CE-631: Soil Engineering

Lecture 1:
Analysis of Consolidation
 Syllabus
Unit 2: Compressibility and Shear Strength of soil Unit 3: Site investigations and
Instrumentation
• Compressibility and rate of consolidation, • In-situ tests,
• One, two and three dimensional consolidation • Selection of suitable in-situ test,
theories; • Instruments and their applications.
• Sand drains,
• Elastic methods of stress distribution in soils,
• Shear strength behavior of sand and clay.
 Questions To Guide Learning

1. What is the process of soil consolidation?

2. What is the difference between consolidation and compaction?
3. What is the governing equation in one-dimensional consolidation theory?
4. How is the excess porewater pressure distributed within the soil when a load is applied and after various
elapsed times?
5. What is the difference between primary consolidation and secondary compression?
6. What is the drainage path for single drainage and double drainage?
7. Why do we need to carry out consolidation tests, how are they conducted, and what parameters are
deduced from the test results?
8. How is time rate of settlement and consolidation settlement calculated?
9. Are there significant differences between the calculated settlements and field settlements?
Consolidation:
Consolidation is the time-dependent settlement of soils resulting from the expulsion of pore
water from the soil pores under sustained loads. Rate of consolidation mainly depends on the
compressibility of soil, amount of load increment, thickness of soil layer, and permeability of soil
mass.

The total settlement in a soil mass is composed of three types of settlements:

1) Immediate or elastic compression,

2) Primary consolidation, and
3) Secondary compression.
Types of settlement
Immediate Settlement
• In case a soil mass is slightly unsaturated, the application of load would result in
expulsion of air and compression of air pores. This settlement would be termed
as immediate settlement. This settlement can be computed using elastic theory.

Primary Consolidation
• It is the change in volume of a fine-grained soil caused by the expulsion of water
from the voids and the transfer of load from the porewater to the soil particles.

Secondary Compression
• It is the change in volume of a fine-grained soil caused by the adjustment of the
soil fabric (internal structure) after primary consolidation has been completed.
Understanding Consolidation
Assumption:

• A homogeneous, saturated soil

• The soil particles and the water to be incompressible
• Vertical flow of water
• The validity of Darcy’s law
• Small strains

We will conduct a simple experiment to establish the

basic concepts of the one-dimensional consolidation
settlement of fine-grained soils.
Understanding Consolidation
• Let us take a thin, soft, saturated sample of clay and place it between porous stones in
a rigid, cylindrical container whose inside wall is frictionless.
• The porous stones are used to facilitate drainage of the porewater from the top and
bottom faces of the soil.
• The top half of the soil will drain through the top porous stone and the bottom half of
the soil will drain through the bottom porous stone.
• A platen on the top porous stone transmits applied loads to the soil.
• Expelled water is transported by tubes to a burette. A valve is used to control the flow
of the expelled water into the burette.
• Three porewater pressure transducers are mounted in the side wall of the cylinder to
measure the excess porewater pressure near the porous stone at the top (A), at a
distance of one-quarter the height (B), and at mid height of the soil (C).
Understanding Consolidation
• Excess porewater pressure is the additional porewater pressure induced in a soil mass
by loads.
• A displacement gauge placed over the platen measures vertical settlement of the soil.

• We will assume that the porewater and the soil particles are incompressible, and the
initial porewater pressure is zero.

• The volume of excess porewater that drains from the soil is then a measure of the
volume change of the soil resulting from the applied loads. Since the side wall of the
container is rigid, no radial displacement can occur.

