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The

Structure
of
The
Structure
of
Singing
System and Art in
Vocal Technique

Richard Miller
O berlin College C o n serv ato ry of M usic

Schirmer Books
A Division of Macmillan, Inc.
N ew Y okk

C ollier M acm illan P u b lish ers


L ondon
Copyright ® 1986 by S chirm er Books
A Division of Macmillan, Inc.

All rights reserved. No p art of this book may be reproduced or


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and retrieval system, w ithout perm ission in w riting from the
Publisher.

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Printed in the United S tates of A m erica

printing nu m b er
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L ibrary o f C ongress C ataloging in P u b lic a tio n D a ta


Miller, R i c h a r d , 1926 -
T h e s t r u c t u r e o f singing.

HihlloKi nphv: p.
I n c l u d e * Index.
I S in n in g Mel h o d s I. Title.
M THJVMM ô I 'W . 7H4.9'3 85 11492
ISDN (102 M7>rm(i X
To Mary, who makes possible most of what I do

Primum non nocere


(The first thing is not to do harm)
----- Ancient medical dictum

In every field the man w ho can merely do things


w ithout knowing why is at a disadvantage to the one
w ho can not only build but also tellyou just w hy he is
building in that way. This is especially noticeable
w hen the prescribed cycle does not obey the laws it is
supposed to: then the laborer m ust sit by with folded
hands while the m echanic or engineer com es in and
adjusts the delicate m echanism
-----Reuben Fine
(The Ideas Behind Chess Openings.
London: Bell and Hyman, 1981.)

PRESENTED TO THE LIBRARY


BY
Bernard Turgeon
1990
Contents
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
Introduction xix
1. The Coordinated Vocal Onset and Release:
Establishing Dynamic Muscle Equilibrium
through Onset and Release 1
The Varieties of Onset 1
The Hard Attack 2
The Soft Onset 3
The Balanced Onset (Dynamic Muscle
Equilibrium) 4
Exercises for Achieving the Balanced Onset 4
Uses of the Aspirated Onset 7
Uses of the Glottal Attack 8
Physiological Benefits of the Coordinated Onset 8
Onset Vocalises which Induce Dynamic Equilibrium 9
Group 1 Exercises , (i 1'
Staccato and Onset 12
Group 2 Exercises Cl3
Group 3 Exercises 15
The Release 18
The Soft Release 18
The Hard Release 18
The Balanced Release 19
2. The Supported Singing Voice: Breath Management
in Singing 20
Subglottic Pressure and Glottal Activity 21
The Technique of appoggio 23
Breath Management Exercises without
Phonation 29
Breath Management Exercises with Sibilants
and Fricatives 32
Breath Management Exercises Involving
Phonation 34
Breath-pacing versus “More Support” 37

vii
Contents

3. Agility in Singing: Flexible Application of


Breath Power 40
Exercises for the Acquisition of Agility 42
4. The Resonant Voice: Supraglottic Considerations
in Singing 48
Vowel Formants 50
The Singer’s Formant 55
The Singer’s Perception of Timbre 56
The Open Throat (gola aperta) 58
“Placement” of the Voice (impostazione della voce ) 60
Exercises for Establishing Resonance Balance
( im postazione) in Singing 62
Velopharyngeal Closure 63
5. The Well-balanced Vowel: Vowel Differentiation
in Singing 69
The Acoustic At-rest Posture 69
The Vowel Postures 70
Formation of the Neutral Vowels [ ] and [ a ]
a 70
Formation of the Vowel [a] 71
Formation of the Vowel [i] 71
Formation of the Vowel [e] 72
Formation of the Vowel [e] 72
Formation of the Vowel [o] 73
Formation of the Vowel [o] 73
Formation of the Vowel [u] 73
Mouth Position for Vowels in Singing 73
Exercises for Vowel Differentiation 76
Group 1 Exercises 76
Group 2 Exercises 77
6. Resonance Balancing through Nasal Consonants:
The Influences of Nasal Continuants on
Resonator Adjustment 79
Pedagogical Uses of Consonantal Phonemes
in General 79
Use of the Nasals in Balancing Resonator Coupling 80
Some Uses of the Voiced Bilabial Stop [m] 81
Uses of the Alveolar-nasal Continuant [n] 84
Some Uses of the Voiced Linguavelar Stop [q| 85
Some Uses of the Lingua-palatal-nasal
Continuant | p| 86
Contents IX

Some General Considerations on the Nasal


Continuants 88
7. Resonance Balancing through Non-nasal
Consonants: The Influence of Non-nasal
Consonants on Resonator Adjustment 90
Uses of the Voiced Lingua-anterior-palatal
Continuant [j] 90
Uses of the Lingua-alveolar Continuant [1] 91
Uses of the Alveolar Single [r] and the Alveolar
Rolled [f] 93
Uses of the Voiced Labiodental Fricative
Continuant [v] and the Voiceless Labiodental
Fricative Continuant [f] 95
Uses of the Voiced Bilabial Stop Plosive [b]
and the Voiceless Bilabial Stop Plosive [p] 96
Use of the Voiced Lingua-alveolar Fricative
Continuant [z] and the Voiceless Lingua-
alveolar Fricative Continuant [s] 98
Uses of the Voiced Linguadental Fricative
Continuant [ô] and the Voiceless Liriguadental
Fricative Continuant [0] 99
Uses of the Voiced Lingua-alveolar Stop Plosive [d]
and the Voiceless Lingua-alveolar Stop Plosive [t] 100
Uses of the Voiced Linguavelar Stop Plosive [g] and
the Voiceless Linguavelar Stop Plosive [k] 103
Uses of Voiceless Consonants in General 104
Useful Pitch Patterns 105
Vowel and Diphthong Patterns 106
Coupled Consonants 106
8. Sustaining the Voice: Sostenuto 108
Exercises for Developing Sostenuto 109
Group 1 Exercises 109
Group 2 Exercises 111
Group 3 Exercises 112
Group 4 Exercises 112
Group 5 Exercises 114
V. Unifying the Registers of Male Voices 115
Register Terminology 115
Primo passaggio (First Register Transition) 116
Seconda passaggio (Second Register Transition) 116
X Contents

Zona di passaggio (zona intermedia) (The


Passage Zone) 116
Registration Events of Male Voices 116
Voce di petto (Chest Voice) 117
Voce mista (Mixed Voice) 118
Voce di testa (Head Voice) 118
Voce finta (Feigned Voice) 119
Falsetto 119
The Maie Falsettist 123
Strohbass 125
Exercises for Achieving an Evenly Registered Scale
in Lower and Middle Voice 126
Group 1 Exercises 127
Exercises for Achieving an Evenly Registered Scale
in Upper and Middle Voice 129
Group 2 Exercises 129
10. Unifying the Registers of the Female Voice 132
Registers of the Female Speaking Voice 133
Combining Female Singing Registers 133
Registration Events of Female Voices 134
Chest in Female Voices 136
Open Chest 136
Chest Mixture 136
Exercises for the Development of the Lower Range 137
Head Mixture in Female Lower Range 140
Head Mixture in Female Middle Range 142
Exercises for Inducing Head Mixture in Middle
Voice 142
Female voce di testa 143
Exercises for Inducing voce di testa Sensations
Throughout the Voice 144
Flageolet Register 147
Exercises for Developing the Flageolet Range 149
11. Vowel Modification in Singing: aggiustamento 150
Timbre Terminology 155
The Technique of aggiustamento (The Vowel Series
in Modification) 157
Exercises for Achieving aggiustamento 159
Contents XI

12. Range Extension and Stabilization in Singing 161


Range and Voice Categorization 163
Extending the Vocal Range 167
Exercises for Extending and Stabilizing Ihe
Vocal Range 167
13. M essa d i voce and Dynamic Control 171
Exercises for Developing Dynamic Control 173
Determining Dynamic Levels 176
14. Vibrancy in Singing: Vibrato and Vocal Timbre 182
Physical Causes of Vibrato 183
Uses of the Vibrato 185
Correcting Oscillation ("Wobble”) 186
Eliminating Straight-tone Intrusion 187
Correcting the Vibratoless Voice 189
Correcting Tremolo ("Shake”) 191
Vibrato and Velocity 193
Pedagogical Uses of Straight-tone 194
Uses of the Trill 195
15. Coordinating Technique and Communication 197
16. Pedagogical Attitudes: The Aesthetics of
Vocal Timbre 205
The New Student 207
Compensatory Methods of Singing 208
The Technically Intense Teacher 209
The Interpretation-oriented Teacher 210
The Technique-mystique Teacher 211
The One-aspect Teacher 212
Pedagogical Balance 212
Tcaching Oneself 214
17. Healthy Singing 218
Conditioning for Performance Readiness 220
Performance-day Routine 221
When Not to Sing 224
What to Sing 226
The Teacher-performer 228
The Question of Complete Vocal Rest 229
The Question of Medication 230
X li Contents

Dry Throat 231


"Clearing” the Throat 231
Fighting the Cough 232
Chewing 233
Singers and the Laryngologist 235
Weight and the Singing Voice 236
Diet and the Singer 237
Physical Exercise and Singing 238
Longevity and the Voice 238
The Optimistic Performer 239
Appendix 1. Laryngeal Structure and Function 241
Cartilaginous Structure of the Larynx 242
The Single or Unpaired Laryngeal Cartilages 242
The Paired Laryngeal Cartilages 245
Ligaments and Membranes of the Larynx 246
The Interior of the Larynx 248
Muscles of the Larynx and their Function 248
Extrinsic Muscles 249
Intrinsic Muscles 252
The Muscles of Adduction 253
The Muscles of Elongation 255
Summary of Intrinsic Laryngeal Action 256
Appendix 2. The Structure and Mechanics of the
Breath Apparatus 259
The Thoracic Cage 259
The Region of the Sternum 259
The Intercostal Muscles 262
The Diaphragm 262
The Lungs and the Pleurae 267
Muscles of the Neck 270
Muscles of the Upper Torso 273
Muscles of the Anterolateral Abdominal Wall 275
Systems of Breath Control 278
Appendix 3. The Physiology of the Vocal Tract
Resonator System 281
Appendix 4. The Physical Factors of Vocal
RcglHtratlon 287
Cricothyroid Action in Registration 287
External Frame Function 291
Contents xiii

D am ping 291
S u m m a ry o f Physical A spects of R eg istratio n 292
Appendix 5. Influences of Various Voiced and
Unvoiced Consonants on Resonator Adjustment 293
Appendix 6. International Phonetic Alphabet
(IPA) Sym bols 297
A C oncise C o rrelativ e P ro n u n c ia tio n G uide 297
IPA S ym bols fo r Vowels, Sem i-vow els, an d F ren ch
V ow el S o u n d s 298
In tern a tio n a l P h o n etic A lphabet S ym bols fo r
C o n so n an t S o u n d s 299
G lossary o f N o n m u sical T erm s 301
( llossary o f V ocal T erm s 311
B ibliography 315
A rticles 315
Books 350
Index 367
Preface

A n student, I was intrigued by the many notions about how one


lues. I enjoyed descriptions of other singers’ voice lessons. As a pro-
li sional singer, my interest in comparing vocal techniques was
>•1lengthened. My singing career has always run parallel with an
Interest in teaching singing. It has been my experience that help-
11if other people learn to sing contributes to one’s own vocal
understanding.
Several years on research status and on sabbatical leave were
■pent visiting hundreds of voice studios and thousands of lessons
h oin a wide range of pedagogic orientations. Very early in the simul-
i .mcous careers of singing and teaching, I tried to sort out the con-
lir.ing array of technical approaches to singing. It seemed clear that
il was essential to find how the singing voice functions as an instru­
m ent. Much of my "free time” over the years has been spent in read­
ing the growing literature on vocal physiology and acoustics. I found
n lew scientists and phoniatricians who shared research projects
with me and listened sympathetically to my questions. Out of this
pcisonal search cam e the conviction that the best way to maintain
11 .i<litional" vocal technique is to use language which communicates
• iiiu rete concepts regarding efficiency. As in any field, the transfer
■>1 information is possible only if a common language exists between
w i Iter and reader, teacher and student.
With regard to the current surge in the study of comparative
un al pedagogy in many educational institutions, it is good to know
Ilie details of a num ber of techniques of singing as an intellectual
■M ii ise. Digesting those techniques for one’s own benefit, or for
II .msinitting inform ation to one’s students, however, is entirely
another matter. Vocal pedagogy is like a smorgasbord, from which
"in ran sample foods both rich and simple; not everything that can
I» Ingested is equally nutritious. Running from one famous teacher
in unother, from one m aster class to the next, from one symposium
in yet another, and reading each new "complete” vocal method
published, may open some doors. Yet there comes a time when the
<iiih< i <>■ teacher of singing must stop shopping around and make a
■liolt t* An informed choice is possible only if one is aw are of what
produce» free vocal function. Specific vocal sounds may be inter-
rnllnn perhaps even momentarily thrilling—but if they are not
xv
xvi The Structure of Singing

based on reliable, functional principles, they will make the voice sick,
just as a continual diet of desserts will adversely affect the
constitution.
Technique represents the stabilization of desirable coordination
during singing. Technique can be "computerized” in the brain and
the body of the singer. No singer ever should be in doubt as to what
is going to happen, technically, in public performance, unless illness
interferes. Knowing how the singing instrum ent works, and knowing
how to get it to work consistently, is the sum of technical knowledge.
That is why a systematic approach to vocal technique is the most
successful route to artistic singing. System and art conjoin to pro­
duce the professional sounds of the singing voice.
In the end, traditional vocalism is based on efficient vocal pro­
duction. Artistry cannot be realized without the technical means for
its presentation. Systematic vocal technique and artistic expression
are inseparable; they comprise the structure of singing.
This book does not answ er all the questions about how to sing,
but it does provide a basis for vocal freedom in performance
through efficient handling of acoustic and physiologic aspects of the
singing voice.

Richard Miller
%

Acknowledgmen ts

II the teachers, colleagues, researchers, and authors who have


directly contributed over many years to the shaping of the vocal
philosophy expressed in this book were here acknowledged, an end­
less list would result. I m ust restrict myself to mentioning only a few
of the many persons and sources that have helped me form a system
of singing and teaching. I shall ever be grateful for the firm technical
foundation in breath m anagem ent given me by my first voice
teacher, Alice Miller, my mother; I also rem em ber with m uch appre­
ciation two generous teachers of my youth, William Strassner and
Ruth Cogan. The latter has been a m ajor influence in my life. Harold
I ledgpeth and Harold Haugh were fine performing tenors and excel­
lent m entors who helped me with my young adult voice. Special
debts are owed to M aestro Luigi Ricci and to Maestro Mario Basiola,
who later set standards of musicianship and vocalism that have
remained goals throughout my professional life. The lessons learned
from several colleagues who, through their models of freedom and
vitality in performance, were also my teachers, have been invaluable.
To all of these people, some no longer living, my deepest thanks.
Complementary to these musical and pedagogical influences is a
great reservoir of material from many sources, m uch of which is
included in the bibliography of this book. Some of my own early
awareness of the im portance of disciplines related to the singing
voice was sparked by the works of Richard Luchsinger and Godfrey
Arnold, Janwillem van den Berg, Peter Ladefoged, Claude Kantner
and Robert West, G unnar Fant, Knud Faaborg-Anderson, and Wil­
liam Vennard. In m ore recent years, I have greatly benefited from
Ihe num ber of fine published symposia reports listed in the bibli­
ography, particularly those dealing with the care of the professional
voice, published by The Voice Foundation. (Wilbur J. Gould, through
his vision and leadership of those symposia, has left an indelible
mark on professional voice use in this country.) Such other contem­
poraries as Van Lawrence, Ingo Titze, Harm K. Schutte, Wolfgang
Zenker, Minoru Hirano, Willard Zemlin, S tuart Selkin, and Johan
Sundberg have influenced my views on how the voice functions,
cither through the written word or, in severul cases, through the
generous sharing of ideas and laboratories.
I am indebted to several publishers for permission to use illus-
xvii
The Structure of Singing

11 all’ll material (acknowledged where the material appears): Church­


ill Livingstone; H. W. Freem an and Company (for Scientific A m e n ­
ant, Inc.); Oxford University Press; W. B. Saunders Company;
Spi inger-Verlag; University of Chicago Press; University of Tokyo
Press; Urban & Schwarzenberg; Williams & Wilkins.
To Oberlin College I owe thanks for having made available
opportunities to pursue study in this country and in Europe through
several sabbatical, faculty development, and research status pro­
grams. This book partly grows out of the many invaluable profes­
sional contacts and personal experiences such grants made possible.
Thanks go to Dr. Raphael Poritsky, Professor of Anatomy, Case
Western Reserve Medical School, for kindly reading the anatomical
information found in the appendices and for his helpful suggestions
(although he is not to be held accountable for a voice teacher’s
attem pt to describe the anatomy and physiology of the singing
instrument!). For some definitions in the glossary, I have para­
phrased or quoted from W ebster’s New International Dictionary, 2d
edition, and, in a few instances, have relied on Willard Zemlin’s
Speech an d Hearing Science, 2d edition, or on William V ennard’s
Singing: the Mechanism and the Technic, 5th edition.
I also want to thank Lynn Poe for his invaluable advice in m ak­
ing some im portant decisions, and my gratitude is extended to
Michael Sander, Associate Editor of Schirm er Books and to Elyse
Dubin, Editorial Supervisor, for their patience and help in producing
this work.
My daughter Letitia deserves mention for her understanding
that our joint stam p collecting activities had to be laid aside until this
book was put together.
Introduction
Why This Book Was Written

I have never met anyone who learned to sing by reading a hook. On


the other hand, my own experience as perform er and teacher is that
I have been greatly assisted by advice and technical suggestions
Irom a wide range of writers on vocal pedagogy. This fact gives me
c ourage to add yet another volume to that literature. It is my hope to
coordinate, as m uch as possible, what I understand to be the physical
and acoustic factors involved in free singing with a detailed system
of technical studies for acquiring such freedom.
It is apparent that m uch of w hat takes place within an artisti­
cally sung phrase can be analyzed only in term s of communication
;ind musical aesthetics. However, a vocal phrase clearly has a begin­
ning and a conclusion, and recognizable physical and acoustic events
;>re responsible for both and for determining what happens in
between.
It follows that even though a singer may have a profound
understanding of musical style, an imaginative tem peram ent that
can serve as a vehicle for artistic expression, and a vocal instrum ent
<>l promise, these positive attributes cannot be perceived by the
listener if the mechanics of technique are faulty. It is not enough for
the singer to have something to say; the means for saying it with ease
must be present. An understanding of physical function may make
the difference between the emergence of a solid technique of singing
and a lifelong struggle with the mechanics.
Typically, singers are mostly concerned with the final perfor­
mance im pact (the aesthetic product) and give little thought to the
physical and acoustic factors of sound production. Yet any vocal
technique involves making assumptions, of varying degrees of speci­
ficity as well as of accuracy, concerning the physical production of
sound. Differing viewpoints exist with respect not only to aesthetic
preference but to the most appropriate physical means for produc­
ing the desired sound. The success of any technical approach to sing­
ing must be m easured by how nearly it arrives at the planned aes­
thetic result with the least cost.
Freedom of function in singing ought to count heavily in deter­
mining which vocal sounds are most pleasing. The highest possible

xix
XX The Structure of Singing

degree of physical freedom may well be the best indicator of the


reliability of aesthetic judgm ent on the singing voice.
Investigative studies of respiratory-phonatory-resonatory action
(the physiologic-acoustic materials of singing) point to four m echa­
nistic functions that unite in breathing and phonating: ( 1 ) an energiz­
ing system, comprising the mechanism of power, consisting of the
inhalatory-exhalatory system housed in the head and torso; (2 ) a
vibratory system, being the laryngeal mechanism itself; (3) a resona­
tor system, made up of a series of cavities in changing relationships
with laryngeal tone; and (4) an articulatory system, activated by the
lips, the teeth, the cheeks, and the tongue, which m ust coordinate
and modify the activities engendered by the rest of the respiratory-
phonatory complex. These systems operate interdependently, so that
to examine any one of them alone is to exclude other im portant con­
siderations temporarily. These four modes of activity and how they
may be coordinated to produce beautiful vocal tim bre provide the
subject m atter of much of this book.
Before the second quarter of this century, many books on sing­
ing were written either from the subjective experience of the singing
artift o r from the viewpoint of the scientifically minded person, who
explained the basic functions of the vocal mechanism. Beginning in
the 1920s, authors applied the new findings of medical science, pho­
netics, speech research, and speech therapy to singing, in the hope of
revolutionizing vocal technique. Since the 1940s, much of w hat has
been written for singers and teachers offers explanations of the
physical aspects of singing, designed to support precepts that have
evolved from perform ance experience.
Alongside a num ber of recent publications on the mechanics of
singing exist the num erous older, practical methods of vocalises.
Although the daily drilling of that extensive literature may aid in the
gradual assembling of a good vocal technique, the teacher is offered
no inform ation about how those vocalises relate to the problems
common to the singing voice that often stem from a physical cause.
Nor can it be of much help when the great artist requests that I
imagine my larynx is suspended from my temples by rubber bands,
or suggests that I concentrate on the center of my forehead for high
tones. Yet, in like fashion with regard to the dissemination of physi­
ological information, it is doubtful that reading about the function of
the cricoarytenoids and the thyroarytenoids has ever proved very
decisive in the development of any singing artist.
Why not just put ourselves in the hands of someone who teaches
"the old hel (auto m ethod” and be done with it? We cannot because
there is no specific codified system of bel canto waiting for the vocal
neophyte to pick up and assimilate. Despite some c laims that certain
Introduction xxi

te achers have a direct link to "the old Italians,” no modern teacher


ran honestly profess to teach some clearly delineated m ethod th at is
universally recognized as being "the bel canto method.”
Anyone who has studied with teachers who trace a historical
lineage to other persons often cited as m ajor teachers of bel canto
(lor example, pupils of pupils of Giovanni Battista Lamperti) must
admit that the specifics, the actual techniques, of acquiring the art of
beautiful singing, are only imprecisely enunciated by them. A careful
reading of the pedagogical literature of the historical bel canto
period m ust lead to a similar conclusion. The term bel canto has
become a twentieth-century shibboleth, with opposing methodolo­
gies staking out highly suspect claims for its possession. This is
because of the indefinability of the term beyond its literal meaning:
beautiful singing. Skills of sustaining and moving the voice ( cantilena
and fioritura) are required to execute the bel canto literature; those
skills join to produce "beautiful singing.” They call for the most
exacting technical accomplishments, in whatever century.
Although it is not possible to claim that the exercises in this book
(or any other) comprise the vocalizing material of the bel canto tradi­
tion, it is fair to state that exercises in this volume, or ones similar to
them, existed in the historic Italian School, which in the latter part of
tlu- nineteenth and the early decades of the tw entieth centuries
»rossed all national barriers.
It would be pointless here to try to trace each vocalise to some
i ecognizable source, because in all probability such sources would
not prove to be the original ones. No doubt most of these vocalises
have been in the public domain for centuries.
If it is true th at the voice is an instrum ent that functions best
when mechanically most efficient (as the voice scientist assumes),
and that one m ust accomplish a variety of vocal gymnastics in order
I d be equipped for the exacting dem ands of literature (as Messrs.
Vaccai, Sieber, Concone, Panofka, Garcia, and the Lampertis seem
to tell us), then it seems reasonable to devise specific exercises
to help achieve the freely functioning voice. That, in fact, is the aim
of this book.
Any series of vocalises can be sung in a num ber of ways, some
of which are absolutely without value. Only if freedom can be
Induced through the use of a vocalise does that vocalise have merit.
No vocalise should be sung without some distinct technical intent
behind it.
Scale passages, triad patterns, broken arpeggios, and other vo-
t alises built on pyrotechnical rocketry often serve as "warm -up” ges­
tures for singers so that the voice will not be "cold” at the beginning
ol a perform ance. The side benefits of such warming up are helpful.
xxii The Structure of Singing

Random vocalization, however, may not necessarily establish the


firm technical foundation that permits reliable physical ease (coordi­
nated function) in performance.
Some singers believe that any technical study divorced from the
literature itself is extraneous. Established professional singers with
ongoing engagements may in part be kept in a state of technical fit­
ness through frequency of performance. But it is unlikely that the
range of literature encountered in performance commitments en­
compasses the gam ut of technical skills which a systematic plan of
vocalization can offer.
At the same time, a wealth of the best vocalizing material avail­
able is to be found in passages from Handel, Purcell, Mozart, Bellini,
Verdi, Puccini, Duparc, Famé, Massenet, Britten, Walton, Barber,
and Rorem; phrases from such literatures should be used to supple­
ment the daily vocalizing regimen.

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK


111 this book, categories of technical problems frequently encoun­
tered in singing are identified. Some explanation of desirable physi­
cal action is presented, followed by exercises to assist in establishing
the technical skills dependent on optimum physical function.
Additional information on the voice as a physical-acoustic
instrum ent is contained in several appendices. The appendices
supplem ent the briefer descriptions of functions found in chapters
where vocal technique is systematically presented.
A singer who reads this book may w ant to begin with the practi
cal application of the vocalises to an area of technique w here
im provement is needed. Another reader may wish first to read the
background material in the appropriate appendix that justifies the
suggested vocal tasks, and then turn to the corresponding chapter or
chapters. The appendices serve as references on function, and
explain why the recom m ended vocalises so often produce good
results.
Although the art of singing can be learned only through singing,
the systematic organization of vocal technique is the most efficient
route to the realization of the prim ary goal: production of beautiful
sound. Life being brief and art being long, one should spend only the
minimal time each day required to deal with the technique of sing­
ing so that one may move on to those much m ore im portant as­
pects of the art that have to do with musicianship, interpretation,
and communication.
The
Structure
of
CHAPTER 1

The
Coordinated Vocal Onset
and Release
Establishing Dynamic Muscle Equilibrium
Througn Onset and Release

I he way a singer initiates vocal sound is crucial to the subsequent


phrase. A good beginning to the singing tone is of prime considera­
tion regardless of the achievem ent level of the singer. W hether one
11.is been an established perform er for years or is about to begin
vocal study, every singer should begin the daily vocalizing session
with exercises in onset and release. Only if the onset of each phrase
dem onstrates the principle of nonstatic (that is, dynamic) laryngeal
muscle balance and elasticity is the singer assured of freedom. Briess
( l‘>64, p. 259) has term ed such flexible muscle balance in phonation
.Ivnamic equilibrium. In the absence of such dynamic, adjustable
m(ordination, hyperfunction (excessive activity) characterizes the
.u lion of some muscle or muscle group, with corresponding hypo-
1111 ic t ion (deficient activity) occurring in some other muscle or mus-
i les. In either case, muscle equilibrium will have been replaced by
muscle rigidity. (See Figure 1.1 for positions of the vocal folds during
quiet breathing, deep inhalation, norm al phonation, one form of
whispering, and falsetto. For a description of laryngeal structure and
lunction, see Appendix I.)

THE VARIETIES OF ONSET


I here are three types of vocal onset that result from differences in
vocal-fold positioning (Luchsinger and Arnold, 1965, pp. 84-85).
Although described by various terms, they are best designated as (1)
llie soft onset; (2) the hard attack; and (3) the balanced onset. (The
term attack is often used synonymously with onset. Because of the
i onnotations of the word attack, it may heal be used to describe only
Ilie hard attack.)
I
2 The Structure of Singing

Techniques of singing bring attention, directly or indirectly, to


the position the vocal folds assum e before onset of sound. Such pre-
phonatory positioning is supported by the findings of electromyog­
raphy (EMG), the study of electrical activity in muscle. Faaborg-
Anderson (1964, p. 115) reports:

The action-potential amplitude rises before phonation, both


in the crico-thyroid and in the vocal muscles. This means
that the intrinsic laryngeal muscles assume the position and
degree of tension necessary for production of a tone of a
certain pitch even before actual phonation.

Wyke (1974, p. 296) reviews some of the conclusions based on


electromyographic studies of laryngeal neurom uscular behavior in
both speech and singing just before the onset of phonation and d u r­
ing subsequent utterances:

Electromyographic studies of the intrinsic laryngeal muscles


of normal subjects during phonation (including singing) by
num bers of workers have shown . . . that motor unit activity
increases briefly but substantially in all the vocal fold
adductor muscles just prior to each phonemic utterance
(accompanied by an equally brief decrease in the activity of
the abductor posterior cricoarytenoid muscles) with an
interval that varies (in different individuals and circum ­
stances of utterance) from 50 to 500 msec. Other aerody­
namic studies of subjects speaking and singing . . . have
shown that the expiratory airflow commences, and that the
subglottic air pressure begins to rise, also just prior to each
audible utterance—but some 50-100 msec after the pre-
phonatory changes in laryngeal m uscular activity described
[here] have commenced.
Keeping in mind the activity of the muscles of the larynx before
and after onset, we will now view several forms of initial phonation
with regard to their ability to induce efficient function (dynamic
muscle equilibrium) in singing.

The Hard Attack


Glottal attack, glottal catch, glottal click, glottal plosive, stroke of the
glottis, coup de glotte, colpo di glottide (also colpo della glottide), Glot-
tisschlag, Knacklaut, Sprengeinsatz, are term s used to describe the
resultant vocal sound when the vocal folds are adducted (approxi­
mated) prior to phonation. Electromyography (EMG) shows that in
the glottal attack, activity begins early in the vocal muscles and is J
I lie ( 'oordinated Vocal Onset and Release 3

significantly greater than in the two other forms of onset. Because


(he glottis firmly closes before phonation in the hard attack, there is
ii greater degree of pressure below the folds. When phonation
begins, the suddenness of the release of this pressure produces the
audible catch, the glottal plosive, which is represented by the pho­
netic symbol [?]. (International Phonetic Alphabet symbols are used
in this book. Those symbols are illustrated in Appendix VI.)

The Soft Onset


A singer who consciously feels the flow of breath before vocal
sound, is making use of the aspirated onset. Such a sound is repre­
sented by the symbol [h]. When this sound is prolonged, the vocal
Iolds are adducted to the param edian line w ithout firm closure of
the glottis (see Figure l.ld.) Luchsinger and Arnold (1965, p. 85)
inform that, in the breathy onset,
Laryngoscopy reveals an open triangle with the base at the
posterior commissure. This intercartilaginous triangle is also
known as the “whispering triangle.” The audible impression
is that of a soft blowing sound, which is transcribed as the
sound [h]. A fraction of a second following the aspirate noise
the vocal cords begin gradually to vibrate, until the full tone
of phonation is heard. This speech sound is not custom ary in
Romance languages.
Studies in progress at the University of Florida, Gainesville, indi-
i ate that varying glottal configurations, in addition to the "whisper­
ing triangle,” may be present in whispering. In some whispering, a
lower sound pressure level prevails, with a higher rate of breath
flow. Just as the hard attack produces conditions favorable to hyper-
Iunction on the part of certain participating muscles, so the soft
onset may result in hypofunction in the same muscle group.
Neither the hard attack nor the soft onset may be endorsed as
pedagogical practices for standard use. They result from two oppos­
ing errors in phonation, and may be described simplistically as the
"grunt” and the "whisper.”
When an adult engages in heavy physical activity such as lifting,
pulling, or shoving, or even in throwing the arms backward from the
torso in an attem pt to swing the hands behind the back, an involun­
tary grunting noise results. One grunts hccausc glottal closure has
been extrem e and the sudden release ol pressure becomes audible
with the expulsion of air. The grunt, introduced into phonation,
represents reversion to primordial action in laryngeal function
(Luchsinger and Arnold, 1965, pp. I IK I l‘J).
4 The Structure of Singing

It can be easily dem onstrated that one can go gradually from


whispering to speech, controlling the degree of glottal closure. One
can whisper softly; one can use a loud stage whisper; one can speak
lazily with just sufficient breath mixture in the tone to make speech
audible; one can eliminate breath almost entirely, speaking cleanly
and firmly. Or one could go a step further and indulge in pressed
phonation.

The Balanced Onset (Dynamic Muscle Equilibrium)


If a singer or speaker avoids both the whisper posture and exagger­
ated vocal-fold closure (the grunt posture), a m ore balanced laryn­
geal action is present throughout the phrase. “Prephonatory tuning”
of the instrum ent takes place, and this "tuning” occurs with great
rapidity throughout the changing utterances of spoken or sung pho­
nation. It occurs not only during vocal onset, but also during con­
tinuous speech or song. According to Wyke (1974, p. 297), "this pre­
phonatory tuning of the laryngeal m usculature . . . is the principal
voluntary contribution to the control of the larynx during speech
and singing. . . .” Wyke (1974, p. 300) further points out that
this prephonatory tuning process involves not only the
intrinsic laryngeal muscles, but also the intercostal and
abdominal muscles and the external laryngeal muscles . . . as
well as the middle ear . . . and the oropharyngeal m uscula­
ture . . . and is set in train immediately after each voluntary
inter-phrase inspiration.
Although Wyke’s comments refer not only to the vocal onset but
to subsequent utterances within a phrase, "prephonatory tuning” is
present in the good onset for singing. Such an onset is accomplished
by avoiding either the grunt or the whisper. Glottal closure is modi­
fied in the balanced onset by a narrow slit before phonation. This
"even onset” is physiologically midway between the hard attack and
the soft onset. W ithout this narrow slit in the glottis just before pho­
nation, the buildup of subglottic pressure results in the glottal plo­
sive, a sound similar to a light cough.

EXERCISES FOR ACHIEVING THE


BALANCED ONSET
The desirable condition of balanced muscle equilibrium can be
established through the use of several simple exercises.
I he Coordinated Vocal Onset and Release 5

EXERCISE 1.1
Ml I’UAT THE SPOKEN SEQUENCE "HA, HA, HA, HA, HA" SEVERAL TIMES,
•I OWLY AND DELIBERATELY AS A PHRASE UNIT, LINGERING OVER THE
INITIAL ASPIRATED [h] OF EACH SYLLABLE. IT IS POSSIBLE TO SENSE WHEN
IIKEATH PASSING OVER THE VOCAL FOLDS IS FOLLOWED BY SOUND THAT
Kl SULTS FROM VOCAL-FOLD APPROXIMATION (THAT IS, WHEN ACTUAL
I ONE COMMENCES).

EXERCISE 1.2
HI PEAT THE SPOKEN SEQUENCE "UH, UH, UH, UH, UH” SEVERAL TIMES,
I OWLY AND DELIBERATELY AS A PHRASE UNIT, LINGERING OVER THE
INI TIAL GLOTTAL PLOSIVE [?]. ONE CAN SENSE THE MOMENT AT WHICH THE
<.1 OTTIS HAS BEEN SUFFICIENTLY RELEASED TO PRODUCE PHONATION.

EXERCISE 1.3
HI (PEAT THE SPOKEN SEQUENCE "AH, AH, AH, AH, AH” SEVERAL TIMES,
M <(WLY AND DELIBERATELY AS A PHRASE UNIT, IMAGINING A BRIEF [h]
III I ORE EACH SYLLABLE BUT NOT ALLOWING IT TO TAKE ON AUDIBILITY.
■I KIVE FOR THE SUBJECTIVE FEELING THAT WITH THE BEGINNING OF THE
PI IRASE THE PROCESS OF INHALATION HAS NOT BEEN ALTERED; THERE
IIOULD BE NO SENSATION OF BREATH EXPULSION (ALTHOUGH, OF
i ( tllRSE, AIRFLOW COMMENCES), AND NO SENSATION OF BREATH MOVING
III TORE TONE.
IF PREPHONATORY TUNING IS EXACT (THE RESULT OF DYNAMIC
MUSCLE EQUILIBRIUM), THE CORRECT ONSET WILL BE EXPERIENCED.
AWARENESS OF THE MOMENT OF ONSET CAN BE EXPECTED, BUT THE
( INSET DOES NOT RESEMBLE THE GLOTTAL CLICK OF THE HARD ATTACK.
NO VESTIGE OF BREATHINESS OR OF A VOCAL SCRAPE SHOULD BE HEARD.
I HERE IS A DISTINCT BEGINNING TO THE TONE, BUT ALL SHOCK IS
AVOIDED. TONE CAN BE AS LOUD OR AS SOFT AT ITS INCEPTION AS AT ITS
( ( INCLUSION.

In singing, the coordinated onset occurs only when the glottis


has been fully opened with the preceding inhalation. This full abduc­
tion of the vocal folds (see Figure 1.1b) is followed by clean and pre­
cise closure (see Figure 1.1c, and 1.2). A partially opened glottis, as in
normal as opposed to deep breathing, does not produce the subse­
quent clean onset dem anded for skillful singing. The onset vocalises
•li ill the quick juxtaposition of the fully opened and the efficiently
closed glottis, in immediate response to frequency, vowel, and ampli­
tude (see Figure 1.2).
In this regulated onset lies the germ of all good vocalism. Pre­
paratory to the onset of phonation there must be proper inhalation,
fi The Structure of Singing

Margo epiglottidis
Plica vocalis
Plica ary-epiglotlica Plica ventricularis

Processus voc. cart it. aryl., Rimaglott. (Pars intercartilag.) Tuberculum cureiforme

Tubercuium corniculatum
Plica (Incisura) interarytaen.

Conus eiast., Rima glott


Processus muscul. cart, arytaen.
Conus el., Lig. vocale. Rima glotlidis

Plica
arylaenaoidea Rima
glotlidis
(Pars inler-

Lig. cricothyreoid. a Macula l,ava anl-


medium

Rima glott.
(Pars intermembran.)
P llul vutu/li, Mlmii illnil
(Pan

Hlimi ulull, (Pan Iriltfiarlllai},)


Aptx carl, aryl
Fovea Iriangul.
Fovea ablonga

Figure 1.1. The vocal folds viewed by the laryngeal mirror, with a schematic
design beneath, in (a) quiet breathing, (b) deep inhalation, (c) normal phona­
tion, (d) one form of whispering, and (e) falsetto. (From Eduard Pernkopf,
Atlas der topographischen und angewandten Anatomie des Menschens, ed.
by Helmut Ferner, Vol. 1, 1963. Munich: Urban & Schwarzenberg. By per­
mission.)

then appropriate vocal-fold positioning (not achieved through con­


scious effort or laryngeal sensation); breath activates vocal-fold
vibration, which remains relatively constant throughout the duration
of the phrase to be sung; the release term inates the sound as cleanly
as it began; the cycle then resumes. (The release is the new breath.)
I he Coordinated Vocal Onset and Release 7

Nothing in technical accomplishment in singing is m ore benefi-


i ml lo the vocal instrum ent than the proper positioning of the vocal
lolds for the clean onset. Such prephonatory tuning of the laryngeal
muscles in combination with the exact degree of subglottic pressure
nul airflow provides the basis for good singing.
Should the singer then be perm itted only the use of the
imaginary [h], always avoiding the audible [h] and the plosive ['>] as
well? The answer in both cases is probably negative. Although one of
llic three forms of onset is physiologically most efficient (the bal-
miced onset) and aesthetically pleasing to most, but not all, listeners,
pedagogical benefits may derive from the other two.

USES OF THE ASPIRATED ONSET

I specially among the athletically young there is a tendency tow ard a


higher rate of muscle activity in the vocal onset than among more
phlegmatic persons, whose psychological and physiological main-
•■I>i ings appear less tightly wound. The aggressive personality, whose
m live approach to life makes little use of introspection and repose,
will tend to display a greater degree of laryngeal tension and of sub-
rJottic pressure than the less visceral personality. Physical aggres-
■iveness in singing is often an outw ard expression of a particular
i alegory of hum an spirit. Especially among the young, it can also be
Irain ed in imitation of some m ature artist, in which case aggressive
inging may emerge from an otherwise docile personality.

Figure 1.2. Laryngoscopic view for (a) normal phonation and (b) deep inspi-
i ni ion. (From Vocal Fold Physiology, ctl. bv Kenneth N. Stevens and Minoru
lllrano, 1981. Tokyo: Tokyo University Press, llv permission.)
8 The Structure of Singing

W hatever the cause, too much tension in vocal-fold positioning


prior to and during phonation is a common error among singers at
all levels of technical advancement. When the grunt, the initial "bite”
into the tone, or the scraped attack make habitual appearances, the
most productive antidote is the aspirated onset. By its very fault of
excessive airflow and reduced pressure, the aspirated onset may be
exactly w hat is temporarily needed to com bat tense vocal produc­
tion. When a singer begins a phrase with a pressed attack, there will
be some retention of that laryngeal function throughout the re­
m ainder of the phrase. The wisest move, then, is to make use of the
short aspirated onset over a period of time.

USES OF THE GLOTTAL ATTACK

Human personality is delightfully diverse, and vocal instrum ents


m irror that diversity. The teacher may have to instruct the raw,
overly energized young male voice (and occasionally the female) as
well as the ectomorphic male and the female who, either through
genes and chromosom es or as a result of cultural conditioning,
remains physically somewhat uninvolved during singing. In such
cases, breathiness and physical detachm ent characterize the vocal
sound. It may then be wise to introduce the slight glottal attack so
that excess breath is eliminated. It surely need not be urged that no
exaggeration of glottal closure should ever be requested. Overcor­
rection is not in order.

PHYSIOLOGICAL BENEFITS OF THE


COORDINATED ONSET

The coordinated onset, which results from dynamic equilibrium of


the participating m usculature and of subglottic pressure, produces
healthy vocalism. The electromyographic (EMG) techniques devel­
oped in 1950 at the Phonetic Institute of Zurich (Switzerland) Uni­
versity, make clear that the balanced onset avoids the irregular wave
patterns associated with the breathy onset and is free of the erratic
initial waves that indicate the explosive character of the hard attack
(Luchsinger and Arnold 1965, p. 86 ). Similar evidence exists for the
several types of vocal release.
I hi < notdincited Vocal Onset and Release 9

ONSET VOCALISES WHICH INDUCE


DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

lln pitch at which any group of exercises in this book should be


.11iif’ is determ ined by the vocal category and by the registration
•■vents of the individual instrum ent. For exercises in Groups 1 and 2
in this chapter, the following pitch ranges generally should be kept in
inliul1:

o o
H- -
C'i C2 C3 C4 C5 Cé C7
11S.A. Standards Association
C'i C c c 1 c 2 c 3 c 4

Helmholtz
(By perm ission, The NATS Journal)

Soprano A4 to Ds
Mezzo-soprano F4 to A4
Contralto D4 to F4
Tenor A3 to D4
Baritone D3 to G3
Bass A2 to D3

1 1 ansposition of the vocalises, as necessary, is assumed. They should


I» snng in a num ber of keys. Strict rhythmic adherence is important,
mid the final note m ust be given full rhythm ic value.
At each onset, the singer should produce a vibrant tone, avoiding
hiv straight quality, maintaining vibrancy throughout the duration
ni the pitch, no m atter how brief it may be (see Chapter 14). The
trieuse must be sudden and clean.

1 All pilch indications, o th e r th an those quoted from o th er sources, are based on the
devised by th e A coustical Society of America, endorsed by the U.S.A. S tan ­
N V lt c m
d ard s Association, in which middle C is represented as (' 4 , Most international aco u s­
tic research relies on this system for pitch désignation, The pitch designations
beneath the U.S.A. S tan d ard s Association system Indicate the H elmholtz system,
which for m any years enjoyed in ternational use. In which middle C Is represented
by c 1.
10 The Structure of Singing

Breath renewal is indicated by a com m a ( * ) in all of the exercises.


The m om entary silence between each release and new onset
should be absolute. We are as interested in the silence as in the
sound. Any noise resulting from the intake of breath between sylla­
bles indicates im proper involvement of either the vocal folds or
other parts of the vocal tract. (For example, to portray fear on the
stage, one constricts the vocal tract upon inhalation, creating resis­
tance to the inspired air. Inspiratory phonation as found in some
non-W estern languages and as an occasional expressive device in the
Teutonic languages and in French, no m atter how slight, should be
avoided by the singer.)
A com mon error in executing any onset exercise is the tendency
to gradually draw inward the epigastric-umbilical region (that area
between the sternum and the navel) with each rhythm ic impulse o r 1
detached syllable. (For imaginary surface lines indicating areas of
the torso and abdomen, see Figure 1.3)

Right vertical plane Left vertical plane

Figure 1.3. Planes of subdivision of the abdomen proper, with the names of
the nine abdominal regions. (From C unningham 's M anual o f Practical A n a t­
omy, 14th ed., ed. by G. J. Romanes, Vol. 2, 1967. Oxford: Oxford University
Press. By permission.)
I hr Coordinated Vocal Onset and Release 11

Group 1 Exercises
N u specific vowel has been designated for use in the vocalises that
lollow. All vowels should be used; care should be taken to alternate
hrlween front and back vowels. First, a single vowel may be used
throughout the series; subsequently, a different vowel should be
ir.id on each rhythmic group.

i \ i ; r c i s e 1.4
’ * y
-Jf-—/I -- ----------
- .......- -
m----------a *---------a --------- . O

(any vowel)

i \ i :r c i s e 1.5

(any vowel)

I \ l RCISE 1.6

V I
* ’ ----r---- *
..... . 1 J . o ___

(any vowel)

I X IRCISE 1.7

(any vowel)

t HI RCISE 1.8

(any vowel)
12 The Structure of Singing

EXERCISE 1.9

(any vowel)

-ÿ — =f
_o ......

In Exercises 1.4 and 1.5, breath is taken after each note. W hether
breath is taken after a single note or following a series of notes,
expansion is experienced in the abdominal region. Yet, this replen­
ishm ent of the breath may be so slight as to give the singer the
impression of having scarcely breathed at all
In Exercise 1.6 , which is in triplet pattern, breath is renewed only
after the completion of the triplet figure. In this exercise, the onset
impulse in the umbilical region occurs on the second and third notes,
but without inhalation (glottis abducts but inhalation does not take
place). In Exercises 1.4, 1.5, and 1.6 the vocal folds are engaged and
relaxed, sometimes in response to inhalation and sometimes inde­
pendent of inhalation (as between the first two notes of the triplet
pattern). The same principle of repeated vocal onset with regulated
rhythmic breath renewal, as in Exercises 1.7 and 1.8, may be drilled
after the briefer patterns of Exercises 1.4, 1.5, and 1.6 become easy
to execute. Exercise 1.9 combines the entire series into one task,
requiring inhalation between varying rhythmic patterns. This process
of coordinating laryngeal and abdominal impulses is a m ajor vehicle
for achieving vocal-fold approximation, glottal flexibility, and rapid
silent breath renewal.
Up to this point there has been no consideration of changes in
pitch. Changing pitches should not upset the exact balance of airflow
and vocal-fold approximation, yet the basic actions of technical
coordination presented in these onset vocalises should be well estab­
lished before the singer proceeds to exercises requiring greater skill
in vocal onset.

STACCATO AND ONSET

Staccato has already been experienced in the execution of the exer­


cises on single pitches (1.4 through 1.9). In the exercises built on
intervallic patterns (1.10 through 1.14) the goal is clean approxima-
I hr Coordinated Vocal Onset and Release 13

i ion, and involves the principle of quick alternation between vocal-


11 ild adduction and abduction on single pitches, then on longer
Iml terns.
There m ust be no excess of airflow (whisper factor) and no
r n c s s of subglottic pressure (grunt factor). Brodnitz (1953, p. 84)
i r inarks:
In staccato singing a form of glottal stroke is used to pro­
duce the sharp interruptions of sound that characterize it.
Hut in good staccato the glottal stroke which starts each
note is well controlled and done with a minimum of
pressure. . . .
A peril of quick staccato passages is the tendency to remove
vibrancy by singing without vibrato, with a straight-tone quality.
Such straight-tone tim bre indicates a lack of vitality. As an interpre­
tative, coloristic alternative to vibrant timbre, straight-tone may have
i i eason for being; its presence during technical study should be
limited to a few special circumstances (see Chapter 14).
Exercises in Group 2 are useful in applying the principles of
ilynamic muscle equilibrium and prephonatory tuning to patterns of
mi l easing rapidity in the onset, and are restricted to limited pitch
altération.

Group 2 Exercises
I XI.KCISE 1.10
* 9
= 1
--------- • ---------
1= ^
(any vowel)

i x i :r c i s e l.ii

ajbgqi ^ p i' i' -- a


(any vowel)

I XI'.KCISE 1.12

ftn r t r’r H I |= = i
(uny vowel)
14 The Structure of Singing

EXERCISE 1.13

& Ï
(any vowel)

EXERCISE 1.14

i
(any vowel)

When the exercises of Group 2 have been thoroughly drilled,


additional patterns such as those in Group 3 should be introduced.
The Group 3 vocalises are of progressive difficulty; it is not wise to
use them all, initially. Nor is it necessary to make all of them a part of
the daily routine. Exercises involving a series of four or six notes
should not be attem pted until those of triplet nature have been di­
gested. In those vocalises where rhythmic patterns shift with subse­
quent groups of notes (as in Exercises 1.25-1.28), exactitude in
rhythm must be m aintained if the benefits of the exercises are to be
realized.
The series of exercises should be executed in accordance with
the following guidelines:
1. Each exercise is to be accomplished in a series of key progres­
sions; transposition within a comfortable medium range should be
made for each vocal category, gradually expanding that range as
technical facility increases.
2. Although all of the cardinal vowels are eventually to be used,
until an exercise can accurately be executed with a vibrant quality
and a clean onset, the front vowels [i], [e], and [e] should be pre­
ferred to the back vowels [o], [o], [u], and [u], in almost all cases.
3. In general, the onset should be preceded by an imaginary, nearly
audible aspirate [h] as occurs in the rapid "ha-ha-ha” of well-
supported laughter. The singer must feel subjectively that the aspi­
rate sound has been eliminated, and that the flow of breath and the
em ergence of tone occur simultaneously. It may seem that singing
begins on the gesture of inhalation (why get out of the position of
singing for breath renewal?). Of course, it does not.
I lu ( '<M>rdinated Vocal Onset and Release 15

4 In cases w here vocal-fold approximation is slack, with resultant


Ih filthiness, the attack should incorporate a slight glottal stroke.
However, any firm coup de glotte should be reserved for extreme
■ir.es, and solely as a tem porary corrective device.
B In cases w here conditions of vocal tension impair freedom in the
miset, the aspirate [h] should be consciously introduced. Exer-
i Isos 1.15 through 1.28 have similar purposes. Because of shifting
ilivlhmic values, they should be carefully executed only after the
lu ruth-pacing skills required in the earlier exercises have been well
ritablished.

Group 3 Exercises
I'XERCISE 1.15

(any vowel)

■ x i r c i s e 1.16

l_— »_— V— s— v-
ft j U—J —o ---- U

(any vowel)

I'XERCISE 1.17

M A IV | é
— —J—J-
. .■ ■
J-
—J— - o -tl
-- f -- #
(any vowel)

I XIKCISE 1.18

(any vowel)
16 The Structure of Singing

EXERCISE 1.19

^ n-r-T . I ..........— r r i T P î i -v:.......


—# # d é é é L— O-------U
• •5 ♦ ♦
(any vowel)

EXERCISE 1.20

(any vowel)

EXERCISE 1.21

& i n ..m r - ^ = h = ¥
^ 4 -4 - P
^ ' V.............. *-1
(any vowel)

EXERCISE 1.22

= L - L _ ^ _ . • J- J- ,
y - * .. -d j ... j- ? ? ? r r r - L - - 1 - ----------1---------- M___ g_
y. ft • ..........

(any vowel)

EXERCISE 1.23

(any vowel)

EXERCISE 1.24
I hr Coordinated Vocal Onset and Release 17

i \ I.RCISE 1.25

M-wnrw
^ îü ! M Z2Z

(any vowel)

i KHRCISE 1.26

(any vowel)

I KERCISE 1.27

fa IÊÊ r J p p i'
(any vowel)

. * ^ ^ *
-----
ft
#
£
(any vowel)
18 The Structure of Singing

THE RELEASE

Even for persons who can initiate a balanced onset, the release of
sound may cause technical complications. The proper release of any
phonation is as m uch a factor of technique as is the balancing of
vocal sound at the outset. The character of the vocal release con­
tributes to the response the mechanism will make at the subsequent
onset. The release m ust be rhythmically related to the rest of the
phrase, with an exact point of termination. Indeed, the type of
release a singer uses will generally be dictated by the onset. On the
other hand, it is possible to begin the onset efficiently and to term i­
nate it badly.

The Soft R elease


When the glottis is gradually opened at the term ination of phonation,
breathiness will characterize vocal timbre. This quality is usually not
restricted to the last note of the phrase, and represents insufficiency
of breath coordination below the glottis throughout the pitch, or
throughout the phrase. In such cases, the release at the term ination
of the phrase forces the subsequent onset to be inefficient unless
some radical adjustm ents are quickly made. The collapse of the
breath mechanism visibly changes the posture of the torso. Such an
inefficient release can be best described as the soft release.

The Hard R elease


Suddenly increasing the degree of glottal closure (vocal-fold approx­
imation) at the term ination of a vocal utterance will produce a pho-
natory event reminiscent of the grunt. The grunt results from the
unskillful attem pt to loosen the too tightly occluded vocal folds, and
is not appropriate to artistic singing. It is only fair to say that, as an
expressive device, especially at rare moments of dram atic intensity,
the hard release may be both effective and desirable. However, its
overuse can become the annoying hallmark of the singer who cus­
tomarily sings at a higher dynamic level than is necessary, simply
because the art of dynamic variation has not been mastered. The
vocal instrum ent, in this instance, is geared to one level of loudness,
and the only way to term inate the concluding note is to give an
ample grunt.
To excuse the frequent use of this animalistic noise by claiming
it is an "operatic release” is to call a ragweed a rose and hope that no
one notices the difference in smell. In addition to being an ugly
I hr Coordinated Vocal Onset and Release 19

.ound, the hard release requires a difficult readjustm ent if freedom


In singing is to be regained; the subsequent onset will have small
opportunity to be anything other than "hard,” because of prevailing
IIVperf unction.

The Balanced Release


In the properly executed onset-release cycle, the quality of vocal
•■ound will be consistent from beginning to end. The glottis neither
lightens nor rem ains in any of the whispering postures at the onset
ni phonation, nor does it assum e those postures at phrase
I n mination.
In order to achieve a balanced release, it is not necessary to
i hange dynamic level, although musical factors may at times con-
' nice one to do so. Furtherm ore, there is no need to diminish
dynamic level in order to avoid the hard release. The perfectly bal-
•inced release can be dem onstrated in the following exercise.

I XHRCISE 1.29: COORDINATING THE RELEASE


i .IVI'. A GENUINE "HA-HA-HA-HA-HA” TYPE OF LAUGH, LISTENING
i AKI ',FULLY TO THE TERMINATION OF EACH INDIVIDUAL SYLLABLE; EVERY
•.VI.I ABLE SHOULD END AS DISTINCTLY AS IT BEGAN. WITHIN THIS
I AI1GIITER VOCALISE (ON EACH OF ITS SYLLABLES) ARE FOUR IMPORTANT
\SIT.CTS OF GOOD SINGING: (1) BALANCED ONSET OF PHONATION:
( .') ( ( INSISTENCY OF QUALITY THROUGHOUT THE DURATION OF THE TONE,
IK IWKVER BRIEF: (3) BALANCED RELEASE: AND (4) OPTIMUM CONDITION
I <>K I I IE CONTINUATION OF EFFICIENT PHONATION.

Separate exercises for the release are unnecessary because, as


11.is been seen, preparation for succeeding onset requires giving
»-(|ual attention to the release. One of the most practical aspects of
the onset-release vocalise is that it can be used under adverse vocal
i onditions (unless irritation occurs directly within the larynx). When
Ilie singing range is curtailed by the com mon cold, by upper respira­
tory infections, or by other physical ailments not related to the sing­
ing voice but which diminish physical energy and preclude normal
Ih ai l icing and performing, the onset and release vocalises can be the
means by which the voice is kept in good form. Breathing itself is
m Ilooted and balanced. Freedom in sustained singing and in agility is
.i direct outgrowth of the free onset and release.
CHAPTER 2

The Supported Singing Voice


Breath Management in Singing

When the body is at rest, the normal inspiration-expiration cycle is


brief, about 4 seconds. The inspiratory portion generally takes 1
second, or slightly more; the expiratory portion occupies the re­
mainder. When dealing with the aerodynamic events of breathing, in
either speaking or singing, it is important to recognize that, unless
restricted in some fashion, air will flow from a region of higher pres­
sure to one of lower pressure. Gray’s Anatom y (1980, p. 551) states:

In inspiration the intrapleural and the intrapulm onary pres­


sure fall below atmospheric. At the end of inspiration the
intrapulmonary pressure is equal to the atmospheric. During
inspiration the air which flows into the lung is not evenly
distributed. Regional differences occur in both the ventila­
tion and blood flow. The ventilation is greater in the lower
than in the upper lobes of the lung. This accords with the
fact that the movement of the upper chest in quiet respira­
tion is inconspicuous, whereas that of the lower chest is
greater, affecting principally the transverse diameter. These
regional differences may also be related to the varying elas­
ticity of different parts of the lungs and the dimensions of
the air passages leading to them. . . .

(For a schematic representation of the mechanism of breathing, see


Figure 2.1; for a description of the structure and mechanics of the
breath apparatus, see Appendix II.)
In deep inspiration, as in preparation for singing, the diaphragm,
and the thoracic and abdominal muscles increase their activity. Pho­
nation and physical effort modify the pace of the breath cycle. In
singing, phrase upon phrase will occur in which the breath cycle is
drastically prolonged, especially in its expiratory phase. To accom­
plish skillful control of breath m anagem ent for singing, special co­
ordination of the phases of the breath cycle (inhalation, onset, phrase
duration, release) must be learned.

20
I hr Supported Singing Voice 21

P erip h e ral
low er
airw uys

I ip.ure 2.1. Front view of the major structures of the pulmonary system. A
••111 ;1 11 section of the double-walled pleural lining is cut away from the right
The left lung is sliced obliquely to reveal the lower airways, a small
'.cement of which is shown greatly magnified. (From Normal Aspects of
Speech, Hearing, an d Language, ed. by Fred D. Minifie, Thomas J. Hixon,
•nul iTederick Williams, 1973. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. By
permission.)

SUBGLOTTIC PRESSURE AND GLOTTAL ACTIVITY

In a sum m ary of a frequently encountered viewpoint on air pressure


below the vocal folds, Ladefogcd (1962a, p. 24H) c reates the follow­
ing analogy:
22 The Structure of Singing

The four factors affecting the pressure of the air below the
vocal cords may be considered by an analogy with a pair of
bellows which has ( 1 ) a mechanism to pull the handles
apart, corresponding to the inspiratory activity of the dia­
phragm and the external intercostals; (2 ) an opposing m ech­
anism which will pull the handles together, corresponding to
the expiratory activity of the internal intercostals and other
muscles; (3 ) a variable orifice, corresponding to variations in
the constrictions at the glottis, and in the vocal tract; and (4)
a spring between the handles, corresponding to the relaxa­
tion pressure, which will exert a considerable force on the
handles when they have been pulled wide part, with contin­
ually increasing force, as soon as the bellows have been
closed beyond their normal unsqueezed position (which cor­
responds to the position of the lungs at the end of a normal
expiration).

Ladefoged’s bellows analogy is equally applicable to a description of


the regulation of subglottic pressure and airflow rate in singing.
However, the breath cycle in singing is almost always of longer dura­
tion than in speech. Following deep inspiration for the requirements
of singing, the expiratory portion of the breath cycle is retarded
through an acquired coordination of the muscles of the torso and
the larynx. Agostoni (1970, pp. 105-106) details glottal response to
subglottic pressure in the phonatory contest:

The breathing pattern during phonation consists of rapid


inspirations and prolonged expirations. During the expira­
tion the vocal cords are drawn together by the adductor
muscles: the subglottic pressure pushes them apart, while
their elastic recoil and the decrease of the lateral pressure
due to the increase of kinetic pressure (Bernoulli principle)
close them again, thus generating a periodic flow. This pro­
duces longitudinal vibrations of the air above the glottis at
the frequency of the fundam ental tone of the voice. . . .
To produce a tone of constant loudness and pitch the
subglottic pressure m ust increase, while the vocal cord ten­
sion m ust decrease in order to keep pitch constant. Phona­
tion requires therefore a fine coordination between the
laryngeal and the chest wall muscles. . . .
The Bernoulli principle mentioned in the quotation holds that
when a gas or a liquid is in motion, less than norm al pressure is
exerted on the surrounding environment. During the vibratory cycle,
the vocal folds draw closer to each other, thereby narrowing the air
passage sufficiently, so that the Bernoulli principle draws them
I hr Supported Singing Voice 23

together, if breath is flowing. Vennard (1967, p. 40) likens the trachea


and larynx to an atomizer, to illustrate the suction force that results
hum the reduction in pressure caused by the flow of air or water.
All hough the arytenoids may be closing at a nearly constant rate, the
vocal folds pull apart after the suction of the air brings them tow ard
«•itch other again.
This principle is of m ajor im portance in understanding the
mechanics of phonation. In exhalation, the velocity of the air stream
nu t eases as it passes through the constriction of the gloltal chink,
11id the vocal folds are sucked tow ard each other. The release of air
i «suits in a sudden decrease in pressure, and "the elasticity of the
voc al-fold tissue, plus the Bernoulli effect, causes the vocal folds to
nap back again into an adducted posture.” (Zemlin, 1981, p. 185.)
Technical skill in singing is largely dependent on the singer's abil-
Ifv lo achieve consistently that fine coordination of airflow and
phonation—the vocal contest—which is determ ined by cooperation
m u >ng the muscles of the larynx and the chest wall, and diaphragmatic
i h i i traction, a dynamic balancing between subglottic pressure and

vocal-fold resistance. Von Leden (1968, p. 56) mentions that "funda­


mental investigations at different laryngeal research institutions
upport the contention that laryngeal efficiency is based mainly
upon an interplay between two physical forces, a fine balance
I>rl ween subglottic pressure and the glottal resistance.” In cultivated
inking, thoracic, diaphragmatic, and abdom inal aspects of respira-
llon must be coordinated (dynamic muscle equilibrium) without
ri.iggerated activity in any one of the three areas. How strange to
Ignore breath m anagem ent if one is a teacher of singing!

THE TECHNIQUE OF APPOGGIO

I’here is an amazingly uniform concept of breath m anagem ent in the


international Italianate school, which has dominated serious twen-
iH'lli-century vocalism. Appoggio cannot narrowly be defined as
breath support,” as is sometimes thought, because appoggio includes
n sonance factors as well as breath management. Appoggio may be
Imnslated as "support” (appoggiarsi a, "to lean upon”). The historic
Italian School did not separate the m otor and resonance facets of
phonation as have some other pedagogies. Appoggio is a system for
i ombining and balancing muscles and o r g a n s of (lie trunk and neck,
i onlrolling their relationships to the supruglottal resonators, so that
no exaggerated function of any one of them upsets the whole. As
defined by Encictopedia Garzanti della musica (1974, p. 17):
24 The Structure of Singing

Appoggio, in the terminology of vocal technique, refers to


the point of appoggio, w hether it be of the abdominal or the
thoracic region w here the maximum m uscular tension is
experienced in singing (appoggio at the diaphragm, appoggio
at the chest), or the part of the facial cavity w here the cervi­
cal resonances of the sound are perceived (appoggio at the
teeth, palatal appoggio, appoggio at the nape of the neck,
and so forth). The points of appoggio vary according to the
type of emission used.

With regard to breath management, appoggio maintains for a


rem arkable period of time a posture near that which pertained at the
beginning of the inspiratory phase of the breath cycle. This initial
posture ensures cooperative muscle activity in the pectoral, epi-
gastric and umbilical regions, and diaphragmatic control. The total
torso is involved. The powerful abdominal m usculature undergirds
the breath mechanism.
A practical description of appoggio follows. In appoggio tech­
nique, the sternum must initially find a moderately high position; this
position is then retained throughout the inspiration-expiration cycle.
Shoulders aie relaxed, but the sternum never slumps. Because the
ribs are attached to the sternum, sternal posture in part determines
diaphragmatic position. If the sternum lowers, the ribs cannot main­
tain an expanded position, and the diaphragm must ascend more
rapidly. Both the epigastric and umbilical regions should be stabil­
ized so that a feeling of internal-external m uscular balance is pres­
ent. This sensation directly influences the diaphragm.
In the latter half of the nineteenth century, Francesco Lamperti
(n.d., p. 33) described the resultant vocal contest ( lotta vocale, also
lutta vocale, and in French, lutte vocale) by which the inspiratory
muscles (term ed "respiratory muscles" by Lamperti) strive to retain
their initial posture against the action of the expiratory muscles,
thereby establishing, for a time, something close to an equilibrium:

To sustain a given note the air should be expelled slowly; to


attain this end, the respiratory [inspiratory] muscles, by con­
tinuing their action, strive to retain the air in the lungs, and
oppose their action to that of the expiratory muscles, which
is called the lotta vocale, or vocal struggle. On the retention
of this equilibrium depends the just emission of the voice,
and by means of it alone can true expression be given to the
sound produced.

In appoggio the region between the sternum and the umbilicus


moves outw ard on inspiration, but the chief outw ard movement
I he Supported Singing Voice 25

m e urs in the lateral planes (see Figure 1.3). This action does not cor-
i espond to the pushing outw ard of the lower abdominal wall (hypo­
gastric, or pubic area; see Figure 1.3 for designated areas of the torso
and abdomen), which is to be found in some breathing techniques,
following the initial expansion, a nearly imperceptible inward motion
i ommences unless consciously resisted internally by counterbalanc­
ing pressure, experienced in the navel region, at the flanks, and in the
lower back regions. The torso remains stable, with almost no move­
ment in the area of the lateral planes; at the close of a long phrase, of
course, some inw ard abdominal movement is apparent. There
hould be an awareness, when inhaling, of transverse expansion, the
result of antagonism of the anterolateral muscles. These muscles
include those of the rectus sheath, the rectus abdominis, the external
and internal obliques, and the transversus abdominis. (See Fig­
ures 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4.)
Lateral distention is experienced at the level of the tenth rib and
immediately below, between the tenth rib and the crest of the ilium
(the hip bone). Balance of m uscular action is felt both in the frontal
i egions (thoracic, epigastric and umbilical) and in the lateral-poste­
rior (also lumbodorsal) areas (see Figures 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4).
In the technique of appoggio little or no feeling occurs in the
l>eetoral region in inspiration, even though the pectoral muscles con-
«i ibute to the supportive framework. Although the lower abdomen
(hypogastric, or pubic, region) does not distend, there is a feeling of
muscular connection from sternum to pelvis (see Figure 2.3). How­
ever, to move out the lower abdom en either during inspiration or
during the execution of a phrase, as some singers are taught to do, is
foreign to appoggio technique. Equally alien is the practice of pulling
inward on the pubic area as a means of "supporting” the voice.
W hether the singer is breathing or singing, the same general pos-
lure should apply. As breath is expelled, some slight modification of
posture ensues, but the singer’s intent is to keep such postural
i hanges to a minimum. This stabilized position would seem to be
what Giovanni Battista Lam perti (1931, p. 36) had in mind when he
asked, "Why should you get out of position while adding more
energy to your breath power?”
The "position of singing” must remain throughout the act of
•mging. "Sing in the position of breathing—breathe in the position of
.mging” expresses this postural attitude. Posture need not be altered
lor the renewal of the breath.
No initial sensation of grabbing or holding the breath should be
associated with singing. When a singer leels extreme muscle resis­
tance to inhalation, in either pectoral or abdominal regions, a "full”
26 The Structure of Singing

Lateral
cutaneous branches
of intercostal nerves

External Intercostal

Internal Intercostal

Innerm ost

Jn to ritM l O b liq u e —

Figure 2.2. The intercostals, the lower ribs, and the muscles of the abdomen,
showing the com m on direction of the fibers of the external intercostal and
external oblique muscles, and the continuity of the internal intercostal with
the internal oblique m uscles at the anterior ends of the 9th, 10th, and 11th
intercostal spaces. (From J. C. Boileau Grant, An Atlas of Anatomy, 5th ed.,
1962. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins Company. By permission.)

or “deep” breath is not the cause; unnecessary muscle antagonism is


taking place. In primitive valvular function, glottal closure is the
norm al response to tension in the costal and abdom inal regions. It is
to be avoided in singing.
In inspiration for singing, the lungs should never feel crow ded—
only satisfied. Ewald Hering and Joseph Breuer were pioneers in the
study of the reflex control of breathing. They drew attention to the
Hie Supported Singing Voice 27

'.onsory aspects of the reflex pathways to and from the lung during
Ilie respiratory cycle. With regard to lung distention:
[T]he prevailing degree of distention of the lung contributes

l igure 2.3. Dissection of the muscles of the right side of the trunk. The
external oblique has been removed to show the intmuil oblique, but its digi­
tal ions from the ribs have been preserved. The sheath ol the rectus lias been
opened and its anterior wall removed. (From (iruv's Anatomy, 36th ed., 1980,
id |>v Peter I- Williams & Rogei Warwick l.dinhmgh ( lum hill Living­
stone. By permission.)
28 The Structure of Singing

M . obi. abd. ext.


Origo m . ob
abd. e x t. >
ragin. muse, recti,
lamina ant. X

rectus abdom.

Vag. muse, re
lam ina ant, alba (lata)

M. transv. abd
e t Linea semilanc
(Spigeli)

M. obi. abd. int.


Aponeurosis m. obi
abd. .e x t.

inea alba (angusta)

M. obi. abd. Int.


X itM .c r tm a ttir

Fun/culu» i p tr m a l

Cru» In ftr lu

(■'rui i i i / w /m

Figure 2.4. Muscles of the abdomen. (From O. Schultze, Topographische


Anatomie, 4th ed., ed. by Wilhelm Lubosch, 1935. Munich: J. F. Lehmanns
Verlag. By permission, Springer-Verlag.)

a modifying influence on the movements of breathing. . . .


The lung, when it becomes more expanded by inspiration, or
by inflation, exerts an inhibitory effect on inspiration and
promotes expiration, and this effort is the greater the
stronger the expansion. (Hering, 1868, p. 361).
“Crowding” the lungs will induce a quicker rate of expiration. The
singer who takes an "easy” breath, who thereby merely "replenishes”
the breath that has been used, will have a longer breath supply than
does the singer who "crowds” the lungs with breath. Even in the case
of the long phrase, expiratory reflexes will be under better control if
the singer avoids exaggerated expansion. Breathing clavicularly gives
the impression that the lungs are filled with breath, when actually
the sensation the singer is experiencing is muscle tension, not lung
expansion. Therefore, the proper "low" breath may at first seem less
complete to the singer who is unaccustom ed to transferring the sen-
I hr Supported Singing Voice 29

.«Iion of a full breath from the pectoral region to the region of the
truth l ib. However, in order to avoid high-chest (clavicular) breath-*
ItiH, the chest and sternum must be relatively high so that the
muscles of the torso may move outward. (No expanding of the pec­
tin ills should occur with the intake of breath; they are positioned
it»ther high, but they do not "feel" further expansion with inspira-
IIon.) A complete, not a “crowded,” inspiration is appropriate.
Silent inspiration is the hallm ark of appoggio. Noise, it should be
i i t ailed, results from resistance of the throat to inspired air.
Whether taken in quickly or spread out over a period of time (how-
i vn paced), w hether through nose (which requires m ore time) or
11 trough mouth, the process of inspiration remains the same in the
•ippoggio technique. Above all, the breath for singing must be
Inaudible.
11 might be logically presum ed that all techniques of singing
■mbrace this functionally efficient approach to breath management,
nid that persons dealing professionally with singers recognize noise-
Ir .s inspiration as part of correct vocal production. To the contrary,
ilu-re are teachers of singing who hold that a noisy inspiration indi-
. .ilcs an "open th ro at” ("Let’s hear you open that throat!”) and there
in- coaches and conductors, as well as accompanists, who find
ilirmselves disoriented unless the singer inhales noisily. Such view-
I» unts indicate serious lapses of technical knowledge regarding both
I'nod vocal function and good singing.
The exercises that follow are based on functional efficiency as
Induced by the appoggio technique.

Breath Management Exercises without Phonation


I'honation cannot take place until adduction of the glottis occurs.
However, learning how to manage the breath efficiently for singing
• .in be assisted through silent breathing exercises that prepare for
llu* proper prephonatory position.

EXERCISE 2.1
RAISE THE ARMS ABOVE THE HEAD. RETURN THE ARMS TO THE SIDES
WHILE RETAINING THE MODERATELY HIGH POSTURE (Il THU STERNUM
AND RIB CAGE. IF THE CHEST, AT THIS POINT, CANNOT BE RAISED
SOMEWHAT HIGHER WITH AN UPWARD THRUST (Il I III', STERNUM, THU
IIASK IÏIORACIC POSTURE IS TOO HIGH; II THE < III ST SINKS DURING
I I I I 1ER INSPIRATION OR EXPIRATION, THU INITIAI 111(IWAt l( POSTURE WAS
NOT SUFFICIENTLY HIGH.
BREATHE IN AND OUT, EASILY AND SILENTLY, MAKING CERTAIN THAT
30 The Structure of Singing

THE STERNUM DOES NOT FALL AND THAT THE RIB CAGE DOES NOT
COLLAPSE. THE EPIGASTRIUM AND THE UMBILICAL REGION, AS WELL AS
THE RIB CAGE, MOVE OUTWARD WITH INSPIRATION. AT COMMENCEMENT
OF EXPIRATION, A SLIGHT INWARD MOVEMENT IS EXPERIENCED IN THE
UMBILICAL AREA, BUT NEITHER THE STERNUM NOR THE RIBS SHOULD
CHANGE POSITION. THE EXERCISE SHOULD BE ACCOMPLISHED BY
BREATHING THROUGH THE NOSE. FOLLOWING SEVERAL
INSPIRATION-EXPIRATION CYCLES OF NOSE BREATHING, THE SAME CYCLE
SHOULD THEN BE PRACTICED BY BREATHING THROUGH THE MOUTH. IT IS
ESSENTIAL THAT THE STRUCTURAI. SUPPORT (POSTURE) AND THE
QUIESCENT VOCAL TRACT REMAIN UNCHANGED, W HETHER BREATH IS
TAKEN THROUGH THE NOSE OR THROUGH THE MOUTH. THERE SHOULD BE
COMPLETE SILENCE DURING BOTH INHALATION AND EXHALATION.

EXERCISE 2.2
RECLINE ON A FLAT SURFACE. BE CERTAIN THE HEAD IS NOT TILTED
BACKWARD Wi l l I ELEVATED CHIN (HEAD AND SHOULDERS SHOULD BE IN
LINE). USUALLY, 1)1 1*1 NDIN<. O N HOW T ill. HEAD SITS NATURALLY ON THE
SHOULDERS, IT WII I 111 NECESSARY TO PLACE A BOOK UNDER THE HEAD
TO AVOID BACKWARD TILTING. BREATHE QUIETLY THROUGH PARTED LIPS,
T ill II Al IIANI i BRIDGING n i l I TK.ANTRIC AND UMBILICAL REGIONS (THE
AREA BETWEEN H IE NAVEL AND THE STERNUM). OBSERVE THAT THE
EPIGASTRIC-UMBILICAL AREA MOVES OUTWARD BUT THAT THE LOWER
AUDOMI N (HYPOGASTRIC, OR PUBIC AREA) DOES NOT, UNLESS PURPOSELY
PUSHED OUTWARD. (FOR A MOMENT, MOVE OUT THE LOWER ABDOMINAL
WAI L; NOTICE n i l INWARD COLLAPSE: OF THE RIB CAGE WHEN ONE
THRUSTS OUT THE LOWER ABDOMEN. THE FALSENESS OF LOW ABDOMINAL
DISTENTION AS A PART OF INHALATION WILL BE APPARENT AT ONCE.) THE
CHEST NEITHER RISES NOR FALLS DURING THE BREATH CYCLE (OR ONLY
SLIGHTLY), BECAUSE OF THE POSTURAL ALIGNMENT OF THE BODY IN THIS
RECUMBENT POSITION. BREATH INTAKE IS TOTALLY QUIET, AS IS BREATH
EXPULSION. MAINTAINING THIS RELATIONSHIP OF HEAD, NECK, AND
SHOULDERS, RISE TO A "NOBLE" STANDING POSITION. ALTHOUGH THE
DIAPHRAGM IS NOT IN EXACTLY THE SAME POSITION IN STANDING AND
LYING, THE AXIAL ALIGNMENT OF THE BODY IS SIMILAR IN BOTH
POSITIONS.

