New York University and
Princeton University. To their names must be added
those of Paul Henry Lang, Glen Haydon, Donald J.
Grout, Charles Warren Fox and Arthur Mendel.
During the Nazi period, the collapse of scholarly and
all other civilized values in Germany brought to the
860 Musicology, §III, 8: National traditions -USA
USA a large number of significant figures in musical
scholarship, including Willi Apel, Manfred Bukofzer,
Hans David, Alfred Einstein, Karl Geiringer, Otto
Gombosi, Paul Nettl, Erich Hertzmann, Edward
Lowinsky, Curt Sachs, Leo Schrade and Emanuel
Wintemitz. All these men taught at major institutions
and had vital roles in the training of younger American
scholars now active; all of them, furthemore, published
their work in English and brought Euopean back-
grounds and modes of approach to the fields in which
they specialized. With the recovery of Europe after
World War 11, the increasing intemationalization of the
discipline was felt in many ways: in the resumption of
European travel and research by American scholars, in
their contacts with foreign scholars and some scholarly
enterprises, and in the presence of other major foreign
scholars in American teaching posts; among the latter
was Nino Pirrotta, who taught at Princeton, Columbia
and then for many years at Harvard before retuming to
his native ltaly. Such teachers as these laid the founda-
tions for a postwar generation of American scholars,
among them Barry S. Brook, Howard Mayer Brown,
James Haar, Daniel Heartz, Joseph Kerman, Jan
LaRue, Lewis Lockwood and Claude V. Palisca.
Musicology in the USA has reached a stage at which
it may be described as a solidly established field of
scholarship embracing a vast spectrum of interests. At
distant ends of the arc these interests may be said to
coalesce in the work of large groups of scholars sharing
common approaches: at one end is a group concemed
with Westem historical musicology in all its forms,
fields and sub-disciplines (randng from archival work to
performjng practice, which manifested itself in, for
example, the pioneer work of the New York Pro Musica
and the authentic instrument designs of such men as
Hubbard and Dowd); and at the other end, a growing
number in the field of ethnomusicology, seen not simply
as the study of music in social and cultural context
but as distinctly involved in ethnological and anthro-
poloScal approaches. In addition to these more or
less clearly definable segments of the active scholarly
population, there is growing evídence of the opening
of the discipline to new or fomerly less emphasized
dimensions of the field, among them such areas as
speculative and descriptive theory and analysis (notably
Milton Babbitt and Allen Forte), contemporary music,
historiography, folk and popular music, and - too long
neglected by American music historians - the music
history of the American continent (to which such scholars
as Gilbert Chase, Robert Stevenson and H. Wiley
Hitchcock have contributed substantially). Already in
use are new technolodcal means for research, pre-
eminently the computer, which will have an important
impact not only on methods of research but also on
dissemination of its findings, and on the very choice and
definition of subjects to be investigated. Hazardous as it
may be to speculate on the future, it appears that plural-
istic definitions of the field are the only realistic ones,
and that the spectrum is likely to widen still more.
Perhaps the greatest challenge facing American
musicology, now that its place among the academic
disciplines is a settled matter, is to make its impact felt
outside its own domains - on the world of perfomance,
in conservatories, in concert life, and even in the com-
mercialized music industries. At present American
musicology has barely breached the long-established
barriers that divide the forces of serious intellectual life
from the vast media that produce and disseminate music
(especially as published and recorded). One result is
the continued isolation of scholarship from practicai
musical life, the proliferation of much traditional mis-
information. and the perpetuation of long-established
and deeply entrenched attitudes about music, largely
inherited from the 19th century. Yet it may not be too
optimistic to speculate whether, if the universities are
indeed advance guards of the foms of knowledge that
will eventually be assimilated by the public at large, the
eventual importance of disciplined knowledge of and
about music may be more strongly felt in American
society in the future than it has been in the past.
