Olevel Chemistry 5070 Complete Notes PDF

Experimental Chemistry Chemistry - 5070
Experimental Chemistry
In this topic, you will learn:
 Hazard warning labels.
 Appropriate apparatus for measurement of mass, volume, time
and temperature.
 The measuring units for mass, volume, time and temperature.
 Methods for collecting gasses.
 Identification of Gases.
Muhammad Hassan Nadeem

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Hazard Warning Labels
To help make the use and handling of chemicals safe, all chemicals have warning signs on their labels.
You should be familiar with the following.
Hazard Warning Labels

Label Description Label Description
Wear eye protection. Flammable liquids.
You must wear safety Liquids which ignite
goggles. on contact with
ignition sources.
Harmful substances. Flammable gases.

Handle with care and Gases which are
avoid contact with skin. compressed
liquefied or
dissolved under
pressure. Catch fire
very easily.
Toxic substances. Oxidizing
Very poisonous so do not substances.
smell it or touch it with Help fire to burn
your fingers. very fiercely.
Corrosive substances. Explosive

Keep off the skin, substances.
otherwise it will itch and Substances which
burn. react very violently
and explode.
Flammable solids. Radioactive

Gases which are substances.
combustible or emit a Substance which
flammable gas when wet. give off harm full
Catch fire very easily. radiations: alpha,
beta or gamma rays.
Measurement: Mass, Volume, Time and
Temperature
Mass
 Mass of a substance is the amount of matter it contains.
 Mass is measured in kilograms (kg) and grams (g).
Conversion of Mass 1000 mg = 1g

1000 g = 1 kg
1000 kg = 1 tone
 There are two main devices to measure mass of a substance:

Beam balance
Electronic balance
Name Picture Description

Beam balance In a beam balance, a weight
is moved along horizontal
scale until is balances the
mass of object on the scale
pan.
Electronic balance Electronic balance is easy to

use and can measure to
accuracy of 0.001 g very
quickly.
Volume
 Volume of a substance is the amount of space it occupies.
 Unit for measuring volume is cubic centimeters (cm3), cubic decimeters (dm3), cubic meters (m3)
and liter.
Conversion of volumes 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3

1 dm3 = 1 liter
1000 dm3 = 1 m3
Following apparatus are used for measuring volumes
Measures approximate volume
Beaker
Is accurate to the nearest 0.1

Burette cm3. The volume of liquid
required is run off from the
bottom through tap.
Measures fixed volumes of 100

Volumetric flask cm3, 250 cm3, 1 dm3
Is accurate to nearest cm3.

Measuring cylinder Read off the volume with the
eye level at the bottom of the
meniscus.
Measures fixed volumes of 25

Pipette cm3, 50 cm3, 10 cm3 very
accurately.
Measures volume of gas and is

Gas syringe made of glass.
Measures small volumes of

Plastic Syringe liquid.
Time
 Time is the interval between two occurrences.
 Time is measured using stopwatch.
 Measuring unit for time is second (s).
 Most stopwatch measure to accuracy of 0.01 s.
Conversion of Time 60 s = 1 min

60 min = 1 h
24 h = 1 day
Temperature
 Degree of hotness and coldness is called temperature.
 The temperature of a liquid or gas can me measured using a thermometer.
 Measuring unit for temperature is oC.

Collection of Gases
 The collection of a gas depends on whether the gas is heavier or lighter than air, and also if the
gas is soluble or insoluble in water.
 Heavy gas can be collected by downward delivery.
 Light gas can be collected by upward delivery.
 Insoluble gas can be collected by trapping the gas above water.
Properties of some gases useful to decide the method of collection.

Gas Color Density Solubility
(compared to air) (in water)
Ammonia Colorless Lighter Extremely soluble
Carbon dioxide Colorless Heavier Slightly soluble
Chlorine Green/yellow Much heavier Soluble
Hydrogen Colorless Much lighter Insoluble
Hydrogen chloride Colorless Slightly heavier Very soluble
Oxygen Colorless About the same Slightly soluble
Upward delivery Used for gases which
are less dense than air
for example ammonia,
hydrogen.
Downward delivery Used for gases which

are denser than air for
example carbon
dioxide, chlorine and
hydrogen chloride gas.
Identification of Gases
Tests for gases
Gas Color and smell Test
Chlorine Pale green, choking smell Bleaches damp litmus paper and turns it red
Hydrogen Colorless, odorless ‘Pops’ with a glowing splinter
Oxygen Colorless, odorless Relights a glowing splinter
Carbon dioxide Colorless, odorless Turns lime water milky
Ammonia Colorless, pungent smell Turns damp litmus paper blue
Sulphur dioxide Colorless, choking smell Turns acidified potassium dichromate(VI) from yellow to green
The Particulate Nature of Matter Chemistry - 5070
The Particulate Nature of

Matter
 Different states of matter
 Movement of particles in solids, liquids and gases
 Effects of diffusion in terms of particles
 Kinetic particle theory
 Interconversion between three states of matter

States of Matter
 Matter is defined as anything that has mass and takes up space.
 Every substance exists in three different forms solid, liquid and gas.
 All three states of matter expands (increase in volume) when temperature is increased.
 All three states of matter contracts (decrease in volume) when temperature is decreased.
Properties of Matter
Property Solids Liquids Gases
Shape Solids have definite Liquids take the shape of Gases take shape of
shape their container their container
Volume Solids have a fixed Liquids have fixed Gases take on the
volume volume volume of their
container
Compressibility Solids are not Liquids are difficult to Gases are easily
compressible compress compressible
Density Solids have high density Liquids have a medium Gases have a very low
density density
Ease of flow Solids do not flow Liquids flow Gases flow
Kinetic Theory
 This is a theory about the way particles move about in solids, liquids and gases.
Property Solid Liquid Gas
Packing between Very close together Further apart Furthest apart
particles
Arrangement of Arranged in regular Not regularly arranged Randomly arranged
particles rows
Forces of Held together very Not tightly held Free to move
attraction between tightly
particles
Motion of Particles Vibration about fixed Changing places Moving in all directions
position
Speed of motion Not moving from their Moving about Moving very fast
mean position
Diagrammatic
representation of
the particles in
each of the
physical states
 When a solid is heated the particles gain energy and vibrate more strongly, eventually the
particles have enough energy to break the forces holding the particles together and change into
liquid.
 If more heat is supplied, particles in liquid move much more faster, when boiling point is
reached the particles have enough energy to break the forces attracting them together and thus
change into a gas.
Changes of State
 The constant temperature at which a pure solid changes into a liquid is called its melting point.
 The constant temperature at which a pure liquid changes into a gas is called its boiling point.
 Melting is the change from solid to liquid.
 Evaporation is the change from liquid to gas at room temperature.
 Boiling is the change from liquid to gas at specific temperature.
 Sublimation is the direct change from solid to gas for example carbon dioxide i.e. dry ice and
iodine are sublimes.
 Solidification or Freezing is the change from liquid to solid.
 Condensation is the change from gas to liquid.
The melting and boiling points of some common chemical substances

Substance State Melting point/oC Boiling point/oC
Oxygen Gas -219 -183
Nitrogen Gas -210 -196
Ethanol (alcohol) Liquid -117 78
Water Liquid 0 100
Sulphate Solid 115 444
Common salt Solid 801 1465
Copper Solid 1083 2600
Carbon dioxide gas -78 -78
Heating Curve
 The graph shows the changes in state when a particular solid is heated:
 At A, particles are closely packed in a purely solid state with only the ability to vibrate about
fixed position.
 At B, the particles have gained sufficient energy to move further apart, and it starts changing
into liquid. Two states, solid and liquid exist here.
 At C, the particles are at purely liquid state gaining more heat energy and raising its
temperature.
 At D, particles have gained sufficient energy to move randomly and separate very far apart. The
liquid starts changing into gas. Two states liquid and gas exist here.
 At E, the particles are in purely gaseous state gaining more heat and rising in temperature.
Diffusion
 Diffusion is natural mixing of
particle.
 If you drop a drop of ink in a glass
of water, you will notice after some
time the color of the ink will be
spread evenly in water. This is due
to diffusion.
 It is diffusion through which a smell
travels through kitchen and reaches
your nose in some other room.
 Diffusion takes place much more
quickly with gases, than with liquids
or solids.
 The rate of diffusion depends upon the molecular mass of the particles (slower, if heavier) and
temperature (faster, if warmer).
Methods of Purification Chemistry - 5070
Methods of Purification
 Difference between pure substances and mixtures
 Types of mixtures
 Effects of impurities on melting and boiling points
 Method of purification
 Methods of testing purity of substance

Pure substances and mixtures
 A pure substance contains only one type of substance or atom for example water.
 A mixture is made of more than one substance or atom for example air is mixture of oxygen,
nitrogen, carbon dioxide and other gases.
 Impurity lowers the melting point and raises the boiling point of any substance.
Types of mixtures
 Homogeneous mixture is when substances completely mix to form one phase for example salt
dissolved in water forms one phase and is thus homogeneous.
 Heterogeneous mixture is when substances do not mix and form more than one phase for
example sand mixed in water forms two phases and is thus heterogeneous.
Important examples of different types of mixture

Type of Mixture Description Examples
mixture
Homogeneous Solutions of solid in liquid Transparent solution of Sea water, sugar in
mixtures solid dissolved in liquid water, salt solution
(solutions) Solutions of two miscible liquids Single layer of Vodka (alcohol and
transparent liquid water)
Solutions of gas in liquid Transparent solution of Mineral and soda
gas dissolved in liquid waters, champagne
Mixture of gas in gas Transparent mixture of Air
two or more gases
Alloy of two solid metals Solid, evenly spread Brass, Bronze
mixture of two metals
Heterogeneous Suspension of solid in liquid Cloudy mixture of solid River water carrying
mixtures particles suspended in a mud and silt, flour in
liquid water.
Gel Jelly-like mixture of Fruit jelly, agar gel
solid and liquid, liquid
trapped in solid
Emulsion of two immiscible Cloudy mixture of tiny Skin cream, milk, salad
liquids drops of one liquid dressing, mayonnaise
suspended in another
liquid
Aerosol of either a liquid or solid Small droplets of liquid, Liquid in gas: mist,
in gas or particles of solid, clouds
dispersed in a gas Solid in gas: smoke
dusty air
Foam of gas in liquid Many small bubbles of Washing lather, shaving
gas trapped in liquid form
Solid foam of gas in solid Many small bubbles of Polystyrene foam, foam
gas trapped in a solid rubber, bread
Methods of Purification
Dissolving, Filtering and Evaporating
 It is suitable for separating two solids, given that one solid is soluble and other is insoluble, in
certain solvent. For example mixture of salt and sand.
 Dissolve the mixture in water. Only salt will be dissolved.
 Filter the solution, sand will be collected in filter paper as residue. And salt solution will pass the
filter paper and collected as filtrate.
 Salt solution is heated; water evaporates leaving behind the crystals of salt.
Decanting and Centrifuging

 Decanting means carefully pouring the
liquid in another container and leaving
behind the undissolved solid. This method
is suitable for separating suspension
(undissolved solid) for example sand from
water.
 In centrifuging test tube is revolved with
help of an electric motor, which causes
undissolved solid to settle down. The water
is then poured in container by hand leaving
behind solid in test tube. Decanting Centrifuging
Separating Funnel
 This technique is suitable for two liquids which do not
mix together i.e. immiscible liquid (for example oil and
water).
 The more dense liquid settles at the bottom while the
less dense liquid floats over the surface.
 The more dense liquid is tapped off wile less dense
liquid remains in the funnel
Sublimation
 This technique can be used to two substances, provided that one
substance sublimes and other does not.
 The mixture is placed in an evaporating dish with a glass funnel inverted
on it.
 Evaporating dish is heated.
 The substance which sublimes will stick with the walls of funnel. And
other substance will remain in the dish.
Simple Distillation
 Used to separate pure liquids
from a solution.
 Distillation flask is heated and
when the solution boils steam is
given off.
 Steam travels up the flask and is
condensed in condenser, from
where the liquid flows in the
conical flask as distillate.
 After the process only impurities
and left behind in the distillation
flask. Pure liquid is collected
from the conical flask.
Fractional Distillation
 This method is used to separate liquids
with different boiling points.
 It is same like simple distillation whereas
in it fractionating column is used to
separate two liquids.
 Fractionating column is packed with glass
beads to provide larger surface area for
quick condensation.
 When boiling point of any liquid is
reached, it’s vapor rises, passes through
fractionating column, condensed in Liebig
container and collected in conical flask.
 If any liquid with high boiling point
evaporates it is condensed by fractionating
column.
Paper Chromatography
 Chromatography is used to separate
colours, pigments and dyes.
 It can tell whether a solution has become
contaminated.
 A drop of concentrated solution is usually
placed on a pencil line near the bottom
edge of a strip of chromatography paper.
 The paper is then dipped in the solvent.
 The solvent begins to move up the paper
by capillary action.
 Solvent moves up the paper taking
different components along at different
rates.
 The separation of mixture is complete.
 The distance moved by a particular spot is measured and related to the position of the solvent
front.
=
In the following case Rf value would be:
=
 Locating agents are used to separate substances which are colorless.
Purity of a Substance
Effect of Impurity on a Substance
 Impurities lower the melting point (or freezing) point of a substance.
 Impurities raise the boiling point of a substance.
 All impure substance melts or boils at a range of temperatures.
Testing the Purity of a substance

