Supercontinent reconstruction from recognition of leading continental

edges
J. Brendan Murphy1, R. Damian Nance2, Gabriel Gutiérrez-Alonso3, and J. Duncan Keppie4
1
Department of Earth Sciences, St. Francis Xavier University, Antigonish, Nova Scotia B2G 2W5, Canada
2
Department of Geological Sciences, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio 45701, USA
3
Departamento de Geología, Universidad de Salamanca, 33708 Salamanca, Spain
4
Departamento de Geología Regional, Instituto de Geología, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México, 04510 México, D.F., México

ABSTRACT case for Sm-Nd isotopic systematics because

Repeated amalgamation and subsequent breakup of continental lithosphere have pro- Sm and Nd behave compatibly during most
foundly affected Earth’s evolution since the Archean. Following breakup, distinctive rift and intracrustal processes (DePaolo, 1981). Since
passive margin sequences along the trailing edges of dispersing continents have been used to the mantle lithosphere is rarely exposed, we
identify such margins in the geologic past. Using western North America as an analogue, we determine its characteristics from the Sm-Nd
show that the leading edges of dispersing continents have isotopic characteristics that can isotopic composition of magmas derived from
likewise be used to identify these margins. For example, the Sm-Nd isotopic signatures of Late it. Hence, the approach requires only the avail-
Neoproterozoic and early Paleozoic igneous rocks along the northern margin of Gondwana ability of Nd isotopic data from igneous com-
indicate derivation from 0.7 to 1.1 Ga old mantle lithosphere. This lithosphere originated in plexes that postdate terrane accretion.
the Mirovoi Ocean surrounding Rodinia. It subsequently accreted to northern Gondwana in In this paper we show that a Sm-Nd isoto-
response to Rodinia breakup, and provided a source for subsequent magmatism. Accretion pic record like that of the Cordillera occurs in
and subsequent recycling of oceanic mantle lithosphere should be common along the leading Late Neoproterozoic–early Paleozoic igneous
edges of dispersing continents following supercontinent breakup, providing an additional aid rocks along the northern margin of Gondwana.
in paleocontinental reconstructions. The record identifies this margin as a leading
continental edge following the 0.8–0.75 Ga
ago breakup of Rodinia, a supercontinent that
INTRODUCTION A. B. formed ca. 1.1–1.0 Ga ago (e.g., Li et al., 2008).
There is a general consensus that repeated
cycles of supercontinent amalgamation and WESTERN NORTH AMERICAN
dispersal have occurred since the Archean and MARGIN
have profoundly influenced the evolution of the Subduction along the continental margin of
Earth’s crust (e.g., Nance et al., 1986; Condie, western North America following the assem-
2002). The geology of the Phanerozoic Eon, bly of Pangea was punctuated throughout the
for example, is dominated by the effects of the Mesozoic by the accretion of intraoceanic arc
Paleozoic assembly and Mesozoic–Cenozoic terranes as the leading edge of North America
breakup of Pangea. The amalgamation of this moved westward following Pangea breakup
supercontinent is marked by a succession of (e.g., Dickinson, 2004). Intermittent terrane
collisional orogenic events (e.g., Caledonian, Figure 1. A, B: Breakup of a supercontinent.