In both of these exercises there should be no sensation of


"crowding” the lungs, nor should there be any sensation of "holding”
or "storing” the breath.
The following exercises prolong the events of the breath cycle.
Many teachers of singing believe that Exercise 2.3 was used by the
lamous castrato Farinelli. Although there is no written historical cor­
roboration, tradition maintains that Farinelli daily practiced this
exerc ise for long periods of time. He did so, it is thought, because he
I hr Supported Singing Voice 31

i •mid train the breath m usculature essential to singing without tiring


Ilu- voice. Some teachers attribute Farinelli’s reputed astounding
lucath control, and his ability to renew breath silently and imper-
i rptibly, to this exercise. If tension occurs during the suspension-ex-
IDilution aspect, the exercise is not being properly executed.

i XERCISE 2.3:
INHALE WHILE MENTALLY COUNTING FROM 1 TO 5 AT A MODERATE TEMPO,
MAIN I AINING ABSOLUTE SILENCE. KEEP PRECISE RHYTHM HY TAPPING A
I W GER OR PENCIL. A METRONOME ALSO MAY BE HELPFUL. LIPS SHOULD
I II PARTED THROUGHOUT THE THREE PARTS OF THE EXERCISE. COMPLETE

I II IT UNFORCED EXPANSION OF THE RIBS AND OF THE MUSCLES OF THE


11MIIILICAL-EPIGASTRIC AREA AND OF THE LUMBAR AREA SHOULD BE
Ml AI.IZED.
SUSPEND THE BREATH WITHOUT ANY SENSATION OF HOLDING IT
(1 ,1 OTTIS REMAINS OPEN, AN ACTION SOMETIMES TERMED "THE VAN DEN
III RG MANEUVER" IN THE FIELD OF PHONIATRICS), WITHOUT ANY
MUSCULAR TENSION IN EITHER THE VOCAL TRACT OR THE TORSO. THE
l'< JSITION OF THE RIB CAGE AND THE ABDOMINAL WALL IS RETAINED
WHILE SILENTLY COUNTING FROM 1 TO 5 AT THE ORIGINAL TEMPO.
EXHALE SILENTLY, MAINTAINING AS FAR AS POSSIBLE THE SAME
l*<ISTURE OF STERNUM AND RIB CAGE, COUNTING 1 TO 5. THERE SHOULD
III RHYTHMIC CONTINUITY BETWEEN THE THREE PHASES OF THE
I XERCISE (INHALATION, SUSPENSION, AND EXHALATION). IMMEDIATELY
I HI I .OWING COMPLETION OF THE THREE-PART BREATH CYCLE OF 1
111 ROUGH 5, MOVE WITHOUT PAUSE TO A CYCLE OF 1 THROUGH 6 , PASSING
111 ROUGH THE THREE SUCCESSIVE PHASES OF THE EXERCISE; IN THIS
I ASIIION, INCREASE THE NUMBERS UNTIL 9, 10, OR PERHAPS 12 COUNTS
HAVE BEEN ACHIEVED.

Exercise 2.3 may be graphed in this way:

Inhale Suspend Exhale


1 2 3 4 5 ---------------- - 1 2 3 4 5 ----------------- - 1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5 6 -------------- - 1 2 3 4 5 6 --------------►1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 -------------1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ----------- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 --------- -1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ---------M 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 -------H 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ------ ►1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10— 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 — 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

As the num erical count is increased, inhalation will <>1 necessity be


paced over a period of time so that "partial breaths" must be intro­
duced. The inhalatory process will be momentarily suspended at sev­
eral points before complete lung capacity has been reached; inhalation
will not be one continuous gesture. There will be several inspiratory
32 The Structure of Singing

phases without any intervening exhalation during the mental counting


to, for example, 10. These additional inhalations alternate with brief
moments of suspension of the breath, all within the single inspiratory
gesture. There may be several such suspensions before full expansion
is reached. This terraced inspiration is the "half breath,” the "partial
breath,” what Giovanni Battista Lamperti (1931, p. 65) termed
"thimbles-fuH” of breath.

Breath M anagem ent Exercises with Sibilants


and Fricatives

EXERCISE 2.4: PROLONGATION OF THE SIBILANT [s]


CONTROL OF MUSCLES OF THE TORSO DURING EXHALATION CAN BE
GAINED BY THE USE OF Till'. PROLONGED SIBILANT. SOUND IS INTRODUCED,
BUT SUSTAINED PITCH IS NOT. A "NOBLE” CHEST POSTURE SHOULD FIRST
BE ESTABLISHED FOLLOWING SILENT INSPIRATION, BREATH IS EXHALED
VERY SLOWLY WHILE SUSTAINING A CONSTANT SIBILANT NOISE. THE
SOUND SHOULD BE BARELY AUDIBLE.
ONI HAND IS PLACED ON THF. EPIGASTRIC-UMBILICAL REGION, THE
OTHER HAND ON THE FLANKS JIJST BELOW THE RIB CAGE. THE ABDOMINAL
WAI I GIVES NO INITIAL INWARD IMPULSE NOR DOES IT MOVE INWARD
DURING TIIF. EXERCISE. UNTIL THE LAST FEW SECONDS. THE AIM OF THE
EXE RCISE IS TO MAINTAIN THE RIB CAGE AND THE ABDOMINAL WALL NEAR
TO THE INSPIRATORY POSITION THROUGHOUT MOST OF THE EXERCISE.
EVENTUALLY THE ABDOMEN MUST MOVE INWARD, AT THE CLOSE OF THE
EXPIRATION, BUT THE RIB CAGE REMAINS LONGER IN THE POSTURE OF
INSPIRATION, AND THE STERNUM DOES NOT LOWER.

The exercise should take 40 to 50 seconds. (Time it with a watch


that has a second hand.) Subsequent cycles, consecutively executed
with a quick but silent breath, may at first be difficult. The exercise goes
to the heart of inspiratory-expiratory control. Longer breath cycles
become possible with practice.

EXERCISE 2.5: THE AUDIBLE PANT


PANT AUDIBLY, THOUGH GENTLY. SUPPLE, FLEXIBLE, AGILE MOTION OF THE
ABDOMINAL MUSCULATURE IS FELT BY THE HAND PLACED ON THE
UMBILICAL-EPIGASTRIC REGION. THE SURFACE MOVEMENT INDICATES
RAPID INHALATION-EXHALATION PATTERNS. IF GLOTTAL ADDUCTION WERE
INTRODUCED, RAPID ONSET VOCALISES WOULD RESULT.

EXERCISE 2.6: THE SILENT PANT


PANT SILENTLY AND AS RAPIDLY AS POSSIBLE. ESTABLISH THE PATTERN OF
UMBILICAL EPIGASTRIC MOTION PRESEN T IN Till'. AUDIBLE PANT, WITHOUT
I hr Supported Singing Voice 33

'.I HINI), AND WITHOUT ACTUAL INHALATION AND EXHALATION TAKING


I'lACE. EPIGASTRIC MUSCLE ACTION IS NOW INDEPENDENT OF THE
HIM ATH CYCLE.

I he ability to induce this abdominal m uscular movement, inde-


Iu ndent of breath action, is essential when agility and rapid intervallic
,n I k illation are required. Such umbilical-epigastric motion is som e­
times term ed (too narrowly) "the bouncing diaphragm." (see
< hapter 3.)

I XliRCISE 2.7: RAPID EXECUTION OF THE VOICELESS


I AllIODENTAL FRICATIVE CONTINUANT [f]
IIIIS EXERCISE IS BASED ON THE EPIGASTRIC IMPULSE NECESSITATED BY
l ill ,11 EREQUENCY VIBRATIONS THAT RESULT WHEN AIR PASSES THROUGH
h ie : NARROW APERTURE OF THE LABIODENTAL ORIFICE. THE
I \ I’ENDITURE OF BREATH MUST BE AT A SOMEWHAT HIGH LEVEL, YET
I MISSION OF THE BREATH IS CONTROLLED BY THE ABDOMINAL
Ml ISCULATURE AND, IN TURN, BY THE RESULTING IMPACT ON THE
NARROWED LABIODENTAL ORIFICE (KANTNER AND WEST, 1960, P. 145).
ONE HAND SHOULD BE PLACED ON THE UMBILICAL-EPIGASTRIC
r I ( .ION, THE OTHER JUST BELOW THE RIBS AND ABOVE THE ILIAC CREST
i IITERMOST PORTION OF THE PELVIS), AT THE SIDE OF THE BODY. A QUIET
n i 'I ATH SHOULD BE TAKEN, PACED OVER SEVERAL SECONDS, FOLLOWED
IlV A SERIES OF RAPID, LABIODENTAL FRICATIVE CONTINUANT NOISES,
HI PRESENTED PHONETICALLY BY THE SYMBOL [f],
SUFFICIENT IMPULSE SHOULD BE GIVEN EACH FRICATIVE IN THE
I KIES SO THAT ABDOMINAL MOTION IS DISTINCT. YET THE EXIT OF THE
I I HEATH MUST BE SO CONTROLLED THAT A SERIES OF SHORT EXPULSIONS

I AN OCCUR ON ONE BREATH WITHOUT ANY COLLAPSE OF THE RIB CAGE,


VVI III NO LOWERING OF THE STERNUM, AND WITH MINIMAL INWARD
l( 1 1ION OF THE UMBILICAL-EPIGASTRIC REGION.

I'XERCISE 2.8: SLOW EXECUTION OF THE VOICELESS


I AIIIODENTAL FRICATIVE CONTINUANT [f]
I I IIS EXERCISE IS A VERY OLD ONE, LONG ASSOCIATED WITH THE
IN I l ,UNATIONAL ITALIANATE SCHOOL. THE SINGER IS REQUESTED TO
III <>W OUT SIX OR EIGHT CANDLES SUCCESSIVELY WITH ONE BREATH, B ill
Wl III SEPARATE ABDOMINAL IMPULSES.” THE EXERCISE SHOULD III DONE.
I N SUCCESSIVE PHASES, PERHAPS FOUR TIMES IN A ROW, WITH A DEEP AND
Ml IN I INHALATION AFTER EACH SERIES:

[ f f f f f f ] ’ [f f f f f f f f f ] * [f f f f f f | *

MIRING THE STACCATO EXECUTION OF THE PHONEME |l |, NO PART OF THE


AN I EROI.ATERAL WALL SHOULD BE DRAWN INWARD; AN
IN IERNAL-EXTERNAL BALANCE OF THE ABDOMINAL MUSI IILATURE
MIOIII.D B in 'll!? AIM STERNUM AND RIB CAGE REMAIN STATIONARY.
34 The Structure of Singing

Breath Management Exercises Involving Phonation


Control over three specifics of breath pacing (breath management) is
essential to efficient function in singing: ( 1 ) the rate and ease of each
initial inhalation; (2 ) the variable rate of breath emission (in response
to phrase demand); and (3) the quiet renewal of breath energy
(replenishment of the source of power).
The exercises that follow systematically drill these three aspects
of control. They establish the appropriate prephonatory tuning, the
dynamic muscle equilibrium appropriate to subsequent phonation.
Comments by van den Berg ( 1968d, p. 140) at a symposium for the
New York Academy of Sciences seem to verify the need for the res­
piratory precision these vocalises attem pt to establish. (Previous dis­
cussion had been concerned with possible actions of laryngeal and
intercostal muscles, the diaphragm, the accessory muscles of the
upper torso, and the mechanical relationships of the rib cage and
diaphragm in phonation):

|T |he trained singer and the trained speaker achieve their


line control by means of a balance between expiratory and
inspiratory muscles. . . . In this respect I might suggest that
all these muscles enter into this balance; otherwise there
wonlil be a weak place somewhere. I might com pare this
balance with a balance of forces when one m easures the
reaction time of a finger that is to press a button for an
acoustic signal. This reaction time is long if one activates the
agonists [contracting muscles opposed in action by other
muscles called antagonists] after the receipt of the signal;
i.e., if all muscles are inactive before the signal. The reaction
time is m uch shorter when both the agonists and the an­
tagonists are already active before the signal, the antagonist
releasing and the agonist becoming more active upon
receipt of the signal.
Most of the exercises that follow are easy and do not have to be
practiced in order to be mastered. However, their value lies in their
function as systematic m aterial for coordinating fast respiration-
phonation responses.
These vocalises may be sung on any vowel. An initial m etro­
nomic m arking of J = 5 0 is in order, but tem po should be varied.
There should be no "overstuffing”; the ability to relax the glottis, and
to take a silent breath, is essential for accomplishing fine respiratory-
phonatory control. Regardless of the speed with which breath is
renewed, each inspiration must be totally inaudible.
Pitch level should be lower middle voice, adjusted to keys
I hr Supported Singing Voice 35

appropriate to each category of voice. As skill increases, pitch levels


iit.tv both rise and lower from the medium pitch level. (Keys here
Indicated are for lyric soprano and tenor voices.)
Rhythmic accuracy should be carefully observed, including the
duration of the final note of each vocalise.

I XIRCISE 2.9: RENEWAL OF BREATH ENERGY DURING


l(X TENDED PAUSES

F F j = — ...■■■ n
” c *r i —
T l h ii — — Mh ii —
a h ii — i
;Ë 1

(any vowel)

I XERCISE 2.10: MODERATELY-PACED RENEWAL OF BREATH


I NERGY
* ? 9 ?
n - ......... ----- ------ =l------
-------M ------
i i r. - “ — - -, - -■» — - <v _r „

(any vowel)

r il IAl ATION IS PACED OVER TWO BEATS, TAKEN NEITHER TOO EARLY
H iR TOO LATE FOR THE SUBSEQUENT ATTACK.

I XI RCISE 2.11: QUICKLY-PACED RENEWAL OF BREATH ENERGY


III TWEEN ONSETS
7 7 7 7 7 7
tt ---------------------1
----- i 7 i 7— 1
---------------------H -------1
--------------------- h n

J i -J \ ..i - ........
4'
" 0~

(any vowel)

II /'. APPARENT THAT THE SINGER DOES N O T NEED TO R E N E W BREATH


hi I HI I N THE FOURTH AND FIRST BEATS OF THE BAR. THE PURPOSE IS TO
HI \ I I t ) / ’ THE ABILITY TO R E L A X THE GLOTTIS WITH THE BREATH,
III I. A RIM.ESS OF LUNG CAPACITY, AND TO DO SO WITHOUT
i n I HCROWDING

I XI RCISE 2.12: QUICKLY-PACED RENEWAL OF BREATH ENERGY


WITHIN A CONTINUING PHRASE

Ü h H T f ï ï i n j IT I’II I
(imy vowel)
36 The Structure of Singing

IN THIS VOCALISE, THE SINGER MUST LEARN TO REGULATE RELATIVELY


QUICK INHALATIONS WITHOUT ALTERING THE "POSITION OF SINGING,”
THAT IS, THE PREPHONATORY TUNING OF THE LARYNGEAL MUSCULATURE,
AND OF THE SUPRAGLOTTAL VOCAL TRACT DURING RENEWAL OF THE SO-
CALLED "PARTIAL” BREATHS.

EXERCISE 2.13: ALTERNATION OF FULL AND “PARTIAL” BREATH


ENERGY RENEWAL

y 1 7
- * r'
= 1—
i f - F - --p—p— ftf—
4 — = -------------- Ë
•t—A—
4- J - J -
(any vowel)

r T
*---- ---- * ------ — &-

THIS VOCALISE HAS V A I.lll. ONLY I! THE PHRASE AND BREATH


INDIC AH O N S ARI S IRK 11 Y OBSERVED. THE QUICKLY-PACED BREATHS IN
HAK I MAY AT FIRST APPF.AR EXCESSIVE; THEY PURPOSELY DEMAND A
1)1 I K A I I ADJUSTMENT OF SUBGI.OTTIC PRESSURE AND OF GLOTTAL
RI I AXATK)N t i l l IREEDOM TO R l lA X THE GLOTTIS AND TO REPLENISH
THI IMEA III (NO MA I TER H O W QUICK A TRANSACTION) IS INDICATIVE OF
PRECISE INSPIRA TOR Y-PHONA TOR Y COORDINA TION.

EXERCISE 2.14: RENEWAL OF BREATH ENERGY WITHIN


BRIEFER AND LONGER PHRASES

(any vowel)

t o - P V ' * — i
f— — 0 -------------

THE SMALL, SILENT ACTIONS OF BREATH RENEWAL MAKE THIS VOCALISE


IMPORTANT FOR ACHIEVING CORRECT POSTURAL AND LARYNGEAL
RELATIONSHIPS, WHILE ADDING TO BREATH ENERGY.
I lie Supported Singing Voice 37

IX ERCISE 2.15: RENEWAL OF BREATH ENERGY IN


AL TERNATING BRIEF AND EXTENDED PHRASES
y ------v [ y __ y y _ y __ y

(any vowel)

^ • j j •• I

The ability to relax the glottis, and to renew breath capacity


il whatever rate of occurrence, is fundam ental to dynamic, flexible
muscle adjustm ents in singing. To avoid static hypogastric or
, pigastric distention, the delicate balancing of the m uscular activity
in the anterolateral abdominal wall and the laryngeal m uscular
i ( sponse should be drilled through such traditional vocalises as these.

BREATH-PACING VERSUS “MORE SUPPORT”

Almost any vocalise is a breath-m anagem ent exercise. Vocalises


Indicated in this book as useful in developing precision in the onset
tii c* equally concerned with breath management. Exercises devoted
In the development of agility and sostenuto are also breath-man-
.ifi-ment vocalises. Any error in vocal technique, or any accomplish­
ment of technical skill in singing, usually can be traced to techniques
nl breath management; control of the breath is synonymous with
«ontrol of the singing instrument.
Perhaps this explains why the most frequent expression in vocal
pedagogy seems to be "more support.” To the poor voice student,
m li advice must appear a catchall nostrum that automatically sur-
l.u es when the teacher’s ingenuity fails. (Can it be denied that this
perception may be accurate?)
Unless the singer, either student or professional, understands the
delicate physical balances appropriate to the shifting dem ands of
h e a th management, to call for "more support” only complicates the
i.isk of balancing subglottic pressure, airflow rale, and vocal-fold
approximation. In fact, it may well be that too much muscle activity
It present in the torso; requesting "more support" may only exacer­
bate problems of dynamic muscle equilibrium
The Structure of Singing

Such directions as "fill out the rubber tire,” "expand the bal­
loon," "open out the spine,” and "squeeze the dime” usually result in
unnecessary pressure on the viscera; thrusting out the abdominal
wall another inch, pushing or stretching with the dorsal muscles, and
a still heavier anal sphincteral closure are actions that inhibit free­
dom of breath control.
In opposition to "more support,” pacing of the breath is recom ­
mended. Control over the speed and ease of inhalation, and over the
expiratory rate, can be acquired in a systematic manner, as indi­
cated in the previous vocalises.
Contrary to what is sometimes assumed, exercises aimed at
increasing the time during which breath can be "held” have ques­
tionable value as aids in breath control. Such exercises are based on
an extreme degree of subglottic pressure and static laryngeal func­
tion; they tend to induce earlier breath expulsion. Breath-holding
exercises are often thought to increase vital capacity, but lung capac­
ity does not necessarily relate to the art of singing. The important
factor is that, through training, the singer can learn a more efficient
use- of expanded capacity (W. J. Gould, 1977, p. 4).
By now it must be clear that systems of breath control which
consciously induce the collapse of the rib cage, request a "relaxed”
sternum, promulgate lower abdominal distention, or require inward
movement of the abdom en in inspiration, are contrary to function­
ally efficient practices of breath management for singing.
In summation:
1. Breath m anagem ent is partly determined by the singer’s concept
of what takes place physiologically during the inhalation-exhalation
cycle. The singer ought not to base a m ethod of “support” on incor­
rect information regarding the physical processes involved in singing.

2. The same breath coordination of the appoggio technique occurs


w hether a complete breath is taken within a split second or paced
over a longer period, w hether through nose or mouth.

3. Cultivation of the so-called "partial” breath is as essential to good


vocal technique as the ability to take the "full” breath.

4. Good physical condition is necessary to proper coordination, but


breath capacity and m anagem ent are largely determined by skill and
not through the enlargement of organs or muscles. Breath-holding
exercises teach one to hold the breath and have little to do with lung
expansion or with muscle coordination during phonation.
I he Supported Singing Voice 39

5. In order for inhalation to be efficient (avoiding m aladjustm ent of


any part of the vocal tract), it m ust be silent. (In cum ulative phrases,
minimal sound of breath intake may be heard occasionally even
in skillful singing, but such noise should be kept to the barest
minimum.)
ft. Tension is not "support.” Increased muscle resistance is not
necessarily an indication of better breath management.
7. "Relaxation” is a relative term; breathing involves muscle antag­
onism (and synergism) just as does any other physical activity.
Energy for the singing voice dem ands muscle coordination between
the breath source (the motor) and the larynx (the vibrator).
8 . During the "vocal contest” (la lotta vocale), suppleness, agility,
and flexibility characterize the activity of the diaphragm and the
epigastrium and the muscles of the thorax and neck. A noble posture
permits such activity. Prephonatory exactitude combines breath and
phonation. Such precision may be acquired through the systematic
drill of breath m anagem ent—breath pacing—exercises.
CHAPTER 3

Agility in Singing
Flexible Application of Breath Power

Passages th a t m ove swiftly—fioriture, Rouladen, rapid melismas,


em bellishm ent, and trill—are not decorations on the surface of vocal
technique. The sam e um bilical-epigastric control th at perm its the
precise onset, the staccato, the pant, and the execution of velocity or
co lo ratu ra passages ;ilso produces the sostenuto (the sustained line)
in singing. Both staccato and legato articulation require prephona-
tory m uscle activity, which Astraquillo et al. (1977, p. 516) term MAP
(m uscle action potential):

With both staccato and legato articulation, m uscle activity is


seen preceding the onset of the voice. MAP phasic activity is
evident . . . in the following instances: (1) in staccato exer­
cises at high pitch and high intensity, (2) in rapid legato and
agililv exercises for ;ill types of voices executed in three
dynam ic levels, and (3) in air depletion at th e end of a
phrase.

Agility and sostenuto are opposing poles of vocal proficiency, but


both are produced by th e sam e m uscle participants. Dynam ic m u s­
cle balance is determ ined by synergism of m uscles of th e torso, con­
sisting of alternating m ovem ents of engagem ent and disengagem ent
at a rapidly occurring rate, and the responding supple adjustm ents
of the m uscles and tissues of the larynx. Strength and flexibility are
brought into balance.
It is essential to any vocal category, w hether or not the literature
of th a t vocal type dem ands it, th a t agility be p a rt of the singer’s daily
practice. A basso profundo is as m uch in need of the technical facil­
ity of agility as is the co lo ra tu ra soprano. Unless th e singer, reg a rd ­
less of vocal classification, is able to negotiate running passages and
m elism as cleanly, sostenuto passages will lack ease of production.
In spite of skillful technique th at retard s the upw ard co u rs­
ing of the diaphragm during expiration, such diaphragm atic ascent
begins, to som e degree, soon after the inspiratory phase of the breath
cycle is com pleted. M uch of th e technique of singing is to delay the
rate of expiration (the first tw o chapters of this book are largelv

40
Iijilllv in Singing 41

il* voted to establishing th a t capability), but m uscle rigidity cannot


' Hit lently accom plish such a delaying action. A lternation of m uscle
ini'.ion and relaxation depends on the presence of flexibility. Good
iiit'ing com bines b oth pow er and flexibility.
I liere is a dan g er during sustained singing, especially when the
It - il lira is high and th e w riting is dram atic, to fix an energy level. At
in li m om ents, the im agination is kindled, the flow of adrenaline
tin l eases, the body is keyed up, and th e full athleticism of the singer
i . In ought into play. S uch passages risk introducing tension and sub-
etpient vocal fatigue. How can a singer reveal the pow erful, exprcs-
iive sweep of the voice and still rem ain free? The answ er lies in the
ii'ilily factor. Even if the clim actic phrase consists of a series of
whole notes at slow tem po, agileness m ust be present.
Although the sensation of agile dynam ic m uscle balance m ust be
uhjectively experienced, certain of its hallm arks can be identified:
l'dom inai m uscle antagonism (appoggio) feels both firm and supple;
pow er and energy are not static conditions; b rea th renew al rem ains
I'HNy.
The feeling of suppleness in fast-m oving m elism atic passages is
ikin to the um bilical-epigastric m ovem ent experienced in rapid,
■lient panting. (See C hapter 2.) This m ovem ent in the anterior
nlidom inal wall resem bles quick staccato onset activity, incorpo-
i tiled, however, into the articulated legato.
Although th ere is a relationship betw een the function of properly
articulated legato passages and staccato articulation, all tendency
tow ard aspiration as a device for articulating m oving pitches m ust
lie avoided. The a m a te u r chorister m ay resort to interpolated “ha-ha-
Iiii h a” syllables as a m eans for achieving clean m oving passages, but
the skilled singer m ay not.
Equally undesirable is the substitution of straight-tone for
vibrant tim bre, simply b ecau se th e pitches m ove quickly. Melismas
111list be sung w ith the sam e vibrancy as in sustained passages.
The four parts th a t m ake up th e m echanism of singing—
energizing, vibratory, resonatory and articulatory—can be system ati-
i ally drilled into an integrated whole. Astraquillo et al. (1977, p. 499)
Identify these factors as p a rt of “the instantaneous body-voice co­
ordination” of the singer:
The singer coordinates the resonating space, vocal cord
vibration, and the volum e of th e total phonatory tra c t with
the expiratory effort which produces the pressure and flow
of air needed to drive the larynx. D uring phonation, in the
production of a tone of constant pitch and loudness, the
subglottic pressure and the airflow through the larynx
42 The S tructu re of Singing

re m a in c o n sta n t. . . . [T]he e n tire m ec h a n ism d e sc rib e d


[here] fo r singing depends upon the instantaneous body-
voice coordination as determ ined by abdom inal m uscular
control.
Agility pattern s play an im portant role in inducing efficient
coordination am ong the sep arate parts of the vocal m echanism .
Such p attern s are to be alternated with exercises still to be con­
sidered, such as those th at deal with sostenuto, registration, reso n a­
to r adjustm ent, vowel m odification, and dynam ic control.

EXERCISES FOR THE ACQUISITION OF AGILITY

B ecause of the necessity to organize the technical factors of singing


in som e system atic wav, agility patterns are grouped here together.
They are progressively difficult (som e patterns are m ore difficult for
one singer than for another). In the following exercises, the direction
of pitch is often altered, rhythm ic p attern s are varied, and nar-
row a m i wide intervallic leaps are juxtaposed, som etim es within the
sam e vocalise. Only a lte r m astery of the less-com plicated agility
vocalises should the singer m ove on to the m ore difficult exercises.
Each vocalise is to be sung in several neighboring keys, series-wise.
Usually, they should be first sung in m iddle voice; range is to be
expanded as ease develops. Exercises 3.21 th ro u g h 3.24 are for the
technically advanced singer.

EXERCISE 3.2
Ii;i/i7v in S inging 43

I M R C ISE 3.3

I M R C ISE 3.4

4 c -J_J.
t' r:i
.If—J-J..J-..-‘Lf-..-J-J..j . J
r„i
[i] [e] [a]
la ] [e] [i]
[o] M [u]

I M RCISE 3.5

[<] [e] [a]


[e] [a] [>]
[o] [o] tu]

1 M RCISE 3.6

[>] [e] [a]


[o] [a] [u]

I M K C ISE 3.7
44 The S tru ctu re o f S in gin g

EXERCISE 3.8
> » >
BE g £
[>] [e] [a]
[U] [e] [i]
[O] [i] [u]

EXERCISE 3.9

I I -‘■'■I I I 1__ J
"T J J J J g
[a]
[e] [i]
[e] [o]

EXERCISE 3.10

[I] tc] D>1


[3] [c] [U]
[O] [3] [u]

EXERCISE 3.11

EXERCISE 3.12
Agility in S inging 45

EXERCISE 3.13

EXERCISE 3.14

EXERCISE 3.15

4 ^ 1[XT LLT LH=M


ri
Te ]]

EXERCISE 3.16

-—^*--
--J-----
*
-4-^1
~3
3
L$s i l S t p- s -

ri J 1
rp
[a — 1
I

EXERCISE 3.17
46 The S tru ctu re o f S inging

EXERCISE 3.18

EXERCISE 3.19

[i] te] M la) [n] [c] [i] [e] [a] [e] [i]
[a] [d] [c] [i] [c] [o] [a] [o] [e] [1] [a]
[o ] [u ] [o ] [u ] [o ] [u ] [o ] [u ] [o ] [u ] [o ]

EXERCISE 3.20

i'o r H
»------ p —
; Lf ^
[e
13

M . I ....
]]
3 3 3
4nilily Singing

I XL,RCISE 3.22

[e-------
[D-------
I XERCISE 3.23

I XERCISE 3.24
CHAPTER 4

The Resonant Voice


Supraglottic Considerations in Singing

System atic exercises for coordinating the respiratory and the phona-
tory system s have been suggested thus far. Two o th er system s of the
singing instru m en t rem ain to be considered: the resonatory and the
articulatory. No clear division exists betw een the latter two systems.
Articulation, to som e extent, controls resonance.
Laryngeally-produeed sound (the result of airflow and vocal fold
approxim ation) is m odified by a m echanical acoustic filter, the
vocal tract (see fig u re 4.1). Minilie (1973, p. 243) points out th a t the
shape and si/e <>l the voc al 11 ac t determ ines th e n a tu re of th e filter­
ing properties Baer el al. (1478, p. 49) state th at laryngeal sound
"depends on llu aeouslu properties of the filter th a t are excited by
tin- source." They suggest that, although th ere are basic acoustic
principles whieli apply to both speaking and singing, singing involves
different pattei iis ol control over the source and th e filter. Clearly, in
both speech and song (Baer et al., 1979, p. 51)
(1) |M o v e m e n ts of the articulators affect tu b e or cavity
dim ensions in the vocal tract; (2) these shapes affect the
resonances (that is, the filter function) of the vocal tract; (3)
this change in the filter function affects w hat we hear.
The vocal tra c t reso n ato r tu b e consists of the pharynx, the m outh,
and a t tim es the nose, (see Figure 4.1). By skillfully com bining the
resonating cavities, vocal tim bre can be controlled (see Appendix III

Figure 4.1. The voice organ is com posed of the lungs, the larynx, the
pharynx, the mouth, and the nose, shown in longitudinal section (a). The
larynx is a short tube at the base of which are twin in-foldings of m ucous
membrane, the vocal folds (b). The larynx opens into the pharynx; the
opening is protected during swallowing by the epiglottis. The larynx,
pharynx, and m outh (and in nasal sounds also the nose) constitute the vocal
tract. The vocal tract is a resonator whose shape, which determines vowel
sounds, is modified by changes in the position of the articulators: the lips, the
jaw, the tip and body of the tongue, and the larynx. The vocal folds are
opened for breathing and are closed for phonation by the pivoting arytenoid
cartilages. (From Johan Sundberg, "The Acoustics of the Singing Voice,”
Scientific American, March 1977, Vol. 236, No. 3. By permission.)

48
N A S A L CA>

pASAL^
[PHARYNX]

\S O F T '« V /V
PALATE^T
W 3É
^ TONGUE
O R A L •fJ
PHARYNX

EPIG LO T T IS

P H A R Y N X.

LARYNX

FA LSE ^7 *
VOCAL f o l d ;
T H Y R O ID
L A RYN G EA L/*;-/^;- ^ C A R T IL A G E
V E N T R IC L E &£&&&]■
TRACH EA
VOCAL F O L D ^ f f ^ : / I

(b)
V0CA1 FOLD
T H Y R O ID
C A R T IL A G E

A M , I I M< )||)
(.AMtil A m
50 The S tru ctu re of Singing

for the physiology of the vocal tract reso n ato r system). The tu b e
responds to th e dem ands of articulation presented by vowels and
consonants.

VOWEL FORMANTS

Complex tones, such as those generated by the larynx, are com posed
of frequencies th at are integral m ultiples of the lowest frequency.
The first com ponent is the fundam ental frequency (the first h a r­
monic), and th e others arc overtones. A partial is a harm onic com ­
ponent of this complex tone, and the sound spectrum is m ade up of
the resonance frequencies, whic h produce peaks, called form ants.
K antner and West (1460, p. 68) describe how resonance patterns
p roduce recognizable vowels:
All vowels, pel se, have resonance b ut each vowel has its
own distil u l pallet n ol resonance th at is the result of the
num ber, frequencies and energy distribution of the over­
tones that are present. It is by m eans of these differences in
the ovet all p at tei ns of i esonance that we are able to h ear
and discrim inate one vowel from another. These changing
i esonam e pal lei ns are produced by altering shape and size
of the discharging orif ice.
The shaping of the resonator tube produces prom inent distribu­
tions of acoustic energy, a phenom enon that has led to the identifica­
tion of tw o frequency m axim a called form ants, for each vowel
sound (Luchsinger and Arnold, 1965, p. 462). Although frequencies
vary from voice to voice on th e sam e vowel, th e fo rm an ts tend to
appear in a fairly predictable m an n er (see Figure 4.2).
W hen the resonance cavities m atch the shape for a particular
vowel, a pitch is determ inable even w ithout com plete vocal-fold
approxim ation, as can be illustrated by loudly w hispering the cardi­
nal vowels [i, e, a, o, u] in sequence. A descending pitch p a tte rn results
(Aikin, 1910, p. 50). R egardless of the raising o r the lowering of pitch,
harm onic partials th at m atch shapes of m outh and pharynx (vocal
tra c t configuration) identify th e vowel. W e h e a r the sam e vowel,
determ ined by its typical acoustic spectrum , even though the pitch
of the voice m ay traverse the scale.
Minifie (1973, p. 243), in an exposition of speech acoustics and
vowel form ation, identifies th e physical factors th at produce the
Iront vowels, the central vowels, and the back vowels:
If the m ajor constriction of the airway during vowel produc­
tion is the result of elevating the tongue tip and blade so that
The R eso n a n t Voice 51

2,000

1,000

heed hid head had hod hawed hood who'd

I igure 4.2. A spectrogram showing the frequencies of the first and second
formants of som e o f the English vowels. (From Peter Ladefoged, Elements of
Acoustic Phonetics, 1962. Tenth impression, 1974. Chicago: The University of
( liicago Press. By permission.)

the point of vocal tra c t constriction occurs n e a r the alveolar


ridge, the vowel is called a fro n t vowel. Included in this
category are vowels [i, i, e, e, æ, a]. If the m ajor constriction
of the airw ay is betw een the d orsum of the tongue and the
velum or betw een the dorsum of th e tongue and the poste­
rior pharyngeal wall, the vowel is called a back vowel.
Included in this category are the vowels [u, u, o, o, a]. The
rem aining vowel sounds are produced w ith either no ob­
vious points of vocal tra c t constriction, or w ith the m ajor
point of constriction occurring at th e region of th e h ard pal­
ate. These sounds are called central vowels and include [ a , n,
», »].
Specific vocal tra c t configurations, therefore, can be directly
associated w ith vowel differentiation (see Figure 4.3) These include
Ilie po stu re of th e hum p of the tongue in the vocal tract; I lie extent
ol constriction betw een the tongue and the velum; length of the
tongue in regard to constriction at certain points in the vocal tract;
lip separation; lip rounding, jaw separation; velopharyngeal posture;
and tongue constrictions which occu r in som e phonetic postures, as
in the retroflex [&] and |a^|. These variables can be joined, as, for
example, in the extent of lip separation oi rounding i elated to tongue
oi palate constrictions (see Figure 4.4).
52 The S tru ctu re of Singing

P o in t o f m ax im u m
to n g u e height

P o in t o f m a x im u m
co n s tric tio n

1 1in hu p iiiul lip p o s lfio n n l o r th e v o w e ls ( 1 ) [i ] (5 ) [a ]


(2 ) [e] (6 ) [o]
(3 ) [e] (7 ) [o ]
(4 ) [æ ] (8 ) [u]

(ü )

H igh

• [e ]

# (o ]
Mid

• U1 >[3)

Low
• 1*1 • [a]

F ro n t Back
H ighest p o in t o f th e to n g u e

(b)
Figure 4.3. (a) A schematic drawing of tongue and lip positions for certain
vowels, (b) Location of the high point of the tongue for various vowels.
(From Normal Aspects of Speech, Hearing, and Language, ed. by Fred D. Min-
ifie, Thomas J. Hixon, and Frederick Williams, 1973. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, Inc. By permission.)
I hr Itcson an t Voice 53

S o m e places o f a rticu la tio n

1. La b i a l
2. Dental

I Inure 4.4. A schem atic view of the articulators, vocal tract cavities, and
pinces of articulation. (From Norm al Aspects of Speech, Hearing, and Lan-
t (tone, ed. by Fred D. Minifie, Thomas J. Hixon, and Frederick Williams,
I<17 ' Knglewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. By permission.)

M uch of th e technical w ork in singing is given to the balancing


ni the extrem es of acoustic configuration of the vocal tract. Obvi­
ously, the upper partials essential to the front vowels require a
higher forw ard tongue posture th an do the back vowels. The front
vowels d em an d a n a rro w e r channel in the forw ard area of the
m outh, thereby creating m ore room in the pharynx than is present
with back vowel configurations (see Figure 4.5). Bloomei (1953,
p 239) notes th a t palatal elevation, which contributes to pharyngeal
dim ension and over-all vocal tract length, is also higher on the front
vowels than on the back vowels. Acoustic distortion <>1 the vowel will
.intuit if the tongue is held low and flat In the oral cavity when the
acoustic shaping of the vowel is determ ined hv a quite different
I'iguiv 4, S. The positions of the vocal organs (based on data Imm X-ray
I t l l i ' t l « >> 11 ‘ 111 111l, \ i i i i i l I lia u n u /ili'n i> l 1U n ik iid h I u /tim /lu In (l m i» ii/l,ll.« ..I I m /k x /lu
l ilt' R eson an t Voice 55

tongue position. Acoustic distortion is audible if the tongue is held


liif h w hen it ought to be low, or vice versa.

THE SINGER’S FORMANT

lo rm a n t frequencies are peaks th at determ ine tin- shape ol the


acoustic sp ectru m (spectral envelope) of a vowel. However, in sinn­
ing,, an o th er fac to r of spectral energy is displayed in the area of 2500
to 3200 Hz (see Figure 4.6), w hich usually is present in "resonant”
singing, regardless of th e vowel (Sundberg, 1977a, pp. 84—85). t here
r. a long history of interest in the singer’s form ant (also, "the singing
lorm ant"). This phenom enon is by no m eans a recent discovery.
V ennard (1967, p. 128) dubbed this resonance factor the "2800 fac­
tor,” and suggested th at the ringing quality of "2800” results when
the resonators a re in tu n e w ith th e vibrator. V ennard based his

ii< tan*lty(dB )

Figure 4.6. The vow el [o] (as in "hawed”) su ng at approxim ately 262 11/ (C.’.i ).
t’lie spectral en velope indicates desirable vow el definition and sinner's for
m aul. N ote the favorable balance in sound energy betw een the region ol
vow el definition and that o f the singer’s form ant. ( I t o i u R ichard Miller and
Harm Korn el is Sch utte, "The Effect ol T ongue 1’osltlon on Spectra in S ing­
ing,” The NATS Bulletin, January/F ebruary, 1981, Vol. \7, No. V Hy per­
m ission.)
56 The S tructu re o f Singing

assum ptions on m uch earlier studies by Paget, Delattre, and B ar­


tholom ew . A ttention to th e sam e phenom enon can be found in
an o th er early (although undated) source: Pelsky’s tre a tm e n t of the
spectra in singing classifies the characteristic fo rm an t in resonant
singing according to vocal category—for m ale voices, betw een 2500
and 3200 (Pelsky m ade no differentiation, apparently, betw een
ten o rs and basses); for m ezzos and contraltos, aro u n d 3200; and up
to 4000 for sopranos. Pelsky’s work from the late 1930s anticipates
m uch of the cu rren t interest in the singer’s form ant. Sundberg has
added significantly to the literature on the singer’s form ant in a ser­
ies of publications detailing the relationship of th e form ants in the
singing voice (1981, p. 13):
Acoustically, it [the singer's form ant] can be described as a
peak in the spectrum envelope appearing som ew here in the
neighborhood ol 3 kllz. In this frequency range, then, the
partials radiated from the lip opening are particularly
strong Ai in 111.11<>■ilv. tlu- singer’s form ant can be generated
by adjusting the pharynx width so th at it is considerably
widei than the area of the entrance to the larynx tube. If
this is done, the form ants num ber three, four, and probably
live are clustered and the ability of the vocal tra c t to tra n s­
port sound In this frequency is m uch im proved. The result,
of course, is that the voice source partials in this frequency
range gain in amplitude. . . .
However, it will be clear th at the am plitude of th e p a r­
tials underlying the singer’s form ant are dependent not only
on the vocal tract sound tran sfer characteristics, or, in other
words, the initial am plitude of the partials as they enter the
vocal t r a c t . . . this initial am plitude depends on the rate of
change from m axim um to m inim um airflow value. An
interesting question is how this rate can be m anipulated . ..
it increases as vocal effort is increased. Vocal effort is raised
prim arily by increasing subglottic pressure, so this pressure
seem s im portant. The ra te of decrease in the airflow is also
influenced by som e other factors. . ..
All of these sources suggest th at “good singing to n e” displays the
"ring,” th e result of desirable form ant balancing. Som etim es this
technique is described as the tracking of the laryngeally produced
vowel by the resonator tube.

THE SINGER’S PERCEPTION OF TIMBRE

A m ajor source of m isunderstanding with regard to “resonance” in


singing stem s from confusing the source of sound with the sensation
The Resonant Voice 57

<>l sound. Som e singers experience sensation largely in the posterior


half of the h ead or, if in th e forw ard regions, solely in the forehead.
O ther singers, oriented to quite different pedagogical goals, expe­
rience sensation in th e m ask (masque), the sinuses and the forw ard
half of the skull, particularly in the facial regions. These sensations
relate to specific physical postures of the vocal tr a d . Il is im portant
lor any sensation in singing to accord with efficient physical and
acoustic function.
The singer’s ow n sound m ay reach the E ustachian lube (which
runs from th e nasopharynx to the inner ear) before il enters the
external ear. The difference in tim e betw een o u ter and inner hearing
is not of significance; significant is the fact th at internal sensation is
conveyed from th e nasopharynx, the oropharynx, and the m oulh, to
upper areas of th e head.
Speech, w hich passes th rough the larynx, the pharynx, and the
m outh, brings the bones of the skull into vibration. Froeschels
( 1957a, pp. 630-631) recounts th a t Rethi, using an electrically stim u­
lated tuning fork, dem o n strated th a t sound waves pass th rough the
Ilard and soft parts of the m outh and pharynx into the bones of the skull.
I 'roeschels concludes th at vocal ban d sound stim ulates the whole
head to vibrate, and th at such sound also enters the E ustachian tube.
According to von Békésy (1960, p. 187), the hearing of one’s own
voice by bone conduction is of the sam e o rd er of m agnitude as by
.hi conduction. V ibrations of the skull are caused not only by the
vibrating vocal bands b u t also by th e sound p ressu re in th e m outh.
Von Békésy adds that, perceptually, the sound pressure in the m outh
cavity produces ab o u t the sam e am o u n t of loudness as does the
vibration of the vocal bands (1960, p. 189).
The tim bre of vocal sound produced by the singer obviously var­
ies. Differences in tim bre have corresponding locations of resonance
sensation. (Singers generally m ean vocal tim bre w hen they speak of
"resonance.”) The relative dim ensions of the resonators of the vocal
tract constantly change in response to phonetic articulation. Flexible
ad ju stm en t of a reso n a to r is m ore im portant than the resonator's
absolute dim ension. Taylor (1958, p. 31) finds that, beyond com
loi table conductivity passages betw een the resonating cavities, lb é n ­
is no point in m aking the connecting channels larger: "cavities of the
m outh and th ro a t opened o r closed beyond a certain optim um or
norm al usage is useless effort.” In fact, it is pointless to try to direct
attention solely to the m outh or the throat, because air vibrates in
the entire tract, not separately in each of its part», Vocal tim bre is
determ ined by reso n ato r coupling and by the modifying actions ol
o th er parts of the vocal m achine. The frequencies ol the form ants
and the shapes of the resonators m atch.
The S tru ctu re of Singing

THE OPEN THROAT (GOLA APERTA)

It w ould be h a rd to find a voice tea c h e r w ho recom m ended singing


with a closed th ro at. "Open the th ro a t” is alm ost as frequently heard
as "support the voice," "sing on the breath ,” o r "place the voice.”
These expressions have the potential for inducing m alfunction in
singing, because they are imprecise. Just as the singer m ust con­
cretely u n d e rsta n d how the tone is “su p ported” (how the ra te of
b rea th em ission is determ ined), so m ust the singer know w hat to
experience as "the open throat.” At best, subjective expressions can
be b ut vague indicators of specific concepts. Such adages can m ean
m any things to m any persons. Vocal pedagogy could probably take a
m ajor step forw ard if these and o th er subjective term s w ere
replaced with, or augm ented by, m ore exact language.
A lthough to som e extent singing is an extension of speech
(H am m er, 1978, pp. 61-64), the special requirem ents of the singing
voice dem and resonator shaping and coupling th at transcend those
of speech. The dim ensions of the buccopharyngeal cavity respond to
those special requirem ents.
The pharynx is accustom ed to sensations of distention, largely
through the norm al and beneficial actions of the yawn. In describing
the yawn, we use language suggesting relaxation. W e feel th a t the
throat has widened, we can see in the m irro r th a t th e soft palate is
high with the uvula elevated, we notice th at the tongue lies low and
flat, all producing a sensation of "openness.” In yawning, we see the
larynx low er and the jaw hang. Surely, one m ight think, this is the
position of "the open th ro a t.” Som e singers do believe erroneously
that in the widest pharyngeal distention, in laryngeal depression and
velar elevation (all present in a hearty yawn), we are n e a r the opti­
m um position for singing. This claim m ust be considered with regard
to the interrelationships of the resonating cavities, to vowel fo rm a­
tion and differentiation, to the articulation of consonants, and to
m uscle activity.
W e often stretch o u r arm s and yaw n at the sam e time, particu ­
larly w hen w eary, or w hen we have been m aintaining one physical
posture for som e tim e and feel cram ped by it. The m uscular stretch
feels good, and it is good for us. W e conclude th e yaw n and the
stretch by allowing the participating m u scu latu re to re tu rn to condi­
tions of norm al function. W e w ould not attem pt physical activity of a
sustained sort w ith the arm s and legs while also stretching them . Nor
would we aim at this dim ension of oral and pharyngeal distention for
extended periods of speech, although we m ay occasionally lapse
am ong friends, with apologies. Yet, in the literature of vocal peda-
I he R eson an t Voice 59

g<>gy can be found sources th at advocate as thp ideal position for sing-
mg exactly th e fully distended pharyngeal and buccal posture found
in the yawn. O ther sources recom m end a m odification of the sensa­
tions of yawning. How do these sensations correspond to those of
H<)la aperta, long advocated by the historic Italian School?
A sensation of openness is essential in singing, but such sensa­
tion need n o t be chiefly felt in eith er the laryngophai ynx o r the oro-
pharynx. W hen one b reathes deeply through the nose, as, loi exam-
ple, w hen filling th e lungs w ith fresh, clean air following an electrical
Morm, o r w hen one inhales a pleasant fragrance, th ere is a feeling of
( onsiderable openness in the nasopharynx, som e in the oropharynx,
.ind to som e extent in the laryngopharynx. The position of the longue
does not a lte r (it will, if th e b rea th is g rab b ed noisily), the jaw does
not hang, th e larynx is not radically depressed, and the velum is not
i igidly raised. A lthough spatial relationships am ong th e resonators
now have changed from those of "norm al speech," n either o f the
i liicf resonators (m outh and pharynx) has becom e subservient to the
o ther in this coupling. Yet, th ere is a favorable arch to the fauces, the
velum is raised, and th e connecting channel betw een the resonators
is open and free. The sam e sensation of openness can be experienced
w hether one breathes th rough the nose o r through the m outh.
By breathing in this fashion, th e singer achieves a position of th
i esonators th at feels open, w ithout, however, the m uscle tension thu
m ust occu r in the th ro a t w ith the yaw n posture. T hroat tension
Inherent in the yaw n can be verified externally by placing the fingers
flat under the jaw betw een th e chin and the larynx. This tension can
also be internally felt, and externally seen, in singers w ho believe
they have “opened the th ro at.”
The nasopharynx is capable of playing a m ajor role in sensations
of open-throatedness. One often experiences openness in th e region
ol the oropharynx and in th e region of th e nasopharynx (as opposed
to co n cen trated sensation in the laryngopharynx) in m om ents of
heightened em otion in speech. W hen we a re happily excited, when
surprised by pleasant circum stances, w hen physically alert loi
undertaking an u nusual activity, w hen viewing a thrilling event,
when greeting a long-absent loved one, when about to smile oi
laugh—w e b rea th e w ith this sense of openness in the regions of the
nasopharynx and the oropharynx. Do we drop the jaw, low er the
tongue, depress the larynx, and yawn al those m om ents? The yawn,
which produces pharyngeal enlargem ent and laryngeal depression,
plays no part in those joyous m om ents of life; it has no role in active
athletic m ovem ent, and it is not part of the im aginative, alert, c re a ­
tive m om ents of daily life. Why then assum e a need loi the yawn in
60 The S tru ctu re o f Singing

singing w hen the open th ro a t can be accom plished in singing by the


sam e m eans as in o th er heightened situations in life? The yaw n is an
action th a t belongs to the tired, to the bored, an attitude of the w eary
spirit and body.
It is understood, of course, that persons advocating the yawn
p osture adm it som e m odification of that posture for the necessities
of articulation in singing. However, even when only slightly yawning
during speech, one hears a resulting tim bre distortion. The sam e dis­
tortion is present w hen even the slight yawn is m aintained in singing.
W hat of “opening the th ro a t” by "breathing th rough the yaw n,” but
then dropping the yawn sensation? An unnecessary pharyngeal dis­
tention is m om entarily introduced, a tension th at hinders freedom .
For som e persons, the yaw n quality in singing is perceived as
enriched and enlarged; l or som e o th er persons, the yaw n quality in
singing is considered to be m an u factu red and undesirable. Such
preferences arc aesthetic judgm ents often based on cultural histories
(Miller, 1977, pp. H7-HH) However, if freedom (functional efficiency
in singing) produces the most beautiful sound (a prem ise of this
book that may be accepted or rejected, of course), any form of func­
tional tonal distortion is not a thing of beauty.
To breath e .is though inhaling deeply th e frag ran ce of a rose is
to .i« com plish the buccopharyngeal position of gola aperta, in direct
contrast to techniques of the open th ro at achieved th rough the
yawn. (The inc ipient yawn produces sim ilar sensations to those felt
in breathing as though inhaling a lovely fragrance, b u t it is less use­
ful pedagogically because its extent is difficult to regulate. All too
often the incipient yaw n develops into the full-blown yawn.) The
rubric of the rose is a favorite device of the international school; an
open sensation is present during inspiration, and th at sensation
rem ains th ro u g h o u t the subsequent phrase. No functional distortion
is involved in this m ethod of reso n ato r coupling. The open th ro at
(gola aperta) is efficient, and it produces vocal tim bre th at listeners
find fully resonant and balanced, w ithout artificiality.

“PLACEMENT” OF THE VOICE (IMPOSTAZIONE


DELLA VOCE)

Impostazione della voce (also imposto) m eans “voice placem ent” (also
“tone placem ent”). It is doubtful that teachers who use placem ent
im agery believe th at the singer literally places tone. Placem ent
im agery is m eant to help the singer discover desirable vocal tim bre
("resonance”) through sensation. Vocal pedagogies are not in agree-
I In1 R eson an t Voice 61

m ent as to w hat these sensations should be. "Forw ard placem ent” is
Ilu* aim of som e teachers: "into th e masque (m ask),” “into the
■ii<tnth,” “into the u p p er jaw ,” "out in front,” "behind the eyes,” "into
(lie sinuses,” "at the end of the nose,” "on the lips,” etc. O ther
h u hers believe th e tone should be directed posteriorly: "down the
.pine,” "at th e back of th e th ro a t wall,” "up the back of the throat
wall, then over into the forehead,” "into the body,” "into the back
half of the head,” etc.
Although m ost teach ers are com m itted to one, ot to som e
limited n u m b er of "places” to w hich tone is to be directed and w here
■*'iisations of resonance are to be felt, th ere are o th er teachers who
use m ost o r all of these expressions in an experim ental way, d epend­
ing on w hat they consider to be the need of th e singer. R egardless ol
what theory of “placem ent” a tea c h e r m ay em brace, th ere is always
i he peril th at the stu d e n t m ay not experience the sensation th at the
li .u her’s term inology m eans to elicit. A wise route, it m ight seem,
would be to u n d erstan d the acoustic principle of reso n ato r coupling
m singing, and to find som e objective technical language to com ­
m unicate this inform ation.
Moth b reath m anagem ent and reso n an ce factors are included in
IIn term appoggio; although imposto, o r impostazione, refers to
placem ent sensations, these sensations a re not considered apart
I m m breath m anagem ent. Imposto does not narrow ly indicate a
loi ali/ed "place,” b u t ra th e r expresses the m ore general concept of
lesonance in singing as a result of appoggio. “In the term inology of
\ oi al technique, impostazione (or imposto) indicates the m an n e r by
which the vocal organs cooperate in phonation during singing”
(/ nciclopedia Garzanti della musica 1974, p. 277).
Impostazione produces distinct and recognizable sensations of
le .onator coupling. W hereas pedagogies th at strive for localized
placem ent also localize sensation, in the historic Italian School
resonator coupling perm its sensation in all parts of the vocal tract.
I In- resonance balance (placem ent) relies neither on the pharynx nor
on the m outh as chief resonator, b u t on a com bination of both. Sen
.ation cen ters neith er in the th ro a t no r in the face. R esonator
t oupling becom es resonance balancing without functional or aeons
Hi violation of any single p art of the vocal tract. I langing the jaw and
spreading the pharynx will produce m arked sensations of openness
In Ihe throat, but an im balance of the resonator tube al the expense
ol higher frequencies in som e vowels; concepts ol mask placem ent
will produce the opposite result, unnecessary thinning of the tim bre
and an increase in u p p er partials. Imposto technique avoids both the
heavy, didl vocal production and the shrill, blatant production.
62 The S tructu re of Singing

EXERCISES FOR ESTABLISHING RESONANCE


BALANCE (IMPOSTAZIONE) IN SINGING

EXERCISE 4.1
WITH LIPS CLOSED, BREATHE THROUGH THE NOSE AS THOUGH SLOWLY
INHALING A PLEASANT AROMA; MAINTAIN A PLEASANT EXPRESSION ON THE
FACE WITHOUT ACTUALLY SMILING.
KEEPING THE SAME SEN SE OF OPENNESS, EXHALE ON THE
EXCLAMATION "HM!” SLOWLY, WHILE SUSTAINING THE SOUND. BE AWARE
OF THE BALANCE OF SENSATION IN NASAL, BUCCAL, AND NASOPHARYNGEAL
AND OROPHARYNGEAL CAVITIES

EXERCISE 4.2

[m --------------------------------------------- ]

ESTABLISH I lll', "NOBI.F," l’<)S 11 UK; BREATHE THROUGH THE NOSE AS '
THOUGH INHALING I lll FRAGRANCE OF A ROSE AND HUM THE PATTERN IN
SE V E R A l. KI V S ( >1 EASY RANGE. BE CERTAIN THAT THE HUM IS PRODUCED
WITHOUT TENSION IN T ill TONGUE, THE VELUM, OR THE JAW. STRUM THE
I IPS LIGHTLY AND QUICKLY A FEW TIMES WITH THE FOREFINGER. UNLESS
A DIS I IN< T " MUM MU M MU M" RESULTS, THE PROPER NEUTRAL POSTURE
Ol H I E ARTICULATORY MECHANISM IS NOT PRESENT.

EXERCISE 4.3

/ , fi
rj
........ . ..
VÎI7" ** M
. . - ii

[m] [a
[m] [e

THE HUM ON THE TRIAD IS FOLLOWED WITHOUT INTERRUPTION BY THE


INDICATED VOWELS.

EXERCISE 4.4

THE: HUM ON THE TRIAD IS FOLLOWED WITHOUT INTERRUPTION BY A


SERIES Ol VOWI.LS AS INDICATE:!),
I hr R eson an t Voice 63

i x l '.RCISE 4.5

[ a -------- --------------------
¥ J -j-—FO
[w ith occlu d ed nostrils]

MMI A I HE THROUGH THE NOSE. WITH THE FINGERS I ,l( il H I ,Y PIN( I IIN( i I I II
f MIS I KILS CLOSED, SING THE VOWEL [a],
I HIS EXERCISE IS AN ANCIENT ONE FOR CHECKING ON I HI . I’KI SI N< I
i H UNWANTED NASALITY, BUT IT IS ALSO AN EXCELLENT DEVICE I OR
'< IIIEVING PROPER RESONANCE BALANCE BETWEEN THE MOUT»I AND I I II
PHARYNX.

Exercises th a t juxtapose the h u m and closed nostrils during non-


u. isals often pro d u ce dram atic im provem ent in resonance balance in
11it- singing voice. S ensation th en m oves o u t of th e throat. Although
11it* pharynx continues to serve as a m ajor resonator, sensation tends
io be equally experienced in th e nasopharynx an d in th e frontal
.uvas. These sensations attest to a balance am ong the com ponents of
tin- reso n ato r tube; no single p a rt of th e vocal tra c t is given
pi e eminence.

i XI RC ISE4.6

[a _ ]
(nostrils (nostrils (closed ) (op en ) (closed )
closed) open)

PAH I S OF THE PHRASE ARE SUNG WITH THE NOSTRILS CLOSED GENTLY BY
11II FINGERS, OTHER PARTS WITHOUT CLOSURE OF THE NOSTRILS. THE
•INIiKR MUST BE CERTAIN THAT NO CHANGE IN TIMBRE OCCURS WHEN
I III NOSTRILS ARE RELEASED IN MID-PHRASE. RESONANCE SENSA TIONS,
I 111U K WITH MOUTH OPEN OR CLOSED, OR WITH NOSTRILS OCX I UDIil) OR
I Kl Ii, REMAIN THE SAME.

VELOPHARYNGEAL CLOSURE

I m m ordinary X -ray sagittal projection s, il is difficult to d eterm in e


(he exten t o f v elo p h a ry n g ea l (p alatop h aryn geal) clo su re in non nasal
mounds. T o m o g ra p h y p rovid es p ictu res ol sharp er con trast and
le io r d s a m o r e a c c u r a te c ro ss sectio n , On the basis ol tom ograp h ic
64 The S tructu re of Singing

studies, Bjork (1961, supplem ent 202, pp. 1-94) concludes th at velo­
pharyngeal closure m ay be less com plete th an X-ray photographs
show. His study indicates m arked narrow ing of the nasopharyngeal
opening, b oth from lateral and from anterio r-p o sterio r aspects. Fant
(1964, p. 231) suggests th at the elevated velum as viewed tomographi-
cally m ay not occlude the velopharyngeal opening to the extent
phoneticians often assum e. Zw itm an et al. (1973, p. 473) find that
"[T]he degree of lateral pharyngeal wall m ovem ent varies am ong
norm al individuals. . . . Conflicting descriptions of lateral wall m ove­
m ent probably are attributable to differences am ong individuals.”
Z w itm an et al. (1974, pp. 368-370) established th at several fac­
tors contribute to pharyngeal closure:

1. L ateral walls m ove medially and fuse, resulting in a purse-string


closure as the velum touches the approxim ated section of the
lateral walls.
2. Lateral walls almost approxim ate, with the velum contacting the
lateral walls and partly occluding the space betw een them . A
small medial opening is observed in som e cases.
3. Lateral walls move medially, filling the lateral gutters and
fusing with the raised velum as it contacts the posterior wall.
4. I ateral walls move slightly or not at all. Velum touches
posterior wall at midline, and lateral openings are observed
during phonation.

Nearly half of the 34 norm al subjects exam ined in this study


show ed incom plete velar closure on non-nasals. Fritzell (1979,
pp. 93-102) also suggests that m uscular action in velopharyngeal
closure varies am ong norm al subjects. Such studies are of im por­
tance in providing probable factual support for theories of "the open
nasal p o rt” in som e form in singing.
The possibility of at least som e coupling of the nasal resonator to
the buccopharyngeal reso n ato r has also been recognized by Sund-
berg (1977a, p. 90) in dealing w ith the acoustics of the singing voice:
"It is ju st possible . . . that the nasal cavity has a role in singing of
vowels th a t a re not norm ally nasalized.” It should be kept in mind
th at th ere m ay well be considerable individual physiological varia­
tion with regard to nasopharyngeal coupling.
Im plications fo r the technique of singing are significant. Limited
degrees of nasopharyngeal coupling (som e a p e rtu re of the port) seem
to be induced by the num erous vocalises th a t m ake use of nasal con­
sonants as "placem ent” devices. The perception of nasality in non-
nasals is always, of course, to be avoided. However, vocal sound per­
I hr R rson an t Voice 65

i elved by the listener as resonant but non-nasal m ay in fact result


I m m som e degree of nasopharyngeal coupling (House and Stevens,
r>'i6, p. 218). The ratio in balance between oral and nasal resonance
may depend on how the posterior apertures into the nas;il cavities
i' I.Hi- to the size of th e oral cavity. Nimii et al. (1982, p. 2S0) com ­
ment that

Cartilage of
auditory tube
Tensor veli palatini
Levator veli palatini

Ascending palatine
artery
Pterygo­
mandibular raphe
Salpingo-
pharyngeus
Palatçglossus

Styloglossus

Superior con­
strictor

Palatopharyngeus

Stylohyoid liy.

n.
Inferior con­
strictor
Middle con­
strictor

Mucous membrane of
pharynx, cut

Epiglottis

I Inure 4.7. Median sagittal section of the head showing a dissection of the
Interior of the pharynx after the removal of the mucous membrane. (In
nitler that the structures may be displayed satisfactorily, the bodies of the
■(Mvlcal vertebrae have been removed and the cut posterior wall of the
iihurynx then drawn backward and laterally. The palatopharyngeus is drawn
Imu kward to show the upper fibers of the inferior constrictor, and the
ill il sum of the tongue is drawn forward to display a part of the styloglossus
In the angular interval between the mandibular and the lingual fibers of
o f the superior constrictor. (From Gray's Anatomy, 36th ed., ed. by
IVlri L, Williams and Roger Warwick, 1980. Edinburgh: Churchill Living-
ulonc. Hy permission.)
66 The S tructu re o f Singing

[I]t is apparently quite usual for velar elevation to vary d u r­


ing connected speech, w ith changes in velar position, and
thus in velopharyngeal port size, produced to enhance or
p rev en t nasal coupling, as needed, for the segm ents in the
phonetic string . . . [VJelar elevation varies directly w ith the
oral cavity constriction of oral segm ents.
This group of researchers concludes that one m ust expect "some
individual differences, even am ong norm al speakers” as to the
m echanical m eans for velopharyngeal closure (1982, p. 255).

Tensor veli palatini

Levator veli palatini

Rectus capitis
bnfrnln:

Superior
1
oblique

Transverse
process of atlas

Anterior inter-
Genioglossus transverse

Transverse
process of axis
\Stylopharyvngeus
Geniohyoid

Buccinator (cut) \Stylohyoid

Superior constrictor .
Styloglossus

Eyoglossus \Middle con­


strictor
Thyrohyoid membrane
Inferior con­
Cricothyroid' strictor

Figure 4.8. A dissection showing the muscles of the tongue and pharynx.
(From Gray's Anatomy, 36th ed., ed. by Peter L. Williams and Roger War­
wick, 1980. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. By permission.)
ilii' R eson an t Voice 67

M axilla

M axillary Lateral pterygoid


artery plate, partly excised

Tensor veli palatini


ru o tfo iilv of
maxilla

Mandibular y

Middle memn-
ji'dl artery

Spine o f -
sphenoid
Levator veli.
palatini
Pterygoid Uuooinator
hamulus
Superior con­ Parotid duct
strictor■

Stylopharyngeus-
Pterygo
mandibular
Glossopharyngeal n. raphe
Styloglossus (cut) Uyoglossus

Middle constrictor
Mylohyoid {cut)
Stylohyoid ligament
Geniohyoid
Greater cornu o f hyoid boner
Lesser cornu o f

Lateral thyrohyoid ligament. Thyrohyoid membrane

Interna 1laryngeal nerve

Inferior constrictor.

Superior laryngeal vessels

Cricothyroid ligament

Cricothyroid
Recurrent laryngeal nerve.

Oesophagus-

I |||iiiv 4.9. The buccinator and the muscles of the pharynx. (From Gray's
tmitomy, 36th ed., ed. by Peter L. Williams and Roger Warwick, l l>MO. Ktlin
limyh Churchill Livingstone. By permission.)
68 The S tructu re o f Singing

The answ ers are not all in, regarding the m ode by w hich velo­
pharyngeal closure m ay be modified. According to Nimii et al. (1982,
p. 253):
T here is general agreem ent that the velum is elevated and
retrac ted prim arily by the levator palatini muscle. . . . The
point of controversy revolves around the putative role of
o th er m uscles in the velopharyngeal port region in bringing
about m ovem ent of the lateral pharyngeal walls at various
levels relative to the point of velopharyngeal closure.
This piece of research concludes:
W e believe th at the levator palatini is the m uscle prim arily
responsible for the m edial m ovem ent of the lateral p h ary n ­
geal wall from the level of velopharyngeal closure (which
varies with the type of phonetic segm ent produced) to the
superior limit ol that m ovem ent. That the interpretation that
the levator palatini is responsible for both the lateral wall
and velar m ovem ents is a valid one is su p ported by the
data. . . .
How one conceives "I "opening the th ro a t” and "placing the
voice" leads directly to specific kinds of m uscle activity in th e velo­
pharyngeal area The levator veli palatini (levator palatini), the tensor
veli palatini, the palatoglossus and palatopharyngeus, and the m uscu-
lus uvulae (see Appendix III and Figures 4.7, 4.8, and 4.9) respond to
such concepts. The presence o r lack of "resonance” in the singing
voice is closely lied to adjustm ents m ade in the velopharyngeal
region. The extent to which the nasal cavities are united with the rest
of the reso n ato r tu b e partly determ ines the perception of "reso­
nance.” As with the exact c h a ra c te r of velopharyngeal closure itself,
not all the answ ers are clear regarding the degree to which velo­
pharyngeal closure m ay be m odified in singing. Additional attention
to balanced reso n ato r ad justm ent th rough the use of consonants
(including the nasals) will com prise the m aterial of o th er chapters.
However, the resonant, w ell-balanced vowel in singing m ust first be
considered.
CHAPTER 5

The Well-balanced Vowel


Vowel Differentiation in Singing

th e acoustic postures associated w ith vowels easily fall prey to the


transition sounds of speech. C ontinual m ovem ent of the articulatory
m echanism prevents precise postures of the vocal tract. N everthc
less, clean articulation and good diction in singing require vocal tract
m ovem ents th at can be recorded by exact phonetic symbolization.
The adjustm ents of the tongue, the lips, the m andible, the velum,
m il the reso n ato rs can define a recognizable phonetic position m ore
I>i ccisely during singing th an they do in speech, because of the d u ra ­
tion factor. A lthough vowel postures, rep resen ted by specific pho­
netic symbols, are not static or set postures in singing, they tend to
i csem blé the “m odel” postures described by the phonetician. Such a
high degree of acoustic exactitude in vowel definition can occur in
■inging th at the production of the "pure” vowel is a realizable goal.

THE ACOUSTIC AT-REST POSTURE

Phonetic ch aracteristics of vowels relate to a constant landm ark. We


do not have to hypothesize such a position, because, unless we are
phonal ing at this m om ent, we are probably at th at posture. W hen
one is in a state of repose, w ithout exaggerated respiratory activity,
ilie longue is relaxed in the m outh, with its blade (both the lip and
the forw ard sides) in easy contact with the low er teeth. (If you are
lying dow n as you rea d this, the tongue m ay well be resting against
i he upper teeth ju st forw ard of the alveolar ridge.) The upper and
lower row s of tee th are slightly parted, regardless of w hether or not
the lips are separated. The upper and lower jaws are separated
(although the m outh m ay rem ain closed) because the m andible
obeys the law of gravity. Unless one consciously "relaxes” the
m andible, it will not be in a hanging position Mils central position ol
I he tongue and the m andible is hom e base loi the speech m echanism
(see Figure 4.4). It is also the position of the neutral vowel |a |.

6 l)
70 The S tructu re o f Singing

THE VOWEL POSTURES

Vowels are continuants, capable of m aintaining a specific vocal tract


configuration and sustaining phonation. In singing, such a configura­
tion of the vocal tra c t m ay extend through an entire expiratory
phase of th e b rea th cycle, if so desired. Unless vowels are im properly
produced, no friction noises intrude during the sound. The c h a ra c ­
teristic quality of the vowel depends on the vowel form ants, which
have fixed values for each p articular shape of the vocal tra c t (see
C hapter 4, and Figures 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5). Som e of these vocal tra c t
form ations follow.

Formation o f th e Neutral V owels [a ] and [a ]

The m ost neutral, the most primitive, vocal expression is represented


by the vowel | a |. This is the sound heard in groaning, in the audible sigh,
and in em otional phonation w ithout words. The sam e sound occurs
w hen one "thinks out loud,’’ before speech has been form ulated. The
lips pari loi | a |, blit they rem ain unshaped; th ere is a slight lowering of
the mandible.
( loselv related !o |a | is a sound represented by the sym bol [a] called
tlu- schwa. Originally a I lebraic phonetic form ation, the schwa now has
general phonetic usage and refers to the neutralized vowel, the u n ac­
cented syllable that so frequently concludes a word. Som e phoneti­
cians view t he schwa as a vowel tendency tow ard neutralization ra th e r
than as a distinctly identifiable phonem e. In unskillful singing, other
vowels tend to drift tow ard [a], causing unintentional blurring of vowel
differentiation. The neu tral vowel serves as a device for essential vowel
m odification in som e circum stances in singing. (Significantly, the n eu ­
tral vowel is not found in form al Italian.)
In singing, the schwa functions as the unaccented corollary of [a].
Although the sym bols [a] and [a] represent differences in d uration in
speech, the tem poral distinctions betw een them disappear in singing,
w here the brief sounds of spoken language a re frequently elongated.
Both of the neutral vowels are produced w ith m inim al vocal tract
constriction; the tip and the blade of the tongue are not elevated, and
constriction exists neither betw een the dorsum of the tongue and
velum n o r betw een the d orsum of the tongue and the posterior p h a­
ryngeal wall (Minifie, 1973, p. 245). N eutral retroflex tongue postures
are usually avoided in cultivated singing, so that no consideration is
given to them here.
I Iir W ell-balanced V ow el 71

Form ation of the Vowel |u |


Wlii“n singing [a], the lips part, the m andible lowers, and the tongue
lli s Hat on the floor of the m outh cavity. With regard to the extent of
buccal aperture, the vowel [a] is farthest rem oved from the central
posture of th e n e u tra l vowel [a] (perhaps m uch less distant than
some singers realize). The vowel [a] is som etim es classified as the
lii ■.! of the back vowels because of its p a rticu la r com bination of li e
i|uencies and the shape of th e reso n ato r tube during its prodm lion.
I lowever, th e attrac tio n of the vowel [a] for m any singers lies in its
avoidance of tongue constriction of the vocal tract.
Vocalization based solely on [a] does not deal with the m ore
i xacting principles of vowel differentiation encountered in singing
both front an d back vowels. In any technique of singing, if o th er
vowels are less com fortable in execution than the vowel [a], articula
lory flexibility is lacking.

Form ation o f the V ow el [i]


I or purposes of contrast, we m ove now to the m ost frontal of all the
vi iwels (the closest, regarding forw ard tongue posture), rep resen ted
11\ the sym bol [i]. The buccal orifice is narro w ed in the vowel [i], and
r. horizontally elongated as in a pleasant facial expression. The
m andible is in a po stu re th a t shows lim ited space betw een the tw o
low s of teeth. W hat m akes the [i] vowel m ost distinctive acoustically
i ■Ilie high, close position of the tongue. W ith the exception of the
upcx of the tongue, w hich contacts th e low er teeth, th e fro n t of the
longue is elevated so th a t th e tongue arches alm ost to th e roof of
the m outh. The highest degree of tongue elevation occurs in front of
ilie m iddle point of the h ard palate. The tongue contacts portions
of Ihe h ard palate on either side.
Investigating front cavity resonances in speech, Kuhn (1975,
P 430) concludes th at the shape of the forw ard part of the buccal

i avily determ ines the overall spectral shape of the vowel, and has an
effect on frequency and on the extent of higher form ants.
W hat does front cavity resonance frequency accom plish with
tegard lo total reso n ato r adjustm ent in singing? Obviously, the singer
Ie e ls less space in the front of the m outh in the vowel |i| than in the
vowel |u); som e singers find the n a rro w e r position of |i| intolerable.
Desiring the frontal m outh space for "resonance," the singer m ay try
lo "open the throat" by opening the buccal cavity.
72 The S tructu re o f Singing

In the vowel [i], total reso n ato r space has not been diminished,
but rearranged. The acoustic n a tu re of the vowel [i], w ith its con­
siderable pharyngeal room , plays a significant role in vocalises
devoted to vowel differentiation and to resonance adjustm ent.
B ecause of the n a tu re of front cavity shape, tongue posture, and
increased pharyngeal room , the vowel [i] is useful in developing the
full tim b re of the voice. It should be noted th a t a n u m b er of
researchers com m ent th a t soft palate elevation is higher in [i] th an in
any o ther vowel (Hirano et al., 1966, p. 377).

Formation o f the Vowel [e]


The vowel [e] is m ore closely related to [i] th an any other sound. (The
vowel [i] enjoys an acoustic position in betw een [i] and [e].) S ensa­
tions resulting from the distribution of buccal space found in the
vowel [i] can be felt in singing [e]. However, m ost singers are aw are
of the increased lateral contact of the tongue w ith th e teeth on [e], A
slightly low er iaw posture than in [i], and the w ider shape to the oral
cavity, result in m ore frontal spaciousness in [e] th an in [i],
Tlu* vowel |e | is an im portant m em ber of the front vowel series.
Wit 11 both | i| and |i-|, the elevation and forw ard postures of the tongue
evoke sensations in the mask. The high form ant distribution of the
vowels is mainly responsible for these sensations.

Formation o f the Vow el [e]


Progressing through the series of front vowels (also know n as close
vowels), we next en counter the vowel [e]. By pronouncing out loud
th e series [i, e, e, a] several tim es as a continuous phrase, the gradual
opening of the m outh from th e frontal [i] to th e m ore central, n e u ­
tral [a] m ay be dem onstrated. A m arked lowering of the tongue is
n oted at th e point in the vowel series w here th e fro n t vowel is m odi­
fied to a neu tral posture. Even greater aw areness of this change in
shape and sensation is experienced if one concludes the sam e vowel
progression with [a] (K antner and West, 1960, p. 105).
X-ray evidence shows th a t the hum p of the tongue m oves pro ­
gressively into the pharynx in the series [u, o, d] (Peterson, 1951,
p. 548). This vowel progression narrow s the pharyngeal cavity and
increases th e buccal cavity. Ladefoged et al. (1979, p. 1027) rem ark
that "W henever a speaker produces the vowel / i / as in "heed,” the
body of th e tongue is alw ays raised up tow ards the hard palate.
W henever anyone produces the vowel fa] as in "father,” the tongue
is always low and som ew hat retracted.”
Ill I' W ell-balanced V ow el 73

Formation of the Vowel [a]


Moving away from the centrally located vowels, wc en co u n ter the
Iuit k vowels, beginning w ith the vowel [a]. This vowel is com m only
m m I in all W estern languages; it is a difficult sound for A m erican
infers to execute (less problem atic for the British singer), because in
•t m*'il Am erican speech th e vowel [o] is insufficiently differentiated
11urn the vowel [a]. A m ericans are lazy about moving the lips and Ihe
longue, and about changing the shape of the oral cavity.
t he vowel [d] req u ires buccal rounding. The buccal dim ension
lot | >| is sm aller th an fo r [a]; th e re is a slight pout for [ d]. The m o u lli
i .lightly less open in [o] th an in [a]. The acoustic definition of |.i|
it quires som e elevation of the back of the tongue, which places the
i ■twol squarely in th e back vowel series.

Formation of the Vowel [o]


I In lips are se p ara te d w ith [o], b u t they a re m ore ro u n d ed th an with
I I " i d they p ro tru d e som ew hat m ore. H ow ever, it is easy to exag-
i i i ale the physical distance from [d] to [o] in singing. In executing
!-I the tongue is depressed in its an terio r portion; elevation of the
posterior p art of th e tongue, characteristic of all back vowels, is also
pi I'H e n t.

