Chemistry Notes

Subject Code: 5070

2017–18 Edition

Umar Zaman Khattak

M.Sc Chemistry, B.Ed.
Garrison Academy for Cambridge Studies
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Title O Level Chemistry Notes

Author Umar Zaman Khattak
Cell: +92 300 4846717
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PREFACE
This is a comprehensive and carefully balanced compilation of all the relevant topics
that need to be essentially covered and understood by any O Level candidate who
wishes to ace his Chemistry paper. We have managed to adopt a purely focused and
goal oriented approach in this context that would enable students not only to grasp the
content but also assist them in analysing and evaluating individual components.

Umar Zaman Khattak

Cell: +92 300 4846717
Email: umarzamankhattak4846717@gmail.com
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CONTENTS

UNIT 1 SEPARATION OR PURIFICATION OR EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES ..........................................................8

UNIT 2 KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY .....................................................................................................................16
UNIT 3 ATOMIC STRUCTURE ..............................................................................................................................28
UNIT 4 ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES .................................................................................................34
UNIT 5 PERIODIC TABLE (UNIT 8 IN CIE SYLLABUS) ............................................................................................42
UNIT 6 CHEMICAL BONDING (UNIT 2.4 / 2.5 / 2.6 IN CIE SYLLABUS).................................................................50
UNIT 7 MOLES AND CALCULATIONS ..................................................................................................................60
UNIT 8 ELECTROLYSIS .........................................................................................................................................74
UNIT 9 RATE OF REACTION ................................................................................................................................86
UNIT 10 ENERGY CHANGES ..................................................................................................................................96
UNIT 11 REVERSIBLE REACTIONS .......................................................................................................................104
UNIT 12 REDOX REACTIONS ...............................................................................................................................108
UNIT 13 ACID-BASE SALT ....................................................................................................................................114
UNIT 14 METALS ................................................................................................................................................122
UNIT 15 AIR AND ATMOSPHERE ........................................................................................................................130
UNIT 16 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY (UNIT 11 IN CIE SYLLABUS) ...............................................................................142
UNIT 17 MACRO MOLECULES (POLYMERS IS UNIT 11.5 IN CIE SYLLABUS) ........................................................160
Unit-1 7 Separation or Purification or Experimental Techniques

UNIT–1 Syllabus 2017-19

Separation Or
Unit 1: separation or purification or
experimental techniques
Unit 2: kinetic particle theory

Purification Or Unit 3: atomic structure

Unit 4: elements, compounds &
mixtures:
Experimental Unit 5: periodic table (unit 8 in cie
syllabus)

Techniques
Unit 6: chemical bonding (unit 2.4 / 2.5
/ 2.6 in cie syllabus
Unit 7: moles & calculations:
Unit 8: electrolysis:
Unit 9: rate of reaction:
Unit 10: energy changes
O-Level Unit 11: reversible reactions
Chemistry Unit 12: redox reactions:
Unit 13: acid-base salt:
Teacher Notes Series Unit 14: metals
Unit 15: air and atmosphere
Unit 16: organic chemistry (unit 11 in
cie syllabus)
Umar Zaman Khattak Unit 17: macro molecules (polymers is
Cell: 92 300 4846717 unit 11.5 in cie syllabus
Email: umarzamankhattak4846717@gmail.com

| Gulberg | Johar Town | Wapda Town |

| DHA Phase-1 | DHA Phase-4 | Saddar Cantt |
Unit-1 8 Separation or Purification or Experimental Techniques

UNIT 1 SEPARATION OR PURIFICATION OR

EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
1) Filtration
2) Crystallization
3) Simple Distillation
4) Fractional Distillation
5) Sublimation
6) Chromatography

1) Filtration
Principle: Separation of an insoluble solid from a solution or solvent.