• The lateral and circumferential strains are then equal to zero (𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀𝜃 = 0) and the
volumetric (𝜀𝑝 = 𝜀𝑟 + 𝜀𝜃 + 𝜀𝑧 ) strain is equal to the vertical strain 𝜀𝑧 = ∆𝑧/𝐻𝑜 , where
∆𝑍 is the change in height or thickness and 𝐻𝑜 is the initial height or thickness of the
soil.
Understanding Consolidation
Instantaneous Load

• Let us now apply a load P to the soil through the load platen and keep the valve
closed. Since no excess porewater can drain from the soil, the change in volume of
the soil is zero (∆𝑉 = 0) and no load or stress is transferred to the soil particles
(∆𝜎𝑧 ′ = 0). The porewater carries the total load.

• The initial excess porewater pressure in the soil (∆𝑢𝑜 ) is then equal to the change in
applied vertical stress, ∆𝜎𝑧 = 𝑃/𝐴, where A is the cross-sectional area of the soil.

• For our thin soil layer, we will assume that the initial excess porewater pressure will
be distributed uniformly with depth so that at every point in the soil layer, the initial
excess porewater pressure is equal to the applied vertical stress.

• For example, if ∆𝜎𝑧 = 100kPa, then ∆𝑢𝑜 = 100kPa

Understanding Consolidation
Primary Consolidation
• Let us now open the valve and allow the initial excess porewater to drain.

• The total volume of soil at time 𝑡1 decreases by the amount of excess porewater that
drains from it as indicated by the change in volume of water in the burette.

• At the top and bottom of the soil sample, the excess porewater pressure is zero
because these are the drainage boundaries.

• The decrease of initial excess porewater pressure at the middle of the soil (position C)
is the slowest because a water particle must travel from the middle of the soil to either
the top or bottom boundary to exit the system.

• You may have noticed that the settlement of the soil ∆𝑧 with time t is not linear. Most
of the settlement occurs shortly after the valve was opened.
Primary Consolidation
• Initially the rate of settlement, ∆𝑧/𝑡, is fast as soon as the valve was opened. Prior
to opening the valve, an initial hydraulic head, ∆𝑢𝑜 /𝛾𝑤 , was imparted by the
applied vertical stress.

• As the valve was opened, the initial excess porewater was forced out of the soil by
this initial hydraulic head. With time, the initial hydraulic head decreases and,
consequently, smaller amounts of excess porewater are forced out.

• An example can be taken of a pipe, containing pressurized water, is ruptured.

• Immediately after the rupture a large volume of water gushes out, but soon the
flow becomes substantially reduced.

• Primary consolidation is the change in volume of the soil caused by the expulsion
of water from the voids and the transfer of load from porewater to soil particles
Secondary Compression
• Primary consolidation ends when ∆𝑢𝑜 = 0.

• The later settlement is termed as secondary compression or creep.

• Secondary compression is the change in volume of a fine-grained soil due to adjustment

of the soil fabric (internal structure) after primary consolidation is over.

• The term consolidation is reserved for the process in which settlement of a soil takes
place due to changes in effective stresses resulting from decreases in excess porewater
pressure.

• The rate of settlement from secondary compression is very less as compared to primary
consolidation.
Secondary Compression
• Although we have separated primary consolidation and secondary compression. In
reality, the distinction is not clear because secondary compression occurs as part of
the primary consolidation phase especially in soft clays.

• The mechanics of consolidation is still not fully understood and to make estimates of
settlement, it is convenient to separate primary consolidation and secondary
compression.
Summary: Compressibility and Consolidation
• It is the gradual settlement or compression of soil under sustained load due to expulsion
of porewater.

• When a static load is applied to a saturated soil mass, the load is immediately taken up
by the pore water resulting in sudden rise in pore pressure, termed as excess pore
pressure.

• As the water drains out of soil mass the excess pore pressure is released and the load is
gradually transferred to soil particles (from pore water) resulting in increase in effective
stress.

• It brings about reduction in void ratio, which is accompanied by settlement or

consolidation.
Definitions
Excess porewater pressure, ∆𝑢, is the porewater pressure in excess of the current equilibrium
porewater pressure. For example, if the porewater pressure in a soil is 𝑢𝑜 and a load is applied to
the soil so that the existing porewater pressure increases to 𝑢1 then the excess porewater pressure
becomes: ∆𝑢 = 𝑢1 − 𝑢𝑜

Drainage path, 𝐻𝑑𝑟 is the longest vertical distance that a water molecule will travel to escape the
soil mass.