Formation of the Vowel [u]


Willi Ilie vowel [u] we rea c h th e opposite end of the vowel series
II o m the vowel [i]. W hereas in [i] th e front portion of the tongue is at
M highest, in [u] it is th e back portion of th e tongue th a t elevates,
li uving little space betw een the tongue and the soft palate. In [i],
m o i e space exists in "the back of th e m o u th ,” coupled directly with

iIn pharynx. In [u], th ere is little space in the posterior buccopharyn-


i i il area because m ore room exists in the forw ard part of the
m outh.

MOUTH POSITION FOR VOWFLS IN SINGING

I wo pedagogical extrem es can be cited in regard lo m outh position


lot vowels in singing. T eacher A hangs the jaw for all vowels,
h (Mi dlcss of the acoustic properties. T eacher H inserts a pencil (even
*Impslicks) betw een the singer’s teeth, requesting that all vowels be
in oduccd within the resulting narrow buccal aperture. Patently, both
74 The S tructu re of Singing

techniques cannot be equally correct from the standpoint of pho­


netic efficiency. T hat som e listeners prefer the kinds of sounds that
result from one o r the o th e r of these opposing techniques is u nques­
tionable, inasm uch as both flourish as living pedagogical examples.
In such practices, the system of vowel form ants is seriously dis­
tu rbed, an d vowel distortion is unavoidable. Appelman (1967, p. 230)
adm onishes:
W hen a sung sound has m igrated aw ay from th e phonem e
necessary for proper pronunciation to a position n e a r the
n e u tra l vowel [ a ] or an adjacent phonem e th a t is not the
quality alternate, it is no longer a pure vowel. The integrity
of the phonem e, which gives meaning, has been lost. . . .

It is not possible to set a basic posture of m outh, lips, tongue, and


jaw th rough which all vowels are to be sung, w ithout distorting most
(or all) of them . The jaw and the tongue are not in the sam e positions
throughout all vowel sounds in speech; a han d placed lightly on the
jaw will register considerable jaw mobility during speech; observa­
tion with a mit rot will verify that the tongue is not equally flat, low,
and grooved throughout the sequence of vowels. Why, then, could
one basic posture be appropriate for singing?
Con late ionic si parla (to sing as one speaks) attests to a com ­
mitm ent to vowel form ation in singing based on rapid adjustm ents
of the vocal tract. The ideal is acoustic m obility ra th e r th an acoustic
stabilization. Balancing resonance factors is best accom plished
through tim bre uniform ity, not through uniform ity of buccopharyn
geal positioning. Unification of vowel tim bre results w hen each
vowel is perm itted, in freedom , to assum e its ow n distinctive acous­
tic shape while "tracking” the frequencies th at provide the voice with
its carrying power.
In such a request as “Can you help m e find my book?”, the
m o u th will be opened only m oderately on the vowel [e] in the word
“help. "If one w ere in desperate straits and wildly cried out "Help!” at
a high pitch, the m outh w ould be considerably m ore opened in the
vowel [e]; the m outh w ould probably be even m ore widely opened on
the sam e pitch w ere the em otive w ord "Ah!”
O pening the m o u th for ascending pitch answ ers th e need to
m atch frequencies w hen the fundam ental frequency in singing is
higher than the first fo rm an t in m ost spoken vowels. Sundberg
(1977a, pp. 89-90) has given an explanation of this phenom enon, here
briefly sum m arized. By m oving up the first form ant frequency (by
opening the m outh), the singer allows the form ant to enhance the
am plitude of the fundam ental. The result is that th ere is a m inim um
I In1 W ell-balanced V ow el 75

•>1 variation in loudness from pitch to pitch and from vowel to vowel
(hoc Figure 5.1).
Along w ith low ering the m andible as a m eans of enlarging the
buccal cavity, lifting th e m axillary a re a of the lace finds acoustic
justification in S u n d b erg ’s findings (1977a, p. 90): "Opening the jaw,
however, is not th e only way to raise the first form ant frequency.
'.Iiortening the vocal tra c t by draw ing back the corners ol the m outh
'.ci ves the sam e purpose, an d th a t m ay be why som e teach ers tell
11it-ir students to smile w hen they sing high notes.”

FREQUENCY — >

I Inm e 5.1. The n eed for a w ider jaw op en ing in the upper rany.e arises Im m
tin l'»et that a soprano m ust often sing tones w h ose fundam ental (whli h is
ii lually the low est partial) is far higher in frequency than is IIn* norm al first
Ini mant o f the vow el being sung. When that is the ease, the am plitude ol the
liu u lam cntal is not en h anced by the first form ant, and the sound is there
lin e weak. O pening the jaw w ider raises the pitch <>1 Ilie I ir«il loi niant. When
Ilie lirst-form ant frequ en cy is raised to m atch llial ol llie lu iu lam enlal, the
lorm ant en h an ces the am plitude o f the luiulam enlal, and the sound is
louder, (From Johan Sundberg, "The A coustics ol llie Sinning V oice,” Scien
i(/h Am erican, March 1977, Vol. 236, No. < Hv perm ission,)
76 The S tructu re o f Singing

EXERCISES FOR VOWEL DIFFERENTIATION

Potential pedagogical benefits derive from acoustic differences


betw een front and back vowels. The singer begins a vocalise with a
front vowel characterized by a high second form ant, then alternates
the front vowel w ith a back vowel having a low er second form ant
(w hat som e teachers call double form ant and single form ant vowels).
S ubsequent alternation betw een front and back vowels is then
drilled using changing vowel com binations and changing pitch levels,
w ith th e aim of m aintaining the sam e vocal resonance. Fortunately,
vowel differentiation is an aspect of vocal technique th at can be seen
as well as heard. M ovem ents of m outh, lips, tongue, and jaw can be
observed. In all of the vowel differentiation exercises th at follow, it is
recom m ended that for at least part of each session a h an d m irro r be
used by the singer. Three perceptual elem ents are coordinated: h e a r­
ing th e sound, seeing the m ovem ents of tongue and m andible, and
feeling the resonance Iacto r in the vocal tra c t and in the head.

Group 1 Exercises

i:x i:k c is I '; 5.1


(A) |u, 0, i, 0, c|
(I)) (i. o, u, 0. c)
(I) PRONOUNCE THESE TWO PATTERNS ALTERNATELY, AT NORMAL SPEECH
LEVEL, IN LEGATO FASHION, ALLOWING LIPS AND JAW TO MOVE
NATURALLY, WITHOUT EXAGGERATION. (2) THERE SHOULD BE NO ATTEMPT
TO HOLD ONE POSITION OF LIPS, JAW, TONGUE, OR MOUTH. (3) NO ATTEMPT
SHOULD BE MADE TO DIFFERENTIATE THE VOWELS BY EXCESSIVELY
MOUTHING OR SHAPING THEM. (4) OBSERVE THE LIMITED BUT
DISCERNIBLE MOVEMENT OF THE MOUTH AS THE VOWELS ARE
ARTICULATED. (5) INCREASE TEMPO SO THAT THE VOWELS MUST BE
QUICKLY ENUNCIATED, BUT AVOID SLURRING OR TRANSITION SOUNDS. THE
SAME ARTICULATION OCCURS, REGARDLESS OF SPEED.

The flexibility of buccal ap ertu re should be equally present in singing


th e exercises th at follow as in these spoken patterns. Tem po should
alternate betw een slow and fast.

EXERCISE 5.2
I'he Well-balanced Vowel 77

EXERCISE 5.3

m TT
[i o a o e|

EXERCISE 5.4

H 1
[a o i

EXERCISE 5.5

ÉH É
[i

Group 2 Exercises
EXERCISE 5.6

<>

[e e]
3]

EXERCISE 5.7

ÿ i- p P P p p p fi P..
[ i e o i e o i e o i e s 11
fo e i o e i o c i 3 c i .i |

EXERCISE 5.8

|C 3 C 3 C 3 C 3 0|
|3 C 3 C 3 C 3 c nl
7H The S tructu re o f S inging

EXERCISE 5.9

x ■
jP -t r+ -h----V -» -----
V .. ■
[e a e a e a e o e]
[ a e a e a e a e a]

EXERCISE 5.10

[ e a e a e a e a e a e a e a e
[ a e a e a e a e a e a e a e a

By using the progressions [e, d] and [d, e] th e articu lato ry process


is readily dem o n strated . O ther vowel com binations can be helpful in
achieving a ccu rate vocal trac t flexibility and clean articulation.
A lternation betw een front and back vowels should include com bina­
tions taken from the cardinal vowels.
CHAPTER 6

Resonance Balancing
through Nasal Consonants
The Influences of Nasal Continuants on
Resonator Adjustment

Vowels seldom stand alone, either in speech o r in singing. I'he


ubiquitous consonant alters and adjusts the shape of the resonator,
lube. The consonant adjacent to a vowel is largely responsible for
transition sounds th at occur. T ransition sounds (also known as
glides) result from the constantly changing positions of the vocal
organs as they approach the subsequent phonem e (on-glide), or
as they leave a phonem e (off-glide) (C arhart et al., 1961, pp. xxiv-xxxi).
Such interm ediate positions of the resonators, so com m on in speech,
m ust be m inim ized in singing if voice tim bre is to rem ain uni­
formly resonant.
Consonants need not be considered unw elcom e in tru d ers that
Impede good vocalization. If each consonant is p erm itted to enjoy its
brief but exact phonetic location and is allowed a clean departu re
w hen its stint is over, the singer’s ideal of the "p u re” vowel will not
be violated.

PEDAGOGICAL USES OF CONSONANTAL


PHONEMES IN GENERAL

Singers have long recognized th e value of prefacing vowels with


som e specific consonant th a t im proves subsequent lim bic Even
those consonants th a t require concerted action from longue, lips,
and velum m ay assist the ensuing vowel.
S e v e r a l c o n so n a n ts a lread y h a v e b e e n Identified as u sefu l for
p ro d u cin g d e sir a b le r e so n a to r c o u p lin g and lot assistin g in a c o o rd i­
nated onset: th e glo tta l frica tiv e |h | an d the glottal p losive | 7 | help
d eterm in e the n a tu re o f v o ca l-fo ld approxim ation; |s | and 11 | heighten
a w a r e n e ss o f a b d o m in a l con trol in breath m an agem en t; p rolon ga­
tion o f |m |, a s in th e hum , is a g o o d te c h n iq u e lo r a cco m p lish in g
fa v o ra b le r e so n a n c e b alan ce. A look at additional u ses ol several

79
80 The S tru ctu re of Singing

consonants is now in o rd er (see Appendix V for influence of various


voiced and unvoiced consonants on resonator adjustm ent).

USE OF THE NASALS IN BALANCING


RESONATOR COUPLING

Phoneticians som etim es refe r to the nasal continuants as "nasal


vowels.” Although there is a lower incidence of "nasal vowels” in
speech in com parison with "oral vowels," the nasal continuants are
prom inent phonem es in som e 28 languages (Bjôrn et al., 1977,
p. 486).
The fo u r nasals, fm, n, t] | and | p| are useful for im proving reso­
nance balance in vowels that follow them (see Figure 6.1a and b). In
all fo u r nasals, the oral cavity has som e degree of closure; the soft
palate assum es postures that determ ine the degree of coupling of
m outh, pharynx, and (he nasal cavities. The fo u r nasals differ in
quality as a result of the extent to which the oral cavity is excluded
as a resoiial iny. chainlu-i Wood Jones (1940, cited in Gray's Anatomy,
1980, p. 1.108) com hides that "the nasal p a rt of the pharynx” is
actually a part ol the nasal cavities, w ith the velum separating the
pharynx Irom the ch am b er of the nose. W hatever its anatom ic
d e s o la tio n , the velum, assisted by the extent of tongue elevation,

Figure 6.1. (a) The position of the vocal organs during the [m] in mat. (b) The
resonance curve of the vocal tract during the pronunciation of the first
sound in the word mat. (From Peter Ladefoged, Elements of Acoustic Pho­
netics, 1962. Tenth printing, 1974. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. By
permission.)
R esonance B alancing th rough N asal Consonants 81

determ ines the c h a ra c te r of the nasal phonem es by the postures it


assum es in relation to the oral cavity.

SOME USES OF THE VOICED BILABIAL STOP [m]

In the production of [m] the full length of the buccal cavity is used as
a resonating ch a m b e r (see Figure 6.1a). The tongue lies in (h e moiilli
in a n eu tral position. Tensions of th e tongue and velum ollen arc
elim inated by vocalises th at use [m].

I.XERCISE 6.1

j V < jT h N ^ 7 T T JT J i
[m a m a m a m a m]
[ m i m i m i m i m]

(I) EXECUTE THE VOCALISE ON A SINGLE PITCH, SLIGHTLY ABOVE NORMAL


'.PEECH RANGE, AT MODERATE TEMPO, IN ONE CONTINUOUS PHRASE,
Al TKRNATING [m] AND [a], (2) PROGRESS BY HALF STEPS THROUGH SEVERAL
KEYS. NO SHAPING OF THE BUCCAL TRACT, OTHER THAN THE NECESSARY
PARTING OF THE LIPS FOR THE VOWEL, SHOULD OCCUR. (3) USE THE SAME
PROCEDURE AS IN THE BEGINNING OF THIS EXERCISE, EXCEPT ALTERNATE
|m] AND [i].

Because the lips are closed, and because the m outh, pharynx,
and the nostrils are now connected cavities, distinct vibratory sensa­
tions are felt in regions of th e pharynx, th e nose, the m outh, and the
area of the sinuses. The quality of th e sound is nasal. W hen the lips
are parted, no continuance of actu al nasality should be present in
l lu- tone, but th e sam e sensation should pertain in the nasal and
sinusal areas (sym pathetic resonance experienced by the singei
hu gely through bone and cartilage conduction).
The [m] is sung vibrantly, w ithout any pinching of the lips The
longue m ust not be raised to the alveolar litige as in the |n | position,
nor should it assum e any transition posture betw een [m| and |n|.
With singers w ho tend to pull the tongue hack, with the hum , the
longue tip should then rest forw ard on the top ol the lower Iron!
teeth. In any event, the tongue m ust not be pulled back from contact
with the teeth. The teeth are parted behind i loscd lips. It is essential
that the tongue be in contact with (lie lowei leelh without dropping
down lo the floor of the m outh at the roots ol the leelh. Failure to do
82 The S tructu re o f S inging

so m ay distort the vowel spectrum and defeat the purpose of the


exercises (Miller and Schutte, 1981, pp. 26-27, 34).

EXERCISE 6.2
(T he sym b ol ( + ) indicates occluded nostrils.)

[m a -(+ )-a m a -(+ )-u m u -(+ )-a m a - (+ ) -a - (+ )]


[m i-(+ )-i m i-(+ )-i m i-(+ )-i m i-(+ )-i- (+ )]

BEGIN WITH THE HUM ([m]) AS IN EXERCISE 6.1. ADDITIONALLY, BEATS ARE
INTRODUCED, DURING WHICH TIME THE NOSTRILS ARE CLOSED BY THE
FINGERS (INDICATED IN EXERCISE 6.2 BY THE SYMBOL [(+)]), THEN
ALLOWED TO REOPE.N W IIII NO CHANGE IN VOCAL QUALITY. THIS IS TO
ENSURE THAT T ill VELUM DOI S NOT INTERFERE WITH THE PROPER
COUPLING OF NASOPHARYNX AND ORAL CAVITIES IN THE QUICK CHANGE
FROM [ml TO |u | (OR |i|) BEAT I OE EACH BAR IS DEVOTED TO [m], BEAT 2 TO
|u|; BEAT ' |( I )| ( III ( KS T ill DEGREE. OF RESONANCE BALANCE BY LIGHTLY
PIN<ÎHING THE. NOSTRILS ( I O S ID WHILE CONTINUING TO SING [a]; BEAT 4
RETURNS I'O HIE. UNOCCI UDE.D NOSTRILS. NO QUALITY CHANGE SHOULD
III EXPERIENCED III-TWEEN 111 ,A TS 2, 3, AND 4.

B ecause of llie simplicity of these vocalises, the singer should


not assum e that, once accom plished, the vocalises have served their
purpose. They are a m eans of checking on th a t acoustic balance so
essential to w hat singers term "resonance.” It is recom m ended that
these vocalises be practiced at least a few m inutes each day.
The nasal [m] also helps produce optim um reso n ato r balance
w hen m om entarily introduced as a study aid before som e problem ­
atic syllable in a text during singing (see Figure 6.1a and b). The
sam e vowel quality th at is present following the hum is retained
w hen the singer retu rn s to the original offending consonant.
The nasality of [m] m ust not continue over into the vowel (unless
dictated by th e F rench nasal vowels, and even then with but the
slightest soupçon!). The singer should never be advised to continue
singing "on the hum .”

EXERCISE 6.3
Ht'sortance Balancing th rough Nasal Consonants 83

I xercise 6.3 is quatrefoliated. The fo u r parts of it form the single


exercise. A lthough it is here p resen ted am ong the group of exercises
mi the [m] hum , the nasals [n] and [q] should be used as well.

I XERCISE 6.4
(«)
The S tructu re of Singing

ItxiTcise 6.4 is a version of Exercise 6.3 extended to the leap of a


Icnth. It should also be executed as an exercise in fo u r parts, with
only enough tim e betw een parts for the breath.
B oth Exercises 6.3 a n d 6.4 should be done first on the vowel [a],
followed by the vowels [d], [e], and [i], each in the sequence of four.

USES OF THE ALVEOLAR-NASAL CONTINUANT [n]

W hereas the sensation of [m] is m ore directly located on the lips and
in the sinusal area, the sensation of fn] is located higher, in the region
of the upper jaw and m axillary sinuses. This sensation has im portant
ram ifications for singing; buccal sensation diminishes, and increased
sensation is felt in the region singers call the masque (mask).
W hen singers fail to experience sufficient frontal sensation, [n]
m ay be a b e tte r key to its accom plishm ent than [m]. Som etim es the
stopped position of IIn- lips in [m] causes problem s for singers w hen
they open the m outh for the next vowel sound, particularly if they
have been accustom ed to dropping the jaw excessively for m ost syl­
lables. The phonem e |n | is produced with an already opened m outh,
lips slightly parted.
For singers who feel th at the tone "falls b ack ” from a resonant
position when they proceed from [m] to an open vowel, [n] can often
be beneficial as a substitute for [m]. (Exercise 6.1 u n d e r [m] m ay be
used to advantage on [n].)

EXERCISE 6.5

y , n ....... ---------------- n
^
1-4—* - ■t
— t — —
A * M tfl i.i ............

[n m a] [n m a] [m n m n a m a n a]
[n m o] [n m o] [m n m n o m o n o]

An exercise to heighten aw areness of the difference in sensation


betw een [m] and [n] juxtaposes them , alternates the juxtaposition,
and then separates them w ith the vowel [o] (Exercise 6.5.).
As ju st indicated, the [m] exercises should be used on [n] as well.
The uses of consonants in achieving reso n ato r ad justm ent will
be exam ined in a system atic w ay as each group is separately con­
sidered. However, a t this point the close relationship betw een [n] and
the plosive lingua-alveolar [d] should be m entioned.
Som e singers with inflexible tongue action, o r with too strong a
tongue thru st, do not find freedom through the fn] vowel in initial
/.'< •nuance B alancing th rough N asal Consonants 85

attem pts. In such cases, an exercise th at altern ates |n | and [d] should
Ik- It ied. It can be quickly noted th at m outh, tongue, lips, and jaw are
in sim ilar positions for both phonem es. (Location ol both [d] and [n]
' .11 ics som ew hat from person to person and language to language, of
. ourse.) Among native Italian singers, w ho tend to touch only briefly
the nasal consonants (unless they a re doubled), | n| in singing is often
only slightly discernible from [d], w hich is indicative ol tin* closeness
ni their postural relationship.

I XERCISE 6.6

f \, .-t..-i j ' H I T i T u j I
[da - na - d a ] [na - d a , da - na, da - na - duj

SOME USES OF THE VOICED


LINGUA VELAR STOP [q]

When suffering from a h ead cold, one is m ade aw are of the relation-
Iup betw een the form ation of [g] as in "rug” and of [q] as in “rung.”
I he velar plosive [g] is produced in a position sim ilar to th at which
I *h ms the nasal co n tin u an t [q], b u t the latter m aintains an open port
into the nasopharynx not enjoyed by [g].
Many phoneticians believe th a t in [q] the m outh cavity does not
i oiitribute to th e sound because of close co n tact betw een the soft
palate and the tongue. Som e o th er phoneticians question such com ­
plete occlusion of tongue and palate during the execution of [q].
The pedagogical m erit of [q] has long been acknow ledged by
singers as a m eans of achieving a n im proved resonance balance.
Although Thom as Fillebrow n (1911, pp. 58-59) did not invent the use
••I 11] | for resonance balancing in singing, he popularized it through bis
now fam ous "Hung-ee" series of vocalises.
For m ost singers, the velar nasal posture of |q | produces a sonsa
lion located high in the masque. V ibratory sensations in the Im nlal
urea of the face a re often intense. This is the sensation of "forw ard
le s o n a n c e ” associated with the singer’s form ant,
The next vocalise is p attern ed a fte r those ol Fillebrown and his
Italian contem poraries (if oral tradition can be trusted), but here |h |
will be replaced with the sibilant |s|. The vocalise bei omen "Sung ee."
Ibis preference for the sibilant over the glottal I lit alive |h | is based
mi the sudden deflection of the stream ol aii into the m outh cavity
as opposed to the possibility for m ore gradual cn lnuice with |h |
Ht) The S tru ctu re of Singing

EXERCISE 6.7

a ------------- --------------
X L p w m .... r0 - P .. J -
fm ' i r
V5U . .1I I i i ^ -

su ng [i e a e i]

In the first phase of the vocalises, prior to the em ergence of the


vowel, th ere should be an acu te aw areness of nasality, sensation now
having progressed beyond th at induced by the use of [n]. W ith the
second phase of the vocalise (vowel replaces the nasal continuant),
the quick discontinuance of lingua-alveolar co ntact should be com ­
plete. The coupling of the nasopharyngeal and buccal resonators is
im m ediate.

EXERCISE 6.8

SOME USES OF THE LINGUA-PALATAL-NASAL


CONTINUANT [ji]

In describing the pedagogical uses of the nasal continuants, it w as


m entioned th a t the entire oral cavity serves as a reso n ato r in the
execution of [m] (while rem aining in a lateral position). It has also
been show n th a t in [n] the oral cavity is altered so the portion lying
behind the conjunction of tongue and alveolar ridge acts as a reso ­
n a to r w ithout contribution from the forw ard a re a betw een the teeth
and th e lips, and th at in [q] the m outh cavity (with the exception of
the faucial area) is probably excluded as a resonator.
Still a n o th e r nasal continuant, the lingua-palatal-nasal continu­
a n t [ji], can be useful. It is found in such w ords as “ogni” and “gnoc­
chi” in Italian, and even in English w ords such as “o m on" and
um on.
The ultim ate location of high "head sensation” is often expe­
rienced with the phonem e [ji], pinpointing a feeling of "resonance”
squarely in the c en ter of the masque, o r behind the nose, the eyes, or
in som e related area of the face, depending on subjective responses
of the singer.
R eson ance B alancing th rough Nasal C onsonants 87

IEXERCISE 6.9

iJ II
[o^jii, o-jii, o-jii, o-jii, o- jii|
[pi-o, jii-o, jii-o, Jii-o, jii- o]

It will be seen a t once th a t these syllables are based on (he llal


i.in w ord ogni, an d th a t th e exercise stem s from the Italian School.
I'he syllables, a t th e repetition on the vocalise, arc rev e rsed the
initial sound then being the lingua-palatal-nasal one.
The next tw o exercises are built upon alternation of nasal con
Initiants and fro n t and back vowels. (Exercise 6.10 m ay very well be
.in "everym an” vocalise in m ore th an one sense. Exercise 6.11
expands th e practice of the lingua-palatal-nasal continuant in alter­
nation w ith vowels, and th e singer m u st "vowelize” from fro n t to
back on ignudo, m aking this a very revealing exercise.)

EXERCISE 6.10

o- gni uo- mo, o- gni uo- mo,

o-gni uo-m o, o-gni uo-m o, o-gni uo-m o

EXERCISE 6.11

i f "~r~~p f i ^ ^—«!• * i J J J J I
o- gnijgnu- do, o- gni ignu- do, o- gnijgnu- do

It is o c c a s io n a lly u se fu l to run th e se ries ol lo u r nasal c o n tin u ­


an ts in s e q u e n c e on a sin g le pitch, a s an ex e r c ise in q u ick ly e x p e ­
rien cin g v a ria tio n s o f th e sen sa tio n «>1 tnustfut' "resonance." S o m e
sin g ers like to m a ssa g e in cir c u la r m o tio n the m axillary area ol the
lin e w h ile sin g in g th e nasal co n tin u a n ts. The valu e nl su ch an e x e r ­
c ise m ay b e largely p sy c h o lo g ic a l, but It i* p ossib le that th e ailili-
88 The S tru ctu re of Singing

tional physical action on the face heightens perception of masque


sensations.

SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON THE


NASAL CONTINUANTS

M any people com e from regions w here nasality is characteristic of


speech (a phenom enon not restricted to m idw estem or southern
Atlantic seaboard America), especially w henever a nasal continuant
occurs in the phrase. Lingering nasality becom es habitual for ph o n a­
tion. Uses of nasal continuants take on added relevance for singers
w ith speech backgrounds w here such rhinolalia (excessive o r con­
sta n t nasality in speech) is an accepted m ode of speech. C onscious­
ness of the com parative locations and accom panying sensations in
the fo u r nasal continuants, and how they can be produced, often has
a salubrious cl le d on speech problem s. Fricatives, plosives and sib­
ilants, and consonants that close off the nose and direct sound into
the oral cavity, may be alternated with nasal continuants.
Mm h ol the problem with "placem ent” term inology in singing is
that singers attem pt physical actions w hich they assum e will p ro ­
duce certain desirable "resonance” results, b u t w hich have o ther
functional ram ifications. In trying to "place” sound, they falsely
adjust parts of the vocal tract, thereby ham pering flexibility. One of
the best ways to develop good acoustic function in reso n ato r
adjustm ent is through the use of the nasal continuants.
Som etim es a singer's production is based on exaggerated m uscle
stretching to achieve velar elevation, excessive laryngeal depression,
and a hanging jaw (as unaesthetic to look at as it m ust be difficult to
accomplish!). W ith th at kind of vocal technique, th e postures essen­
tial to the form ation of the nasal continuants are difficult to execute.
The nasals can be used therapeutically, because during their pro d u c­
tion the soft palate m ust rem ain, to som e extent, in a m ore relaxed
position, w ith the port into the nasopharynx rem aining open and
tone being directed into the nasal cavities. In som e of the nasals, as
has been seen, the m outh has little or no participation, or participates
from a narrow lateral position. The problem of excessive jaw drop­
ping (u n d er th e assum ption th a t to hang it is to relax it) m ay be
attacked through the nasal continuants. (Of course, it is possible to
use [q] w ith the jaw forced dow nw ard. W hen th a t is the tendency,
replace it with [n].)
In techniques of singing which avoid the postures essential to the
production of nasals, nasal continuants and hum m ing are out. On
R eson ance B alancing th rough Nasal C onsonants 89

the contrary, any freely produced voicc should be able to vocalize on


the nasals thro u g h o u t m ost of the effective range ol Ilie instrum ent.
II is difficult to do so w ith [m] in the upper range, bccausc the m outh
should open in ascending pitch. Even in that range, however, | m] can
he a useful corrective exercise. In the upper voicc, Ihe |n | and the |q |
hum are preferable for vocalization.
In the give an d tak e of language, whether in speaking 01 singing,
the acoustic postures assum ed by the resonators in I he nasals must
quickly alter to com ply w ith th e phonetic sequences that follow
them. The principle of total flexibility of the shaping polenlial ol Ihe
resonator tu b e is inim ical to som e vocal pedagogies in wliii h one
ideal reso n ato r shape is advocated. Em inent Italian laryngologist and
authority on the singing voice, Carlo M eano (1964, p. 156), re le is to
this dichotom y am ong teaching techniques w hen adm onishing that,
Especially in singing, it is necessary th a t the voice have the
m axim um sonority, for w hich all the parts of the resonance
cavities m ust participate in th e sonorous production, partic­
ularly the nasal cavity, any im pedim ent of which constricts
the throat, causing the voice to becom e excessively dark, as
can often be verified am ong singers of no rth ern origin.
The m ain ro u te of vocal pedagogy to which m ost professional
■angers of international sta tu re ad h ere is based on resonance pre-
cepts of the historic Italian School as articulated in the second half
ol the nineteenth century and the early decades of the tw entieth
i entury. Nasal continuants play a m ajor role in those concepts.
Additional benefits from using "hum m ing” sounds are found in
the heightened "support” sensations experienced in the torso, which
arc the result of total or partial closure of the m outh th at occurs
during the production of nasals.
CHAPTER 7

Resonance Balancing
through Non-nasal
Consonants
The Influence of Non-nasal Consonants on
Resonator Adjustment

USES OF THE VOICED LINGUA-ANTERIOR-PALATAL


CONTINUANT [j]

The voiced lingua-anterior-palatal | j] is clearly discernible in the En­


glish word "yes," and in the “double vowel” of the Italian word ieri In
singing, [j] is best treated as a quickly occurring version of the vowel
[i], joined to the oncom ing vowel. The [j], som etim es term ed a sem i­
vowel or a liquid consonant, is a useful pilot sound.
W hen pitch begins on a w ord introduced by the vowel [u], m any
singers sense a loss ol "locus,” a lack of "resonance.” The phonem e [j]
often is coupled with the back vowel [u], as in th e w ord “you.” By
substituting “you” for a word such as luna, Uhr, or "soon,” as a
m om entary exercise, im provem ent in the resonance of the syllable
containing | u] will result. The original w ord is then sung with the sam e
"resonance.” In so doing, we juxtapose vowels [i] and [u] (at opposite
poles of the vowel series), then we quickly unite them in a single sylla­
ble. Because of the initial high tongue posture, which begins with the
m outh in a lateral position, followed by low posture (from [i] to [u]),
the sense of "focus” rem ains throughout the diphthong.
The w ord "yes” also serves as a splendid pilot w ord for locating a
sensation of balanced resonance in singing. Diphthongization occurs
quickly in speech but m ay require m uch m ore tim e in singing, in
which case som e recognition of the rhythm ic relationships of the two
parts of the diphthong m ust rem ain. The phonem e [j] then becom es
the vowel [i] in w ords like "you” and "yes.” A five-note descending
scale, sung in m edium range, illustrates the exercise.

EXERCISE 7.1

you, you, you, you, you

90
R eson ance B alancing th rough N on-nasal Consonants 91

Sim ilar help m ay be found by coupling a nasal continuant with [j]


using the com bined sound as a pilot device for locating sensations of
balanced resonance, as in the w ord "new" (pronounced | n i u], and not
10 be confused through regional speech habits with "j>,nu").

EXERCISE 7.2

H
new , new , new , new,

Each singer can devise w ords of this sort as aids tem porarily sub
•.lituted for syllables th at cause problem s. A particularly helpful vocal
ise that m akes use of [j] is built on the phrase ieri Yaltro, in which the
vowel sequence (w hen sung slowly) is [i e i a o].

EXERCISE 7.3

ü#fn ---- f----


h
0
J ----------- 0 ---- 4 ----------- 0
M N M = — ■ —

ie- ri l’al-tro, ie- ri l’al-tro, ie- ri l’al-tro

USES OF THE LINGUA-ALVEOLAR CONTINUANT [1]

As with the nasal continuants, the consonant [1] can be vocalized as a


syllable of extended duration. The [1] is a fickle sound, behaving som e­
times as a semivowel and som etim es as a consonant. An obvious rela­
tionship exists betw een [n] and [1] in the position of the tongue at the
alveolar ridge. (W hen singing the nasals, sound passes through the
nasal cavities, and there is a tendency to nasalize [1] as well, because of
Its form ation at the alveolar ridge. It is wise to close off the end of the
nostrils occasionally while singing [1] to be certain that nasality does
not intrude.)
The consonant [1] shares yet another characteristic with the nasal
*ontinuant [n], in that the m outh is partially opened (ireatei freedom
Is experienced by som e singers in phonetic acoustic situations where
the m outh is partially opened; buccal closure in the youthful, unskilled
singer may induce too m uch glottal resistanc e'.
Because the consonant [l| requires an upw ard stroke ol the
tongue as it m oves tow ard the alveolar ridge Irom the' acoustic at-rest
posture, 111 is capable of producing an inordinate num ber ol transition
92 The S tru ctu re o f S in g in g

sounds, especially in com bination with ensuing vowels and consonants.


Som etim es [1] is a detrim ental influence on clean articulation in sing­
ing. On the other hand, w hen properly executed, [1] is one of the m ost
favorable consonants for achieving facile tongue action, the key to
good articulation. The blade of the tongue should m ove quickly from
its position of contact with the lower front teeth to the alveolar ridge,
w here it m ust be fully forw ard in direct contact with the inner su r­
faces of the upper front teeth. In singing, [1] should never rest at the
posterior edge of the alveolar ridge. Both in approaching this phonetic
position and in taking leave of it, the tongue m ust avoid the slow
m otions th at are typical of this consonant in m ost American and
British speech. In the English language, fl] tends to be form ed farther
back up the alveolar ridge (indeed, at times behind it) than in the Latin
languages, producing a lazy, liquid consonant that encourages transi­
tion sounds. The continuant 11| should be executed with a light flick of
the tongue; following the production of [1], the tongue should quickly
return to the position of phonetic rest, with absolutely no transition
sounds permitted.
W hen properly harnessed, |l| helps acquire the quick tongue
action essential lo lire articulation. A sluggish [1] destroys all hope for
good diction I’he consonant |l| can serve as a m odel for all other
alveolar consonants when the singer has m astered it. Even the
doubled consonant, although long in duration in several languages,
m ust be sharply enunciated.

EXERCISE 7.4: "LA-LA-LA-LA-LA”


(1) REPEAT A PATTERN OF CONSECUTIVE [l| SYLLABLES IN A COMFORTABLE
RANGE OF THE SPEAKING VOICE; VARY THE TEMPO OF THE SERIES OF
SYLLABLES, MAKING CERTAIN THAT THE TONGUE BLADE PERFORMS ITS
ACTION QUICKLY, RETURNING AT ONCE TO THE CENTRAL "AT-REST"
POSITION. (2) AT SOME MODERATE PITCH LEVEL, SING THE SAME SERIES IN A
LEGATO FASHION, BEGINNING AT SLOW TEMPO, GRADUALLY ACCELERATING.

EXERCISE 7.5

la la la la la la la la la

The phonem e [1] should scarcely interrupt the vowel flow. Alterna­
tion betw een two notes on one syllable and one note per syllable per­
mits the singer to check that the vowel is not truncated and that it
Mrson ance B alancing th rough N on-nasal Consonants 93

docs not succum b to any change of tim bre because of transition


Mounds.

EXERCISE 7.6

j T T r P i- \ \ J 'P 7 1^
la la la la, la la la in lu, la

f r i'p u ip p fer r »
la la la la la la la la la la

The consonant [1] should be of as brief duration as possible; the


longue leaves the central phonetic posture at the low er teeth only
momentarily, quickly returning there.

USES OF THE ALVEOLAR SINGLE [r] AND THE


ALVEOLAR ROLLED [f]

In the single flip (single-tap) [ r ] , a fast flap of the tongue point against
ilu alveolar ridge is caused by breath emission, which produces a
111111 k Iy executed fricative sound uniquely its own. This is followed by
m imm ediate retu rn of the tongue to its “hom e base,” in contact with
Ihe lower teeth.
Properly executed form s of r in singing b e a r som e sim ilarities to
llie consonant [1] and to several of the nasal continuants, in that the
m outh rem ains som ew hat opened but partly closed off by the forw ard
longue position (lingual closure) (Hirano et al, 1966, p. 377). If the sin-
clé flip [ r] is difficult to manage, substitute the consonant [d|.
The sin g er sh o u ld n ev er c o n fu s e th e sin gle tap | r| w ith the to n g u e
point Irill (rolled ) [r], (T he sy m b o l |T] is u sed in this w ork, and in m any
p h o n etic so u r c e s, to rep resen t th e a lv e o la r rolled r, b e c a u se Ilu- Il'A
sym b ol for the trilled r, [r], is u se d in d iscrim in a tely in m any A m erican
so u rc e s to in d ica te any fo rm o f r.) T he to n g u e point It ill is o n e ol the
m ost im p ortan t o f all te c h n ic a l d e v ic e s lo r indue iug lo o se n e ss ol the
lo n g u e at b o th its f r o n ta l a n d its h y o id a l I’x tr v m ith 'y In ord er loi the
Happing m o tio n o f th e to n g u e b la d e to tak e plac e, no ten sion m ay
eslst w ithin the m u sc le b u n d le s that m ak e up llie body ol llie lo n g u e , In
the freely trilled (rolled ) |f], th ere ca n be no tension at the p oin ts ol
The S tructu re of Singing

tongue co ntact at the upper teeth and the alveolar ridge. N or can the
tongue-point trill be properly executed if th ere is tension in the hyoidal
m usculature. (The larynx is suspended by the thyrohyoid m em brane
from the hyoid bone, to w hich the tongue also is attached. See Figures
4.8 an d 4.9). A nother advantage of the tongue-point trill is th a t it
prevents excessive spreading of the buccal-pharyngeal cavity (which
is occupied by the m ass of the tongue). This is especially the case during
rapid pitch changes within a phrase sung on the sustained tongue-
point trill.

EXERCISE 7.7
SUSTAIN THE SPOKEN SYLLABLE ''HRRR!" DURING ASCENDING AND
DESCENDING PITCHES OF APPROXIMATELY AN OCTAVE, PORTAMENTO
FASHION.

EXERCISE 7.8

If — 1
SIN(I I 111 (ONGUE. POINT TRILL ON A DESCENDING FIVE-NOTE PATTERN.

EXERCISE 7.9

SING THE TONGUE-POINT TRILL ON A PHRASE OF MODERATE DURATION.

The tongue-point trill (tongue blade trill o r flutter) exercises have


two specific goals: (1) to induce freedom in larynx and tongue and (2)
to increase aw areness of good breath m anagem ent, which is essential
for lingual vibration. The consciousness of the tru n k as the source of
b reath control is heightened by the use of the tongue point flutter.
There is a m arked sensation in the anterolateral abdom inal wall d u r­
ing the execution of the prolonged tongue blade trill, as is also the case
with nasal continuants.
To represent r as a single consonant w ithout suggesting the
n u m b er o f variations on the r them e is confusing. The single tap |r |
and the tongue point trill [f] are two such phonemic variants. Others
include sounds om itted in cultivated singing. The retroflex speech
Ht'sonance Balancing th rough N on-nasal C onsonants 95

<ounds fa] and fa], in which the tongue curls backw ard tow ard the
■n ite r of the m outh in m uch of American and som e regional British
Heech, is «ever used in artistic singing. The retroflex | r | is heard in
lolk, pop, jazz, soul, rock, and (especially) in country w estern litera-
11ires; the extrem ely retroflexed r is indicated by ( if It contributes
more to vowel distortion than any other phonem e in W estern lan­
guages. Americans w ho are untrained singers rely almost entirely on
the sounds fa-] an d fa1] of regional speech fo r the proper ■ (In speech,
I.u tors of duration and stress, and the degree of retroflex mg, dctei
mine which sym bol is accurate; in singing, these differences lend to
merge.) The so-called "m idw estern r ” ([[]), prom inent in many geo
graphical regions of N orth America, m akes difficult the execution ol
cither the single tap fr] or the rolled [f].
The uvular rolled [R] and the velar fricative [k], characteristic ol
spoken French and (in som e regions) of spoken German, are avoided
In well-schooled singing in both French and German.
The consonants thus far considered have the dangerous tendency
lo induce on-glides and off-glides (transition sounds) which upset clean
vowel definition. Exercises have been devised as a system atic way of
eliminating such distortion of subsequent vowels. This group of con­
onants dem ands quick tongue m ovem ent. Tongue and jaw flexibility
i annot coexist w ith the stationary hung jaw and the overly distended
pharynx. The "setting syndrom e” of hung jaw and spread throat tech­
niques is corrected through these exercises.
At a later point, benefits to be gained from coupling fl], fr], or fr]
lo other consonants in singing will be considered.

USES OF THE VOICED LABIODENTAL FRICATIVE


( <)NTINUANT [vl AND THE VOICELESS LABIODENTAL
FRICATIVE CONTINUANT [f]

In the [v] th e upper in cisors m e e t th e b ottom lip. T he continuant |v |


and its v o iceless cou nterp art ff], as w ell as a neighboring con tin u an t | / |
and its v o iceless paired co n so n a n t fs], recall the central position ol
phonation, th e at-rest p o stu re p reviou sly described- Certain m o d ifia i
lio n s o f the central p honetic position m ust take plat c in ordci lo a n ivc
at the ex a ct physiological postures essential to the production ol |v |
and [f], but th o se m o d ific a tio n s a re slight: so m e m andlhulai a d ju st­
ment, co n ta ct b etw een th e upper incisors and Ilie low ei lip (as w as just
seen), so m e clo su re o f the nasopharyngeal port, and approxim ation ol
the vocal folds. In singing, it is significant that In e x e iu iln g |v | and |/|,
The S tru ctu re of Singing

and their voiceless m ates [f] and [s], the tongue need not move from its
acoustic, at-rest posture.
In the production of [v], the lips assum e something of the hori
zontal smile position, avoiding any vertical buccal posture. The ex
tem al orifice is narrow ed, and the laryngeal sound is deflected directly
into the oral cavity. The consonant [v], being a continuant, dem ands no
change in posture within the vocal tract throughout its duration. (The
consonants [v] and [f] are both fricative and labiodental.)
Singers learn a great deal about the process of resonator coupling
w hen [v] precedes vowels. That m outh position, with parted lips,
closely resem bles the posture associated with pleasure and repose. The
physical location of [v] encourages sensations in the masque area of
the face.

EXERCISE 7.10
(1) AT A COMFORTABLE PITCH LEVEL, RECITE THE SYLLABLES [vi-ve-va-vo-vu],
(2) RECITE THE SYLLABLES [fl-fe-fa-fo-fu],

EXERCISE 7.11
AT A COMFORTABLE: PITCH LEVEL, ON A SINGLE PITCH, SING THE SYLLABLES
| vZ-vc-vu v<> vi/1 I I IEN SUBSTITUTE THE CONSONANT [f] for [v].

EXERCISE 7.12

$ « p n T 7 p p p~p -e -

[vi- ve - va- ve - vo - ve - vu - ve - vi]


[fi - fe - fa - fe - fo - fe - fu - fe - fi ]
[vi- fe - va- fa - vi - fi - vo- fo - vi]
[fe- va- va- fa - fe - v a - va- fa - fe]

ALTERNATE THE SYLLABLES INITIATED BY [v] AND [f].

USES OF THE VOICED BILABIAL STOP PLOSIVE [b |


AND THE VOICELESS BILABIAL STOP PLOSIVE [p].

Consonants [b] and [p] are called bilabials because both lips are
involved in their formation; they are also classified as stop plosives.
Because the nasopharynx is closed and the vocal folds approximated,
the airstream , when released from bilabial stop-plosive impedance,
flows directly into the buccal cavity. Lip posture during [ hj and [p|
lù ‘. onan ce B alancing th rough N on-nasal C onsonants 97

11 1nains in the central, at-rest position, although occluded, occasioning


mi increase of air pressure in the m outh. The lips meet firmly; as they

iclcase, the m outh opens quickly, so that the aii stream is suddenly
|h-emitted to exit.
The consonant [b] is a voiced consonant, while its com panion | p| is
i -.urd (that is, a voiceless consonant). The [b] shares a certain cliarac
h listic with the nasal continuant [m] in that both arc produced by a
<Insure of the lips. However, quite different conditions prevail in the
velar area during the production of the tw o consonants, as a m om ents
ill m onstration will prove.
In all bilabial acoustic events, b reath is stopped by the lips, with
bieath pressure accum ulating behind them . The sudden release ol the
lips often brings the perception th at "tone” has been directly produced
at the lips, and this has psychological (as well as physiological) implica
lio n s for persons whose attention has been excessively directed
toward the pharyngeal or laryngeal areas. On the other hand, the very
oi i lusion of the lips serves to identify sharply for the singer a reso­
nance cham ber com prised of both m outh and pharynx.

I \IR C IS E 7.13
11) Ml ENTLY FORM THE LIPS IN POSITION FOR THE PRODUCTION OF [b],
I I I IN<; CONSCIOUS OF BUCCOPHARYNGEAL SPACE. (2) SUBSTITUTE [ p ] FOR
|ii| IN THE SAME MANNER. (3) SING [b] and [p] ALTERNATELY, COUPLING
HU M WITH A VOWEL AT MODERATE PITCH LEVEL. REMAIN ON THE SAME
i i IMPORTABLE PITCH, ONCE AGAIN NOTING THE SPATIAL ARRANGEMENT OF
t ill R f -SONATOR CAVITIES.

I KERCISE 7.14

0
p
| lie- pe- be- pe, pe- be- pe-
m m
be, pe be
f pc be]

M I I .RNATE THESE PAIRED CONSONANTS, OBSERVING THE SENSATION A l


I III I IPS, AND BE AWARE OF THE CONTRAST BETWEEN VOK I D AND
11NVC >l< ED CONSONANTS.

I'.XERCISE 7.15

T ~ TW p ?j>r
| be- pc- be, pe- be- p c|
The S tructu re o f Singing

IJSES OF THE VOICED LINGUA-ALVEOLAR FRICATIVH


CONTINUANT [z] AND THE VOICELESS LINGUA-
ALVEOLAR FRICATIVE CONTINUANT [s]

A nother consonant which has considerable m erit in assisting the


singer to experience desirable resonator balance is [z]. It has been seen
that this voiced lingua-alveolar fricative is a continuant that requires
little alteration from the central acoustic position, and therefore
illustrates the possibility of minimal technical entanglem ent in singing.
B reath passes betw een teeth and tongue, the tongue being elevated
and nearly, or lightly, flattened against the h ard palate, producing ;i
narrow orifice. A small stream of air passes over the edge of some ol
the teeth, generally the incisors: this explains the presence of a hissing
noise which accom panies the laryngeally produced tone in [z].
The lips are parted, and m andibular m ovem ent is slight. The close
relationship betw een buccal cavity and upper jaw contributes to the
frontally located sensation of [z] and [s]. As pilot consonants for
subsequent vowels this pair of consonants often helps the singer find
that ideally balanced tone which is com posed of fundam ental and
upper partials in correct proportions. The consonants [z] and [s] are
especially useful in correcting hollow and unfocused vocal quality.

EXERCISE 7.16

r l[ j
[Z ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ]

A VOCALISE ON [z] HELPS IDENTIFY ITS CHARACTERISTIC PRODUCTION.

EXERCISE 7.17

51*5=1 ■— m— = = = q fFl
-I--
—e --------------
M h ~ )— ÊE-
za- z a- z a- z a- za- za- za- z a- za
ze- z a- ze- za- ze- za- z e- z a- ze
za- ze- z i- zo- za- z e- zi - zo- za

SING SYLLABLES INTRODUCED BY [z] WITH TONGUE ENGAGEMENT AT T ill'


I.OWF.R TEETH AND WITH LATERAL POSTURE OF THE MOUTH.
:
/<«•%o n a n c e B alancing th rough N on-nasal C on son ants

I Xi:RCISE 7.18
99

sa - za- sa - za- sa- za- sa- za- su


zi - si - ze- se- za- sa- zo- so- ze

Al I'KRNATE [z] AND [s].

USES OF THE VOICED LINGUADENTAL FRICATIVE


CONTINUANT [5] AND THE VOICELESS
LINGUADENTAL FRICATIVE CONTINUANT |()|

I he* pitch consonant [3], as in "thy,” fu rth e r exaggerates sensation in


tin- upper jaw w hich w as already som ew hat experienced in [z]. The
llnguadental consonant [5] is produced w ith elevated tongue, al­
though the tongue is flattened and p ro tru d e d so th a t its low er sur-
I.ice is in co n tact w ith the edges of the low er teeth, its superior sur-
I.h c in co n tact w ith the edges of the u p p er teeth. The accom panying
lui/./.y” feeling th at results from sustaining the consonant [ô] is
generally strongly felt in the upper jaw an d masque areas. T hrough
exercises involving this consonant, th e singer becom es aw are of the
ilcsirable balances am ong buccal, nasal, and pharyngeal resonators.

I.XKRCISE 7.19

to —

I XKRCISE 7.20

c:
t
flui- ôai, ôai,
m ô ai,
?ô ai- ô ai, ôai
(thy- thy, thy, thy, thy- thy, thy)

A c o u n te rp a rt to the voiccd consonant |ô | is Its paired voiceless


llnguudental fricative continuant |0|, as in the word "think." Although
|l)| is closely related to the voiced analogue |ft|, and Its relationship to
100 The S tructu re o f Singing

the central acoustic position is identical with th at of [8], the vocal


folds a re not approxim ated with [0], so th a t air is directed suddenly
into the oral cavity.
The advantage of prefacing a vowel sound w ith the unvoiced
linguadental fricative is th at it encourages a loose glottis and a narrow
buccal aperture, and it helps in releasing tension w ith som e singers
who m ake too m uch use of subglottic pressure and who distend
the jaw.

EXERCISE 7.21

f * p v , ...... \ \
[ôai- Oui- flui- Oui- ôui]
(thy, thigh, thy, thigh, thy)

EXERCISE 7.22

Oui Oui Oui Oui Oai


(thigh, thigh, thigh, thigh, thigh)

USES OF THE VOICED LINGUA-ALVEOLAR STOP


PLOSIVE [dl AND THE VOICELESS LINGUA-
ALVEOLAR STOP PLOSIVE [t]

In singing, the voiced lingua-alveolar stop plosive [d] m ay resem ble


the phonem e to which som e phoneticians give the sym bol [J|.
Singers have a tendency on [d] to press the tongue against the inner
surfaces of the upper teeth, to increase subglottic pressure, and then
to rem ove the tongue from the alveolar position w ith a very sluggish
m ovem ent. Em pirically, one senses th a t in the sound [d] the stream
of air is blocked by the pressure of the tongue. In a badly produced
[d], th ere are m any possibilities for vocal tension, because the vocal
folds are approxim ated, the p ort into the nasopharynx is probably
closed, and tongue elevation prevents the escape of air through the
m outh.
By m oving the tongue tow ard the [^] posture and by enunciating
with a quick, light motion, glottal or lingual tension can be avoided.
(In this instance, as in all consideration of the effect of consonants on
R esonance B alancing th rough N on-nasal C onsonants 101

resonator adjustm ent, it is not presum ed that every singer en coun­


ters the sam e kinds of problem s with each consonant. However, a
'.ystem atic pedagogy m ust be at hand to deal with faulty function
w herever it occurs in the singing instrum ent.)
The desirable [d] in singing is the dentali/cd |J |, which lies close
lo the sound h eard ju st prior to [z] in the w ord "adz .”

EXERCISE 7.23
I' R <)NOUNCE T H E W O RD "ADZ" AND REPEA T IT; PAUSE ON I II I I' 11( IN I MI | J |.
M OM ENTARILY D RO PPIN G T H E SECON D CONSONANT [?.]. Ri 1*1 A I .
REPLACING [z] W ITH [a],

EXERCISE 7.24
HI IAINING T H E SAM E LINGUAL LOCATION FO R [<J] AS E N CO U N TERED IN
EX ERCISE 7.23, R E PE A T T H E PH R A SE "DA-DA-DA-DA-DA.” (M OST INFANTS
MAKE U SE O F T H E PH O N E M E [tf] W H E N LEA RNING TO SAY "DADDY," BEFÛRK
I III EAR HAS BECO M E CONDITIONED TO T H E HARDER, M O RE PO STERIO RLY
I <>( ATED ALVEOLAR [d] ASSOCIATED W ITH T H E E N G L ISH LANGUAGE.)

The co n so n an t [t] is p ro d u ced in a m an n e r sim ilar to its voiced


i im n terp art [d], w ith the exception th a t it is unvoiced; the vocal folds
do not approxim ate in its production. T herefore, th ere is less te n ­
dency to squeeze the plosive [t] in singing th an the plosive [d].
Although [d] and [t] m ay be p ro d u ced in nearly identical locations in
spoken English, w hen singing [t] in m ost E uropean languages the
blade of the tongue avoids the strong percussive sound of [t] as it is
heard in the English language. In fact, the difference betw een tongue
position in [ 4 ] and in [ t ] w hen produced in the "E uropean” m an n er (a
necessity w hen singing m uch of the g reat vocal literature) is often
minimal.
W hen glottal closure is desired to g eth er w ith a forw ard tongue
posture and a relatively m o d erate m an d ib u lar distention, fdl is often
very useful. If th e re is evidence of too m uch glottal pressure, as is
often the case w hen beginning a w ord such as "day” on a high pilch,
Ihe m om entary substitution of [t] for [d] will tend to release tension
Aller practicing th e passage with ft] a few times, |d | is m ade easier.

EXERCISE 7.25
(I) AT A M O DERATE SPEE C H LEVEL, W ITH T O N G U E Wl I I FORW ARD,
Kl•TEAT |<lu-lf-dc-le-d«-lc-du-lc|. (2) SING T H E SAMI' < OMIIINA HON ( >1
SYLLABLES (OR ALTER TH E M ) BY USING ANY CONVENU N I VOW I.I
( OM BINATION W H IL E RETAINING T H E ALTERNA I ION Ol |0 | ANH |l | ON ON E
T ITC H AT A MEDIUM RANGE LEVEL.
102 The S tru ctu re o f Singing

EXERCISE 7.26

TT
[d a te da te da]
[te da te da tc ]

A LTERN ATE T H E LINGUA-ALVEOLAR STO P PLOSIVES.

EXERCISE 7.27

ALTERNATE I lll L IN (itlA ALVEOLAR STO P PLOSIVES.

EXERCISE 7.28

ALTERNATE T H E LINGUA-ALVEOLAR STO P PLOSIVES.

M any singers have a tendency to preface [d] w ith an additional


sound such as [m], probably in an attem pt to avoid the glottal closure
(and the lack of im m ediate sound). Som etim es "ha” is also intruded.
W e h e a r such interpolations as "[m]Bald a b e r küsst sie,” "[n]Du
Ring an m einem Finger,” "[h]deh! non cessar!” etc. (One recalls the
classic exam ple of the Italian singer of great fam e who insisted he
could not sing "The Hills of H om e” except as "The Ills of Ome,”
because th ere is no [h] in the Italian language, b u t in his concluding
Tosti song, sang "La-fez-mor!”) An excellent counteraction of this
vicious habit, w hich is very w idespread, is to m ake use of such vocal­
ises as those in the previous exercises, concentrating on sensations
of forw ard acoustic position. (Of course, as with all of these
vocalises, o th er pitch patterns m ay be used.)
R eson ance B alancing th rough N on-nasal C onsonants 103

USES OF THE VOICED LINGUAVELAR STOP


PLOSIVE [g] AND THE VOICELESS LINGUAVELAR
STOP PLOSIVE | k |

Another consonant th a t incites the w rong laryngeal involvem ent for


m any singers is [g], particularly w hen it occurs on a noli* ol onset in
an area of th e vocal range w hich is not yet com fortable loi the
■anger. As its location clearly shows, th e voiced lingnavelai slop plo-
ive [g] brings total closure. The elevated back of the tongue touches
llie velum and presses against the re a r portion of the hard palate.
Yel, precisely because of this occlusion, [g] has m erit for llie siiif/,ci
Air, w hen finally released from the stoppage involved in llie eon
sonant [g], explodes directly into the buccal cavity, producing a eon
dilion of openness in the channel betw een the oropharynx and the
oral cavity. The sensation from th a t event is very distinct and
extrem ely useful. W hen a singer habitually suffers from a lowered
velar posture, w ith resu lta n t nasality and thinness of quality, the use
ol | g| can prove to be a valuable antidote. Even w hen such faults are
not present, [g] has great w orth as a conditioner of p roper resonance
balancing.
The consonant [k] provides an even m ore d ram atic illustration
ol the release from linguavelar occlusion. The strong sensations
betw een closure and openness of the nasopharyngeal passage and
11ie m outh can be realized even in whispering.

EXERCISE 7.29
Wl IISPER "BIG GOAT," LINGERING O V ER T H E ST O P PL O SIV E [ g ] ; REPEA T T H E
W ORDS AT A FAIRLY H IG H DYNAMIC LEVEL.
W H ISP E R "SICK CAT,’’ LIN G ERIN G O V ER T H E STO P PL O SIV E [k]; REPEAT
AT A FAIRLY H IG H SP O K E N DYNAMIC LEVEL, IN T H E SAM E RHYTHM .
SLOW LY SPEA K T H E PH R A SES "BIG GOAT; SICK CAT," LINGERING OVER
I l l l TW O ST O P PLO SIV ES.
AT A M O DERATE PITCH, SING T H E PH R A S E "BIG GOAT, SICK CAT,”
I IN (iERIN G O V ER T H E STO P PLO SIV ES. BE AW ARE O F THF. ACOIISTK Al
l-< 1ST U R E S O F [ g ] AND [k] AND OF T H E IMMEDIACY O F THF. SU BSEQ U EN T
VOW EL SOUNDS.

Ib is p r e f a t o r y s p o k e n e x e r c i s e s h o u l d s e r v e as an in t r o d u c t io n lo
o i l i e r e x e r c i s e s t h a t c u lt iv a t e a s e n s e ol o p e n n e s s ( f o l l o w i n g c l o s u r e )
In llie n a s o p h a r y n x , a n d resu lt in t h e g o la aperta
T h e e x e r c i s e s t h a t f o llo w e s t a b lis h an n w a i e n e s s ol llie raised
v e l u m in sin g in g . B e c a u s e ol that a c tio n , th e y m e Ideal loi e lim in a l-
Ing nasality in t h e s in g in g vo ic e.
104 The S tru ctu re o f Singing

EXERCISE 7.30

[ge, ge-go-ge-go, ge, g o,


[ke, k e - k o - ke-ko, ke, ko,
[gi, gi - ge - ki - k e , gi, ki,
[ga­ ga- k a -g a -k a , ga, ka,

EXERCISE 7.31

f «rTT~j Jyyv j>


[g> - ge- gi - ge, gi - g e - g> - g e - gi - g e - gi - ge- gi 1
[ki - ke- k i- ke, ki - ke- k i- ke- k i- k e - ki - ke- gi 1
Tgo- ge- go- ge. go- ge- go- ge- go- ge- go- ge- g°l
[k o - ke- ko- kc, ko- k e- ko- ke- ko- k e- ko- ke- ko]
[gi - ke- g> - ke, g ' - k e - gi - k e - gi - k e - gi - ke- gi ]

EXERCISE 7.32

[ki - kc- ki - kc- ki, gi - g e - gi - ge - gi, ki- k e - k i - k e - ki]


[gi - kc- gi - ke- gi. g a - k a - g a - k a - ga, gi- k e - ki - k e - gi]

USES OF VOICELESS CONSONANTS IN GENERAL

Phonetic sym bols representing speech sounds in a n u m b er of lan­


guages can never cover the full range of acoustic events of which
the vocal m echanism is capable. Many of these postures are easier
th an o thers to produce. This depends on the language background of
the individual. D uring the developm ent of language, certain sounds
have been selected while others have been suppressed, as a result of
cultural environm ent. (There is no biological reason why the clicks of
certain S outh African tribes should not have been incorporated into
the speech patterns of W estern E uropean languages.)
The presence or absence of certain phonem es in a speaker’s own
language m ay explain difficulties encountered in an o th er language.
For example, the sounds of the French, Germ anic, and Slavic lan­
guages are not easily caught and im itated by m any English-speaking
tongues, and the reverse is equally true, yet singers m ust regularly
deal wilh the sounds of several branches of language. Good singers
H fw n a n c e B alancing th rough N on-nasal C onsonants 105

ilt> so rem arkably well. T here is a direct correlation betw een the
•«Inzer’s ability to be phonetically precise, even in foreign languages,
md the ability to produce desirable vocal timbre.
Frequently, th e voiceless consonant appeal s to be unfriendly to
(In* singer. L anguages th a t display a high incidence ol unvoiced con­
sonants a re som etim es disparaged by singers. Despite (heir lack of
pilch orientation, th ere is no need fo r the voiceless consonants lo be
detrim ental to th e p roduction of a good vocal line. They i an be com
lorlably incorporated in such a way th a t they do not break the flow
ol sound.
The best way to deal w ith voiceless sounds in singing is lo isolate
them and analyze th em phonetically. Later, w hen they appeal
separately o r w hen they group in clusters, even in quickly delivered
irrita tiv e or soaring vocal line, they will be m et as m anageable
.n quaintances.
Drilling of coupled consonants is essential for establishing agile
longue action. The sam e problem -solving principle, of course, applies
10 any "diction” difficulty th a t m ay com e up in the vocal literature. If
Ihr tongue stum bles on som e phonem ic com bination, those sounds
may be extracted and m ade into an exercise.
Flexibility of tongue, lips, jaw, and the entire reso n ato r tu b e can
becom e so well ro u tin ed th at the singer has no problem s w ith any
t onsonant com bination. If the singer possesses an articulatory ease
1.11 beyond the norm , tim e should not be w asted in practicing the
i em aining exercises in this chapter. T here are singers w ho sing all lan­
guages well. They also have techniques th a t allow them to produce
11 re vocal sounds. The free voice has no diction problems!
The exercises th a t follow are based chiefly on voiced and u n ­
voiced consonants com bined w ith the consonants [1], [r], and [f]. This
is because of the in h eren t problem of transition sounds connected
with the ap p ro ach of th e tongue to the alveolar ridge. However,
flexible execution of the consonant, w h eth er it has pitch o r is pitch-
less, can often be the key th at unlocks proper resonator balance.
The suggested useful pitch pattern s m ay be altered, but they oi
others sim ilar in n a tu re should be used to drill com binations ol
coupled consonants, vowels, and diphthongs.

USEFUL PITCH PATTERNS

Pattern I
The S tructu re of Singing

I’attern 2

.....-------------------h = r-
f
- -d r- "* ...

Pattern !

0, r----------------------
r »
1---------
■■"

Pattern 4

fLwn F = l
-
r— — T II

VOWEL AND DIPHTHONG PATTERNS

These p attern s may be altered, of course, b u t they or others sim ilar


in stru c tu re should be used to drill som e com binations of coupled
consonants, and vowels and diphthongs.

Vowel Patterns Diphthong Patterns


[i] [uo]
[e] [ou]
[e] [ei]
[a] [01]
M [ui]
[o]
[u]

COUPLED CONSONANTS

These consonants are to precede the vowels and diphthongs, sung on


the indicated patterns.
R eson ance B alancing th rough N on-nasal Consonants 107

[m l] mr]
[nl] nr]
[vl] vr]
[zl] zr]
[dl] dr)
[tl] [tr]
[pl] pr|
[A] tfr]
[gl] [gr]
[kl] [kr]
[61] [Or]
[81] Sr]
[si] [sr]
[fl] [Jr]

If the acquisition of a th o rough technique of singing is a desir­


able goal, a singer should be willing to m aster the kind of acoustical
detail these vocalises represent. On the o th er hand, an occasional
i un-through should be sufficient. The singer m ay then select any
problem atic ones for special attention.
It is questionable th a t either literatu re o r technique can be su c­
cessfully u n d e rta k en w ithout som e know ledge of the acoustic basis
<>l vocal sound. The artist-sin g er m ust be capable of executing the
m any sounds of several languages and m u st know how they are dif­
ferentiated. Unless singers are aw are of the way in w hich vowels and
consonants ad ju st the reso n ato r tract, th rough either em pirical or
I actual knowledge, they will not be able to find freedom in singing.
Any phonetic exercise th a t induces heightened localized sensa-
lion is valuable only if it activates participation from som e neglected
portion of th e trip artite reso n ato r system , the pharynx (including its
three divisions—laryngo-oro-naso), the buccal cavity, and the nasal
cavities. (For additional inform ation as to the influence of voiced and
unvoiced consonants on reso n ato r adjustm ent, see Appendix V.)
CHAPTER 8

Sustaming the Voice


Sostenuto

Until singers m aster the onset, the brief phrase, and the skillful
release, and can sing agilely, (hey will experience cum ulative strain
and fatigue on sustained phrases. If the singer is unable to articulate
vowels w ithout distortion and cannot m anage rapid consonantal
adjustm ent freely, the voi al instrum ent is certain to tire w hen those
factors occu r in sustained phrases.
T here is a body of vocal literature w hose chief characteristic is
sostenuto. Almost none ol this literature is appropriate to th e techni­
cally insecure singer. Songs and arias of a sustained character,
coupled with .1 high lying tessitura, m ust be avoided until technique
is relatively stabilized Singing the great sweeping B rahm sian o r V er­
dian line is not a logical expectation if the torso periodically collapses
at phrase endings. Many lingering problem s w ith singers can be
traced to introducing sustained literature too early. The best ro ad to
the long sustained phrase is to elongate progressively the breath-
pacing exercise of short duration (see C hapter 2).
The ultim ate test of technical ability lies in sustained singing.
Energy and pow er are frequently required, b u t these attributes of
the good singer m ust be balanced by freedom . The problem in sus­
tained singing is th at prim itive sphincter action, which ordinarily
prevails in such heavy activities as lifting and pulling, is often carried
over into energized singing. D uring pow erful sustained singing, the
larynx is subjected to subglottic pressure. The singer m ust learn to
be schizophrenic, engaging the respiratory m usculature for heavy
duty while not pressing the laryngeal valve. Indeed, freedom at the
glottis can be present in the long phrase only if b rea th em ission is
controlled in the epigastric-um bilical and costal regions.
In attem pting to avoid tensions th a t inadvertently result from
the application of pow er, th ere is the perilous tem ptation to produce
"relaxed” vocalism built on b rea th m ixture. B reath m ixture is the
result of inefficient vocal-fold occlusion, which, in turn, is the result
of poor breath m anagem ent.
Often, the m ost precarious part of a m ounting, sustained line is
found not in approaching the clim actic notes, but in descending
from them . Breath energy has been expended im properly on the
S ustain in g th e Voice 109

dram atic “high” note, w ith nothing left in reserve. M uscular support
should increase following a vocal climax, especially w hen one is
redescending th ro u g h the passaggio zone.
S ostenuto vocalises should be begun as soon as b a sic techniques
have been established. Sustained exercises of progressive difficulty
are th en gradually introduced. At each practice session, sostenuto is
interspersed am ong onset, b rea th pacing, and ability v<>< , discs, (iio
vanni B attista L am perti’s axiom (as recorded by Brown, I'M I, p, 41))
m ust always be kept in mind: "Power either builds or destroys
Sostenuto has ju st such potential. W here voicc tcchni(|ue is
founded on system atically acquired skills, sostenuto fills ils role .is a
builder of the instrum ent. Sustaining pow er will increase vocal
stam ina and ensure vocal health.

EXERCISES FOR DEVELOPING SOSTENUTO

.Sostenuto is th e culm ination of all the technical aspects of singing.


Therefore, a n u m b er of vocalises of a sustained n a tu re are presented
here. As in all technical areas of singing, passages from the literature
should supplem ent this m aterial. Pitch and tem po a re adjusted in the
vocalises to m atch the technical capacity of the individual. As facility
increases, ran g e should extend, and slow er tem pos m ay also be
introduced.

Group 1 Exercises

EXERCISE 8.1

EXERCISE 8.2

•* J J
[i e 3 II
[u c i u|
[o i c '■I
110 The S tructu re o f Singing

EXERCISE 8.3

e i]
[a e a]
te i e]

EXERCISE 8.4

EXERCISE 8.S

EXERCISE 8.6

m ~w~
[i e a e i]
[a e i e a]
D> o u o e]
[u o 3 o u]

EXERCISE 8.7

4 S E

li
|3
m=
i]
o]
fu u]
Sustainin g the Voice 11 1

Group 2 Exercises
EXERCISE 8.8

If I
[° l o «I
[i e i i]
[u o u u]

EXERCISE 8.9

[3 e i]
[a 3 u]
[u o 3]

EXERCISE 8.10

EXERCISE 8.11
112 The S tructu re of Singing

Group 3 Exercises

EXERCISE 8.12

[> e o o 1 e]
&> e i e o 3]
[a o e o e a]

EXERCISE 8.13

EXERCISE 8.14

J Jr

Group 4 Exercises

EXERCISE 8.15
— ” #- ~---

0--------- 9--------- — o -------------------

[o e o e o]
[e 3 e 3 e]

EXERCISE 8.16
Sustaining the Voice 113

EXERCISE 8.17
*
i —m i —fflHU—p i-cL— I|—i iV/*1" 4M1f » _ _ I rj♦
........>
J ^ *
—^ *.
$ L ,r—r—-— «— z------------^.
^ 4 , i -r.-------** ^ = 4 n
-&■* 2----- - * j-
./ c - o - — r—
-----£‘"--- i—— j j
<st
_. a • .......... à " _■
6 3 3

VpfpTfpjJE \—p-=-------j----
» ?
^ -----------
^ = X : =as ------------J---- |# Fi*m1+4
=1= ^

# = f --- --------*---- -------- r-


-----------£_
---.
^ 1----- - .------ 1--
- ----- -- 5 - .... - 2>
1^=4 77
î? HJ*
------ ------- 3-------- —a---- s------- S-------- 7 —e ——----
z? -S’ 5 5V
f r

\ ?

?*Jd\— — — J-
---<
£ --^-J a j
M
p M G33S

>
/ — î *• * «»
r
j• t
»

dJ n s

/<>*7
---
yy [
,
I È= t»
.1 — r
i f J .u---
i J *
IN The Structure of Singing

IExercise 8.17 consistsof a slow turn on every note ofthe scale.Itmay


be sung at a moderately slow tempo (J= 60-70), in a comfortable
range. Gradually transpose by halfstepsthroughout most ofthe sing­
ing range.
A single vowel is used (keep a balance between front and back
vowels), or vowels may be varied by the phrase or by the beat. Con­
sonants may be introduced before syllableson each phrase. The exer­
ciseisintended only for the technically secure professional singer, or
for use under careful supervision of the teacher.
In order to secure the fully opened glottis and the immediate
response among the great muscles of the torso, which ensure deep
and precise inhalation, it is often wise to precede the sostenuto
phrase with a bar of quick onset vocalises. The inhalationjust before
the sostenuto phrase is taken in exactly the same quiet, efficient,
quick manner as in the onset vocalise. Equally important isto prac­
tice the sostenuto exercises wilh slow rhythmic breath pacing (in­
halation) between the phrases of a consecutive series. In this
manner, onset and sostenuto functions are combined.

Group 5 Exercises

EXERCISE 8.18
* 1 J 1
x —
= mt — f --- F — 0 —
m - — —

(any vowel)

EXERCISE 8.19

S n . y j „

(any vowel)

EXERCISE 8.20

■ fg t -W .’ i r . r r u r T j T i r r T ?
(any vowel)
CHAPTER 9

Unifying theRegisters of
____ Male Voices

REGISTER TERM I N O LO G Y

Register terminology should be carefully chosen. “Breaks” anti "lills"


may well refer to existing register phenomena in a voice, but psycho
logically they tend to point up the divisions between registers rather
than their unification. Although itisobvious that in the terminology of
the ItalianSchool there are alsoreminders ofdivisions,that terminol­
ogy takes on a more gentle implication with its reference to register
transition points as primo passaggio and secondo passaggio, with the
zona dipassaggio (the passage zone) lying between. (Itiscustonary to
use the terms “jower^<^aggiQ”^and “ujpperjjassaggio’when dealing
with theTemale voice.)Since many musical terms are inItalian,there
seems no reason to avoid these terms in vocal registration. They are
no longer restricted solely to the historic Italian School of singing, but
are by now international in usage. Several decades ago, an attempt
was made by a few American singing teachers to abandon the classic
register terminology of the singing voice and to substitute for it the
terminology of speech investigators, thereby designating only “modal”
and "loft” registers. These terms, however, ignore the subtle dif­
ferences in a number of register timbres recognized in traditional
schools of singing. This limiting terminology isless frequently encoun
tered, currently, even in investigative studies of the singing voice
There is a reemergence of interest in historic register phenomena,
because they are a fundamental part of the art of elite voealism.
By placing a hand on the chest of an adult male who isspeaking,
one becomes aware of sympathetic subglottic resonance (largely ol
the trachea and the bronchi). A rumbling sensation is Ifit against tin-
hand as long as the speaker remains in a comfortable spcei h iany.c. As
the voice issharply inflected upward, the vibratoiv rumble diminishes
or ceases. (The same phenomenon occurs in the lemnle chest voice
voce di petto— but women speakers tend not to use that register in
speech with as much frequency as do male speakers.) (For a discus­
sion of physical factors in voice registration, see Appendix IV.)
//<■> The Structure of Singing

Primo passaggio (First Register Transition)


The speaking voice encompasses more than an octave of easy negotia­
tion. Untrained singers have few problems in singing the pitches that
lie within the speaking range. When adolescent males and untrained
male singers approach the termination of the comfortable speech
range, they reach a point inthe ascending scale where they often invol­
untarily raise the chin and the larynx. The corresponding pitch isthe
primo passaggio (first register transition). The vibratory sympathetic
chest rumble of the voice tends to lessen or stop. The untrained singer
produces pitches beyond this pivotal point, but often resorts to laryn­
geal elevation to do so.

Secondo passaggio (Second Register Transition)


As the untrained singer continues to ascend the scale, quality change
becomes more audible. Al pitches about the interval of a fourth above
the top of the comfortable speaking range (the point atwhich the need
to elevate the larynx was originally felt),the untrained voice willeither
break oilor resort to a sudden falsetto. This point isthe secondo pas­
saggio (second register transition).

Zona di passaggio (zona intermedia) (The Passage Zone)


Between the primo passaggioand the secondo passaggioregisterpoints
lie pitches often used in the calling voice, that require an increase in
breath energy, as well as heavier mechanical action than takes place
below the primo passaggio. In the singing voice, this area is termed
zona di passaggio (register transition zone), or zona intermedia (inter­
mediate zone). (Any tendency to carry the unmodified “call” of the
speaking voice over into the singingvoice must be completely negated,
however.)

REGISTRATION EVENTS OF M A L E VOICES

Male voices of every category experience registration events of similar


nature, at correspondingly higher and lower pitches. The basso pro-
fondo relies on the same principles of registration as does the tenore
lirico, albeit at lower pitches. Differences in location of the passaggi
reflectdifferences of structure and timbre between the bass and tenor
voices. This viewpoint isin conflict with the following assumption that
bassessing chiefly inchest voice, and that tenors sing inchest until
or F0.|,after which they pass into head (Vennard, 1967, p. 73):
Unifying the Registers of Male Voices 117

Most authorities agree that basses sing largely in "chest,”with


some use of "head”for very high tones, hut that their falsetto
isacceptable only for comic effects and that there isprobably
no transition to itwithout yodeling. Tenors sing in “chest” up
to F4 or F#4,passing into "head,” which they cany at least
to A, above which theorists dispute. Some call (he quality
from there on up a "reinforced falsetto”;others deny Ihe use
of falsetto. The baritone, of course, is midway between, but
more like a bass in quality.

On the contrary, a bass who relies largely on chesl, allhough his


chest voice may be somewhat longer than the tenor's, will exhibit a
troublesome upper range; the tenor who waits until F.tor 10., to
"pass into head” will produce those qualities of the “call” of the voice
that technical studies in registration ought to eliminate. There is no
single, arbitrary pitch inthe scale below which chest issung and above
which head predominates, with allvocal categories rotating around i t
.
Such an assumption must follow if it is postulated that basses sing
chieflyin chest, tenors in head, with baritones somewhere in between.
Ihe germ of this error liesin confusing falsetto with head voice.
The approximate register events are fairlypredictable for allcate­
gories of voice, although individual variations should not be ruled out.

Approximate Register Events

Category of Voice primo passaggio secondo passaggio

tenorino f4 b >4
Irnore leggiero e 4 ,(e>4) a 4 ,(a>4)
Irnore lirico d4 g4
tenure spinto D 4 ,(C»4) G 4 ,(F8 4)
Irnore robusto (tenore drammatico) C 4 ,(C»4) f4 ,(f»4)
Ixirilono lirico B4 e4
haritono drammatico Bt»4 e >4
htisso cantante A3
Imisso profondo A>3',(G3) D>4 ,(C4)

Voce dipetto (Chest Voice)


Ordinarily, voce dipetto (chest voice) corresponds to the comlortable
■peaking range and terminates in the region of the priino passun^io.
lor the baritone, the normal use of the speaking voiie lies Irom B»
downward, and that of the lyrictenor at about the Intervalol a minor
third higher, near D4.The baritone, using Ills speaking voice to call
out loudly, extends the chest range to I'U; by pushing his voice
through added breath pressure and sustained thyroarytenoid function,
IIH The Structure of Singing

lie may manage an additional half-tone extension. In the process, he


will experience considerable vocal discomfort. The tenor, unless he isa
high-pitched leggiero, seldom inflects the speaking voice much above
D 4,although he isable to “yell” up to G4,or even a semitone or two
beyond. The tenor also experiences vocal discomfort in so doing.
Neither the baritone nor the tenor makes shouting sounds in speech
much above the secondo passaggio, unless resorting to a loud falsetto
production.