accretion expanded the continental margin and
Appalachian-Variscan, Ouachita, Uralian), Creation of relatively new oceanic litho- resulted in several cycles of orogenic activ-
whereas its breakup is recorded in continen- sphere flanked by passive margins occurs ity followed by renewal of subduction, which
tal rifting and the emplacement of mafic dike along trailing edge of dispersing continents was predominantly directed toward the conti-
swarms (e.g., Central Atlantic and Karoo mag- while terranes floored by oceanic mantle nental interior. As a result, magmas produced
lithosphere (green triangles) are accreted
matic provinces), followed by passive margin to leading edge of dispersing continents. beneath the expanded continental margin
development along the trailing edges of the Ongoing subduction beneath these leading reflect recycling of oceanic mantle lithosphere
dispersing continents. Earlier records of simi- margins recycles this mantle lithosphere, previously accreted to it (e.g., DePaolo, 1981;
lar events are commonly used to deduce the producing younger igneous rocks with Sm- Farmer et al., 1989). These magmas are char-
Nd isotopic signatures that can be traced
timing of previous episodes of supercontinent back to it. TDM—depleted mantle model age;
acterized by low initial Sr and high initial Nd
assembly and dispersal (Nance et al., 1986). TR—age of rifting. values (expressed as εNd), typical of juvenile
In addition, however, Pangea breakup is compositions, and contrast with those derived
characterized by accretionary tectonics along from the recycling of cratonic North American
the leading edges of the dispersing continents a result of the accretion of terranes and their lithosphere, which show the high initial Sr and
(Fig. 1), as exemplified by the Cordillera of underlying mantle lithosphere (e.g., Samson et low initial Nd values typical of evolved com-
western North America, where the accretion of al., 1989), magmas produced along the outer- positions (Fig. 2). Indeed, a line separating
terranes to the continental margin accelerated most margin of western North America show granitoids with initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios >0.706
in the Permian and continued into the Tertiary distinctive Sr and Sm-Nd isotopic composi- from those <0.706 can be traced the length of
(e.g., Coney et al., 1980). Although accretion- tions. These signatures should also be recog- the Cordillera and has long been inferred to
ary tectonics is widely documented, its use in nizable along leading continental edges during delineate the edge of cratonic North America
identifying leading continental edges has not previous episodes of supercontinent dispersal. (Kistler and Peterman, 1973). The εNd values in
been applied to previous episodes of super- Due to alteration, the use of Sr isotopic data in mafic magmas outboard of the cratonic margin
continent breakup and dispersal. However, as ancient rocks is unreliable. But this is not the are predominantly positive and yield young,

© 2009 Geological Society of America. For permission to copy, contact Copyright Permissions, GSA, or editing@geosociety.org.
GEOLOGY,
Geology, JulyJuly 2009
2009; v. 37; no. 7; p. 595–598; doi: 10.1130/G25725A.1; 3 figures. 595

A
C
c c
r a
r
t o
e
t
n
e
d
Figure 2. A: Western margin of North America showing isotopic distinction between magmas
formed from recycling previously accreted terranes (green) and magmas formed from recy-
cling cratonic North America (yellow) as defined by Sr and Nd isotopes (Kistler and Peter-
man, 1973; DePaolo, 1981). Accretion of terranes occurs at leading edge of North America
following breakup of Pangea. B: Early Paleozoic geography of northern Gondwanan margin
showing isotopic distinction between magmas recycled from previously accreted terranes
(green) and those recycled from cratonic Gondwana (yellow). Accretion of terranes occurs
at leading edge of Gondwana following breakup of Rodinia. B—Bohemia; Ch—Chortis block;
F—Florida; M—Meguma; M-S—Moravia-Silesia; NAM—North Armorica; NWI—northwest Ibe-
ria; OMZ—Ossa Morena zone (Iberia); Ox-A—Oaxaquia and Acatlán; SAM—South Armorica;
Y—Yucatan.
generally Paleozoic TDM (depleted mantle)
model ages consistent with the evolution of the
accreted mantle lithosphere within the Panthal-
assan realm (e.g., Samson et al., 1989). In con-
trast, recycled cratonic lithosphere produces
magmas with generally negative εNd and sig-
nificantly older, Proterozoic TDM model ages.
NORTHERN GONDWANAN MARGIN
Reconstructions based on lithostratigraphic,
paleomagnetic, and faunal data indicate that
several terranes (collectively known as peri-
Gondwanan) in the Ouachita-Appalachian-
Variscan orogen were along the northern margin
of Gondwana in the Neoproterozoic and early
Paleozoic, and that this margin faced an open
ocean throughout much of that time (van Staal
et al., 1998). Geochemical and isotopic data
indicate that Late Neoproterozoic and early
Paleozoic igneous rocks along this margin were
formed by subduction beneath Gondwana, fol-
lowed by Late Cambrian–Early Ordovician
rifting associated with the opening of the Rheic
Ocean (Murphy et al., 2000).
The Rheic Ocean formed when several peri-
Gondwanan terranes (e.g., Avalonia, Caro-
linia) drifted away from the northern margin of
596
Gondwana in the Late Cambrian–Early Ordo-
vician (van Staal et al., 1998; Pollock et al.,
2009). The ocean closed in the late Paleozoic
as a result of the collision between Laurussia
and Gondwana that produced the Ouachita-
Appalachian-Variscan orogen. As a result,
igneous complexes with isotopic signatures
pertinent to the history of northern Gondwana
as a leading continental edge are now to be
found along the sutured margins of the Rheic
Ocean. Complexes that have sufficient Sm-Nd
isotopic analyses to be used in this study
include: (1) the Acatlán Complex of Mexico
(Nance et al., 2006; Keppie et al., 2008) in the
southwest (Fig. 2; current coordinates), (2)
Avalonia in the Appalachian orogen of east-
ern North America, and (3) the Iberian massif
within the Variscan orogen of western Europe.