 A pure substance has a fixed and exact melting (or freezing) point.
 A pure substance has a fixed and exact boiling (or condensation) point.
 A pure substance shows only one spot on a chromatogram.
The Structure of the Atom Chemistry - 5070
The Structure of the Atom

 The relative charges of proton, electron and neutron.
 Structure of an atom consisting of proton, electron and neutron
 Proton number and Nucleon number.
 Isotopes.
 Relative atomic mass of an element.
 Introduction to Periodic Table.
Particles Present in an Atom

 All element are made of atoms..
 Atoms are made up of sub-atomic particles called protons, neutrons and electrons.
 Proton number of any atom is always equal to its number of electrons. That’s why the overall
charge of any atom is 0 i.e. neutral.
Particle Symbol Relative Mass Relative charge

Proton p 1 +1
Neutron n 1 0
Electron e 1 -1
1840
Proton Number and Nucleon Number

 The proton number of an element is the number of protons in its atom.
 The nucleon number of an element is the total number of protons and neutrons in its atom.
 Nucleon number is considered the relative atomic mass of any atom.
 Consider Sodium atom in the below picture
Nucleon Number (A)
SYMBOL
Proton Number (Z)

We are given Nucleon and Proton number. We can deduce that:
Number of Protons = 11
Number of Electrons = 11 (same as proton)
Number of Neutrons = Nucleon Number – Proton Number = 23 – 11 = 12
Isotopes
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different number of neutrons.
 Isotopes of different elements have different masses.
 Different isotopes have same chemical properties but different physical properties.
Different Isotopes of Hydrogen

Isotope Name Symbol Number of Number of Number of Isotopic
neutrons protons electrons abundance
Hydrogen 0 1 1 99.985 %
Deuterium 1 1 1 0.015 %
Tritium 2 1 1 artificial
The Structure and Arrangement of Particles in an Atom

 The protons and neutrons are held, tightly packed together, the center of the atom which is
called the nucleus.
 The size of nucleus is very small compared to the overall size of atom.
 Electrons move around the nucleus (like planets orbit around sun).
 The path of electrons can be referred as shell.

 The shells are numbered from nucleus outward.
 The formula to calculate the maximum number of electrons in a shell is 2n2 where n is the
number of shell.
The first shell can hold up to two electrons. 2x(4)2 = 2
The second shell can hold up to eight electrons. 2x(2)2 =8
The third shell can hold up to eighteen electrons. 2x(3)2 =18
 Electrons in the outer most shell of any atom is called valence electron.
 Electronic configuration of any atom is the number of electron present in each cell for example
electronic configuration of Sodium (Na) is 2,8,1.
Introduction to the Periodic Table.

 In Periodic table elements are arranged in order of their increasing proton number.
 Vertical columns are called groups.
 Horizontal rows are called periods.
 Group number indicates the no of valence electrons.
 Period number indicates the no of electron shells.
 On left side of periodic table are metals, which are elements of 1 – 3 valence electrons.
 On right side of periodic table are non-metals, which are elements of 4 – 7 valence electrons
 On the extreme right-hand side are inert gases, which have 2 or 8 valence electrons.
Elements, Compounds and Mixtures Chemistry - 5070
Elements, Compounds and

Mixtures
 Atom and Molecule
 Difference between elements, compounds and mixtures

MATTER
PURE
MIXTURES
SUBSTANCES
ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS HEMOGENEOUS HETROGENEOUS
Elements and Atoms

 An element is a substance which can not be split into two or more simpler substances by
chemical means.
 An atom is the smallest possible particle of an element that can take part in chemical reaction.
 Elements are made up of atoms.
 There are 92 naturally occurring elements.
Composition of the earth's crust

8.10%
Oxygen
3.40% 9.00% Silicon
5.00% 46.60% Iron
Calcium
27.80% Other
Aluminium
Molecules and Compounds
 A molecule is the smallest particle of a compound and is made up of group of same atoms.
 A compound is a pure substance which contains only one type of molecules made up of
different atoms chemically combined together.
Molecules of elements Molecules of compound

H
O O
Cl Cl
H Cl H
Oxygen gas
O2
H
Chlorine gas
Cl2 Methane gas
N N CH4
H H H O
Hydrogen gas Nitrogen gas H H
N
H2 N2 H H
Water
H2O
Ammonia gas
NH3
Mixtures and Compounds

 A mixture is not a pure substance as it contains a mixture of atoms and/or molecules which are
not chemically combined.
For example Air is mixture of gases; Sea water is mixture of dissolved solids and water; Alloys
are mixtures of metals.
 A compound is a pure substance which contains only one type of molecules made up of atoms
chemically combined together.
For example if iron (Fe) and Sulphur (S) are heated iron (II) sulphide is formed.
+ →
No. Mixture Compound

1 Component substances can be separated by Constituent elements cannot be separated by
chemical means. chemical means.
2 Its physical properties (color, density, etc.) Its physical properties are individual and not the
are an average of those of the substances in result of its elements.
it.
3 Normally little or no energy is given out or Energy is usually given out or taken in when a
taken in. compound is formed.
4 A mixture’s composition can vary. A compound’s composition cannot vary.
5 Its chemical properties are result of the Its chemical properties are quite different from
substances in the mixture. those of its elements.
Bonding and Structure Chemistry - 5070
Bonding and Structure

 Ionic Bonding
 Covalent Bonding
 Metallic Bonding
 Macromolecules
 Properties of Ionic Bonding
 Properties of Covalent Bonding
 Properties of Metallic Bonding

Bonding
 Bonding is the way in which atoms join together and combine with one another.
 The arrangement of resulting particle is called structure.
 It is only the valency electrons in the outermost shell which become involved in bonding.
 It is aim of every atom to achieve a noble gas structure (i.e. 8 electrons in outermost shell). It
makes it stable.
 Noble gas do not take part in chemical reactions as they have 8 electrons in their outermost
shells.
Structure of noble Gases
Metallic Bonding
 This type of bonding is only possible in metals.
 Metals have free electrons in their outermost shell.
 When they pack together they loose their electrons into the sea
of electrons. These electrons are free to move. It is because of
these electrons that metals conduct electricity.
Properties of metals Reasons for these properties

They have high densities. Due to close packing of atoms on metals.
They have high melting and boiling points. Strong forces of attraction between atoms cause high
melting point of metals.
They are malleable and ductile. When force is applied to a metal, the atoms can slip over
one another. This allows the metal to be malleable and
ductile.
They are good thermal conductors. Vibration of atoms and outermost electrons helps
transfer of heat energy.
They are good electrical conductors. Free outermost electron cause metal to conduct
electricity. When a metal is connected into a circuit the
electrons move towards the positive terminal, and
electrons form the negative terminal flow to the metals
to replace them.
Ionic bonding
 Ionic bonding only occur between a metal and a non-metal.
 Ionic bonds are formed when metallic atoms give away valence electrons to non-metallic atoms.
 By giving electrons metal becomes positively charged and on other hand by gaining electron non
metal becomes negatively charged.
 These oppositely charged attracts each other through strong electrostatic force of attraction,
forming the ionic bond.
Loosing electron Gaining Electron
Diagram for Reaction of Sodium with Chlorine to Form Sodium Chloride
Properties of typical ionic compounds Reasons for these properties

They are crystalline solids at room temperature. There is regular arrangement of the ions in a lattice.
Ions with opposite charge are next to each other.
They have high melting and boiling points. Ions are attracted by strong electrostatic forces
which are not easy to break.
They are often soluble in water. Water is a polar solvent. Charged ions can move
about in it.
They conduct electricity when molten or In liquid form or solution, the ions are free to move.
dissolved in water.
They do not conduct electricity when solid. The charged ions are bonded together.
Covalent bonding
 Covalent bonding occurs between non-metals.
 Electrons are not transferred but shared in order to attain stability in the atoms that are used in
bonding.
 If one electron is shared between each atom then single covalent bond is formed.
 If two electrons are shared between each atom then double covalent bond is formed.
 If three electrons are shared between each atom then triple covalent bond is formed.
Hydrogen
Chlorine
Oxygen
Water
Ammonia
Methane
Properties of simple covalent compounds Reasons for these properties

They are often liquids or gases at room These substances are made of simple molecules. They
temperature. are joined by covalent bonds.
They have low melting and boiling points. Inter-molecular forces of attraction between are very
weak.
They are soluble in organic solvents such as Covalent molecular substances dissolve in non-polar
ethanol or methylbenzene. (covalent) solvents.
They do not conduct electricity at all. There are no ions present to carry the charge.
Chemical Formulae and Equations Chemistry - 5070
Chemical Formulae and

Equations
 Chemical Symbols
 Chemical Formulae
 Valency
 Relative Molecular Mass (Mr)
 The Percentage composition of Elements in a Molecule
 Empirical Formula
 Chemical Equations
 Ionic Equations

Chemical Reaction
 Chemical reaction is when two or more elements, compounds or molecules react together to
form something new.
 Reactants are what start a chemical reaction.
 Products are what are formed at the end of chemical reaction.
Types of reaction
 In decomposition reaction a compound breaks down to form two or more substances.
 In synthesis reaction a substance is formed by the combination of two or more substances.
 In neutralization reaction acid reacts with a base to form salt and water.
 In displacement reaction ion of less reactive element is displaced by the ion of more reactive
element (of same type).
 Precipitation reaction involves the formation of insoluble product.
 Combustion reaction of a substance involves its reaction with oxygen.
 Redox reaction involves oxidation and reduction of substances (discussed latter).
Chemical Symbols
 Each element is represented by its own symbol.
 Symbol may me of one or two letters.
 The first letter is capital is second letter is a small letter.
Name of some elements Symbol Name of some elements Symbol

Aluminum Al Copper Cu
Barium Ba Mercury Hg
Boron B Silver Ag
Lead Pb Gold Au
Zinc Zn Helium He
Oxygen O Neon Ne
Hydrogen H Potassium K
Nitrogen N Tin Sn
Iodine I Sodium Na
Iron Fe Chlorine Cl
Chemical Formulae
 Chemical formula is the way of expressing ratio of combining numbers of atoms or ions.
 Valency is the combining power of an atom or ion.
 The valency of first element becomes the base of second element and the valency of second
element becomes the base of first element.
X Y → X Y
 The bases are then further simplified if required.
X Y → X Y → XY
Some common ions
Valency Positively charger ions Negatively charged ions
1 Sodium Chloride
Potassium Bromide
Silver Iodide
Copper(I) Hydroxide
Hydrogen Nitrate
Ammonium Hydrogen carbonate
Hydrogen sulphate
2 Lead(II) Sulphate
Copper(II) Sulphtite
Magnesium Carbonate
Calcium Oxide
Zinc Sulphide
Barium Ba
Iron(II)
Mercury (II)
3 Iron(III) Phosphate
Aluminum
Relative Molecular Mass

 Relative molecular mass (Mr) of a substance is the sum of relative atomic mass (Ar) of every
element in that substance.
Example: Relative Molecular Mass of Sulphuric Acid ( )

Relative molecular mass of = (2 x 1) + 32 + (4 x 16)
The Percentage Composition of Elements
in a Compound.
1. Write down the chemical formula of the substance.
2. Find out its relative molecular mass.
3. Divide the atomic mass of the element you want to calculate the percentage composition of,
with the relative molecular mass, and multiply the result with 100%.
Example: Percentage Composition of Sulphuric Acid ( )

Relative molecular mass of = (2 x 1) + 32 + (4 x 16)
=98
Ar of Hydrogen = 2 % of Hydrogen = × 100 = 2.04%
Ar of Sulphur = 32 % of Sulphur = × 100 = 32.64%
Ar of Oxygen = 64 % of Oxygen = × 100 = 65.31%
Mass of an Element in a Compound