Voce mista (Mixed Voice)


The male middle voice (zona di passaggio) isthe crucial area in deter­
mining whether or not smooth register negotiation will take place
from the lowest to the highest range of the singing voice. Ifthe thyro-
arytenoids continue unabated in their action as pitch rises, the vocal
quality known as chest voice will be carried up into the middle voice
register. In contrast, introduction of the timbre known as voce mista
brings about early balanced mechanical action between the thyro­
arytenoid and llu- 11 icothyroidmuscles.Proctor(1980a,p.30)speaksto
this point:

There is some controversy over the nature of the so-called


"bieak” in Ihe voice. ()ne can raise the pitch of the voice con­
siderably by increasing vocal-cord tension alone, and without
lengthening the vocal folds. In my opinion, the elimination of
this troublesome vocal problem, this “break,” requires that
one learn how gradually to bring inthe vocal-fold lengthening
process at a lower pitch than itordinarily would come into
play. Thus, as a scale is sung, there is a smooth transition
from increasing vocal-fold tension to vocal-fold lengthening.
Voce mista is not restricted to the zona di passaggio; although fully
operative in middle voice, voce mista descends into the low range to
modify heavy mechanical action, thereby ensuring gradual timbre
transition throughout the scale.

Voce di testa (Head Voice)


Above the second pivotal point (secondo passaggio) liesthe legitimate
head voice (voce di testa), a range extending a fourth or fifth in most
male voices. Increased cricothyroid action, vocal-fold elongation, di­
minution of vibrating vocal-fold mass, and constantly changing con­
tours of vocal-fold edges— all are more completely realized in the
uppermost region of the voice. Loud shouting at these high pitches
occurs at risk tothe voice, yet these pitches are delivered with comfort
in the singing voice.
Unifying the Registers of Male Voices 119

Voce finta (Feigned Voice)


In voce finta (feigned voice) timbre, two conditions prevail: (1) slight
laryngeal elevation, and (2) some breath mixture, (The lirsl condition
willproduce the second.) Laryngeal adjustments loi ;isiending pilch in
singing are normally undergirded by corresponding adjustments inthe
torso; in voce finta, these adjustments are avoided. Depending on the
extent of laryngeal elevation and breath admixture, voce finta soumis
disembodied. This "feigned”timbre can be sung as early as the piinto
passaggio, where increase in breath energy isessential il notmal iegis
tration events are to happen. Most successful in the zona inlcnnt'dia,
voce finta is seldom sung more than a semitone or two above the
secondo passaggio.
Used for emotive coloration in literature demanding moments ol
quietude or introspection, voce finta is a favorite device among light
tenors in particular, and isoften used to excess among some baritone
l.iedersingers.
Less skillisrequired forsinging voce fintathan for mezza voce.All
too often, voce finta issubstituted for mezza voce. In the 1860s, Fran­
cesco Lamperti (n.d., p. 27) upheld the viewpoint that piano singing
should not be disembodied, or “feigned”:

Piano should, in all respects, with the exception of intensity,


resemble the forte; itshould possess with itin equal degree,
depth, character and feeling; it should be supported by an
equal quantity of breath, and should have the quality of tone,
so that even when reduced to pianissimo itmay be heard at
as great a distance as the forte.
These characteristics of legitimate piano singing are vitiated by the
voce fintatimbre.
Although pleasing to the ear when recorded in the studio, trans­
ferred liveto the concert hall voce fintaisgenerally inadequate. On the
opera stage, voce fintaappears mannered and sterile.Itsexcessive use
becomes cloying. However, there are moments when voce finta pro­
vides interesting vocal coloration.
No specific exercises will be suggested for the cultivation of voir
finta,because itverges on the unskillful, unsupported tone so common
to many unaccomplished singers. Pedagogically, the use ol finta
should be frowned on until piano can be sung with legitimate nic.:.a
Voce timbre in the zona intermedia.

Falsetto
Eighteenth and early nineteenth century Meatises on singing Ire
quently are misread with regard to the meaning ol the term falsettoan
120 The Structure ofSinging

itwas used in a prescientific age. Discussing the history of registers in


the singing voice, Mori clarifies the historical use of the term falsetto
(1970, p. 76):
Every epoch in one way or another has indicated the exis­
tence of registers. Singers of the medieval period cite head
voice and throat voice, and the famous Caccini, Tosi, and
Mancini also mention two registers: chest and falsetto. The
falsettoforthem, however, was the head register.But whether
falsetto or chest, they refer to the preponderance of one of
the two cavities of resonance, not lo the exclusive dominance
of one or the other. [Emphasis added] '

Large et al.(1972, p. 19), in discussing head register in the male


singing voice, comment:

The head register in the male singing voice isoften one of the
most difficult vocal adjustments to acquire and to maintain.
Cultivated especially foropera, itshould not be confused with
the falsetto, a much thinner-sounding register. A well-
developed opeiatu head iexister ("Vollton der Kopfstimme”)
is the hall mark of the accomplished tenor, but itis used in
the uppei iaii|’.c,spanning a musical intervalof approximately
a fourth or a filth, by all well-trained male singers— tenors,
baritones and basses. Some singers report subjective sensa­
tions ol several different adjustments inthe fullhead voice. In
contrast to the more robust-sounding head register, the fal­
setto is usually characterized as weak and effeminate and is
used in legitimate Western vocal music culture mostly forspe­
cial, particularly comic, effects. [Emphasis added]

Brodnitz, after defining the chest, mixed, and head registers,


comments on the falsetto (1953, p.32):

The male voices have on top of the head register the falsetto,
which even to the untrained ear has a distinctivequality ofits
own. The Italian masters of the early Bel Canto thought of it
as an unnatural and therefore false voice— thence the name.
...Ithas less brilliance than the sounds of the head register.
It can be used occasionally, but its continuous employment
gives the voice an effeminate character.

The mechanical action of falsetto isnot identical to that of legiti­


mate head voice— indeed, it exhibits quite different behavior. The
mechanics of falsetto production are described by Zemlin (1981,
p.214):

High-speed motion pictures of the larynx during falsetto pro­


duction reveal that the folds vibrate and come into contact
Unifying the Registers of Male Voices 121

only at the free borders and that the remainder of the folds
remains relatively firm and nonvibratory. Furthermore, the
folds appear long, stiff,very thin along the edges, and some­
what bow-shaped.

Brodnitz also discusses vocal-fold function during lalselto: "The fal­


setto is sung with only the foremost parts of the cords left free to
vibrate at the margins, the rest being damped.”(Brodnil/, l‘>SV p. 82.)
Mori (1970, pp. 97-98), on the avoidance of the use ol lalselto in
the historic Italian School, presents information to substantiate that
(iarcia(who located falsetto between chest and head) did not intend to
equate falsetto with head. Mori quotes Garcia as saying, "The lalselto
voice constitutes a particular register, different at the same lime Im m
the chest register ...and from the head register.”(“...la voce tlilal
setto costituisce un particolare registro, différente al tempo stesso e
dal registro della voce di petto ...e dal registro di testa. ... ”) Mon
comments that the Italian School, from at least Garcia onward, con
siders falsetto and head voice to represent two different principles ol
vocal color. She states that falsetto is an artificial voice in cultivated
singingto be used only therapeutically, or when the voice isvery tired
or in poor condition, or as a specialinterpretative effect of characteri­
zation or insinuation. "Per levoci maschili è artificioinvia assoluta”(it
is absolutely false for male voices). She further mentions that it is
allowable, and was used by some great singers, for effects on an occa­
sionalextremely high notebeyond therangeofthesinger,asforexam­
ple, the high Dt> (Dt>5)at the end of the cadenza in "Cujus animam”
from the Rossini Stabat Mater.
The term falsetto as used by some persons to describe events of
both speaking and singing cannot be carried over to vocal pedagogy
without confusion. In the international language of singing, falsetto
describes that imitative female sound that the male singer is capable
of making on pitches that lie above the normal male speaking range.
With practice, the singer can bring these sounds down into the lowei
range. To term any sound not produced inthe chest voice as lalselto is
to obfuscate pedagogical meaning. To speak of Jussi Bjoerling's ope­
raticsound from G 4 and above as falsettoistoconfuse both language
and the practice of vocalism. The beauty of Bjoerling’ s 11 illv resonant
head voice is an example par excellence of traditional head voice in
cultivated singing. Because the issue of falsetto versus legitimate head
voice isso often raised in discussions conccrning llu- lenoi voice, i t is
appropriate to citefurther examples. Alfredo Knuis, in a public maslei
class in Fiesole in June, 1984, stated that he iscompletely opposed to
the practice or use of falsetto. Certainly the ringing sounds ol Placido
Domingo and Luciano Pavarotti (or any othei gient lenor voices ol
122 The Structure of Singing

1 1us century, excluding occasional uses of falsetto by Beniamino Gigli


mid Ferruccio Tagliavini for musical and interpretative effects) cannot
be described as falsetto! Nicolai Gedda, in an interview given Jerome
Hines (1982, p. 123),says, "Falsetto ...it’
svery high-pitched, but a tone
I cannot do anything with.” He describes falsetto as an unsupported
tone, and cites a pianissimo that can be crescendoed as the desirable
route for the high voice.
Were we to turn word symbolism upside down and call a dog a
cat, and were we all to understand that change in meaning, there
would be no resultant problems: my St. Bernard is a cat. However,
outside the limited circle in which this special word symbolism oper­
ates, itwould be difficult not to cause confusion when Iwalk my cat
and itbarks at people. Falsetto should not be called head voice.
It is incorrect to group into one category all persons who find
some value in falsetto singing, and to pronounce equal sentence on
them all. There is a big difference between designating falsetto as
head voice and recommending limited pedagogical uses for falsetto.
It is doubtful that any but a lew persons who sing or teach tradi­
tional solo literature- for voice advocate falsetto timbre as a perfor­
mance sound. Some, however, conclude that laryngeal conditions
are similar in head and lalsetto, and, therefore, the key to developing
head voice lies in the falsetto. They believe that mechanical benefits
accrue from exercising the falsetto voice.
Itshould be pointed out that vocal-fold occlusion isnot the same
in head and falsetto; vocal-fold approximation isless complete in the
falsetto production. Further, nodules can result from continued lack
of good vocal-fold closure.
Some psychological benefit perhaps derives from the occasional
use of falsetto as a means of avoiding tension. However, few singers,
other than those of very light vocal categories (often voices of less
than professional potential), succeed in "reinforcing” the falsetto
sound. When the sound is "reinforced,” the muscular coordinations
that produce legitimate head voice must be introduced. Improved
vocal-fold occlusion, and the vital character of the sound, indicate
that falsetto has been replaced by legitimate head voice.
Occasional falsetto can be useful for "marking” in rehearsals,
when for some temporary physical reason the singer wishes to con­
serve energy on certain passages, but caution should be exercised.
In some voices, the transition from falsetto to full voice (voce
piena) may occur without any demarcation between the two tim­
bres. Seldom is this a learned skill. Generally, it has to do with the
size of the vocal instrument and the vocal category, and is either
there or it is not. This facility is frequently present in the young
U nifying the R egisters of Male Voices 123

tenore leggiero and alm ost never th ere in the heavier categories of
ten o r o r in the b a rito n e and bass voices. (Rarely, a baritone of lyric
c h aracter will also have this ability as a natural phenom enon.)
Lim ited usage of falsetto m ay be productive, in som e voices, in
the zona di passaggio, betw een the prim o passaggio and Ihe secondo
passaggio. F or m ale singers w ho lack easy en tran ce into upper mid
die voice, vocalises th a t begin in light falsetto mav be |>i acticed, with
the singer increasing b rea th energy, thereby moving into legitim ate
middle voice.
The purpose is not to "blend” the falsetto into the legitim ate
sound of th e m ale voice (such a skill has m erit as a colorist ie d e v i c e ,
but fo r th at very reason m ay be a T rojan horse to legitim ate vocal
ism in the upper range), b u t to build on the perception of el l oi l less
ness th at accom panies the falsetto ju st prior to the full vocal Iold
approxim ation th a t then occurs in legitim ate voice.

EXERCISE 9.1
T H E SIN G E R SH O U L D BEGIN DIRECTLY ON T H E P R IM O P A S S A G G IO PIVOTAL
NOTE, IN PIANO FA LSETTO, CRESCEN D O IN G TO VO C E PIENA AND T H E N BACK
TO FALSETTO. (IT DO ES NOT M ATTER IF R E G IST E R TRANSITIO N PO INTS ARE
HEARD.) IMM EDIATELY, A NEW O N SET IN LEGITIM ATE VO ICE SH O U LD BE
MADE ON T H E SA M E PITCH. P R O G R E SS BY HA LF-STEPS (O V ER A PERIO D OF
W EEKS OR M O N TH S) T H R O U G H T H E S E C O N D O P A S S A G G IO PIVOTAL POINT.

EXERCISE 9.2
FALSETTO AND LEG ITIM A TE VOICE ARE ALTERNATED ON T H E SAM E PITCH,
CRO SSIN G BACK AND FO R T H BE TW E EN T H E TW O TIM BRES. BEGIN AT P RIM O
I'A SSA G G IO , AND O V ER A PE R IO D OF TIME, PR O G R E SS BY HALF ST E PS
T H R O U G H T H E S E C O N D O P A SSA G G IO .

The Male Falsettist


A perfo rm an ce phenom enon th at m ust be dealt with in any serious
consideration of contem porary singing is the m ale falsettist. The solo
co u n ter-ten o r is here to stay. It is unrealistic for teachers ol singing
lo reg ard him as a nonlegitim ate perform er. The countei lenoi
should be taught, and he should be taught seriously.
T here are, how ever, several approaches to the production <>l
counter-tenor tim bre, and although cultivated falsetto (tinging plays
a role in alm ost all of them (probably to som e extent, <dl), lalsetlo is
not the only vocal register in use throughout the countcr-tenor
range. Those counter-tenors w ho are chiefly male lalsellisls m ake
use of that sam e falsetto sound which is readily available to almost
124 The Structure of Singing

all male voices. An aesthetic and artistic choice has been made, in
such cases, to develop skillin the falsetto voice in preference to cul­
tivation of other vocal registers.Not infrequently, such counter-tenor
singers do not have remarkably beautiful voices in the traditional
male ranges, but are able to produce admirable timbre as falsettists.
Why not? The reason such persons can perform more skillfully in
falsetto isthat falsetto production does not require the subtle regis­
ter equalization demanded in the traditional upper male register
involving dynamic muscle balancing.
Almost any musical male can more easily produce running pas­
sages and pianissimo dynamic levels in falsetto than he can accom­
plish in his full voice in head (voce piena in testa). The vocally unin­
formed listeneroften isastounded at the "ease”of florid singing dis­
played by the counter-tenor. Such persons somewhat naively believe
that the counter-tenor isa rare breed of vocal category with a spe­
cial native endowment. Although that is not the case, a number of
excellent male musicians wisely have made the decision to perfect
those skills that aie relatively easily acquired in the falsetto register.
The impressive part < >1 a line counter-tenor's technique ishis ability
to maintain sustained lines and long phrases, because he must learn
additional breath management skills to compensate for the open
chink tlial characterizes the glottal shape in falsetto singing and
permits a higher rate ol breath seepage than in the non-falsetto
voice. The agility, the ability to decrescendo on very high tones, and
the displays of florid singing are pleasurable, but they do not repre­
sent great heights of technical prowess over other male voices. The
counter-tenor often encounters difficulties in the technical area of
breath management, and a good voice teacher should be able to
assist him. There is a literature appropriate to the counter-tenor
voice, and there is an audience for that category of male singer. It
should be noted that several international vocal competitions now
have a separate category for the counter-tenor voice.
The reasons for choosing to sing counter-tenor rather than to
perform the traditional timbres of the male voice are complex and
most often highly personal. They involve considerations that extend
beyond the confines of this discussion. Special techniques of extend­
ing the falsetto range and in blending it (in most counter-tenor
voices) with the traditional low male register are required. However,
teaching the counter-tenor voice should be no more difficult than
teaching any other vocal category. One of the most important steps
to be taken in providing proper instruction for counter-tenors is to
lid the voice-teaching profession of the notion that the counter-tenor
instrument is in some way structurally unlike other male instru-
Unifying the Registers of Male Voices 125

monts. A second important step, which might well follow were the
Instto be taken, would be the removal of a certain amount of preju-
dice against nontraditional vocal timbres. Coimlei lenoring, badly
done, can be vocally hazardous. An understanding of vocal function
isimperativeintheteachingofthecounter-tenorvoice.The systematic
drill of vocalises suggested in the preceding chapters applies to all
categories of singer, including the counter-tenor.

Strohbass
Strohbass (the literal English translation, "straw bass,” is seldom
used) isa register that liesbelow the normal male speech range- The
length of the Strohbassregister varies from four or five whole steps
in most males to more than an octave in others. Strohbass is often
cited, together with falsetto, as one of two "unused” vocal registers
that must be developed in order to achieve a complete singing
instrument. That assumption should not go unquestioned.
Because the cricothyroids have been thought to show increased
activity in extremely low pitches (Zenker, 1964b, p. 25) as well as in
ascending pitch, Strohbass exercises are sometimes recommended
for the development of the upper range. The faulty assumption that
inging in Strohbass produces extension in upper voice may be due
to (he fact that range normally expands at both extremities of the
voice when proper registration practices are incorporated. In any
case, laryngeal muscle balance in upper register is very unlike the
heavy mechanical action of Strohbassregister.
Just as an occasional falsetto note isintruded in legitimate upper
range for some specific coloration, so an occasional Strohbass tone
may be introduced in the lowest range of the voice. "Straw bass reg­
ister” occurs in low voice for the same reason falsetto often occurs
in high voice— itisthe only secure way some singers have of produc­
ing those particular pitches. (Perhaps that literature should be
avoided!) Strohbass, ifused at all, should be used judiciously. Kxcr
iIses for the development of this register phenomenon should be
undertaken only with a teacher, and never for more than a few briel
moments. When the note that seems only minimally present in (In­
voice— often a phrase end, or a note touched briefly must be iailed
on, a conscious lowering of the larynx beyond itsnormally stabilized
position will assist. This technique should be reserved loi only a lew
occasions. The register should not be drilled as a means of
"strengthening the vocal ligaments." It is haul on the voice, and
Ideally should never be used. However, when a baritone sings an aria
with great ease and beauty of tone but discovei* low Al>,> escapes
126 The Structure of Singing

him, there is no problem in resorting to Strohbass for that single


pitch. Exercise 9.3 may be used by half-tone progressions, with only
the bottom note produced in Strohbass register. (It is a well-known
fact that in certain Eastern liturgical choirs, some low male voices
have developed the Strohbass register for supplying weightiness to
the ensemble, with the result that other registers of the voice are no
longer operable.)

EXERCISE 9.3

p-- ------ H
j J iJ

Schnarrbass (growl bass, literally) is a term used interchangea­


bly with Strohbass, in some cases. However, Schnarrbass isused at
times to describe vocal fry (vocal rattle or vocal scrape). The term
can also mean the buss drone in another connotation. Growl register
isan equally desei iptive term for the sounds that can be produced in
the limited range extending below pitches normally used in speech.
At times, a moderate use of vocal fry may help a young, low-voiced
male develop a "leel" for additional pitches at the lower extension of
his range. Vocal fryencourages an imprecise onset and should not be
relied on as a standard vocalizing technique.

EXERCISES F O R ACHIEVING A N E V E N L Y
REGISTERED SCALE IN L O W E R A N D MIDD L E VOICE

The zona dipassaggio isthe key to the evenly registered scale. Exer­
cises should induce light mechanical action in the pivotal area
between low and middle registers. Vocalises should begin in the easy
speaking range of the voice and proceed only slightly above the
primo passaggio; other vocalises should begin just above the primo
passaggio, then descend. Care should be taken that neither chin nor
larynx be raised on the pitches above the easy speaking range. An
increase in breath support, in accordance with appoggio practice,
should be felt in the trunk.
The suggested vocalises (9.4 through 9.11) should be transposed
to accommodate each vocal category. They are to be executed in
series, in neighboring keys, both ascending and descending.
Unifying th e R egisters of Male Voices 127

Nasal continuants pro d u ce sym pathetic facial vibration of the


*.oi t associated w ith balanced laryngeal m uscle action. Closely-knit
tutervallic p a tte rn s th a t com m ence on pitches in the upper range of
the speaking voice are h u m m ed by half-step progressions into the
:<>na di passaggio. The nasals are followed by vowel sounds.

Group 1 Exercises
th e exercises indicated for prom oting an evenly registered si ale in
the m iddle and low er voice can also be transposed by hall step pro­
gressions into u p p er m iddle voice a n d into the region of the sccondo
passaggio.

I XERCISE 9.4


---------------- 1


F = |

[m a]

EXERCISE 9.5

^ J 'T T F
[m

I XERCISE 9.6

EXERCISE 9.7
I2H The S tructu re of Singing

EXERCISE 9.8

?
[m] [a] [m] [a] [m] [a]
[a] [m] [a] [m] [a] [m]

EXERCISE 9.9

EXERCISE 9.10
p- ..............— (S>-------------------------

- - —

|n u i, nui, n u i, n a i, n u i]
jn u u , nuu, nuu, nuu, nuu]

E X E R C IS E 9.il

Æ /» J
r
If
Ir
_ _ J 'r¥\
cJ.---- ^__ ÊL__ i !___ St U

[me] [me]
[no] [no]
[m e] [m e]

All voices are not at the sam e level of facility with regard to easy
en tran ce into the zona di passaggio. In general, th e m ore ro b u st the
in stru m en t (with the g rea ter probability of professional potential), the
m ore problem atic is entry into m iddle voice. Som e singers, p a rticu ­
larly the late adolescent of college age, will require a considerable
period of "ironing o u t” the passage from low er to m iddle voice. Yet
m iddle voice m ust be freely produced before the singer can find
ease in the upper voice. However, it is disastrous to avoid upper
voice entirely until all the problem s of m iddle voice have been
solved. Although it is tru e th a t the upper range m ust be "built” upon
m iddle voice, functional differences betw een the tw o are largely a
m atte r of degree. The dynam ic m uscle balance needed to ensure
en tran ce into upper range can be acquired only by singing pitches at
Ihii/ying the Registers oj Male Voices 129

the upper end of the zona dipassaggio. To work at parts of the voice,
lather than to use the total instrument, isto misunderstand unity of
Iunction. Nevertheless, much work must take place in balancing
upper-middle voice before any remarkable results can be expected
in the upper voice.

EXERCISES F O R ACHIEVING A N E V EN L Y
REGISTERED SCALE IN UPPER A N D MIDD L E VOICE

In successful vocal registration, head voice isof one substance with


the rest of the voice, yet sensations experienced above the secondo
passaggio are in considerable contrast to those felt below the primo
passaggio. Sensations of the lighter mechanical action (decrease in
activity of the thyroarytenoids and increased action of the cricothy­
roids) are very apparent commencing at the primo passaggio, becom­
ing more prominent at the secondo passaggio. In reverse direction, in
the descending scale, there is no sudden chest sensation below the
primo passaggio, because the muscular coordination that determines
pitch does not jump from one static state to another, but isa gradu­
ated process (there isno feeling of “changing gears”) .Indeed, some
leeling of "head” must always be present throughout the scale of the
male voice, regardless of vocal category, whether one begins or ends
in lower voice.
Exercises 9.12 through 9.21 (Group 2) are recommended as a
systematic approach to equalization in register transition. Some of
the vocalises begin below the primo passaggio and extend into the
area of the secondo passaggio; others deal more directly with the
passage from voce intermedia into upper voice. These exercises
should be transposed to accommodate any category of voice. The
exercises are executed in half-step progressions, in series fashion, in
several neighboring keys, both ascending and descending.

Group 2 Exercises

EXERCISE 9.12

i c Jic JrC x/t J- J


[i] [<=
] |»|
[3] [i] M
(Cl [3] |l|
130 The Structure of Singing

EXERCISE 9.13

[
i] [e] [o] [o]

EXERCISE 9.14

t e -J-Η J-

[a] [e] M

ÿc/ c r iig ^ j É
to] [e]

EXERCISE 9.15

m m
(;i single vowel)

EXERCISE 9.16

_
___
__ 9-f- _
|
9--
7& h 51 M
N =
(a single vowel)

EXERCISE 9.17

[
i] [e] t>]
[o] [>] [e]
M [o] [u]

EXERCISE 9.18

Ai
i

m i
[il [e] M
D>] [i] [Cl
M M M
Unifying the R egisters of Male Voices 131

EXERCISE 9.19

EXERCISE 9.21

[i] te] [o]


[a] [e] [i]
[O] [3] [U]

An exercise previously recom m ended for the study of sostenuto


(Exercise 8.17) is equally well suited as a registration vocalise, tre a t­
ing as it does neighboring pitches at the pivotal points of both the
prim o passaggio and th e secondo passaggio. In progressive half step
transposition, this sustained vocalise points up subtle but im portant
dif ferences in factors of resonance and b reath m anagem ent encouu
tered either in ascent o r descent.
It should be rep eated th a t the use of passaggio vocalises depends
on the technical accom plishm ent of the singer These vocalises
should not be attem p ted until som e considerable degree nl lei link al
proficiency has already been dem onstrated.
CHAPTER 10

Unifying the Registers


of the Female Voice

S tru ctu ral differences in m ale and fem ale adult larynges are obvious,
even externally. The m ale larynx grow s considerably m ore during
puberty, roughly 30%, than does the fem ale (Kahane, 1978, pp. 11-20;
Titze, 1980, p. 20). The adult m ale has a m em branous portion of the
vocal fold th a t is longer than the adult fem ale’s, while the cartilagi­
nous portion of the m ale fold is proportionately sm aller th an hers.
The m ore radical events of puberty cause the m ale to speak largely
in chest voice. Fem ale chest is less extensive in speech, especially in
voices of a light, lyrical quality. Decisive change in th e size of the
male larynx in early adolescence often results in uncertainty of pitch
control; nothing com parable is experienced by the fem ale larynx.
(For a discussion of physical factors in voice registration, see
Appendix IV.)
R egister pivotal points do not directly correspond in the scales of
fem ale and m ale voices. In the low er fem ale vocal categories, chest
voice docs not have the sam e extension as in low m ale vocal catego­
ries; m iddle registers of m ale and fem ale voices do not have exact
range correspondence. It is coincidental th a t the passaggi fo r certain
fem ale and m ale voices o ccu r at sim ilar pitches, as for example, the
passaggi of the soprano lirico and the tenore lirico (an octave apart).
The fem ale is capable of m aking a shift in registers from chest to
head, in th e low er range of h e r voice» b u t she can n o t produce the
m arked transition sound from m iddle voice into head voice th at the
m ale can m ake through the use of falsetto.
It is confusing to describe as falsetto all of the sounds of the
fem ale voice not sung in chest, particularly if the term falsetto is at
the sam e tim e used to designate the legitim ate m ale head voice. The
upper register of the fem ale voice does not correspond functionally
with the im itative fem ale sound th at m ale singers are capable of
m aking. F u rth e r confusion results from calling the flageolet voice
"fem ale falsetto,” o r from term ing the laryngeal whistle the "fem ale
falsetto.” Zemlin (1981, p. 216) rem arks:
High fem ale voices do not exhibit a falsetto, however, but a
laryngeal whistle, which is not produced by vibration of the

132
Unifying th e R egisters of th e Female Voice 133

vocal folds, b u t by th e w histling escape of air from betw een


them .
The term "falsetto” should be reserved to designate the im itation of
fem ale vocal quality by the m ale voice.

REGISTERS OF THE FEMALE SPEAKING VOICI

Speech habits of fem ales ten d to fall into th re e types: ( I ) head voice
is alm ost exclusively used; and chest voice m ay be nearly nonexist
cnt; (2) both chest and head voices are used for speech inllci lion,
with a p rep o n d eran ce of head; and (3) chest voice is chiefly used
The size of the fem ale larynx, and cultural influences, perhaps,
determ ine register preferences in speech. Not all m ay be well (from
the standpoint of healthy function) with the speaker w ho excludes
all chest voice, o r w ith h e r colleague w ho never uses h ead voice.
Serious vocal litera tu re cannot be sung by any category of fem ale
singer w ho avoids using all adjustm ents of vocal registration. (Omit­
ted from this consideration are popular vocal idiom s th a t purposely
violate registers.) Singers w ho tend to avoid a given register in
speech need to develop th at unused register for singing. The colora-
lu ra has less need of chest than does th e d ram atic soprano, but the
c o lo ratu ra m ay be seriously handicapped w ithout the ability to sing
in som e form of chest. The contralto and the m ezzo-soprano cannot
function w ithout head voice ability.

COMBINING FEMALE SINGING REGISTERS

It is pedagogically convenient to call a vocal register in which the


I liyroarytenoids a re predom inant, the heavy mechanism, and to call
those registers in w hich the cricothyroids are predom inant, the light
m echanism , so long as it is un d ersto o d th a t th ere are not actually
two separate m echanism s, but changing, dynam ic balances am ong
the laryngeal m uscles. S eparation of registers as a m eans ol
strengthening them is co ntrary to the aim of vocal registration in
singing: the achievem ent of gradual register transition Separating
the chest register from the head register results in driving up chest
voice beyond the prim o passaggio term inal point through heavy thy­
roarytenoid action; such action produces the »ondlllon ol hvperfunc-
tion found in pathological vocal conditions, However, bringing the
head voice dow nw ard into the low registei Is not an a il ol rcgislei
/<•/ The Structure of Singing

séparation, but rather a technique for register combining (Proctor,


1980a, p. 30).

REGISTRATION EVENTS OF F E M A L E VOICES

As with male voices, location of pivotal points of register demarca­


tion provides indications of female vocal categories. Such pivotal
points may vary somewhat within the individual voice, depending on
how lyric or how dramatic the voice. (See Figures 10.1, 10.2, and
10.3).
The soprano category embraces voices of wide diversity, from
coloratura to dramatic. The dramatic soprano instrument iscloser in
character to the dramatic mezzo than to the light soprano; registra­
tion events reflect these relationships. Vocal classification must take
into account the location of pivotal points, without, however, relying
solely on them.
Overlapping of registers indicated in the charts designates those
areas in which certain pitches can be sung in several ways. There is

Upper (secondo)passaggio

D 6 Flageolet A 6

G5 Upper C 6 (C*6)

w
C®s Upper Middle F®s

Lower Middle C5

G3 Chest E ^4
_A

Lower (primo) passaggio

Figure 10.1. Soprano passaggi and Register Zones


F
Upper (seconda)passaggio

C„ (Bh)Flageolet
(and above)

F, (F*,) Upper

B4 Upper Middle Es (F5)

C4 Lower Middle B^4 (B4)

(F3) Chest E4 (F4)

Lower (primo) passaggio

Figure 10.2.Mezzo-soprano passaggiand RegisterZones

Upper (secondo)passaggio

A5 Flageolet (seldom
developed)

E >5 Upper A>5

Upper
B ^4 Middle D5

Lower
F4 Middle A4

I)1 Chest G4 (A^4)

Lower (primo) passaggio


Figure 10.3.Contralto passaggi mid KryUln /•uifn

135
The S tru ctu re of Singing

actually no overlapping of m echanical functions w ithout mixing of


tim bres, except in those ra re cases w here a p a rticu la r vocal colora­
tion th at does not m atch neighboring tones is purposely intruded.

CHEST IN FEMALE VOICES

The chest voice in the light soprano is sh o rte r th an in th e fem ale


voice of dram atic proportions. Som e fem ales possess laryngeal
s tru c tu re s th a t are larger th an the norm; these singers have low
voices and long chest registers.

OPEN CHEST

The term chest (voce di petto) includes several distinct tim bre
possibilities within the fem ale singing voice: open chest and chest
m ixtures. Open chest is characterized by a certain masculinity,
because its execution is sim ilar to production of th e m ale chest
voice: heavy action from the thyroarytenoid muscles; w ider am pli­
t u d e of vibration; thicker and sh o rter folds. Open chest tim bre
should be completely avoided in pitches above the prim o passaggio.

CHEST MIXTURE

Chest m ixture avoids the vulgarity of tim bre often present in open
chest; in skillful singing, it is a tim bre m ore frequently encountered
in low register in the fem ale voice than is open chest.
Som e of the vocal literatu re w ritten especially for fem ale voice
takes into account the tim bre know n as chest m ixture. The need for
vocal coloration associated w ith chest m ixture extends to the
soprano, as well as to the mezzo and contralto voices. It is usually the
lighter soprano voice th at lacks this im portant tim bre.
A soprano w hose voice is of fair size will m ost probably never
n eed to sing any open chest sound in the low er range; she m ight well
be m ore useful in perform ance if she has the ability to sing som e or
all of th e pitches below Et>4 in chest m ixture. Inability to use chest
m ixture is an indication th at the singer m ay suffer from hypofunc-
tion of the thyroarytenoids on those pitches, w ith a corresponding
hyperfunction of the cricothyroids. Chest m ixture will strengthen the
so p ran o ’s low er-m iddle range. Almost every fem ale can m ake som e
chest tim bre sounds, no m atte r how insecure, in the lowest part of
Ihiifying th e R egisters of th e Female Voice 137

her range. These notes should be sung in short, intervallic patterns,


transposing by half steps upw ard, as m ore sound em erges.

EXERCISES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT


OF THE LOWER RANGE

I lie following exercise should be practiced by fem ales w ho have a


limited sound in either open chest o r chest m ixture in the lowei
i ange. Pitch m ay be adjusted to the needs of the singer.

EXERCISE 10.1

hi som e cases, it m ay take a period of tim e before chest m ixture


m akes an appearance. A ttem pts m ust be lim ited to no m ore th an five
m inutes, scattered thro u g h o u t a practice session.
Most singers discover th a t they can produce chest tim bre very
low in the speaking voice, even though unaccu sto m ed to its use in
norm al speech. F rom the speech pitch to th e sung pitch is an easy
11 ansition. Occasionally, chest m ixture will com e m ore readily at the
lowest p art of low er-m iddle voice, ra th e r th an in the lowest register.
As som e chest quality appears, the entire low er and low er-m iddle
registers will gain in projection.
Fem ale singers not accu sto m ed to the use of chest in the speak
Ing voice m ay feel they m u st "produce” it in the singing voice; in all
probability they are not used to giving m uch attention to breath
m anagem ent in th e low er speaking voice. No force should aceom
pany these sounds, b u t increased "support” m ay m ake the dlllei em e
betw een failure and success.
Exercise 10.2 is im portant for developing control ovei <I»•»•' «1 s ol
chest m ixture. The suggested keys are appropriate loi soprano
voices of a lyric character. D ram atic sopranos and m c //o nopianos
should transpose the vocalise up a half tone, contrnltoN a lull tone.
W ithin each of the keys, the transition note should be e s c< uted as
sm oothly as possible, avoiding any sudden t lia n te in lltnbte
The S tru ctu re of Singing

The sequence m ust be carefully observed if the purpose of the


exercise is to be realized: all seven steps, key by key.

EXERCISE 10.2

M [o] [o]
[e] [e] W
[u] [u] [u]
[0] [o] [o]
[a ] lu ] [a ]
[1] I il [>]

(1) SIN G T H E FIVE-NOTE. DESCENDING PATTERN EN TIRELY IN HEAD. (2) SING


T H E FIV E-N O TE DESCENDING PA TTERN W ITH ONLY T H E FINAL N O TE IN
C H E S T M IXTURE. I I IE R E ST IN HEAD. (3) SIN G T H E FIV E-N O TE DESCENDING
PA TTERN W i l l I T H E LAST TW O NOTES IN C H E S T M IXTU RE , T H E R E ST IN
H l.A l), (4) SING H IE FIVE NO TE DESCENDING PA TTERN W ITH T H E LAST
T IIR I I NO TES IN ( III S I M IXTU RE , T H E R E ST IN HEAD. (5) SING T H E FIVE-
N O I L DESCENDING SCALE: WI TH T H E LAST TW O N O TES IN C H E S T M IXTURE,
T H E R E ST IN I I I M ) (A) SING THE FIV E-N OTE DESCEND ING PA TTERN W ITH
ONLY THE: FINAL NOTE IN C H E S T M IXTURE, T H E R E S T IN HEAD. (7) SIN G TH E
FIVE N O I L: DESCENDING PA TTERN ALL IN HEAD.

O ther useful vocalises for developing an aw areness of chest


function and sensation are those based on descending intervallic
patterns. These vocalises should be transposed a half step higher for
m ezzos and a w hole step higher for contraltos. Any vowel m ay be
used.

EXERCISE 10.3

- 4-A, «
wr\-r <
/ L* M ■ ■ ■ ■
&

(a n y vow el)

(1) SIN G PIT C H E S 5 AND 3 IN H EAD, 1 IN C H E S T M IXTU RE . (2) SIN G PITCH 5 IN


HEAD, 3 AND 1 IN C H E S T M IXTU RE . (3) SING PITCH ES 5 AND 3 IN HEAD, 1 IN
C H E S T M IXTURE. (4) SING PITCH ES 5, 3, AND I IN HEAD.
U nifying the R egisters of the Female Voice 139

EXERCISE 10.4

(a n y vow el)

(1) SING PIT C H E S 8, 5, AND 3 IN HEAD, 1 IN C H E S T M IXTURE. (2) SIN (, l'I l( III S
8 AND 5 IN HEAD, 3 AND 1 IN C H E S T M IX T U R E . (3) SING PlTCIIIvS « ANI> IN
HEAD, 3 IN C H E S T M IXTU RE , 1 IN O P E N CH EST. ( 4 ) SING PITCH I. S H. S, I, AND
(IF PO SSIBLE) 1 IN HEAD. (5) SIN G PIT C H E S 8 AND 5 IN HEAD, 3 IN C ll l .S I
M IXTURE, I IN O P E N CHEST. (6) SIN G PIT C H E S 8 AND 5 IN H EAD, 3 AND I IN
C H E S T M IXTU RE . (7) SIN G PIT C H E S 8, 5, AND 3 IN HEAD, 1 IN C H E S T M IXTUH I

EXERCISE 10.5

A lM M
---— J — i =
r
(a n y vow el)

(I ) SING T H E PA TTERN (ON ANY VO W EL) IN HEAD. (2) SING PIT C H E S 8, 5, 3,


AND 2 IN HEAD, 1 IN O P E N CH EST. (3) SIN G PIT C H E S 8, 5, 3, AND 2 IN HEAD, 1
IN C H E S T M IXTURE. (4 ) SIN G PIT C H E S 8, 5, AND 3 IN HEAD, 2 AND 1 IN C H E S T
M IXTURE. (5) SING PIT C H E S 8, 5, AND 3 IN HEAD, 2 IN C H E S T M IXTU RE , AND 1
IN O P E N CH EST. (6) SIN G PIT C H E S 8 AND 5 IN HEAD, 3 AND 2 IN C H E S T
M IXTURE, AND 1 IN O P E N CHEST. (7) SIN G PIT C H E S 8 AND 5 IN HEAD, 3 IN
C H E S T M IXTU RE , 2 AND 1 IN O P E N CHEST.

EXERCISE 10.6

^-------
Æ Y - n - i ---- ;----
tJ 5 ^
(a n y vow el)

( I ) SING T H E PA TTERN (ON ANY VO W EL) ENTIRELY IN III AH, II I'OSM III I (2)
NIN<; PITCH 8 IN HEAD, 1 IN C H E S T M IXTURE, S IN III AD. I IN 0 / 7 N i I I I ./ H
IN HEAD. (3) SING PITCH 8 IN HEAD, 1 IN C III'S I MIX I V U I , "N IN III AD, I IN
C H E S T M IXTURE, 8 IN HEAD. (4) SIN (i PITCH H IN III Al>, I IN < >l'l N I I I I ' . I '• IN
HEAD, I IN O P E N CH E ST, 8 IN HEAD. (5) IF POSSUM I SING I III l'A I I I' UN
ENTIRELY IN HEAD.
140 The Structure of Singing

EXERCISE 10.7

^ É Ë É p l j j ^ H l F *— 1
(any vowel)

(1) IF POSSIBLE (ON ANY VOWEL), SING THE ENTIRE PHRASE IN HEAD. (2)
SING PITCH 8 IN HEAD, 1IN OPEN CHEST, PITCHES 5,4,3,AND 2 IN HEAD, 1 IN
OPEN CHEST, 3 IN CHEST MIXTURE, AND 8 IN HEAD. (3) SING PITCH 8 IN HEAD,
IIN CHEST MIXTURE, PITCHES 5 AND 4 IN HEAD, 3 AND 2 IN CHEST MIXTURE,
1 IN CHEST, 3 IN CHEST MIXTURE, 8 IN HEAD.

EXERCISE 10.8

(any vowel)

l POSSIHI I (ON ANY V()WKI,), SING THE ENTIRE PHRASE IN HEAD. (2)
(I) I
SINd PITCH N IN IIIAt), I IN OPEN CHEST, 5 IN HEAD, 3 IN CHEST MIXTURE, 5
IN IIIAD, IIN OPEN (IIIST, 8 IN HEAD. (3) SING PITCH 8 IN HEAD, 1IN CHEST
MIXTURE, 3, Ï , a n d . IN / / / , !/>, I IN CHEST MIXTURE, 8 IN HEAD. (4) SING
PITCH H IN HIM), I IN CIIKST MIXTURE, 5,3,AND 5 IN HEAD, 1IN CHEST
MIXTURE, 8 IN HEAD.

H E A D M I X T U R E IN F E M A L E L O W E R R A N G E

Mixture describes any timbre that is neither entirely head nor


entirely chest; the shade of mixture in any pitch depends on laryn­
geal action. Breath management and resonator response are not uni­
formly experienced in all ranges of the voice. In the lowest range of
the voice, a lack of head sensation accompanies chest timbre. A
limited amount of head sensation is present in chest mixture. Head
mixture in lower-middle voice produces a somewhat "headier” feel­
ing than is felt in chest mixture. An increase in "headiness” charac­
terizes upper-middle voice. An even more decisively “heady” sensa­
tion occurs above the upper passaggio. In allof these sensations, with
the exception of pure chest, some elements of the “light mechanism”
are operative.
x!
Unifying the Registers of the Female Voice 141

EXERCISE 10.9

[i]
[e]
[e]
M
[o]
[U]

o
[i]
[e]
[e]
M
[o]
[u]

EXERCISE 10.11

J iJ
[i] [i] [i]
[e] [c] [c]
[c] [e] [e]
M [3] [3]
[0] [o] [o]
[U] [U] [u]

EXERCISE 10.12

I fJ j 1r j J 1J r h
[i] [']
[e] [cl
M [cl
[з] [»1
fo] M
[и] I«1
142 The Structure of Singing

H E A D M I X T U R E IN F E M A L E MIDDLE R A N G E

The action of the heavy open chest mechanism should terminate rela­
tively early in the ascending scale. However, itis confusing to term
everything that lies above the primo passaggio "head voice”;head
voice should be identified as the range lying above the secondo pas­
saggio. The long middle register that lies between the lower and
upper passaggi should then be termed mixed voice, head mixture, or
simply, middle voice. This middle register is more extensive in the
female than in the male because of laryngeal structural differences.
In the lyric soprano, middle voice extends from El>4 to FJ5 . Al­
though the lyric soprano may be able to carry chest mixture above
the Et»4 pivotal point, she should rarely do so, for reasons of vocal
health.
Many sopranos expei ience an additional pivotal point midway in
the long middle register, around C^s, with lower-middle register
lying below ilia! pin h, and upper-middle register above it. Some­
times the entire long middle register is identified as voce mista
(mixed voice); at limes, voce mista designates the predominant head
sensation Iront CB. to IB The least confusing terminology identi­
tiesthese two divisions of the long middle voice as lower-middle and
uppei middle. Ileavier voices have a more distinct midpoint division
than do lighter voices. These differences result not only from struc­
ture but also from speech habits, factors that vary among vocal
categories. Some coloratura and soubrette singers perceive no tim­
bre or resonance changes at all at any point in the middle register,
between chest and head.

EXERCISES F O R INDUCING H E A D M I X T U R E IN
MIDDLE VOICE

The following group of vocalises issuggested for achieving resonance


balance in head mixture:

EXERCISE 10.13
Unifying the Registers of the Female Voice 143

EXERCISE 10.14

l e d
d e i
o e o

EXERCISE 10.15

(any vowel)

EXERCISE 10.16

m_m.

(any vowel)

EXERCISE 10.18

Ma
aft■
■£—mp—d ■-
p ——J
.ms
(any vowel)

F E M A L E VOCE D1 TESTA

A distinct head sensation is felt at the ID. transitional point loi the
lyric soprano. The gradual thinning of the vocal lold etly.es, whic h
has taken place gradually over the ascending «title, imw becomes
pronounced; much less vocal-fold mass Is ftvulltlble It) oiler resis­
tance to subglottic pressure.
144 The Structure of Singing

EXERCISES F O R INDUCING VOCE DI TESTA


SENSATIONS T H R O U G H O U T T H E VOICE

Voce di testa sensation, markedly experienced above the secondo


passaggio, should be carried down throughout the voice. A group of
exercises is designed to unify the registers of the voice. This series
begins in descending passages from above the secondo passaggio
pivotal point; then the direction is reversed, with arpeggiated pat­
terns beginning in lower or lower middle voice and ascending. Still
others begin in middle voice. The series may be sung with varying
tempos and vowels.

EXERCISE 10.19

4_ ’ »
rf r. i-- rW
-- m .r
j.
r-- p=t=ii
M [9] [e]
[a] l
e] M

EXERCISE 10.20

ft? . i w
m
[e] [a] [e] [e] [o] [e]
[o] [e] [o] [o] [e] [3]

EXERCISE 10.21

Ifl m
(any vowel)

EXERCISE 10.22

— Ë
_. ..
..
ft
. F f
4 — * 1-1 J J.
=!
(liny vowel)
Unifying the Registers of the Female Voice 145

EXERCISE 10.23

r J . |f r r -
CJ *
?r * f - H
[e]
M
[i]
[o]
[a]
[u]

EXERCISE 10.24

=■3

[e]
M
[O]

EXERCISE 10.25
*
' V .. "
(TO *+t2-|-------M-- J-- iJ.
f .. r . r.
.. 7M n.
"O ------ u
(any vowel)

EXERCISE 10.26

p y
A ] —----
-- •--- ^ ------ =
t 1=^
.u. ... . .
P ' «
(any vowel)

^ = T # É
J o

EXERCISE 10.27

C
r a Lf U LT
(any vowel)
146 The Structure of Singing

EXERCISE 10.28
5

-
*
. y
Ê=1 NN i w
F=lN
p -j5>-----
0
N « —

(any vowel)

Additional exercises are built upon the vocal glissando (often


called the portamento), which includes both low and high pitches.
Voce di testasensation ispresent even in the low pitch, assuring uni­
form resonance balance throughout the subsequent glissando. The
quick glissando should be accomplished through [m], [n], and [v],
often followed by a vowel in a descending scale passage. This group
of glissando vocalises should be alternated with the previous group
of voce di tesla exercises.

EXERCISE 10.24

y(
S>
---- --- !
— ■
| m| Iml [a]
In] t"l [a]
M [v] [a]

EXERCISE 10.30

EXERCISE 10.31

[m] [m] [a]


M W [a]
M [v] fa]
U nifying the R egisters of th e Female Voice 147

EXERCISE 10.32

EXERCISE 10.33

Occasionally, a young fem ale will have a "hole” in upper-m iddle


voice, a brief a re a of w eakness consisting of one o r m ore pitches.
Vocalises should sta rt above the upper passaggio point, and descend
through the a re a of weakness. Two exam ples follow.

EXERCISE 10.34

(a n y vow el)

EXERCISE 10.35

(a n y vow el)

FLAGEOLET REGISÏÏ.R

Above upper voice (voce di testa) lies n rogUlei with n distinctive


tim bre. This register has acquired dcNirlptivc nam es In several Ian
148 The Structure of Singing

guages: flageolet register, bell register, flute register, piccolo range,


echo voice; registre de flageolet, flute registre; die hohe Quinta, die
zweite Hohe; voce di campanello. This high-lying register is also
sometimes called the whistle register, the short register, lepetit regis­
tre, and die Pfeifestimme. However, these last four terms are best
avoided because they are also used to describe the laryngeal whistle.
The muscle activity within the larynx that produces head voice
becomes more acute in the stratospheric flageolet range. Flageolet
timbre has been described as reminiscent of the ringing of a small,
high-pitched bell, or of the echo of a high, distant pitch. The flageolet
voice has a high rate of longitudinal tension of the vocal ligaments,
considerable damping of the posterior portion of the vocal folds,
limitedvibrating mass of the vocal folds,and high subglotticpressure
and airflow rate (see Appendix IV for additional comment).
Because muscle coordination of the light mechanism is at its
most extreme in flageolet register, there are advantages in using
flageolet vocalises loi developing the upper register that lies im­
mediately beneath the flageolet register. A singer often produces the
extremely high pitilies with a sound that seems to her childlike and
tiny; these pit<I k -
,led i dalively effortless. A comfortable opening of
the mouth modifies the flageolet timbre, and an increase in breath
support assists in uniting the flageolet range to the upper voice.
Excessive dependence on resonance sensations associated with the
flageolet voice can produce undesirable thinness and shrillness inthe
upper register. However, to ignore the flageolet register is to cast
aside a useful tool for working in the upper female voice, especially
in soprano categories. Flageolet registershould not be confused with
the short register, in which breath isforced through a narrow chink
of the glottis, producing the high-pitched shriek made by lusty, furi­
ous infants or hysterical adults. According to Zemlin (1981, p. 216):
"Many children are able to produce a very clear, flute-like, laryngeal
whistle.The vocal folds are extremely tense and the glottis appears as
a very narrow (about 1 mm) slit through which the air flows.”
Sounds of the whistle register are not subject to control, are not of
pleasing timbre, and are not useful to the singer.
For the coloratura and the soubrette, vocalization in the flage­
olet register is essential. The lyric soprano voice and, in some in­
stances, the heavier soprano voice, should practice rapid arpeggios
and quickly moving scale passages that ascend into flageolet register.
The exercises should be sung only after other areas of the voice have
been vocalized. A few minutes per practice session is an adequate
amount of time to spend on the flageolet range.
Unifying the R egisters of th e Female Voice 149

EXERCISES FOR DEVELOPING THE


FLAGEOLET RANGE

EXERCISE 10.36

(any vowel)

EXERCISE 10.38
CHAPTER 11

Vowel Modification
in Singing
aggiustamento

T here are no tim bre dem arcations in the scale of a good singer,
unless introduced for coloristic purposes; the skillful singer appears
to have b u t one register. N either the dem ands of articulation n o r the
search for resonance sensations m ust be p erm itted to fragm ent the
scale. Appelm an ( I ‘>67, p. 90) cites vowel m odification as an aim of
the bel canto period:
One of llie objectives of the singers of bel can to was the
developm ent ol a voc al scale th at was pure, unbroken, and
uninterrupted. The transition of registers—either up or
down the scale dem anded a m odification in th e tonal color
d I the topm ost notes to prevent them from becom ing dis­
agreeable and harsh and to preserve the quality of the vowel
sound as well as an even tonal line.
The front vowels (singers often call them "high”) have form ants
that produce brilliance and "ring.” Back vowels (singers frequently
term them "low ”) have low er form ants and strike the e ar as being
less brilliant (see Figures 4.2 and 4.5). The com bination of rising pitch
and high fo rm a n t vowel in singing results in spectral p attern s th at
produce "open” or "white” quality.
To c o u n te rac t the tendency tow ard "open” sound, fro n t vowels
m ay be m odified in rising pitch so as to red u ce the incidence of
higher harm onic partials. Pedagogical opinions vary as to how
aesthetic dem ands can be m et by this m odification. Som e singing
teachers locate a spot in the ascending scale of each category of
voice at w hich the tone m ust be "covered.”
"Covering” encourages fundam ental changes in the m echanical
function of the larynx, and alteration of the shape of the resonators,
accom panied by a sensation of additional spaciousness in the
pharynx, by a high velum , a low tongue, and a low ered larynx,
thereby increasing "depth" in the tone. These actions alter the
harm onic spectra, and the tone is darkened by the heavier m echani­

150
V ow el M odification in S inging 151

cal action of the entire vocal instrum ent. Pedagogies that already
tend tow ard overuse of the heavy m echanism recom m end "heavy
and early cover." P ronounced "cover” m ay be dangerous.
Brodnitz (1971, p. 36) com m ents:

Singing w ith p ro n o u n ced covering requires m ore air under


increased pressure, and it involves considerable mu.scului
tension. M oderate use of covering is part of the necessary
and not harm fu l technique of the dram atic singer. Unforlu
nately, it is often used in excess, particularly by singei s who
try to sing d ram atic parts w ith basically lyric voices. In that
instance it is very dangerous and m ay lead to a perm anent
deterioration of the voice.

T here can be little d o u b t th a t in desirable "closed voice” (voce


chiusa), a tim bre th a t should prevail th ro u g h o u t the singing voice
regardless of range, as opposed to "open voice” (voce aperta), there
is a stabilized laryngeal position—relatively low—and a som ew hat
widened pharynx. These conditions to g eth er w ith proper vowel m od­
ification (aggiustamento) produce the so-called "covered” sound of
the upper range.
However, because of the tendency to m ake too m uch of a good
thing (overcorrection is a m ajor pitfall in th e teaching of singing),
and because of the diversity of m eanings attached to the term
"cover,” it m ay prove useful to avoid the term and to speak of vow el
modification ra th e r th an "cover” as the passaggio zone is reached.
Som e understand ing of the underlying physiologic and acoustic fac­
tors of such m odification certainly will help in rem oving no n m atch ­
ing tim bres in the vocal scale.
O ften teach ers of singing assum e th at "openness” characterizes
all good singing, w hen in fact, the low ering of the epiglottis m ay be
part of the "covering” action. No extensive study on the contribution
of the epiglottis to “covering” has yet been undertaken. However,
fiberoptic observations seem to indicate th at w here th ere is the
om ega-shaped epiglottis (the so-called "infantile” epiglottis) there is
frequently an inability in the adult m ale to achieve voi r copcr la
("covered voice”) w ith ease. It is probable that limited paitli ipatlon
of the epiglottis (at a nonproprioceptive level, ol com sc. just as is (In­
case in vowel differentiation) is necessary to lillei out the strident
tim bre traditionally associated with vocc aperta (\'oir Inaiim) Som e
low-voiced m ales w ho exhibit the om ega cplgloltlt slim lure seem
never to negotiate the upper regions ol Ihe volte In satisfactory
m anner. Before definitive conclusions cun be i eat lied, a lai ne nuinbei
of subjects m ust be studied.
152 The S tructu re of Singing

W hen subglottic pressure and airflow are com m ensurate with


the need for balanced, resonant sounds in the singing voice, som e
epiglottic participation in general sphincteral activity m ay uncon­
sciously take place. (One of the reasons the laryngologist asks
patients to sing a falsetto "ee” is th at the epiglottis is positioned p er­
pendicularly and does not get in the way of an exam ination of the
vocal folds as it does in the back vowels. Obviously, "covering,” with
its introduction of vowel m odification in the direction of the back
vowels, has som e relationship to epiglottic position.)
How does one interpret the limited scientific inform ation on
"covering”? Are researchers aw are of tonal ideals different from
those exhibited by their subjects? Do we approve of the sounds
m ade by th e subjects? Do we agree with the aesthetic dem and th at
fosters the pedagogy which has produced those results? For exam ­
ple: "The general im pression is that the quality of th e voice is
‘d a rk e r’ in singing, som ew hat as it is w hen a person yaw ns and
speaks at the sam e time; voice teachers som etim es describe the
effect as covering.”
The sam e source (Sundberg, 1977a, p. 84) goes on to say th a t "It
is interesting to note that voice teachers ten d to agree th a t the
phar ynx should be w idened in singing, and som e of them m ention
the sensation of yawning. In o th er words, a low larynx position and
an expanded pharynx are considered desirable in singing.”
However, the extent of pharyngeal distention and of laryngeal
depression varies from school to school. Indeed, it m ay be th a t the
prevailing viewpoint am ong teachers of singing is th a t pharyngeal
expansion and a relatively low-positioned larynx occu r as a con­
sequence of p roper inhalation and rem ain during the w ell-m anaged
b rea th cycle, and are not induced by conscious localized actions.
Stretching the pharynx and forcefully depressing the larynx are con­
sidered by m any teach ers to be artificial m eans of vocal production,
contributing to th at m uch "d ark er” voice of the N ordic schools, a
coloration th a t a large segm ent of the singing profession wishes to
avoid. One does not question th e research m ethods b u t ra th e r the
narrow ness of the field from which subjects m ay have been chosen.
S undberg continues: "The low ering of th e larynx, then, explains
not only th e singing fo rm an t peak b u t also m ajor differences in the
quality of vowels in speech and in singing.”
He adds (1977a, p. 88), perhaps in response to auditory experi­
ences: "The singer does pay a price however, since the darkened
vow el sounds deviate considerably from what one hears in ordinary
speech.” [Em phasis added] But should vowels have m ajor differences
in quality from speech to singing? W hich aesthetics do we follow?
V ow el M odification in S inging 153

The oft-quoted statem en t of Pacchierotti, "P ronunciate chiaram ente,


ed il vostro can to sa rà p e rfe tto ” ("Pronounce clearly and y our sing­
ing will be p e rfe c t”) is a basic ten e t of the historic Italian School; it
w ould ap p ear to endorse a different aesthetic viewpoint from that
w hich produces th e "dark” voice. To claim that "open" or "w hite”
tim bre w as th en th e aim is to ignore evidence from the literature
itself. (Nor should one accept the highly questionable notion that .1
singer uses one approach for dram atic literature anil anothei loi
lyric singing.) H eavy "covering,” as found in n orthern si hoi ils, is to
be avoided n ot only because it causes language and diction dr.lot
tion, b u t because it distorts vocal tim bre.
Is it possible to rem ain free d u ring singing while constantly
depressing the tongue, spreading the pharyngeal wall, m aintaining .111
extrem e velar elevation, and low ering th e larynx excessively- .ill
concom itant w ith the yawn? Is the text intelligible in any part ol IIn­
voice? Despite the need for vowel m odification in u p p er range, Ian
guage sounds should alw ays rem ain defined in artistic singing. A
fault of vowel distortion should not be raised to a pedagogical tenet.
T eachers of singing, except in certain N ordic schools, ten d not to
w ant a "d ark ” voice th a t resem bles th e tim bre one h ears w hen a
person “yaw ns and speaks at the sam e tim e.”
The alternative to the depressed larynx is by no m eans a high
laryngeal position. Slight laryngeal descent with initial inspiration for
singing is norm al. If the singer is already in the “noble” position, very
little descent of the larynx takes place upon inhalation. In any event,
following the slight descent th at accom panies inspiration, the larynx
should th en rem ain in a stabilized position. It should neith er ascend
nor descend, either for pitch o r power, beyond the m inim al require­
m ents of vowel an d consonant articulation. It should stay "put.” The
singer’s physique determ ines the degree of depression.
R esearchers F rom m hold and H oppe (1966, p. 89) did a series ol
experim ents devoted to laryngeal m ovem ents during singing, u l.it
ing th e larynx posturally to the cervical vertebrae. A sum m ary ol
their findings underscores the need for a stabilized laryngeal position
during singing:
In an investigation of the problem of voice production In
trained singers, the m ovem ents of the cervical vertebrae
w ere studied by m eans of tom ogram s, as providing a fixed
bony point of attach m en t for the cxlrlmtk laryngeal mus
culature. Im portant postural differenced w e ir found depen
dent upon th e level of training and ability ol the slnyei I)m
sta n d in g in tern ation al artists w ere consph lions w ith ou t
exception for a con stan t posture over tin 1 en th e vocal Hinge,
154 The S tru ctu re of Singing

whilst stu d en ts show ed increasing tension resulting in


kyphosis (changes in the angle of th e axis betw een the ver­
teb rae II and VI), isolated distortions and also gliding
m ovem ents in individual segm ents. [Em phasis added]

It should be noted th a t som e draw ings of "low larynx prod u ctio n ” in


pedagogical treatises show the cricoid cartilage in an exceedingly
low position. Som etim es, in these techniques, laryngeal depression is
practiced ap a rt from phonation, to "strengthen the depressor m us­
cles” and to "an ch o r” the larynx. As a result of such postures, very
little space rem ains betw een the m andible and the sternoclavicular
joint, w ith the larynx w edged betw een them . The larynx can be
retained in this posture only through the antagonistic activity of
m uscles of th e neck and upper torso. Can this produce freedom in
the singing voice?
B efore leaving the subject of conscious laryngeal depression, it
m ay be well to take a m ore direct look at sensation w ithin the larynx
itself during singing, as experienced in several pedagogies.
Most singers, regardless of pedagogical allegiance, are aw are of
even the slightest sensation within the larynx (as every laryngologist
who deals with singers knows). Even norm al phonation and pho­
nemic articulation may be registered in the consciousness of the
trained singer. These sensations often are interpreted (perhaps not
w ithout som e basis in fact) as stem m ing from "resonance" within the
larynx. It is not yet clear to w hat extent the ventricles of the larynx
c o n trib u te to the singing tone, but there is evidence from tom o­
graphic studies th at "covering” the voice while retaining the "ring”
m ay have to do with increasing the ventricular space.
Som e of the laryngeal sensations during singing m ay probably
be disregarded, b u t any excessive aw areness of sensation in the
larynx is the result of unnecessary antagonism of th e intrinsic and
extrinsic laryngeal m uscles. Sensation in the larynx m eans lack of
freedom in the larynx. It should be the perceptions of the ear, not the
kinesthetic perception of m uscle setting w ithin the laryngeal area,
th at occupy the singer’s consciousness.
T here is an appealing kind of false logic to conscious th ro a t
a d justm ent for the accom plishm ent of "covered” tone. The separate
actions of "room iness” com plem ent each other. A sum m ary of this
faulty view point follows: A deep groove in the tongue runs to the
back of th e pharynx so th a t the tongue seem s to have been gotten
out of the way, perm itting em ergence of pharyngeal tone: As a result
of the deep tongue trough, the soft palate is stretched upw ard reveal
ing a large area of the oropharynx, som etim es described as heart-
Vowel Modification in Singing 155

shaped; the descending larynx, via the hyoid hone, pulls down on the
root of the tongue, an action which has been termed "the downward
pull of the yawn”;the pillars of the fauces (which connect with both
the tongue and the palate) are stretched, an action thought to be an
asset inasmuch as muscular tension may contribute in producing the
right kind of "twang” in the timbre.
Can this “logic”withstand the test of freedom ol ;u lion, ol him
tional efficiency? Do such techniques correspond lo wli.it is known
about the action of the articulatory mechanism? Can the demands ol
language, agility, ease in breath management, and (lie dyiiumic
events of registration be accomplished with freedom? Wli.it .n< tIn-
results of this vocal philosophy?
In the male voice, trained by the premises just outlined, sik l i
heavy throat adjustments as a means of "covering” produce ; idm k
vowel sound already at the primo passaggio (see chapters on reps
(ration); by the secondo passaggio, vowels have been modified to a
neutral condition, or to a back vowel, even ifthey are front vowels.
For example, a baritone trained in this "heavy production,” when
singing an arpeggio on [a]in the key of El»,may well have "covered”
the vowel to [o] by the time the fifth pitch of the scale (Bt>) is
reached, and may be singing something close to [u] or even [u] on
arrival at the top of the arpeggio at Et>4,producing an effect of [a, o,
o, u, o, o, a], although the vowel [a] is indicated throughout the
passage.
In contrast to this radical phonemic shiftin vowel structure and
mechanical adjustment in the pharynx, in the historic Italian School
concentration is on graduated vowel modification. Flexible adjust­
ment of the vocal tract must be permitted in order to define all
vowel form. In the best singing of the international school, adjust­
ment of acoustic postures defines vowels at any level of pitch.
The sole purpose of aggiustamento isto modify the formation of
ascending vowels so that upper pitches may match the over all tini
bre of the unified scale; adjustment of the vocal organs necessary to
rising pitch (and power) automatically occurs when the ueouslli
laws of vowel differentiation are allowed to function without
mechanical falsification of the vowel.

TIMBRE TERMINOU HiY

In considering the role to be played by vowel modification, nome


terminology relating to vocal timbre should be extimlnrd
Voce bianca(voix blanche, white voit e) ic m illsItom an exiess ol
156 The S tru ctu re of Singing

upper harm onic partials in the sound, and is not an acceptable qual­
ity in any vocal range.
Voce aperta (open voice) indicates a general im balance am ong
resonance factors in all ranges of the voice, especially apparent in
upper-m iddle and upper voice. Voce bianca contributes to voce
aperta
Voce chiusa (closed voice) describes a tim bre in all parts of the
range w ith a desirable balance of low and high harm onic partials.
Voce chiusa produces the chiaroscuro (light-dark) tim bre in which
both brilliance and depth are present in any area of the vocal scale.
Voce coperta (suono copcrto) occurs in rising pitch w ithout
engendering m echanical changes associated with Deckung, and
w ithout the kind of m echanistic action represented by som e uses of
th e term "cover.” Although copertura might literally be translated as
Deckung, o r "covering,” the physiological events a re not necessarily
identical. Deckung, or "covering," as it is som etim es understood,
cannot be m anaged without introducing heavy thyroarytenoid activ­
ity in parts of the vot ai range w here o ther m uscle balances should
prevail A healthiei and nu n e aesthetically pleasing alternative (of
com s e , not l o e a r . lli.il l i a v c been culturally conditioned otherwise)
mav be found in a l m o s t im perceptible m odification, at the prim o
pa.s.saggio, whit li does not com pletely neutralize th e vowel at the
,secondo pas.saggio pivotal point (Miller, 1977, pp. 82-83).
Voce coperta is part of the voce chiusa concept and avoids voce
aperta through aggiustam ento of the vowel. Such copertura form s a
major technical accom plishm ent in artistic singing. As m entioned, it
is not eq uatable with som e uses of Deckung (or "covering”). It is also
in accurate to translate directly the term s gedeckt and "covered” as
voce coperta The aggiustam enti of copertura, a technique also
know n as arrotondam ento (rounding), are m uch m ore g rad u ated in
the historic schools than in som e other tw entieth-century systems.
Aggiustamento is of m uch im portance for high pitches (le note acute)
of the voice.
Som e singers tend tow ard an open quality of sound because
they lack the proper energization and physical involvem ent needed
to achieve unified tim bre in the m ounting scale. On reaching upper
voice or encountering the secondo passaggio, they suddenly "cover,”
producing a m arkedly "woofy” sound. Therefore, although avoiding
the perils of early Deckung, they violate function as the scale rises;
they then force sudden adjustm ents on the larynx, and dark, unsup­
ported tone results. To ignore vowel m odification (aggiustamento)
throughout the ascending scale is to lay the ground for unw anted
register dem arcation.
Vow el M odification in S inging 157

THE TECHNIQUE OF A GGIUS TA MEN'10 (THE VOWEL


SERIES IN MODIFICATION)

C haracteristic attrib u tes of the even scale can be detei m ined only by
a professional e a r a ttu n e d to properly balanced vocul tim bres. Yet
certain guidelines for m odifying the vowel can be suggested. Hy
approaching a neighboring vowel, either tow ard n eu liali/atio n 01
aw ay from it, the harm onic spectra (the balance of fundam ental and
overtones) can be kept in proportion th ro u g h o u t the scale Tin-.
ustamento is often illustrated by a ch a rt such as Figure I I I
The least degree of m odification of the laryngeally produced
sound is to be found in the neutral vowel, expressed phonetically hv
|a], and in the schw a vowel, [a]. The schw a represents the neutral
sound th a t m ust often be m odified w hen singing in m ost foreign Ian
guages and in English as well. The vowel [a], lying m idw ay in the
vowel series, w ith possible m odification approaching from eithei
front or back vowels, can often serve even m ore appropriately as a
central m odifying vowel th an can th e schwa, w hich som etim es
becom es lost in indeterm inate tim bre.
How does vowel m odification w ork in actual practice in singing?
In vocalizing an arpeggio on the vowel [i] into the upper regions of
the voice, som e m odification to w ard neutralization m ust take place
.is a m eans of balancing out additional upper partials th at result
from the conjoining of high pitch and front vowel. The vowel [i] m ust
therefore modify to w ard the vowel [I]. Actually, the very act of open­
ing the m outh som ew hat w ider to accom m odate m ounting pitch and

(more closed) (more closed)

Iront Vowels Mm k Vo we l *

(more open) ( m i n e <*|•< 11)

Figure 11.1. Vowel Modif ication (umitiisliiiiu'iiln) ( li.ni


158 The Structure of Singing

power will very nearly accomplish this vowel adjustment. Indeed,


natural modification of the vowel will inevitably result in the mount­
ing scale in response to this subtle modification of the chambers of
the resonator tube, with any specific conscious mechanical change
at the level of the larynx unnecessary. (Of course, laryngeal config­
uration willchange with vowel definition. Additional muscular action
isnot a conscious goal).
This principle of arrotondamento is especially important, of
course, in voce acuta, with |c i|modifying toward [o];[e]toward [e];[e]
toward [a];[o]toward [o];[o]toward (u];and [u]toward [u].However,
in the methodology of the historic Italian School, itisnot suggested
that allvowels modify to the schwa (which does not “officially”exist
in the Italian language), or to some other designated phoneme at a
specified pitch below the secondo passaggio, nor even in those
pitches that lie above i l That suggestion, however, is made in some
other schools ol singing (Miller, 1977, pp. 137-141).
Exercises in vowel modification can be useful only so long as the
singer (along with Ihe teacher) has a concept of well-balanced,
resonant sound, based on what actually happens when the vocal
trad llIn tunc u nli l.uyngeal vowel definition while maintaining the
presence ol the g in g e r 's formant.
Vowel modification may well be the most subtle of alltechnical
aspects in the teaching of singing. Perhaps because most singers in
the early phases of study tend to err on the side of open singing
without siilIh ient modification of the vowel, itisa pedagogical prob­
lem not to "close" the voice excessively.
Open singing (lack of modification of vowels) in the upper voice
is detrimental to vocal health. However, itis often overlooked that
carrying the weight of the heavy mechanism into upper-middle or
upper voice (under the assumption that such action modifies the
vowel) isat least potentially as disastrous. Brodnitz warns against the
hazards of excessive "covering”:"Covering has to be used with great
care, because in its extreme form itishard on voices” (1953, p. 83).
He states that the danger in heavy covering lies "in the greater ten­
sion of the outer laryngeal muscles as well as of the inner ones, both
of which tense the cords.” When too much modification is expe­
rienced by the singer in the mounting scale, the reverse process of
neutralization may be necessary: The vowel [u] tends toward [u], [o]
toward [o], etc. Never should any form of vowel modification draw
attention to itself("Watch me ‘ cover’this one!”)
.
In achieving proper modification of the vowels (aggiustamento),
distinct advantages are to be gained by alternating neighboring vow­
Vowel M odification in S inging 159

els on the vowel series, always exam ining them to be certain they
retain a com m on quality of resonance and projection.
Although the vocalises devised for vowel adjustm ent in the ris­
ing scale are useful in establishing th at technique, lliev should be
undertaken by the nonprofessional o r youthful singei onlv undei the
guidance of a practiced ear. Every practicing profrv.ional .ingei
should devote tim e in th e daily regim en to vocalises ol the. <ntegory,
In addition, spot passages from one’s repertory should be w inked
over with the sam e principles in mind.

EXERCISES FOR ACHIEVING AGGIUSTAMENTO

Vocalises are to be transposed to accom m odate the vocal category;


they should be sung as a series, in several neighboring keys.

I.XERCISE 11.1

[e] [e] hi [e]


[e] h] hi hi
h] [o] h] [0]
[o] [u] [o]

I.XERCISE 11.2

fl“ V » 1 W m ■m
ft #
-- ---- 0 ---
M to ] [3]
[e] [e] [e]
[>] [i] [i]
[a] hi [a]

I.XERCISE 11.3

<§m j r \fP f f r
hi hi i" i
|e] [e] hi l* I hi
fi] l>] [cl hi ‘1
hi to] M M hi
IN ) The Structure of Singing

EXERCISE 11.4

[i] [e]
[e] [e]
M [o]
[a] [o]
[u] [u]
M M
[a] [e]

»' -■0— i f
tm
rn
mJ
m,
- ^-----
JP$Ài—
UJ— UJ -
i1 f r
[o]
M
M
[a]
t«l
toi
(Cl

EXERCISE 11.5

£ î
£
[e] [e] lu] [3] [O]
[i] [i] [з] [o] [e]
[o] [и] [U] D>]

EXERCISE 11.6

â>---- —
#— •— p - e -----
T
O fT cTL my F f = f = r ~ n

[a] b] [o] b]
[e] [e] M [e]
[u] [u] [o] M
CH A PTER 12

Range Extension and


Stabilization in Singing

For each category of voice there are rather precise range cxpeeta
lions. Singers must restrict themselves to literature of a speulic
vocal range, determined by their category (termed Fach in the into
national language of the theater). On the other hand, a limited raille
within a category is a serious disadvantage to a performer. Inability
lo negotiate the full range of the voice has halted some promising
careers. The topic of range limitation is a much more pressing one
than the general silence that prevails on the subject indicates.
Some female singers have the curious problem of being able to
sing pitches that encompass the ranges of both mezzo-soprano and
coloratura voices. Unfortunately, an extensive range isnot a primary
determinant in evaluating a voice— quality is.The agile “nightingale”
voice, with fantastic range extension but small in size, isnot uncom­
mon; sometimes it is uninteresting. Such instruments fall into the
"normal” soprano category. Unless some highly individualistic facet
of artist imagination or vocal timbre is characteristic, such a voice
will remain undistinguished from hundreds of others, despite techni­
cal facility.
The opposite problem may plague the individual with “every­
thing but the top voice.”A successful singer must be able to perform
most of the rangy literature of the Fach; “short” voices are seldom
given a chance at major professional assignments, regardless < >l
other positive attributes.
However, more than one singer has been disturbed to lend that
a professional singer ought to possess a performing range ol thin
octaves. A look at the literature for the singing voiic, m an evening
at recital or the opera, reveals that this isalmost ncvci the (use An
interesting experiment may be made by taking a vot al score (opeia,
oratorio, or song literature— it makes no difference which), leallug
through itpage by page, and tabulating the numbei ol notes that lie
either above or below the staff (bass 01 treble)- An ama/inglv high
percentage of all vocal writing for any category ol singei Is con
ttiined within the range of a tenth. II so happeim, however, in most

161
The Structure of Singing

categories, that the notes lying on either side of that tenth are exactly
the pitches needed at the few moments of emotional and dramatic
impact (yet, almost never encompassing three octaves).
Conventions of vocal composition reflect physiological fact;
range demands for the light soprano, for example, generally are
considerably greater than for any other vocal type, and logically so.
Anatomically, the lightsoprano larynx isslight,sometimes being only
two thirds the size of the lower female larynx. By using the possibili­
ties of the flageolet and chest registers, the light soprano voice may
extend from G 3 to G 6 with, in some cases, a few additional pitches
on either end. There is no need for astonishment at those additional
pitches that lie above High C, when it comes to the light soprano
categories. They are routine, and, ifnot present, technical deficiency
is the probable cause. Many highly successful professional light
soprano voices do not have all of those pitches (three octaves) in
their publicly performable range.
Most factual material presented on singing ranges is of little
value in helping singers make judgments about their own profes­
sional qualifications, because such material isoften without differen­
tiation "I sulu alc^oi ies within the over-all Fach. Ranges shown in
encyclopedic sources are often repeated from source to source
without real verification.
Equally unreliable, in general, are the charts included in some
works on singing, showing the "normal” range-extent of a particular
vocal category; professional voices often do not correspond to such
indications, frequently exceeding them on both ends. It is not un­
usual, for example, to encounter tenor voices of lyric as well as of
dramatic proportions (but seldom leggierior tenorini, of course) who
have many pitches below C3 .Tenor voices appropriate to the opera
house often negotiate a low G 2)with good quality and with compar­
ative ease. Knowing this to be the case, more than one tenor has
been amused at the continuing awe expressed down through the
years by some critics and vocal aficionados for Caruso’ s much-
publicized feat of singing the bass aria “Vecchia zimarra, senti,”from
the last act of La Boh'eme, during an onstage performance. Although
itisclear that no other tenor would manage the unique Caruso tim­
bre in that or any other vocal range, almost any current professional
Rodolfo could sing Collines aria very successfully, inasmuch as it
extends only from C3 to Eb4, a quite manageable range for the
tenor voice. The incident is remarkable not because Caruso "had
such a strong low voice that he could sing bass arias," but because
his native timbre permitted him to do so with such good results that
some members of the audience assumed his bass colleague was
actually singing.
liimge Extension and Stabilization in Singing 163

Much of the material regarding the range and character of the


lenor voice has littleto do with the professional opa alii tenor. Stud­
ies of the high-voiced male, on which generalities about the singing
voice are often based, frequently deal with pathologic ally high speak­
ing voices, or with amateur ensemble singers. Measurements of the
vocal folds, pyknic physical characteristics, gonadal tonliibulioir. lo
vocal development, and psychological attitudes help dclei mine voi al
category, no doubt. The problem with much published inloimalion
about the high-voiced male isthat many of the subjects eiu oimlei ed
by speech therapists or medical examiners do not correspond lo the
professional tenor, yet in some studies these voices are termed tinr
tenor voices.” The laryngologist, when initially seeing the larynx ol
the professional tenor, may assume him to be a baritone becausi
much of the "scientific”literature describes the tenor larynx as being
remarkably small.
The same point may just as readily be made about the contralto
voice. To state that "the low female voice suffers from virilization
due to hormonal secretion” (a comment typically found in some
literature devoted to voice categories), producing a larger larynx,
may be quite true with regard to, say, the low-voiced, bearded lady
of the circus; itisquestionable that such observations apply to most
professionally low-voiced female singers.