Filtration
Apparatus: solution
NOTE:
Limitation: The process of Filtration cannot filter paper
separate a soluble solid from a solution.
Importance: Purification of river water to make it
drinkable. filter funnel

residue
(insoluble solid)

clamp

filtrate
(soluble solid
dissolved in solvent)

RIVER SCREENING Sedimentation Fine Filter Bed Carbon Charcoal

water is allowed to
To remove big stay to settle denser To remove fine To remove taste,
particles particles solid particles color and smell

Sludge

To Town To kill Bacteria

Valve
Pump
Water tank
Chlorination
Unit-1 9 Separation or Purification or Experimental Techniques

NOTE:
Sludge: it is a rich plants nutrient, because it contains large amount of urea, therefore it is very important
for healthy growth of plants.

Crystallization:
Principle: Separation of a soluble solid from a solution.
Crystal: The definite geometrical shape of a solid is called its crystal. The process of making crystals is
called crystallization.
Crystallization by

Cold Method Hot Method

Cold Method:
e.g. prepare pure crystals of copper sulphate (CuSO4)
1. Prepare a saturated solution of CuSO4.
2. Filter the solution.
3. Place the filtrate in a cold atmosphere, after many hours few large size crystals will form.
4. Filter to separate crystal, wash it with distill water and then dry it between the folds of filter paper.
Note:
• It is a slow process but very suitable method for making large size crystals.
• It is a very suitable method for making heat unstable crystals.

Hot Method:
e.g. Prepare pure crystals of copper Sulphate (CuSO4)
1. Prepare a saturated solution of CuSO4.
2. Filter the solution.
3. Place the filtrate on flame in evaporating dish until crystallizations, cool it, filter it and wash it with
distill water and then dry it between folds of filter paper.
NOTE:
Don‘t heat the filtrate till dryness because:
1) The crystals may decompose, if it is heat unstable.
2) Water of crystallization may loss if present.
3) A powdered compound is obtained instead of crystals.
Effect of Excess Heat on Crystals:
Example:

CuSO4 .5H2O 

Heat
5H2 O
 CuSO4 
Heat
 CuO+SO2
Hydrated Copper Sulphate Anhydrous Copper Sulphate Copper Oxide
(Blue Crystals) (White Crystals) (Black Solid)

Importance: Desalination of Sea Water (Removal of salt from sea water)

3) Simple Distillation:
Principle: Separation of pure solvent from soluble solid solute.
Unit-1 10 Separation or Purification or Experimental Techniques

Apparatus:
Thermometer

water out Leibeg condensar

or water condensar

Delivery Tube

Water int
Boiling
Flask
Receiver
Beaker
Anti Bumping Heat
Stones
Distillate

1. Order of working: First boiling & then condensing.

2. Anti bumping stones are added to avoid the splashing or bumping of solution at boiling point to
prevent large bubbles to form and to allow small bubbles to form at boiling point.
3. The bulb of the thermometer should be parallel to the mouth of the delivery tube to measure an
accurate boiling point.
4. In water condenser, the water should enter from the lower bottom side to ensure good
condensation because when water move from bottom to top then it completely fill the condenser,
stay longer & the vapours which are just going to escape from the condenser will receive fresh
cold water due to which their condensation will also occur.
5. Top of the receiver flask should be open to allow trap air and uncondense vapour to escape.

Importance:
1. To make distill water.
2. Desalination.

NOTE: Uses of distill water:

1) As electrolyte in car batteries.
2) It is used in pharmacy to make medicines.
3) For making solutions of exact concentration in Laboratory for experiments.

4) Fractional Distillation:
Principle: Separation of miscible (dissolved) liquids from each other according to the difference in their
boiling points.
Unit-1 11 Separation or Purification or Experimental Techniques

Thermometer
Apparatus:
Function of fractionating column:
It is packed with glass beads which increases
its surface area, its function is to condense
back the vapors of un-boiled liquid & allow the
vapors of the liquid whose boiling point has Waterout
Fractionating
been reached to pass through. Coloumn
Pack with
glass beads Condeser
Note:
1) The liquid with the lowest boiling point
separate first and so on and so forth.
2) When bp point of one particular liquid Round Bottom
is reached then reading on Flask Water in
thermometer becomes constant until it
is distilled over. When one liquid is
distilled over then reading on
distillate
thermometer starts to rise and also receiver
droplets in the receiver flask stops for Bunsen Burner flask
a while, in this way the student comes
to know that one liquid is completely
collected in the receiver flask.
Importance:
1. Fractional distillation of petroleum.
2. Fractional distillation of liquid Air. (explanation is given in the unit of air and atmosphere)
Fractional Distillation of Liquid Petroleum:

Cool (250C) Small molecules:

Refinery gasses Bottled low boiling point
gas very volatile
flows easily
ignites easily

Gasoline (Petrol) Fuel for

cars

Naphtha Making
chemicals

Kerosene Aircraft
fuel

Diesel Oil Fuel for cars,

lorries, buses

Heated
crude oil Fuel Oil Fuel for ships,
power stations
Large molecules:
high boiling point
Residue Bitumen for not very volatile
roads and roofs does not flow easily
0 does not ignite easily
Hot (350 C)
Unit-1 12 Separation or Purification or Experimental Techniques

5) Sublimation:
Principle:
The direct conversion of a solid into a gas upon heating & a gas into a solid upon cooling without
converting into a liquid form is known as sublimation. Such a substance would be known as sublime.


Heating(Δ)
Solid   Gas
Cooling

 
Iodine I2  Iodine I2 
Δ

 
 

Cooling

  
(1)  Element
(s) (g) 

Shinery Black Violet/Purple vapor 

 
Δ
Ammonium chloride(NH4 Cl) 
 
 NH3  HCl 

 Cooling   
(2)  Compund
(s) (g) (g) 
White 

 
Carbon Dioxide  CO2    CO2  Dry ICE
Cooling
 
 

heat

  
(3)  Gas Compound
(g) (g) 


Purification of impure Iodine

Purification of Impure Ammonium chloride

Unit-1 13 Separation or Purification or Experimental Techniques

Cotton plug

Inverted Funnel

Clear Region
Contains Colourless
Pure Shiny white
NH3 gas and HCl gas
Crystals of Solidfied
ammonium
chloride

Impure
ammonium China Dish
chloride

6) Chromatography:
Chroma mean colour
From a GREEK WORD
Graphy mean picture

Principle:
Separation of Dyes/Colors from each other according to their solubility in the given solvent.
e.g: Paper chromatography

Apparatus:
Simple Chromatography

Piece of
wood
pin

paper

beaker

ink spot

water
Water Ink
Start End
NOTE:
i. The base line should be drawn with a lead pencil and not with ink pen as the ink pen itself is a
mixture of dyes and would thus produce an inaccurate result.
Unit-1 14 Separation or Purification or Experimental Techniques

ii. The solvent rises up against the force of gravity through the pores of chromatogram and such
movement is called capillary action. This type of chromatography is called Ascending
Chromatography.
iii. In descending chromatography, the solvent move downwards. It requires a longer chromatogram.
iv. The mixture spot should be neither too big nor too small for better separation and for good result.
v. The solvent is the key factor for any type of chromatography, the solvent which produce
maximum results/separation from the mixture spot will be the right choice of solvent.
vi. For chromatography to occur, all the dyes present in the mixture spot should be moderately
soluble.
vii. The dye which is the first to separate will be less soluble compared to that which will separate at
the end, in the given solvent.
viii. Formula calculating RF Value
distance travelled by dye
RF Value =
distance travelled by solvent front

Solvent front

new position
of compound
2.1cm 2.8cm

origin

2.1
Rt   0.75
2.8
Application of Chromatography:
Or Advantages of Chromatography:
i. It is used to check the purity of a substance; always a pure substance gives one spot on
separation.
ii. It is used to separate and identify piousness food additive or food colours which are not
recommended by WHO.
iii. It is used to separate and identify even colourless compounds e.g. amino acids.
Protein is made up of colourless amino acids on separation they are not visible then a locating
agent (e.g. Ninhydrin solution) is sprayed on chromatogram due to which different amino acids
becomes visible with different colours which are then compared with the standard chart of amino
acids hence identified.
iv. This technique is used by forensic scientists to investigate crimes, from the incident place
samples are collected which are then compared with the samples collected from suspects if
matching occurs then they reach to conclusion.
v. It is also use to identify piousness insecticides which are not recommended by WHO.
vi. Various plants pigments (e.g. chlorophyll etc.) can also by separated by this technique.
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