 If we know the percentage of an element in a compound, then mass of that compound can also
be found by following equation:
=% ×
= ×
Example
Calculate the mass of sodium in 10 g of sodium carbonate crystals( . 10 ).
Ar of atoms of sodium in . 10 = 2 x 32 = 46
Mr of the compound . 10 = 286
Mass of sodium in 10 g of sodium carbonate crystals = × 10 = 1.61
Empirical Formula
 The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest formula which shows the relative numbers
of the atoms of the different elements present.
 Empirical formula can be determined once the percentage or mass of each element in a
compound is known.
 To the rules for finding empirical formula are:
1. Divide the percentage or mass of each element by its relative atomic mass.
2. Divide by the smallest number to convert to the simplest ratio.
3. The number of atoms of the different elements is the empirical formula.
Example
Given that a molecule contains 88.89% oxygen and 11.11% hydrogen , what is its empirical formula?
H O
1 Dividing % by Ar 11.11 88.89
= 11.11 = 5.55
1 16
2 Simplest ratio 11.11 5.55
=2 =1
5.55 5.55
3 Empirical formula
Chemical equation
 A chemical equation is a useful way to summarizes what has happened in a chemical reaction.
 Reactants are written on the left side of equation while products are written after the reactants
preceded by an arrow with its head facing right.
1. Write down equation in words reactants on the left side, an arrow pointing towards right side
followed by the products.
+ →
2. Then write down the correct chemical formula.
+ →
3. Balance the equation number of moles before chemical formulas of both products and reactants
where necessary. This involves making sure that the number of atoms of each element before
and after the reaction is the same.
2 + →2
4. Finally add the state symbols in the equation for every reactant and product, after its chemical
formula. Solid is (s), liquid (l), gas is (g) and aqueous is (aq). Aqueous means dissolved in water.
2 ( )+ ( )→2 ()
Ionic Equation
 If the reaction is involving reactants in aqueous state then ionic equation is written to show
which particles are actually taking part in chemical reaction.
 The ions which do not take part in chemical reaction are called spectator ions.
1. Write the real chemical equation first.
( )+ ( )→ ( )+ ()
2. The chemicals which are in aqueous state before and after the reaction are split into their
respective ions.
[ ( )] + [ ( )] → [ ( )] + ()
3. The ions which do not take part in chemical reaction (i.e. The ions which are same before and
after chemical reaction) are cut.
[ ( )] + [ ( )] → [ ( )] + ()
4. This leaves us with the essential ionic equation.
( )+ ( )→ ()
Naming chemical Compounds

 If there is a metal it is named first.
 Compound containing two element have their name ending with ...ide; for example sodium
chloride (NaCl) and calcium bromide (CaBr2).
 Compound containing oxygen end their names with ...ate; for example calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) and potassium nitrate (KNO3).
 In the names of some compounds prefixes are used to describe the number of particular atom
in the compound; for example carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur trioxide
(SO3) and dinitrogen tetraoxide (N2O4).
The Mole Chemistry - 5070
The Mole
 What is Mole?
 Moles of Atoms
 Moles of Molecules
 Moles of Gases
 Calculating Percentage Purity and Yield

What is a Mole?
 Amole is defined as the amount of substance which contains the Avogadro Number of particles.
 The Avogadro Number (or Avogadro Constant) is defined as the number of atoms in 12 g of the
carbon-12 isotope.
 The value of Avogadro Number is 6.02 x 1023.
 The mass of one mole of atoms is its relative atomic mass in grams. For example 23 g of sodium
will be one mole of sodium and thus will contain Avogadro Number of sodium atoms.
 The mass of one mole of molecules is its relative molecular mass in grams. For example 18 g of
water (H2O) will be one mole and thus will contain Avogadro Number of water molecules.
 One mole of any gas at room temperature and pressure will occupies a fixed volume of 24000
cm3 (24 dm3).
 Equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of
particles.
Example
 1 mole of H2 molecules has mass of 1 x 2 = 32 g
 1 mole of O2 molecules has a mass of 16 x 2 = 32 g
 1 mole of CuSO4.5H2O has mass of 64 + 32 + (16 x 4) + [(1 x 2) + 16] x 5 = 250 g
 Volume of one mole of O2 at r.t.p is 24000 cm3.

 Volume of one mole of Cl2 at r.t.p is 24000 cm3.
 Volume of one mole of Br2 at r.t.p is 24000 cm3.
 24 grams of magnesium would contain 6.02 x 1023 magnesium atoms.

 56 grams of iron would contain 6.02 x 1023 iron atoms.
 18 grams of water would contain 6.02 x 1023 water molecules.
Calculations with Moles

 =
 = ×
 = ×
 = ×
Electrochemistry Chemistry - 5070
Electrochemistry
 Some electrical devices and circuit symbols
 Conductors and Non-conductors
 Electrolytes, Weak-electrolytes and Non-electrolytes
 Electrolysis
 Factors effecting electrolysis
 Industrial applications of electrolysis
 Dr y cells

Electrical Devices and Circuit Symbols
 Cell is source of electricity.
 Battery is a collection of cells.
 Switch is used to stop the flow of current.
 Bulb is used to register whether current is flowing.
 Voltmeter is used to measure current.
 Ammeter is used to measure current.
 Resistor ensures that a suitable amount of current is flowing.
 Variable resistor is resistor those rating can be changed.
 Electrodes are plates which carry electricity into the liquid.
 Cathode is the electrode connected to the negative terminal of the battery.
 Anode is the electrode connected to the positive terminal of the battery.
 Cation are positively charged ion that travels to the cathode during the electrolysis.
 Anion are negatively charged ion that travels to the anode during the electrolysis.
Electrical Device Circuit Symbol

Cell
Battery
Bulb
Switch
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Resistor
Variable resistor (rheostat)
Conductors and Non-Conductors
Conductors
 A conductor is a substance which conducts electricity but is not chemically changed during the
conduction.
 Conductors have free moving valence electrons which conducts electricity.
 All metals and graphite are conductors
Non-conductors
 A non-conductor is a substance which does not allow the passage of electricity.
 Non-conductors do not have free valance electrons and thus do not conduct electricity.
 All non-metals except graphite are non-conductors.
Electrolytes, Weak-electrolyte and Non-electrolyte

Electrolytes
 Electrolytes are compounds which when molten or dissolved in water conduct electricity.
 All acids, alkalis and salts are electrolytes.
 They conduct electricity by the movement of ions between electrodes.
Weak-electrolyte
 Weak acids and weak alkalis are classified as weak-electrolytes.
 They contain only few ions.
Non-Electrolyte
 Non-electrolyte is a liquid which does not allow the passage of electricity.
 Distilled water, alcohol, turpentine, oil, paraffin and other organic solvents are examples of non-
electrolytes.
Strong electrolytes Weak electrolytes Non-electrolytes

Aqueous sulphuric acid Limewater Ethanol
Aqueous nitric acid Ammonia solution Tetra chloromethane
Aqueous hydrochloric acid Aqueous ethanoic acid Tri chloromethane
Aqueous potassium hydroxide Aqueous sulphurous acid Pure water
Aqueous sodium hydroxide Aqueous carbonic acid Sugar solution
Copper(II) sulphate solution Molten sulphur
Electrolysis
 The process of decomposing a compound by passage of an electric current is called electrolysis.
 When electricity is passed through electrolyte, anions start moving towards anode and cations
towards cathode.
 Anions are usually non-metal ion for example Cl-, Br- and O2-.
 Cations are usually metal ion for example Ag+, Cu+2 and Pb+2.
 When anion reach anode they lose their electron to anode, which is ready to gain electron due
to positive charge.
 When cation reach cathode they gain electron from cathode, which is ready to donate electron
due to negative charge.
Factors Affecting Electrolysis

Position of ion in reactivity series
 More reactive ion undergoes discharge.
Cations Anions
K+
Na+
Ca2+ SO42-
Difficulty of
Mg2+ NO3- discharge
Zn2+ Cl- decreases
Fe2+ Br-
Pb2+ I-
H+ OH-
Cu2+
Ag+
Concentration
 If the concentration of particular ion is high, then this can alter the preferential discharge.
 Concentrated ion will be discharged.
Type of electrode
 Type of electrode used can affect the electrolysis.
 Carbon electrodes are inert electrodes and do not effect electrolysis.
Electrolysis of concentrated Sodium Chloride solution
Ions present in the solution
 Anions present in solution are OH- (from water) and
Cl- (from salt).
 Cations present in solution are H+ (from water) and
Na+ (from salt).
Reaction
Anode
 Chloride and hydroxide ions migrate towards anode.
 Chloride ions are discharged as the concentration of
chloride ion is higher.
 2 chloride ions lose 2 electrons to form chlorine gas.
2 →2 +
Cathode
 Sodium and hydrogen ion travel towards cathode.
 Hydrogen ion is discharged as sodium is too high up
in the reactivity series.
 2 hydrogen ions gains 2 electrons to form hydrogen
gas.
2 +2 →
Electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid

Ions present in the solution
 Anions present in solution are OH- (from water) and SO4-2 (from acid).
 Cation present in solution is H+ from both water and acid.
Reaction
Anode
 Hydroxide and sulphate ion migrate towards anode.
 Hydroxide ion is preferentially discharged as it is at the bottom of the reactivity series.
 Hydroxide ion loses 1 electron to form oxygengas which bubbles out and water which stays in
the solution.
4 →2 + +4
Cathode
 Hydrogen ion is discharged as it is only cation present.
 2 hydrogen ions gains 2 electrons to form hydrogen gas.
2 +2 →
Industrial Applications of Electrolysis
Purification of metals
 Impure copper is made anode.
 Pure copper is made cathode.
 Electrolyte is acidified copper (II) sulphate.
 When electricity flows copper dissolves from impure anode and goes into solution as copper
ions. Impurities do not dissolve, and instead fall off the anode as anode sludge.
 At cathode, the copper ions are deposited as pure copper metal.
At anode
 → +2
At cathode
 +2 →
Electroplating
 Electroplating is a process of forming thin protective coating of a
metal on the surface of another which is likely to corrode.
 Object to be plated is made cathode. (Spoon)
 Anode is made of the metal we wish to plate with. (Silver Ag)
 Electrolyte is the solution of salt of the metal. (Silver Nitrate
AgNO3)
 Anode: → +2 (Silver dissolves from anode)
 Cathode: +2 → (Silver deposits on the object)
Some commonly Electroplated Objects

Metal Object
Zinc Dustbins, buckets
Chromium Car bumpers, bicycle handle
bars
Silver Watches, bracelets
Copper Saucepans
Nickel Cutlery
Gold Jewellery, watches
Electrical Cell
 A simple cell is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Each simple cell
consists of:
2 electrodes of 2 different metals
An electrolyte solution containing an acid or an aqueous salt
 As more reactive metal tends to undergo oxidation more easily, and naturally becomes the
negative terminal by losing electrons, which then travel via the external circuit to other metal
electrode.
 The less reactive metal becomes the positive terminal, as it has a weaker tendency to lose
electrons.
 The voltage of the cell depends on the position of the metal in the reactivity series. The far two
metals are in the reactivity series more is the voltage.
Reactivity
Magnesium
Aluminum
Zinc
Iron Reactivity
Tin decreases
Lead
Copper
Silver
Dry cell
 In dry cell electrolyte is a paste.
 Carbon electrode is positive terminal.
 Zinc electrode is negative terminal.
 Ammonium chloride is used as electrolyte.
Chemical Reactions Chemistry - 5070
Chemical Reactions
 Exothermic reactions
 Endothermic reactions
 Energy changes involved in bond making
 Energy changes involved in bond breaking
 Factors affecting the speed of reactions
 Catalysts and Enzymes