R A N G E A N D VOICE CATEGORIZATION

Ability to negotiate range has an obvious relationship to vocal struc­


ture and to categorization, but much care isneeded injudging which
limitations are truly congenital and which are technical. In recent
decades, methods for determining the probable range (and therefore
vocal category) of a voice by mechanical measurement have gained
some limited acceptance. Although such correlations are of interest,
il is doubtful that any pedagogically useful information lies in that
direction. Voices are housed in physiques that to some extent dictate
categorization, but general vocal environment and the specific vocal
training a singer encounters will provide the decisive factors in
determining voice category and range. A fair case may be made in
support of the hypothesis that cultural attitudes serve as crucible in
many vocal matters, and that national preferences in vocal quality
may at times provide the essential factor for determining voice
classification.
When range is allowed to serve as the chief consideration in
vocal classification, many potential professional voices of one cate­
gory are mistakenly classified early as belonging to some other cate­
164 The S tructu re of Singing

gory. The ten o r w ith full, resonant low voice, th e soprano with the
tem porarily short top, the singer w hose range is lim ited because of a
lack of energy, often m islead as to tru e vocal category, especially
with reg ard to range expectation from the respective categories.
The events of register dem arcation serve as indicators of vocal
categorization; if these events are overlaid w ith technical encum ­
brances, range m ay be curtailed. The upper range is highly vulner­
able to such lim itation. Discovering the passaggi pivotal points of the
voice, and avoiding classification based chiefly on how high or how
low a singer can sing at som e early stage of vocal developm ent, is
wise procedure.
The w orld is full of singers who possess phenom enal high notes,
b u t w hose tim bre below the upper ledger lines bores the listener.
Few opportunities are then forthcom ing to display those rem arkable
high pitches. They take on the c h a ra c te r of a circus act, or a parlor
trick. (Incidentally, shining high notes on top of an otherw ise dull
instrum ent usually indii ale a technically handicapped instrum ent in
need of resonator adjustm ent.)
Mui'h ol the work of extending and stabilizing the vocal range
lias to do with easting aside certain attitudes and replacing them
with othei m ore positive ones. Most of o u r vocal experiences as
singers are lied to word symbols, which construct a continuing
pattern ol perform ance responses for us. Very often if we substitute
one set of symbols for another, we help change the physical
response. Isn’t this pure empiricism? Of course it is, and it is fine as
long as it is based on an understanding of free physical action. (Cer­
tainly no singer should ever a ttem p t to perform only m echanically, in
any ran g e of the voice!) The singer m ust be certain th a t th e w ord
sym bols th a t are chosen incite the correct physical responses. M uch
of the im agery of vocal pedagogy is directed tow ard localized con­
trol, which inhibits freedom in singing.
F urtherm ore, it is precisely in the area of physical function that
all singing experience m ust rely on psychological climate. Appro­
priate w ord symbols (imagery!) th at create a prevailing psychological
au ra (or at least give it verbal utterance) can be intelligently
expressed only in response to w hat has actually been experienced
physically.
Success in developing acceptance of the physical possibilities of
the top voice (in the healthy instrum ent) is often achieved by a tte n ­
tion to several concepts:

I. Continuity. Within the extensive range requirem ents of vocal


literature, nearly every clim actic note in the upper range of the voice

Range E xtension a n d Stabilization in Sinning 165

lias one or m ore connecting notes that unite it with the rest of the
voice. The high pitch belongs to the rest of tlie* phrase.
2. Unity of the Musical Phrase. Not only is tlieie the physical con­
nection of one pitch to an o th er delivered by a ......sti lim ent skilled in
legato, th e re is th e concept of singing through a phrase, ol m corpo
rating every note w ithin the phrase into one w h o le N o note is iso
lated, regardless of its pitch o r its duration; it is co n stan th moving
w ithin the sw eep of th e phrase; the pitch on which il happens to
o ccu r becom es im m aterial w hen attention is riveted on diiet tiny, the
phrase, pointing it ahead. (Legato as an expressive device in i om m ti
nicative singing will be discussed in C hapter 15.)
3. Centeredness (also centering). C oncerns about high and low
pitch can be replaced by a feeling of cen tral location of all pi It h,
pitch is in co rp o rate d into a sense of collected focus, a m ental and
physical process. T here is an elim ination of "up and dow n,” and there
is no sense of shifting location of either pitch o r attention. (With
som e singers w ho have been accustom ed to think in term s of high
and low, a decisive shift to horizontal thinking and feeling m ay be
helpful.) O ut of this centering com es com pactness of energy and
concentration, of both the body and the artistic im agination. The
singer should consciously cultivate a sense of physical and m ental
well-being. (This is exceedingly h a rd to do if the poor singer is trying
to yawn, achieve the idiot jaw , m ake space in the pharynx, distend
the abdom en, etc.!) This centering can be acquired, it can be p rac ­
ticed, and it can becom e a hab itu al w ay of thinking and perform ing.
11 is, w ithout doubt, closely related to ancient exercises of both East
and W est th a t unite m ental and physical responses (m ind and body).
4. Function. Physical action—the functional p a rt of singing—is best
controlled th rough indirect suggestion, b u t it m ust be efficiently
established b efore freedom can be expected to occur. Behind all ol
the artistic-psychological (the spiritual, perhaps?) lies the physical
and acoustic instrum ent. The determ ination of pitch throughout ihc
voice, including th e extrem es of high and low, is fundam entally a
functional m atter. Alteration of pitch in the hum an von c depends on
physical factors w ithin the larynx. Yet, this "function1' Is closely
related to several ideas already presented. It is the result ol the <oot
dinated m echanism , and it is one graduated met hunk al process, No
sudden new action is ever introduced into tiny urea ol the voice,
including the top voice (centeredness need not be Htibjei led to any
sudden disruption). M astery of the technical lucidly ol angiusta
inert to is a functional m atte r dictated by the ucsthetli dem ands ol
the ear.
166 The Structure of Singing

5. Commitment to Textual Immediacy. Singing is not vocalization,


but communication. High pitches arc not isolated exemplars of tech­
nical principles; they are almost always emotive moments in vocal
literature, and they must be incorporated into that immediacy of
expression that results from believing totally the situation of word
and drama as ittranspires (see Chapter 15). Although some part of
the mind monitors on a technical level, in singing, everything must
be subservient to the imagination ifperformance is to occur on an
artistic plane. Commit yourself to believing what you are singing at
the moment you sing it,and the high note willjoin with you in that
conviction!

As just pointed out, high pitches mostly occur within the contour
of the general phrase shape, and they must be incorporated into the
phrase. Occasionally, a note must be attacked or released (perhaps
both) at the top ol the range. Regardless of how that pitch is
approached (à la I’urc ini or ; ila Babbitt), fear of high notes can be
eliminated by avoiding vertical thinking and by keeping the complete
structure ol the passage m mind, no matter how disjunct it may
appeal (The addition, mentally, of pitches on either side of the pitch
may temporarily assist.)
leai isnot foolish ilitderives from intelligent experience; fear is
foolish if experience consistently proves there isno basis for it.Itis,
however, not sufficient to advise the singer to give up the foolish
habit of being frightened about high notes; only when the singer has
had good experiences in singing high notes under all kinds of cir­
cumstances will fears be replaced by confidence in performance
situations. (The way to do that is to make every practice session a
performance. Ifyou can consistently do itin the practice room, you
can consistently do iton the stage. Ifyou cannot, then review these
five suggestions.)
Despite positive thinking, unless singers have a technique that
permits freedom of function, they have no right to expect freedom in
the upper range of the voice. When proper coordination is routined
and established, confidence in the upper range results. (It will not
resultifthe vocal mechanism isnot in linewith physical and acoustic
laws that govern its function.) If your technique is a patchwork of
tricks and does not add up to a complete system of freely function­
ing parts, you have no reason to expect ease in the upper voice. If
you jut your jaw and raise your larynx for high pitch, you will never
have freedom in the upper range, for example. Nor willyou have itif
you depress the larynx.)
R ange E xtension a n d Stabilization in Singing 167

EXTENDING THE V()( Al RANGE

E arlier in this c h a p te r the need for a tin re <u l.u i i.m ge loi every
singer was questioned. Now the problem ol llie Imlv limited range
m ust be raised.
A free voice is a rangy voice. Despite good lei hnl< il to o n lm .i
tion and healthy vocal production, som e singer, i nniim u in .ullei
range limitations. The tea c h e r m ust first determ ine lli.il no |i.ilhologi
cal causes a re present; if th ere are none, and llie von r a i r . v v e r . lo
the various indicators of a specific vocal classification ImiI I.ill Imit
of the range expectations of the category, the singer proh.ihlv -aillei ■.
from acquired anxiety regarding high pitches. The best wav to
approach th a t problem is head on, by system atically working on tin
upper range.
Although singers have no right to expect nonproblem alii en
tran ce into u p p er voice if problem s abound below it, it is nol neees
sary to have every aspect of vocal technique well in h an d before
turning to range extension, w hich m u st form a p a rt of norm al tech ­
nical developm ent. Som etim es surprising vocal advances occur
through exercising the upper range even w hen problem s still rem ain
in m iddle voice, b u t this is rare. In general, the u p p er range only
develops gradually as a p a rt of the equalized scale.
Proper coordination can replace anxiety over high pitches. The
series of vocalises th at follow are culled from the nineteenth-century
and early tw entieth-century Italian School. Som e have sweeping
lines, som e are presented as isolated pitches, and others term inate
abruptly. In executing the vocalises both fem ale and m ale singer
m ust be willing to risk som ething, be willing to accept even the pos­
sibility of an occasional sound th a t fails. Anyone w ho undertakes
these vocalises should be convinced th a t the im agination which
germ inates the p erform ance ideal, and the m echanics of the re­
sponding physical-acoustic instrum ent, are subject to unification hv
the will of the perform er.

EXERCISES FOR EXTENDING AND STAMII IXING


THE VOCAL RANGE

Because the vocal literature is rich in challenging exam ples lor each
category of high-lying passages, it is nol neeessary to contrive a
com prehensive series of vocalises loi range extension Several kinds
of p attern s m ay be isolated. W hen they have becom e routine, they
168 The Structure of Singing

provide a road map to other demanding phrases encountered in the


literature.
The exercises that deal with range extension must be transposed
as necessary for each vocal category. (In their present keys they are
intended for the lyric soprano and the lyrictenor.) They may be sung
on any single vowel, and tempo should be varied. Most of the exer­
cises will be limited to a few neighboring keys for each category of
voice.
They may appear strenuous at first. These vocalises are not
intended for the singer who does not already have a fair degree of
technical facility.They are for young professionals, not for beginners.
The exercises are reasonable examples of passages that demand
range, and serve as models lor daily practice by the advanced singer.

EXERCISE 12.1

| î j ' j J J ir
(liny vowel)

* r r i ii i

EXERCISE 12.2
5 »
f
9------ p.
S L M = | M = q P = •7." -x..
f±±i
= 4 M

(any vowel)
Range E xten sion a n d S tabilization in Singing 169

EXERCISE 12.4

F = ) = = ^ | 1=11
F=^
(a n y vow el)

EXERCISE 12.5

Q.____0t
ÜÉ
(a n y vow el)

EXERCISE 12.6

f
(a n y vow el)
f
EXERCISE 12.7

«
- 1 1 m
(a n y vow el)

# i in T T r. r r„
EXERCISE 12.8

(a n y vow el)
170 The S tru ctu re of S inging

EXERCISE 12.9

Vocalises indicated for the developm ent of the flageolet register


(see C hapter 10) for the fem ale voice are as directly concerned with
range extension as with registration. In addition, a n u m b er of agility
exercises (see C hapter 3) are equally useful in expanding and secu r­
ing range. The developm ent and extension of low er range also has
been given earlier consideration (see C hapters 9 and 10). Exercises in
this c h ap ter deal wilh som e of the specific dem ands of extended
range.
CHAPTER 13

M essa di voce and


Dynamic Con trol

Controlling the q uantity of sound is a m ajo r requirem ent ol koih I


singing. W ithout m astery of dynam ic contrast, the best vocal pro
duction becom es inexpressive and uninteresting. Most com poser,
have in m ind the mosaic-like possibilities of the entire dynamic
palette w hen w riting for voice. Vocal coloration and dynam ic level
are inseparable. Even w hen no dynam ic m arkings are present in the
vocal line, m arkings in the piano or orchestral score often are
intended for the singer as well.
The singer m ust be able to
"Sing high and low,
Fast and slow,
Loud and soft also!”
G eneral dynam ic level a n d variable dynam ics are an interpretative
and artistic concern. The singer w ho unwisely m aintains a constant
volum e th ro u g h o u t a song (or an evening) m ay be doing so because
of technical lim itations, not because of insufficient artistic sensitivity.
M any of the problem s connected w ith b rea th energy and sustained
tessitu ra com e from im proper approaches to dynam ics, both at soft
and loud levels.
The technical m eans by w hich a singer varies dynam ic level is
an o th er of those w atersheds th a t divide vocal pedagogies. A singei
w ho has been in stru cted to "build upon the soft” as a neneral
approach to vocal technique involves different m uscle controls llum
th e singer w ho has been tau g h t th at dynam ic m uscle equilibrium
should be present th ro u g h o u t «//levels of volum e or i ange I lie vital
ized voce piena, in th e latte r case, is the ideal, to he varied dynam l
cally w ithout vitiating the kernel of the sound.
T e c h n iq u e s b u ilt u p on th e so ft o n set o fte n h ave illl Iicult v in
elim in a tin g an a d m ix tu r e o f breath from the tone, unies* Nubglottlc
p ressu re is su d d e n ly in crea sed at so m e point in the m o u n tin g
d y n a m ic level. In su c h te c h n iq u e s th ere is a ten d en cy to revert to
breath in th e to n e as a m e a n s o f d im in ish in g v o lu m e and projection.

171
172 The S tructu re o f S inging

B reath adm ixture becom es the hallm ark of som e singers w hen they
attem p t piano singing. (Just as unfavorable is the unm itigated loud
dynam ic level of certain singers w hose ears seem to dem and feed­
back a t high am plitude at all times. They m istake dynam ic level for
"resonance.”)
The sam e character of tone should be possible for the singer in
both loud and soft passages, unless there is purposeful intent to
change the tim bre for coloristic reasons. The traditional international
school adheres to such tim bre consistency. (The belligerent bellow­
ing of insensitive singers who are convinced th a t a constant fortis­
simo is appropriate for operatic literature is best ignored.)
B reath adm ixture, in som e other pedagogies, is adm ittedly
appealing in that it requires less energy, and less tim e and skill to
acquire. Then why not do w hat is easiest? B ecause w hen exam ined
in the light of the freely coordinated instrum ent, "soft, sighing piano”
is an enem y that enters the citadel of vocal technique to erode its
foundations bv literally rem oving its supportive pillars. It introduces
into vocalism .1 num ber of destructive possibilities. Sustained piano
singing should cause neither a higher m ixture of b rea th in the tone
nor. an increase in glottal pressure as a device fo r dim inishing
volume. Dynamic variation should not be dependent on sudden
shills in vocal tim bre caused by a series of static adjustm ents.
Dynamic equilibrium , not static settings, produces the capability for
contrasts within the basic tim bre.
Bouhuys (1977, p. 275) reports th at in tests com paring trained
and u ntrained singers, the frequency spectra of the trained singer
suggest th at the air pulses th rough the glottis have a sim ilar w ave­
form in soft and loud tones. In the u ntrained singer, louder tones
show excessively high frequencies, producing shrillness and a m ore
peaked glottal air pulse. The untrain ed singer has a decisive air leak
th rough th e glottis th a t is not in evidence in the trained singer. On
the o th er hand, the untrained singer tends to m ake m ore efficient
use of the airstream in louder passages than w hen singing softly.
“The u ntrained singer is unable to adduct the vocal folds completely,
o r nearly so, w hen he sings softly. This results in a ‘b reath y ’ c h a ra c ­
ter of these soft tones” (Bouhuys, 1977, p. 275).
It is clear th a t a good singer uses efficient, low er airflow rates
when singing softly th an does the u ntrained singer. The "sighing,
yaw ning” piano perm its high airflow rates because the vocal folds
are not efficiently approxim ated. "Building on the soft,” and concen­
trating on the soft onset, a re concepts th at produce high airflow
rates. M echanical efficiency in singing, Bouhuys (1977, p. 278) and
S chutte (1980, pp. 147-162) assure us, is dependent on skillful breath
Messa di voce a n d D yn am ic Control 173

m anagem ent, w hich reduces breath leakage I ' m cssive b reath pass­
ing over th e vocal folds is the m ark of die pool sinnei The balanced
onset is essential at all dynam ic levels.
Messa di voce is th e classic device f o r arhievinc m a .le r y o f a
wide range of dynam ic contrasts. One begins at piamv.nni • l< \ ■1 with
a sustained tone, crescendoing to fortissimo, then det n m e n d o iu y
back to pianissim o while m aintaining uniform lim ine I<l> illv d u
whole dynam ic range of messa di voce should be puv.ihlt mi i \ n s
pitch w ithin the entire vocal com pass, yet it is doubt I ill that m o n
th an a h andful of g reat singers have ever achieved that g o a l, in am
generation.

EXERCISES FOR DEVELOPING DYNAMIC CONTKOI

The following vocalises are for singers w ith advanced technical pro
ficiency. Beginning in low er-m iddle voice, the singer m ay cautiously
extend these vocalises into upper-m iddle and upper range levels
over a period of m onths and years. At the outset, crescendo and
decrescen d o portions of th e messa di voce are in te rru p ted w ith a
quiet breath, as indicated:

EXERCISE 13.1
J =60
p —
i
i] [i d e i]
[3 o] [o i e a]

mm II
O

H i TT
TT m i I»
II

Initially, e x tr e m e s o f d y n a m ic con trast sh ou ld not he the ulm Piano


and fo rte lev els can la ter be d e v e lo p e d into Ktvitllv co n trasted plants
sim o an d fo r tissim o levels. A lth ou gh b eg u n ill piano, Initial sou n d
sh o u ld co n fo rm to that b alan ced on set (see C hapter I) previously
174 The S tru ctu re of Singing

acquired. The aspirated onset and the glottal plosive m ust both be
avoided or the exercise will not prove beneficial. Above all, there
m ust be no point within the phrase at which "softness” is replaced by
"kernel”; the “core" of the tone m ust be present from the start. No
"entering w edge” should be audible, as has som etim es been sug­
gested (V ennard, 1967, p. 213), and th ere m ust be no sensation th at
“as you crescendo, drive in the wedge.”
D uring the course of any sustained phrase, m aintaining a steady
epigastric-um bilical balance requires increased attention to breath
m anagem ent. In messa di voce th ere should never be sudden con­
scious increase in b reath pressure; a sense of grad u al energization
w ithin constant stability of tim bre should be experienced as the
dynam ic level changes. The concluding pianissim o will require the
highest levels of control. Such control is the result of having earlier
developed the sensation of b reath “suspension” discussed in
Chapter 2.
The m ale sinner should avoid the tendency to reso rt to falsetto
as the messa di voce technique is extended upw ard into m iddle voice.
(Although the falsetto may be used in a lim ited way u n d e r the cir-
cum stances described in C hapter 9, it m ust not norm ally m ake its
appearance in the messa di voce exercise. Falsetto encourages faulty
vocal fold appr oxim ation and an increase in airflow th a t the messa
di voce is intended to correct.) The fem ale singer m ust never indulge
in the “tiny” adolescent sound th at reduces am plitude b u t vitiates
tim bre.
It m ust be m entioned em phatically th a t the suggestion to "go
from ‘chest voice’ to ‘head voice'” in the messa di voce exercise is to
be avoided at all costs (although recom m ended in som e pedagogies).
The ability to crescendo is not related to registration of the voice. No
fundam ental altering of m uscle participation occurs at som e precise
m om ent during sustained pitch; messa di voce involves no ab ru p t
change in cricothyroidal-thyroarytenoidal balances. (How could
such action possibly be considered appropriate to a sustained note in
the upper region of the voice, for example?) S udden drastic shifts in
m uscle balance am ong the internal adjustors of the vocal bands are
to be shunned. Stability is the key.
The view point th a t messa di voce vocalises are exercises in su d ­
den alternation of the heavy and the light m echanism s of reg istra­
tion on a single pitch is not in line w ith the traditional concept of that
skill. Indeed, messa di voce can be accom plished within any register
tim bre. However, its m ost valuable contribution consists in unifica­
tion, practiced in all but th e m ost extrem e ranges of the voice. It is
not solely an exercise in dynam ic control.
Messa di voce a n d D yn am ic Control 175

EXERCISE 13.2

No singer should despair if early tries at the messa di voce are


less th an perfect. The singer should be happy to m anage the vo­
calises even in a lim ited p a rt of the range. Yet, the im portance of the
exercise as a technical device for gaining control of the entire singing
in stru m en t can hardly be overestim ated. Messa di voce, in fact, is the
ultim ate test of a coordinated technique of singing. Messa di voce lets
us know how we stand as singers. It instructs us as to w hat still
rem ains to be accom plished technically, in the task of unifying the
singing instrum ent. Messa di voce is a skill both technical and artistic;
it is a facility th a t should be tre a te d w ith g rea t respect by th e singer.
A ttem pts to achieve the highly controlled messa di voce must
w ait for general technical stability. As w as noted with regard to the
sostenuto vocalises, caution should be exercised by any sinner who
does not yet possess a high degree of technical prowess. Only the
singer w ho has fundam entals of vocal technique well in hand should
attem p t these vocalises.
In co n trast to changing vowel sequence, a single vowel is sung
th ro u g h o u t the messa di voce pitch. G reat care should be taken that
the individual vowel rem ains unaltered. Clear vowel def inition must
always be present. For most singers, certain vowel form ations are
easier than others. Good judgm ent m ust be exercised in determ ining
w hich vowels offer the most favorable results and which need to he
subjected to m ore careful handling; a balance should then be main
tained am ong them all, in daily practicing.
176 The S tructu re o f Singing

EXERCISE 13.3
J =60
Q pp — — _ ff — — PP
— i l ------ :— - jo ? _____ ::
*
|y — * - w • = -

(any vowel)

DI I I KMINING DYNAMIC LEVELS

Dynamic levels indit ated in a m usical score often are designations not
only ol am plitude, hut of quality and mood. In stru m en tal and vocal
textures ai e as m ut li a pal i ol dynam ic perception as are degrees of
softness and loudness, a m usical subtlety overlooked by m any m usi­
cians. All dynam ic m arkings are relative to the basic dynam ic scope
of the individual com position and to the c h aracter of the perform ing
instrum ent. Should any fortissim o in M ozart equal th at of Berlioz,
Strauss, or Mahler? A good review er looks for an understanding of
the com poser's intent w hen evaluating a perform ance, as in the fol­
lowing (Lôbl, 1977, p. 9):
[C onductor X] takes V erdi at his word. In the Requiem he
perm its him self to play with those dynam ic extrem es which
are indeed indicated in the score. There one finds quintuple
fortissim i [fffff] as well as cum ulative piano indications. In
the realization, this m eans [dynam ic] eruption as well as
extinction.
The question is w h ether Verdi m eant so literally such
orgies of fortissim o as o ccu rred in this perform ance; one
questions the accuracy of the conception of [C onductor X]. I
believe th at Verdi in his dynam ic indications had in ear
m ore m atters of quality, clarity and severity th an the actual
brutalization of an entire chorus.
Young singers, particularly those who still exhibit characteristics
of late adolescence (a vocal condition that extends considerably
Messa di voce a n d D yn am ic Control 177

beyond the late teens), cannot be expectcd to display as m uch skill in


dynam ic control as do m ore m atu re voices. In I act, insistence on
exact dynam ic reading of m uch of the vocal literature (the Lied in
particular) will serve only to com pound existing problem s in the
young voice, and to produce o th er problem s. It is pedagogically
unw ise to ask a ro b u st im m atu re voice to sing Si hum ann's "Moiul
n a c h t,” o r S c h u b e rt’s "An die N achtigall” (Claudius); both an- cxci
cises in dynam ic subtlety. (Of course, if th e voice is light and Ivi n in
c h aracter [especially if a soprano], th ere should be little problem.)
Perhaps one of th e m ost treach ero u s areas of the tea< lung ol
singing lies in determ ining appropriate dynam ic levels vvilluu each
vocal category. M any voices of potentially dram atic propoi lions mav
be perm anently im paired by w ell-m eaning teach ers who, in attem pt
ing to avoid “pushing,” advocate b rea th m ixture and a gencial
reduction of energization in singing. The voice can be "pushed” in
m ore th an one way: (1) B reath p ressu re at the glottis can he so
intense th at m u scu lar tension in singing becom es unavoidable, and
(2) b rea th energy can be so lax th at th e laryngeal m echanism m ust
unsuccessfully strive to m eet the dem ands of pitch and am plitude
w ithout sufficient m uscular support. The second m ode of "pushing”
is ju st as, pernicious as the first.
The result of pedagogical attitudes, in som e cases, is to m ake all
voices small, regardless of the actu al category of voice. Equally d a n ­
gerous is the opposite tendency, to m ake every voice into a big voice.
Som e voices a re sizable and others are m odest. Each vocal in stru ­
m ent m ust arrive at its ow n dim ension through freedom of action.
The m ajority of erro rs regarding determ ination of dynam ic
level, in early vocal training, can be laid to the account of the con­
scientious tea c h e r w ho hopes to avoid “pushing” the young voice,
and w ho thereby falls into the trap of under-energizing for singing.
The chief pedagogical problem am ong young students of singing is
not th at they “p u sh ” the voice, b u t th at they have not learned how to
apply physical energy while rem aining loose and live.
F urtherm ore, th ere is a great deal of m isunderstanding about
w hat ought to com prise th e dynam ic range within each « alegory <>l
singer. The voice studio can becom e a very isolated, c<miming laboi
atory of idealism, rem ote from the actualities ol the professional pel
form ance world. T here are teach ers ol singing who lend to suspect
all d ram atic voices. For them , only the l.icdn singer (oi perhaps the
oratorio soloist) stands in parte dextra, because in that viewpoint
everyone else "pushes” and suffers from “hyper'function ” There is
confusion as to why the w orld-renow ned tenor who sings Kadam es
o r Don José (or w ho did a generation ago, at least) so splendidly,
does not "spin out the concluding high II1' pianissim o Why is il that
178 The S tru ctu re of Singing

the d ram atic soprano who has delivered E lektra thrillingly for m any
decades does so at such a high dynam ic level, and why does she not
sing certain o th er literatures as does the "sensitive” recitalist who
"floats” h e r tone? These exam ples arc draw n from life, and illustrate
th at it is som etim es difficult not only for the sheltered voice teacher
(who easily grows accustom ed to dealing with the college-age
singer), b u t for the supposedly knowledgeable critic to recognize that
all of those subtle sounds so m usically appealing in the voice studio
and the sm all recital hall m ay be m ore readily achieved by voices of
lighter category, and u n d er limited acoustical circum stances. To
expect the sam e vocal style and behavior from a dram atic in stru ­
m ent is to show ignorance of the several categories of the singing
instrum ent. As Titze has noted (1980, p. 20), th ere a re sprinters and
long-distance ru n n ers am ong singers as well as am ong athletes.
Inform ed contest judges expect the late-adolescent fem ale to
possess m ore technical polish than her m ale contem porary, particu ­
larly with regard to dynam ic control. (Anyone who judges contests at
college level ought to be aw are of the m atu ratio n continuum of the
male and fem ale instrum ents.) Those who adjudicate should dem and
that soubrettes, coloraturas, and lyrics display characteristics of their
respective Idclicr, attrib u tes th at are by no m eans identical to those
expected of the dramatic fem ale categories. Vocal adjudicators who
serve on panels heavily weighted with instrum entalists som etim es
w atch a coveted prize go to a small soprano voice of lim ited profes­
sional potential, singing literature th at for h e r category is by no
m eans dem anding, while a dram atic voice loses b ecau se it does not
yet exhibit the sam e degree of dynam ic control. These statem ents
m ust not be m isunderstood as an endorsem ent of th e all-too-
frequent practice of entering young students in contests with litera­
tu re m uch too dram atic for their years and skills, no r of th at unin­
teresting howling th at som etim es passes for dram atic singing in
vocal com petitions. H ow ever, teachers of singing easily becom e
enam ored of singing th at is "m usical” and dynam ically varied, but
w hich actually is m annered, lim ited vocalism. Professional potential
should never be overlooked.
This m ay be an appropriate place to insert an encouraging w ord
for the young m ale singer w ho regards his tw enty-one-year-old
fem ale c o u n te rp art (particularly if she is a so u b rette or a coloratura)
with aw e for h er technical ease. He should realize th a t if his fem ale
friend does not sing considerably m ore skillfully th an he at this
developm ental point in h er career, she is probably th e possessor of a
problem atic voice. Despite technically rough edges, his own instru­
m ent may later prove to be the superior one of the two.
Messa di voce a n d D yn am ic Control 179

M any teach ers of singing, w hen candid, adm it that teaching the
fem ale voice a t the college- and university-age level is far m ore
satisfying m usically th an dealing with the mule voice of a co rres­
ponding age, simply because vocal skill is inevitably linked at that
age w ith laryngeal history (her voice is 21 years old, I n s onlv 7- f ive
or tak e a year). The teach er of the potentially professional male voice
in this age category should be extrem ely cautious about covering up
lack of skill th ro u g h the use of quick solutions, such a s dependence
on voce finta, falsetto, or breath-m ixture practices, liach p a s s i n g ve.u
(each passing six-m onth period, in fact) will bring greater m aturity Io
the m ale voice, w hich at college age still exhibits strong m utational
signs. (Som e m ale voices, especially those of the lighter categories,
have physical grow th well behind them at age 2 1 . Late m aturation is,
however, the rule for the sturdy m ale voice.)
The problem s of dynam ic variance becom e acu te with young
m ales w ho have an appreciation for the subtleties of vocal art, who
are musically, linguistically, and interpretatively well equipped to do
highly advanced vocal literature, and w ho feel a need to perform
publicly (they a re rare, b u t they do exist). T eacher and pupil have to
face facts, recognize w hat is feasible (and resist vocal coaches who
have little -aw areness of the m atu ratio n continuum of singers), and
strike a com prom ise as to w hat is acceptable p erform ance literature.
The com prom ise should avoid vocal gimmickry, w hich m ight tem ­
porarily perm it a w ider range of literatu re than w ould free vocalism.
Excellent vocal litera tu re exists for any healthy voice w ithout
resorting to the alm ost impossible dem ands found in som e parts of
the literatu re (both operatic and song). B ecause of physical m a tu ra ­
tion differences, it is m uch easier to find appropriate study m aterial
for the young fem ale th an for the young m ale voice.
On the o th er hand, if the young singer, m ale or female, is incap­
able of negotiating som e fair am ount of the less-dem anding song
litera tu re by th e tim e those req u irem en ts are to be m et in eithei
academ ic o r professional program s, it m ay be necessary to conclude
th a t singing talen t is not sufficiently present to justify continued pro
fessional hopes. Som e young m ale voices arc of potentially proles
sional caliber, b u t th eir vocal developm ent is slow er than the ........
If they have the tim e, the m oney, and the em otional loi tltude, it may
be advisable to keep at it. Yet it is part of the responsibility ol the
voice tea c h e r to give frank appraisal of the probability ol proles
sional success and to weigh it against o ther lile Inlet e s t * ol the young
singer. (T hroughout this discussion, the "young” ulngei tele rs to the
late adolescent of roughly 18-23 years ol age.)
Let us re tu rn to o u r young male singei ol uveiuge develop
180 The S tructu re of Singing

m ental level, and consider approaches to the dynam ic requirem ents


of the literature he m ust sing. Above all, it should be repeated, studio
idealism should not set up requirem ents th at do not exist outside the
studio walls! The "studio” piano that the ears of som e teachers (and
coaches) insist on, w ould never be heard (at any age) across the
o rch estra pit even during a general pause, let alone w ith the orches­
tra playing. It should also be kept in mind th at piano singing is fre ­
quently a technical refinem ent that increases gradually with the
physical m atu ratio n of the vocal instrum ent. To dem and th a t a 20-
year-old baritone sing pianissim o on F4 because the com poser asks
for it, m ay be to request an im possible technical feat for him; if the
pianissim o m arking is the crucial factor for the p erform ance of the
composition, and o u r young baritone cannot possibly m anage it legiti­
m ately, th en he probably should not be publicly singing th e song or
the aria at all. If lie continues to study it, he should be perm itted to
sing the F4 a bit louder than he o r his tea c h e r (and the com poser)
w ould like, with the understanding th at over a period of tim e he will'
work to diminish the volume.
In addition to essential differences am ong categories of profes­
sional singing voices with regard to the expectations of dynam ic
range, any dynam ic level (either soft o r loud) is only u nderstandable
within the general volume and dim ension of a particu lar instrum ent.
All dynam ic levels are relative to the size of the instru m en t th at
produces them . To request the large dram atic instrum ent, as we
have seen, to sing as soft a pianissim o in actual am plitude as can the
leggiero instrum ent, is as nonsensical as to require the leggiero to
m atch the fortissim o of the d ram atic voice. An unwillingness to
realize this proportional relationship of dynam ic level within each
instrum ent is partly the reason why falsetto and finta practices have
increasingly crept into vocal pedagogy the past decade or so. A
tru m p et is not expected to produce the piano dynam ic level of a
recorder. (As to the naive view point th at the vocal instrum ent should
try to m atch its accom panying instru m en t—th at is, "color the voice
to m atch the accom panying in stru m en t”—silence is best. A com par­
able argum ent w ould be th at the string and the oboe should im itate
the vocal sound. W hat nonsense! Each instrum ent, including the
voice, has its ow n tim bre, regardless of historical period. (Stylistic
factors m ust be taken into account, b u t not at the expense of the health
of the instrum ent o r of producing a w retched sound!).
This arg u m en t is not to be understood as granting license to
those singers of w hatever w eight or size w ho seem convinced th at if
they don’t sing their loudest they will not be duly appreciated. For
som e singers the "reso n an t” sound m eans nothing m ore than loud
Messa di voce a n d D yn am ic Control 181

singing. Every voice m ust accom plish the lull dynam ic range appro­
p riate to its size and w eight if the dem ands of professional skill are to
be m et. (But don't ask th at of every m ale singer at ay.e 21!)
Messa di voce vocalises, taken together will» carefully selected
passages from th e vocal literature (always appropi laie lo Ilu- singer’s
capabilities at th e c u rre n t stage of developm ent), ai e Ilu- best m eans
fo r acquiring dynam ic control in the singing voice.
The m atu rin g young artist and the seasoned professional should
re g a rd the messa di voce vocalise as an essential part ol eat li day's
technical work. Y ounger singers should not attem pt that skill until
they have acquired a thorough grounding in vocal technique
CHAPTER 14

Vibrancy in Singing
Vibrato and Vocal Timbre

The phenom enon of vibrato contributes to perception of pitch, inten­


sity, and tim bre of the vocal sound. Subjective term inology describ­
ing the quality of vocal tone, such as “w arm ," “vibrant,” “resonant,”
"dull,” “lifeless,” or "hollow,” often refers to the presence or absence
of vibrato.
The term vibrato is used som ew hat loosely to describe several
kinds of pitch fluctuation that may occu r during a sustained tone. In
the following, considérai ions, its use will be restricted to the term i­
nology of the historic Italian School, w hich differentiates betw een
vibrato, oscilla done, tremolo, and trillo.
Most persons who w ork with singers are aw are of the studies of
Seashore and his associates, and of his by now classic definition of
the vihratq (1936, p. 7): "A good vibrato is a pulsation of pitch, u su ­
ally accom panied with synchronous pulsations of loudness and tim ­
bre, of such extent and ra te as to give pleasing flexibility, tenderness
and richness to the tone.”
T hree param eters are generally determ inable in vibrato, being
the fluctuation of pitch, variation of intensity, and the n u m b er of
undulations per second. Most authorities tend to agree th a t 6 u n d u ­
lations per second seem to represent the norm al vibrato in singing;
studies using singers of international reputation indicate th at 6.5
m ay be a tru e r figure, w ith 7 per second not being u nusual (6.2 is
com m on for the male, 7 for the female). W hen undulations exceed
7.5 (or, at m ost, 8) per second, th e resu lta n t sound is perceived by
m ost ears as being trem ulous; the tim bre suffers from tremolo.
W hen the vibrato rate is below 6 fluctuations per second, the Italians
say th at “la voce oscilla ” or “la voce balla, ” and the term oscillazione
(oscillation) describes the unfavorable wobble. The ra te of the
vibrato varies w ithin an instrum ent, depending on coordination and
tonal concept. V ibrato can be the distinguishing fea tu re betw een good
and bad vocal tim bre.
Som e singers d em onstrate a vibrato rate th at is ra th e r constant
at 4 per second (exceedingly slow and wide), while others have been
recorded as high as 12 per second (narrow , fast, and trem ulous).

182
V ibrancy in Singing 183

Som e voices regularly average a sem itone oscillatory pattern; in very


slow oscillation, the pitch variant can be a s wide a s a whole lone or a
m inor third.
In techniques w here heavy vocal production prevails, oscillation
ra te is usually well below 6 tim es per second, willi 5 being closer to
th e norm . The pitch variant, then, becom es wider. Studies that deal
w ith vibrato rate s in th e range of 4 have no value loi the sinner;
m ost m usicians’ ears w ould not accept such a slow vibrato «s having
aesthetic value, o th er th a n in uncultivated vocal styles. W hen i eports
on vibrato are published, the inform ed re a d e r must lake into
account the pedagogies by w hich the subjects in those studies have
been trained.
In w ell-regulated vibrato, the pitch variant is seldom as large as
a sem itone; its undulation p a tte rn averages about a third of a whole
tone. This variation of pitch is perceived by th e ear as a quality chai
acteristic, not as pitch vagaries.

PHYSICAL CAUSES OF VIBRATO


*
A considerable am o u n t of investigative w ork over a n u m b er of years
has been directed to the phenom enon of vibrato (Smith, 1972,
pp. 28-32). The following range of assum ptions has resulted:
>4. M uscle synergism w ithin the supralaryngeal a re a accounts for
freq u en t fluctuation in the vocal folds.
2. Pitch fluctuations are caused by trem o rs in the laryngeal
suspensory system , with intensity variations having th eir origin
in the base of the tongue.
3. V ibrato ra te can be correlated w ith oscillations in the
m u scu latu re of th e thorax.
4. Pitch and intensity variations are affected by the basic
repetition ra te of nerve impulses.
5. Pitch and intensity regulatory processes arc- probably
influenced by an out-of-phase relationship betw een the
cricothyroid and the mylohyoid muscles.
6. C orrelations exist betw een the phases of pitch vlhiato and
energy peaks in the intrinsic and extrinsic musc les ol the
larynx.
The interm ittent supply of nerve energy provided foi the vocal
m echanism determ ines vibrato rate.
184 The S tru ctu re of Singing

8. V ibrato results from the rapidly alternating contractions in the


laryngeal m uscles during phonation.
9. N orm al frequencies of nerve im pulses have different rates of
discharge depending on the dom inance of coordination centers
affecting the laryngeal as well as o th er groups of muscles.
10. The vocal folds are continually energized as a result of their
ow n m otion, at least partly in response to auditory feedback.

Som e of these theories m ay at first appear to be m utually exclu­


sive, b u t the following closer look will show that the correlation of
nerve im pulses with laryngeal m uscle action, which figures prom i­
nently in m ost of them , is significant.
The tre m o rs in the suspensory system of th e larynx w hich p ro ­
d uce a shaking tongue are not desirable. They are th e result of an
unsupported laryngeal m echanism . Fiberoptic exam ination indicates
th a t a shaking tongue m eans a shaking epiglottis. In fact, the whole
laryngeal system shakes at the sam e ra te as th e tongue. Usually, this
vibrato approaches a tremolo.
The vibrato applied externally to the larynx by th e m usculature
of the thorax (the abdom inal” vibrato) is responsible fo r th e shake
that plagues m any singers, and is a direct result of failure to apply
appoggio technique to singing. The m uscles of the epigastric-um bili-
eal region produce an oscillatory m otion th a t produces this “false”
vibrato, which is generally perceived as a wobble. Som e sym pathetic
m ovem ent m ay occur in the epigastric-um bilical region, b u t m ust
not function as an externally-applied oscillatory force.
The neurological source of vibrato, and its superiority over th e
externally-applied oscillatory m otion from th e abdom en, is well pre­
sented in som e extem poraneous com m ent by Shipp (1981, p. 70) as a
panelist discussing supraglottal aspects of voicing. His rem arks w ere
in response to the query, “I w ondered ab o u t the rapid oscillation of
the larynx, often synchronous with vibrato. W ould you com m ent on
that?

This goes into the m odel of w hat vibrato is and how it is


produced. If we can stay w ith frequency vibrato which from
everything th at I can determ ine is really this oscillation pro­
d uced by the cricothyroid m uscle, innervated by the supe­
rio r laryngeal nerve, th en I think th a t’s a n orm al physiologic
thing. Everybody potentially has vibrato, if they can allow
their vocal folds to get into a place where they can really
have enough slackness so that this overriding wave of con­
traction at about five or six cycles per second can take effect,
V ibrancy in Singing 1X5

and if they can inhibit other neural pathway- l<> other struc
tures of the vocal tract.
A nother w ay to produce vibrato would be to h.ivc .in
external force applied to the abdom inal wall and iheieby
rapidly change th e driving force at the saint i alt W* vr ill
seen people’s tongues m ove a t th at rate, we'vt . . u |,m
shake at th a t rate. The pharynx an d the larynx imn< up ami
dow n at th a t rate. I w on’t m ake a judgm ent as to win tln-i ill
this is good o r b ad technique, b u t I think the point i tliai u
does rep resen t failure to be able to inhibit certain i If.......
certain n eu ral pathw ays of this norm al physiological i n ......
to allow it to com e th rough others. (Emphasis added)
In answ er to th e question as to w here, anatom ically, vocal vihi ntn i
generated, Shipp (1983, p. 132) responds:
It seem s reaso n ab le to suppose th a t th e singer thinks ol a
note in term s of absolute o r relative pitch, not as the two
pitches bounding th e targ et note. The sin ger’s brain, or
m ore specifically a m o to r n eu ro n pool, organizes a neuro­
logic im pulse pattern to contract the cricothyroid muscle by
an am ount that the singer has learned w ill cause the vocal
folds to vibrate at the target frequency. This p a tte rn is sent
dow n th e m o to r pathw ay to th e involved m uscles. At som e
point along this transm ission line, perhaps at the cerebellar
level, this relatively steady impulse pattern is m odified to a
rhythm ic undulating one that causes the m uscles to contract
and relax so that the vocal folds vibrate at frequencies just
above and below the târïïët'llïë '^ 'tc n t'o î trnsoscïÏÏation is
m onitored by the singer th ro u g h the auditory pathw ays
principally, an d voluntarily adjusted to the extent of the
vibrato ran g e from "straight" tones to exaggerated vibrato.
(Em phasis added)
Shipp’s com m ents point out tw o significant facts. V ibrato has a m u
rological source w hich activates th e cricothyroid muscles, ami
vibrato involves a relaxant principle in laryngeal action

USES OF THE VIBRATO


No one can dictate nerve im pulses through const toii .b t seit ised
controls; no one, through direct conscious e llo il, t au t onliol laiyn
geal m uscle synergism so as to produce spet llli n spoiist that
determ ine vibrato rate. Yet these controls <u i i to Mime extent be
realized and routined in response to tim bre corn e p h
186 The S tru ctu re of Singing

A valuable pedagogy device lies in developing aw areness of


vibrancy as a constant and desirable characteristic of vocal tim bre.
If a com m on c h a ra c te r of vibrancy does not exist th ro u g h o u t all the
notes and syllables of a vocal phrase, legato is not possible (Miller,
1966b, pp. 18-21 ). One of the m arks of a good singer is the ability to
m atch tonal quality from note to note. If vibrato frequencies are
slow on one pitch, to be followed by a quicker vibrato ra te on the
su bsequent pitch, then totally absent in the next, the quality of the
sound will ap p ear uneven, destroying any im pression of legato.
A singer can very quickly recognize the presence of oscillazione
(wobble), o r of tremolo, often being disturbed by them b u t not know ­
ing how to be rid of them . These disturbing aberrations m ay be pres­
ent in certain vowels and not in others, o r they m ay be restricted to
som e lim ited a re a of (he voice.
The assertion that it is dangerous to direct a singer’s attention to
the vibrato ra te (;i com m only expressed pedagogical viewpoint) is
totally without foundation. The singer is alm ost always aw are of the
presence ol an undesirable w obble or a trem olo, and is looking for
any assistance in the elim ination of either in as direct a fashion as
possible I'he problem of an undesirable vocal oscillation should no
m ore go unidentified than the problem of p itch vagaries (of w hich it
is a part).
C ounterm easures can be taken against both oscillazione and
tremolo. T here are those who claim th at vibrato rate should be
ignored in teaching, that it will em erge as a n a tu ra l phenom enon
when everything else in the act of singing is coordinated. So will the
breath, the vowel, registration factors, articulation, and all o ther
facets of vocal technique. Naturally, w hen singing is fully coordi­
nated, nothing is a problem , including vibrato rate.
An aw areness of the vibrato rate can be helpful pedagogically
through com paring the kinds of sensation and physical coordination
th a t accom pany a v ibrant sound in the voice w ith those w hich p e r­
tain w hen vibrancy is disturbed. A problem atic vibrato rate m ay
serve as a m ajor indicator of technical problem s in a voice.

CORRECTING OSCILLATION ("WOBBLE")

Slow vibrato ra te (oscillation) usually results from slackness of the


vocal folds due to insufficient resistance to airflow. U nder conditions
of aging o r of physical debility, m uscle tonus lessens and the vibrato
rate is retarded. A sim ilar m uscle slackness can be present at any age
when the n atural stru ctu ral support is rem oved from the larynx.
V ibrancy in Singing 187

If subglottic pressure and the balance betw een the intrinsic


laryngeal m u scu latu re and external supportive m usculature of the
neck prove insufficient, vibrato rate will m irror those conditions. It is
not yet clear how those factors relate to the neuroloy.ii .il events of
vibrato. Em pirical experiences of the seasoned sinnei indicate that
th e kind of physical coordination expressed by the appoggio lech
nique can provide the stru c tu ra l support for the larynx that will
p erm it desirable v ibrato to be present. W obble is largely a "sup
p o rt” problem .
Each individual voice will req u ire a different balance ol ratios
am ong contributing m em bers of the torso, neck, and head, in oidei
to produce the p ro p er appoggio. A lthough the exact relationship', of
the individual parts of this appoggio m echanism vary from one voit <
to another, and although no specific energy level can be designated
for each pitch o r each am plitude level in singing, we can rely on IIn-
vibrato ra te itself to inform us precisely w hen the right ratios ol
activity am ong the parts of this vocal m achine are in operation. More
th an any o th er audible aspect of vocal tim bre, vibrato rate is an indi­
c a to r of either free or inefficient vocal production. A p roper vibrato
is a sign of a healthy, w ell-produced singing voice.
If a singer exhibits a wide, slow vibrato (wobble—o r perhaps
m ore kindly, oscillazione), the entire instru m en t tends to suffer from
overw eighted production. In such a case, nothing can be m ore bene­
ficial th an for th e te a c h e r to re tu rn to the brief v ibrant onset voca­
lises (C hapter 1). W ithin the brief span of tim e th at it takes to exe­
cu te the onset, th ere is less potential for m uscular setting, and the
e ar can at once be directed to the presence or absence of vibrancy in
the sound, not only at its onset, b u t th ro u g h o u t its duration and at
the m om ent of term ination. (Those schools of vocal technique that
find a vibrato ra te of 5.0 o r less to be agreeably “rich ” will, of course,
not express concern for slow vibrato rates.)

ELIMINATING STRAIGHT-TONE INTRUSION

The slow vibrato ra te often passes over eventually into Ilie .tiaiyhl
tone, both in pitches of sustained d u ratio n and in rapidly oc» u n Inn
syllables. The singer who first produces a straight tone onset, loi
low ed by v ibrato (a favorite device of som e Wlinnet lan and certain
Lieder singers), does not arrive at free (of f ii icnt) must le svnei^jsm
until th at m om ent at which vibrato m akes its appearance Vibrato,
resulting from nerve impulse and coordinated nuisi iil.it e(|ullllirium,
is a n a tu ra l ingredient of vocal tim bre unless it is purposely ellml
188 The S tru ctu re o f S inging

nated in o rd er to m eet the criteria of certain cultural aesthetics or


stylistic considerations (often not founded on historical data).
Although it is tru e th a t the straight-tone onset m ay have som e
utility in certain literatures, its use should be infrequent. A m usically
refined e ar grow s w eary of the incessant m ooing of nonvibratoed
pitches w hich occurs am ong som e prom inent and revered singers of
Lieder. Such crooning is largely a developm ent of the late forties and
early fifties, out of which grew the burgeoning recording business,
w here perfo rm an ce is centered around the m icrophone, not the
acoustic of th e hall. Som e of these singers are com m itted to the
belief th at freq u en t absence of vibrato shows interpretative intim acy
and technical control. As the listener becom es aw are of the fre­
quency w ith which the straight-tone device accom panies voce finta
tim bre in circum stances w here the literature clearly calls for mezza
voce technique, the suspicion grow s th a t either vocal necessity has
dictated "artistic” usage of the straight tone, or th a t confusion
regarding m atters of musical style is the cause. W hile it is logical that
vocal necessity should be incorporated into artistry in such a w ay as
to add, rathei than to d e tra ct (a lesson learned by the m ost accom ­
plished artist, particularly in the declining years), to m ake such p rac­
tices technical goals is not acceptable, no m a tte r how fam ous the
artist I lowever, the knowledgeable critic can only adm ire the way in
which m any great singers have learned to m ake an artistic plus of
vocal necessity.
With the m aturing singer who possesses a stabilized technique, it
often happens th at the vibrancy pattern will be perfectly regular
until a sudden intervallic leap, o r som e ungrateful passage, presents
itself, at w hich tim e a tone, or a series of them , will go straight. W hen
straight tone intrudes, the singer’s attention should im m ediately be
draw n to the differences in tim bre betw een the alternating vibrant
and straight sounds. C orrection of breath-m anagem ent factors, and
the elim ination of laryngeal tension, will reestablish the dynam ic
equilibrium needed to bring in th e vibrato; conversely, introducing
the vibrant sound (with som ething around 6.5 undulations per
second) will ensure the dynam ic m ovem ents th at m ust be present in
all good singing.
W hen m uscular tension locks one particular laryngeal ad ju st­
m ent into place, the tone will ten d to go som ew hat straight, as o cca­
sionally happens if the “su p p o rt” is too rigid; absence of vibrato m ay
also result from too little contact betw een the approxim ating vocal
folds and the airflow.
Singers given to straight-tone practices should be directed to
consciously anticipate a vibrant tim bre. To be u naw are of the pres­
Vibrancy in S inging 189

ence or absence of vibrancy in the tone is to he u naw are of the


n a tu re of o n e’s vocal quality. T here is little point in asking the singer
devoid of vibrancy to "m ake the tone a little richer,” to “add
w arm th ,” to “put in m ore overtones” (a part it ulai lv unfo rtu n ate
expression), w hen w hat we actually m ean is 11tat vibrato is lacking.
As has been suggested elsew here in this work, subjective expressions
ten d to encourage a wide range of physical responses in a nunihei o l
areas of vocalism, not necessarily the desired response. W hen .111
audible tim bre characteristic presents itself as readily a s d o e s
vibrancy, th ere is no reason w hy it cannot be used pédagogie'ally
W hen we listen for degrees of vibrancy, we are listening l oi a majoi
perceptual com ponent of vocal tim bre.
One of the best w ays to approach the equalization of vibrato
rate is to begin w ith vowel changes on one pitch, executed at slow
tem pos. Any straight sounds th a t in tru d e as th e vowels are changed
should be pointed out by the te a c h e r and com pared with those ol
norm al vibrancy rate. The vocalises in this series m ust be executed
in an absolutely legato fashion, w ithout decrescendoing and cres-
cendoing each note.

EXERCISE 14.1

^ » ---
-A 4 -— 1

V
[i e a 0 u] [u 0 o e i]

CORRECTING THE VIBRATOLESS VOICE

Som ething should be said ab o u t th e occasional vibratoless beginner


Thus far w e have been assum ing th e advanced singer w ho occasion
ally falls into the e rro r of unintentionally introducing straight tone
sounds at those points in the scale that m om entarily becom e dillii tilt
to negotiate, or w ho produces straight sounds now and again as a
result of slothfulness.
Voice teachers, particularly those in the academ ic world, some
lim es m ust deal with stu d en ts of lim ited vocal potential as well as
with the professionally oriented singer. (Some ol the gicutest satis
factions in the teaching of singing com e from w atching the natively
less-talented student develop respectable singing skills,) In the case
of the occasional beginning student who seem s la< king In vibrato,
the im portant process of coordinating breath and voice cun he hur
190 The S tructu re of S inging

ried along by pointing out th e essential differences in tonal quality


betw een straight and vibrant sound. The system atized approach to
coordinating b reath and larynx m ust be the d e p a rtu re point with any
beginning student. If vibrancy still does not em erge, som e o th er sug­
gestions m ay be helpful.
E m otional or intense speech frequently contains recognizable
vibrato. F o r example, the fundam entalist preacher, in an im pas­
sioned p ray e r or serm on, m ay fall into an alm ost chant-like p a tte rn
of vibratoed speech (recall for a m om ent the "Oh Lord! Thou know-
est" vocal quality of the radio preacher). The "old-fashioned” revival
m eeting, w here em otions tend to run high, m ay produce a n um ber
of exam ples of speech vibrato from participants during the course of
praise an d prayer. Sects that practice glossolalia often concurrently
employ a form of vibrato. (Interestingly, heavy oscillation often
m arks the singing of the em otive hym ns com m on am ong such
groups.) Occasionally politicians, especially w hen speaking in their
hom e districts on morality o r patriotism , strive to display sincerity
through the addition of speech vibrato. An em otive speech is also
used by the rural au ctio n eer at the peak of a "perform ance.” Sm all
children I tighten each o th er in play as they call o u t "I am a ghost!”
with m arked vibrato. In such cases, vocal pitch and intensity often
rise to a point at which singing and speaking are only minimally dif­
ferentiated; we are approaching the vital recitative. Excitation form s
a part of all of these spoken phenom ena.
Singers w ho lack vibrato will som etim es discover th at they do
indeed recognize it and can produce it them selves in the speaking
voice w hen they im itate a speaker heard u n d e r the kinds of condi­
tions ju st described. From the spoken to the sung vibrato is an easy
transition.
Although the brief onset vocalises and im itative em otional
speech m ay be safer and m ore im m ediate m odes of procedure, som e
teachers use other exercises th at have been know n to induce vibrato.
The stu d e n t is requested to picture som e oscillating object while
singing (a bouncing ball, a flickering light, for example). B ecause
these suggestions direct attention specifically to pitch alternation
ra th e r th an to a tim bre concept, they are less desirable devices. They
tend to induce the external epigastric vibrato.
W hen the brief onset vocalise or the im itation of em otional
speech fail to spark an aw areness of vibrancy for the beginning stu ­
dent, it m ay be best to tu rn to an agility vocalise consisting of a brief,
quickly occurring pattern. One theory of vibrato function, it has
already been noted, holds th at vibrato rate is correlated with oscilla­
tions in the thoracic m usculature. This is a dangerous assum ption
alm ost certain to produce a shaking torso, a negation of the appog-
Vibrancy in Singing 191

gio, and a discernible wobble. In contrast to Ilu* shaking epigastrium ,


the an tero lateral wall should rem ain firm (hen appoggiato), but
exhibit a supple m uscle synergism that supplies the proper breath
source for the glottis. This perm its the appropriate u e iv e impulses
and energy peaks of the laryngeal m uscles to p ro d u re the vibrato
phenom enon. This flexible, agile m ovem ent in the umbiln il epi
gastric area is experienced, scarcely perceptible, as .1 le e lin g <>l
looseness. It does not resem ble the externally-induced pulsation that
com es from a shaking abdom inal wall. Of course, a certain feeling o l
buoyancy and a physical and m ental alertness are essential
Short, fast exercises already en co u n tered in the study ol agility
(see C hapter 3) m ay be used. In addition, conceiving the quick no t. •,
as rapid em bellishm ents to a longer note m ay facilitate the action
This technique is som etim es described as "diaphragm atic articula
tion,” or m ore accurately, an tero lateral abdom inal wall and dia
phragm atic articulation.

EXERCISE 14.2

ÿ * £ r r g r ......
[i] [e], [a] [0]
[a] [i] [e] [o]

CORRECTING TREMOLO (“SHAKE”)

W hen trem olo m ars th e singing voice, hyperfunction is indicated,


with subglottic pressure proving too intense for the norm al responses
at the larynx. M om entary exam ples of such hyperfunction can be
heard in the "vibrato speeding” th at som etim es accom panies dra
m atic operatic clim axes and releases, during which tim e pitt h
fluctuation changes; the corresponding increase in the rale ol the
oscillatory phases is in response to increased breath pressure and to
resistance to th at pressure on the p art of the vocal folds Some
theories regarding th e relationship betw een vibrato phenom ena and
m uscle synergism m ay grow out of instances ol hypei f mu tlonal
activity.
Shipp et al. (1983, p. 132) discuss vibrato and voutl liem oi by
asking, "W hat, then, differentiates the shaking a v . o i inted with the
pathological state of vocal trem o r from arlistli v i b i a l o ' " Shipp
answers:
Perhaps the individuals who are able to inhibit 01 mttikcdly
a tte n u ate rhythm ic m otor im pulse Mplllovci from those
192 The S tructu re of S inging

im pulses travelling along the superior laryngeal nerve to the


cricothyroid m uscle are h eard as the b e tte r singers. It m ay
well be th a t the m ore stim ulation m uscles supplied by other
nerves (including the re c u rre n t laryngeal nerve) receive, the
less ideal the vibrato and the m ore trem or-like the voice
quality.
Even am ong singers w ho norm ally exhibit som ething in the n atu re
of a 6.2 vibrato rate, the rate of trem olo m ay reach 8 to 10 per second,
with the pitch variant becom ing as wide as a whole tone. (In general,
the faste r th e vibrancy rate, the n arro w er the pitch variant; in the
“operatic” release, increases in both rate and w idth are usually
audible.)
W hen trem olo is an isolated problem , perhaps occurring im m e­
diately before the release, or at a specific level of pitch, pointing out
to the singer the rapidity of the vibrato ra te in com parison w ith
neighboring sounds may suffice to encourage relaxation of excessive
intensity, rem oving the factor of hyperfunction. “Do you h e a r th a t
the vibrato speed lias increased on this pitch? Don’t assist the
vibrato!" 'I'lu* probable physical causes are then detailed. The singer’s
ear (tonal com cptual ability) thereby learns to dem and uniform ity of
vibrato rate, and a better balance of m uscular function is restored.
Even though vibrato ra te is largely the resu lt of the type of mus-
ele synergy dictated by a specific technique, som e high-strung indi­
viduals are prone to trem olo. Psychological states are to som e extent
responsive to an act of th e will, and such persons m u st be rem inded
that their em otional m otor needs to slow dow n during singing. The
em otional pace of the phlegm atic personality m ay need to be accel­
erated, and th ere is a fairly frequent correlation betw een oscillation
and a low-key personality. Physiological responses m ay reflect psy­
chological states. Technical control assists in achieving psychologi­
cal-physiological discipline.
The vibrato serves as a relaxing agency during phonation (Shipp,
1981,~p /U; Shipp, et al.,T98X" p- 133). The physical and neurological
causes of vibrato can be channeled for singing only in response to a
concept of tim bre. A ttem pting to induce vibrato th rough conscious
physical m otion is a far m ore cum bersom e route.
B ecause it is the ear, not m uscles, w hich dictates tim bre con­
cepts, it is not likely th at the kind of relaxation w hich cures trem olo
will com e about in response to the general request to “relax.” In the
presence of tension, the adm onition to “relax” is seldom useful. If a
condition of hyperfunction exists in som e group of m uscles, relaxing
them , of course, is desirable. But how does the singer know w hat
part of the com plicated m uscular process should be relaxed? Indeed,
as has been seen, vocal problem s frequently result from hypofunc-
Vibrancy in S inging 193

tion, not hyperfunction, in som e p art of (he voii e producing in stru ­


m ent. In attem pting to relax som ething, the specifics ol w hich it is
difficult to determ ine, the singer m ay actually ini lease llu* degree of
hypofunction on th e p a rt of th e m uscles of breathing 01 ol the m us­
cles of laryngeal support, producing even grealei i n . lability a n d
m ore tension at o th er points. This is because the notion ol "lelaxa
tion” is inevitably associated w ith a decrease of w hatevei lev< I ol
energy exists at th a t m om ent, a potentially dangerous c o n d i t i o n to
indiscrim inately introduce during the act of singing.
No te a c h e r of singing can spell o u t fo r the singer tlu- p i n Ke
m uscular coordination required by the individual vocal insti mm ni
A skillful te a c h e r can determ ine w hen dynam ic balance (must It
equilibrium ) is lacking by analysing the vocal tim bre. Only from llu
sound can the assessm ent of faulty production finally be determ ined
(Of course, th e e a r is assisted by th e eye and by the singer’s kineln
responses.) One of the clearest indices to the state of proper dynamic
equilibrium is the vibrato rate.
If m ost of the singers from a vocal studio exhibit a “shake,” there
can be little doubt th a t techniques of b rea th m anagem ent are based
on false prem ises. If m ost of the singers exhibit "wobble,” o th er m us­
cular im balances are dictated by th e studio pedagogy. The teach er
should listen to each stu d e n t and m ake an honest assessm ent of
w hat sorts of v ib ra n c y /a te s characterize th e studio. If m ost of o n e’s
singers have vibrato-related problem s, it is advisable to rethink som e
technical principles.
Occasionally a voice will possess a vibrato ra te faste r th an the
norm , yet, th ro u g h o th er ch aracteristics of vocal tim bre, rem ain
appealing; how ever, the trem ulous voice is seldom a useful instru­
m ent. Actual trem olo is frequently accom panied by shrillness and
sharping, due to the lack of dynam ic balance betw een breath energy
and m u scu lar action at th e level of the larynx. C haracteristics ol the
trem ulous voice are visible tension in the th roat area, high laryngeal
position, tongue and jaw tensions, and rapid shaking of longue and
jaw. Fiberoptic exam ination of m ore than sixty singers (Selkiu and
Miller, unpublished results, 1982) reveals a corresponding ' . h a k e ol
the epiglottis in trem u lo u s singing. U nder norm al vihialo piodtit lion,
there is little o r no oscillation in the epiglottis.
F u rth e r com m ent on the elim ination of trem olo will be m ade
when the pedagogical uses of straight tone are connldeied

VIBRATO AND VELOCITY


M ention has already been m ade that som e Dingers exet ule all volot
it y passages with basically a straight sound, n habit Ilia! t an only
194 The S tructu re of S inging

im pair vocal quality. A different sort of pedagogical problem is dem ­


o n strated by those teachers w ho believe th at vibrato ra te and veloc­
ity m ust be controlled in such a m anner as to “com e out even” on
each rhythm ic beat of the bar. In this well-publicized viewpoint it is
suggested th at the singer m ust speed up or slow dow n the vibrato
ra te to accom m odate the rhythm of the rapid scale passage. For
exam ple, th e arg u m en t runs, if th ree notes per second m ust be sung
at a c e rtain tem po, the vibrato rate m ust either slow dow n so as to
accom m odate tw o cycles per note or it m ust speed up so th at three
cycles can be devoted to each note. This is a m isconception of the
role of vibrancy in velocity; although tem porally dictated, vibrato
frequency need not exactly coincide w ith the w ritten note change. If
th at w ere the case, no vibrato could ever occu r within the swiftly
m oving pyrotechnical passages of the c o lo ratu ra literature of the bel
canto, w here the vibrant tone is at its highest degree of audibility.
This pedagogical viewpoint w ould seem to req u est change in vibra­
tory consistency with every quickly occurring note, or even in a note
of brief duration as it appears in a slowly m oving passage.
The theory of synchronizing oscillatory pattern s with w ritten
note changes is based on the false assum ption th at the presence of
vibrato in the hum an voice is perceived by the listener as off-pitch
singing; o u r own perceptions prove th a t not to be the case, because
the e ar does not register pitch fluctuations of vibrato as pitch a lte ra ­
tion but as part of vocal tim bre. V ibrato and rhythm ic pitch events
do not need to coincide, because vibrato is a nearly constant fu n c­
tion in singing, resulting from the proper physiologic bases of ph o n a­
tion, regardless of pitch alteration o r tem po. It does not m atte r to the
listening e ar w hether an oscillatory cycle is concluded before the
next w ritten pitch change o r not, unless the rate is excessively slow.
Vibrato is part of vocal tim bre and ts not determ ined by the rhythm ic
character of the musical passage. How strange th at som e pedagogues
w ho refuse to direct the stu d e n t’s attention to the accom plishm ent
of an acceptable vibrato frequency then devote tim e to this ques­
tionable aspect of vibrato control!

PEDAGOGICAL USES OF STRAIGHT-TONE

H aving been b ran d ed as som ething of an outlaw in w hat has gone


before, straight-tone deserves a bit of rehabilitation as an occasion­
ally m eritorious tool. No kind w ords are forthcom ing with regard to
its coloristic advantages; straight-tone has im bedded itself all too
com fortably in certain vocal styles to be in need of fu rth e r e n c o u r­
agem ent. It m ay even be wise for the teacher or vocal coach when
Vibrancy in Singing 195

w orking on Lieder to indicate the précisé note o r notes in the score


on w hich such coloration is allowable, m aking an intelligent artistic
decision in advance, ra th e r “ th an pérm itling the o ccurrence of
straight-tone by default. (Obviously, in no im aginative p e ilo m ia n c e
can every expressive m om ent be charted in advance, but it straight
tone singing becom es th e singer’s stock-in-trade mlei pi etative t olor
for m ost em otive occasions, som e drastic tem porary m eans .11 > in
order.)
W hen trem olo is a m ark ed characteristic of a singing volt e, 1 In-
request for an absolutely straight sound on a phrase 01 two will
often illustrate th a t varying rates of oscillation can be heaid and
controlled by the singer. A re tu rn to the phrase, while rem em bei ing
the quality of straightness, then frequently assists in reducing t he
too-fast ra te of the oscillatory cycle. N aturally, if the singer stilish
tutes straight-tone for trem olo, one evffHas been replaced by a n o th e i,
and "over-correction” has been experienced. However, w hen excès
'sive subglottic pressure produces extrem e tension, a request for a
"straighter” sound m ay help to change the tonal concept so that
physical pressures are reduced. The pedagogical process should be
explained to the student. These suggestions do not sanction frequent
straight-tone in singing. Nevertheless, in contrast to wide oscillation
and trem olo, the straight-tone has lim ited teaching uses.