Acatlán Complex
The Acatlán Complex is dominated by
Paleozoic phyllites, psammites, and basalts
with high-pressure sedimentary and metaigne-
ous rocks (Piaxtla Suite). Although separated
by a major strike-slip fault, provenance data
indicate that throughout the Paleozoic, the
Acatlán Complex was adjacent to Oaxaquia,
a continental fragment of Amazonian affin-
ity. Oaxaquia is predominantly underlain by
ca. 1.0–1.3 Ga old granulite facies rocks of
the Oaxacan Complex and was on the north-
ern margin of the Amazonian craton until its
transfer to Laurentia following the breakup of
Pangea (Keppie et al., 2008).
The oldest dated igneous rocks in the Acat-
lán Complex are ca. 440–480 Ma old granit-
oids and amphibolites that have been linked
to the opening of the Rheic Ocean (Nance et
al., 2006; Murphy et al., 2006a; Keppie et al.,
2008). In the Piaxtla Suite, Early Ordovician
amphibolites intruding medium- to high-grade
metasedimentary rocks are typically differ-
entiated continental tholeiites (Murphy et al.,
2006a). They contain high FeOt/MgO and TiO2,
slight enrichment in light rare earth elements
(LREEs), and trace element patterns typical of
derivation from an enriched mantle source with
no obvious evidence of crustal contamination.
Sm-Nd isotopic analyses yield εNd(t) (t = time of
crystallization) ranging from +2.8 to + 4.6 (t =
475 Ma) and TDM of 0.75–1.27 Ga (Fig. 3). The
εNd(t) values are considerably lower than those
expected for juvenile magmas from a depleted
mantle source and are interpreted to reflect
derivation from the subcontinental lithospheric
mantle (Murphy et al., 2006a).
10
Burin
8
Group
A-N shield
6
Deplete
.24 d man
tle
=0
4 Nd
m/ Avalonia
2
S
Derived from:
1. Accreted lithosphere
εNd(t)
Mafic
0 Felsic
Ox 2. Cratonic lithosphere
-2 NWI
Felsic
-4
B, NAM, NWI
Mesoproterozoic
-6
rocks
Felsic rocks derived
-8 from accreted lithosphere
-10
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Age (Ma)
Figure 3. εNd-time plot comparing range of
Sm-Nd isotopic compositions of Neopro-
terozoic and early Paleozoic mafic (green)
and felsic magmas (diagonal) derived from
terranes accreted to northern Gondwana
compared with felsic compositions derived
from cratonic Gondwana (yellow). Data com-
piled from Fernández-Suárez et al. (1998),
Murphy et al. (2000, 2006a, 2006b, 2008a,
2008b), Murphy and Dostal (2007), and Stern
(2002). A-N—Arabian-Nubian shield; B—Bo-
hemia; NWI—northwest Iberia; Ox—Oaxa-
quia; NAM—North Armorica. In Avalonia,
mafic magmatism ranged from 630 to 360
Ma ago and is shown as a field for simplicity.
Heavy black lines: range in composition in
mafic rocks expected from mantle enriched
between 0.7 and 1.0 Ga ago with Sm/Nd =
0.24. Heavy dashed lines: range in composi-
tion of Late Neoproterozoic–early Paleozoic
felsic rocks in Avalonia.
GEOLOGY, July 2009
Avalonia
Avalonia underlies much of the eastern Appa-
lachians from Newfoundland to New England,
but was along the northern Gondwanan margin
from ca. 650 to 490 Ma ago adjacent to Ama-
zonia or West Africa (Fig. 2B; van Staal et al.,
1998). The 670–650 Ma old metamorphic events
recorded in Avalonia are interpreted to reflect its
earlier collision with the northern Gondwanan
margin, following which the terrane was char-
acterized by arc-related sequences, with peak
activity between 635 and 570 Ma ago (e.g., Mur-
phy et al., 2000). Paleomagnetic and faunal data
indicate that Avalonia rifted from Gondwana
between 500 and 480 Ma ago to form the Rheic
Ocean and by 460 Ma ago, formed a microcon-
tinent ~2000 km north of Gondwana (van Staal
et al., 1998). Collision of Avalonia, first with
Baltica ca. 440 Ma ago, and then with Laurentia
ca. 415 Ma ago was followed by subduction of
the Rheic Ocean between 415 and ca. 330 Ma
ago, which resulted in ocean closure and the
amalgamation of Pangea (van Staal et al., 1998).