Exothermic Reactions
 Exothermic reaction is one where energy (heat) is given out causing a temperature rise in the
surrounding.
 Making chemical bonds involves release of energy and is thus exothermic.
 Overall energy change is negative(∆ = − ).
 Activation energy needed is low.
 Combustion, Respiration and Neutralization reactions are exothermic reactions.
Endothermic Reaction
 Endothermic reaction is one where energy (heat) is taken in causing a temperature drop in the
surroundings.
 Breaking chemical bonds takes in energy from the surroundings and thus is endothermic.
 Overall energy change is positive(∆ = + ).
 Activation energy needed is high.
 Thermal decomposition (breaking of large molecule on heating) and dissolving are endothermic
reactions.
Rate of Reactions
Measuring the rate of reactions
 Direct Method: measuring the rate of change of mass at different intervals.
 Indirect Method: measuring the external product given off for example gas evolved.
Factors affecting the rate of reactions
 The surface area of any solid reactants.
The greater the surface area the faster the rate of reaction. This means that powdered reactants
will react more quickly than reactants in ump form.
 The concentration of the reactants.
The rate of reaction increases when the concentration of a reactant in solution is increased. This
is because at higher concentration, there is a greater likelihood that reacting molecules will
collide with one another with sufficient energy to form particles.
 The temperature at which the reaction is carried out.
The rate of reaction increases when the temperature of the reaction mixture is increased
(because increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of molecules thus increasing the
number of effective collusions). Rate of reaction doubles with every 10oC increase in
temperature.
 The use of a catalyst.
Catalyst increases the rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy needed. Catalyst does
not change at the end of the reaction this means that a catalyst can be used over and over
again.
 The pressure in case of gaseous reactions.
In gaseous reaction speed of reaction increases if pressure is increased, this is because at lower
pressure gasses collide more frequently.
 The light in some reactions.
Some reaction take place faster when they absorb light for example formation of silver from
silver salts takes place when a photographic film is exposed to light. In sunlight, green plants are
able to carry on the process of photosynthesis.
Redox Reactions
 Redox reactions are one where oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously.
Oxidation and Reduction
Oxidation
 Gain in oxygen.
 Loss of hydrogen.
 Loss of electrons.
 Increase in oxidation number.
Reduction
 Loss of oxygen.
 Gain in hydrogen.
 Gain in electrons.
 Decrease in oxidation number.
Oxidizing Agents and Reducing Agents

 Substances which helps oxidation to take place are called oxidizing agents (oxidants).
 Substances which help reduction to take place are called reducing agents (reductants).
Loss/Gain of Oxygen/Hydrogen
Example 1:
 Consider the following reactions in which chlorine burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and
steam.
( )+2 ( )→ ( )+2 ( )
 Carbon atoms in methane gain oxygen to form carbon dioxide and therefore have been
oxidized.
 Oxygen from air has gained hydrogen from methane to form water and thus reduced.
Example 2:
 Consider the following reaction:

( )+ ( )→ ( )+ ()
 Hydrogen gains oxygen to become water. Hence, hydrogen under goes oxidation.
 Copper (II) oxide loses oxygen to form copper metal. Hence, copper (II) oxide in reduced.
Changes in Oxidation State

Example 1:
 In the following reaction:

( )+ ( )→ ( )+ ( )

 Fe2+ is reduced to Fe as the oxidation state decreases from +2 to 0.
 Zn is oxidized as its oxidation state is increased from 0 to +2.
Example 2:
Reversible reactions
 Reversible reactions are those reactions which can take place in both directions.
 Reversible reactions are represented by .
 A reversible reaction is in equilibrium when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are
equal.
 At equilibrium, the concentrations off reactants and products do not change.
 For a reversible reaction a catalyst does not alter the equilibrium concentrations of reactants
and products. But it does increase the rate at which the equilibrium is reached.
Factors affecting the Reversible Reactions

Temperature
 If reaction is exothermic, increase in temperature will favor the backward reaction and yield will
decrease.
 If reaction in endothermic, increase in temperature will favor the forward reaction and yield will
increase.
Pressure
 If less number of moles are forming in forward reaction, then increase in pressure will favor the
forward reaction and yield will increase.
 If more number of moles are forming in the forward reaction, then increase in pressure will
favor the backward reaction and yield will decrease.
Concentration
 Forward reaction will be favored; if the concentration of the yield is decreased (i.e. yield is taken
out of the system).
The Haber Process - making ammonia and its uses
 The reaction to produce ammonia from nitrogen (from air) and hydrogen (from cracking oil) is
reversible reaction.
+3 2
 The reaction is exothermic reaction.
 Iron is used as a catalyst in this reaction.
 In this reaction increase in pressure will increase both the yield of ammonia (because in forward
reaction less number of moles are formed) and the rate of reaction (because of more number of
effective collusions) so pressure is kept high at 200 ATM.
 In this reaction, if we raise the temperature of the system, backward reaction will be favored.
Lowering the temperature will favor ammonia production. However at low temperature the
reaction will be very slow which is not economical. So Temperature is kept optimum at 450oC.
 There are two tests for ammonia gas:
It turn red litmus paper blue.
It produces white fumes with hydrochloride gas.
Uses of ammonia gas
Manufacture of Fertilizers Ammonia produced is converted into ammonia compounds
containing large quantity of nitrogen, which are used as
fertilizers.
Ammonium suphate (NH4)2SO4
Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3
Urea NH2CONH2
Manufacture of Nitric acid Nitric acid is made by the catalytic oxidation of ammonia
over heated platinum.
Bond Energies of Some Covalent Bonds

Used for determining the nature of reaction, exothermic or endothermic.
Bond energies of some covalent bonds

Covalent bond Bond energy/kJmol-1
H—H 436
Cl—Cl 242
C—C 348
C—H 412
O—H 463
Cl—H 431
N—H 338
O=O 496
C=O 743
NΞN 945
C=C 838
The Chemistry and uses of Acids, Bases and Salts Chemistry -5070
The Chemistry and uses of

Acids, Bases and Salts
 The characteristic properties of acid and bases.
 Uses of acids and bases.
 Neutralization and its uses.
 Different types of oxides.
 Preparation of salts.
 Properties and uses of ammonia.
 Sulphuric acid.

The Chemistry and uses of Acids, Bases and Salts 2
Acids
Properties of Acids
 Acids form a class of chemical substances which contain hydrogen ions in aqueous solution,
H+ (aq), as the only positive ion.
 Acid needs water to show its acidic properties. Because hydrogen ions are only formed when
in aqueous state.
 Acids turn litmus from blue to red in color. (It is a check of acidity)
 Acids are electrolytes because in solutions, they are ionic and therefore conduct electricity.
 If concentrated they can be corrosive.
 Acids taste sour (for example, vinegar).

 Acids can be classified into:
Strong acid which ionizes fully in water for example hydrochloric HCl.
Weak acid which partially ionize in water for example ethanoic acid CH3COOH.
Reaction of Acids
 Most dilute acids react with metals to from salt and hydrogen gas.
( )+ ( )→ ( )+ ( )
 Acids react with metal oxides to form a salt and water.
( )+2 ( )→ ( ) ( )+ ()
 Acids react with metal hydroxides to form, again, a salt and water.
( )+ ( )→ ( )+ ()
 Acids react with metal carbonates to form a salt, water and carbon dioxide.
( )+2 ( )→ ( )+ ( )+ ( )
 Dilute hydrochloric acid is in our stomach which helps digest our food.
Some common acids

Type Name Formula Strong or weak
Mineral Sulphuric acid H2SO4 Strong
Nitric acid HNO3 Strong
Hydrochloric acid HCl Strong
Carbonic acid H2CO3 Strong
Sulphurous acid H2SO3 Strong
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 Strong
Organic Ethanoic acid CH3COOH Weak
Methanoic acid HCOOH Weak
Lactic acid ------------ Weak
Citric acid C6H8O7 Weak
Bases
Properties of Bases
 Bases form a class of chemical substances which include all metals oxides and metal
hydroxides.
 A soluble base is called an alkali and in aqueous solutions it produces hydroxide ions (OH-).
 Alkalis are always metal hydroxide oxides dissolved in water.
 They feel soapy to touch.
 They taste bitter.
 Turn litmus paper from red to blue.
Reactions of Bases
 When an alkali is added to an acid, it cancels out the acidity, water and salts are products.
This reaction is called neutralization reaction.
( )+ ( )→ ( )+ ()
 Acidity of a soil can be lowered by adding a base called calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2.
Some common alkalis and bases

Type Common Name Chemical Name Formula
Alkalis Caustic soda Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Caustic potash Potassium hydroxide KOH
Ammonia solution Aqueous ammonia NH3(aq)
Slaked lime Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Bases Milk of magnesia Magnesium oxide MgO
Verdigris Copper(II) oxide CuO
Rust Iron(III) oxide Fe2O3
Neutral Substances
 Litmus paper is not affected by neutral paper.
 Tend to be harmless.
 Water, salt solution are neutral substances.
Indicators and pH scale.

 Indicators are dyes or mixture of dyes which change their color when in acid or alkali.
 pH is a term used to show the strength of an acid or alkali.
 The scale runs from 1 to 14.
 Acids have a pH less than 7, the more acidic a solution, the lower the pH.
 Alkalis have a pH greater than 7, the more the alkaline a solution, the higher the pH.
 A neutral substance has pH of 7.
Some common indicator color change

Indicator Color in acid Color in alkali
Litmus Red Blue
Universal Red Violet
Methyl orange Red Yellow
Screened methyl orange Red Green
Phenolphthalein Colorless Pink
The pH values of some common solutions

Substances pH
Hydrochloric acid - - - - - - - - - 0.0
Gastric juices - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.0
Lemon juice - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.5
Vinegar - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.0
Wine - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.5
Tomato juice - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.1
Black coffee - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.0
Acid rain - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.6
Urine - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.0
Rain Water - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.5
Milk - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.5
Pure water - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7.0
Blood - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7.4
Baking soda solution - - - - - - - 8.5
Toothpaste - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.0
Borax solution - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.2
Milk of Magnesia - - - - - - - - - 10.5
Limewater - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11.0
Ammonia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12.0
Sodium hydroxide - - - - - - - - - 14.0
Neutralization
It is a reaction in which an acid reacts with alkali to form salt and water.
Uses of neutralization
Soil Treatment - Farming
The majority of plants grow best at pH 7. If the soil is acidic or alkaline the plant may grow badly.
Therefore, chemicals can be added to the soil to change its pH.
If the soil is too acidic - the most common complaint - it is treated with a base (chemicals opposite to
an acid) in order to neutralize it. Common treatments use quicklime (calcium oxide) or chalk (calcium
carbonate).
Indigestion
We all have hydrochloric acid in our stomach - it helps breakdown food! However, too much acid
leads to indigestion. Therefore, to cure this ailment we need to neutralize the acid with a base such
as, sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda), or an indigestion tablet.
Insect Stings
A bee sting contains acid. In order to relieve the painful symptoms of the sting we need to
neutralize the acid. By rubbing on calamine lotion (zinc carbonate) or baking soda the acid can be
neutralized.
Wasp stings are alkaline, hence acid is needed to neutralize and remove the painful sting. Vinegar
(ethanoic acid) is used.
Different types Oxides

 Metal oxides are basic oxides which dissolve in water to form alkalis.
 Some non-metallic oxides are acidic oxides which dissolve in water to form acids.
 Some metal oxides can behave as bother acids and bases and so called amphoteric oxides.
 Some non-metallic oxides neither behaves as acids nor bases are called neutral oxides.
Types of oxides with examples

Type Description Name Formula
Basic Metal oxides which Potassium oxide K2 O
show basic properties Sodium oxide Na2O
Calcium oxide CaO
Ammonia NH3
Acidic Non-metal oxides which Carbon dioxide CO2
dissolve in water to Sulphur Dioxide SO2
form acids Phosphorus(V) oxide P2O5
P4O10
Amphoteric Metal oxides that can Aluminum oxide Al2O3
behave as both acids Zinc oxide ZnO
and bases Lead(II) oxide PbO
Neutral Non- metal oxides Carbon monoxide CO
which have neither the
properties of acids nor
bases
Salts
 A salt is the substance formed when the hydrogen of an acid is partly or completely replaced
by a metal.
The patterns of solubility for various types of salts

Salts Soluble Insoluble
Sodium salts All are soluble None
Potassium salts All are soluble None
Ammonium salts All are soluble None
Nitrates All are soluble None
Ethanoates All are soluble None
Chlorides Most are soluble Silver chloride
- - - - - - - - - - Lead(II) chloride
- - - - - - - - - - Mercury(II) chloride
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Sulphates Most are soluble Calcium sulphate
- - - - - - - - - - Barium sulphate
- - - - - - - - - - Lead(II) sulphate
Carbonates Sodium carbonate Most are insoluble
Potassium carbonate
Ammonium carbonate
Preparation of Soluble Salts

Type Equation Suitable for
Metal and Acid Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen Reactive metals
Metal Oxide and Acid Metal oxide + Acid → Salt + Water Metals which do not react with dilute
acids require heating
Metal Hydroxide and Acid Metal hydroxide + Acid → Salt + Water Soluble metal hydroxides
Metal Carbonate and Acid Metal + Acid → Salt + Water + Carbon Does not require heating
dioxide
Titration Acid + Alkali → Salt + Water Aqueous acid and alkali which produces
soluble salt after neutralization reaction.
Identification of cations (positive metal ions)