USES OF THE TRILL

R equired as a m usical device in certain vocal literature, the trill is


seldom asked for in all vocal classifications. Despite th a t fact, the trill
represents laryngeal freedom and should be acquired as a technical
accom plishm ent in every voice.
It is stated repeatedly in pedagogical sources that the trill is an
exaggerated form of th e vibrato. Som e tru th resides in that assess
m ent, inasm uch as pitch variation plays a part in both. W lu-reas tin
vibrato should be produced w ithout any m arked laryngeal move
m ent, how ever, the vocal trill depends on the singei s ability to os. II
late the voice box. W hat little inform ation there is I ion 1 carllei te n
turies regarding the execution of the trill is insubstantial In p m isc
detail; som e late eighteenth- and early nineteenth century teat hers
recom m ended th at tw o alternating pitches til a sem itone 01 a whole
tone (later progressing even to a m inor third) be attem pted at slow
tem po, with gradual increase in speed. I bis appm at li may be profit
ably undertaken with som e voices, especially the lightei Instiiim ents,
but until that m om ent when pitch alternation rent Iii-n a last lent
poral rate, laryngeal oscillation is not, in fact, taking plate Rallier,
196 The S tructu re of Singing

pitch is altering w ithout any shift in laryngeal positioning. It m ay be


th at the com m encem ent at slow tem po is m ore a psychological th an
a physiological assist.
Equally successful in learning the trill is a direct, im m ediate
attem p t to oscillate the voice box, keeping in m ind a n arro w pitch
fluctuation (alm ost always the sem itone or less), rem oving direct
concentration from specific pitch alteration to the actual oscillatory
m otion itself. At first, in practicing trill, a pitch level close to the cen ­
ter of the speech range in the male voice, and in th e upper-m iddle or
even upper voice of the fem ale voice, m ay be m ost rew arding. O ther
pitches are gradually added by half-tone progression.
W hen trilling is first attem pted, the oscillatory m otion of the
larynx m ay feel som ew hat wild and uncontrolled. It is exactly
therein th at its advantage as a freedom -inducing device lies! Al­
though it is not the case that "unless you can trill you cannot sing
freely” (a maxim in som e q u a rte rs of voice teaching), letting the
larynx suddenly engage in such loose m ovem ent can free the
instrum ent. In this respect, the trill shares som e kinship with the sus­
tained longue point trill, earlier encountered. B ecause of the size and
weight <>l som e vocal instrum ents, and because of corresponding
registration events, the trill may be m ore difficult to execute in the
robust voice than in the m ore lyric instrum ent. (The trill of the
"nightingale” soprano is far less impressive th an th a t of the spinto
tenor.)
M uch of c u rre n t u nearthing of bel canto operatic literatu re of
the first half of the nineteenth cen tu ry has b ro u g h t the trill to the
fore; the operatic m ezzo-soprano, in particular, w ho lacks trill will
not be able to sing th at florid literature acceptably. On the other
hand, bleating or shaking on a pitch is not legitim ate trilling.
A cautionary w ord is in order. Practicing the trill should not
occupy large am ounts of time. Trill is not of such im portance in m ost
categories of voice th at valuable hours should be spent on its acqui­
sition. In addition, too m uch oscillatory action m ay produce undesir­
able results in other areas of the singing voice. Trill should be studied
cautiously, and only a fter the basic techniques of the singing voice
have been secured.
The wide variance am ong vibrato rates, it should be added as a
final consideration, is the result of physical practices th at differ from
one technique to another. Obviously, som e of these techniques are
functionally m ore efficient th an others, producing g rea ter freedom
in the singing voice. T here is a direct correlation betw een clean
onset, efficiently m anaged breath, and a vibrant tone. A too-slow o r a
too-rapid vibrato rate is an indication of unhealthy function.
CHAPTER 15

Coordinating Technique
and Communient ion

A singer m ust operate in tw o worlds, occasionally sepai a l r l \ , m o s t I\


sim ultaneously. It w ould be foolhardy to assum e that . m . ulisii t
tem p e ra m en t ensures a successful singing career, and equally I anils
to hold th at a perfected vocal technique g uarantees success \l
though early years of vocal instruction m ust include a great di al <>l
technical concentration, it is not possible to becom e a fine singei by
devoting one’s early study to technical m atters only, then to add
“artistry.” The story of the great c a strato and his tea c h e r (Farinclli
and Porpora) w ho spent years to g eth er perfecting a small group of
difficult exercises, at the conclusion of w hich tim e th e teach er
declared the singer a great artist, can only be apocryphal.
Artistry in singing is acquifed by practice (habit) ju st as is tec h ­
nique. It m atte rs not w h eth er the singer is a novice or an established
artist, technique and expression m u st be the supporting pillars of
vocal art. These tw o levels of activity m ust go forw ard sim ultane­
ously and with equal intensity th ro u g h o u t the singing career.
Recognizing the need to balance technical proficiency and artis­
tic impulse, every rehearsal o r practice session should be arranged
so th at an even alternation exists betw een th at which rem ains a chal­
lenge technically and artistically, and th at which is com fortably
secure. M ore explicitly, not only m u st the tw o pillars—technique and
artistry—be kept in balance, b u t th e m ost facile and the most elusive
aspects of both should be p art of the daily routine.
T h roughout this book an attem pt has been m ade Io show lliai lia
coordination w hich results in skilled singing depends on (I) tin
source of pow er, (2) the vibratory action, (3) system s «>1 lesonaiit e,
and (4) the facility of articulation. Exercises have been d im led
tow ard the acquisition of precise coordinal i<ms based mi .1 *.\ siemalU
approach to vocal technique. Specific fUne Iions have been con
sidered, with vocalises designed to com bine I hose fum lions Into one
coordinated whole.
T h e a c t iv itie s that re su lt f r o m this q u a d r ip a r t it e m et h a tilsm are
la r g ely c o n t r o l l e d by t h e v o lu n t a r y n e r v o u s s y s t e m K a n ln e i am i
W est (1 960, p, 5.3) p r o v id e a s u c c in c t s u m m a r y 0! llutl l o o t d l n a t l o n

197
198 The S tru ctu re of Singing

These various functions and stru c tu re s are coordinated


th rough the activity of the voluntary nervous system —a
com bination m ade possible by four types of activities c ar­
ried on by th e nervous system: (1) m otor activity th at pro ­
vides the stim uli th at cause m uscles to contract; (2) sensory
reporting th at gives inform ation as to how the m ovem ents
w ere produced; (3) auditory m onitoring th a t m akes possible
the setting up of, and conform ance to, speech standards;
and (4) the associative function th at ties up the auditory
sym bol w ith its m eaning and with the m otor p a tte rn neces­
sary to produce it.
Although w ritten with an eye to speech, these statem ents apply
equally to singing.
Neurological factors largely determ ine coordination in singing.
The neurological effec ts on phonatory events a re clearly stated by
van den Berg (19.58, p. 2 3 1):

The innervation of the larynx is very rich. The m o to r supply


of the internal m uscles com es from the rec u rre n t nerves,
which also convey the proprioceptive reflexes and possibly
also the interoceptive reflexes of the low er p a rt of the
larynx. Interoceptive reflexes of the m ucous m em branes of
the upper part of the larynx are conveyed by the superior
laryngeal nerve, which also contains the m o to r and sensory
nerves of the m usculus cricothyroideus. The m uscle fibers
of the m usculus vocalis and the nerve fibers of the re c u r­
rents are of the rapid type and a great n u m b er of end
organs in the m usculus vocalis suggest num erous sources of
proprioceptive reflexes. All available d a ta indicate th at the
larynx is well equipped for the trem endous task it m ust p er­
form daily.
Som e of the results of neurologic events in respiration and in
speech and song can be sensed while others cannot. W hen we estab ­
lish essential coordination for singing, we cannot separate out those
aspects over which we have control from the large n u m b er th at are
th e resu lt of reflex responses over w hich we have no conscious con­
trol. T herefore, alm ost all of the process of coordination th at p ro ­
duces successful singing m ust be incorporated into a psychological
attitude th a t includes both controllable and noncontrollable events.
At this point the question m ight be raised, "Why then b o th er to
learn ab o u t the physical processes of singing if in the long run one
relies on psychological control?” The answ er is obvious: W hen we
understand the function of the m echanism , we can train ourselves to
associate em otional and creative experiences with sensation that
C oordinating T echn iqu e a n d C om m unication 199

results from specific kinds of physical coordination, th a t which


functions well functions freely. W e know what kinds of physical
responses are engendered by which psychologic , i l t o i k cpts, and in
this way we control th e act of singing from both ili< physiological
and psychological standpoints. W e com bine techniqiu and ai I
The violinist has to rely on a com plex system ol Im p i position',
th a t occupy som e pretrain ed portion of the mind al Ilit •..mic Him
th a t flowing line and sum ptuous tone are produced on an a i l i s i l t
im aginative level; none of the violinist’s creative nm .u making c.
possible w ithout a technical undergirding, which rem ains to .onu
extent w ithin consciousness. Inasm uch as the singer’s body mind is
both person and instrum ent, the singer m ust find wavs to id m lil\
and objectify physical responses of th a t instrum ent in ordei lo < in
cise control over its total perform ance.
Only system atized vocalization based on physiologically effit lent
function (the free voice), it has been insisted thro u g h o u t this Woik,
can provide a com plete, dependable foundation for training mind
and body. "T hought and m uscle are schooled until instinct and re a c ­
tion develop and take com m and. Then w hat was a rb itrary becom es
au to m atic” (G. Lam perti, 1931, p. 14).
L am perti’s ideal of training th o u g h t and m uscle w ould seem to
be a realizable concept w hen one considers the possibility of estab­
lishing habitual control over laryngeal n eu ro m u scu lar activities.
W yke (1982, pp. 139-140) com m ents:
[T]he laryngeal n e u ro m u sc u la r adjustm ents th a t take place
p rior to th e em ission of sound depend for th eir precision
upon the acquisition and storage of an appropriate vocal
control program m e in the synaptic circuits of several regions
of the b rain—chief of which, in the m ajority of singers, is the
right tem poral lobe. The inevitable im plication of this propo­
sition, therefore, is th at again (as with respiratory muscle
control) it is cerebral cortical system s that the sinpiif.
te a c h e r is training in his or h er pupils with the ohjei live ol
producing m ore and m ore rapid and precise autom atic »on
trol of the com plex n e u ro m u scu lar process involved m m e
phonatory tuning of the laryngeal nm sculalm e, and llieli
tighter and tighter co-ordination with the devcloplnj’ ie .pl
ratory m uscle control program m e.
W yke (1982, pp. 141-142) points out that no ncm ologU al
m echanism s exist to provide direct perceptual aw areness ol vocal
fold sta tu s during singing. It is, how ever, well established that "llie
efficiency of the reflex m echanism s involved In (In- control ol llie
striated m uscles anyw here in the body may be Im proved by repel I
200 The S tru ctu re of Singing

live practice of their operations. . . .” W yke recalls th at this is w hat


coaches achieve with athletes.
W yke’s description of the duties of the tea c h e r of singing are
w orthy of full quotation:
Thus it is th a t the skilled singing teacher m ust aim to do two
basic things sim ultaneously with his pupils. First, he m ust
train the intellectual processes through w hich the aspiring
singer acquires (against the background of his genetically
endow ed m usical ability) increasingly efficient and elabo­
ra te cortically program m ed control over his respiratory
m u scu latu re and over the prephonatory tuning of his laryn­
geal m uscles; and second, he m ust im prove the operational
efficiency of the rellexogenic system s th at are responsible
for the continuous inti aphonatory m odulation of the laryn­
geal m usculature. In short, then, the voice te a c h e r’s global
objective should be to develop the efficiency of the entire
n eurom uscular control system of his pupil, and n ot m erely
that of one 01 m ore specific com ponents of th a t system.
Much of the coordination that exists in any activity is the result
of imitating a-. |>i et isely as possible the sam e action which previously
was successful A good serve in tennis is in im itation of previous
good serves, a well-pitched ball (of several varieties of technique) is
im itative of form er pitches th at w ent w here the pitcher intended
them to go, and the coordinated breaststroke recalls thousands of
previous ones. Little conscious thought goes into m any of the com ­
plex actions of everyday life as well. Based on certain physical expe­
riences since infancy, an "im itative” routine has becom e second
nature. Physical actions have been drilled until they becom e reflex
actions.
M any of the technical aspects of singing can be channeled in the
sam e "im itative” Way. (In calling for im itation in the act of singing,
referen ce h ere is m ade, of course, to one’s ow n responses, not to
those of som eone else.) Technique in singing consists of establishing
certain m odes of p ro ced u re on w hich one can depend. W hen I do
this, w hen I conceive of this tim bre, w hen I sense these responses in
my body, this specific sound will then result—a sound I recognize
th rough acoustic autom onitoring. “The w ell-trained singer develops
a kind of aw areness of sound w hich com es from factors of sensation
in the vocal tract, (and) vibrations of the bones of the head, and the
m outh and face. . . .” (Bunch, 1982, p. 65, paraphrasing som e findings
of Wyke.)
T here are factors th at w ork against the assurance of such exact
results, not the least of them being perform ance anxiety, or poor
physical condition. Even here, when the singer com es to know w hat
C oordinating T echnique a n d C om m un ication 201

to expect, w hat is reliable u n d er which conditions, Icw er anxieties


need be present. As was early suggested wit 11 regard to range exten­
sion, one has a right to be afraid of unpredictable physical responses.
But, if the body can consistently produce certain cooidinatcd actions
th at can be self-m onitored, it then becom es illogical to Ieat what Ilie
body m ay do. The m ind is not an entity separate from an unt oopei a
tive body. Body and m ind m ust be trained as partners
Som e tea c h e rs insist th a t the m ind m ust be divoi ced from in h
nical aw areness during perform ance. If vocalism sullei . solely
because of p erform ance fears, directing attention to creative mallei
m ay elim inate nervousness. On the o th er hand, unless the smgei b.r
ironed out the technical problem s of a difficult passage, total involvi
m ent in textual and interpretative m atters will not elim inate leai , ilu
singer has a right to fear public en co u n ter with unresolved technii al
problem s. By elim inating sticky problem s through system atically
encountering them , the cause of fear is rem oved.
No m atte r w hat the extent of prior technical training, the singer
m ust operate on tw o levels of consciousness (the tw o w orlds m en­
tioned at the o u tset of this chapter). R ath er than detracting from the
w ord and from com m unication, conscious technical m onitoring can
prove to be a stabilizing force on the creative im agination. The craft
of singing m ust be placed in the background, but ju st as a fine actor,
while actually believing the events of the dram atic situation as they
unfold, is also aw are of the physical and tem poral factors th a t pro­
ject the em otions to be conveyed, so m u st the fine singer keep som e
contact w ith the technical basis of singing while projecting m usical
and textual insights.
C om m unication in singing is d ependent on those very aspects of
technique th a t at tim es seem m ost rem o te from artistry. For exam ­
ple, vocal coloration and dynam ic variation can becom e integrated
into an expressive whole only if technical facility perm its. (I el il
again be noted in passing th a t the singer who resorts to vocal eoloi a
lion and dynam ic variation out of technical necessity should not be
excused on the grounds of being "m usical” and "sensitive,” but
should be assisted by the tea c h e r to develop a dependable lei hiilqiir
th a t perm its espressivo singing as dictated by m usicianly and ai llsllt
requirem ents.)
A m a j o r f a u lt in p e r f o r m a n c e a m o n g s o m e s in g e i s , p a illt illitrly
if t h e y s t u d y w it h a t e c h n i q u e - c o n s c i o u s t e a c h e r ( s e e ( h ap tei Ifi), is
t o listen in te r n a lly t o t h e s o u n d t h e y p r o d u c e rn fhei Ilian to listen
w ith " o u t s id e ” ears. A shift to " e x te rn a l listening'' m a y product*
r e m a r k a b ly i m p r o v e m e n t in t h e o u t w a r d projet lio n ol l e s i an d
music, w h e n a technique th a t "Internalizes" c o n t r o l In tin p r o b le m
A r e la t e d p r o b l e m o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n in Hinging, c o m e r i m t h e
202 The S tru ctu re of Singing

im aginative singer who falls into the trap of publicly wallowing in


private emotion. We, the listeners, feel quite left out of it all, even
uncom fortable, reduced to the role of “peeping Tom s.” Unless the
em otional experiences and sentim ents of a p erfo rm er can be ex­
ternalized, they have no value beyond personal therapeutic ones.
P o stu re itself is a m ajor vehicle of com m unication. It should not
be assum ed th a t the p e rfo rm e r will instinctively know w hich physi­
cal attitu d es outw ardly portray inner em otions. A singer has to learn
alm ost as m uch about w hat the body can say during a perform ance
as m u st be know n about w hat vocal tim bre can convey. T hat e a r­
m ark of th e beginner, extraneous m ovem ent as an attem p t to com ­
m unicate, should be elim inated very early in preparation for per­
form ance situations. The body m ust be free of rhythm ic synchroniza­
tion with either the im pulse of beat or phrase m ovem ent, o r of
physical m otion in d ram atic works. The constant need to m ove
about is not an indication of freedom b u t of slavery to rhythm ic
impulse.
Although it is essential for a singer to know w hat the body is
saying dui mj', perform ance (the body is often m ost eloquent in abso­
lute quietude), it is the face that is the chief tra n sm itte r of emotion,
in partnership with m usical and textual ideas. An u n anim ated face in
singing belles all that vocal tim bre and textual nu an ce m ay be com ­
m unicating. B ecause of the close coordination of the ear and eye, we
do not believe the em otion we h ear in m usical phrase and w ord if
the singer’s face does not register the sentim ent expressed. (Although
restricted in physical m ovem ent, even the artist in the recording s tu ­
dio feels the need to register facial em otion as com pletely as w hen
on stage.) On the o th er hand, the m ugging th at som etim es goes on
u n d e r the guise of singing-acting, com plete w ith m usical com edy
stock gestures or the physical clichés of the television review, is per­
haps even m ore detrim ental to actual artistic com m unication. Self-
aw areness and self-esteem are not com m unication.
The spectrum of com m unicable facial expression is not u n ­
limited. C onstant facial mobility exercised in an attem pt to heighten
com m unication should be as taboo as the deadpan. The singer m ust
learn how the face "feels” w hen registering the em otions called for,
honestly and accurately com m unicating sentim ent, so th at specific
expressive postures m ay be sum m oned up at will. The value of using
the m irro r cannot be overestim ated. The video tape is an additional
valuable resource. Both excessive physical m ovem ent and exagger­
ated facial m annerism s often are attem pts to m ask uneasiness asso­
ciated with perform ance. Excitation of the creative im agination does
not com e about through physical m ovem ent and mugging, nor does
such m ovem ent disguise inner disquietude.
C oordinating T echnique a n d C om m un ication 203

Pavel Ivanovich R um yantsev (Stanislavski anil Rum yantsev,


1975, pp. 18-19) recalls an incident from the Stanislavski O pera S tu ­
dio th a t deals w ith b o th com m unication and the control of
nervousness:

"Come to th e piano, V erbitski.” A young, tall student with


twinkling black eyes m oves over to the instrum ent. At liist
glance he does n o t seem to be in th e least nervous and vet v
simply sings w h atever Stanislavski asks for. Is he really not
nervous at all? Of course he is. B ut w e are all aw are ol the
secret of how to hide o r ra th e r to overcom e such ext lit
m ent. Stanislavski him self has tau g h t us that.
“There are tw o kinds of nervousness: one is creative and
the o th er is panicky. T reasu re th e creative excitem ent and
learn to overcom e the panicky one. You can overcom e it by
m eans of concentration. The stronger your nervous excite­
m ent th e m ore firmly you m u st a tta c h y o u r attention on
som e object and not allow yourself to be to rn loose from it.
If you can rivet y our attention on som ething, anything, at
the needed m o m en t it will m ean th a t you have learned to
m anage y our excitem ent. Even a b u tto n on your jack et can
save you from unnecessary and h arm fu l nervousness. It can
put you into a state of 'public solitude.’”

W e have already m ade m ention of the m erit in im itating som e


previously experienced physical event as a device for gathering up
m any technical aspects of singing into one concept, one psychologi­
cal attitude. W e have stressed th at in so doing, the singer fuses into
one whole the m any technical facets of singing; a single m ental con­
cept at the inception of the phrase com bines them into one unified
act. At the sam e tim e, in the m usical realm , an equally im portant
happening takes place: conception of the entire co n to u r of the musi
cal phrase in th at instant in which the phrase com m ences. Collected
into one split second of insight, by th e sam e psychological process bv
which any conceptual tho u g h t can be born in an instant, the s i n ^ c i
should sense the contour, the shape of the entire music al phi u s e ami
its literary idea, prior to the initiation of the phrase in word and l o n e
To do so is b u t to follow the p ro ced u re already established lot Intel
ligent thought and speech. U nfortunately, because ol llir d otation
factor, all too often "th o u g h t” and “expression" in sinning are
approached in a m om ent-by-m om ent, w ord by word, note by note
fashion.
Even though they o c c u r on two levels ol count lousm ss, phvsli al
and tonal-m usical-textual concepts can be fused Into one experience
through the sim ultaneous anticipation of them al the Im eptlou ol
the phrase. It is not enough to be aw are ol the possibility ol siu h
204 The S tru ctu re of Singing

fusion. The im agination m ust be subjected to the schooling of this


technical and artistic unity; such fusion can be practiced, and it can
be m astered, as readily as any o ther technique of singing. The artistic
tem p eram en t m ust be trained to think in this unified fashion w ithout
becom ing fra c tu re d and splintered over the m any individual factors
involved in perform ance. "Creative thinking” cannot be reserved to
the perfo rm an ce situation, but should be engaged any tim e the singer
com m ences a phrase. (To practice w ithout such conceptual thinking
only ingrains fracturai approaches to singing.)
A direct result of such conceptual coordination is the em ergence
of legato in singing. Conversely, a proper understanding of legato as
the constantly flowing stream of uniform vocal tim bre will give
shape and contour to the phrase. (W ithout doubt, the m ost expres­
sive device, the most technically efficient procedure, in singing [and
the m ost com m only w anting ability] is the legato.) W ord painting,
vocal coloration, dynam ic variation, rhythm ic pulse, accentuation,
rubato, and general nuance in good singing are only decorative
details on the flowing legato structure.
No intelligent singer can conceive of a phrase shape independent
ol the literary concept that accom panies it. In this respect, the singer
li;ts great advantage over any o th er m usician; th e em otive c h a ra c te r
ol the word, in fact, is often the determ ining fac to r in p hrase shap­
ing. W ords that act as sym bols cannot be intelligently sung w ithout
m ental imagery. Such im agery should be so distinct, so strong, th a t
for the singer, visualization is as perceptible as sound, during the
singing act (Miller, 1968, pp. 25-26). In fact, w ith m any im aginative
artists this process of visualization is so forceful th at it occurs in
color. (This, too, is an artistic tool acquirable by practice.)
W hen this form of com m unication exists, the singer is neither
involved in self nor in individual m em bers of the audience. The
singer visualizes the w orld of the song (or the role), projects it
o u tw a rd to th e audience, w hich in tu rn looks in on and shares th a t
world. (In stage roles, th ere are, of course, the additional compelling
relationships w ith o th er perform ers and the assistance from cos­
tum es, lights, and the d ram atic circum stances.) No longer, then,
m ust it be, “W atch me, listen to m e tell this story o r describe this
em otion,” because audience and singer are participants in the
m utual sharing of a world. Ju st as one can pick up the m iniature
w orld of the glass paperw eight, shake it, hold it o ut for a friend to
sh are in looking at that world, so can singer and audience look into a
com m on w orld of the im agination and to g eth er find com m unication
there.
Technique is of no value except as it makes comm unication
possible.
CHAPTER 16

Pedagogical Attitudes
The Aesthetics of Vocal Timbre

C onsiderable atten tio n has been directed in the pasl low aid Ihr
assessm ent of individual m usicality w ith reg ard to the ways in whli li
the elem ents of m usic are perceived, b u t little study has brcn
devoted to how one develops the aesthetic ju d g m en t to discrim inate
am ong the varieties of quality in h eren t in a m usical sound, eithci
in stru m en tal or vocal. Such ability is the m ost essential of all musi
cianly skills. The reason for its neglect is perfectly clear. Aesthetic
ju dgm ents lie outside the purview of science and are d ependent on
the peculiar genius of individual personality. T here is, at least, a cer­
tain uniform ity of opinion as to w h at constitutes th e o u te r b o u n d ­
aries of beautiful, and ugly, tone.
Som e singers have m any of the tools required for successful
singing, b u t lack a viable concept of beautiful vocal tim bre. Fine
singers have a concept of sou n d in th e ear. This concept of tim bre is
the result of cultural conditioning. Techniques of singing can be
identified according to cultural preferences, at least to som e extent.
Physical m aladjustm ent has not played a role, traditionally, in
determ ining the criteria of "The B eautiful” in the W estern world. We
have never bound the feet to inhibit growth, m echanically stretched
the neck, striated the face, or put rings through the nose (although
we have p erm itted rings in the earlobes, at least as early as 3000 in ,
and we have rem oved h air from th e face and body for a com pai able
period of time). T attooing is an a rt originally im ported Im m ih<
South Pacific, and was at one tim e perm itted only t<> sailoi •. who had
ventured so fa r from W estern ports. Although this a rsih rlii mav In
u n d e r review b ecau se of th e impact of non W rstri n inllnriu e*., the
functionally com plete specim en who can en^anc in phy.u ul .u lion
with a physically optim al body continues to rep risen t I he ailistii
norm in art and action in the W estern world, Voctil tlin b ie that
results from the well-form ed, well coordinated Insli imicul, wlllioul
m aladjustm ent of any of its physical parts or function*, '•lands the
best chance of qualifying under the artistic crltei ia Im tonal beauty,
as found in W estern culture. The hum an body Is the vot a! Instiu
ment; its most freely produced sounds (the lesull ol fm ntlouallv
206 The S tru ctu re of Singing

efficient coordination) m ost closely ad h ere to the W estern ideal of


beauty.
M ore th an is the case w ith any o th er m usicianly ear, the singer’s
tim bre concept m ust accord with the natural laws of vocal acoustics
and physical freedom . T here is no m ore logical basis on w hich to
establish vocal aesthetics. The m ind m ust be able to conceive a
sound th a t results from certain m uscle coordinations and em otional
responses, produced by efficient use of the vocal instrum ent. (O ther
kinds of sounds can also becom e the ideal of the ear, unfortunately.)
How, in practice, is this tonal concept to be achieved? The task
of the singing teach er is to listen carefully to th e sounds the p e r­
fo rm er is m aking and to discover w hether the singer’s e ar dem ands
tim bre th a t results from m alfunction of som e p a rt of the instrum ent.
If the tone is both free and vital, it represents a good tonal concept.
Does the singer produce .i sound th at substitutes artificiality for n a t­
ural function? Is coordination betw een b reath and phonation in­
hibited by the tonal concept? Does the singer produce a variety of
qualities without understanding how o r why?
Il is not enough that the voice teach er have an artistic ideal. The
teacher must be able to diagnose in w hat m an n er free function is
bciiii', violated, not only from listening to the sound and observing
the sludenl, but from weighing w hat is h eard and seen against w hat
is known about the physical and acoustic aspects of singing.
Som etim es it is argued th a t in singing, th e stu d e n t has no need
to know w hat happens physiologically as long as th e teach er is aw are
of those events and can induce b e tte r production. T here are flaws in
that argum ent. The stu d en t is not a minion, depending on b u t one
teach er th ro u g h o u t a singing c a re e r (usually an undesirable condi­
tion). The student (and m ost singers are students even in the m iddle
of a professional career) should be equipped to m ake judgm ents
ab o u t opposing technical view points th at m ust be faced by any
singer in the professional world. The ability to weigh contrasting
technical notions can be achieved only if the singer has som e m ea­
suring stick by which to test those opinions. (The academ ic habit,
prevalent in educational circles these days, of exam ining pedagogies
in a com parative fashion is a useless exercise unless it takes place
w ithin a fram ew ork of inform ation regarding the acoustics and phy­
siology of singing.) The stu d e n t w ho has som e understanding of how
the vocal instru m en t functions will be in a m ore favorable position
to select teachers with w hom advanced w ork is to be taken. (A
tea c h e r’s fabulous e ar alone is not sufficient!) The "ea r” of either
tea c h e r o r pupil cannot be thoroughly trained unless able to recog­
nize the presence of violations of the physical-acoustic laws of the
Pedagogical A ttitu des 207

singing voice; recognition of beautiful sound is not enough. It is


essential th a t th e "ea r” of both tea c h e r und student be trained to
desire freely pro d u ced sound, recognize when it is l.u king, and know
how to produce it over and over again.

THE NEW STUDENT


F o rtu n a te is the tea c h e r w ho is th e first to work with a s in p i lliere
are no problem s w ith preconceived notions about terminoloKv, no
need to reassess ingrained technical habits, and best of nil, then- is 11
non-jaded response to the ideas of basic vocal technique. A singei
who has studied over a period of years with a n u m b er of teai In i s
should have a right to assum e th a t th e fundam entals of technique'
m ust by now be o u t of the way; w hen they a re not, it is difficult I<>
respond w ith fresh enthusiasm to yet a new look at vocal onset,
breathing, agility, articulation, resonance, o r registration.
Despite that, th e m atu re singer seeks out a new te a c h e r m any
tim es because th e re is "a vocal problem .” Som e aspect of singing is
not going as well as the singer w ould like, and a new teach er is
sought to correct the problem . T hat specific fault is not an isolated
crack in an otherw ise polished façade, easily plastered over; a "prob­
lem ” in th e singing voice is often an indication th a t the physical
foundation of technique has been neglected or im properly laid.
A singer active in a p erfo rm an ce c a re e r w ho seeks help from a
new tea c h e r is nonetheless often h esitant to give up th e c u rren t
sound (understandably!). As m any wise teachers will attest, it may
take w eeks o r m onths for som e singers, no m atte r how strong the
desire to im prove, to be willing to accept the necessity for actual
change in vocal production.
The sound I m ake is very m uch a part of me; even If it is faulty,
it is mine. To let som eone atte m p t to alter it is to ;illow invasion ul -i
very cen tral p a rt of my person. Even though the singei may Intellec
tually recognize th a t th e c u rre n t sound is m anufactui cd and not tlie
result of n a tu ra l physical coordination, hesitance about t Inmi'lnn the
vocal production m ay still rem ain. Frankly discussing this liequcnt
psychological b a rrie r m ay hasten its rem oval so tli.il let Imii .il wot k
may proceed on a basis of m utual underatandliiK
The new stu d e n t m ay be relatively free ol tin o v n ln y <il lei lini
cal problem s, but m any students com e will) concept* pli ke d up In it
false, im itative way from som eone else. T here In iilwitv* tin young
baritone who w ants to produce a tone lie b e lie v e s i c s e m b l i •* 11ml ol
his favorite recording artist. Me has to do lliln^* In III* tliioat to
208 The S tru ctu re o f S inging

"enrich" an d "enlarge” the sound, in o rd er to m eet his tonal ideal; he


wrongly assum es his m odel m ust be doing the sam e things to his
throat.
Recognizing th a t the rew orking of any singing voice is a
trau m atic experience for the singer (the longer he or she has been
singing, the m ore difficult change becomes), a teach er m ust not be
tem pted to apply the batterin g ram in the hope of starting at once
from the g round up. A progressive, system atic series of vocalises will
do m uch to tu rn the singer in a new direction.

COMPENSATORY METHODS OF SINGING


An ever-present danger is to approach the alleviation of a problem
by "over-correcting” it This is a snare th at even the m ost intuitive
tea c h e r m ust guard against. Many perform ers a re left w ith perm a­
nent deficiencies I.......the over-correction of som e previous fault. In
this fashion can be explained m any cases of nasality, driving of spe­
cific pili lies, distorted diction on certain vowels (or in p articular
areas oi the voice), 01 postural and physical attitudes th at d etract
from .111 otherw ise good perform ance. The singer, "com pensating”
loi som e technical problem about which at one point th ere was ju sti­
fiable concern, then employs 15096 of the suggested solution w hen
100% would suffice. (Most of us exaggerate th e corrections we wish
to make.) A singer should not continue to fight last year’s technical
battles if they have already been won.
A nother m ore serious kind of com pensatory teaching is the
balancing o u t of one faulty function w ith another. For example, a
professional p erfo rm er w orried th a t in the process of "dropping the
jaw ” and "yaw ning” (in order, it was thought, to provide space in the
throat), the tone w ould be hollow and w ithout projection; the anti­
dote to this condition was to nasalize the sound in the hope of
achieving b e tte r balance betw een "depth and focus.” The singer was
com pensating for one faulty technical device w ith another, com ­
pounding unresolved functional problem s. Yet, som e m odern vocal
pedagogies are built alm ost entirely on com pensatory solutions, con­
sidering these "discoveries" to be an im provem ent on the natu ral
instrum ent.
Instead of adhering to law s of acoustics as they dictate reso n a­
to r coupling, som e teachers have devised com plicated system s for
ironing out th e vowel series th ro u g h o u t the vocal scale by the use of
vowel m ixtures resem bling the umlaut phonem es. C om pensatory
techniques of singing include system s of breath m anagem ent that
Pedagogical A ttitu des 209

co ncentrate on the control of m uscles that at best are auxiliary


breathing m uscles. Ju st as one faulty m uscle action m ay take the
place of an o th e r in pathological conditions, so som e breath-m an-
agem ent techniques alter even norm al breath function and bring
into play in co rrect m uscle activity. The com plexity ol the vocal
instrum ent and the beauty of its m echanical function hotild dis
courage anyone from building a technical system foi singing that
replaces freedom of function w ith localized control'. I In voice
tea c h e r should adopt the m edical dictum prim uni mm inn n r (the
first thing is not to do harm ).

THE TECHNICALLY INTENSE TEACHER


A good technician in the field of vocal technique m ust have Ilit
ability to diagnose the causes of vocal problem s and offer workabli
solutions in a clear fashion. The battle is not w on w hen skills have
been described and d em onstrated. Above all o th er teachers, the
teach er of singing m ust be persistent and tenacious. Unlike the case
with o th er m usicians, on w hose very visible instrum ents m o to r skills
can be superim posed th ro u g h finger o r arm m ovem ents, or by the
m easuring of intervallic distances, th e singer’s ow n body m ust expe­
rience th e kinds of coordination th at produce ideal tone.
U nquestionably, this book deals w ith the details of vocal tech­
nique considered from the standpoint of m echanical freedom . The
need for a solid technique of singing has been its constant exposition.
However, the successful tea c h e r of singing m ust be m uch m ore than
a m ere vocal technician.
It has been pointed out th a t in recen t decades Am erican vocal
pedagogy has b ecom e a body w ith tw o heads, one speaking with the
voice of the subjective teacher, th e o th er with the voice ol the
science-oriented teacher. This volum e is an exam ple of an attem pt to
have them speak jointly with one m outh.
T here is a larger and m ore subtle dichotom y that im hid e, both
em pirical and m echanistic teachers. There are those who contend
that an u n d erstanding of the principles ol technique and pet loi main <
can be instilled gradually over a period ol tim e through a kind ol broad
brush approach, while an o th er group feels com pelled to work in
exacting detail within highly organized pedagogic', th e lattci t ate
gory includes a type of teacher that hem s spct ltd m ention, and loi
which the description "technically-intense" may In appiopilalc
B ecause of the largely invisible nature ol the voi al lim lnim riil,
vocal tech n iq u e has about it an elusive t harm lei llial i an lead to a
210 The S tru ctu re of S inging

préoccupation w ith technical m atters. As a result, th ere is a danger


of encouraging the singer to subject constantly every sound pro ­
d uced to som e form of ongoing technical analysis. T eacher, listening
for the desired quality with a technically oriented ear, fails to realize
th at a m onstrous m echanical doll, a tone-producing m achine, has
been created. W ell-intended technical concentration becom es an end
in itself, as though the technical construction w ere of m ore im por­
tan ce th an com m unication th rough m usicianship and artistry. The
technically intense pedagogue may not u n d erstan d why so little su c­
cess attends th e recital or o th er public p erform ance (aside from the
reactions of o th er singers in the studio, w ho know w hat to look for)
of a pupil w ho has m astered the technical precepts of the studio. All
the technical details arc there, but the flow of im agination and c re a ­
tivity are trapped in the specifics of vocal m echanics. Any teacher
who takes pride in being a "voice builder” should be w ary lest in
constructing the technique of the singer, creativity is destroyed or
obscured.

Till. IN 11 Kl’KI’TATION-ORIENTED TEACHER


S o m e teachers tend to avoid technical specifics, believing th a t
general ideas will filter clown into the singer’s consciousness if m usi­
cal and interpretative m atters rem ain param ount. Such teaching can
be of benefit if for no o ther reason than th at the attention is tu rn ed
away from the physical events of singing, perm itting n atu ral coordi­
nation a fre e r hand. M uch of th e success of the coach-accom panist
(in addition to m usical and stylistic advantages) results because the
singer is finally free of the overly technique-conscious voice teacher.
Interpretation-oriented pedagogy w orks well w ith the naturally
coordinated singer (is an estim ate of 1% of all w ho sing too high?)
who already negotiates the technical dem ands of the voice in an
adm irable way.
It m ay be com m endable, if you are a n aturally coordinated
animal, never to give tho u g h t to the b rea th ("You do not think about
b re a th w hen you are not singing, so why w hen you sing? ”) o r to any
o th er aspect of singing technique. Inasm uch as singing is a physical
as well as an artistic act (and p a rt of its artistic strength lies in the
degree of physical freedom displayed), the teaching of voice chiefly
from the text and the m usic is m ostly inadequate. A n u m b e r of
small, m anageable voices are capable of putting together a pasticcio
of vocal colors and expressive devices th a t often sm acks m ore of
gim m ickry than of technical control, not because they are incapable
Pedagogical A ttitu des 211

of learning th e a rt of coordinated singing, but because they have


convinced them selves th at th ere a re no technicul m atters th at cannot
be solved th ro u g h involvem ent in text and music

THE TECHNIQUE-MYSTIQUE TEACH F,R


T here is a type of te a c h e r w ho approaches teaching willi I he conlï
dence and zeal of th e crusading prophet or prophètes-. I In-, highly
com m itted te a c h e r tends to give "technique” the trapping-, ol .1 mys
tery cult. "T echnique” becom es a b a n n e r th a t the teachei bold-, .dol l
as a bright beacon fo r all to see. Everything th at takes plat e in (In-
studio is p art of technical revelation not elsew here available l ee h
nique-m ystique teach ers can seldom recom m end to their departing,
students teach ers in other cities or institutions (certainly not in then
own), because no one else sufficiently u n d erstan d s th e m ysteries ol
“technique.” The flying b a n n e r w aves over a very lim ited geographic
region! S tu d en ts a re held to the te a c h e r by the belief th at they are
being nourished at th e w ellspring of technical knowledge, and th at
only this teacher, and no other, has th e answ ers. (Indeed, it m ay even
take five years ra th e r th an the usual four, or seven instead of the
usual five, to perfect this m ysterious technique!)
On the contrary, students should be alerted th a t there are no
mysteries regarding the technical aspects of singing. The teach er w ho
regards the technical w ork of singing as shrouded in m ystery inad­
vertently adm its to a lack of inform ation on the physical and acous­
tic n a tu re of the vocal instrum ent. Singing appears to be a kind of
m agical process to this person, and the technique of singing is an
idiosyncratic s tru c tu re built on intuition and trial and error. This
explains the technique-m ystique te a c h e r’s resistance to detailed
inform ation regarding the functional aspects of singing. How can
one serve as priestess or priest if the m ystery is taken away?
Any tea c h e r of singing who operates u n d er the assum ption lluil
he o r she possesses unique know ledge and skill that c an be i i u | m i led
only to those few fo rtu n ates w ho are in that studio is 1111 unlnten
tional testim ony to bigotry and professional ignoi anc e, and vet y nui
rowly skirts the fraudulent. S tudent singers should be on guard
against such indoctrination, how ever subtly it may be drllveic'd (it
usually com es dow n to “our studio versus thcit In varying degt ees
of insinuation). S tu d en ts who have been draw n and held by such
parochial teachers should begin to ask why the peri 01 mum e woi Id Is
peopled with successful singers who h a v e not sliuied in this purlie u
lar technical wisdom.
212 The S tru ctu re of Singing

THE ONE-ASPECT TEACHER


Frequently, th e stu d e n t m eets a tea c h e r w ho bases everything on
"breath,” "resonance,” "forw ard placem ent," “piano singing,” "relaxa­
tion,” "posture,” "agility,” o r o th er single facets of the technical com ­
plex. Som e successful singers will readily confess they found their
breathing technique with such and such a teacher, the concept of
resonance w ith another, and the ability to negotiate the passaggio
with yet a third. S tatem ents of this sort testify to the need for each
tea c h e r to have a system atized technique th a t covers all the techni­
cal aspects of singing. A com plete technique of singing m ust consider
the regulation of breath m anagem ent (w hat we have earlier term ed
the energizing source), !lit/ accom plishm ent of freedom at the vibra­
tory source (that is, al the level of the larynx), the intricate process of
reso n ato r coupling (the spatial relationships of the pharynx, the
nasopharynx, the nasal passages and the m outh), and the coordina­
tion of phoncli( articulation in response to language and m eaning
(the process of uniting motor, vibrator, and resonators).
The Ici Im ii.<I orientation of the teach er m ay determ ine the type
of vocal literature assigned to students in th a t studio. In som e s tu ­
dios, the ability (coloratura) factor predom inates; in another, the sus­
tained line. It is wise to check one’s penchant, to be certain th a t
undue concentration on som e single aspect of literature o r technique
has not been elevated to the central position.
Even if a stu d en t show s lack in one specific a re a of vocal tec h ­
nique, the teacher should avoid concentrating solely on th at defi­
ciency. To do so upsets the technical balance essential to good sing­
ing. (The exercises in this m anual have been collected in the hope of
system atically presenting all aspects of the technique of singing.)

PEDAGOGICAL BALANCE
The ideal tea c h e r of singing m ost probably will rem ain an ideal.
Voice teachers deal w ith a centuries-old a rt in which a lim ited
n u m b er of persons have excelled w here others have failed, reg a rd ­
less of m ethodology. It is n ot easy to assess the im pact of the voice
teacher on the successful artist. A final accounting sheet on the
result of pedagogical efforts in professional singing careers m ight
not prove to be as favorable as the voice teaching profession m ight
wish. It cannot be doubted th at som e voice teachers are m ore su c­
cessful than others, however, regardless of actual teaching aptitude.
T here m ust be reasons.
Pedagogical A ttitu des 213

Can the singing teach er be directed to certain axiom s regarding


pedagogical balance th a t m ay assu re som e positive im pact on the
singing profession? T hree im portant principles may be cited:
1. Stability, resulting from the possession of a body <>1 factual
inform ation, w hich is constant.
2. Growth, the ability to incorporate new concepts and mini nia
tion (after weighing them against fact), and a wiIIm pie /, in
change.
3. Artistic imagination and musicianship.
Vocalism is replete w ith fadism . At least once a year, it would
seem, a new revolutionary approach to the technique ol -.ni f i i i f
appears (generally a slightly refurbished version of som ething I m m
the forties, long since rejected). The tea c h e r of singing m ust possess
a repository of factual inform ation against which new ideas can be
m easured. The in stru cto r w ho is inform ed on the m echanics ol
vocalism is unlikely to em brace som e false claim for m iraculous
technical aids. If the tea c h e r is to offer the stu d e n t an enduring
technical basis fo r singing, th ere m ust be a stable core of factual
m aterial, a willingness to look at em erging inform ation, and a solid
concept of artistry, together w ith precise m usicianship.
T here is a b ree d of singing te a c h e r th a t assem bles a set of p ed a­
gogical expressions, a group of vocalises, and a sw atch of repertory
th at goes on, y ear a fte r year, w ithout alteration. New inform ation is
unwelcom e. Such persons assum e th a t they have alw ays know n how
to teach, o r th a t they carry on the tradition of one of their fam ous
teachers, o r th a t they can deliver to every singer the sam e technique
th at they "gave” to the successful pupil w ho now sings at the M etro­
politan O pera H ouse. T eachers w ho claim to teach exactly the things
they tau g h t 25 years ago have slipped into a state of m oribundity
Conversely, tea c h e rs w ho change techniques several tim es in !h<
course of a few years lack a stabilized concept of eithci tone oi pin ■■
ical function in singing.
T here will be little danger of falling into the ei m i s ol t ouipen .a
lory teaching, of becom ing technically too intense, ol irlv in r ,<>!«■I\
on interpretation and style to solve vocal problems, ol bei oinliif), the
technique-m ystique figure, or of stressing but one pail ol the com
plex technique of singing, if stability and williiignev, lo icspniul to
new ideas are kept in balance. To m aintain till* bulim ic, wr must
know the heritage of the vocal art, know what Is ( m teullv l'oing on
in fields related to singing, and be inform ed on the lilei a lu n ol voi al
pedagogy. (How is it possible for an expei I In any Held, liu ludiny, the
teach er of singing, not to know the literature ol that Held?) Musical
214 The S tru ctu re of Singing

intelligence, stylistic knowledge, and the ability to articulate concepts


are, of course, prerequisites for all m usician-teachers. To attem pt to
rely solely on one’s own experience as p erform er and teach er is as
foolhardy as it w ould be for the researcher o r practitioner in any
o th er discipline. No one of us has it all.

TEACHING ONESELF
“I tau g h t m yself how to sing” is a claim occasionally heard from
som e professional singer of stature. The statem en t should surprise
no one, because all singers m ust be their ow n teachers. Learning to
sing involves unification of the musicianly ear, the controlled body,
and the creative intelligence, an act of artistic integration th a t cannot
be superim posed on the singer from the outside. In this sense, no
tea c h e r teaches anv singer how to sing. One of th e m ost serious p er­
ils for the student ol sinking lies in the expectation th a t a fine teach er
will build a technique lor the pupil. The singer m ust have tru st in the
ear of the teaehet and in the school of technique being presented,
but neither ol these positive factors is sufficient. Only th e singer can
put together physii al and artistic inform ation in such a fashion th a t
it can In- personally experienced again and again (that is, be given
technical expression). The work of the teach er can only be to point
the way (an essential service).
II the advanced singer continues to need th e controlling h a n d of
the teach er in technical m atters, following som e few years of study,
the tea c h e r has not done a proper job. Good teaching produces inde­
pendent singers, capable of trusting their ow n ears and their own
bodies. All professional singers m ust eventually becom e their own
daily teachers, although they should never dispense w ith an occa­
sional outside ear. If anyone else know s the singer’s voice b e tte r than
the m a tu re singer, the technical foundation of th at voice is
incomplete.
Intelligent singers will take a representative group of vocalises
built on th e categories presented in this book and give them selves a
voice lesson every day. Any tim e th e m outh is opened for singing, the
ear and th e intelligence should be involved in a process of m onitor­
ing, the m ost basic form of teaching. After the singer has becom e
aw are of th e b eau ty of th e functionally free voice, th e singer is the
best teach er of th at instrum ent!
D uring the form ative years (usually passed in th e conservatory,
the school of music, the g rad u a te school), when technique is being
form ed and p erform ance attitu d es established, the singer should be
Pedagogical A ttitu des 215

e n couraged to w ard independence with regard to the psychological


p reparation for public perform ance. T eacher's insistence on "w arm ­
ing up” th e singer im m ediately before a perform ance builds a vocal
and psychological dependency th a t is unhealthy. Regardless of w hat­
ever good intent m ay prom pt such procedures, the voice Icacher
actually is fostering the notion of personal indispensahilil v. It may he
an unconscious device fo r draw ing the student m ore closely to the
teacher.
Som e few professional singers m ust always stop oil at tem lier's
studio before a perform ance, o r even take the singing teai hei along
on tour; such singers are not know n for their dependabilit v in pei
form ance. Few singers can enjoy such a luxury, in any event The
voice tea c h e r w ho can devote such am ounts of tim e to one singer
can scarcely u n d ertak e other professional com m itm ents that should
m ark the successful teacher.
Most professionally active singers discover th a t th e dem ands ol
travel, rehearsal, score preparation, and p erform ance leave little
opportunity for regularly scheduled voice lessons. F or th e m ost part,
a loose a rran g em en t fo r an occasional "check-up” w ith a reliable
tea c h e r is the only form al voice study m anaged by th e busy artist. If
the singer possesses a solid technique, the arran g em en t is fine.
Instruction continues—m ost of it self-instruction.
It w ould be disastrous for the young singer (u n d er age 25 is a
safe b oundary for th a t designation) to take at face value the claim of
several established singers—th a t they have tau g h t them selves to
sing—and to attem p t to do likewise. M ost of such claim s inadvertently
support th e fact th a t only the singer can integrate the essential
inform ation and skill th a t p ro d u ce a firm technique. In th e case of a
bro ad er claim th an that, skepticism is very m uch in order. It is a
m atte r of public rec o rd th a t several professional singers w ho have
stated in interview s th a t they are self-taught have actually studied
w ith recognized tea c h e rs or have been in a tten d an ce at m ajor (and
not so m ajor) schools of m usic for long periods of time.
The professional singer who states that everything that pie
viously had been learn ed from voice teach ers had to In- put aside,
and th a t "I've now w orked out my own technique," i‘. giving naive
expression to w hat every successful singer and every sm ie sslu l
teach er of singing knows. Only singers can integrate their own
voices. However, it can be safely asserted that almost no sm i cssful
singer has acquired technical facility without the help ol a good
voice teach er som ew here along the way.
In an age w here it is very m uch In vogue loi the « Ivll engineer to
be an au thority on Chinese cooking, for the parish piles! to know the
216 The S tru ctu re of Singing

hatting averages of m ajor league players over the past th ree decades,
and for the popular TV personality to be acquainted with the m ost
m inute details of the c areer of "The Desert Fox,” it is not uncom m on
for the professional singer to seek som e new and interesting perso n ­
ality dim ension to present to the public. (If the singer c a n ’t think of
one, the agency will.) Thus we have the "I ju st fell into singing m ore
o r less by accident” motif, with psychology, ballet, “pre-m ed” o r "pre­
law ” (the latter tw o academ ic program s general enough to go unques­
tioned) p resented as the m ajor field of study. Indeed, if the n u m b er
of professional singers who gave up careers as "concert violinist” and
"concert pianist” w ere tabulated, one would trem ble for the artists
who dom inate those fields, had the singers not opted for their c u r­
ren t perform ance m edium.
A close look will reveal that, while alm ost any professional singer
m ay have profited from a wide spread of intellectual and artistic
interests, the technique of singing has been seriously studied for a
n u m b er of years. The public image of som e contem porary singers
should not confuse the young singer; learning to sing is a dem anding
discipline, and no one should pretend th a t it is not, n o r is th ere any
reason l<> apologize for pursuing it.
In sim ilar vein, som e professional singers intrigued by the self-
m ade image, which is so coveted in o u r culture, have a problem
adm itting the debt they ow e to som eone else (that som eone else is
often an early teacher w hose nam e is not nationally or internation­
ally known). On the o th er hand, som e singers a re collectors of prom ­
inent teachers, "studying” a little w ith anyone w hose n am e will add
prestige, particularly if the tea c h e r has a pupil, or several, currently
in the public eye.
H esitant to adm it the need for continued technical work, som e
singers euphem istically rep o rt th at they are "coaching” with som e
well-known teach er of singing. Frequently, the te a c h e r who was
largely responsible for the em ergence of the singer’s c a reer is then
relegated to an "early-training-took-place-w ith” category, if m en­
tioned at all.
P erhaps m ost saddening of all is the prom inent professional
singer who develops obvious vocal problem s b u t is unwilling to face
them , because of belief in the copy of advertising writers, which
places the singer at the pinnacle of the profession; if you are the
em bodim ent of bel canto, you cannot very well adm it to a developing
passaggio problem unless you are a very objective person. Too proud
to seek help from a voice teacher, m any an artist has had to accept a
tru n cated c a re e r unnecessarily (or the term ination of the c areer is
the result of the singer trying to find a tea c h e r with "tricks” that will
Pedagogical A ttitu des 217

save the voice). Ju st as voice teachers w ho feel there is nothing m ore


to be learned from outside sources seriously nai row their capabilities
for teaching, so th e professional singer who Ieels there is nothing to
be learned from anyone else will not long m aintain a successful
career. T each yourself, b u t do not m ake the m istake ol believing you
are entirely self-sufficient.
CHAPTER 17

Healthy Singing

M usicians w ho play stringed instrum ents m ay have bad days w hen


w eath er is unkindly hum id, brass players grow restless keeping the
m outhpiece w arm during som e seem ingly interm inable w ait in the
sym phonic literature, and the m aking and conditioning of reeds
m u st not be w ithout its own special set of annoyances. T ransporting
a harp, a double bass, or a tuba requires a fair am ount of advance
planning; the pianist must either put up with the varying condition of
instrum ents from hall to hall or cart around a private instrum ent.
The m usician who is u singer has an in stru m e n t th a t does not
have to be tuned in public, needs no carrying case, requires no early
shipm ent, cannot easily be sat on or dropped, and is in no danger of
being stolen Advantages beyond those points are som ew hat neg­
ligible The \m p i c ......... . purchase a finely co n stru cted instrum ent
that 200 years ol aging and playing have m ellowed, no r can the
singei keep "trading up,” eventually becom ing the possessor of a fine
C rem ona product. M ajor reparations on th e structure, and actual
rebuilding, are not possible with the vocal instrum ent. F urtherm ore,
heat, cold, precipitation, digestion, toothache, bad back, cocktail
party, hernia, nosebleed, dom estic quarrel, and especially respiratory
ailm ents, m ay be totally incapacitating. In addition to threading
th rough these pitfalls, prior to the third decade of life the singer is
seldom established as a full-fledged professional perform er; then,
rarely does a public listen w ithout at least som e nostalgia for w hat
used to be, a fte r the sixth decade (and m ore probably a fter th e fifth)
of the life span of the vocal instrum ent.
It is difficult to determ ine w here the instru m en t of the singer
leaves off and w here the in stru m en t case begins. In any event, the
singing in stru m en t is dependent on the condition of its carrying case.
The indulgent smiles, raised eyebrow s, and n u m ero u s anecdotes
about vain singers (especially sopranos and tenors) w ho w rap
them selves up in scarves, rem ove them selves from drafts, and in
general tre a t the body as som ething fragile, w ould quickly change to
sym pathetic understanding w ere o ther m usicians similarly united
physically to their instrum ents. Even on vacation, singers take the
instru m en t along and know th a t w hatever they do will c o n trib u te to

218
H ealthy S inging 219

its condition. Little w onder th at the singer seem s never to forget the
physical statu s of the instrum ent.
M ost of the m easures taken by singers to rem ain healthy are of
dubious value, even psychologically. The n u m b er of throat lo/.enges
consum ed by singers is incredible and has very little effect on
bettering th e voice, inasm uch as lozenges reach the esophagus, not
the larynx, a fter contributing considerably to dental caries The
gallons of tea, w ith honey o r lem on, or even both, poured forth Iroiu
the ubiquitous flask in the green room , if taken all togcthei, must
surely produce an eighth sea, while the antihistam ine tablets and
vitam in pills dropped into th e stom achs of singers, if placed one on
top of the other, w ould c reate a tow ering m onum ent to hvpo
chondria. Nasal sprays, gargles, sinus m asks, lotions, and neck salve .,
to g eth er w ith pre-p erfo rm an ce diet fads (an egg in a jiggei ol
cognac, a can of pineapple juice, a h ead of lettuce, a serving ol
beefsteak tartar, are a few of the perennials), fu rth e r attest to the
plight of the m usician w hose in stru m en t depends on top-flight
condition of the physical m ass in w hich it is lodged.
The poor singer, w hen faced w ith an upcom ing perform ance
and an oncom ing cold, can hardly be blam ed for searching for som e
m agic potion th a t will resto re lost facility. It is a terrible feeling to
know th at w hat one can norm ally do so well m ust be attem pted
w ithout the full cooperation of th e carefully train ed and well-
p rep ared instrum ent, and to be aw are th a t audiences and critics
m ake no allowances.
There are singers w ho even u n d e r optim al physical conditions
are caught in a w eb of psychological encum brances; th e g rea ter the
accum ulation of these circum stances "essential” for singing well, the
less probability th a t they can all be fulfilled. Thus, the singer with the
few est p erform ance fetishes is psychologically the healthiest, regard
less of physical condition.
Many tim es th ere is nothing to be done during periods ol nu .1
pacitation except to fall in with o n e’s fate. Particularly, howevei, in
the case of th e singer, preventive m edicine is the best medli Inc
(Several sources th a t contain inform ation regarding the health "I tin
singer a re heartily recom m ended: Friedrich H rodnitA K r r f t V w i t
Voice Healthy (1953), N orm an P u n t’s The Sinyrt \ mul A1 l<n I IihmiI
( l ‘>79), and a series of articles by Van Luwrence on the r a te ol the
singing voice, “LaryngoSCOPK,” The NATS Ihillrlln, In-ginning with
Jun/F eb, 1981.) Are there ways of living sanely, without ioiotlanl
apprehension about physical condition, which the Intelligent, liable
singer «an adopt?
220 The S tructu re o f Singing

CONDITIONING FOR PERFORMANCE READINESS

It has been a rec u rrin g th em e th ro u g h o u t this book th a t if a singer


will follow a specific regim en of daily vocalization touching all
aspects of physical function as they are found in singing, general
vocal health will inevitably result. Such a routine avoids the vocal
strain th at otherw ise com es from long rehearsal periods and from
series of perform ances of w orks that m ay not be g rateful for a voice
b u t m u st nevertheless be undertaken. No singer should expect su d ­
den bu rsts of vocal e n d u ran ce w ithout a continuing discipline. F or
this vocal conditioning, the singer m ust take responsibility, and it is
often h ard to m ake oneself do it.
W ithin the singer’s voluntary control over vocal condition is the
avoidance of certain ha bits which, w hen indulged, will m ost as­
suredly take a toll (Ballantyne, 1961, pp. 541-557). Although the
Surgeon General has sullieiently w arned of the hazards of smoking,
it is not only the long range specter of em physem a, cancer of the
lung, tongue, I r a i liea, oi larynx that should frighten off the singer,
but 11u- m ore im m ediate, day-by-day effects of tra u m a on the
délit'ale m em brane that lines the vocal tra c t (including the bands
them selves) The heal Iront sm oke inhalation, and its desiccating
action, i a uses irritation; the m em brane secretes in an attem pt to
com pensate lot the condition of dryness, setting up the throat-
eleat iiig syndrom e. Furtherm ore, the lung deteriorates in cigarette
smoking. An unsigned article in the British Medical Journal (1975,
pp. 273-274) m akes the following statem ent:

Most people who sm oke cigarettes concede the risk of


fu tu re lung cancer. Nevertheless, few seem aw are of the
steadily accum ulating evidence which suggests th a t ciga­
rettes also speed developm ent of persistent and disabling
dyspnea [labored respiration] by dam aging lung function in
a way resem bling aging of lungs.

T here is little point in citing the one or tw o international artists


w ho sm oke tw o packs a day and still m anage to perform (perhaps
even they do not escape som e audible results). N or does “laying off”
for a few days before an im p o rtan t perfo rm an ce rep air the dam age,
because the m em brane cannot so quickly recover its lost elasticity.
Any singer already addicted to tobacco should u n d ertake w hatever
trem en d o u s act of the will is req u ired to break the habit. A young
singer m ay well be burning up fu tu re engagem ents w ith the first
cigarette lighted. W hile sm oking has perils for everyone, the singer
has the m ost compelling reasons for avoiding sm oke inhalation.
H ealthy S inging 221

Singers should be aggressive in requeslinj’, that sm oke inhalation


not be forced on them . T em porary irritation to the nose and th ro at
can be serious enough to cause the singer discom fort. ( I he extent of
perm anent dam age to the respiratory m echanism from sm oke
inhaled by nonsm okers has not yet been conclusively determ ined.)
No singer should be subjected to th a t kind of potenti.il dangei
through polite indulgence of those w ho blow sm oke into the .ilmos
phere aro u n d them .
The deleterious effects of alcohol on body tissue have b e e n d o e
um ented m any tim es and need not be repeated here. Studies on t h e
effects of alcohol on phonation show loss of both perception and
coordination (Trojan and Kryssin-Exner, 1968, pp. 217-238). Il is pi e
sum ed th a t d ru n k en n ess is not a live issue for the seriously comm it
t e d singer, although alcoholism has term inated several m ajor careei s
The singer who im bibes the evening before a perform ance day will
alm ost certainly pay for it w ith less th an optim um vocal condition.
To p ut alcohol into the system on a perfo rm an ce day is unthinkable.
The com bination of cigarette sm oke (including th at of o th er people),
.ilcohol, and an im ated conversation carried on above the noise
generated by a room full of people, spells sure vocal suicide.

PERFORMANCE-DAY ROUTINE
Singers should never com pete w ith the strident voices of extroverted
Iriends u n d e r any circum stances, especially on a perfo rm an ce day.
I he sam e caution regarding speech at high dynam ic levels should be
exercised w hen riding in cars, subways, airplanes, buses, and railway
coaches (they still exist in Europe). An h o u r’s ride from the airport to
the rehearsal hall while talking above th e m otor noise in an attem pt
to satisfy the curiosity of th e m usic enthusiast w ho picks up the
singer for the local opera or sym phony society, is not condin ive to
m aintaining good vocal condition. A simple explanation tli.it talking
is to be avoided on reh earsal and perfo rm an ce days is geueralK ill
that is needed to rem ove this hazard.
On a perform ance day, or a general rehearsal dav, no slnyi'i
should be tem pted into long conversations, eithei in pei son o i o n 111<
telephone, with spouse, hosts, local friends, newspupei oi t e l e v i s i o n
Interviewers, accom panist, or colleagues. A m a j o i iole o i a leeilal
m akes physical dem ands that ought to be taken lulls I n t o ,u i o m i t li
Is foolish to throw away long hours ol vocal i ondllioullig slmpls In
o ilier lo respond to the good intention» ol p riso n s who lliemselvi s
do noM iave to stan d on the stage before thousands o f pm pl. lotallv
dependent on vocal-fold f unction.
222 The S tru ctu re of S inging

Even established singers find them selves in situations w here a


co n d u cto r will insist on run-throughs on th e m orning of p erfo r­
m ance days (generally for the co n d u cto r’s benefit, not yours); it is
difficult fo r the singer to resist. Not all co n d u cto rs are cognizant of
w hat can reasonably be expected of singers. Som etim es co ntractual
ag reem ents (especially recording contracts) even w ith professional
o rch estras of international rep u te require "rehearse and p e rfo rm ’’
sessions. The co n d u cto r’s "Just m ark it, I don’t w ant full voice,” is not
very helpful. Most singers feel the need of a w arm -up for any kind of
vocal activity. “M arking” (indicating ra th e r th an using voce piena)
can som etim es be m ore injurious than singing full voice, particularly
in orchestral rehearsals in an unfam iliar hall, w ith chorus and
o rchestra singing and playing at full volume.
The technique of “m arking” m ust be learned by every singer. It
should not involve the singing of m ost portions of the role an octave
low er (although som e isolated phrase m ay best be handled th a t way),
n or should support of the voice be rem oved. Som e pitches m ay be
raised o r low ered an octave (punktiert), and only entrances sung at
audible level. Yet an ill singer who "m arks” a rehearsal m ust do so
cautiously.
U nfortunately, it is the fledgling artist, least equipped to deal
with such "iv h earse-p erfo rm ” situations, w ho is often forced into
them through the ignorance of m inor-league conductors, or by
know ledgeable m ajor-league conductors w ho have little concern for
artistic w elfare o th er than their own. The established artist m ay be
able to ensure that such unreasonable dem ands will not be m ade. It
takes a great deal of courage for a young artist facing a battery of
orchestral, choral, and solo participants (and o th er professional p res­
sures) to only m ove the lips during rehearsal, or to m aintain silence
w hen reh earsal dem ands are excessive. Always to be rem em b ered is
th a t “getting th rough the reh e a rsa l” is not th e reason why one came!
One of the potentially m ost disastrous situations for the estab ­
lished artist is the "open dress rehearsal” to w hich "guild m em bers,”
“the w om en’s auxiliary,” and dignitaries and critics are invited. Sup­
posedly a rehearsal, it is actually a p erfo rm an ce on the basis of
w hich m any judgm ents are m ade. The singer m ay very well need to
pro tect a lim ping instrum ent, conserving energy and sound for the
prem ier. M ore th an one critique has been w ritten following the open
rehearsal, and the prem ier perform ance has been dim inished by the
rigors of th a t rehearsal. M any professional singers view the practice
as a m anagerial trick for squeezing out an extra perform ance.
A m ajor m istake is to allow the entire perfo rm an ce day to pass
w ithout any vocal activity w hatsoever. Som etim es a singer is uncer-
H ealthy S inging 223

lain of the exact state of vocal condition, particularly a fter a long


plane flight, a tim e change, and a restless night not spent in one’s
ow n bed (som e singers never get over the problem ol trying to sleep
in strange cities). Spending th e entire perform ance day "resting’’ the
voice, not really know ing w hat kind of vocal response may he p res­
ent, is both nerve-racking and nonconducive to good voi ill eondition
To th row the laryngeal m echanism into strenuous activity suddenly
ab o u t one or tw o h o u rs before co n cert tim e, a fter a day ol total
silence, is not sensible procedure.
T here is a tim e-honored routine of the international school loi
perform ance days, observed by m any singers w hose c a re e r, have
becom e legendary. M aestro Luigi Ricci, w ho certainly had l it si hand
acquaintance w ith as large a n u m b er of m ajor careers as has any
leach er of this century, followed tradition in adm onishing his “coach
ces” to sleep well, b u t to be up in th e m orning before it is too fat
gone (both on regular and p erform ance days), to eat breakfast
because of the benefits of chew ing and swallowing to th e w ake-up
process of the voice (if only h ard rolls and caffelatte), to w ait a bit
for b reak fast to settle, and th en to begin th e daily vocalization ro u ­
tine. Having ru n th ro u g h som e selected vocalises from the several
facets of vocal technique (with brief resting periods of several m in­
utes between), the singer will have experienced proper m uscular
action in all areas of the instrum ent. The m orning process of vocali­
zation need not occupy m ore th an half an hour. The voice will be
conditioned for the rest of the day. On p erfo rm an ce days, no fu rth e r
singing takes place until an h o u r o r so prior to concert time, w hen a
brief ru n-through of selected vocalises is sufficient w arm -up for the
evening ahead. The singer w ho dem ands a total ru n -th ro u g h of the
role im m ediately before the perfo rm an ce shows m usical and vocal
insecurity. F or recital, 10 m inutes beforehand, spent checking tem pi
and entrances w ith one’s accom panist, m ay also be in order.
Several artists of international standing refuse to use the voice
lit all on perfo rm an ce day, or even th e previous day. This s e e m s n
som ew hat exaggerated p ro ced u re fo r protecting the vocal iusliu
ment. However, th e period of silence (broken, ol course, by the
necessary com m unications of any day) and rest might im Imli a
m ental read-through of the role o r of the music to he perfoim ed,
with creative thinking ab o u t whal is to be done with it in pi t loi
m ance. A good book, a catn ap or two, an easy walk, should pas*, the
tim e agreeably. Som e singers attend movies ot wan li television
(perhaps as a total distraction from artistic thought) I 01 ollieis, il is
disturbing to occupy the mind with the li ite em otional events ol the
screen on the day when one w ants to lo in m u n im te em otions ol a
224 The S tructu re of Singing

m ore profo u n d nature. Sleep, close to the h o u r of perform ance, is


very definitely not recom m ended. It w ould seem self-evident th at the
singer should arrive early at the th ea ter o r hall to becom e accus­
tom ed to th e environm ent of the building. Late arrival m ay spell dis­
aster, because th ere is no tim e to becom e accustom ed to the hall
am bience and to com pose oneself.
M any people are acquainted with the practices of the M etropoli­
tan O pera baritone who vigorously swims for an h o u r on the day of
perform ance, with the basso who insists on playing nine holes of golf
on a p erfo rm an ce day, with the successful ten o r w ho indulges in
em otionally strenuous activity prior to each perform ance, or with
th e soprano who sunbathes all day o r who goes on a shopping spree.
M ost of us, however, need to h usband o u r physical and m ental
energies.

WHEN NOT TO SING

No sin^ei i .111 .illoui the luxury of perform ing only w hen in perfect
physical condition. Recall the com m ent of the fam ous R ussian bass
who said that il lie w ere to sing only w hen in fine fettle he w ould
perform no i i i o k than twice a year. It is som etim es by the narrow est
m argin that a professional singer decides cancellation is necessary.
Given the stru c tu re of concert and opera schedules, pressures from
agencies, and o n e ’s own artistic standards, cancellation is never a
light-hearted decision. Decisions to cancel in the opera house have to
be m ade in tim e to find replacem ents. Som etim es the decision to go
ahead w ith a perfo rm an ce is the w rong decision; an o th e r artist will
be called in to finish rem aining acts, because the singer m isjudged
vocal condition th at m orning (a relatively frequent happening, it
w ould seem).
W hen physical irritation is not located directly in the larynx, the
singer can som etim es tu rn in a p erform ance th a t show s no evidence
of trouble, by the sheer w eight of technical know-how, w ithout cau s­
ing harm to the voice. However, as soon as laryngeal function itself is
im paired th ro u g h m arked edem a (swelling) in th e vocal folds, the
singer should rem ain silent. (Shots of cortisone during interm ission,
so th at the singer can go on, are shunned by m ost singers. Medical
opinion appears divided on its use.) Conditions of edem a a re m ost
often accom panied by slight hoarseness or raspiness, the speaking
voice feels higher than usual, and vocal quality sounds thicker and
less than clean. T hrough the techniques of exact vocal-fold approxi­
H ealthy S inging 225

m ation, learned th ro u g h the disciplining that takes place in the onset


vocalise, a singer m ay still be able to produce- d ire n t vocal sound
despite incipient edem a, o r during its less-developed stages. How­
ever, if stren u o u s singing is continued, additional swelling will occur,
with results th at can be detrim ental to the voice.
D am age can be done by perform ing when vocal condition is less
than ideal. A series of such experiences can produce serious distui
bances. C om pensatory actions called upon may be difficult to
rechannel. Laryngologists are frequently officially or semi o llu iallv
attach ed to E uropean opera houses (and increasingly in Ann iu a),
and are accustom ed to viewing singers’ vocal bands with sonic
degree of regularity. Often, they p refe r to exam ine the ailing singei
the m orning following perform ance, b ecau se the results of the even
ing’s vocal activity will best be judged at th at point.
The experienced singer’s ow n un d erstan d in g of th e vocal insii u
m ent is the only reliable indicator of w hen to sing u n d e r difficulty
I’he laryngologist m ay see and hear favorable signs for phonation in
speaking, b u t the m ore com plicated requirem ents of the singing role
are not for the m edical specialist alone to decide. W hen recovery
from a disabling u p p er respiratory ailm ent is nearly com plete, the
(|uick adjustm ents needed for easy registration of the voice or for
successful negotiation of the range extrem es m ay not yet be fully
operative. An artist m ay be able to m ake one scheduled perform ance
when vocal condition is not optim um , while canceling an o th er
wherein the dem ands of range, tessitura, weight, o r length of the role
are beyond the still limping in stru m e n t’s capabilities. The singer’s
liidgment, based on experience and reinforced by a know ledge of
vocal condition, should always be accepted in borderline cases.
The ideal situation w ould be fo r th e singer to sing only when t In­
voice is in good condition. Few p erfo rm ers are in that posit......
regardless of fam e or fee. Som etim es "out-of-voice” periods seem to
go on interm inably because of insufficient opportunity for physit al
i ecuperation. The singer should have th e courage to say "no" to pet
lo rm an ce com m itm ents, no m atte r how im portant, il the vocal
instrum ent ru n s th e risk of injury. Som eone elsc's d is a p p o in t m e n t 01
anger, the loss of probable re-engagem ent, and linam ltd haidshlp
should all be seen in the perspective of an entire c a ieei II the sln g ei
goes ahead with a p erform ance in which vocal diminue ol long t on
sequence occurs, gratitu d e on the part ol peisons w ho hln s l n g e is
will not extend to the fu tu re em ploym ent ol a sit k volet In most
cases, heavy responsibilities should not be undei taken by singei
who are not in reasonably good vocal condition
226 The S tru ctu re of S inging

WHAT TO SING

Equally difficult for the artist is the decision as to w hat roles, and in
w hat com binations, can be successfully un d ertak en over th e course
of a season. The m aturing young soprano w ho could very success­
fully sing D onna Anna in th e production at a m ajo r m idw estern
school of m usic as a g rad u a te student m ay have to learn th a t as a
professional she should not take on that role at the sam e tim e she is
required to sing several o ther heavy roles. S tam ina in singing, as in
athletics, is built through involvem ent, b u t determ ining w hat is
excessive is not always easy.
B eyond th e problem of die cum ulative effect of specific roles
perform ed within brief periods of tim e is the problem of outright
m iscasting. The artist, one w ould assum e, should be able to tru st the
judgm ent of voice teachers, conductors, and general m anagers.
W hen it com es to role assignm ents, it is exactly in th a t a re a th a t
incom petence even in positions of authority seem s m ost prevalent.
This situation has been sagely com m ented on by one critic of the
operatic scene (Hum e, 1977, pp. G-5):
These questions, however, should not really com e up. If the
people in charge of opera theaters knew their business as
they should, they would not w ant to cast m ezzo-sopranos as
Selika in M eyerbeer's "L'Africaine” for the best of all re a ­
sons: because it w ould not sound th e w ay M eyerbeer
intended it to. Lyric sopranos w ould not be given heavy
d ram atic roles, and exquisite tenors, w ho often need to be
saved from them selves, w ould not be perm itted to sing roles
w here vocal dem ands quickly rob their voices of the velvet
cushion they need to keep on singing for years.
The sam e source concludes:
T here is a serious shortage of really fine operatic voices
these days. It is com pounded by teachers w ho do not know
how to teach, singers who refuse to adm it th at th ere is any­
thing they cannot sing and opera directors w ho think every
soprano can sing every soprano role, every ten o r take on the
entire ten o r repertoire, every baritone launch into the whole
b arito n e list. If the situation is not altered, the present p rob­
lem s of casting Aida, T rovatore and T urandot will quickly
multiply.

In E uropean opera houses (w here m any A m ericans still find


their livelihood), singers have som e protection against the problem of
m iscasting, and of too m any public perform ances, yet m ost persons
F

H ealthy Singing 227

u n d e r p e rm a n en t c o n tra ct find them selves involved in m ajor roles


several tim es per week, which is alm ost always loo m uch. Union con­
tracts dem and protective clauses against m iscasting and too fre­
quent public perform ance, but m any singers succum b to m anage­
m ent’s financial inducem ents. In Italy, the deplorable practice of
signing up prom ising young singers to long-range conti acts that
included a m odest living subsistence ra th e r than a pci perform ance
lee sounded the death knell for a n u m b er of beautif ul young Malian
voices.
Of course, th e international artist, firm ly established, is in a
favorable position w ith reg ard to th e selection of roles and die lie
quency of perform ances. Yet a look at som e of the schedules of
m ajor artists attests to the durability of the h u m an voice and l o r o o d
technical grounding (or a t least to h u m an grit!). T heater and concert
m anagem ents seldom play any responsible role in the a rtist’s devi l
opm ent. The success of th e im m ediate season and the planning ol
the next, the political necessity to please the conducting staff, the
stage directors, the board, the Stadtrat or w hatever governing body,
is param ount. T here is little indication th at this situation will change
so long as general directorships are in the hands of nonm usicians.
Seldom do fo rm er singers m anage o p era houses these days, as they
not infrequently did at one glorious period in operatic history.
The wide disparity of vocal skill exhibited within a single p er­
form ance in international houses attests to the indisputable fact th at
casting often has little to do with inform ed judgm ent about the a rt of
singing. The m odern opera-goer m ay be subjected to fabulous vocal-
ism from the Octavian, off-pitch w obbling from the M arschallin,
ferocious non-pitch barking from the Ochs, and exquisite phrasing
f rom the Sophie. (R epeated atten d an ce proves th a t it is not "off-
night” variances here and th ere th at produce such uneven perfo r­
m ances.) One m ust either conclude th at Intendanten and conductors
know less a b o u t vocalism th an ought to be the case, that they are
impelled by non-artistic considerations (such as public response to
an advertised and recognizable product, w ithout regard to current
vocal merit), o r th a t m agnanim ity rules in retaining the a i l i s t with
diminishing vocal ability.
Guidelines fo r th e young artist w ho m ust decide whit li roles to
accept are not easy to form ulate for general observante, hut It
should be perfectly clear in the case ol the individual Inslium enl It
is nothing short of scandalous that sound ad v ite Is not available
from every house m anagem ent. The young prolesttlon»l U loi lunate
if the tea c h e r is experienced, knows what a m le entails, and luis t on
eern lo r the resources of the voice. No Ninger should be em oui aged
228 The S tructu re o f S inging

to sing a role th at is out of Fach. The singer does well to investigate


w hat was considered appropriate m aterial at various phases of the
careers of o th er artists in th at Fach in form er decades. (For example,
at w hat age did Gigli first sing Radam es?)

THE TEACHER-PERFORMER

Not to be forgotten in this consideration of the healthy p erform er is


th e te a c h e r-p e rfo rm e r w ho has to use the vocal in stru m en t to teach
a full schedule, fly out, o r drive long distances, for a w eek o r w eek­
end of rehearsal and perform ances, deliver in on-cam pus opera pro ­
ductions, oratorio and recital appearances, present m aster classes
here and there, and still show up for com m ittee duties. ("Have you
published anything recently?" "W hen do you plan to finish your
DMA?”) Increasingly, a large share of m usical life in Am erica takes
place on the college aiul university cam pus. Resident faculty m em ­
bers are active pci form ers as well as dedicated teachers. It is u n fo r­
tunate that academ e has not given m ore tho u g h t to flexible solutions
to accom m odate the teacher-perform er. S tate legislatures (im bued
with the 40 hom week m entality) and boards of regents (trustees)
are seldom able to determ ine the im portance of perform ance contri­
butions by faculty artists, looking instead at teaching credits and
enrollm ent figures. Som e iidm inistrators (may their tribe increase!)
un derstand the phenom enal feat of such com bination careers and
try to m itigate circum stances w henever possible. (In general, the
m ore vision in such m atters, the stronger the school of m usic th at
adm inistrator heads.)
Any activity th at involves phonation for long periods of tim e will
eventually tire the vocal instrum ent. Teaching singing is no excep­
tion. W hereas piano and violin professors m ay talk all day w ithout
tiring their instrum ents, the teach er of singing m ust constantly use
the instru m en t during teaching (even if not a single note is modeled).
H abitual w ays of using the speaking voice m ay well determ ine the
continued vocal health of the singing teacher. Singers (especially
those who teach) should learn to "support” the speaking voice with
as m uch skill as they do the singing voice, being certain th a t pitch
level is neither too low no r too high, and th at am plitude is at a level
to perm it ease of production. (The controversial doctrine of “optim al
pitch” is not here the question.) H arm can be done to the speaking
voice by attem pting to spare it o r protect it through low, breathy,
unenergized speech (a cu ltu ral developm ent within the past decade
o r so, p attern ed a fter the intim acy and "sincerity” of the talk-show
H ealthy S inging 229

participant). W ell-projected, resonant, supported speech will be


m u ch less tiring on the vocal m echanism .
As a tea c h e r of singing, keeping o n e’s own sinning voice in good
condition cannot be p u t off to th e end of the long w orkday, when
energies are depleted. B efore beginning the leaching «lay, with its
potential problem s, the p e rfo rm e r-tea c h c r’s own daily icgim en of
vocalization should take place. T hat early practice limit is dill it tilt to
find, yet if the voice tea c h e r w ants to continue an active pet lot
m ance career, it m ust som ehow be found. Destruc tive to the voit e is
th e need to d em o n strate for the stu d e n t w hen one's own iitslt imicnt
is not properly w arm ed up. F urther, the speaking voice ilsell will be
in m u ch b e tte r shape for the constant use it m ust go through dm mg
the day if p roper vocalization has taken place prior to the lii si l e s s * >n
O ne’s success as a tea c h e r has som e relationship to the calibet ol
vocal sound one is capable of making.

THE QUESTION OF COMPLETE VOCAL REST

W hat should the professional singer do w hen an extended period of


vocal w eariness rea rs its ugly head? It is pointless to say th at with
p erfect vocal technique such problem s should not occur; the m ost
perfect vocal technique in the w orld cannot su rm o u n t som e of the
dem ands of th e c u rre n t professional perform ance world. If possible,
simply taking tim e o u t for a w eek o r ten days of m o d erate voice rest
usually w orks m iracles.
T here is a divergence of m edical opinion today regarding "vocal
rest.” It is quite tru e th a t inactivity encourages sluggish m uscle coor­
dination, and th a t daily use of th e w hole vocal instru m en t is neces­
sary to general vocal health for th e singer. However, when the singei
has lim ped along, pulling off perfo rm an ce a fter p erfo rm an ce itndei
undesirable physical conditions, total vocal rest for a hriel pei iod >il
time m ay be best. (So is a ra re vacation from it all!)
Com plete vocal rest should be used only a lte r all othei nu .nr. ol
restoring vocal vitality have failed. Com plete voice n - M iiite.i I o n gn
all action th at involves vocal-fold approxim ation A legal pad and i
box of sh arp pencils replaces the voealis muscle, and lolal Mien* c
should be religiously observed. Whispering, as a subslllule loi lull
phonation should be avoided at all costs; the emission ol In* .illi ovei
slack vocal cords, often at stage-w hisper level (the pi isim r ol Ih< Inlet
cartilaginous whispering triangle), i.s perhaps m on deli im enlal lo the
w elfare of the voice than i.s hoarse speech
Two or th ree days of total vocal tesi may do w ondeis II u n e .
230 The S tructu re of Singing

sary, go aw ay for the w eekend. If im provem ent is not show n follow­


ing a few days of re tu rn to m oderate voice use, then the m ost drastic
treatm en t of all should begin: 10 days (even 2 weeks) of total silence.
Repeatedly, such a prescription has proved to be m ore beneficial to
the truly w eary vocal instrum ent than all the therapeutic exercises,
inhalations, m edications, m assages, and h eat tre a tm e n ts taken
together.
Of course, if bad vocal habits have been the cause of weariness,
all the vocal rest (along with the steam and the cortisone) will be of
no avail w hen one resum es faulty phonation. However, even a tech ­
nically secure singer m ay have had to face a heavy upper-respiratory
infection and to keep on meeting professional com m itm ents, thereby
tiring th e instrum ent. In such a case, total vocal rest m ay be the only
appropriate m easure and may save m onths of "limping.” On re tu rn
to voice use, the singer should begin m odest vocalizing. W ithout
doubt, m uscle tonus will not be at norm al functioning level. By
gradually increasing initial, brief periods of vocalization, the singer
should be able lo rei tipei ale within a few weeks. (Let it be clear th at
total voeal rest is a drastic step. It should be discussed with a laryn­
gologist. II ....... lai vngologist is unalterably opposed to any period of
total voeal rest, seek a second or third opinion.)

THE QUESTION OF MEDICATION

W omen w ho follow singing careers m ay feel th a t pregnancy is a


condition to avoid. At least one m ajor conductor w as know n to tell
fem ale singers to avoid becom ing pregnant so th a t he m ight use
them the following season.
At conferences th a t deal w ith the care of the professional voice;
the effect of th e contraceptive pill on the voice is inevitably raised in
any period devoted to questions from the floor. It is a burning issue
w ith m any singers, and m ost persons associated w ith the opera
house have h e a rd of cases w here the singer on th e pill lost a m ajor
third from h er range, or developed laryngeal problem s. Doctors are
not in agreem ent about the extent of risk involved in taking the pill.
It is possible th a t the phase of th e m en stru al cycle partly determ ines
the effect of the pill on the larynx. T here is also the strong probabil­
ity th at som e oral contraceptives are less h arm ful th an others. The
best advice is for the female singer to consult her laryngologist before
beginning with this medication.
The reliance on antihistam ines by singers has already been m en­
tioned. P erhaps less well know n is the drying effect of these drugs.
Law rence (1981a, p. 25) has this to say:
H ealthy S inging 231

A ntihistam ines are all “drier-outers,” and probably w on’t


h u rt if o n e’s nose is pouring hot w a te r and o n e’s eyes are
stream ing. (W ho’s going to think of singing then?) Hut again,
one w ants rich, slick, supple, w ell-lubricated vocal folds to
sing well, and the antihistam ines w on’t help accom plish
that.”
L aw rence (1981c, pp. 24-25) also w arns of the possible <11 ylng el feet
of large doses of vitam in C com bined with antihistam ine tablets In
addition, aspirin, Law rence says, m ay prom ote capillary 11 agility in
th e larynx. The best advice is to check w ith your doctor, and do not
self-medicate.