In Nova Scotia, Canada, Avalonian magma-
tism occurs in four distinct episodes: Neopro-
terozoic, Cambrian, Middle Ordovician, and
Late Devonian. All four magmatic suites are
composed of basalts and crustally derived felsic
rocks. The Neoproterozoic mafic magmas are
dominated by calc-alkalic basaltic andesites and
continental tholeiites, whereas the Cambrian,
Middle Ordovician, and Late Devonian mafic
lavas are predominantly continental tholeiites.
The Sm-Nd isotopic data for mafic rocks of each
suite yield εNd(t) values that are considerably
lower than that of the contemporary depleted
mantle (Murphy and Dostal, 2007; Fig. 3). The
εNd(t) ranges from +4.2 to +5.5 in Neoprotero-
zoic mafic rocks (t = 615 Ma), and +3.7 to +4.0
in Cambrian (t = 530 Ma ago), +1.8 to +5.2 in
Middle Ordovician (t = 460 Ma), and +1.9 to
+4.1 in Late Devonian (t = 370 Ma) lavas. These
low values are reflected in TDM ages that typi-
cally range between ca. 0.8 Ga and 1.1 Ga
(Murphy and Dostal, 2007).
Taken together, the Sm-Nd isotopic data for
uncontaminated mafic lavas form an envelope
that defines the evolution of the mantle source
beneath Avalonia (Fig. 3). This envelope is
bound by lines with Sm/Nd ratios of ~0.24,
which is typical of an enriched mantle source.
The isotopic data, together with the trace ele-
ment patterns for each suite, suggest that the
Neoproterozoic to Late Devonian mafic mag-
mas were derived from the same enriched sub-
continental lithospheric mantle source and that
this source was enriched prior to the 630 Ma
main phase of Avalonian magmatism, possibly
between 0.8 and 1.1 Ga ago. This enrichment
event controlled the Sm-Nd isotopic evolution
of the mantle source from the Neoproterozoic at
least until the Late Devonian.
GEOLOGY, July 2009
The εNd(t) values for felsic rocks from these
suites range from −1.0 to +5.0 (t = 610 Ma)
and define an envelope (Fig. 3) with TDM model
ages of 0.75–1.1 Ga. This suggests derivation
from a basement that was itself extracted from
a 0.75–1.1 Ga old depleted mantle source (Mur-
phy et al., 2000).
Iberia
The Paleozoic rocks of Iberia are divided into
tectonostratigraphic zones based on differences
in their lower Paleozoic successions (Quesada,
1990), which are interpreted to reflect their
relative proximity to the Gondwanan margin.
Early Cambrian siliciclastic rocks were depos-
ited unconformably on Ediacaran strata and
define the base of a passive margin sequence
that continued throughout most of the Paleo-
zoic. The Late Cambrian–Middle Ordovician
bimodal magmatism and passive margin stra-
tigraphy record a rift-drift transition (Murphy
et al., 2006b), including the Lower Ordovician
deposition of the laterally extensive Armorican
Quartzite.
Igneous complexes of Gondwanan affinity
occur in several zones in the Variscan orogen
(Quesada, 1990). In Iberia, these include the
passive margin, including the so-called Basal
Units, and ophiolites of the Galicia Tras-Os-
Montes zone (Upper Units). Subduction-related
Neoproterozoic magmatism include granitoids
with εNd(t) (t = 600 Ma) of 0.0 to −0.3 and TDM
ages of ca. 1.2 Ga (Fernández-Suárez et al.,
1998). Early Ordovician mafic rocks are alkalic
to tholeiitic within-plate basalts with high large
ion lithophile element/high field strength ele-
ment (LILE/HFSE) ratios, features that are typi-
cal of enriched mantle. The Sm-Nd isotopic data
are only available for northern Iberia, where the
basalts yield εNd(t) (t = 500 Ma) values ranging
from + 1.0 and +2.6, with TDM ages of ca. 0.93–
1.1 Ga. The lack of trace element evidence for
crustal contamination suggests that these val-
ues reflect derivation from a mantle source that
was enriched in LREEs and Nd relative to Sm
ca. 1.0 Ga ago (Murphy et al., 2008b).