Aqueous Addition of dilute NaOH Addition of dilute NH3
cation Few drops Excess Few drops Excess
Aluminium White precipitates Precipitate dissolves White precipitates Precipitate insoluble
Al3+ (aq) Colorless solution
Lead (II) White precipitates Precipitate dissolves White precipitates Precipitate insoluble
Pb2+ (aq) Colorless solution
Zinc White precipitates Precipitate dissolves White precipitates Precipitate dissolves
Zn2+ (aq) Colorless solution Colorless solution
Calcium White precipitates Precipitate insoluble No reaction No reaction
Ca2+ (aq)
Copper (II) Blue precipitates Precipitate insoluble Blue precipitates Precipitate dissolves
Cu2+ (aq)
Iron (II) Green precipitates Precipitate insoluble Green precipitates Precipitate insoluble
Fe2+ (aq)
Iron (III) Brown precipitates Precipitate insoluble Brown precipitates Precipitate insoluble
Fe3+ (aq)
Ammonium Ammonia gas (NH3) is produced on warming No reaction No reaction
NH4+ (aq) with dilute sodium hydroxide. The gas a
pungent smell and turns damp red litmus
paper blue.
Identification of anions (negative ions)

Aqueous anion Test Observation
Nitrate Add dilute sodium hydroxide Ammonia gas is produced
NO3- (aq) and a little aluminium powder
Carbonate Add dilute hydrochloric acid Effervescence occurs
CO32- (aq)
Chloride Add dilute nitric acid* and then A white precipitate of silver
-
Cl (aq) silver nitrate chloride is formed
Iodide Add dilute nitric acid* and then A yellow precipitate of lead(II)
I- (aq) lead(II) nitrate solution iodide is formed
Sulphate Add dilute nitric acid* and then A white precipitate of barium
SO42- (aq) barium nitrate solution sulphate is formed
*= Nitric acid is added to destroy any carbonate presence
Ammonia and its Uses

 The reaction to produce ammonia from nitrogen (from air) and hydrogen (from cracking oil)
is reversible reaction.
+3 2
 The reaction is exothermic reaction.
 Iron is used as a catalyst in this reaction.
 In this reaction increase in pressure will increase both the yield of ammonia (because in
forward reaction less number of moles are formed) and the rate of reaction (because of
more number of effective collusions) so pressure is kept high at 200 ATM.
 In this reaction, if we raise the temperature of the system, backward reaction will be
favored. Lowering the temperature will favor ammonia production. However at low
temperature the reaction will be very slow which is not economical. So Temperature is kept
optimum at 450oC.
 There are two tests for ammonia gas:

It turn red litmus paper blue.
It produces white fumes with hydrochloride gas.
Uses of ammonia gas
Manufacture of Ammonia produced is converted into ammonia compounds
Fertilizers containing large quantity of nitrogen, which are used as fertilizers.
Ammonium suphate (NH4)2SO4
Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3
Urea NH2CONH2
Manufacture of Nitric Nitric acid is made by the catalytic oxidation of ammonia over
acid heated platinum.
Sulphuric Acid
Sulphur
Sulphur exists as a S8 molecule in which 8 atoms of sulphur join together by covalent bonding. The
intermolecular forces between sulphur are very weak Vander wall’s forces. Due to these weak forces
sulphur has a low melting and boiling point. There are three major sources of sulphur.
 Volcanic regions
Native sulphur is found in volcanic regions.
 Oil gas
Natural gas and crude oil are contaminated with sulphur
 Minerals
Some mineral ores contain sulphur.
Oxides of Sulphur
There are two possible oxides of sulphur, called sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphur trioxide (SO3).
Sulphur Dioxide
Sulphur burns in air with a blue flame, forming sulphur dioxide:
( ) + 2( )  ( )
It is an acidic gas with a choking smell.
Sulphur dioxide has many uses.
 Manufacture of sulphurous acid (H2SO3)

 Manufacture of sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
 Used as a preservative ( by killing bacteria)
 Used to sterilize things
 Used to bleach wood pulp before making paper.
Sulphur trioxide
Sulphur trioxide is formed by reaction between sulphur dioxide and oxygen.
2 ( ) + 2( ) ⇄ 2 ( )
Manufacture of Sulphuric acid

1. Sulphur dioxide is produced by burning sulphur.
S(s) + O2(g)  SO2(g)
2. The sulphur dioxide is purified.
3. Sulphur dioxide is reacted with oxygen over a vanadium(V) oxide catalyst.
2 2( ) + 2( ) ⇄ 2 3( )
This reaction is exothermic, which means it favors a low temperature for high yield of
sulphur dioxide. However if temperature is lowered rate of reaction slows down. Accordingly
an average temperature of 450oC is used. Pressure is kept low at 2 ATM.
4. Sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form oleum.
( )+ ()→ ()
5. This oleum is diluted with water to form sulphuric acid.
( )+ ()→2 ()
Uses of Sulphuric Acid

 Sulphur is used for the production of fertilizers such as ammonia sulphate, potassium
sulphate and calcium sulphate, e.t.c.
 Used for manufacture of non-soapy-detergents.
 Used for making of artificial silks like rayon.
 Used as cleaning metals by removing surface oxide coating.
 Used as an electrolyte in batteries.
The Periodic Table of Elements Chemistry - 5070
The Periodic Table of

Elements


The Periodic Table of Elements
 In Periodic table elements are arranged in order of their increasing proton number.
 It was invented in 1869 be a Russian chemist by the name Mendeleev.
 Vertical columns are called groups.
 Horizontal rows are called periods.
 Group number indicates the no of valence electrons.
 Period number indicates the no of electron shells.
 On left side of periodic table are metals.
 On right side of periodic table are non-metals.
 Between group 2 and 3 are transition metals.
 On the extreme right-hand side are inert gases, which have 2 or 8 valence electrons.
Metals and Non-Metals: Across a Period

 In a periodic table metals and non-metals can be identified by staircase line. Left to the line are
metals and right are non-metals.
 Elements close to staircase line are called Metalloids. They have properties of both metals and
non-metals. Metalloids beneath the staircase line are poor metals.
Differences between metals and non-metals

Metals Non-Metals
Good conductors of heat and electricity Poor conductors of heat and electricity
Usually solids at room temperature (except Hg) Often gases (except Br, S, P, I, C, B and Si)
High melting and boiling points (except Group I) Low melting and boiling points (except B, C and Si)
Often shiny, ductile, malleable and possess great Normally dull, soft and cannot be drawn out into
tensile strength wires or made into flat sheets
Mostly compounds are ionic Mostly compounds are covalent
Oxides are usually basic or amphoteric Oxides are usually neutral or acidic
Often form hydrogen gas with dilute acids Never form hydrogen gas from acids
Always form positive ions (cations) Always form negative ions (anions)
Group I: Alkali Metals

 Very reactive metals.
 Reactivity increases as we go down the group (As we go down the group the size of atom
increases with the increase in number of shells thus the distance of valence electrons from the
nucleus increases. This makes easier to lose the valence electron.
 Unlike other metals Group I metals are silvery, soft, have low density, melting point and boiling
point.
 Good thermal and electrical conductors.
 They react very violently with Oxygen or air, burning and catching fire with characteristic flame
color and forming white oxide. For example:
4 + →2
That is why Group I metals are stored in oil to prevent reaction with air or oxygen.
 These metal oxides are basic oxides (basic oxides dissolve in water to form alkali).
 They react very vigorously with water forming metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
4 +2 →2 +
 Their reaction with halogen is very quick forming white solid.
+ →
Properties of Group I Elements

Element Melting point/ oC Boiling point/ oC Density/gcm-3
Lithium 181 1342 0.53
Sodium 98 883 0.97
Potassium 63 760 0.86
Rubidium 39 686 1.53
Caesium 29 669 1.90
Group VII: The Halogens

 Very reactive non-metals.
 Their reactivity decreases down the group (this can be explained by atomic size, which increases
down the group. It therefore makes it more difficult for the nucleus to attract an electron to
form an ion).
 They all are poisonous and have a similar strong smell.
 All halogen form single negative charges when reacted with metals. These charged ions are
called halides.
 They exists as diatomic molecules (two atoms combined together covalently) for example Cl2
and Br2.
 Halogens form ions with single negative charge (F-, Cl-, Br- and I-).
 Any halogen above another halogen in the group will displace it from a solution of its salt
(because reactivity of halogens decreases as we go down the Group).Such reactions are called
displacement reactions.
+2 →2 +
 Low melting point and boiling point.
 As we go down the group density increases.
 Their melting point and boiling point increases as we go down the group. This is because melting
point and boiling point depends on the intermolecular forces of attraction. These forces increase
when the size of molecules increases.
Uses of Group VII Elements

Element Uses
Fluorine Prevents tooth decay, put into tap water and
toothpastes.
Chlorine Kill germs and harmful micro-organisms, put in tap
and pool water.
Iodine Very small amount of iodine is required in human
bodies. Deficiency cause swelling in neck.
Physical Properties of Group VII Elements

Chlorine Bromine Iodine
Color Yellowish green Reddish-brown Grey/Black
State at room Gas Volatile liquid Solid
temperature
Other properties Molecules are spaced Has low boiling point Sublimes at gentle
far apart and are (59oC) and easily heating. Purple color
moving at high speeds change into vapors when liquid.
Uses Water Treatment Pesticides Antiseptics
Bleach Photographic film Photographic film
Group O or VIII: Noble Gases

 Eighth group is of noble gases.
 These gases are inert i.e. they do not take part in chemical reaction. This is because their
outermost shell is complete with eight electrons.
 They exist as monoatomic gases (uncombined atoms) for example He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn)
 Can be used to provide inert atmosphere for example neon and argon in light bulbs; helium in
balloons; argon in manufacture of steel.
 They have very low melting and boiling points.
 Their boiling point and melting point increases as we go down the group, the reason behind is
that as we go down the group size to atom increases and so does the Vander Wall’s force of
attraction.
Name Symbol B.p. (oC) Uses

Helium He -269 In airships, hot gas balloons
Neon Ne -246 In advertising lights
Argon Ar -185 An inert gas for electric bulbs, welding and making steel
Krypton Kr -153 Gas-filled electronic devices and lasers
Xenon Xe -109 Electronic flash guns
Radon Rn -62 Natural radioactive gas
Transition Metals: Typical Metals

 Metals between group 2 and group 3 are called transition metals.
 They are typical metals.
 Transition metals are not so reactive.
 Transition metals are colored compounds.
Transition metal Color of compound
Copper(II) compounds Blue
Iron(II) compounds Green
Iron(III) compounds Brown
Lead(II) compounds White
Zinc(II) compounds White
 They have variable valency (or oxidation state). For example Iron(II) and Iron(III).
 They are strong and hard metals.
 They have high melting points, boiling points and densities. Tungsten has melting point of
3410oC and is used as a filament in filament bulbs.
 They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
 Transition metals have catalytic properties (they can be used to speed up reactions).
Industrial Process Transition metal used as catalyst

Contact Process Vanadium(V) oxide to help the conversion to
sulphur trioxide
Haber Process Iron to make ammonia gas
Margarine manufacture Nickel in hydrogenation of alkene
Transition Metal Properties and Uses

Chromium Hard, unreactive and attractive. Used for
Chromium plating and in making stainless steel
Titanium Light but as strong as steel. Used in air craft
construction
Copper Unreactive and malleable. Used in electrical wires
and water-piping.
Zinc Grey metal with a blue tingle. Used to galvanize
iron to prevent it from rusting.
Nickel Strong metal and resists corrosion. Used in stain
less steel.
Manganese Hard metal. Used to harden steel.
Tungsten Very high melting point of 3410oC. Used in
filament bulb as filament.
Metals Chemistry - 5070
Metals
 Position of metals in Periodic Table
 Properties of metals
 Extremes in metals
 Alloys and composition of some common alloys