DRY THROAT

Singers som etim es com plain ab o u t th ro a t dryness during perfoi


m ance. Can anything be done ab o u t this com m on condition? First ol
all, the singer should recognize th a t dry th ro a t accom panies situa­
tions of anxiety. D uring singing, dryness is largely a side effect of
perform ance nerves. The b e tte r prepared, technically and musically,
the low er the incidence of dryness. Biting the blade of th e tongue
(gently!) and taking th a t last backstage sip of w ater give som e
m om entary relief. M ost im portant, how ever, is the psychology of
p erform ance attitudes. R egard the audience as people w ho are in
need of y o u r services; accept the responsibility th a t you are th ere in
front of them to share som e m usical and artistic insights.
M any singers discover th a t th ro a t dryness dim inishes con­
siderably w hen little o r no salt is tak e n in food n e a r perform ance.
Deliberately drinking m ore w ater during the course of perform ance
days (or in general) m ay som ew hat alleviate th e tendency tow ard
dry th ro a t during singing.
Chewing gum and sucking lozenges seldom assist in providing
m ore th an a tem p o rary saliva flow, followed by an even gieatei
sense of dryness. Chewing and swallowing a section oi two ol i Hi us
fruit betw een entrances o r groups may be a som ew hat bellei I d e a
Above all, th e cultivation of a happy and positive pet loi man* i envi
ronm ent will do m uch to elim inate "dry throat.

"CLEARING” THE THROAT


In th e interest o f voca l health, all a tte m p ts lo "t li ai ilie l lu oui must
be a vo id ed by the singer. This is particularly the c a s e al those inevi
table tim e s o f vo c a l disability. Most singers lend to be r x l ie m e ly
232 The S tructu re of Singing

healthy, probably freer of colds and respiratory ailm ents th an m any


people. W hen such ailm ents do strike, they are m ore urgent with the
singer. The urge to clear the th ro a t in instances w hen a cold has
stru ck is caused chiefly by the very condition of edem a which
“th ro a t clearing” will only serve to exacerbate. W hen the th ro a t is
“cleared,” we require an action from the vocal folds th at only irri­
tates them fu rth e r and causes an increase in the secretion of m ucus.
Often, the best m eans of clearing m ucus from th e folds is to sing it
off. The execution of rapid arpeggios, glissando, rapid onset, or trill­
ing, is alm ost always m ore productive th an is “clearing” the throat, if
indeed th e re is som ething there to clear away. U nfortunately, the
singer cannot follow that suggestion while sitting on stage waiting
for a vocal entrance. At such m om ents, swallow ing m ay be helpful.
(One of the chief pedagogical uses of fiberoptic observation is for the
singer to see what the vocal folds m ust undergo in "throat clearing.”)
Don't "clear” the throat!
Coughing should not be used by the singer as a m eans of clear­
ing the vocal tr a d when superficial m ucus is lodged som ew here in
trachea, larynx, 01 pharynx (that is, voluntary coughing). Both cough­
ing and "throat cleai ing" are to be avoided as m uch as possible in the
interest ol vocal health

FIGHTING THE COUGH

The cough is a necessary evil at certain stages of an upper respira­


tory infection. However, a lingering, irritating cough can very quickly
im pair the usefulness of the hardiest vocal instrum ent. Singers suf­
fering from cough a fter the w orst of the respiratory infection is over
should not allow a self-perpetuating cough to go on; the forceci
action of th e vocal folds during coughing is d etrim ental to the m em ­
brane. M edical advice should be sought; singers should not ju st let a
cough "w ear itself out.” Preparations th at suppress the im pulse to
cough (used only at the correct phase of the cold) and expectorants
th at assist in clearing the air passages can often prove of value to the
singer. According to Gold (1953, p. 90):
A simple upper respiratory infection often presents cough as
the dom inant sym ptom . T hrough severe blasts and long vol­
leys the cough produces sufficient irritation to sustain itself
th rough a chain reaction long a fter th e prim ary condition is
gone. This is the kind in w hich prolonging the interval
betw een volleys by a centrally acting cough m edicine or
reducing the n u m b er and severity in blasts in each volley by
H ealthy S inging 233

an expectorant produces the extraordinary spectacle of a


cough of long d u ratio n " c u re d ” by a few doses of cough
medicine.
Singers should also avoid h u rrie d eating, or the inhalation ol foreign
m aterial, w hich m ay cau se coughing (pow dered sugai and nuts are
notoriously bad). A coughing spell can be as harm ful as yelling lot
the sam e period of time.

CHEWING

Is th ere a practical exercise the singer can use w hen tension and
strain caused by excessive p erform ance have taken theii toll, 01
w hen tem porary physical condition interferes with optim al vocal
production?
F or several decades, som e speech therapists and laryngologists
have expressed interest in the relationship betw een chewing and
speech. Chewing, u n d e r certain circum stances, m ay im prove voice
by finding an association betw een prim itive vocal sound and speech.
(It does not, therefore, follow th a t as singers w e m u st atte m p t to
rediscover the prim itive noises th a t resem ble the chattering of the
rhesus m onkey, or th a t we should im itate "pre-speech” sounds as
som e few m odern vocal pedagogues w ould have us do.)
Emil Froeschels (1952, p. 427), w ho pioneered in the therapeutic
use of chewing, rem ark ed th at "The chew ing m ethod is not a ‘relaxa-
tion’ m ethod, b u t a m eans of bringing forth the still-present original
association of voice and speech.” How ever, a distinct sense of vocal
relaxation is often experienced by singers w ho call on this associa­
tion th rough chew ing-speaking exercises. Froeschels explains his
discovery as follows:
Since one can chew food and talk at the sam e tim e, and
since th e nerves, th e m uscles, and even the cen ter in the
an terio r cen tral convolution are the sam e, the chewing and
speaking (articulation m ovem ents) must be the sam e Sim c
I cam e to this conclusion (1934) several X ray lilms hav<
proved it to be correct. If the patient is taught to think ol
chew ing while speaking, th ere is no overconliai lion ol 1 11<
m uscles concerned in speech (and voice).
Froeschels suggests the use of "ham ham h am ” as the kind ol nylla
hie appropriate, and fu rth e r advises that "l .xpei lent e shows that II It
best to practice tw enty tim es a day, each tim e loi a lew second*
only, but alw ays with the guiding idea ol the i eal ( hewing while they
are thinking of w hat they are saying.”
234 The S tructu re of Singing

Brodnitz (1971, pp. 97-99) m akes these com m ents ab o u t the


chewing m ethod:
By using the m otions of chew ing for voice production, we
tra n sfe r the undisturbed m uscular team w ork of chewing to
the m otion of voiced speech by appealing to an inborn
au tom atic function. In doing this, we not only reduce hyper­
functional tension of the reso n ato r but also improve, at the
sam e time, vocal cord function, including the adjustm ent of
pitch to a m ore natural level. . . . The training of voices by
the chew ing m ethod is a conditioning process th a t m akes
use of a prim itive anim alistic function th a t happens to be, in
m any respects, a (win function of the use of the resonating
cavities in the production of the voice. . . .
Vocal fatigue in the singing voice does not necessarily stem from
conditions present in (he speaking voice, yet initial m uscle hyper­
function is usually I lu- source of both. If you have undergone a hec­
tic p erform ance week as a professional singer, perhaps having sung
m ore than one role that cam e close to taxing y o u r physical, vocal,
and em otional endu ran ce (a set of circum stances to avoid), o r if you
have bad to use your voice excessively in reh earsals or in teaching,
Iiv the following practical exercise, w hich is an adaptation for
singeis Irom a num ber of therapeutical sources such as Weiss and
Heeln- (1950), I'ro e s e h e ls (1952, p. 427), H o llin g sw o rth (1939,
pp. IKS <86) and Hrodnil/. (1971, pp. 98-99).

EXERCISE 17.1
FIND A COMFORTABLE POSITION IN YOUR FAVORITE CHAIR, BUT WITH
HEAD AND NECK IN UPRIGHT THOUGH RELAXED POSITION. (STANDING
DOES NOT DETRACT FROM THE VALUE OF THE EXERCISE, IF YOU ARE
COMFORTABLE.) IMAGINE CHEWING TWO LARGE PIECES OF STEAK (TWO ’
LARGE WADS OF BUBBLE GUM WILL ALSO DO), ONE ON EITHER SIDE OF
THE MOUTH. BE INELEGANT ABOUT IT, CHEWING WITH THE MOUTH OPEN,
AND MUTTERING "MUM-MUM-MUM” AT NORMAL SPEECH LEVEL. DON’T
HANG THE JAW OR ENGAGE IT IN EXCESSIVELY PERPENDICULAR
MOVEMENTS, BECAUSE YOU NEVER DO THAT EITHER IN CHEWING OR IN
SPEAKING. CHEW A FEW SECONDS AND THEN STOP. BE DELIBERATE ABOUT
THE CHEWING-MUTTERING PROCESS. AFTER A FEW SERIES OF THESE
ACTIONS, REST. IN A FEW MINUTES ADD SEVERAL SYLLABLES, SUCH AS A
LINE OF SONG TEXT, STILL CHEWING VIGOROUSLY WITH CONSIDERABLE
MOBILITY OF LIPS, CHEEKS, AND JAWS. SPEND VERY BRIEF PERIODS OF
TIME IN THIS MANNER AT SEVERAL INTERVALS THROUGHOUT THE DAY.

You m ay very well experience a rem arkable sense of relaxation of


the th ro at and neck m usculature; it has been established (Hollings­
w orth, 1939, p. 386) that m u scu lar tension in the laryngeal region
H ealthy Singing 235

decreases during chewing. It should also be kepi in view th at “real


functional trouble w ith the voice always begins willi hyperfunction”
(Froeschels, 1943, p. 127). (No claim is m ade Iliai 11ie .ml lior’s a d a p ta ­
tion of the techniques described in the aforem entioned sources has
been endorsed by those sources. Em pirical evidence supports the exer
cise, however.)
The exercise is no answ er to perm an en t habits ol pool vocal pro
duction th a t resu lt from overcontraction of the m uscles ol phonation,
but it m ay prove helpful in achieving m uscle relaxation whe n t In s ingei
is less th an fit and still has to perform . B ecause chewing and swallow
ing are prim itive functions, they are am ong the Iasi const iotis
responses to resist final debility. Calling on this reserve ol ins! met
m ay be helpful, on occasion, for the singer. However, repeated swal
lowing should be avoided, because th e act of swallow ing involves
m uscles th a t close the throat. The gum -chew ing chorister and am a
te u r singer m ay have a point. Yet th e co n stan t need to counteract
“dryness” by chew ing and swallow ing attests to a lack of technical
ease in singing.
Actual, as opposed to im aginary, chew ing is periodically used by
professional singers. A n u m b er of noted singers m u n ch aw ay
betw een en tran ces or betw een acts, using sm all quantities of food,
thereby relaxing the vocal m echanism th rough chew ing while at the
sam e tim e clearing the th ro a t th ro u g h occasional swallowing. Notic­
ing tw o apples in a colleague’s dressing room one evening, the great
(a lesser adjective is surely inappropriate) Jussi Bjoerling com ­
m ented, "So! You too are an apple ea te r betw een the acts!” He w ent
on to say th a t he found a piece of apple ju st right for a little chew ing
and swallow ing a fte r an act of h a rd singing. He p refe rre d apples to
oranges, w hich he found to be too acidic. He related th a t a world-
renow ned co n d u cto r once cam e into his dressing room to discuss a
m usical point, saw several apples on Bjoerling’s m akeup desk, and
asked, "Mr. Bjoerling, why do you have these apples I always set
sitting ab o u t in y o u r dressing room ?” Bjoerling reported Ilia I his
reply was, "M aestro, I eat them !”

SINGERS AND THE LARYNCiOl , ( ) ( i l S T

In w h a te v e r c o m m u n it y the singer lives, an appointm ent should be


m a d e early w ith th e nearest otolaryngologist al a lim e w h e n tin te Is
nt) physical problem with the singing v oice l e a t h e r , ol singing,
especially th o s e a sso c ia te d with c o lle g e s and u n lv e isltle s having a
resident laryngologist in the health service unit (imv »t I..... I o lle iin g a
voice major d egree should be so provided), should a n ange loi nil
236 The S tructu re o f S inging

m ajor stu d en ts to be briefly exam ined early in their study so th at


any fu tu re u p p er respiratory illnesses can be diagnosed against con­
ditions of good health.
The relationship betw een the singer and th e laryngologist is
second only to th at betw een singer and teacher. The laryngologist
who is unaccu sto m ed to dealing with singers m ay at tim es be m ysti­
fied as to w hy patients have presented them selves. A singer should
be able to see the "throat d o cto r” w ithout fear of em barrassm ent.
Slight irritatio n in the throat m ay cause a crisis for the singer.
N othing is m ore discouraging than to have the laryngologist say,
"Don’t be such a baby; you have only a sm all am o u n t of redness
there.” A good singer needs a good laryngologist w ho understands
the singer personality. Most singers do not foolishly ru n to the clinic
each tim e they have an upper respiratory ailm ent. However, w hen
perform ance anxieties are com pounded by physical problem s, the
laryngologist should |>lav a m ajor role in perform ance psychology.
The laryngologist and the voice teach er should cooperate in
dealing with IIn- ill voice. No teach er of singing should take on m edi­
cal responsibilities, nor should any laryngologist teach singing. (Even
the laryngologist who has studied singing and has h ad som e success
as .in .mi.item singer should hesitate to offer specific advice about
singing tec hniques; voice teachers ought not to dispense m edical
prescriptions.)

WEIGHT AND THE SINGING VOICE

W hat is the ideal weight for the singer? Is it true, as has often been
stated in interview s given by prom inent overw eight artists, th at
additional avoirdupois is needed in o rd er to project the voice in thé
opera house, or to "im prove resonance” (as if padding contributed to
resonance). Certainly not! The ideal weight for singing is the ideal
weight for any vital activity. Most singers who are obese got th a t way
because the responsibility of a m ajor c areer is a heavy burden. E at­
ing is one of th e w ays the psyche is kind to itself, m aking up physi­
cally for all the m ental pain th a t accom panies artistic discipline. Fat
singers are notoriously short-w inded, ju st as fat baseball players
have a problem w ith running bases. The heaving chest of the out-of­
breath, overw eight singer at the conclusion of a dram atic aria is
neither pleasant to w atch n o r healthful for the artist. The oft-
repeated story of the fam ous diva w ho lost weight and acquired a
w obble as a result is incorrect; the tendency to oscillate in the top
voice was always there, simply becom ing m ore m arked with the pas­
sage of years. W aistline had nothing to do with it.
The conventions of the lyric th e a te r have undergone som e
H ealthy Singing 237

im provem ent in recen t decades with regard to the personal disci­


pline dem anded of singing artists. If one chooses to ply the trad e of the
th eater, one should be willing to accept the physical discipline th at
goes w ith it. T here is no m ore reason to accept an obese Rom eo in
o p e ra th an in dram a. S ound simply is not everything, either in the
lyric th ea ter or on the concert stage.
Young singers w ho w ant careers on the operatic stage should
consider w eight loss to be as essential to building a eat e n as olhei
parts of c areer preparation. The few persons who have m ade mod
ern m ajor careers regardless of th e handicap of obesity should not
serve to m islead aspiring singers into believing that being ovei weight
does not m atter. It is alm ost im possible to be successful in today's
th e a te r if one is obese, ju st as it is im possible for a m ale singer wini is
five feet tall to have an operatic career. It m ay not be fair, but it is a
fact of the real world. C haracter roles th en are the only possible
routes open.

DIET AND THE SINGER

W e have already briefly m entioned in an o th er context som e per-


form ance-day diet fads am ong singers. W hatever the value of "n atu ­
ral” foods, roughage diets, vegetarian diets, yogurt, o r steak and let­
tuce, the best h ab itu al diet of the singer is the diet th a t best equips
for general living. T here is no specific food o r drink th a t produces
som e uniquely favorable condition w ithin th e larynx, despite p rev a­
lent singer superstitions. (Pity the p oor soprano w ho m ust sing with
the ten o r w ho chew s garlic cloves to put "ring” in his voice!) W hat­
ever is nourishing and avoids gastric distu rb an ce is an appropriate
diet for the singer. A high-protein diet is alw ays advisable lo r height
ened physical activity, while high salt content in the diet may i aus<
thirst and th ro a t dryness, as it does in any athletic event S inger,
need m oist vocal folds (Lawrence, 1981, p. 25) and should develop
the habit of high liquid consum ption, partly because ol 1 1u loss ol
liquid th ro u g h perspiring in costum e, u n d er heavy lights, in ............ I
ing roles.
Eating habits of singers are frequently based on the national
habits with which they have grown up. Som e slngei s lak< i Ini « noon
m eal and do not eat until a fte r the pel loi m ain e (a i om nion Ann 1 1
can practice because most Am ericans liavc lieiom e m i usiom ed lo
an early dinner hour, which often occurs loo close lo pci loi malice
time). Many Italian and French singers eat lightly seveial h o u r,
before p erfo rm an ce time, then m ore heartily ttlleiw ind (pm 1 1y
because they a re usually accustom ed to a late d ln n o hour), while
G erm ans, w ho are prone lo une techniques ol Ihmi hiiu ' <i u\iiit t
238 The S tru ctu re of Singing

(distended abdom inal “su p p o rt”), often eat heartily before perfor­
m ance (w hich takes place earlier in the G erm an th a n in the Italian
theater), so th a t th ere will be som ething to push against while sing­
ing. W hatever th e technique of b reath m anagem ent, it is clear th a t a
full stom ach inhibits proper diaphragm atic descent, yet som e reserve
of energy m ust be present for the active physical w ork of singing. A
nourishing, unsalted, m odest meal, several hours before curtain
time, seem s sensible.

PHYSICAL EXERCISE AND SINGING

It has already been suggested that quietude m ight be advisable for


the artist on a perform ance day. W hat about physical activity during
the course of eac h Iraining day? (Any nonperform ance day is a train ­
ing day for the s e rio u s singer, except for an occasional holiday break
o r for periods ol illness.) Singers are quite fam iliar w ith the colleague
(generally an aggressive baritone or d ram atic mezzo) w ho is con­
vinced that m uscles m ake the singer: weight lifting, isom etrics,
handball, squash, perhaps tennis and swimming, and today, espe­
cially jogging, are thought to develop the body for th e physical
events of singing. Such activities are fine if they ensure excellent,
general physical condition and if they are not strenuously carried
out past the age when physical exercise should be cut back.
Even in the prim e years, it is questionable th at m uscular devel­
opm ent, including those m uscles directly related to singing, need
attain special dim ensions for singing. Physical activities th a t produce
flexibility and suppleness for light m ovem ent are best for the singer.
R unning outdoors in cold w eath er causes respiratory problem s in
som e singers and should be avoided by them . In general, the singer
should probably spend m ore tim e in the practice room and less tim e
working o ut in the gym nasium o r running in the park.

LONGEVITY AND THE VOICE

W hat can a singer do th a t will e n su re vocal longevity? Longevity in


singing is difficult to predict. One w ould like to think th at a fine vocal
technique w ould be the answ er to th at question. Then one recalls the
ancient ten o r who always sang out of the corner of his m outh and
who pushed his voice to w hat seem ed the ultim ate limit, but who
nevertheless continued to sing publicly until a fte r age 70, while a
m uch-adm ired "technician” was finished at 40. W hat can it mean? It
H ealthy Singing 239

m eans th a t in singing, as in all of life, control is not alw ays in o u r


hands.
T here a re certain aspects of aging in the vocal m echanism th at
can be m itigated. T here is no way we can d im llv »«>nl i <>1 Ilu- process
of grad u al ossification of cartilage (which begins the day we are
born; studies indicate th a t certain kinds of flexibility in laryngeal car
tilage have already largely disappeared by the thirtieth ycai ol lile),
b u t co n stan t exercising of the "voice m achine” may retard the pro
cess of aging, delaying at least som e of the ravages ol tim e Just as
th e body of M artha G raham at age 70 bore little relationship to Ihe
n orm al g randm otherly body of th a t age, the singer’s larynx need not
m irro r th a t of the norm al "non-athletic” speech m echanism The
aging singer w ho has th e incentive to get up in the m orning and sing
th ro u g h the regim en of vocal technique, along the lines indicated in
this book, will certainly continue to sing longer th an if no serious
attem p t is m ade to keep th e in stru m en t flexible and in perform ance
condition.
Even in cases w here singers, cau g h t up by problem s of teaching
o r career, have allow ed the daily regim en to lapse, th e body will
respond by recovering forgotten skills, if once again recalled to them .
No one can be g u a ra n te e d th a t a t age 67 he or she will possess the
sam e relative degree of singing skill d em o n strated by Gigli or Schipa
(and if recordings a re reliable, by De Luca) at th at age, b u t th ere is
absolute assu ran ce th a t if one keeps the voice going, daily, it will
rew ard one, w hereas inactivity will produce nothing b u t silence.

THE OPTIMISTIC PERFORMER

T here a re those w ho w ould tra n sfe r th e a rt of singing out ol the


physical w orld into th e realm of th e mind. Mental attitude, we are
told, determ ines everything in singing. A n u m b er ol the pages of this
book have been devoted to describing the physiological and .u ou-.ti
cal processes th a t produce the optim um vocal tim bre and contiol
the technical aspects of singing; these processes supply the m eans
th rough w hich artistic com m unication can he presented llow evei,
no m atte r w hat the technical orientation or level ol skill, a p< sslmis
tic singer is not a successful singer; m ental attitude t an m ake oi
break a career. The singer w ho has acquit ed 11 ce physic al i espimses,
w ho has digested the poem, the dram atic situation, and the musical
idiom, and w ho feels com pelled lo express peisonal i ra illo n s
through the am algam ation of body, word, and imagination, should
enter confidently into the act ol perform aiue, believing In Its
rightness.

.
APPEN D IX 1

Laryngeal Structure
ana Function

The complex human respiratory-phonatory mechanism evolved I...... the


need to protect the upper air passages of the respiratory system dm it if Mu-
essential exchange of metabolic gas—a biological function. I'hoii.iltnn .hum
as a secondary, specialized activity, as the result of certain gains .mil In ..
accompanying physiological changes within the vocal tract. According In
Negus (1949, p. 194), the human larynx, as a result of the process of evnlti
tion, is uniquely suited to the demands of speech and song:
There is no doubt that a simple larynx, such as that of the cat tribe,
would be sufficient for the needs of Man in mere speech; his more
highly evolved organ, with its secondary valvular fold (usually
called the vocal cord or vocal fold), is of advantage for purposes of
song because of its greater flexibility and is of value in allowing
modulation of the speaking voice.
The vocal tones of Man are of a more mellow quality than
those of a Gibbon or a Chimpanzee, because the vocal cords have
less sharp edges; this change to a less efficient type of valve is con­
sequent upon the abandonment of a purely arboreal existence, as
the complete valvular closure of Lemurs, Monkeys and Apes is not
required.
Although humans are ill-suited to an arboreal existence and arc at a
distinct disadvantage in running when pitted against the antelope and the
horse (partly because humans cannot open the glottis as widely), the relative
shortness of the human arytenoid cartilages and the length of the humnii
vocal folds (not to mention the atrophied condition of the human epiglottis)
give humans certain advantages in phonation. Negus (1949, p I'M) oiler.
comfort for any apparent loss to humans through the evolutli..... \ i »" m
by remarking that the relatively slow intake of extra an ......... ■ >>\ loi
rapid running and climbing now lacking in humans Is compensated lm l>\
the superior intelligence that results in geneial piedominmn i II would
appear to be a fair trade-off.
Zemlin (1981, p. 127) suggests that as primates, we view (In ptlmlpul
nonbiological function of the larynx to be sound pioilnelloii 11* mmlllli , iln
viewpoint that sound production is not biologit al, reminding
Because speech is an integral pari ol Imnnm hehavloi, howevi i tin
notion that it is nonbiological may be open lo t illli Ism II Is Imp Is
through speech that we are able lo eonnminii ale will» nlhei ■<and lo
241
242 The S tructu re of Singing

make known our wants and needs. Indeed, speech is so much a part
of human behavior, it might well be considered a "second order”
biological function. Regardless of the stand one may take, there is
no debating that the larynx functions as a sound generator only
when it is not fulfilling the vital biological functions. . ..

Complementing the earlier views of Negus, Zemlin continues:

The human larynx is especially well-equipped for sound production.


The vocal folds are long, smoothly rounded bands of muscle tissue
which may be lengthened and shortened, tensed and relaxed, and
abducted and adducted. In addition, there is good evidence that the
tension of the vocal folds may be varied segmentally as well as
grossly. Compared with less we 11-developed animals, the human
arytenoid cartilages are quite small with respect to the total length
of the valvular mechanism. This means that the muscular, vibrating
portion of the vocal fold is quite long and well suited for sound
production.
Singing is an extension ol the nonbiological function (or the "second
order” function) ol the larynx. At least a rudimentary understanding of the
physiology ol the larynx is essential in determining functional efficiency in
singing Kenyon |> 428) has suggested that the physiological larynx
should be del lut'd as the entire m echanism on which vocal fold m ovement
depends Nul only is the laryngeal box suspended, but the box is movable
only as part ol the total mechanism that moves the hyoid bone; this m echa­
nism ini hides the base ol the tongue, the floor of the mouth, and the lower
jaw.
The structure and Iunction ol Ihe larynx provide a logical starting point
lor even a brie! examination of the mechanics of the instrument of voicing.

C A RTILA G IN O U S S T R U C T U R E O F T H E LARYN X

The larynx is situated at the top of the trachea, occupying a somewhat cen­
tral position in the respiratory tract that extends from the nose and lips to
the bronchioles in the lungs (see Figure 2.1). The cartilaginous framework of
the larynx is m ade up of a total of nine cartilages: three single (unpaired)
cartilages, and three paired cartilages of lesser dimension, all connected by
ligaments and membranes. The cartilages are subject to movement by a
number of muscles (see Figures A 1.1 and A 1.2).

T h e S in g le o r U n p a ire d L a ry n g e a l C a rtila g e s
The shield-shaped thyroid cartilage is the largest of the laryngeal cartilages,
often quite prominent in males. The laryngeal prominence or "Adam’s apple”
(pomum Adami) is formed by the laminae of the thyroid cartilage (sec Fig­
ure A 1.1 a), which join in front and diverge like the covers of a slightly
L aryngeal S tructu re a n d Function 243

epiglottis

hyoid bone

thyroid cartilage

arytenoid
cartilages

cricoid ca rtila g e

------- tra c h e a ----------

hyoid bone

epiglottis

superior '
horn

oblique thyroid
anterior line ’ ca rtila g e
prominence
inferior
horn
cricoid
cartilage

trachea

Figure A l.l. C artilages of th e larynx. (The in ferior co rn u <>1 llic llivm ld . iilil.ip
articulates w ith th e cricoid cartilage. This synovial joint p e n n il‘. i Imwintl m Inn l>
w ard rocking m ovem ent.) (From M eribeth Bunch, DvHtimh s of llu SIny.lii)' Vn(n
1982. New York: Springer-Verlag. By permission.)

opened book. A t the back (posteriorly) ol the tlivmid iiiiI|Iii|m m e In. ,iicd
on each side, an upper and a lower horn (sec I iguic*. Al I uni Al ,’) • .u li
upper horn (superior cornu) is attached lo Ihi- hvuid hour, Ilit- Imwi limn
(inferior cornu) extends downward po.slci iorlv ovci the *.idr nl llir iilio ld
cartilage, articulating with the cricoid I »v menu* ol n Im r t on tin ’h iiIiim ol
the tip of each horn (see Figures A 1,1c and AI )
244 The S tru ctu re of Singing

opening
into
larynx

thyro­
hyoid
membrane
outline of
arytenoid
cartilage
thyro-arytenold
(vocalis) muscle posterior
crico ­
crico ­ arytenoid m.
thyroid crico-thyrold m.
muscle (cut) lateral crico ­
arytenoid m.

cun«lform tub«rcl« ary-ep iglottic muscle


cornlculatir tubri ( Ic
oblique arytenoid m.

transverse arytenoid m.

posterior crico­
arytenoid muscle

Figure A 1.2. Intrinsic m uscles of th e larynx. The paired lateral cricoarytenoids (a) are
attach ed to th e lateral an d superior portions of th e cricoid cartilage, and th e tips of th e
vocal processes of th e arytenoid cartilages. The in terarytenoid m uscle (b) is attach ed
to the posterior su rface of both arytenoid cartilages. The cricothyroid m uscle (c) is
paired and attach e d to th e an terio r portion of th e cricoid cartilage and th e inferior
horn and inner an d o u te r edges of th e low er b o rd er o f th e thyroid cartilage. The
paired thyroarytenoid (a) m uscle consists of tw o parts: th e internal thyroarytenoid or
vocalis, w hich form s the body of th e vocal fold, and the external thyroarytenoid,
w hich is lateral to th e vocal fold an d th e vestib u lar fold; often som e of its fibers a re
found in th e vestibular fold. The p osterior cricoarytenoid (b) is paired, and attach ed to
the posterior portion o f the cricoid lam ina and th e posterior su rface of th e m u scu lar
process of each arytenoid. (From M eribeth Bunch, D ynam ics o f th e S in gin g Voice,
1982. New York: Springer-Verlag. By permission.)
Laryngeal S tructu re a n d Function 245

Located at the top of the trachea, the cricoid cartilage, the lowest of the
three single unpaired cartilages of the larynx, has a shape suggesting a signet
ring with the seal portion located posteriorly and Ihr arch anteriorly; it
forms the lower part of the front and side walls ol Ihr I,it viih and much of
its posterior wall (see Figures A l.l and A1.2). On cadi side <>l tin- arch, small
oval facets provide articulation with the lower horn (in ln ioi <mini) ol the
thyroid cartilage. Shallow depressions mark the origin ol Ili« puslnlm i ii
coarytenoid muscles. The cricoid cartilage is attached antciioilv and lain
ally to the cricothyroid m uscles (see Figures A l.l and A1,2).ancl |><>sln Im K to
the inferior constrictor of the pharynx.
A third single cartilage, the epiglottis (see Figures A l.la .lv ), h a s I n
quently been described as having the shape of a bicycle seal, m a Irai, wit Ii
the broad end swinging upward and hanging free; the narrow inln Im pm
tion of the epiglottis is attached to the thyroid cartilage by ligaments, and In
the arytenoid cartilages by the aryepiglottic folds.

T h e P a ire d L a ry n g e a l C a rtila g e s
Of the three sets of paired cartilages of the larynx, the arytenoids, to which
are attached the vocal ligaments and the internal muscles of the larynx (see
Figures 1.1 and A l.l), are the m ost important. Each arytenoid cartilage is
pyramidal in shape, with three surfaces, a base, and an apex (see Fig­
ures A 1.1 a and A 1.1b). The base of each arytenoid cartilage is concave,
presenting a smooth surface for articulation with the cricoid cartilage, and
each of these paired arytenoid cartilages is located on top of the posterior
laminae of the cricoid cartilage. Projecting laterally, the rounded muscular
processes afford insertion for the posterior cricoarytenoid m uscles in back
(see Figure A 1.2a) and to the lateral cricoarytenoid m uscles in front (see
Figure A 1.2a). The horizontal transverse arytenoid is a single m uscle that
extends from one arytenoid cartilage to the other and covers the posterior
border of each arytenoid cartilage. The oblique arytenoid muscle pair criss
crosses the transverse arytenoid m uscle from the base of one arytenoid car
tilage to the apex of the opposite arytenoid cartilage in an X-like fashion (scr
Figure A1.2b). These muscles, the single horizontal transverse, and Ilu
oblique pair, are som etim es described as two parts of the same miisi l< tin
arytenoid muscle. The pointed vocal processes of the arytenoid <ailllngi
project forward, providing attachment for the vocal ligaments (se< I ip
tires 1.1 and A 1.2a).
Through its backward and medial eurvalute, the apes ol <m h ai mi mild
cartilage articulates with a very small conical elastic milting! tin- i mini n
late cartilage of Santorini.
The cuneiform cartilages of W risbcig ate Iwo small pain il rlastli i aitl
lages that support the aryepiglottic fold. Vcnuaid ( I‘>r»7, p M) gn < a i nlm
Ini description of their function: "Stiffening lliest |ai‘yrplglnllli | lolil llki
whalebone in the collar of a wom an’s dress, at e the i at tllngi s •>! Wi Islirtg
246 The S tru ctu re o f S inging

In addition to these three cartilage pairs, triticeal cartilages (small grain­


like, cartilaginous lumps) are located in ligaments that suspend the thyroid
cartilage from the hyoid bone. Vcnnard (1967, p. 53) points out that the
cuneiform cartilages of Wrisberg and the triticeal cartilages are vestigial in
humans.

LIG A M E N TS AND M EM B R A N E S O F T H E LARYN X

The laryngeal cartilages are joined to adjacent structures by a number of


ligamentous membranes.
A broad sheet of membrane, the hyothyroid m em brane (also called the
thyrohyoid m em brane) (see l igures 4.8 and 4.9) arises along ihe superior
border of the thyroid cartilage and attaches to the superior horns of the
thyroid cartilage; Ihe hvolliyroid membrane connects to the posterior sur­
face of the hyoid bone and to the greater horns (superior cornua) of the
hyoid bone (see I'igut e AI J) The thicker middle portion of the membrane is
known as die middle hvolliyroid ligament (also median thyrohyoid ligament).
The posleiioi bolder, of ihe hyothyroid membrane connect the tips of the
.............. In ii us ni the thyroid cartilage to the lower ends of the horns of the
hyoid bone, and ai r lei med lateral hyothyroid ligaments. The triticeal carti­
lages ate Imbedded in lliese ligaments.
The cricotraclical ligament connects the inferior border of the cricoid
cartilage with the first tracheal ring.
The large elastic membrane of the larynx (covered on its inner surface
by m ucous membrane) consists of a nearly continuous broad sheet of tissue
that contains elastic fibers. This membrane has been variously described
anatomically, but generally as two separate membranes or elastic ligaments.
The upper, less well-defined part of this broad membrane is sometimes
designated as the quadrangular membrane, terminology that describes its
shape (see Figure A 1.3). The lower anterior portion of the membrane is’well
defined, consisting of paired lateral sections that form the conus elasticus (in
som e literature called the cricovocal membrane). The conus elasticus con­
nects the thyroid, the cricoid, and the arytenoid cartilages. Zemlin (1981,
pp. 143-144) says:

A frontal section through a larynx . . . reveals the cavity below the


vocal folds to be funnel- or cone-shaped. This explains the term
conus elasticus. . . . It is actually a connective tissue lining of the
larynx. Although it is a continuous sheet of membrane which con­
nects the thyroid, cricoid, and arytenoid cartilages with one another,
it is com m only divided (for descriptive purposes) into an anterior or
m edial cricothyroid ligament and two lateral cricothyroid m em ­
branes. Together they constitute the conus elasticus, which extends
from the superior border of the arch and lamina of the cricoid car­
tilage to the upper limit of the true vocal fo ld s.. . .
L aryngeal S tru ctu re a n d Function 247

Posterior th y ro h y o id H yothyroid m em brane


ligam ent

Ilyoid hone

I plglolll»

Al yr|>l||lullk
i■'lit

(Juuili ii ii||tilii i
111c 1111 ■I HIM'

T hyroid
cartilage

Piraform
sinus

Cricoid
cartilage

Pharyngeal wall

Figure A1.3. P osterior view of th e larynx in tw o levels o f dissection. (From N orm al


A spects o f Speech, H earing, a n d Language, ed. by Fred. D. Minifie, T hom as J. Hixon,
and F rederick Williams, 1973. Englew ood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. By perm ission.)

Appelman (1967, pp. 47-48) succinctly details the structure and function
of the conus elasticus and the cricothyroid membrane:
The conus is slit along its upper edge, and the upper borders of Ihe
slit form the vocal ligam ent.. . . The posterior and superior portion
of the slits are attached to the base of the vocal process nl em Ii
arytenoid. The arytenoids in their gliding articulations open and
close the slit (the glottis). The anterior portion o! die com I......is
the cricothyroid membrane. The conus elustlcus is m veied with
muscle and tissue, which are loosely allai lied lo II As lin divin
arytenoid muscle contracts the conus becomes Him
Several additional ligaments should be mentioned, al least in pavane 1
forming part of the complex laryngeal mechanism
• The thyroepiglottic ligaments connei I the epiglottis anil tin thwnld
cartilage.
248 The S tru ctu re of S inging

• The hyoepiglottic ligament is an unpaired ligament that connects the


epiglottis to the superior border of the hyoid bone.
• The medial cricothyroid ligament connects the cricoid and thyroid car­
tilages.
• The posterior and lateral ceratocricoid ligament pairs connect the cri­
coid and thyroid cartilages.
• The cricoarytenoid ligaments serve as a connecting link between the
arytenoid and the cricoid cartilages.
• The corniculate pharyngeal ligaments connect the com iculate carti­
lages to the cricoid cartilage at ihe pharyngeal wall.
• The aryepiglottic folds extend from the epiglottis to the apexes of the
arytenoids, and they form the lateral boundaries of the vestibule of
the larynx.

I III INTERIOR OF THE LARYNX


The laryngeal i avlty is divided into three compartments by two pairs of folds
that extend Im m I..... I to back on each side: the false cords (the vestibular
folds) ubo\ i uni die true vocal folds below (see Figure A1.4).(jhe superior
conipai tilleul ni ilie laryngeal eavity is known as the vestibule of the larynx,
.mil extends Imm die pharyngeal opening of the larynx (aditus laryngis) to
the vestibulai folds This aperture is bounded anteriorly by the upper part of
the epiglottis, posteriorly by m ucous membrane that stretches between the
arytenoids, and laterally by the aryepiglottic folds (see Figure A 1.5). The
pyriform (also piriform) sinus is a deep depression lateral to the aditus
laryngis (see Figures A 1.3, and A 1.4), the upper aperture of the larynx that
leads to the pharynx./The middle compartment of the cavity of the larynx
consists of the laryngeal ventricles. The rima glottidis is the rim formed by
the true vocal folds (see Figure A 1.5). The space between the ligamentous
portions of the rima glottidis is known as the glottis vocalis; the space
between the cartilaginous portions, between the arytenoid cartilages, is the
glottis respiratoria. (The glottis, of course, is the space between the true vocal
folds.)

MUSCLES OF THE LARYNX AND THEIR FUNCTION

Muscle function is described by indicating points of muscle origin and mus­


cle insertion. (A muscle has its origin in the relatively fixed framework of the
body; the opposite end of the m uscle inserts in the bone or cartilage which
it moves.) The intrinsic laryngeal m uscles have both their origin and their
insertion within the larynx, except for the cricothyroids, which may be con­
sidered both intrinsic and extrinsic laryngeal muscles (Zenker, 1964b, p. 20).
L aryngeal S tru ctu re a n d Function 249

M ( H v lii|iy ii|i|n i|«


P ars oralis pharyngis
M
I IHHIHI 111(1111 Ill'll
•|•I|i11<II II Hill
C artilago epiglottica (. mi | mi» . — I- I iv m I i I mI
I lUlllMMIII ll ll l II I >11 II I H III
Pars laryngea pharyngis <11*11111 m u l l ......
Plica aryepiglottica
l l l l l . , t H im . i.m ti III
« h i in ill i n |i|< ‘(
Tuberculum cuneiform e M . I l u iM 'li | n id i II»
T uberculum cornicu- I-lllll llll1Ill HIM l i n | t m )•(
latum u l o l l l i lllll
Incisura interarytaen-
oidea
Plica ventricularis
Ventriculus laryngis Cnrtlliiun iln
Plica vocalis
Labium vocale
M . eternoliyoldnii*

C avum laryngis M . cricothyriMildiMiN

L igam entum cilcothy-


reoideum

C artilago cricoidea

Isthm us glandulae
thyreoidèae

Figure A 1.4. The interio r o f th e larynx. (From C. L atim er Callander, S u rgical Annlnniy
1948, 2d ed. Philadelphia: W. B. S au n d ers Company. By permission.)

The extrinsic m uscles have at least one attachment outside Ilu- l.u vni, iliev
offer the larynx structural support and often help li.x il in punition

Extrinsic Muscles
Suprahyoid Muscles (Laryngeal Elevators), The -iiipi ulisold iihim li ihIm
the larynx.
The digastric m uscle has its origin in two loi niions ilir pii'ilciltii lirllv
from the temporal bone at the mastoid notch; llir nnleiim belly lim n the
fossa of the mandible (see Figure AI ,ft) llolh pm Is ill ilih puli cil niun le .n e
M edian glosso-epiglottic fold D o rsum of tongue

E piglottis

Epiglottic tu b e rc le

V allecula

V ocal fold
V e s t i b u l a r f ol d

Piriform recess
V en tricle o f la rynx

C uneiform tubercle
A r y e p i g l o t t i ç f o ld
C o rniculate tu b e rcle

Vocal p r o c e s s o f a r y t e n o id ca rtilag a R ings of t r a c h e a

Figure A 1.5. Laryngoscopie view ol the cavity of the larynx during m oderate inspira­
tion. The rim a glottidis is widely open. (From C u n n in g h a m s M an ual o f P ractical A n at­
om y, 13th ed., Vol. 3, ed. by <i I Romanes, 1967. London: O xford U niversity Press. By
permission.)

ftiyloglottiU Digastric

T ra n sm is procsst nf atlas
Nplsnius —jKHl
Stylohyoid
Mylohyoid
Hyoglossus
Fascial loop routul
digastric ttmdon
Sternocleidomastoid
Jjongus capUis

Levator glandulae
Levator scapulae thyroideae

Omohyoid Sternohyoid
Trapezius Jm
Cricothyroid
Scalenus
medius

Scalenus posterior'

Scalenus anterior

Sternothyroid

Figure A 1.6. The m uscles o f th e fro n t of th e neck. On th e right side of the su b ject the
sternocleidom astoid m uscle has been rem oved. In this subject, th e origin of th e scale­
nus m edius extended up to th e tran sv erse process of th e atlas. (From Gray's Anatom y,
36th ed., ed. by P ete r L. Williams an d R oger W arwick, 1980. E dinburgh: Churchill
Livingstone. By permission.)

250
L aryngeal S tructu re a n d Function 251

inserted into an intermediate tendon, which in (urn is attached by a fibrous


loop to the hyoid bone. The digastric m uscle raises Ihe hyoid bone as well as
the base of the tongue, and steadies the hyoid bone. II (lie hyoid bone is in a
fixed position, the digastric assists in depressing the mandible
The stylohyoid muscle has its origin at the poslerioi bordei ol the styloid
process of the temporal bone (see Figures 4.8, and Al ft) The lylohyoid is
inserted at the junction of the hyoid bone with the jjte.ilei enmn, iinme
diately above the omohyoid muscle. Both the hyoid bone ami the lusi ol (lie
tongue are elevated by the stylohyoid muscle.
The m ylohyoid m uscle takes its origin along the mylohvold l i m whli li
extends from the mandibular symphysis to the last molai tin ..... . Ir is
inserted into the median raphé from the chin to the hyoid hone, posteiioi
libers are attached to the body of the hyoid bone (see Figure 4.*>) Win 11 tin
hyoid bone is fixed, the mylohyoid depresses the mandible; the mylohyoid
muscle elevates the hyoid bone and the base of the tongue, and raises tin
l loor of the mouth.
The geniohyoid muscle originates at the lower genial tubercle on the
back of the mandibular symphysis, insertion occurring at the anterior sin
lace of the body of the hyoid bone (see Figures 4.7, 4.8, and 4.9). The genio
hyoid elevates the hyoid bone and the tongue.
Two additional m uscles act as supplementary laryngeal elevators, when
called on, although they are intrinsic tongue muscles. The genioglossus m us­
cle (see Figure 4.8) arises from the symphysis of the mandible, above the
I’cniohyoid. The lower fibers of the genioglossus are inserted into the hyoid
hone, middle fibers are inserted along the inferior surface of the tongue, and
insertion of superior fibers occurs at the tip of the tongue. In contraction,
the genioglossus m uscle raises the hyoid bone and moves it forward, or it
lifts both the hyoid and the larynx, or it draws the tongue downward to the
Ityoid bone. The middle fibers of the genioglossus also protrude the tongue.
The hyoglossus muscle has its origin in the sides and body of the greater
horn of the hyoid bone. The hyoglossus inserts into the sides and the back of
Ihc tongue, and interlaces with fibers of the styloglossus and the loiiyj
tudinalis inferior m uscle of the tongue. The hyoglossus muscle draws down
the sides of the tongue; together with the genioglossus, the hyoy.lossu*.
depresses the tongue (see Figures 4.8, 4.9, and A 1.6).

Infrahyoid Muscles (Laryngeal Depressors). T h e m l t . i h y o i i l n i i i s i li l o u . i ih<


larynx.
The sternohyoid m uscle (see Figure A I.ft) lakes Ils oilfiln I.......tin pn
teiior surface of the manubrium of the sternum, l i o m the pimleilui ul tin
sternoclavicular ligament, and from the medial end ol tin ■lavh lt< Hits
muscle inserts into the lower border ol the hyoid hone, mid depii • tin
larynx and the hyoid bone; when the hyoid hone Is In .i Ilied pn'tlllon, th<
sternohyoid muscle assists in raising the Met mini
The sternothyroid muscle arisen Ironi the poMciim . ml m > nl ih< mmi
ubrium ol the sternum and Iront the ed^e ol the Iti si i oMul i m lllni" I hi
252 The S tru ctu re of S inging

muscle inserts along the oblique line of the thyroid lamina and lowers the
larynx by pulling the thyroid cartilage downward. The sternothyroid tilts the
thyroid cartilage down and forward, thereby enlarging the pharynx (see
Figure A 1.6).
The o m o h y o i d m u s c l e has an inferior and a superior belly, the first aris­
ing from the upper border of the scapula and the suprascapular ligament,
the second extending upward from a tendon under the sternocleidomastoid
muscles. These bellies insert into ihc inferior border of the body of the hyoid
bone. In contracting, the omohyoid muscle depresses the hyoid bone. The
hyoid bone is steadied by the omohyoid. The omohyoid can retract and
depress the larynx (see Figure A1.6).
The t h y r o h y o i d m u s c le appears to be an extension of the sternothyroid,
originating from the posteru >i surfaces of the oblique line of the laminae of the
thyroid cartilage. The thyrohyoid has ils insertion in the lower border of the
hyoid bone, and in tin- gi eatn horn. When the thyroid cartilage is fixed, the
thyrohyoid depresses the hyoid bone and the larynx. When the hyoid bone is
fixed, the thyrohyoid musi le elevates the thyroid cartilage.

Intrinsic Muscles
l.ai vnj'i ul mum le 11 itii lion as abductors (openers), adductors (closers), ten­
sor., .nul le la x n s ol the voeal folds. The arytenoids are separated by the
abducloi m usclc. .i( inspiration, and the abductors are opposed by the
addiii lm •, which close the glottis for phonatory function and for protection.
The vocal Iolds are lightened and elongated by the glottal tensors. The ten­
sor muscles are opposed by (lie relaxers, which shorten the vocal folds.
The t h y r o a r y t e n o id m u s c le (see Figure A 1.2a) is a complex paired mus­
cle of two parts: the t h y r o m u s c u la r is (also e x te r n a l t h y r o a r y t e n o id ) and the
t h y r o v o c a lis (also in t e r n a l th y r o a r y te n o id , or simply v o c a lis ) . The t h y r o m u s ­
c u la r is is bound by and attaches to the lamina of the thyroid cartilage. Its
fibers have their origin in the’lower half of the thyroid cartilage at the angle,
and are inserted into the anterolateral surface and the muscular processes
of the arytenoid cartilages.
The i n t e r n a l t h y r o a r y t e n o id (v o c a lis ) has its origin in the posterior sur­
face of the angle of the thyroid cartilage and inserts into the vocal processes
and the lateral surfaces of the arytenoids. The v o c a lis muscle (see Fig­
ure A 1.2a) forms the medial portion of the complex paired thyroarytenoid
muscle, and provides the main mass of each vocal fold. Vocalis muscle fib­
ers adjoin the vocal ligaments and attach to the inferior and lateral surfaces
of the vocal ligaments. Appelman (1967, p. 46) states:
Som e of the fibers of the vocalis muscle are short and do not extend
to the vocal process of each arytenoid cartilage. The fibers, attached
to the vocal ligament and conus elasticus . . . perform the refined
tasks of controlling the conformation of the vocal fold in its various
states of thickness and thinness during changes in pitch.
Ixiryngeal Structure a n d Function 253

A ppelm an (1967, p. 57) further describ es possible actions o f the thyro­


arytenoid m uscles:

1. R elax and shorten the vocal ligam ent by draw ing the aryte­
noids tow ards the thyroid cartilage for the singing ol low
pitches.
2. Draw the vocal processes o f the arytenoids dow nw ard and
inward, approxim ating the vocal folds.
3. Pull the vocal folds apart by their lateral contraction
4. B ecom e stabilized throughout their active length and, llu ir b v ,
aid in raising the pitch o f the phonated sound.
5. Vary both the length and the thickness o f the vibrating M g
m ent.
6. R ender a portion o f the vocal fold ten se w hile the rem aindei is
relaxed.

The Muscles of Adduction


I he m uscles o f adduction bring the vocal folds together.
The transverse arytenoid is a single m u scle that assists in closin g the
glottis by approxim ating the arytenoid cartilages. Fibers o f the transverse
arytenoid m u scle h ave their origin in the lateral and posterior su rface of an
arytenoid cartilage and insert into corresponding su rfaces o f the opposite
arytenoid (see Figures 1.1 and A1.2b).
The paired oblique arytenoid m u scle assists in closing the glottis by
approxim ating the arytenoid cartilages (see Figure 1.1). Each o f th ese m us-
i les originates in the posterior su rface o f the m uscular p rocess o f an aryte­
noid and inserts into the apex o f the opposite m uscular process (see
Figure A1.2b).
The lateral cricoarytenoid m u scles approxim ate the vocal processes bv
rotating the arytenoid cartilages inward. Arising from the upper lateral part
ol the cricoid cartilage, this fan-shaped m uscle inserts on the must iil.u pm
* v .s o f each arytenoid (see Figure A1.2a,b), Zemlin (1981, pp IM h> 11
states:
T he lateral c r ic o a ry te n o id m u sc le is an im p o rta n t glolial a d d m tm
th a t m a y also f u n c tio n as a glottal relaxoi both lunt linn an-
im p o rta n t fo r voice p ro d uction. It is a slightly Ian sham 'd i i i i i m h
located d e e p to th e th y roid cartilage in the a n le m la le i al wall ni l|n
larynx. T he medial s u r f a c e of this m uscle lit". In d l i et I t miiat i wiili
the c o n u s elasticus, an d . , . from a n a n a to m ic a l standpoint II m a l l s
s e e m s to b e an extension of th e must le mas*, wlilt h main . up the
vocal fold (cricothyroarytcnoid).
T he p o sterio r cricoaryten oid (also d o i\n l <r i n m i v i r n m d m siniph
r'tpcclully a m o n g te a c h e r s o f singing w ho use h im tlmial langiiagi /mWfi it*)
254 The Structure of Singing

IplyloHli

I # m p i hyold c ornu G r e a te r hyo id cornu

Su p e rio r th yro id cornu

T h yro id notch
O b liq u e lin e

C ric o th y ro id
(pars re c ta )
■Cricothyroid
(p ars o b liq u e )

Tra c h e a

(b)

Figure A 1.7. (a) S ch em atic view o f cricothyroid m u scles and associated laryngeal
structures; (b) photograph o f cricothyroid and associated laryngeal structures. (From
W. R. Zemlin, Speech and Hearing Science, 2d éd., 1981. Englew ood, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
Inc. By perm ission.)
lM.ryngea.1 Structure a n d Function 255

has its origin on the posterior su rface o f the cricoid cartilage; its fibers insert
into the m uscular p rocess o f the arytenoid cartilage (see lig u r e A 1.2b). The
superior fibers o f the posterior cricoarytenoid rotate the arytenoids, so that
the vocal processes are pulled apart and the glottis opened.

The Muscles of Elongation


The cricothyroid m u scle (see Figure A1.2c) elongates and lenses the voc al
folds. The cricothyroid con sists o f tw o parts: the pars ict lti and the I’m \
obliqua(see Figure A1.7). T hese m u scles have a com m on origin In the latei al
su rfaces o f th e cricoid cartilage. The lower, oblique fibers iitsci I Into tin
anterior m argin o f each low er horn (inferior cornu) o f the thyroid i ai hlagt .
die upper pars recta fibers insert into the inferior border of each lamina ol
the thyroid cartilage. T he contraction o f the cricothyroid m uscle causes the
thyroid cartilage to tip forw ard at its articulation w ith the cricoid cartilage,
thus stretching and lengthening the vocal ligam ent that extend s from the
angle o f the thyroid cartilage to the arytenoid cartilage (see Figure A 1.8).

C o n tra c tio n of the c ric o th y ro id


pars re c ta w ill d ecre ase the
d ista n ce betw een the thyro id
and c r ic o id c a rtila g e s a n te rio rly
the reb y in cre a sin g the d ista n ce
betw een the a ry te n o id and thyro id
c a rtila g e s .

Contraction of tho crico th yro id p ari oh


lique w ill slid# th© thyroid for weird on
the c ric o id thui Increasing fh t dlitano
between th# arytenoid and thyroid
ca rtila g e » .

Figure AI.K. Means by which the uk o lh v ro id nmy him thin to h i! .* iln vim >il hiliU
(l'iom W. R. Zemlin, Speech a n d Hearing Scfam r, <«I I'M I Im^I» whim I < lili Nl
f'rcnticc-Hull, Inc. By permission.)
256 The Structure of Singing

SUMMARY OF INTRINSIC LARYNGEAL ACTION


The vocalis m u scles are largely responsible for determ ining the degree o f
vocal fold tension and approxim ation in phonation. Although the arytenoids
m ove th e folds to the m edian position, the vocalis m u scles finally d ictate the
shape o f the glottis during phonation. The glottal opening is shaped in
resp onse to the adduction actions o f the lateral cricoarytenoids and the
transverse and oblique arytenoids, to the abducting action o f the posterior
cricoarytenoids, and to the stretching actions (longitudinal pull) o f the
cricothyroids.
H ow ever, the m echan ics o f m uscle m otion do not alone explain the
intricate, su btle coordination required for singing. T he state o f laryngeal
tissu e and its response to air m ovem ent are m ajor factors in laryngeal
action. The vocal folds are m ade up o f soft tissue w hich consists o f m u cou s
m em brane, su bm ucosal layer, the elastic vocal ligam ent, and the vocalis
m uscle (Titze, 1981a, p. .MS),
Hirano (1977, |> .’()) su ggests that the vocal folds b e considered as a tri­
partite structure: ( I ) body: (2) cover; and (3) a transitional layer b etw een the
body anil the covei layers (see Figure A 1.9).

Slr.illlied squamous
epithelium MUCOSA
EPITHELIUM

Cover
LAMINA PROPRIA
Superficial layer .
Intermediate layer •
Deep layer Transition

VOCALIS MUSCLE ] Body

Ciliated columnar
epithelium

Figure A 1.9. (a) S ch em atic cross-section o f vocal fold sh ow ing body, transition, and
cover. The d ashed line and upper arrow sh ow th e kind o f sliding m otion that is p ostu ­
lated to occu r b etw een cover and body. The possibility o f a vertical force on the cover
is ind icated by th e arrow at th e bottom , (b) A frontal section o f a hum an vocal fold at
the m idpoint o f the m em b ran ous portion, schem atically presented. (From Vocal Fold
Physiology, ed. by K enneth N. S teven s and M inoru Hirano, 1981. Tokyo: Tokyo Univer­
sity Press. By permission.)
laryng ea l Structure a n d Function 257

T hese tissu es o f th e vocal folds have elastic properties that m ay be pas­


sive or active. Titze ( 1981 g, pp. 30-31) presents a cleat description o f the
im portance o f the elastic properties o f the vocal folds:
V ocal fold length . . . governs the effective stilln ess ol the liga
m ental and m em branou s layers o f the vocal folds As tin lold'. a ir
shortened, the p assive layers b eco m e m ore lax. But the length Is In
turn controlled by th e active tissues, i.e., the intrinsic lai vngral mil',
cles. Their effectiv e stiffn ess has a m ore com plicated relationship
with length. A con tracted (shortened) m u scle may actually In- '.tlUn
than the sam e m u scle in its uncontracted state. Furthorm oic, it tin
m uscle has an antagonist, large ch an ges in effective slilln r v . m.n
result w ith no ch an ge in length at all in the so-called isonirtiu
condition.

Titze g oes on to say that a great deal o f flexibility in fundam ental frequent v
control is possible b ecau se the tissue m ay be passive or active:

Consider th e case w h ere the cricothyroid m u scle contracts and the


vocalis is not active. The vocal folds will lengthen, the effectiv e stiff­
ness o f all the vocal fold tissu e layers will increase, and the fun da­
m ental frequency will in c r e a se .. . . N ext consider the ca se w here
the vocalis m u scle con tracts and the cricothyroid m u scle rem ains
inactive. The length will decrease, resulting in a d ecrease in th e stiff­
ness o f th e cover. B ut th e stiffn ess o f the body o f the folds m ay in
fact increase.

It is the differential control that is exercised over th e various m uscle


groups, rather than a uniform ity o f action am ong them, w hich perm its the
lin ger to arrive at the fine dynam ic m u scle balances n eed ed for rapid
1 1i.mges in range, dynam ics, velocity, sostenuto, and vocal coloration. That
such m uscle coordination is possible in singing m ay be d ue to the fact that
"ihe vocalis m uscle and cricothyroid m u scle are innervated separately, the
lorm er by th e recurrent laryngeal nerve and th e latter by the superior
laryngeal nerve” (Titze, 1981g, pp. 30-31). On the other hand, both ol tlirsr
m i ves are branches o f th e vagu s nerve, and it is probably difficult to d r ln
mine how significant this separate innervation m ay actually be,
r.fficicnt phonation is largely dependent, then, on balanced In tn ai lion
am ong the intrinsic laryngeal m uscles and vocal lold tissu e, in i espouse in
Ihr d em ands o f pitch, volum e, and phonetic timbres, and lu th. .i| >|>h< aiiun
ul appropriate subglottic pressure and airflow.
S oun d w aves that w e hear are, o f course, caused by vlbiatliig lesniialui
I Ilumbers, the result o f air being set in m otion by sharp laps I adrlogrd
i l% 2a, pp. 88-8 9 ) explains that sound production o i t h i In Ihe lai w i ' i >
i i m i Ii ol air from the lungs passing betw een the voi al lold* that haw U r n

approximated, setting up the sharp taps:


The t a p s that s e t t h e a i r in t h e m o u t h a n d t l i r o n t In vl ln u l l i m a n
d u e t o t h e a c t i o n o f t h e v o c a l c o r d s o n t h e all wh l i h Is b e i n g l oi i eil
o u t o f t h e l u n g s . The a i r in t h e l u n g s is c o n i p i r s s r d d u e l o t i n ai l i o n
258 The Structure of Singing

o f the respiratory m uscles. W hen the vocal cords, w hich are actu ­
ally sm all folds o f m u scle and cartilage in th e larynx, are together,
p ressure is built up beneath them . If this pressure is big enough, the
vocal cords m ay be forced apart and the lung air released. This
su d d en release of air under pressure acts like a sharp tap on the air
in the vocal tract, which is accordingly set vibrating.
W aveform s are generated. "Each o f these dam ped w aves is produced by the
vibrations o f air in the vocal tract, which recur every tim e there is a pulse
from th e vocal cords” (Ladufogcd, 1962a, p. 90). The num ber o f vocal fold
vibrations and p uffs of air per second determ ines the fundam ental fre­
q uency o f the sound (for exam ple, A,( 440 Hz).
S ou n d production is the result o f the m uscle activity just described and
the filtering processes o f the resonating cham bers.
APPENDIX 2

The Structure and Mechanics


qf_ the Breath Apparatus

T H E T H O R A C IC CAGE

The bony cage o f th e thorax is com p osed o f sternum , ribs, and v n li'b iu i
(see Figure A2.1). T he ch ief organs o f respiration are h oused and prolet led
within th e thoracic cage. The cage is som ew h at cone-shaped, with tin- l.n p
end o f the con e situated inferiorly.
B ecau se th e thorax is lightly covered in front and on the sides by rela
lively flat m uscles, its topography m akes it on e o f the areas of the body m ost
easily su bjected to su rface observation. Certainly the physical action o f the
thorax during singing can be better view ed than can that o f th e laryngeal
area, and can provide inform ation to the voice teacher.

T H E R E G IO N O F T H E ST E R N U M

The sternum (breastbone) lies in the upper m iddle o f the thoracic ca g e and
,u ls like the hub o f a w h eel in its structural relationship to the costae (ribs).
I lie upper seven pairs o f ribs are true or sternal ribs, in that they attach in
Iront to the sternum . All tw elve pairs com plete the cage in back (see Fig­
ures A2.1 and A2.2). Each rib is bony, and, in the ca se o f the upper seven
pairs, is attached to th e sternum by a short section o f cartilage. T h ese costal
i aitilages form the sternocostal joints.
W hat singing teach ers often call th e false ribs, the eighth, ninth, and
tenth pairs, are m erged w ith the sternum through the cartilage ol the
seventh pair, w ithout being directly joined to the sternum (see Figures A,’ I
iiiitl A2.2.) This rib con vergen ce d efines a triangular area just below the
sternum that is o f in terest to m any singers and teachers o f siiifiiiK An .ulili
llonal tw o pairs o f ribs, the eleventh and tw elfth (often ei roncouslv In m ril
"floating ribs”) are shorter and are not joined to the sternum Kiev u < il
Inched posteriorly to the spinal vertebrae (see Figure A2.2),
If on e raises the sternum , the entire region ol Ilie tin mix Is Inllui'iu r»l hv
Ilull action. Alternately, if the sternum is dropped, the i elation ship ol the i lb»,
lo Ihe organs o f respiration h ou sed within the llioi ax i lu m p s I he pi till Ion
Ing o f the sternum , therefore, occu p ies a place ol prime Im poilniit r In ><s s
In n s o f breath m anagem ent in vocal insti ut lion
B e ca u se ol th e relationship ol the slei not leldomaMold must 1rs hi 11it
su p p o rtiv e s t r u c t u r e o f the larynx (the Metnot leUlomuslold mum I» d u nul
ol course, directly affect the action ol extrinsic laryngeal m ust Its), aiitl

259
260 The Structure of Singing

Figure A2.1. Frontal view o f the thoracic cage. (From W erner Spalteholz, Handatlas
der Anatomie des Menschen, 13th ed., Vol. 2, 1932. Leipzig: S. Hirzel-Verlag.)
The Structure a nd M echanics o f the Breath Apparatus 261

V e rte b ra tlioracalis I — D é )* *

V ortebra
tlioracalis
X II

V o r te b ra
lu m b a l i s

Iï(tmv A2.2. Thorux (sternum, riba, vci l i ' l i i m') l i m n tin t lu l t l ut i lr ( I ........ W . iim i
Himltchol/, Hanclatlus tier Anatomic (h"> Mvnsi hrit, Mill I , Vul ' |UW I > **
lllr/cl Veriug.)
262 The Structure o f Singing

b ccau se o f th e relation o f the skeletal fram e to the sternum and to sternal


posture (either high or low), the sternocleidom astoid m uscles can, to som e
degree, be considered supportive o f the phonatory m echanism (see Fig­
ure A 1.6). They play a role in the highly im portant external fram e support of
the singing instrum ent. Even the w ell-positioned sternum can be considered,
to som e extent, structurally supportive of the phonatory m echanism .
Significantly, in som e techn iqu es of singing sternal elevation is rela­
tively high, w hile in other techniques a low ered sternum (producing radically
d ifferent m u scle relationships within the thorax and around the larynx) is
considered desirable. The m ost favorable o f th ese relationships can be
determ ined only after a m ore com plete exam ination o f activity in the costal
region is considered.

THU IN TER C O STA L M U SC L E S


T hese m u scles are divided into tw o groups: internal and external (see Fig­
u res 2.2 and 2,3). ( )pini<>n regarding actions o f the intercostals is by n o m eans
u nanim ous Sevet al view s are maintained: (1) both th e internal and external
intercostals a ie ai live in elevating the ribs: (2) the external intercostals ele­
vate the i ilis, ami the inlei nal intercostals depress the ribs; and (3) th e inter-
e ai tilaginons pm Is ul the internals join w ith the externals in inspiration and
both p iovid e tin- elastit supports that prohibit the bulging out or the draw-
ill)1, inward ul the intercostal spaces (G ra y’s A n a to m y, 1980, p. 547). Campbell
and N ew som Davis ( l ‘)7()a, pp. 170-171) suggest the m ost acceptable theory
to lie that the external intercostals and the intercartilaginous intercostals
raise the ribs; the interosseus internal intercostals depress the ribs.

T H E D IAPHRAGM

Many tech n iq u es o f singing attem pt con sciou s control over the diaphragm .
T eachers o f singing w h o urge diaphragm atic control m ay only be using such
term inology loosely to indicate other possible m uscular controls around the
diaphragm atic region. The diaphragm is incapable o f providing sensation
regarding its precise m ovem en ts or its exact position w ithin the torso. It m ay
play a com p letely different role in breath m anagem ent from that assigned it
by som e teachers. W yke (1974, p. 297) m aintains that
Contrary to the view s o f m any professional teachers of singing . . .
th e d ia p h ra g m is relaxed d u rin g th e w h o le o f th e p h o n a to ry process
associated w ith s in g in g . . . except d u rin g each in te rp h ra se in sp ira ­
tion, and therefore m akes no contribution to the so-called “support
o f the voice.” [Em phasis added]
Luchsinger and Arnold (1965, p. 149) express a sim ilar viewpoint:
The diaphragm is inactive during expiration, be it silent or phonic.
S in ce it lacks proprioceptive sensation, the m ovem en ts o f the dia-
The Structure a n d M echanics of the Breath Apparatus 263

<>*liyilhlfi
Iliyn
Inl'lIIIV
ill'0fit
11
in I n ,i il,i
III VI: h y u lil

N p f t r t n le u i »ln,

Mi iP H lfiti mm/

iihitohihi Ihyim hlm


N . p h r e n ic u s d e x t.
N, i ttiin tn * iln
\Mll'l /llt lll tin
li b r a e fa s c i a e c o lli p r a e v e r te b r a lis
c u p u la e p le u r a e a f f i x a e
A . m a m m a r ia i n t . d e x tr .
N cm# it* i(m,
N. v a g u s d e x t. e t n . r e c u r r e n s
d e x t. c ir c u m a r t. s u b c la v . s e A , iniiinmni hi In i tin
v e r te n s

S h i n s rtn lo m i'iH in l
an I. alii,

( ila n d u la th y m u s

P ars costalis
d ia p h r a g m , e t
a . m u sc u lo p h r e n ic a

lig u r e A2.3. H yoid bone, larynx, trachea, rib cage, sternum (partly cut iiwav), prrl
i m ilium . (From O. Schu ltze, Topographische Anatomic, 4lh e«l„ oil by Wilhelm
I ubow h, 1935. M unich: J. F. Lehm anns Verlag. By perm ission, Nprlngri Vet lug,)

n h r a g m c a n n o t b e felt. S ince it is e x te n d e d hot l/ontiillv b e tw e en I he


lungs a n d intestines, th e d ia p h ra g m c a n n o t be ■n,eii l im n the out
side. W h a t m a y be o b s e rv e d by e x te rn a l Iiispet lion l>* the in llnu ol
I he a b d o m in a l m u s c l e s . . . . It is n o n se n se w h en Home naive volte
t e a c h e r pro u d ly tap s his inflated chest, pi m Iniming I imk .it niv
d ia p h ra g m .”
In a d e t a i l e d s t u d y o f t h e p h y sio lo g y ol h ie n t h ln g , IIouIiiivn ( I‘>77,
PP 2 7 1 - 2 7 2 ) discusses t h e r e s u l t s o f elei Ir o m v o H iu p h li il Mi>) '.Indies ol
264 The Structure o f Singing

the breath cycle, with attention to the relationship b etw een the diaphragm
and other m u scle groups both in sp eech and in singing. B o u h u y’s study is
quoted here at som e length b ecau se o f its con sid erable sign ifican ce for the
interpretation o f conflicting pedagogical view points about the role o f the
diaphragm in singing:

D uring speech, EMG recordings indicate inspiratory m u scle activity


(external intercostal m uscles) at high lung volum es. As lung volu m e
decreases, inspiratory m uscle activity decreases, w hile that o f the
expiratory m uscles (internal intercostals) increases. Even though
considerable inspiratory force is required to p rod uce soft tones at
high lung volum es, EMC', recordings suggest that the strongest inspi­
ratory m uscle, the diaphragm, d oes not contribute to this force. The
diaphragm rem ains electrically silent, w hile th e external intercostal
m u scles sh ow marked I1MG a ctiv ity .. . . Fortunately, sin ce the
m echanical interaction betw een the intrapleural and intra-abdom i­
nal pressures regulates (lie position o f th e diaphragm , contraction
o f the diaphragrtt is not needed to regulate subglottic p ressu r e.. . .
The elasticity of the external abdom inal wall provides the primary
support loi (lie vis» era l ire diaphragm is subject to an upw ard pull
exerted by the negative intrapleural pressure. H ence, lung elastic
recoil lend s lo pull the diaphragm and the abdom inal viscera
upward. I hr. lender icy is cou n teracted by the w eight o f th e abdom ­
inal vist ei a, an opposing force w hich is greater the larger the
liydroslatii pu-ssure gradient, a pressure exerted uniform ly and
pei pcndli ularly lo all surfaces in the abdom inal cavity. H ence, the
opposing Ion c increases w ilh elevation o f the diaphragm. A person
w ho begins lo sing a soft tone near TLC [total lung capacity]
expands the rib cage by contracting inspiratory m u scles and relax­
ing the abdom inal m uscles. Although the negative intrapleural pres­
sure pulls the diaphragm upward, this force is ch eck ed by the
w eight o f the abdom inal contents, w hich tends to pull it downw ard.
In this way, the w eight o f the abdom inal viscera replaces active co n ­
traction o f the diaphragm with a passive inspiratory force and
m akes possible the production o f soft sung tones at high lung
volu m es w hile the diaphragm rem ains relaxed. Analysis o f intra­
abdom inal (intragastric) and intrapleural pressures suggested that
this m aneuver required an elevated rib cage and relaxed abdom inal
m uscles. D irect m ovem en ts o f rib cage and abdom inal w all dis­
placem ents during singing h ave confirm ed this conclusion.

Spinal an esthesia m ay inhibit m ovem en t o f the rib and abdom inal m u s­


cles, yet the patient can breathe and exercise control over respiration
through com pensatory m eans. It w ould appear that so m e independence o f
diaphragm positioning is possible. H ow ever, excercises for "singing with the
diaphragm ,” or for "supporting th e v oice with the diaphragm ” are tech ­
niques for training the entire thoracic, diaphragm atic, abdom inal com plex.
W atson and Hixon (1985, p. 120) com m ent that

The singing folklore is rich in m isconceptions concerning the trans­


form b etw een body biom echanics and artistic perform ance. . . . The
The Structure a nd M echanics o f the Breath Apparatus 265

m yth o f singing from the diaphragm, for exam ple, has persisted for
about as long as has the history o f vocal p erfo r m a n ce .. . . [M]yths
are alive in even highly trained singers, on e co n seq u en ce being that
subjects w h o sing in relatively sim ilar m anners i an i m ile lo co n cep ­
tualize their perform ances in dram atically different wavs,

Until various m eth od s o f breath m anagem ent loi singing have been
separately investigated by researchers, the question ol how mut li <In eel eon
trol over th e diaphragm can be achieved by the singer mnv lem .iin mi
answered. R adiographic research undertaken by Miller and Itianeo <I*>HS)
lends to confirm that diaphragm atic m ovem en t during singing vain-. Im m
one b reath-m anagem ent techn iqu e to another. Diaphragmatic ast enl i\ i on
• iderably slow er (and therefore m ore desirable) during the expii aloi v pl«.i- <••
<il Ihe breath cycle w hen the appoggio technique is used.
The dom e-sh aped m uscle called the diaphragm is a m usculom em b i an
ous structure that divides the thoracic cavity from the abdom inal cavity
( d ra y 's A n a to m y, 1980, pp. 549-550; se e Figure A2.4.) The thoracic su rface ol
the diaphragm form s the floor o f the ch est cavity and is in contact with the
pleurae (m em branes that surround the lungs) and the pericardium (the con
irai sac that en clo ses the heart and the root o f the great blood vessels) (see
I i^ure A2.3). The abdom inal su rface o f th e diaphragm is covered in part by
the peritoneum (the m em brane that lines the cavity o f the abdom en). On
Inspiration, the diaphragm p resses on the abdom inal viscera through a
dow nw ard and forw ard m ovem en t (see Figure A2.3). The abdom en, in
icsp o n se to that action, sw ells outw ard. W hen the limit o f this d escen t is
accom plished, th e abdom inal viscera serve as a fixated part for the central
lendon, from w hich th e ribs are elevated by m u scle fibers. G ray's A n a to m y
( l ‘>K0, p. 550) observes: “The central tendon, applied to the abdom inal
viscera, thus b eco m es a fixed point for the action o f the diaphragm , the
effect o f w hich is to elevate the low er ribs and through them to push for­
ward the body o f th e sternum and the upper ribs.” The con e-sh aped curve
m oves dow nw ard in this fashion, causing th e lungs to expand. Luchsingcr
it ltd Arnold (1964, p. 4) report that during su bsequ en t relaxation, "The dia
phragm reverts to its d om e-shaped form , pushed upw ard by the con ten ts nl
Ihe abdom inal cavity. The lungs are also pushed upward, expelling the .m
content as they are com pressed.” This m echanical action involves slintil
lan eou s m ovem ent in both abdom en and chesl, .serving to allei i lies! , ,n i|y
volu m e and, subsequently, the volu m e o f the lunns, all being the InnIIul>li
lesult o f ch est wall activity (sec Figure A2.5). This m ovem ent Is pmtinllv
observable externally; if a singer places the hands ill tin- liollom ol (lie illi
t «ne, the lateral outw ard m ovem ent ol the low ei i lbs i mi lie lell I Ills i osinl
m ovem ent, although less com plete and less obvious, also o i i u i s with the
u p p e r ribs. T h e possibility o f expansion, bnlli al llie Hunk'....... al lln lei el u!
Ilu* upper libs, has proved a fertile field loi vhiIoiin system s ni illi ai lion
within several vocal pedagogic*.
S u c h possibilities of flank a n d rib m o v e m e n t have also given i h e in lln
ni les of essential d iffe ren ce s in the b r e a th m a n a g e m e n t d u rin g sinning lot
266 The Structure o f Singing

Foramen venae cavae Purs HtorrmllB dinphragraatis

Pars costalis
diapliragmatis

Hiatus
oesophageus

P ars lumbalis
diaphragmatis

Hiatus aorticus

Arcus lumbocostalis
Gras medialis
laterale Arcus
diaphrag- lumbocostalis
matis lateralis
Crns
modinlo
diaplirag-
mutlN M. quadratus
lumborum

M. obliquus
internns abdominis
M. obliquus
extem us abdominis

M. iliacus

M. psoas major

M. psoas m inor
Corpus vertebrae lumbullH V

Figure A2.4. The diaphragm . (From W erner Spalteholz, Handatlas der Anatomie des
Menschen, 13th ed., Vol. 2, 1932. Leipzig: S. Hirzel-Verlag.)

m en and w om en, generally w ith exaggerated conclusions. Obviously, the


conditions o f pregnancy alter relationships w ithin the m usculature o f the
abdom en, and will affect the extent o f diaphragm atic d escen t and rib expan­
sion during the breath cycle; there will be greater reliance during pregnancy
on lateral expansion. A lthough there are potential differen ces based on such
sexually related physical functions, it is by no m eans th e case that all
fem ales m ystically develop an advance p reference for upper pectoral respi­
ration as opposed to predom inantly abdom inal respiration in the male. Yet
that assum ption continues to prevail, perhaps dating back to the period of
tight lacing for the fem ale singer, a subject that caught the attention o f a
n um ber o f singing teachers at the turn o f the century (B row ne and Behnke,
1884a, pp. 121-122).
I'he Structure and M echanics o f the Breath Apparatus 267

It is tru e that so m e fem ale singers are given to high-chcst breathing, but
the ob jective teach er o f singing can attest to the large percen tage o f m ales
w ho also are high-chest breathers. There w ould appeal to be a correlation
betw een upper pectoral respiration and livelihoods that involve limited physi­
cal exertion, regardless o f the sex o f the singer. When not en gaged in
effortful activity, m ost persons habitually breathe shallowly, regardless of
their sex. R ather than to search for physiological reasons based on gender,
on e m ight better look to the cultural patterns that have historié ally been
parceled out to the tw o sexes. It is highly doubtful that strut lui al d illei eiu es
b etw een th e sexes p rod uce greatly contrasting m ethods ol breath m anage
m ent in singing.