′ is the maximum vertical effective

Preconsolidation stress or past maximum effective stress, 𝜎𝑧𝑐
stress that a soil has ever been subjected to.

Normally consolidated soil is one that has never experienced vertical effective stresses greater
′ = 𝜎′ .
than its current vertical effective stress 𝜎𝑧𝑜 𝑧𝑐
Definitions
Overconsolidated soil is one that has experienced vertical effective stresses greater than its existing
′ = 𝜎 ′ ).
vertical effective stress ( 𝜎𝑧𝑜 𝑧𝑐

Overconsolidation ratio, OCR, is the ratio by which the current vertical effective stress in the soil
was exceeded in the past OCR

Compression index, 𝐶𝑐 is the slope of the normal consolidation line in a plot of the logarithm of
vertical effective stress versus void ratio.

Unloading/reloading index or recompression index, 𝐶𝑟 is the average slope of the unloading/

reloading curves in a plot of the logarithm of vertical effective stress versus void ratio.
Consolidation behavior of soil
The types of graphs are shown to demonstrate the consolidation behavior of soil. They
are known as e-p curve, e-log p curve, pressure-void ratio curve.

It is an arithmetic plot of the The vertical effective arithmetic plot of the vertical
void ratio (e) versus vertical stress is plotted on a strain (𝜖𝑧 ) versus vertical
effective stress 𝜎𝑧′ . logarithmic scale effective stress
Consolidation behavior of soil
NCL

Stage 1: Loading:

The segment AB is called the virgin

consolidation line or normal consolidation
line (NCL).

Stage 2: Unloading

The segment BC is called Unloading

line.

Stage 3: Reloading

The line segment CB is termed as

reloading line.
Compression Index
Compression index, 𝐶𝑐

It is the slope of the normal consolidation line

in a plot of the logarithm of vertical effective
stress versus void ratio.

𝒆𝟏 − 𝒆𝟐
𝑪𝒄 =
𝝈
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝝈𝟐
𝟏

There are some empirical relations available to

compute compression index. For example the
relation given by Skempton in 1944 is:

Cc = 0.009(LL − 10)
Recompression Index
Unloading/reloading index or
Recompression index, 𝑪𝒓
It is the average slope of the
unloading/ reloading curves in a
plot of the logarithm of vertical
effective stress versus void ratio.
Coefficient of Volume Compressibility
It is the slope of curve between vertical
strain, 𝜀𝑧 and vertical effective stress, 𝜎𝑧
measured on two arbitrary points 1 and 2 on
Normal Consolidation Line (NCL)

Change in volume Per Unit Volume

𝒎𝒗 =
Increase in effective Stress

εz 2 − εz 1
𝑚𝑣 =
σz 2 − σz 1

𝑚2
The unit of 𝑚𝑣 is that is reciprocal of
𝑘𝑁
the unit of modulus of elasticity

∆𝑉 Τ𝑉 ∆𝐻Τ𝐻𝑜 ∆𝑒Τ1 + 𝑒𝑜
𝑚𝑣 = = =
∆𝜎′ ∆𝜎′ ∆𝜎′
How to plot these curves?
The pressure-void ratio curve can be obtained if the void ratio of
the sample at the end of each increment of load is determined.
Accurate determinations of void ratio are essential and may be
computed from the following data:

1. The cross-sectional area of the sample A, which is the same as

that of the brass ring.
2. The specific gravity, G, of the solids.
3. The dry weight, Ws, of the soil sample.
4. The sample thickness, ℎ, at any stage of the test.
How void ratio (e) is determined?
The void ratio may be determined from the
following two methods:

1. Height of solids method

2. Change of void ratio method

Height of solids method
Let 𝑉𝑠 = volume of the solids in the sample
Here, ℎ𝑠 is a constant and only h
The specific gravity of soil is given as:
𝑊
is a variable which decreases with
𝐺=
Rearranging, 𝑉𝑠 𝛾𝑤 increment in load. If the thickness
𝑊
𝑉𝑠 = h of the sample is known at any
𝐺 𝛾𝑤
Where, 𝑉𝑠 is the volume of soil solids, 𝛾𝑤 is the unit stage of the test, the void ratio at
weight of water. We can also say,
𝑉𝑠 all the stages of the test may be
𝑉𝑠 = ℎ𝑠 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑠 =
𝐴
Where, ℎ𝑠 is the thickness of solids in the phase determined.
diagram. If 𝑒 is the void ratio of the soil

𝐴ℎ − 𝐴ℎ𝑠 ℎ − ℎ𝑠
𝑒= =
𝐴ℎ𝑠 ℎ𝑠
Change of Void ratio method
The equilibrium void ratio at the end of any load increment may be determined by
the change of void ratio method as follows:
In one-dimensional compression the change in height ∆ℎ per unit of original height
ℎ equals the change in volume ∆𝑉 per unit of original volume 𝑉.
∆ℎ ∆𝑉
=
ℎ 𝑉

Compressed
Initial
 𝑉 may also be presented in terms of void ratio, 𝑒
The initial and consolidated states of the sample are as shown in Figure,
which supports to write:
𝑉𝑣
𝑒= , 𝑉𝑣 = 𝑒𝑉𝑠 , 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑣 + 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑒𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 (1 + 𝑒)
𝑉𝑠
Similarly, for the compressed condition,

𝑉 ′ = 𝑉𝑠 (1 + 𝑒 ′ )

∆𝑉 𝑉 − 𝑉 ′ 𝑉𝑠 1 + 𝑒 − 𝑉𝑠 (1 + 𝑒 ′ ) 𝑒 − 𝑒 ′ ∆𝑒
= = = =
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 1+𝑒 1+𝑒

∆ℎ ∆𝑒 1+𝑒
= ∆𝑒 = ∆ℎ
ℎ 1+𝑒 ℎ
In which, ∆𝑒 is the change in void ratio under load, 𝑒 is the initial void ratio of soil,
𝑒 ′ is the void ratio after compression, ℎ is the initial height of the sample, and ∆ℎ is
the amount of compression, as obtained from deformation measurement device
Typical e-p Curves
Computation of Consolidation Settlement

1. Settlement Equations for Normally Consolidated Clays

2. Settlement Calculation from e-log p Curve for Overconsolidated

Clay Soil

a) Settlement Computation, if (𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝) ≤ 𝑝𝑐

b) Settlement Computation, if 𝑝𝑜 < 𝑝𝑐 < (𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝)
1. Settlement Equations for Normally
Consolidated Clays
𝑒𝑜 − 𝑒 ∆𝑒 𝑝
𝐶𝐶 = = ∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝐶 log
log 𝑝 − log 𝑝𝑜 log 𝑝 𝑝𝑜
𝑝𝑜

∆𝐻 ∆𝑉 ∆𝑉 ∆𝑒
= =
𝐻 𝑉 𝑉 1+𝑒𝑜

∆𝑒
∆𝐻 = 𝑆𝑡 = 𝐻
1 + 𝑒𝑜

𝐶𝐶 𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝
𝑆𝑡 = 𝐻 log
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝑝𝑜
2(a). Settlement Computation:
Overconsolidated Soils, if (𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝) ≤ 𝑝𝑐
𝑒𝑜 − 𝑒 ∆𝑒
𝐶𝑠 = =
log(𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝) − log 𝑝𝑜 log 𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝
𝑝𝑜
𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝
∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑠 log
𝑝𝑜