Metals in Periodic Table
 Metals are found from Group I to Group III of the Periodic Table.
 Metals between group II and III are typical metals known as transition metals.
Properties of Metals
 High Density
Due to close packing of atoms on metals.
 High Melting Point
Strong forces of attraction between atoms cause high melting point of metals.
 Malleable and Ductile
Malleable means metals can change shape without breaking.
Ductile means metals can be made into wires.
When force is applied to a metal, the atoms can slip over one another. This allows the metal to
be malleable and ductile.
 Thermal Conductivity
Vibration of atoms and outermost electrons helps transfer of heat energy.
 Electrical Conductivity
Free outermost electron cause metal to conduct electricity. When a metal is connected into a
circuit the electrons move towards the positive terminal, and electrons form the negative
terminal flow to the metals to replace them.
Extremes in Metals
Lightest Lithium (Li) has a density of 0.53 g cm-3
Heaviest Osmium (Os) has a density of 22.48 g cm-3
Most brittle Manganese (Mn) and chromium (Cr) are most brittle
Lowest melting point Mercury (Hg) has melting point of -38.9 °C
Highest melting point Tungsten (W) has a melting points of +3410 °C
Most expensive Platinum (pt) has the greatest commercial value
Rarest Rhodium (Rh) is the rarest natural metal on earth
Most abundant Aluminum (Al) makes up over 8%of the earth’s crust
Alloy and it’s Properties
 Alloys are mixture of different metals. Some times non-metals
may also be added.
 Alloys are harder than pure metals this is because larger atoms
stop the layers of other metals from sliding over each other.
 Alloys are less corrosive.
Come common alloys

Alloy Approximate composition Uses
Steel 99% Fe, 1% C Ships, bridges
Cupronickel 75% Cu, 25% Ni Silver coins
Bronze 90% Cu, 10% Sn Medals, swords, statues
Brass 70% Cu, 30% Zn Ornaments, electrical wiring and
contacts
Solder 70 % Pb, 30% Sn Joining metals
Pewter 70% Sn, 30% Pb Drinking mugs
Constantan 60% Cu, 40% Ni Thermocouples
Magnalium 70% Al, 30% Mg Aircraft frames
Duralumin 95% Al, 5% Cu/Mg Construction
Amalgams Hg/Sn alloys Filling in teeth
The Reactivity Series of Metals

Name Symbol Detail
Potassium K Reactivity decreases down as we go down.
Sodium Na
Calcium Ca
Magnesium Mg
Aluminum Al
Zinc Zn Stability of Ion decreases as we go down.
Iron Fe
Lead Pb
Copper Cu
Mercury Hg
Silver Ag Ease of discharge decreases as we go
Platinum Pt down.
 As more reactive metals have greater tendencies for oxidation thus they immediately convert
into their respective ions. So it can be concluded that ions formed by more reactive metal are
more stable and are difficult to discharge.
 Learning aid for reactivity series. First letter of following statement represent the first letter of
the name of element.
Please Send Cats Monkeys And Zebras In Large Cages Make Sure Pet-locked.
Reaction of metals with water

Name of Metal Metal with water or steam Products
Potassium React with cold water Solution of their hydroxide and
Sodium hydrogen gas.
Calcium
Magnesium React with steam Oxides of these metals and
Aluminum hydrogen gas.
zinc
Iron
Lead No reaction with water or steam No reaction.
Copper
Mercury
Silver
Platinum
 For example:
2 +2 →2 +
+ → +
Reaction of metals with acid

Name of Metal Metal with acid Products
Potassium Violent reaction with dilute acid. Salt and hydrogen gas.
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium React with dilute acids with Salt and hydrogen gas.
Aluminum decreasing ease.
zinc
Iron
Lead
Copper React only with concentrated Salt and hydrogen gas.
Mercury acids.
Silver
Platinum
 For example:
2 +2 → +
+2 → +
Stability of Metal Compounds

The stability of metal compounds
Metal Oxide Hydroxide Carbonate Nitrate
Potassium Electrolytic Stable to heat Stable to heat Decompose to
Sodium reduction nitrate and oxygen
Calcium Decompose to Decompose to Decompose to
Magnesium metal oxide and metal oxide and metal oxide,
Aluminum steam on heating carbon dioxide gas nitrogen dioxide
Zinc Reduced by on heating and oxygen on
Iron heating with heating
Lead carbon
Copper
Mercury Reduced by Unstable, do not Unstable, do not Decompose to
Silver heating alone exist exist metal, oxygen and
Platinum nitrogen dioxide
gas on heating
The Displacement Power of Metals

 Any metal above another in the reactivity series is capable of displacing it for its oxide, or from
an aqueous solution of its salt.
Thermit reaction:
( ) + → +
+2 → +2
 This reaction needs a magnesium fuse to start the reaction.

 The reaction is extremely exothermic so the iron produced is molten.
 It is used to weld railway line.
Displacement from Solutions
Organic Chemistry Chemistry - 5070
Organic Chemistry
 Under Progress

Organic Chemistry?
 Work Under Progress
Glossary Chemistry -5070
Glossary
A
Acid a substance that produces hydrogen ions in aqueous solution; a proton donor.
Acid - base indicator a substance that marks the end point of an acid - base titration by changing color.
Acid rain rainwater with an acidic pH, a result of air pollution by sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
Acidic oxide a covalent oxide that dissolves in water to give an acidic solution.
Actinide series a group of fourteen elements following actinium on the periodic table, in which the 5f
orbitals are being filled.
Activation energy the threshold energy that must be overcome to produce a chemical reaction.
Air pollution contamination of the atmosphere, mainly by the gaseous products of transportation and
the production of electricity.
Alcohol an organic compound in which the hydroxyl group is a substituent on a hydrocarbon.
Aldehyde an organic compound containing the carbonyl group bonded to at least one hydrogen atom.
Alkali metal a Group 1 metal.
Alkaline earth metal a Group 2 metal.
Alkane a saturated hydrocarbon with the general formula CnH2n12.
Alkene an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing a carbon - carbon double bond. The general formula is
CnH2n.
Alkyne an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing a carbon - carbon triple bond. The general formula is
CnH2n22.
Alloy a substance that contains a mixture of elements and has metallic properties.
Alloy steel a form of steel containing carbon plus metals such as chromium, cobalt, manganese, and
molybdenum.

Alpha ( ) particle a helium nucleus produced in radioactive decay.
Alpha-particle production a common mode of decay for radioactive nuclides in which the mass
number changes.
Amine an organic base derived from ammonia in which one or more of the hydrogen atoms are
replaced by organic groups.
-Amino acid an organic acid in which an amino group, a hydrogen atom, and an R group are
attached to the carbon atom next to the carboxyl group.
Ampere the unit of measurement for electric current; 1 ampere is equal to 1 coulomb of charge per
second.
Amphoteric substance a substance that can behave either as an acid or as a base.
Anion a negative ion.
Anode in a galvanic cell, the electrode at which oxidation occurs.
Aqueous solution a solution in which water is the dissolving medium, or solvent.
Aromatic hydrocarbon one of a special class of cyclic unsaturated hydrocarbons, the simplest of
which is benzene.
Arrhenius concept a concept postulating that acids produce hydrogen ions in aqueous solution,
whereas bases produce hydroxide ions.
Atmosphere the mixture of gases that surrounds the earth's surface.

Atom the fundamental unit of which elements are composed.
Atomic mass (weight) the weighted average mass of the atoms in a naturally occurring element.
Atomic number the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom; each element has a unique atomic
number.
Atomic radius half the distance between the atomic nuclei in a molecule consisting of identical atoms.
Atomic solid a solid that contains atoms at the lattice points.
Aufbau principle a principle stating that as protons are added one by one to the nucleus to build up
the elements, electrons are similarly added to hydrogen-like orbitals.

Auto-ionization the transfer of a proton from one molecule to another of the same substance.
Avogadro's law equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same
number of particles (atoms or molecules).
Avogadro's number the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of pure 12C, equal to 6.02 x 10 23.
Ball-and-stick model a molecular model that distorts the sizes of atoms but shows bond relationships
clearly.
Barometer a device for measuring atmospheric pressure.
Base a substance that produces hydroxide ions in aqueous solution; a proton acceptor.
Basic oxide an ionic oxide that dissolves in water to produce a basic solution.
Battery a group of galvanic cells connected in series.
Beta ( ) particle an electron produced in radioactive decay.
Beta-particle production a decay process for radioactive nuclides in which the mass number remains
constant and the atomic number increases by one.
The net effect is to change a neutron to a proton.
Binary compound a two-element compound.
Binding energy (nuclear) the energy required to decompose a nucleus into its component nucleons.
Biochemistry the study of the chemistry of living systems.
Biomolecule a molecule that functions in maintaining and/or reproducing life.
Bond (chemical bond) the force that holds two atoms together in a compound.
Bond energy the energy required to break a given chemical bond.

Bond length the distance between the nuclei of the two atoms that are connected by a bond.
Bonding pair an electron pair found in the space between two atoms.
Boyle's law the volume of a given sample of gas at constant temperature varies inversely with the
pressure.
Breeder reactor a nuclear reactor in which fissionable fuel is produced while the reactor runs.
Brønsted - Lowry model a model proposing that an acid is a proton donor and that a base is a proton
acceptor.
Buffer capacity the ability of a buffered solution to absorb protons or hydroxide ions without a
significant change in pH.
Buffered solution a solution that resists a change in its pH when either hydroxide ions or protons are
added.
Buret a device for the accurate measurement of the delivery of a given volume of liquid.
Calorie a unit of measurement for energy; one calorie is the quantity of energy required to heat one
gram of water by one Celsius degree.
Calorimetry the science of measuring heat flow.
Carbohydrate a polyhydroxyl ketone or polyhydroxyl aldehyde or a polymer composed of these.
Carbon steel an alloy of iron containing up to about 1.5% carbon.
Carboxyl group the COOH group in an organic acid.
Carboxylic acid an organic compound containing the carboxyl group.
Catalyst a substance that speeds up a reaction without being consumed.
Cathode in a galvanic cell, the electrode at which reduction occurs.

Cathode rays the "rays" emanating from the negative electrode (cathode) in a partially evacuated
tube; a stream of electrons.
Cathodic protection the connection of an active metal, such as magnesium, to steel to protect the
steel from corrosion.
Cation a positive ion.
Cell potential (electromotive force) the driving force in a galvanic cell that pushes electrons from
the reducing agent in one compartment to the oxidizing agent in the other.
Chain reaction (nuclear) a self-sustaining fission process caused by the production of neutrons that
proceed to split other nuclei.
Charles's law the volume of a given sample of gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to the
temperature in kelvins.
Chemical change the change of substances into other substances through a reorganization of the
atoms; a chemical reaction.
Chemical equation a representation of a chemical reaction showing the relative numbers of reactant
and product molecules.
Chemical equilibrium a dynamic reaction system in which the concentrations of all reactants and
products remain constant as a function of time.
Chemical formula a representation of a molecule in which the symbols for the elements are used to
indicate the types of atoms present and subscripts are used to show the relative numbers of atoms.
Chemical kinetics the area of chemistry that concerns reaction rates.
Chemical property the ability of a substance to change to a different substance.
Chemical stoichiometry the quantities of materials consumed and produced in a chemical reaction.
Colligative property a solution property that depends on the number of solute particles present.
Collision model a model based on the idea that molecules must collide to react; used to account for
the observed characteristics of reaction rates.
Combustion reaction the vigorous and exothermic oxidation - reduction reaction that takes place

between certain substances (particularly organic compounds) and oxygen.
Complete ionic equation an equation that shows as ions all substances that are strong electrolytes.
Compound a substance with constant composition that can be broken down into elements by chemical
processes.
Condensation the process by which vapor molecules re-form a liquid.
Condensed states of matter liquids and solids.
Conjugate acid the species formed when a proton is added to a base.
Conjugate acid - base pair two species related to each other by the donating and accepting of a single
proton.
Conjugate base what remains of an acid molecule after a proton is lost.
Continuous spectrum a spectrum that exhibits all the wavelengths of visible light.
Control rods in a nuclear reactor, rods composed of substances that absorb neutrons.
These rods regulate the power level of the reactor.
Core electron an inner electron in an atom; one that is not in the outermost (valence) principal
quantum level.
Corrosion the process by which metals are oxidized in the atmosphere.
Covalent bonding a type of bonding in which atoms share electrons.
Critical mass the mass of fissionable material required to produce a self-sustaining chain reaction.
Critical reaction (nuclear) a reaction in which exactly one neutron from each fission event causes
another fission event, thus sustaining the chain reaction.
Crystalline solid a solid characterized by the regular arrangement of its components.