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yriAe/7ltiaírc, iv/3 (1973) (special `Music and Theatrc' issue]
P. P. Fuchs, eó. a\nd t[a\ns... The Music Theaier of Walier FekensLein:
since 1945', ÁCAí, li] (1980). 38ús
Collected Wriiings Qlew York, 19ls)
VINCENT DUCKLES ANDREW PORTER
(wíth HOWARD MAYER BROWN, GEORGE J. BUEI0W,
MIT3F#[I"MpkE;¿,[éLEmYsl¿NqDiw8333% MiBic therapy. The use of music to cure, alleviate or
stimulate. It is familiar from the Greek myths and
MusÍc printing and publisting. ScG PRiNTiNG AND PUB- thc Old Testament, and has been increasingly used in the
LISHING 0F MUSIC. treatment of mental and physical handicaps and
emotional disturbance, but there is as yet little theor-
Music Pub]ihiDg Co. English fim of music pubLishers etical work to explain its effectiveness. Music can affect
founded and directed by GEORGE HENRy DAviDSoN. function at a basic level of sensory response, as is
indicated by cases of patients suffering from brain
Mtric Teachers National Association. An American injury who, after months of deep coma, regain con-
organization founded in 1876 by Theodore Presser, a sciousness after continuous exposure for a day or two to
musician and publisher, to aid teachers, raisc standards a radio music programme qaylor, 1971) and by cases
of music education and gain recogrition for the profes- of musicogenic q)ilepsy, such as that of a man who
sion. Its members have included teachers, perfomers, invariably lost consciousness at the sound of bells
composers and conductors. In 1883 it helped to estab-
Ooskanzer, Brown and Miller, 1962). But, apart from
lish an intemational pitch and promoted an intemational such cases of brain pathology, it is difficult to distin-
copyri9ht law; in 1967 it approved a national certifica- guish the effects of music as purely physiolorical in
tion plan for qualified teachers. To attract young people tems of sensory function rather than entirely emo-
tional. How, for instance, should one interpret
into the profession the association holds auditions at
local schools and at the state and national levels. Its observed changes in listeners' respiration rates caused
official publication is the Ámcr!.cari Mz«z.c reacAcr. by changes in musical tempo: as a move towards rhyth-
RITA H. MEAD mic synchrony akin to marching in step, or as increased
emotional arousal? Studies using the galvanic skin
Music theatre (Ger. MZÁ§z.kfAcaíer). A catch-phrase that response, which measures the reduction in electrical
became common in the 1960s, particularly among com- resistance of the skin indicative of changed emotional
posers, producers and critics who had artistic or social states, have shown that when listening to music children
objections to the cost of traditional grand opera and the are more responsive than adults, manic depressives
conservatism of grand opera companies and their more than schizophrenics (Weidenfeller and Zimny,
audiences. It was, and is, loosely used in three senses: 1962) and women more than men (Sears, 1958). A
(1) to designate musical works for small or moderate dirc*t correlation between the galvanic skin response
forces that involve a dramatic element in their presenta- and the importance of music in the life of the subject has
tion. Such works have included small-scale operas (e.g. been found ®ut see Sears, 1958).
Of the elements of music - pitch, intensity, melody,
Goehr's NczóoÍÁ's' y!.ne}Jard, composed for the London
Music Theatre Ensemble); song cycles with instrumental harmony and rhythm - it is rhythm that is acknow-
accompaniment that are `staged' and enacted on a con- ledged to be the vital therapeutic factor by virtue of its
c£rt plaL`[orm (e.g. Dziries's Eight Songs fior a Mad
power to focus energy and to bring structure into the
Ki.ng); and pieces by Ligeti (Ávc#f#rcs and No#ve//€s pcrception of temporal order. Music is unique among
ave#Íwres), Cardew (school operas), and Kagel therapies in that this structuring of the `specious present'
(numerous works, some, indeed, with no recognizably (i.e. the present as it flows into the past; Clay, 1882) can
`musical' component; Kagel formed a group for their stimulate the passive or withdrawn patient into a more
alert response, both cognitive and social, to his im-
performance) that resist any precise definition.
St[arinsky's The Soldier's Tale aLnd Reymrd, Weilrs mediate environment. In the üse of emotional illness it
Mahagor.ny-Songspiel z.nd Híndemith:'s Wir bauen eine can serve to make the patient more acoessible; for phy-
Síadí, for chíldren, - and, for that matter, Monteverdi's sical disabilities it can be used to orgarizx: the sequence
r4#credz. e C/or¡.#dcz - are earlier examples. (2) To of small goals in acquiring muscular skill and control;
describe either an opera in which the theatrical element and for mental retardation it can assist in the acquisition
is deemed powerful enough to compensate for an indif- of elementary concq)ts. In the musical treatment of all
ferent or insubstantial score (e.g. `Penderecki's 7l#e three groups of disorders the progress towards `doing'
Dev!./sr o/ Lo#dw¡ may not be very good music but is behaviour involves also that towards `communicating'
excellent music theatre'), or any uncommonly dramatic behaviour, and both mentally retarded and autistic chil-
opera. (3) To describe a manner of opera performance dren frequently respond to music where all else has
in which the acting and staring are thought to be so fáiled. Music is an expressive vehicle for relief of
vivid as to compensate for mediocre, or complement emotional tension; it bypasses the speech difficulties of
admirable, sinring and playing. In this sense Walter the disabled and the `dangers' of verbal language for
Felsenstein's carefúlly acted productions of the emotionally ill patients.
traditional operatic repertory are called `music theatrc'. Therapy is chosen according to each patient's par-
In the latter two senses `music theatre' is little more ticular needs and can include sinSng, dancing, clapping
than a handy tem of approval used, in the age-old and percussion games, playing musical instruments and
struggle for supremacy that underlies the history of listening, either individually or in groups. For child and
opera and has prompted so many `refoms', to champion adult mental retardates music therapy takes place in
the claims of `drama' against those of `music'. schools or hospitals; in either setting it engenders the