∆𝑒
∆𝐻 = 𝑆𝑡 = 𝐻
1 + 𝑒𝑜

𝐶𝑠 𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝
𝑆𝑡 = 𝐻 log
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝑝𝑜
2 (b). Settlement Computation,
if 𝑝𝑜 < 𝑝𝑐 < 𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝
∆𝑒 = ∆𝑒1 + ∆𝑒2

𝑝 𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝
∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑠 log + 𝐶𝐶 log
𝑝𝑜 𝑝𝑜

In this case the slope of both the lines AB and EC are required to be
considered. Now the equation for 𝑆𝑡 may be written as:

𝐶𝑠 𝑝𝑐 𝐶𝑐 𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝
𝑆𝑡 = 𝐻 log + 𝐻 log
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝑝𝑜 1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝑝𝑜
Calculate Primary Consolidation Settlement
The procedure to calculate primary consolidation settlement is as follows:

Calculate the current vertical effective stress (𝜎′𝑧𝑜 ) and the current void ratio (𝑒𝑜 ) at the center of
the soil layer for which settlement is required

Calculate the applied vertical stress increase (∆𝜎𝑧 ) at the center of the soil layer using the
appropriate method in Section 5.11.
′ ′ + ∆𝜎 .
3. Calculate the final vertical effective stress 𝜎𝑓𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎𝑧𝑜 𝑧
4. Calculate the primary consolidation settlement.
(a) If the soil is normally consolidated (OCR=1), the primary consolidation settlement is

𝐶𝐶 𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝
𝑆𝑡 = 𝐻 log
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝑝𝑜
Problem 1:

The Figure shows a soil profile at a site for a proposed office building. It consists of a layer of fine
sand 10.4m thick above a layer of soft normally consolidated clay 2m thick. Under the soft clay
layer is a deposit of coarse sand. The groundwater table is 3 m below ground level. The void ratio
of the sand is 0.76 and the water content of the clay is 43%.
The building will impose a vertical stress increase of 140 kPa at the middle of the clay layer.
Estimate the primary consolidation settlement of the clay. Assume the soil above the water table
to be saturated, 𝐶𝑐 = 0.3 and 𝐺𝑠 = 2.7. [Muni B]

Given:

In this problem, you are given the stratigraphy, groundwater level, vertical stress increase, and the
following soil parameters and soil condition:

• Initial void ratio of sand, 𝑒0 = 0.76

• Water content of clay, 𝑤 = 43%
• Initial thickness of the consolidating layer, 𝐻0 = 2𝑚
• Increase in Effective Stress, ∆𝑝 = 140𝑘𝑃𝑎
• Compression index, 𝐶𝑐 = 0.3
• Specific Gravity of sand, 𝐺𝑠 = 2.7
Sand:

𝐺𝑠 + 𝑒 2.7 + 0.76
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝛾𝑤 = 9.8 = 19.3kN/m3
1+𝑒 1 + 0.76

𝐺𝑠 − 1 2.7 − 1
𝛾′ = 𝛾𝑤 = 9.8 = 9.5kN/m3
1+𝑒 1 + 0.76

𝛾 ′ = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 = 19.3 − 9.8 = 9.5kN/m3

Clay:

𝑒0 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠 = 2.7 × 0.43 = 1.16

𝐺𝑠 − 1 2.7 − 1
𝛾′ = 𝛾𝑤 = 9.8 = 7.71kN/m3
1+𝑒 1 + 1.16

𝑝0 = 19.3 × 3 + 9.5 × 7.4 + 7.7 × 1 = 135.9kPa

𝐶𝐶 𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝
𝑆𝑡 = 𝐻 log
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝑝𝑜

0.3 135.9 + 140

𝑆𝑡 = 2 log = 0.85m = 85mm
1 + 1.16 135.9
Problem 2: A soil profile is shown in Figure. If a uniformly distributed load, ∆𝜎, is applied at the
ground surface, what is the settlement of the clay layer caused by primary consolidation, if:

Solution