Dalton's law of partial pressures for a mixture of gases in a container, the total pressure exerted is
the sum of the pressures that each gas would exert if it were alone.
Denaturation the breaking down of the three-dimensional structure of a protein, resulting in the loss
of its function.
Density a property of matter representing the mass per unit volume.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) a huge nucleotide polymer having a double-helical structure with
complementary bases on the two strands.
Its major functions are protein synthesis and the storage and transport of genetic information.
Diatomic molecule a molecule composed of two atoms.
Dilution the process of adding solvent to lower the concentration of solute in a solution.
Dipole - dipole attraction the attractive force resulting when polar molecules line up such that the
positive and negative ends are close to each other.
Dipole moment a property of a molecule whereby the charge distribution can be represented by a
center of positive charge and a center of negative charge.
Disaccharide a sugar formed from two monosaccharides joined by a glycoside linkage.
Distillation a method for separating the components of a liquid mixture that depends on differences in
the ease of vaporization of the components.
Double bond a bond in which two atoms share two pairs of electrons.
Dry cell battery a common battery used in calculators, watches, radios, and tape players.
Electrical conductivity the ability to conduct an electric current.
Electrochemistry the study of the interchange of chemical and electrical energy.
Electrolysis a process that involves forcing a current through a cell to cause a nonspontaneous
chemical reaction to occur.

Electrolyte a material that dissolves in water to give a solution that conducts an electric current.
Electrolytic cell a cell that uses electrical energy to produce a chemical change that would not
otherwise occur.
Electromagnetic radiation radiant energy that exhibits wave-like behavior and travels through space
at the speed of light in a vacuum.
Electron a negatively charged particle that occupies the space around the nucleus of an atom.
Electronegativity the tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons to itself.
Element a substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical or physical
means. It consists of atoms all having the same atomic number.
Empirical formula the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound.
End point the point in a titration at which the indicator changes color.
Endothermic refers to a reaction in which energy (as heat) flows into the system.
Energy the capacity to do work or to cause the flow of heat.
Enthalpy at constant pressure, the change in enthalpy equals the energy flow as heat.
Enzyme a large molecule, usually a protein, that catalyzes biological reactions.
Equilibrium constant the value obtained when equilibrium concentrations of the chemical species are
substituted into the equilibrium expression.
Equilibrium expression the expression (from the law of mass action) equal to the product of the
product concentrations divided by the product of the reactant concentrations, each concentration
having first been raised to a power represented by the coefficient in the balanced equation.
Equilibrium position a particular set of equilibrium concentrations.
Equivalence point (stoichiometric point) the point in a titration when enough titrant has been
added to react exactly with the substance in solution that is being titrated.
Essential elements the elements known to be essential to human life.

Ester an organic compound produced by the reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol.
Exothermic refers to a reaction in which energy (as heat) flows out of the system.
Exponential notation expresses a number in the form N 3 10M; a convenient method for representing
a very large or very small number and for easily indicating the number of significant figures.
Fat (glyceride) an ester composed of glycerol and fatty acids.
Fatty acid a long-chain carboxylic acid.
Filtration a method for separating the components of a mixture containing a solid and a liquid.
First law of thermodynamics a law stating that the energy of the universe is constant.
Fission the process of using a neutron to split a heavy nucleus into two nuclei with smaller mass
numbers.
Fossil fuel a fuel that consists of carbon-based molecules derived from decomposition of once-living
organisms; coal, petroleum, or natural gas.
Frequency the number of waves (cycles) per second that pass a given point in space.
Fuel cell a galvanic cell for which the reactants are continuously supplied.
Functional group an atom or group of atoms in hydrocarbon derivatives that contains elements in
addition to carbon and hydrogen.
Fusion the process of combining two light nuclei to form a heavier, more stable nucleus.
Galvanic cell a device in which chemical energy from a spontaneous oxidation - reduction reaction is
changed to electrical energy that can be used to do work.

Galvanizing a process in which steel is coated with zinc to prevent corrosion.
Gamma ( ) ray a high-energy photon produced in radioactive decay.
Gas one of the three states of matter; has neither fixed shape nor fixed volume.
Geiger - Müller counter (Geiger counter) an instrument that measures the rate of radioactive decay
by registering the ions and electrons produced as a radioactive particle passes through a gas-filled
chamber.
Gene a given segment of the DNA molecule that contains the code for a specific protein.
Greenhouse effect a warming effect exerted by certain molecules in the earth's atmosphere
(particularly carbon dioxide and water).
Ground state the lowest possible energy state of an atom or molecule.
Group (of the periodic table) a vertical column of elements having the same valence electron
configuration and similar chemical properties.
Haber process the manufacture of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen, carried out at high pressure
and high temperature with the aid of a catalyst.
Half-life (of a radioactive sample) the time required for the number of nuclides in a radioactive
sample to reach half the original number of nuclides.
Half-reactions the two parts of an oxidation - reduction reaction, one representing oxidation, the
other reduction.
Halogen a Group 7 element.
Hard water water from natural sources that contains relatively large concentrations of calcium and
magnesium ions.
Heat energy transferred between two objects because of a temperature difference between them.
Heating/cooling curve a plot of temperature versus time for a substance, where energy is added at a
constant rate.

Heisenberg uncertainty principle a principle stating that there is a fundamental limitation to how
precisely we can know both the position and the momentum of a particle at a given time.
Herbicide a pesticide applied to kill weeds.
Heterogeneous equilibrium an equilibrium involving reactants and/or products in more than one
state.
Heterogeneous mixture a mixture that has different properties in different regions of the mixture.
Heterogeneous reaction reaction involving reactants in different phases.
Homogeneous equilibrium an equilibrium system in which all reactants and products are in the same
state.
Homogeneous mixture a mixture that is the same throughout; a solution.
Homogeneous reaction reaction involving reactants in only one phase.
Hydration the interaction between solute particles and water molecules.
Hydrocarbon a compound of carbon and hydrogen.
Hydrocarbon derivative an organic molecule that contains one or more elements in addition to
carbon and hydrogen.
Hydrogen bonding unusually strong dipole - dipole attractions that occur among molecules in which
hydrogen is bonded to a highly electronegative atom.
Hydronium ion the H3O1 ion; a hydrated proton.
Hypothesis one or more assumptions put forth to explain observed phenomena.
Ideal gas a hypothetical gas that exactly obeys the ideal gas law.
A real gas approaches ideal behavior at high temperature and/or low pressure.

Ideal gas law an equation relating the properties of an ideal gas, expressed as PV 5 nRT, where P 5
pressure, V 5 volume, n 5 moles of the gas, R 5 the universal gas constant, and T 5 temperature on the
Kelvin scale.
This equation expresses behavior closely approached by real gases at high temperature and/or low
pressure.
Indicator a chemical that changes color and is used to mark the end point of a titration.
Intermolecular forces relatively weak interactions that occur between molecules.
Internal energy the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of all components of an object.
Intramolecular forces interactions that occur within a given molecule.
Ion an atom or a group of atoms that has a net positive or negative charge.
Ion-product constant (Kw) the equilibrium constant for the auto-ionization of water; Kw 5
[H1][OH2]. At 25 C, Kw equals 1.0 3 10214.
Ionic bonding the attraction between oppositely charged ions.
Ionic compound a compound that results when a metal reacts with a nonmetal to form cations and
anions.
Ionic solid a solid containing cations and anions that dissolves in water to give a solution containing the
separated ions, which are mobile and thus free to conduct an electric current.
Ionization energy the quantity of energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion.
Isomers species that have the same chemical formula but different properties.
Isotopes atoms of the same element (the same number of protons) that have different numbers of
neutrons.
They have identical atomic numbers but different mass numbers.
Joule a unit of measurement for energy; 1 calorie 5 4.184 joules.

Ketone an organic compound containing the carbonyl group bonded to two carbon atoms.
Kinetic energy 112mv22 energy due to the motion of an object; dependent on the mass of the object
and the square of its velocity.
Kinetic molecular theory a model that assumes that an ideal gas is composed of tiny particles
(molecules) in constant motion.
Lanthanide series a group of fourteen elements following lanthanum on the periodic table, in which
the 4f orbitals are being filled.
Lattice a three-dimensional system of points designating the positions of the centers of the
components of a solid (atoms, ions, or molecules).
Law of chemical equilibrium a general description of the equilibrium condition; it defines the
equilibrium expression.
Law of conservation of energy energy can be converted from one form to another but can be neither
created nor destroyed.
Law of conservation of mass mass is neither created nor destroyed.
Law of constant composition a given compound always contains elements in exactly the same
proportion by mass.
Law of mass action (also called the law of chemical equilibrium) a general description of the
equilibrium condition; it defines the equilibrium expression.
Law of multiple proportions a law stating that when two elements form a series of compounds, the
ratios of the masses of the second element that combine with one gram of the first element can always
be reduced to small whole numbers.
Lead storage battery a battery (used in cars) in which the anode is lead, the cathode is lead coated

with lead dioxide, and the electrolyte is a sulfuric acid solution.

Le Châtelier's principle if a change is imposed on a system at equilibrium, the position of the
equilibrium will shift in a direction that tends to reduce the effect of that change.
Lewis structure a diagram of a molecule showing how the valence electrons are arranged among the
atoms in the molecule.
Limiting reactant (limiting reagent) the reactant that is completely consumed when a reaction is
run to completion.
Line spectrum a spectrum showing only certain discrete wavelengths.
Linear accelerator a type of particle accelerator in which a changing electrical field is used to
accelerate a beam of charged particles along a linear path.
Lipids water-insoluble substances that can be extracted from cells by nonpolar organic solvents.
Liquid one of the three states of matter; has a fixed volume but takes the shape of its container.
London dispersion forces the relatively weak forces, which exist among noble gas atoms and
nonpolar molecules, that involve an accidental dipole that induces a momentary dipole in a neighbor.
Lone pair an electron pair that is localized on a given atom; an electron pair not involved in bonding.
Main-group (representative) elements elements in the groups labeled 1,2,3,4,5,6,7, and 8 on the
periodic table.
The group number gives the sum of the valence s and p electrons.
Mass the quantity of matter in an object.
Mass number the total number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus of an atom.
Mass percent the percent by mass of a component of a mixture or of a given element in a compound.
Matter the material of the universe.
Metal an element that gives up electrons relatively easily and is typically lustrous, malleable, and a good

conductor of heat and electricity.
Metalloid an element that has both metallic and nonmetallic properties.
Metallurgy the process of separating a metal from its ore and preparing it for use.
Millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) a unit of measurement for pressure, also called a torr; 760 mm Hg
5 760 torr 5 101,325 Pa 5 1 standard atmosphere.
Mixture a material of variable composition that contains two or more substances.
Model (theory) a set of assumptions put forth to explain the observed behavior of matter.
The models of chemistry usually involve assumptions about the behavior of individual atoms or
molecules.
Moderator a substance used in a nuclear reactor to slow down the neutrons.
Molar heat of fusion the energy required to melt 1 mol of a solid.
Molar heat of vaporization the energy required to vaporize 1 mol of a liquid.
Molar mass the mass in grams of one mole of a compound.
Molar volume the volume of one mole of an ideal gas; equal to 22.
42 liters at standard temperature and pressure.
Molarity moles of solute per volume of solution in liters.
Mole (mol) the number equal to the number of carbon atoms in exactly 12 grams of pure 12C:
Avogadro's number. One mole represents 6.02 x 1023 units.
Mole ratio (stoichiometry) the ratio of moles of one substance to moles of another substance in a
balanced chemical equation.
Molecular equation an equation representing a reaction in solution and showing the reactants and
products in undissociated form, whether they are strong or weak electrolytes.
Molecular formula the exact formula of a molecule, giving the types of atoms and the number of each
type.
Molecular solid a solid composed of small molecules.

Molecular structure the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule.
Molecular weight (molar mass) the mass in grams of one mole of a substance.
Molecule a bonded collection of two or more atoms of the same element or different elements.
Monoprotic acid an acid with one acidic proton.
Natural gas consists of mostly methane and is associated with petroleum deposits.
Natural law a statement that expresses generally observed behavior.
Net ionic equation an equation for a reaction in solution, representing strong electrolytes as ions and
showing only those components that are directly involved in the chemical change.
Network solid an atomic solid containing strong directional covalent bonds.
Neutralization reaction an acid - base reaction.
Neutron a particle in the atomic nucleus with a mass approximately equal to that of the proton but
with no charge.
Noble gas a Group 8 element.
Nonelectrolyte a substance that, when dissolved in water, gives a nonconducting solution.
Nonmetal an element that does not exhibit metallic characteristics.

Chemically, a typical nonmetal accepts electrons from a metal.
Normal boiling point the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is exactly one
atmosphere; the boiling temperature under one atmosphere of pressure.
Normal melting/freezing point the melting/freezing point of a solid at a total pressure of one
atmosphere.
Normality the number of equivalents of a substance dissolved in a liter of solution.