In addition, Early Devonian allochthonous
ophiolitic units have suprasubduction-related
major and trace element patterns (Sánchez
Martínez et al., 2007), but are characterized by
low εNd (−1.2 to +2.0, t = 395 Ma) and high TDM
values (0.7–1.4 Ga), which suggest derivation
from the subcontinental lithospheric mantle
(Murphy and Gutiérrez-Alonso, 2008).
Source Rocks
Accreted terranes along the northern margin
of Gondwana have depleted mantle sources
with TDM model ages between 0.7 and 1.1 Ga.
Juvenile material derived from this mantle may
be locally preserved in the ca. 0.76 Ga old ophi-
olites of the Burin Group in Newfoundland, and
more extensively in the Arabian-Nubian shield.
Burin Group basalts are island arc tholeiites with
εNd(t) (t = 760 Ma) values ranging from +4.5
to +7.6 (Fig. 3) and TDM model ages of 0.76–
0.96 Ga (Murphy et al., 2008a). The Arabian-
Nubian shield is dominated by ca. 850–650
Ma old arcs and ca. 2.7–2.0 Ga old continen-
tal microplates that accreted at various times
during the Neoproterozoic (Stern, 2002), sepa-
rated by ophiolitic bodies that define the sutures
between them. Both the arc terranes and ophio-
lites typically plot within ±1εNd of the depleted
mantle curve and TDM model ages range from
0.66 to 1.26 Ga, with a mean of 0.85 Ga
(Stern, 2002).
The isotopic signatures of the mafic rocks
of the Arabian-Nubian shield and Burin Group
are similar to that inferred for the source rocks
of the main phase of Avalonian magmatism
and, together with reconstructions of Rodinia
(e.g., Li et al., 2008), suggest that these rocks
represent vestiges of ensimatic arcs from the
Panthalassa-like Mirovoi Ocean that surrounded
this supercontinent. Although their low meta-
morphic grade precludes them from being the
basement from which the Avalonian magmas
were extracted, the rocks may be representative
of the geochemical and isotopic composition
of that basement. The source rocks are conse-
quently inferred to have formed in the Mirovoi
Ocean and to have accreted to the leading edge
of Gondwana following the breakup of Rodinia
ca. 750 Ma ago.
DISCUSSION
Although it is widely accepted that passive
margin development in eastern North America
and accretionary tectonics in western North
America are related to the Mesozoic–Cenozoic
breakup of Pangea, such genetic connections
have rarely been applied to the pre-Mesozoic
world. Late Neoproterozoic–early Paleozoic
mafic magmas along the northern margin of
Gondwana formed in a rifting environment that
culminated in the opening of the Rheic Ocean.
These magmas share Sm-Nd isotopic signatures
that are consistently lower than contemporary
depleted mantle values and yield TDM model
ages of 0.75–1.1 Ga, a time interval that closely
matches the lifespan of Rodinia.
These observations suggest that the mantle
source of the Late Neoproterozoic–Paleozoic
mafic lavas formed within the Panthalassa-type
Mirovoi Ocean prior to the breakup of Rodinia
ca. 800–750 Ma ago. Subsequent accretion
to the northern Gondwanan margin followed
the breakup of Rodinia and is inferred to have
occurred along the leading edge of a dispersing
continent. Such relationships should be com-
mon along the leading edges of continental
margins following supercontinental breakup,
and their identification provides an additional
597
constraint on the paleocontinental reconstruc-
tion of such events.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We acknowledge the support of the Natural Sci-
ences and Engineering Research Council, Canada
(Murphy), Ohio University Baker Award (Nance),
Spanish Education and Science Ministry Project
grant CGL2006-00902 (Oroclines and Delamination
Relations and Effects project [ODRE]), a Mobility
Program grant PR2007-0475 to Gutiérrez-Alonso,
and a Papiit grant (IN100108-3) and CONACyT
(Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología) grant
(CB-2005-1: 24894) to Keppie. We are grateful to
L. Farmer, J. Hibbard, R. Cox, and anonymous re-
viewers for constructive comments.
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Manuscript received 17 December 2008
Revised manuscript received 11 February 2009
Manuscript accepted 12 February 2009
Printed in USA
GEOLOGY, July 2009