Nuclear atom the modern concept of the atom as having a dense center of positive charge (the
nucleus) and electrons moving around the outside.
Nuclear transformation the change of one element into another.
Nucleon a particle in an atomic nucleus, either a neutron or a proton.
Nucleus the small, dense center of positive charge in an atom.
Nuclide the general term applied to each unique atom; represented by AZX, where X is the symbol for a
particular element.
Octet rule the observation that atoms of nonmetals form the most stable molecules when they are
surrounded by eight electrons (to fill their valence orbitals).
Orbital a representation of the space occupied by an eletron in an atom; the probability distribution for
the electron.
Organic acid an acid with a carbon-atom backbone and a carboxyl group.
Organic chemistry the study of carbon-containing compounds (typically containing chains of carbon
atoms) and their properties.
Oxidation an increase in oxidation state (a loss of electrons).
Oxidation - reduction (redox) reaction a reaction in which one or more electrons are transferred.
Oxidation states a concept that provides a way to keep track of electrons in oxidation - reduction
reactions according to certain rules.
Oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) a reactant that accepts electrons from another reactant.
Oxyacid an acid in which the acidic proton is attached to an oxygen atom.
Ozone O3, a form of elemental oxygen much less common than O2 in the atmosphere near the earth.

Partial pressures the independent pressures exerted by different gases in a mixture.
Particle accelerator a device used to accelerate nuclear particles to very high speeds.
Pascal the SI unit of measurement for pressure; equal to one newton per square meter.
Percent yield the actual yield of a product as a percentage of the theoretical yield.
Periodic table a chart showing all the elements arranged in columns in such a way that all the
elements in a given column exhibit similar chemical properties.
Petroleum a thick, dark liquid composed mostly of hydrocarbon compounds.

pH scale a log scale based on 10 and equal to 2log[H1]; a convenient way to represent solution acidity.
Phenyl group the benzene molecule minus one hydrogen atom.
Photochemical smog air pollution produced by the action of light on oxygen, nitrogen oxides, and
unburned fuel from auto exhaust to form ozone and other pollutants.
Photon a "particle" of electromagnetic radiation.
Physical charge a change in the form of a substance, but not in its chemical nature; chemical bonds
are not broken in a physical change.
Physical property a characteristic of a substance that can change without the substance becoming a
different substance.
Polar covalent bond a covalent bond in which the electrons are not shared equally because one atom
attracts them more strongly than the other.
Polar molecule a molecule that has a permanent dipole moment.
Polyatomic ion an ion containing a number of atoms.
Polyelectronic atom an atom with more than one electron.
Polymer a large, usually chain-like molecule built from many small molecules (monomers).

Polymerization a process in which many small molecules (monomers) are joined together to form a
large molecule.
Polyprotic acid an acid with more than one acidic proton.

It dissociates in a stepwise manner, one proton at a time.
Positron production a mode of nuclear decay in which a particle is formed that has the same mass as
an electron but opposite charge.
The net effect is to change a proton to a neutron.
Potential energy energy due to position or composition.
Precipitation reaction a reaction in which an insoluble substance forms and separates from the
solution as a solid.
Precision the degree of agreement among several measurements of the same quantity; the
reproducibility of a measurement.
Primary structure (of a protein) the order (sequence) of amino acids in the protein chain.
Probability distribution (orbital) a representation indicating the probabilities of finding an electron

at various points in space.
Product a substance resulting from a chemical reaction.

It is shown to the right of the arrow in a chemical equation.
Protein a natural polymer formed by condensation reactions between amino acids.
Proton a positively charged particle in an atomic nucleus.
Pure substance a substance with constant composition.
No entries for this letter

Radioactive decay (radioactivity) the spontaneous decomposition of a nucleus to form a different

nucleus.
Radiocarbon dating (carbon-14 dating) a method for dating ancient wood or cloth on the basis of
the radioactive decay of the nuclide 146C.
Radiotracer a radioactive nuclide, introduced into an organism for diagnostic purposes, whose
pathway can be traced by monitoring its radioactivity.
Random error an error that has an equal probability of being high or low.
Rate of decay the change per unit time in the number of radioactive nuclides in a sample.
Reactant a starting substance in a chemical reaction.

It appears to the left of the arrow in a chemical equation.
Reactor core the part of a nuclear reactor where the fission reaction takes place.
Reducing agent (electron donor) a reactant that donates electrons to another substance, reducing
the oxidation state of one of its atoms.
Reduction a decrease in oxidation state (a gain of electrons).
Rem a unit of radiation dosage that accounts for both the energy of the dose and its effectiveness in
causing biological damage (from roentgen equivalent for man).
Resonance a condition occurring when more than one valid Lewis structure can be written for a
particular molecule.
The actual electronic structure is represented not by any one of the Lewis structures but by the average
of all of them.
Salt an ionic compound.
Salt bridge a U-tube containing an electrolyte that connects the two compartments of a galvanic cell,
allow- ing ion flow without extensive mixing of the different solutions.

Saturated solution a solution that contains as much solute as can be dissolved in that solution.
Scientific method a process of studying natural phenomena that involves making observations,
forming laws and theories, and testing theories by experimentation.
Scientific notation see Exponential notation.
Scintillation counter an instrument that measures radioactive decay by sensing the flashes of light
that the radiation produces in a detector.
Secondary structure (of a protein) the three-dimensional structure of the protein chain (for
example, a-helix, random coil, or pleated sheet).
SI units International System of units based on the metric system and on units derived from the metric
system.
Sigma ( ) bond a covalent bond in which the electron pair is shared in an area centered on a line
running between the atoms.
Significant figures the certain digits and the first uncertain digit of a measurement.
Silica the fundamental silicon-oxygen compound, which has the empirical formula SiO2 and forms the
basis of quartz and certain types of sand.
Silicates salts that contain metal cations and polyatomic silicon - oxygen anions that are usually
polymeric.
Single bond a bond in which two atoms share one pair of electrons.
Solid one of the three states of matter; has a fixed shape and volume.
Solubility the amount of a substance that dissolves in a given volume of solvent or solution at a given
temperature.
Solubility product the constant for the equilibrium expression representing the dissolving of an ionic
solid in water.
Solute a substance dissolved in a solvent to form a solution.
Solution a homogeneous mixture.
Solvent the dissolving medium in a solution.

Somatic damage radioactive damage to an organism resulting in its sickness or death.
Specific heat another name for specific heat capacity.
Specific heat capacity the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of a
substance by one Celsius degree.
Spectator ions ions present in solution that do not participate directly in a reaction.
Standard atmosphere a unit of measurement for pressure equal to 760 mm Hg or 101, 325 Pa.
Standard solution a solution the concentration of which is accurately known.
Standard temperature and pressure (STP) the condition 0 C and 1 atmosphere of pressure.
State function a property that is independent of the pathway.
States of matter the three different forms in which matter can exist: solid, liquid, and gas.
Stoichiometric quantities quantities of reactants mixed in exactly the amounts that result in their all
being used up at the same time.
Stoichiometry of a reaction the relative quantities of reactants and products involved in the reaction.
Strong acid an acid that completely dissociates (ionizes) to produce H1 ion and the conjugate base.
Strong base a metal hydroxide compound that completely dissociates into its ions in water.
Strong electrolyte a material that, when dissolved in water, dissociates (ionizes) completely and gives
a solution that conducts an electric current very efficiently.
Structural formula the representation of a molecule in which the relative positions of the atoms are
shown and the bonds are indicated by lines.
Subcritical reaction (nuclear) a reaction in which fewer than one of the neutrons from each fission
event causes another fission event and the process dies out.
Sublimation the process by which a substance goes directly from the solid state to the gaseous state
without passing through the liquid state.
Substitution reaction (hydrocarbons) a reaction in which an atom, usually a halogen, replaces a
hydrogen atom in a hydrocarbon.

Supercooling the process of cooling a liquid to a temperature below its freezing point without its
changing to a solid.
Supercritical reaction (nuclear) a reaction in which more than one of the neutrons from each fission
event causes another fission event.
The process rapidly escalates to a violent explosion.
Superheating the process of heating a liquid to a temperature above its boiling point without its
boiling.
Surroundings everything in the universe surrounding a thermodynamic system.
System (thermodynamic) that part of the universe on which attention is to be focused.
Systematic error an error that always occurs in the same direction.
Temperature measure of the random motions (average kinetic energy) of the components of a
substance.
Tertiary structure (of a protein) the overall shape of a protein, long and narrow or globular,
maintained by different types of intramolecular interactions.
Theoretical yield the maximum amount of a given product that can be formed when the limiting
reactant is completely consumed.
Theory (model) a set of assumptions put forth to explain some aspect of the observed behavior of
matter.
Thermodynamics a study of energy and its interactions.
Titration a technique in which one solution is used to analyze another.
Torr another name for millimeters of mercury (mm Hg).
Trace elements metals present only in trace amounts in the human body.

Transition metals several series of elements in which inner orbitals (d or f orbitals) are being filled.
Transuranium elements the elements beyond uranium that are made artificially by particle
bombardment.
Triple bond a bond in which two atoms share three pairs of electrons.
Uncertainty (in measurement) the characteristic reflecting the fact that any measurement involves
estimates and cannot be exactly reproduced.
Unit factor an equivalence statement between units that is used for converting from one set of units to
another.
Universal gas constant the combined proportionality constant in the ideal gas law; 0.08206 L atm/K
mol, or 8.314 J/K mol.
Unsaturated solution a solution in which more solute can be dissolved than is dissolved already.
Valence electrons the electrons in the outermost occupied principal quantum level of an atom.
Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) model a model the main postulate of which is that
the structure around a given atom in a molecule is determined principally by the tendency to minimize
electron-pair repulsions.
Vapor pressure the pressure of the vapor over a liquid at equilibrium in a closed container.
Vaporization (evaporation) the change in state that occurs when a liquid evaporates to form a gas.
Viscosity the resistance of a liquid to flow.
Volt the unit of measurement for electric potential; it is defined as one joule of work per coulomb of
charge transferred.

Wavelength the distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs in a wave.
Weak acid an acid that dissociates only to a slight extent in aqueous solution.
Weak base a base that reacts with water to produce hydroxide ions to only a slight extent in aqueous
solution.
Weak electrolyte a material that, when dissolved in water, gives a solution that conducts only a small
electric current.
Weight the force exerted on an object by gravity.
Work force acting over a distance.


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Experimental Chemistry Chemistry - 5070

Muhammad Hassan Nadeem

Hazard Warning Labels

Harmful substances. Flammable gases.

Corrosive substances. Explosive

Flammable solids. Radioactive

Conversion of Mass 1000 mg = 1g

 There are two main devices to measure mass of a substance:

Name Picture Description

Electronic balance Electronic balance is easy to

Conversion of volumes 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3

Is accurate to the nearest 0.1

Measures fixed volumes of 100

Is accurate to nearest cm3.

Measures fixed volumes of 25

Measures volume of gas and is

Measures small volumes of

Conversion of Time 60 s = 1 min

Properties of some gases useful to decide the method of collection.

Downward delivery Used for gases which

The Particulate Nature of

Muhammad Hassan Nadeem

The melting and boiling points of some common chemical substances

Muhammad Hassan Nadeem

Important examples of different types of mixture

Decanting and Centrifuging

Testing the Purity of a substance

The Structure of the Atom

Particles Present in an Atom

Particle Symbol Relative Mass Relative charge

Proton Number and Nucleon Number

Proton Number (Z)

Different Isotopes of Hydrogen

The Structure and Arrangement of Particles in an Atom

 The path of electrons can be referred as shell.

Introduction to the Periodic Table.

Elements, Compounds and

Muhammad Hassan Nadeem

ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS HEMOGENEOUS HETROGENEOUS

Elements and Atoms

Composition of the earth's crust

Molecules of elements Molecules of compound

Mixtures and Compounds

No. Mixture Compound

Bonding and Structure

Muhammad Hassan Nadeem

Structure of noble Gases

Properties of metals Reasons for these properties

Loosing electron Gaining Electron

Diagram for Reaction of Sodium with Chlorine to Form Sodium Chloride

Properties of typical ionic compounds Reasons for these properties

Properties of simple covalent compounds Reasons for these properties

Chemical Formulae and

Muhammad Hassan Nadeem

Name of some elements Symbol Name of some elements Symbol

Relative Molecular Mass

Example: Relative Molecular Mass of Sulphuric Acid ( )

Example: Percentage Composition of Sulphuric Acid ( )

Mass of an Element in a Compound

Mr of the compound . 10 = 286

Mass of sodium in 10 g of sodium carbonate crystals = × 10 = 1.61

Naming chemical Compounds

Muhammad Hassan Nadeem