T H E LU N G S AND T H E PL E U R A E

I he pleurae are tw o closed, independent sacs, each o f w hich en clo se, an


organ o f respiration, a lung (see Figures A2.5 and A2.6). Each pleural cavity

I i)iiii e A2.5. A n o u t l i n e d r a w i n g t o s h o w t h e c h a n g e In **linpi i *1 ill* I In-i >1» (• * h ii I i i i I#


irm ilting Irom contraction o f the diaphragm iilnm Willi illiiplii •t|iiiml.............. " tlnn
lid' lungs and mediastinal structured are clongiitril. mill the Iiiii)/ ■*i><iinl in llll lit'
«pm e vacated by the mediastinal •truiliiiiH mill lu in lri tin .....I«••ll>i| iln i>u11imIIi
li'i i M r» ol t h e p l e u r a . T h e m o v e m e n t s w h i c h lit*- i Iln i i m l r i |m In ln><| >li nil' hi n i I ml
.liu w n ( F r o m Cunningham's Manual o f Prtullail Aniiltimv. 14th n l . • l u » . I 11 \ i . I
IliiiimneN, Vol. 2, l ‘>77. O x f o r d : O x f o r d t ln lv e i -ill v I 'n • I tv pel mlnM'in )
268 The Structure of Singing

V. thyreoid, sup.

N . vagus s

N . phrenic.

V. thyreoid, in f. sin.
V. thyreoid, in f. d extr.
M. scalenus ant.

A . subclav.
anoymae

anonym a

N. phrenic, d exter
Ligam.Botalli

N . phrenicus

Pleura m ediastinalis
A triu m d extr. S inus costomediastin.
pericard. appareils

Figure A2.6. Interior view o f the neck and the thorax. (From O. Schultze, Topo-
graphische Anatomie, 4th ed., edited by W ilhelm Lubosch, 1935. Munich: J. F. Leh­
m anns Verlag. By perm ission Springer-Verlag.)

con sists o f tw o layers o f serou s m em brane w ith a sm all am ount o f fluid


betw een. Pressures within the pleural cavities contribute to the m echanics of
breathing (Callander, 1948, pp. 241-243).
Each lung is attached to th e m iddle m ediastinum by its root (see Fig­
ure A2.6), but p ossesses considerable elasticity, and is capable o f m ovem ent;
an elastic property is characteristic o f tissu es o f the lung and thorax (Com-
roe et al., 1968, p. 163):

Like springs, th ese tissues m ust be stretched during inspiration by


an external force (m uscular effort); w hen the external force is
rem oved, the tissues recoil to their resting position. . . . The greater
the m uscular force applied, the m ore the springs are stretched and
the greater the volum e change on inspiration.
The Structure a n d M echanics o f the Breath Apparatus 269

The lung adapts itself to the w all o f the chest cavity. A llhough th e lungs are
the m ost im portant organs of respiration, theii m ovem ent is d ep en dent on
the action o f th e m usculatu re around them. I .ling volum e is governed by the
total action o f th e thoracic cage in w hich the limy.s .11 <• hoir.rd
The bronchi, right and left, arise from the hot I..........I the li.u lira, divid­
ing repeatedly, w ith ram ifications becom in g Ihimiei and .m alin (sec I if
ures 2.1, A2.7, and A2.8). Com roe and associates (l%K, |>, l(>.’ ) dr ., iih c ihr
reaction o f the tracheobronchial system during inspii alion
If air is to flow into th e alveoli [the sm allest air eavilies <>i 1 elk in
the lung] the alveolar p ressure m ust b e less than alm osphri It dm
ing inspiration. Active contraction o f the inspiratory must I f . rn
larges the thorax and further low ers intrathoracic prcv.iin (imi
m ally subatm ospheric, b ecau se the elastic lung tends lo i n oil
inward, aw ay from th e thoracic cage). The d ecrease in intralhoi at i>
pressure enlarges th e alveoli, expands th e alveolar gas and low er,
the total alveolar gas pressure to less than atm ospheric so that an
flow s into the alveoli.
The frequency and the depth o f breathing for phonation are determ ined
by the breath-energy requirem ents o f th e phrase. The respiratory m uscles
respond to this dem and, and the healthy lung com plies.

O esophagus, T rachea
N. re currens sin .

L a m in a fib r o s a p e rica rd ii
llroncliu s, Vena a p ic a lis lo b i. .
su p . p u lm o n is d e x tri
A ., B ro n c h u s lo b i su p . .
p u lm o n is d e x tr i
B ro n c h i lo b i m ed ii X
p u lm . d e x tri

llro n cliu s la te ra lis


lobi in f. p a lm . sin .
llro n cliu s c a rd ia c u s . J
loi)I In f. p u lm . s in . Jj
llro n cliu s ven tra lis
lob i In f. p u lm . sin.
V. n u lm o n a lls lo b i . -fM
In fo rio ris

I'iuure A2.7. Oruuns of the thorax, (I'min () Si hu ll/., / >>/«. . h. . It It


r i l , edited hy W ilhelm l.uhtiNih, l'H “i M iialtli I I I rlminiiii'i \ 11 l<*i* I' ........... i.m
Sprlnucr-Vcrlun.)
270 The Structure of Singing

T rach e a

Figure A2.8. An anteroposterior radiograph (bronchogram ). The trachea and bronchi


are ou tlin ed by the introduction o f X -ray-opaque m aterial. (From C unningham ’s
Manual of Practical Anatomy, 13th ed„ edited by G. R om anes, Vol. 2, 1967. Oxford:
O xford University Press. By perm ission.)

MUSCLES OF THE NECK


Isolating individual parts o f the respiratory-speech m echanism is a n eces­
sary but artificial device, a con ven ient w ay o f looking at the functional
cooperation that exists am ong them . Although neither the external m uscles
o f the neck nor those m uscles o f the upper costal region that relate to the
shoulder are usually included am ong the direct participants in the m echanics
o f phonation or o f breath m anagem ent, they contribute externally in a stru c­
tural w ay to both activities. (They also play a com pensatory functional role
in clavicular breathing.)
The neck offers a connecting passage not only for the respiratory-phona-
tory m echanism , w hich extend s from trunk to head, but for other m uscular
structures as well. The m ost visible o f the neck m uscles is the sternocleido-
r
The Structure a n d M echanics of the Breath Apparatus 271

m astoid pair, w hich provides essential postural support b etw een head and
torso. A sharp turn o f the head to the side clearly reveals litis strong paired
m uscle (see Figure A1.6). The nam e o f the m uscle (often truncated to sterno-
m astoid) describes its location. It runs from the m astoidal area behind the
ear dow n to the m edial end o f the clavicle, and to the s in num . The larynx
and its related m u scles are for the m ost part lodged betw een these tw o sup­
portive m uscular pillars.
A m om entary digression will perm it a quick look at the genei ,il .m .iloinv
o f the n eck region and help place th e m u scu latu re ol the net It in i elation to
other system s. In so m e n eck s w ith clearly defined must ulai t’o n ln m s, a
landm ark is the thyroid gland, w hich lies against the lam inae ol the thyroid
cartilage and the pharyngeal w alls (see Figures A2.3 and A.’ (>) I In thyroid
gland is m en tion ed here b ecau se any ch an ge in the p ercept........ . its dclini
tion on the external su rface o f the throat during singing m ay be an intiu .ition
o f general throat tension.
If the throat w ere to be cut just across the thyrohyoid space, then Ilit
anterior jugular vein, the superior laryngeal nerve, the superior thyroid
artery, the om ohyoid, the thyrohyoid m em brane, and the inferior consti it toi
m uscles w ould all exp erience division. W ere th e front of the throat cut just
above the hyoid bone, the anterior jugular vein, the m ylohyoid, the hyo­
glossal, the genioglossal, the geniohyoid, the lingual vessels, th e hyoglossal
nerves, and the external maxillary vessels w ould be severed (Callander, 1948,
pp. 47; 178) (see Figure A2.9). T each ers o f singing, how ever, m ust restrict
them selves to su rface observation o f this com plex structure.

M
.steM
r.nooth
myorheyooidtdeeuussventercranialis

A,, I'. lubclavla dexlra, M. lubelavlui / i •/ ............. «


A, mt>rlaWa dtxtra. A. manint. lut, .
A, vtrltbralh
A. oarotli flonim. ilt.rlni
A. anonynia, N, i> u»ii»i
N, recurrtill m l.
N , Wî î f î î | ,|7«

llglliv A2,‘< A dissection ol the illlterlui <>l tllf m il, it nun <> *ii lllllt / • In/rn
urnphische Anatomic, 4th éd., ctl I>v Wllln lm I ulim.i h, t'Ji'i Munii li I I I ■tiiiiiinn
Vt'iliig. By permission, Springer Veil,if I
272 The Structure of Singing

Sem ispinalis capitis

Splenius capitis

Rhomboideus minor

Rhomboideus major
Levator scapulae
Trapezius

Supraspinatus
D eltoid
Infraspinatus

Teres major

Serratus anterior
I,illinium* dorsi
Serratus posterior
inferior

T h o ra co lu m b a r fa s c ia ,
posterior la ye r Erector spinae
Obliquus interims

Obliquus intem us
Obliquus extemus

Fascia
Qluteus

Fascia Qluteus maximus


Qluteus

Figure A2.10. Superficial m u scles o f the back o f the neck and trunk. On the left only
the skin, superficial and deep fasciae have b een rem oved. On the right, the stern ocle­
idom astoid, trapezius, latissim us dorsi, deltoid, and obliquus e x te m u s abdom inis have
b een d issected aw ay. (From Gray’s Anatomy, 36th ed., ed. by Peter L. W illiams and
R oger W arwick, 1980. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. By permission.)
The Structure a n d M echanics of the Breath Apparatus 273

M U SC L E S O F T H E U P P E R T O R S O

Running d ow n the back o f the neck, a m uscle pair callcd the levator scapu­
lae (see Figure A2.10) arises from the upper angle o f the scapula (the
shoulder blade); as its n am e im plies, levator scapulae pulls up the scapula.
The m ajor and m inor rhomboid m u scles (see Figure A.’ 10) arise Irom the
upper spine and are inserted into the scapula. The siiftinspiiiiitii.',, the infra
spinatus, th e teres major, and the teres minor (sec Figure A2.1(1) ai e niusi les
that have to do ch iefly w ith sh ould er and arm m ovem ent'. I In Intpmits,
the deltoid, and th e latissimus dorsi m u scles (see Figure A.’ 10) loi in u powi i
lul enveloping layer over this portion o f the torso. The ed ge ol the li ap e/iu s
m uscle can often b e traced at the sid es o f the neck as it ...........neiillv <rosses
to the rear from th e b ase o f th e skull to the sh ould er and spine (sec
Figure A2.10).
Other m u scles o f the upper torso that som etim es figure in singing let li
niques are the pectoralis major, the pectoralis minor, and the serra Ills mi
terior m u scles (see Figures A2.10 and A 2.11). W hen w e look at the surface ol
the chest, it is u nderstandable w hy the m u scles o f the pectoral area appeal
im portant in breathing. They respond visibly to actions o f th e lungs and the
rib cage. But it should be recalled that th ese m uscles that cover so m uch of
Ihe upper costal region are largely associated with the shoulder girdle and its
related m usculature ( Gray’s Anatomy, 1980, pp. 567-568).
The pectoralis m inor and the serratus anterior offer assistance in lifting
the upper ribs (secon d through fifth) if th e shoulders are firm ly set. The
subclavius, w hich originates on the low er su rface o f the clavicle and at­
taches to the first rib, provides elevation o f that rib if th e clavicle rem ains
fixed.
From its appearance, the serratus anterior (see Figures A2.10, A 2 .ll,
A2.I2, and A2.13) m ight be thought im portant in breath m anagem ent in
singing. B oxers rely on the serratus anterior for help in delivering a knock­
out, and the m uscle is som etim es popularly called "the boxer’s muscle." But
for those m om en ts o f great im pact in th e dram atic vocal literature, the
singer cannot look to the serratus anterior for assistance.
Even thou gh th e pectoralis major, th e pectoralis minor, the serralus
anterior, and the su bclaviu s relate to th e w alls o f the chest anteriorly and
laterally, they serve during singing chiefly as postural m uscles Sonu
teachers assign th e postural m uscles m ajor im portance in cm ilrolling etp li a
lion, but according to Campbell et al. (1970, p, 181): "|()|l all 11■< nnr.i lc .
which are generally thought to act as accessory m uscles ol tnspli allon, only
the scaleni and th e stern om astoid s sh ow significant ic s p iia lo n ,n tiviiv
in m an.”
T h e large tr ia n g u la r trap e ziu s m u sc le (must le I il>< i ■. >>1 wlilt h » imv ei gt
to w a rd th e clavicle, th e acrom ion, an d the spine ol the si apulai <o n i llu
u p p e r p a rt o f th e b ack (see F igure A.’ 10). I he ti a p e /iu s sit ailles tin si «pilla,
(hereb y d e te r m in in g th e position ol the shouldt-i lo g e th ci with llu lullsul
m u s dorsi (see F ig ure s A 2.10 anil A.’. 12), the li tipe/liis is oit en I lion will in In
ol im p o r ta n c e in controlling th e l u e a th cyt le tim in g 'tinging * e itu ln h .is a
274 The Structure of Singing

Figure A 2.11. M uscles o f the right side o f the torso. (From W erner Spalteholz, Hand-
atlas der Anatomie des Menschen, Vol. 2, 1932. Leipzig: S. Hirzel-Verlag.)

postural m u scle th e trapezius is significant, but its role as an accessory m u s­


cle o f inspiration cannot be major.
The latissim us dorsi extend s outw ard from under th e arm s and spreads
w idely across th e back. E vidence that it plays a m ajor role in breath control
is limited. B ecau se the latissim us dorsi contains fibers that arise from the
low er three or fou r ribs, th e m u scle can help elevate th o se ribs w hen the
hum erus is in a fixed position, thus facilitating inspiration. Contraction o f the
latissim us dorsi as a w hole com p resses the low er thorax and assists expira­
tion (Campbell et al., 1970, p. 187) (see Figures A2.I0 and A2.13).
A ntagonists o f the trapezius and the serratus anterior m u scles are the
The Structure a n d M echanics of the Breath Apparatus 275

levator scapulae and the m ajor and m inor rhom boid m u scles (see Fig­
ure A2.10); th ese are vertebroscapular m uscles that rolnte the scapula, but
they play n o im portant role in breathing.
W hen considering m ethods for breatli m anagem ent ("support”) in sing­
ing, it should be kept in m ind that—o f dorsal and oil i c i ai <essory respiratory
m uscles (see Figure A2.10) including the anterior, m edius, and posterior
scaleni, the sternom astoids, the subclavius, the serrai us p o stn io i, superior,
and inferior, the q uadratus lum borum , and the .sacrospinalis gi uup only the
scaleni and the sternom astoids contribute significantly In n .pii allnn

M U SC LES O F T H E A N TER O LA TER A L ABDOM INAI WAI I

The m ovem en ts o f th e intercostal m u scles and diaphragm have turn i on


sidered at som e length. Other contributors to breath m anagem ent in singing
m ust now be exam ined.

M. trapezius
Fossa infraclavicularis s
Clavicula .
Acromion

M. pectoralis
m ajor (pars
clavicularis)

M, }MM*lll| m II n
miJoi

M, lilo o p i
lu n d i It
(enput
Itravo)
«, litcnps
lien d il l
(t'llpiit
In n g u m )
\l, IrloonN
lii’ii ««lilt
(enput
liitnniln)

M, MMI'IUllIM illlllllllll

rigiii'e A2.I2. Muscles ol the uppei il||ht sldi- <it ilit>tniMi i h m u W n n i’t * • Imt/
II<111<I<11I<1S i l c i A i i t i i o i i i i r i l r s M n i M ' I w n , Vi'il I'J I.' 1 1 ip/ip ‘1 1111 11 V »‘i lny )
276 The Structure o f Singing

M . aerrafcus
a n t e r io r

M. pectoralis m ajor
(pars sternocostalis)
M. pectoralis m ajor
(pars abdom inalis)

Zacke von der


6. R ippe

M.
V agina m. recti
.
abdom inis
n liiliu iiK ila
(vorderes Blatt)

W n ln lillil W ltlul

H p lim lllu o n
u n tn r io r
N ttp o rlo r

Ligam entnm
inguinale
[Pouparti]

Ligam entum
fundiform e
penis
F ossa ovalis
F ascia lata
F uniculus sperm aticus

Figure A2.13. M uscles o f the thorax and abdom en. (From W erner Spalteholz, Hand-
atlas der Anatomie des Menschen, 13th ed, Vol. 2, 1932, Leipzig: S. Hirzel-Verlag.)

In considering the su rface m usculature o f the front o f the body, it is


useful to divide th e area b elow the sternum into nine ch ief regions, created
by tw o vertical and tw o horizontal lines (see Figure 1.3). T hese areas are
com p osed o f three anterior segm ents, the epigastric, the umbilical, and the
pubic (also hypogastric), and o f three corresponding lateral pairs, the
hypochondriac, the lateral (also lumbar), and the inguinal (also iliac).
The Structure a n d M echanics o f the Breath Apparatus 277

The con ten ts o f th e abdom inal cavity are protected by the broad flat
m uscles o f th e abdom en (see Figures 2.4, 2.12, and 2.13). T h ese m uscles
exert pressure on th e abdom inal viscera and help maintain Ihe proper posi­
tion o f th e internal organs o f th e abdom en. M ovem ents ol Iho abdom inal
m uscles can b e initiated by the respiratory organs and the m uscles o f the
ch est that con trol respiration. The abdom inal m uscles i csponil l o the elastic
recoil o f th e lungs and the chest cavity by pushing up the diaphiagm , The
flexor abdom inal m u scles also assist in m aintaining the lowei llu n a s ami
pelvis in antagonism to the spinal m uscles. Additional lovvei li uni* sli n i f . l l i is
present in the anterolateral area b ecau se the large flat abdom inal must les
cross each other in a m utually supportive fashion m this b o n e h o c an a,
w hich is w ithou t skeletal support. The external oblique (see I'ig u n s and
A2.13) is the m ost superficial o f the flat m uscles o f the abdom en, it-. Illieis
originating in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh ribs, and descending downw ard
and forw ard in an oblique m anner, as indicated by its nam e. Astraquillo and
associates (1977, p. 504) found that, in singing,

The m ost active o f th e m u scles o f the abdom en is the external


oblique. This m u scle characteristically show s contraction im m e­
diately b efore th e production o f sou n d and in a phasic quality
tow ard the end o f articulation, especially in staccato vocalises.
W hen sustained v oice w as produced there w as also sustained
contraction.

At a d eep er level than the external oblique, the internal oblique m u scle
inserts its upperm ost fibers into the low er ribs and into the rib cartilages.
I lie internal oblique m u scle lies b en eath the external oblique, and is thinner
and not as bulky as th e external m uscle (see Figure 2.2).
Yet m ore deeply p laced is th e transversus abdom inis m u scle (see Fig-
iii e 2.2), an im portant abdom inal constrictor. The internal oblique, external
ohlique, and the tran sversus m u scles form th e anterior rectu s sheath (see
f igures 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4). The rectus abdom inis (see Figures 2.3 and 2.4) is
attached superiorly to the fifth, sixth, and seven th costal cartilages, and in-
loi iorly to the pelvis.
If the abdom inal m usculatu re is w ell developed, as it should be with any
singer, on e can readily locate the linia alba (see Figure 2.4) by surface obset
valion. This line extend s perpendicularly from the sternum to the ptibii
legion, and is divided into an upper and low er region by the umhilli us II tin
an lu ce m usculatu re is clearly defined, the rectus m uscles lot in olisei \ able
bands on either side o f this line. The liniae transversae, tendinous Inin si <
Ili ii is, produce depressions that plainly mark oil the segm ents ni tin i n lie.
abdom inis in the m uscular individual.
Com plex interrelationships o f the m uscles ol the abdom inal wall ate
iello clo d externally. T eachers o f singing often have the s l n g n plat « hands
mi tin1 abdom en to experience m usculai m ovem ent An o n lin e I" Asha
111llll<> and associates (1977, p. 512),

What the singer "loels" w hen lie puls Ills hands on hi s u p p n alidu
men is the slow contraction ol the abdom inal iiiiim Iis 1 In si
278 The Structure of Singing

m uscles, like th ose o f inhalation, are paired. They are (1) the
external oblique, fibers coursing downward; (2) the internal oblique,
fibers coursing upward; (3) the rectus abdom inis, w hich extends
vertically at th e anterior or forw ard wall o f the abdom en; and (4)
the transversus abdom inis, with fibers coursing horizontally across
the anterior wall o f the abdom en.
T here is, it sh ould b e noted, no universal agreem en t as to w hat form of
abdom inal m uscle activity is best for singing. Indeed, w idely dissem inated
techniques o f singing have been based on assu m ed m u scle relationships that
are patently absurd. S om e brief com m en t about su ch pedagogical system s
m ay help in understanding proper coordination of the m u scles o f the antero­
lateral abdom inal wall.

SY ST E M S O F BR EA TH C O N T R O L

Breath control in sinj'.mK h con cern ed with delaying both the collapse o f the
ribs and the reversion ol the diaphragm to its dom e-sh aped posture. Put
another way, tin* must uhitlire o f inspiration offers continued resistance to
the collapsing breath met hanism. S om e teaching m ethods assert that this
resistaiu <• <an I t .1 lie at t om plished by pushing dow nw ard and outw ard on
the -abdominal vist c i .i, m uch as in difficult defecation. One can readily find
a inmiltri nl siufnif. m anuals with draw ings o f outw ard and dow nw ard
pi essiu e against the wall (including the hypogastric area), w hich supposedly
will produce h fttei m anagem ent o f the breath. S uch action is com m only
term ed "belly breadline, ” A related technique prom otes squeezing the anal
sphincter ("squeeze the d im e”) and tilting the pelvis. Other teachers falsely
assu m e that by draw ing the abdom inal wall inward, the upward surge o f
the diaphragm can be delayed, resulting in a "fixated diaphragm .’’ Yet another
pedagogy ad vocates "spreading” the m uscles in the upper or m iddle back,
actions involving m u scles that are not essential to the m echanics of breathing.
T hese approaches illustrate con fusion about the physiology of breathing. At
tim es they are im aginatively com bined, and m ay call on disjunct anatom ical
inform ation (Miller, 1977, pp. 21-44).
W hen control o f breath em ission is given over alm ost entirely to the
m u scles o f th e flank and low er abdom en, the chest tends to collapse b ecau se
the ribs are not able to m aintain sufficient distention in the p resen ce o f m is­
placed abdom inal pressures. W hen the pectoral m usculature is assigned the
task o f controlling the breath, th e lack o f abdom inal m uscle interaction with
the diaphragm results in th e diaphragm ’s rapid ascent. Any system o f breath
m anagem ent that perm its the sternum to low er will invite collapse of the
thoracic cage. Sternum and rib cage elevation are closely w ed ded to abdom ­
inal action. Bishop (1968, p. 199) states: "In their respiratory capacity, the rib
cage and th e abdom inal w all m ay be con sid ered a functional unit acting
synergistically to em pty the lungs.”
S tu dies o f lung volu m e are concerned with vital capacity, tidal breath,
com plem ental breath, supplem ental breath, and residual breath. S o m e defi­
The Structure a n d M echanics o f the Breath Apparatus 279

nitions are in order: (1) vital capacity: the m axim um breath inhaled follow ing
forced inspiration, com prising the total o f com plem ental, tidal, and supple­
m ental breath, being roughly som e 3700 cc., or about 7 to 8 pints; (2) tidal
breath: the am ount o f air exchan ged during a cycle o f quiet breathing; (3)
eom p lem en tal breath: additional air inhaled beyond quiet breathing; (4) sup­
plem ental breath: air that can be exhaled beyond that exhaled during quiet
breathing; (5) residual breath (or volum e): air that rem ains h i the Imij’'. loi
lowing expiration; air that cannot voluntarily be discharged
The m echan ical problem s involved in com bining rcspii atoi y and phnna
tory control are describ ed in som e detail by S e a ls and N ew som Davis ( I'JfiM,
p. 184):

In phonation the production o f a n ote at constant pitch and inteii


sity requires a con stant airflow through the glottis, and this can lie
ach ieved for up to 90% o f the vital capacity. Yet over this range the
driving force for th e airflow, the subglottal pressure, is influenced
profoundly by the changing, com bined elastic recoil force o f the
lungs and ch est wall. . . . T h ese recoil forces assist expiratory air
flow at high lung volu m es and actually oppose it at low lung
volum es. The relaxation pressure is zero with respect to atm os­
pheric p ressure at the m echanical m id-point o f the system w hen the
individual recoil fo rces o f the lungs and ch est w all exert p ressures on
the pleural cavity. . . . Thus, for a con stant subglottal pressure to be
generated at d ifferen t lung volum es, th ese passive forces m ust be
controlled by an appropriately graded activation o f inspiratory and
expiratory m uscles. In order to ach ieve the dem and for a constant
airflow, th e central n ervou s system has to take into a ccou n t not
only the m agnitude o f the load provided by the phonating larynx . . .
hut also the changing value o f the internal load as lung volum e
diminishes.

V ocal-fold approxim ation and subglottic pressure unite in a nonstatic


lelalionship dictated by pitch, power, and phonem e.
'
APPENDIX 3

The Physiology of the Vocal


Tract Resonator System

The upper vocal tract is the articulatory m echanism loi sp en li .mil ■,111}.*in
The m ovem en ts o f th e tongue, lips, palate, cheeks, anil m andible u lln the
dim ensions o f the reson ator tract. T h ese m ovem en ts in h im .in partly
determ ined by the fa ce and n eck m uscles. The bones of Ibe laci.il skeleton,
together with the m andible, provide structure for the m uscles ol llie lue ■
The zygom atic b on es supply th e fram ew ork for the upper pai l ol the
face. T hese bones are highly visible at th e cheeks. The m axillae are lni>>e
bones that form th e upper jaw, provide a ro o f for the m outh, and give form
lo the nasal cavities. T he h orsesh oe-sh ap ed m andible is the largest bone ol
the face. The ton gu e is attached to th e m andible, and the low er teeth are
rooted in the m andible.
M uscles o f th e fa ce (see Figures A3.1 and A3.2) that respond to articula­
tory gestures are th e following:
• The levator anguli oris, w hich elevates the angles o f the mouth;
• the zygom aticus major, w hich draw s the angles o f the m outh upward
and backward, as in laughter;
• the risorius, w hich retracts the angles o f the m outh, as in smiling;
• the depressor labii inferioris, w hich draw s dow n the low er lip, laterally,
as in an ironic expression;
• the depressor anguli oris, w hich low ers the angles o f the m outh as in
weeping;
• the mentalis, w hich protrudes and raises the low er lip, as in petulance;
• the buccinator, w hich assists chew ing, pushes food onto the teeth, and
w hich alters th e shape o f the cheeks;
• the orbicularis oris, w hich com presses, contracts, and protrudes the lip-.,
and w hich is responsible for m any facial expressions;
• the temporalis, w hich raises and retracts the m andible, and clem In .
the teeth;
• the masseter, which raises the mandible and clnu lies lln teeth,
• the pterygoideus m edial is, which elevates the mnndtbli mid pimldi ■
rotary motion in chewing;
• the pterygoideus lateralis, which protrudes lln- inmullhle. mid pmvldi •
rotary m otion in chewing;
• tin' platysma, which depresses the mandible mid lips, mnl teusi •. lln
skin of the neck, as in a grimace,
281
282 The Structure of Singing

F ro n ta l b elly
o f o c c ip ito fro n ta lis

O rb ic u la ris
o cu li

P ro ce ru s
L e v a to r labii
s u p e rio ris
alaeque nasi

Zyg om iitlcu t N asalis


m ajor
Labial
Ltvntor p art
h ill
luptrlorli
Zyfom itlcui
m inor L evato r
B uccina to r anguli o ris

O rb ic u la ris
o ris
R is o riu s

M asseter

Platysm a
D e p re s so r
a nguli o ris
D e p re s so r labii
in fe rio ris

Figure A3.1. The facial m u scles and m asseter. (From C unningham ’s Manual of Practi­
cal Anatomy, 13th ed., Vol. 3, ed. by G. J. R om anes, 1967. London: O xford University
Press. By perm ission.)
The Physiology o f the Vocal Tract R esonator System 283

A . fro n ta lis
A . e t N . tem porales
p ro fu n d i
M p ierygoideus e xt.

A . dorsalis
S in a s m axillaris
M. orbicularis o cu li
, a,11.
A . angular is
A . in fraorbit.
S in . m axillaris

Ill 101 Nil


A . a lv to la rll tliflth u
N. a t m o la r U in f v i m
M. pterygoideus M. stylohyoid»»»
in tern a s
A . labialis super.
M. zygom aticus
A. occipitalis
Ai. orbicularis Ë
M . digastricus
M. buccinator
M. sternocleidom .

A. labialis infer.

A . thyreoidea sup.

l igure A3.2. S o m e d etails o f th e fa c e and head. (From O. Schultze, Topographische


Anatomie, 4th ed., ed. by W ilhelm Lubosch, 1935. M unich: J. F. L ehm ann s Verlag. By
perm ission, Springer-Verlag.)

The m outh is the m ost adjustable o f the vocal tract cavities, b eca u se <>l (lie
mobility o f the lips, the tongue, and the low er jaw.
In the articulation o f certain sounds, the nasal cavities (see I''inure*. I I
and 4.4) are join ed w ith the m outh and the pharynx as part ol the resonuloi
tube. Divided into halves by the nasal septum , the nasal cavities eonsisi <»t
the vestibule, the olfactory region, and the respiratory region I lie ii. ih "
(nostrils) have an anterior opening, and com m un icate with the plan viih, I In
nasal apertures w iden posteriorly as they meet the iiiisophai v i i h
The paranasal sinuses include tin- frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal .uni
maxillary sin u ses (see Figures A3.3 and A H ). Ilo w rv ei, they plus > negllgl
hie role in resonance, either in sp eed ) oi in singing
T he m o u th a n d th e p h a ry n x ( b u n o phai vng.enl iesmmiiM ) a n . niinei led
by th e o ro p h a ry n g ea l is th m u s (see Figure A IS) Un n n ip liiii\ in eH iemh
fro m th e v elu m d o w n w a r d to th e to p ol tin epiglottis I wo sets ol putted
niches, the palatoglossal a n d the p alato p h a ry n g e al u n i t e s (m i l igutes I I
284 The Structure of Singing

L abium anterius des ostium pharyngouin tubae auditivae ,Torus tubarius


Meatus nasopharyngeus
Sinus sphonoidulis Levatorwulst

P ars nasalis pharyngis

Concha nasalis superior Fornix


pharyngis
Concha
nasalis m edia

Meatus Tonsilla phnryngeri


nasi medius Fascia
pharyngobasilaris
Concha nasalis
inferior Ligamentum
longitudinale
Meatus nasi anterius
inferior Recessus
pharyngeus
[Rosenmuelleri]
Plica salpingo-
pharyngea

Cavmn
(hàryngis

Corpus
epistrophei

Dorsum
linguao

A ri'im i i I iih m ii | i i i I mI I i i i i i i
Arcus pharyngopalatinus
I'UNMtl Hltpl'ltI(11im I 11II i'I h
I M ini li liu iK iiliirU TonHillo palatina

I if't 11 • A I I S . t»•111;11 '.(■< lion nl the nasal cavity. (From W erner Spalteholz, Handatlas
<lri Amiltiniic <!<■•■ Mt'Wit'hvii, I 'ill ed., Vol. 2, 1933. Leipzig: S. Hirzel-Verlag.)

and A3.3) are located on either side o f the oropharyngeal isthm us. Tonsils lie
betw een each palatoglossal-palatopharyngeal pair. The palatopharyngeus
m uscles are attached to the uvula and to the pharyngeal wall; the palatoglos­
sus (also glossopalatinus) m u scles are attached to the uvula and to the
tongue. The levator palatini m uscles elevate the velum; the tensor veli pala­
tini m u scles tighten the velum , or flatten out the velar arch; and the m uscu-
lus uvulae m u scles pull the uvula upw ard and backw ard (see Figures 4.7,
4.8, and 4.9).
The nasopharynx lies behind the nose, im m ediately ab ove the level of
the velum , and con n ects with the nasal cavities. The laryngopharynx extends
from the apex o f the epiglottis to the base o f the cricoid cartilage.
The w alls o f the pharynx are form ed by three large constrictor m uscles
(see Figures 4.7, 4.8, and 4.9), w hich are active in deglutition (swallowing)
and alter the shape o f the laryngopharynx. The constrictor pharyngis in ­
ferior is divided into the cricopharyngeus m u scle and the thyropharyngeus.
Constrictor pharyngis m edius is divided into the chondropharyngeus m uscle
and the ceratopharyngeus m uscle. The constrictor pharyngis superior is
th e Physiology o f the Vocal Tract Resonator System 285

divided into four parts: the pterygopharyngens m uscle, which is attached to


the lam ina o f the pterygoideus process; the bnccopharyngeus, which is
joined to the buccinator; the m ylopharyngens, w hich is attached to the
mandible; and the glossopharyngeus, which is attached In the floor o f the
longue. Briefly stated, th e w alls o f the pharynx urc m ade up <>l m uscles and
fibrous tissue.

frontal
tinu*

opening of
Eustachian tube

10ft palate

palate

uvula
vestibule
posterior wall
of pharynx

epiglottis mandible

ant, longitud.
ligament

hyoid bone
voca
thyroid cartilage

cricoid cartilage

isthmus of thyroid gluml

I i|Miir A V4. Sagittal secti on ol t he voi ill U m I .mil pm I ni I lie In ml |I i m n Mi'illn lli
Miiik li, D y n a m ics o f the S i n n i n g Vuhe, I'M.’ Vlenn.i S p i l n p i V l . i p H\ p*mi l .(■-ii I
286 The Structure o f Singing

' F renulum lab ii superioris

, Gingiva

Labium superius

A reas dentalis superior

P alatu m durum

Palatum molle

U vula
[palatinal

Arcus
glossopalatinus
Arcus
pharyngo-
p alatinus
T onsilla
p alatina

Isthm us
faucium

Dorsum
linguae
Schnittflaehe
d er Backe

A rcus dentalis inferior

Gingiva

F renulum lab ii inferioris

Labium inferius

Figure A3.5. The cavity o f the m outh. (From W erner Spalteholz, Handatlas der Anat­
omie des Menschen, 13th ed., Vol. 3, 1933. Leipzig: S. Hirzel-Verlag.)
APPENDIX 4

The Physical Factors of


Vocal Registration

N.uloleczny, in a chapter on vocal registers in l/nlrrsiicliiuigcn tihri <h'n


Kunstgesang (1923, pp. 32-46), presents a sum m ary o f view points anil In
ininology from the period o f Tosi onw ard. Although even the existent < ol
i i f’isters has at tim es b een in dispute, a vocal register m ay be briefly defined
I . .i series o f co n secu tiv e v o ice to n es o f equal.tim bre,..w hich jean be dislm
riiished from adjoining series.
Early in the history o f singing, perform ers perceived that certain notes
In the scale could b e grouped as to tim bre and as to reson ance sensations.
I lie trained singer learns to go from on e register to another w ithout disrupt­
ing the unity o f the scale, and thus con foun ds the study of registers in the
professional voice. C om m ittees o f auditors in perceptual studies m ay find it
difficult to d etect any register dem arcations, or perceive only th o se ex­
hibited in the extrem es o f range, w hen they deal w ith w ell-trained subjects.
I<cjjardless o f excellen t tech n iq u e that "hides” the events o f registration,
almost all p rofessional singers are con vin ced that register p henom en a do
Indeed exist. M uch o f their techn ical w ork has been d evoted to scale
equalization.
l .uchsinger and Arnold (1965, pp. 96-97) report: “In the untrained singer,
t crtain disturbances occur. At sp ecific points in the frequ en cy range a
marked reaction of the resonators o f the larynx m ay be heard in a changed
Intensity of tim bre o f th e tones. T hese points are know n as register passages
hi transitions.”

C R IC O T H Y R O ID ACTION IN R E G IST R A T IO N

Although the shape o f the glottis is ultim ately determ ined by m Hon ni IIn-
m in im i laryngeal m uscles, the cricothyroid m uscles serve .is e sie m .il m u.
i les o f pitch adjustm ent (Zenker, 1964b, pp. 24 .’ 7) The < i it olh violtl (see
I lj|iii e A l.lc ) spread outw ard and backward from tlicit n n ln loi position on
the cricoid cartilage, to b eco m e attached to tin- lam inae o| ihe iliv io ld i m
Hinge and to the inferior horns o f the thyroid cuitllnge I'he n U o lh v m id
h i i isc Ies pull the thyroid cartilage forw ard mid d ow n w m il Im m Its i« sling

position on the cricoid cartilage (see Figm e A4, Id). When the i I li olliyi oh Is
1 mil m et, the vocal folds are stretched mul adjusted to the pm mnetllmi
position.

287
288 The Structure o f Singing

(The a rrow s show the directio n of m ovem ent of the arytenoid cartilages)

A d ductio n of vocal folds by A p p ro xim a tio n of


Im eral crico aryten o id Ms. arytenoid cartilages by
A b d u ctio n o f vocal fold» transverse arytenoid M.
by p o sterio r
crico aryteno id M«,

Relaxation o f vocal folds


by th yro aryteno id Ms.

T ensing o f vocal folds by


c ric o th y ro id Ms.

Figure A4.1. A series o f diagram s to sh ow several positions o f the vocal folds and
cartilages. (From Sir Solly Zuckerm an, A New System of Anatomy, 1961. London:
O xford University Press. By perm ission.)

M oore (1964, p. 144) describes the interaction of cricothyroid m uscles


with internal laryngeal m uscles:
W hen the vocal cords are approxim ated as in phonation, their elon­
gation d ecreases their effective m ass, increases their elasticity, and
alters their contour; shortening the folds reverses the process. H ow ­
ever, if shortening is prevented by action o f the cricothyroid m us­
cles, thereby stabilizing the attachm ents o f the vocal folds, contrac-
The Physical Factors of Vocal Registration 289

tion o f th e m u scles w ithin the folds in creases the elasticity, ch an ges


the con tour o f the supplem entary, oblique m uscle l ibres attached to
the con u s elasticus, and reduces the effective mass.

The vocal ligam ents (ed ges o f the vocal folds) are com pi ised ol fibers of
•in elastic character, and o f collagen ous fibers that are nttiu lied to the vot a
lis m uscles. W hen th e vocal ligam ents are stretched by m eans ol the crico
thyroid m uscles, they elongate up to the point w here the coll,p r iio n s libei \
cannot yield any further b ecau se they have been lully stretched At this
point, longitudinal tension can be increased, but not length In o n lei to
.it rive at the highest pitches, the vocalis m uscles must relax, while tin' la in at
thyroarytenoids should contract (van den Berg, 1964, p. 97).
Van den Berg (1968b, pp. 22-23) provides a precise description ol tin
physical cau ses o f register variation:

Variations in this register [chest] are prim arily brought about by


variations in th e internal te n g io n sjp ^ ta b o d j M j f j ^ i.e.,
by variations; o f .tfie contracting forces in .iK e.J^.dis-m usci|e. T hese
lorces fïëed som e com pensatory forces, how ever, and thus other
m uscles are also involved in chest voice to som e extent. In the pho-
natory position, con traction o f th e vocalis m u scles abducts th e glot­
tis and this requires a com pensatory m edial com pression. Further­
more, contraction o f the vocalis m u scles ten ds to shorten the glottis
and to tilt the thyroid cartilage. W ith shortening beyond a critical
value, this requires a com pensatory contraction o f the cricothyroid
m uscles, w hich in creases th e length o f th e vocal folds. This increase
is limited, how ever, and length is only slightly increased beyond the
i esting length or not at all. Therefore, the longitudinal tension in the
vocal ligam ents rem ains negligible com pared w ith the longitudinal
tensions in the vocalis m uscles. The vibrational patterns, large
am plitudes and long closu re o f the glottis during the cycle, are thus
primarily determ ined by the body o f ti^ v o c a jjflld s and not by their
margins.

H eralding the m iddle a.nà upper registers, van den Berg (1968b, p. 23)
i ontlnues:

I lie lo n g i t u d i n a l f o r c e s in t h e v o c a l l i g a m e n t s a r e n o l o n g n nenllnl
hie c o m p a r e d w i t h t h o s e in t h e v o c a lis m u s c le s , b u t ai e ol th e s a m e
o r i l e r o f m a g n i t u d e . T o a c h i e v e this, t h e c o n t r a c t i o n ol th e voi all*
m u s c l e s m u s t b e s u b m a x i m a l , b e c a u s e t h e s e m u s c le s ni r .m l. i /mml ,
lit to t h e c r i c o t h y r o i d muscles w h ic h p assiv ely s l i e l i h tin vim ill
I o ld s a n d t h u s t h e v o c a l lig a m e n ts. T h is u d jiitttm cnt i «•<p ill « ,i
s o m e w h a t s t r o n g e r c o n t r a c t i o n ol t h e i n t n m y ten olil i m r u 1rs .mil >
m e d i a l c o m p r e s s i o n b e y o n d a m i n im a l v alu e, n i h e i w l s i th e (iloltls
h e r o i n e s to o w id e , a n d t h e v o c a l fo ld s i a n n u l lie I hi o w n Into \ 11u a
lio n by t h e air. In th is re g is te r , t h e v i b r a t o r y p a t i n n v I n t n i n n l l a l i
a m p l i t u d e s , an ti s h o r t c l o s u r e ol t h e hIoIIIh i l t n l n y th e t yt It a n
ill I n m i n e d by th e ho tly ol th e voi al lolils .nul by 11H it m m i n r I In
a i l | u s t m e n t a n d t h e p a t t e r n s h a v e a m i x e d ■lim ai I n

1 .
290 The Structure o f Singing

Although m uscle adjustm ent is gradual, certain laryngeal m uscle coor­


dinations m ust at som e point in the ascending scale be superseded by others.
Luchsinger and Arnold (1965, p. 97) state that vocal-fold vibrations follow
d ifferent patterns in different registers. During the production o f low
pitches, the folds appear rounded, full, and relaxed; in high pitches they are
sharp-edged, thin, and taut. The partner-opponent relationship b etw een the
thyroarytenoids and the cricothyroids is o f increased im portance in registra­
tion action during singing. In rising pitch, the stretching force o f the crico­
thyroids cannot be resisted by the thyroarytenoids to the sam e degree as in
low or m iddle pitch without strenu ous m uscle con flict ensuing— a sorry
condition for ease in singing. This view point is further supported by van den
Berg (1968c, pp. 132-134):

When the subject sings un ascending or a d escending scale w ith no


appreciable transition in sound quality, h e n eed s to change gradu­
ally from on e type ol adjustm ent to the other. That m eans that the
antagonistic active tensions in the vocalis m u scles and the passive
tensions in the vocal ligam ents, together w ith the adduction of the
glottis and the value o f the flow of air, n eed to b alance sm oothly
and grndiiullV'
Vim den liei )' points out that som e pitches that lie in a region w here over­
lapping ol linn lion may occur can be sung in several ways.
I’ledom muliiip, thyroarytenoid contraction is described by Briess (1964,
p. .’ S ')) .is "the lull vibration" function o f the folds, producing a "robust”
chui actci o f voice; a "delicate” character o f v o ice is characterized by pre­
dom inating cricothyroid function, Briess says. At the identical pitch, varying
ratios o f thyroarytenoid or cricothyroid function m ay occur. V oice teachers
w ho recognize registration events in singing designate B riess’s "robust” qual­
ity as ch est voice. R obust quality is appropriate to th e low range o f the sing­
ing voice; the thyroarytenoids are shortened and thickened. The am plitude
o f vibration is greater in low register b ecau se the glottis opens widely, and
there is a full vibratory sw eep o f the folds aw ay from the param edian posi­
tion. The cricothyroid m u scles do not offer very great antagonism to the
thyroarytenoid m uscles in this range, and therefore there is lim ited resis­
tance to the airstream (Vennard, 1967, pp. 66-67).
As pitch rises, the folds elongate. With the ascent o f pitch from low to
m iddle voice, the relationship b etw een the thyroarytenoid m uscles and the
cricothyroid m uscles changes in favor of Briess’s m ore “delicate” ratio. If the
folds rem ain too thick, an increase in breath pressure is required for phona­
tion. If this thickness rem ains during further progression up the scale into
upper-m iddle voice, there will arrive a point at w hich the d egree o f m uscle
tension and breath pressure can no longer be m aintained w ithout a sudden
alteration o f this adjustm ent. U nless som e gradual reduction o f m uscular
antagonism has previously b een m ade, the voice will either "break” or
sq u eeze off. S m ooth entrance into m iddle and upper voice requires flexible
balance o f th e laryngeal m uscles, vibrating vocal-fold m ass, subglottic pres­
sure, and air flow rate.

The Physical Factors o f Vocal Registration 291

E X T E R N A L FR A M E FU N CTIO N

I'actors not directly related to internal laryngeal lu nctiou play a role in


determ ining events o f vocal registration. The external structure surrounding
the larynx and con n ectin g the neck to the head and to the torso can be
directed tow ard pitch change. B ecau se the cricothyroid joint is not .it .1 lixed
position, the thyroid and cricoid cartilages have several possibilities ol
m ovem ent in relation to th e spine and to each othei ..........linen, I'ifiK, p HO)
Sonninen, in a study o f th e effec ts o f external fram e musi u la tu ic on pin h
control (1968, pp. 68-89), describes an external m echanism consistai)' of
im ultaneous contraction o f the sternohyoid m uscles and ol the thvroman
dibular m u scles (w hich attach to the thyroid cartilage, to the livold hone,
and to th e jaw); th ese m u scles can pull the thyroid cartilage in .1 lot w aul
direction. In addition, "The cricopharyngeal m uscles act in .1 tlorso 1 1 am . 1l
direction and thus shorten the vocal folds. This occu rs only, how ever, when
the larynx is in a low position and w hen there is n o anterior pull on the
thyroid cartilage.” This effect b ecom es w eaker as the larynx is raised (Sop-
ninen, 1968, p. 80).
Other factors that m ay act on the m echan ism s o f pitch are the position
ol the ventricular (false) folds, the position o f th e epiglottis (Zenker, 1964b,
11 28), the extent o f esophageal opening, and the degree o f tracheal bending
(Sonninen, 1968, p. 75). The supportive m u scles o f the neck structure con-
Irlbute to the character o f vocal tim bre (Zenker and Zenker, 1960, pp. 32-33).
11 lie exact nature of external fram e function as contributor to vocal regis-
11 at ion should receive further study.)
Individual anatom ical structure and orientation in vocal technique
probably determ in e sp ecific external fram e contributions to registration
practices.

DA M PING

I tamping is an acou stical term that describ es the p rocess by which energy is
lost in a vibrating system through d ecrease in am plitude. As considered here,
dum ping refers to a sp ecific registration phenom en on in which there occut s
a d ecrease or cessation in the am plitude o f vocal fold vibration as a result ol
111 essure exerted on the fold during rapid vibration at high pitch In addition
In vocal-fold elongation and corresponding reduction in mass, dam ping In n
m ethod for pitch adjustm ent.
Ilricss (1964, p. 268) describes what occurs in phonation d in in g ioiuII
l i o n s o f extrem e hyperfunction o f the cricothyroid mum les without piopei
111111 iterpull o f m uscle antagonists. Damping action begin* at Ilit-1 po*leiioi
■uds ol the folds, with forceful approxim ation, as pin h ils. the poillu n ol
l i n area that is dam ped becom es greater, pi ogi r s n l n g tin leilo i Iv; all pie*
.m e Increases with increase in dam ping Hi l e s s s t a l e s ihal m u h u u d e n l i u h l i
phonation often is to be found in sei earning 1 lilldi e u and In lem alr ningei s
292 The Structure of Singing

with ab usive singing techniques. “In su ch instances, the vocal cords are
dam ped over alm ost their entire length, with the exception o f a sm all orifice
anteriorly. S oun d can be produced only under ex cessiv e air pressure”
(Briess, 1964, p. 268).
E xcessive dam ping is to be avoided. H ow ever, progressive dam ping
appears essential in ascending pitch in the upperm ost range of the singing
voice; som e pitches in the flageolet voice (see Chapter 10) are not physiologi­
cally possible unless the folds are heavily damped.

SU M M A RY O F PH Y SICA L A SPEC TS O F R E G IST R A T IO N

V ocal registers appear to be d eterm ined by actions o f the intrinsic m uscles


o f the larynx, by actions ol the cricothyroid m u scles in altering relationships
b etw een the laryngeal m uscles and the laryngeal cartilages, by actions of
certain neck m u sd cs that function as an external fram e to the laryngeal
m usculature, by sub^lollii pressure and breath flow rate, possibly by the
extent o f Inn heal pull, by coupling b etw een the larynx and the resonators
ab ove the larynx, mul, al least in som e voices, by the degree o f vocal fold
damping
(Jtii s lio iis important to vocal pedagogy can be posed. W here do register
events most com m only occu r in a particular category o f voice? At what
point -.111111111 tin- lu uvici m echanical production give w ay to a lighter m ech-
...... al .u tion ' I low .ii c i c a s te r s mixed? H ow best can the voice be trained to
produce ;i unified scale without audible registration dem arcations?
Answers to these questions differ rem arkably am ong pedagogies (Miller,
1477, pp. 99-136). The effectiven ess o f vocalises in Chapters 10 and 11 can
best be determ ined in light o f w hat is understood about the physiology of
vocal registration.
APPENDIX 5

Influences of Various Voiced


and Unvoiced Consonants on
Resonator Adjustment

The articulatory system coordinates and m odifies actions initialed by lln


i espiratory—phonatory m echanism . C onsonantal m aneuvers bring about
changes in th e configuration of the resonator tube. Any consonantal |>ln>
n em e can be identified as a m em ber o f on e or m ore fam ily groups, yet Ilie
possible overlapping o f articulatory m odifiers o f vocal sound com plicates
.li ingent codification o f each variant.
C onsonants m ay be grouped according to the extent o f airflow during
phonation (Klatt et al., 1968, pp. 46-51). N ot surprisingly, airflow rates are
■.iniilar in the nasal con tinu ants [m] and [n], and in v ow el sounds. T he co n ­
sonants [r] and [1] u se a slightly low er rate o f airflow than do the nasals and
vowels, but not significantly so. The p hon em e [h] has a high rate o f airflow.
C onsonants [v], [z], and [ô] are voiced through out their durations, with a
higher d egree o f laryngeal resistance to airflow than is found in the voiceless
11 n atives. B eca u se o f glottal involvem ent, voiced fricatives have a low er air-
llovv rate than do the voiceless fricatives [f], [s], and [0], but a higher rate o f
Ilow than vow els.
In the ca se of con son ants [b], [d], and [g], the singer often is aw are o f the
loppage o f air and its subsequent sudden release. This burst o f air, a result
ni the su dden release o f m outh pressure, can be significant in locating ai lit
nlatory sensation for the singer.
C onsonants [p], [t], and [k] indicate a fast burst release with .i % .......-what
■.lower return to airflow characteristics o f the subsequent vowel In piodm
Inc. this set of consonants, airflow rate is high, similai to that lounil In lln
phonem e [h]; according to Klatt et al. (1968, p. 48), during lln Intel val "I
i .piralion, the vocal folds gradually begin to a p p io x lm a l., and vlhi allon h
. .bservable just shortly before the flow levels oil to ,i i. lallveK i. mis i it.
When a consonant o f this type occurs al the c I o n c ol a «.vllnlile, II Ini', i
.oiiiewhat sm aller peak in airflow rate, and slio ilei duiailoii'. ..I high ,.n
llow, probably b ecau se the vow el that follow* cun be ptodiii n l with lo w n
nbglotlic pressure (Isshiki and Rlngel, I 9f t 4, p .’"III
Isshiki and Ringel (1964, p. 241 ) established that tin Mow . ali .Ini Ing .
ir.i,uni'd phonation depends on (I) cxp liatm y rllm t and (•') iIi*>m*•« nl
i I ’.lslance within the vocal trad. I adeloged ( I'JftJu, pp .MM ' l'>) i . p. n I , .lin
lliit conclusions, as d o es S ch u tlc ( 1980, p IM ) Mow ia le ii gii ,ilri lot volii

2‘H
294 The Structure of Singing

less con son an ts than for voiced b ecau se it is essen tial for the glottis to clo se
in voicing and to be abducted in unvoiced consonants.
R egarding intra-vocal tract pressure, the pressure for a voiceless co n ­
sonant is greater than that for its voiced counterpart, w hich partially
explains the high airflow rate during voiceless con son ant production (Isshiki
and Ringel, 1964, p. 243):

The volu m e o f th e cavity behind the points o f vocal tract closure in


w hich pressure m ounts up is com p osed o f the supra- and sub-
glottal cavities during the production o f voiceless consonants. In the
case o f the production of the voiced consonant the cavity behind
the closure consists o f the supra-glottal cavity. This difference in the
size o f the cavity ("capacity o f condenser,” after Fant) m ay also con ­
tribute to the d ifference in flow rate b etw een the voiced and v o ice­
less consonants. Il also appears logical to assu m e that the air supply
from the lungs through the glottis is greater, d ue to the lack o f glot­
tal resistance, during the period o f explosion o f a voiceless stop co n ­
sonant than dm ing similar period o f a voiced consonant. This factor
also influences the Mow pattern o f the various stop consonants.

In all probability, the speed and degree o f release o f th ese points o f stric­
ture, suggest Isshiki .mil Ringel, is inversely related to airflow rate. S o m e
consonantal cliiu iu lei istlcs related to airflow rate and to stricture points
have direct m lluencr on resonator adjustm ents for singing, and on that
account nerve teaching purposes.
Several team s ol researchers have con clud ed that th e intranasal sound
pressure for nasal consonants is m arkedly high and that th e pressure for
preceding w aves o f |r | or voiced consonant syllables is considerably m ore
p ronounced in the nasal cavity than in the front o f th e m outh (Hirano et al.,
1966, p. 378). Hirano, Takeuchi, and Hiroto rem ark that internal pressure
d ecreases with the elevation o f the soft palate, and that there w ould appear
to be som e discrepancy betw een the low velum (a ca u se o f nasalization) and
the high level o f intranasal pressure:

H ere it is su ggested that d ifferen ces in intranasal pressure in pro­


n ou n cin g vow els are m ainly due to factors other than an elevation
o f the soft palate. . . . [IJntranasal sound p ressure varies according
to different vow els b ecau se o f d ifferen ces in internal im pedance of
the vow el tract for vowels.

(Im pedance is an acou stic term that refers to the ratio o f the pressure to the
volu m e displacem ent at a given su rface in the m edium that transm its
sound.) The sam e source concludes:

The present experim ents revealed a pronouncedly high intranasal


sound pressure for the preceding R /so u n d and voiced consonant
syllables. This su ggests that a nasopharyngeal closure fails to reach
its m axim um w hen the preceding w ave is uttered. During this
period o f speech sound production the vocal tract is obstructed at
Influences o f Voiced a n d U nvoiced Consonants 295

the articulatory region, e.g., the lips for labial sounds, the alveola for
dental sounds and the palate for palatal sounds. Therefore, it is
understood that energy is chiefly released through the nasal cavity,
resulting in high intranasal sound pressure.

The coupling o f th e front vow el |i| with the misai con tinu ants is com
mon practice in teachin g reson an ce balancing in sinp.iiiK, lom b in ln n the sen
Nations o f th e op en throat (gola aperta) and good le s o i...... balance
(impostazione).
Bôhm e et al. (1966, p. 9) con d ucted a series ol investigations un .u I..... ..
of the levator and ten sor veli palatini on the velum . The m tlvltv ol those
m uscles w as sum m arized as follows: "Our investigation show s tlinl i p ic
phonatory phase varying in length occurs in both m uscles. Aniony the vow
els it is [i] w hich sh ow s th e greatest activity o f the tensor veli pnl.itIni In
general a com plex functioning o f Mm. levator and tensor palatini in vowel
production can be dem onstrated from our investigations." The coupling ol
nasal continuant and high form ant vow el, su ch as [i] or [e], so typical ol the
Italian School, is an im portant p rocedure in inducing laryngeal as well as
vocal tract action favorable for vocal tim bre in singing.
Although even slight nasality is produced by coupling the nasal reson a­
tor to the oral and pharyngeal cavities, considerable evidence indicates that
vocal-fold activity during nasality differs som ew h at from non-nasal activity.
I lie recent techn iqu e o f flexible fiberoptic exam ination o f the larynx (fiber­
optic nasopharyngolaryngoscopy) (Silberm an et al., 1976, pp. 640-646), w hich
permits the vocal folds to be observed during nearly optim al conditions for
• inging, supports the assum ption that certain laryngeal configurations
appear to accom pan y nasality. A brief su rvey o f literature sou rces dealing
with possible laryngeal contribution to nasality is offered by Zem lin (1981,
pp. 224-225). Thus the considerable controversy over w hether vocal timbre,
which is perceived by som e singers and listeners as being m arked by “nasal
leso n a n ce” but free o f "nasality,” m ay also depend on laryngeal configura­
tion as w ell as on internal vocal tract im pedance.
Reporting on an alog stud ies o f nasalization o f vow els (as opposed to
events that take place in th e nasal continuants them selves), H ou se and Stev
ens (1956, p. 230) co n clu d e that coupling the nasal cavity to the vot ai lia i I
lesults (in all probability) in the following:

I a differential reduction in the am plitude o f the first lon nan t ol vallons


vowels, with a concom itant increase in formant bandwidth and an
upward shift in the center frequency o f the formant;
), a reduction in the over-all level of the vowel;
' various "secondary” effects on the spei lin m (notably tin IiiI h h Iiii lion
ol an anti-resonance, the elim ination ol Ilie lliii d loi ninitl .mil li i e^ulni
ities in upper form ants, as well as the possible Inliodm lion ol ailill
lional spectral peaks);
I the perc ep tio n of "nasality" w h en the majoi ollet is oil I lie m oti*lli
o u tp u t re a c h a p p r o p r ia te magnitude*.
296 The Structure of Singing

Other reports confirm the effect o f even slight nasalization on form ant rela­
tionships, a m atter o f vital im portance in the teaching o f singing. A ccording
to Fant (1964, p. 232):
The effect o f a slight nasalization (velopharyngeal coupling area on
th e order o f 60m m 2) as in norm al sp eech in segm en ts close to nasal
con son ants is primarily the reduction of the first form ant level ver­
su s other form ants. There also appear extra form ants and spectral
m inim a. The split o f the first form ant into tw o peaks is a typical
effect.
Fant m en tion s tw o other m atters that may help explain th e v o ice tea ch er’s
nearly universal urge to couple nasal continuants with other phon em es as
vocalization patterns for resonance adjustment:
1. The assim ilated nasality on both sides o f a nasal con son ant in con n ected
sp eech affects a larger pari ol the speech before the nasal consonant than
after the nasal consonant. I'.ven unvoiced stops and fricatives m ay be
affected to som e extent without serious effects on sp eech quality as judged
by trained lislenei s
2. The e lic i t ol an extrem ely large degree o f nasalization, in w hich the
velum may ap pioai h the back o f the tongue and the velopharyngeal co u ­
pling, at ea i n ol Ihe order of 250 mm, is a shift dow n in th e frequ en cy o f the first
loi i ii.n il .ind .i i el. Hi vc dci i ease o f the levels o f the seco n d and third form ants.
An additional ( losing ol the nostrils cau ses an increase in the relative level
ol the IiinI formant (low frequency resonance).

I ant (1964, pp. 223-233), in discussing the degree o f nasalization in n on ­


nasalized sounds, adds: "A relatively prom inent secon d harm onic, p resum ­
ably originating from the glottal source, can be apparent in nasalized as w ell
as non-nasalized parts o f the utterance.” The several contributive factors to
nasality and to "nasal resonance" (a tim bre perception that is for m ost
schooled listeners not the sam e as nasality) in singing require additional
investigation.
APPENDIX 6

International Phonetic
Alphabet (IPA) Symbols

'I'hc m ost logical phonetic system is one, developed ovei scv cia l »!•*« .idc'.,
which enjoys universal accep tance. Although not perfect in compiuiiiK
sounds from one language to another, the International Phonetic Alphabet
(IPA) sym bols accurately identify the sou nd s o f speech. The system is ludls
pensable in the vocal studio.
The m ost frequently en cou n tered IPA sym bols are presented here in a
correlative fashion, w ith m odel w ords in English, German, Italian, and
French.

A C O N C ISE C O R R E L A T IV E PR O N U N C IA TIO N G U ID E

I lie close vow el sou nd in non-English languages is in general m uch closer


than sou nd s in A m erican speech. Both close and open vow els in the
K om ance and G erm anic languages are “higher” than in A m erican English,
Including so-called "Standard Am erican Speech .” W hen singing English,
most singers introduce closer vow el sou nd s than w ould be u sed in spoken
I nglish. The sam e considerations, how ever, apply to singing foreign lan­
guage sounds.
W ords that serve as pronunciation keys are indicated in the follow ing
list, using sym bols o f the International P honetic Alphabet. No attention has
been given to vow el duration, w hich is a distinguishing characteristic ol
vowel sou nd s in several languages. Although the IPA sym bols show co n v ia
lion betw een English, French, Italian, and Germ an sounds, such corrélation
i . by no m eans absolute.

297
298 The Structure of Singing

IPA SY M B O L S F O R V O W E L S, SE M I V O W E L S, AND F R E N C H
V O W E L SO U N D S
IPA Symbols English German Italian French

V ow els
[i] keen Liebe prima lis
[i] thin ic ¥
[e] chaos Lcben pena été, crier
[e] bet Belt, Gaste, tem p o êtes, père
neige
[*] bat
[a] task parle
(American)
[a] father Stadt cam era ras, âge
[D] hot (British)
fc>] soft, all Son ne m orto som m e, joli,
votre
[o] note Sohn non beaux,
pauvre,
gros
["1 tio< >k Mutter
[u] gllll, IlMtl Mut uso ou
1À 1 up
M
[»] ( hi Iiwii) ahead getan dem ain
[yl (approxim ates |i| plus [u]) m üde une,
M (approxim ates 111 plus [u]) Glück
101 (approxim ates jc] plus [o]) schon peu,
[« ] (approxim ates |c] plus [a]) Kôpfe heure,

S em i V ow els ((H ides) a n d D ip h th o n g s

[j] v_es la pm, lion, pied


pieno
[w] wish uom o,
guida
[ai] nice [° e] Mai, Ei [ai] m ai
[au] hou se [ao] H aus [au] aura
[ei] w ay [ei] d o v d
[pi] boy [001 Hauser, [ai] vuoi
Kreuz
[ou] so

V o w el S o u n d s P e c u lia r to th e F r e n c h L a n g u a g e

[a] tem ps -
m faim , vin,
[8] no m , long
[œ] parfum
jeun
International Phonetic A lphabet (IPA) Sym bols 299

IN TER N A TIO N A L PH O N E T IC A L PH A B ET SY M B O L S FO R
CO N SO N A N T SO U N D S

Pairs of consonants, one voiced and the other unvoicod, a rc e x e c u te d with


similar tongu e and lip positions.

Classification
Voiceless by Formation Vain

Ini pope bilabial [b] llllll

W tote lingua- |d | di'iul


alveolar
IM coke velar [g] tflu|
in fife labiodental M valve
mi think linguadental [Ô] the
i»i cease dental M lone»
iji Sh! lingua- [3] vision
alveolar
[Ç] ich (German) palatal
1*1 ach (German) velar [«] Paris (Frcr
[HI ha-ha! glottal [?] uh-oh!
(aspirate) (stroked
|t / l chase lingua- [d3] jud gm en t
alveolar
M tsetse linguadental [dz] adds

A', just indicated, th e pairs are as follows:

[pHb]
[tHd]
[kHg]
[f>[v]
[6H8]
[sHz]
1JH31
[ç]- [ç] is generally believed lo hr
without a voiced coiiiileriHiH)
[xH k]
[h>[?]
[tf]-[d3l
[ts J—[d z]

NASAL CO N SO N A N TS

in ma t illiililiil a m id
In | no lllvtilllM M il 'll
|l|| SOIljJ Vi till lllind
j it j ogni (Italian), onion (English), ugnenn (I h i m Ii ) imlitinl nn-nl
Ini I conforto (Italian) ....... d Uhlo ibhiitl
300 The Structure of Singing

OTHER VOICED CONSONANTS


[X] foglja (Italian)
[1] lull
[j ] rare (retroflex r, som etim es referred to as
m id w estem r)
[r] very (single tap r, as in British speech)
[f]* c a ir o (Italian); Grand (German) (alveolar trill)

'T he sym b ol [r] is u sed in this work, and in m any ph onetic sou rces, to represent the
alveolar rolled r, b eca u se the IPA sym b ol for the trilled r [r], is u sed indiscrim inately in
m any Am erican sources.
Glossary of
Nonmusical Terms

abdom en: that part o f th e body (except i11).>, the bai k) tli.it In . I.. tw een Ihe
pelvis and th e thorax; the cavity o f this pm i ol Ilu lot so, lined I>v the
peritoneum , en closed by the w alls o f the hotly, Ihe dinplii iifçm, m i d <011
taining the viscera.
abduction: action by w hich a pai l is drawn away from the m edian line (as
in the opening o f the glottis),
acoustics: the scien ce o f sound, including its production, transm ission, and
effects; the sum o f the qualities (such as reverberation) o f an enclosure
that determ ines the degree of distinctness o f sou nd generated within il.
acrom ion: th e lateral, triangular projection o f the scapula that form s the
point o f the shoulder, articulating w ith the clavicle,
adduction: to draw tow ard a m edian axis (as in the closure o f the glottis),
adltus: a passage for entrance (as in th e aditus laryngis).
adrenaline: a h orm one naturally secreted by th e m edulla o f the suprarenal
glands, w hich generally acts as stim ulant,
aerodynam ics: pertaining to the force o f gases in m otion, to the force act­
ing on bodies m oving through gases, and to the forces involved w hen
gases pass over bodies,
ula (alae): w ing-like process or structure, as o f the thyroid cartilage,
alveolar: sp eech sou nd produced w ith the apex o f the tongu e touching the
upper alveolar ridge,
alveolus (alveoli): an air cell of the lungs,
anterolateral: in front and to the side.
apex: the tip, point, or angular sum m it (as the apex o f the tongue),
aponeurosis: thick and d en se deep fasciae that connect m uscle lo bone; a
flat tendon m ay be called an aponeurosis (as in central tendon ol the
tliaphragm).
approximate: to co m e near to, to approach (as in vocal fold approxim ation)
articulate: to join.
articulators: the tongu e, the lips, the teeth, the sol I palnlr and Ilie liai d pal
ate, w hich m odify the acou stic properties ol the voi nl Inn I
nryeplglottlc: m u scles that form the sides ol the collai ol IIn* larynx,
extending from the arytenoids to the sides ol the epIgM tl*
arytenoid m uscles: the transverse arytenoid and llic oblique arvlcnold
m uscles.
arytenoids: paired cartilages to which the voi «I l o l d s are allai lied
atm osphcrlc pressure: pressure exerted by the alm osplinr In every direc­
tion, approximately 15 pound» per «quai l! Itn h (ttl sea level),

Mil
302 The Structure of Singing

B ernoulli principle: air in m otion has less pressure or density than w hen
im m obile, producing suction; if flow is constantly m aintained, air will
speed up at a constricted area, with a d ecrease in p ressure occurring at
that point.
bilabial: con son ants form ed with the aid o f both lips (as in [p], [b], and [m]).
bilateral: having tw o sides,
bronchiole: a m inute bronchial tube,
bronchogram : an x-ray picture o f the lungs and bronchi,
bronchus (bronchi): a subdivision o f the trachea form ed by a bifurcation of
the trachea.
buccal cavity: cavity o f the mouth; oral cavity,
buccinator: thin, broad m uscle form ing the wall o f the cheek,
buccopharyngeal resonator: the resonator system form ed by the m outh
and the pharynx.

cartilage: nonvasculai connecting tissue that is m ore flexible than bone,


caudal: situated in or near the tail; posterior.
central tendon: laige tendon o f the diaphragm; diaphragm atic aponeurosis,
collagenous: pertaining to collagen, the ch ief constituent o f the gelatinlike
protein found in con n ective tissue,
collar o f tin1 larynx: the vestibule o f the larynx; a m uscular ring com p osed
o f the at veplglottk folds, the epiglottis, and the arytenoids.
commlNNiirt': a joint, seam, or closure; an interstice, cleft, or juncture; a
place w here purls ol the body meet,
com plem ental air: ail' w hich can be inhaled in addition to that taken in
during quiet breathing (also known as inspiratory reserve'air),
constrictor m uscles: on e o f three pairs o f m uscles (superior, middle, and
inferior) which form the pharyngeal walls,
continuant: a speech sound that m ay be prolonged during one breath (as in
nasal continuant).
contraction: the shortening and thickening o f a m u scle fiber (or o f the
entire m uscle) w hen activated,
conus elasticus: a cone-shaped structure o f elastic tissue attached below
the upper border o f the cricoid cartilage, in front o f the thyroid cartilage,
and behind the arytenoid cartilages; it includes the vocal and cricothyroid
ligam ents and is also called the cricovocal m em brane,
corniculate: having horns or sm all hom -lik e processes,
cornu (cornua): horn-shaped laryngeal cartilages,
cortex: the ou ter or superior part o f an organ,
costal: pertaining to a rib or costa.
cricoarytenoids: m uscles w hich rotate the arytenoid cartilages on the.cri-
coid cartilage.
cricothyroids: four m u scles w hich attach to the front o f the cricoid cartil­
age and w hich pull dow n on the thyroid cartilage,
cricovocal membrane: see con u s elasticus.
crus (crura): tendinous attachm ent o f the diaphragm to lum bar vertebrae,
form ing the sides o f the aortic opening.
Glossary o f N onm usical Terms 303

cuneiform cartilage: w edge-shaped pair o f cartilages lying in the aryepi-


glottic folds, know n as the "cartilages o f W risberg.”

damping: dim inution in am plitude o f su ccessive oscillations or waves,


diaphragm: organ com p osed o f m u scles and sinew s, IIn- partition betw een
the ch est cavity and the abdom inal cavity (sep a ia les the respiratory and
digestive system s).
digastric: having tw o bellies; applied chiefly lo ..... si les that m e llesliy at
each end with a tendon in the middle,
digitation: a finger-like process (as o f the ribs),
dorsal: directed tow ard the back.
dorsum: the upper side or part o f an appendage (as in tin doi inn ol the
tongue— the upper side behind the tip),
dysphonia: im paired voicing.

ectom orphic: o f light body build.


edema: abnorm al accum u lation o f fluid in the tissues; sw elling (as ol ihr
vocal folds).
EGG: see electroglottography.
electrode: either term inal o f an electric source; a plate through w hich d e c
trical current is sent through a body structure,
electroglottography (EGG): process for m easuring ch an ges in electrical
im pedance (resistance) betw een tw o electrodes placed on opposite sides of
the larynx, creating a w ave-form on a visual display,
electrom yography (EMG): a process for recording electrical energy gen er­
ated by activated m uscles.
EMG: see electrom yography.
epiglottis: one o f the three single cartilages o f the larynx, located b etw een
t he root o f the tongu e and the entrance to the larynx,
epithelium : a cellular tissu e that covers free surfaces, tubes, or cavities of
Ihe body, enclosing and protecting,
exhalation (expiration): that part o f the breath cycle during w hich breath is
emitted.
expiratory reserve volum e: the am ount o f air w hich can be exhaled Irom
the lungs beyond that exhaled in quiet respiration,
extensors: m u scles w hich extend or straighten a part (as opposed lo
flexors).
external oblique m uscle: the fibers o f the external oblique m u ilnw iiw anl
(in general), and they form layers o f the lateral w alls ol llic . 11<<I.......n, H
fuses with the internal oblique to form the linea alba
extrinsic: external.

hiNcla (fasciae): a sheet or layer o f con n ective tissue 11ini i ovei s, In allies,
supports or binds together internal parts 01 sti in tin es ol tin bod\, ,1 pai
ales m uscle bundles from each other,
Ituicai: narrow passage f r o m m o u t h to t h e p l i m v i i i iiimIiiI b e t w e e n iln
v e l u m a n d t h e b a s e o f t h e to n g u e ; t h e spa» < s m loui nl et ! In tin mil palate,
t he p a l a t i n e a r c h e s , a n d t h e b a s e ol llir l o n g u e , also lei me i l (In i>>iIiiiiii ol
304 The Structure of Singing

Ihe f auces; the pillars o f th e fa u c es are tw o folds on either side, b etw een
which lie the tonsils,
fiber: o f a thread-like character; elongated strands o f con n ective nerve or
m uscle tissue,
fissure: a narrow opening b etw een parts.
flexor: a m u scle that bends a part or limb (as opposed to extensor),
formant: partials of a vocal tone that determ ine the characteristic quality
o f a vow el; partial tones originated by action o f the breath on the reso n ­
an ce cham bers that have regions o f prom inent energy distribution,
fossa (fossae): a pit, cavity, or depression (as in nasal fossae, or as in the
zygom atic fossa).
frequency: n um ber o f vibrations or cycles per second; the greater the
num ber o f vibrations per second, the higher the pitch,
fricative: a sp eech sound (voiced or unvoiced) cau sed by friction as air
passes through a narrow aperture (as in [f], [v], [s], [z], etc.)

genioglossus: pair o f fan-shaped m u scles w ith fibers that radiate from the
chin; th ese fibers insert on the hyoid bone, attach to the sides o f the
pharynx, and insert into the tongue,
geniohyoid: pair o f slender m uscles that arise from the m andible and insert
on the hyoid bone,
glottis: the sp an ' betw een the vocal folds.

harm onic: .111 overtone or upper partial; vibration frequ en cy that is an inte-
gial m ultiple ol the vibration rate produced by the fundam ental frequency,
hyoid bone: U shaped bone situated at the b ase o f the tongu e and above
the larynx.
hyothyrold: con n ectin g the thyroid cartilage o f the larynx and the hyoid
bone, as the thyrohyoid m uscle and the thyrohyoid ligam ents,
hyperfunction: u se o f the phonatory (or any) m echanism , or so m e part of
it, w ith excessive tension,
hypofunction: insufficient activity in the phonatory (or any) m echanism , or
som e part o f it.
hypogastrium : the low est o f three m edian areas into w hich the abdom en is
divided by im aginary planes.
Hz: unit o f m easu rem en t o f cycles per secon d (as in 440 Hz); nam ed for
the physicist Gustav Hertz.

ilium: the upper part o f the hipbone,


inguinal: referring to the groin region.
inhalation (inspiration): that part o f the breath cycle during which breath.
enters the lungs,
innervation: the distribution o f nerves in or to a part or organ,
insertion: that part of a m uscle w hich is attached to the bone it m oves,
inspiratory reserve volume: quantity o f air that can be inhaled beyond
what is taken in during quiet breathing,
intercostal: short external and internal m uscles betw een the ribs.
Glossary o f N onm usical Terms 305

internal oblique: abdom inal m u scles w h ose fibers run upward (in general);
they form layers o f th e lateral w alls o f the abdom en, and fu se with the
external oblique to form the linea alba,
intrapulmonary: w ithin the lungs.
intrinsic: on the inside; within (as the intrinsic m uscles ol the larynx),
isom etric contraction: contraction o f a m uscle against .1 strong resistance,
w hich perm its th e m u scle to shorten very little.

jugular: pertaining to the throat, neck, or jugulai vein.

labial: pertaining to the lips.


labiodental: a sp eech sound form ed with the lowci lip and the uppei teeth
(as in [f] and [v]).
lam ina (laminae): a thin plate or sheet (as in the ( m o ld <aililagr).
laryngoscope: a d evice for exam ination ol the larynx
latissim us dorsi: the broadest back m uscle; flat, superficial m uscle ol the
low er back.
levator: m u scle that raises or elevates (as in levator scapula, levator-veil
palatini).
ligament: a tough band o f tissue that con n ects the articular extrem ities of
bones.
linea alba: a m edian, tendinous line that separates the right and left sides
o f the abdom inal m usculature,
lingua: tongue,
lumbar: o f or near the loins.

mandible: the low er jaw.


manubrium: the upper portion o f the sternum (breastbone).
masseter: a large m uscle that raises the m andible and assists in m astication.
m astication: chew ing.
m axilla (maxillae): the upper jaw, left or right,
maxillary: refers to the upper jaw.
maxillary sinus: air cavity o f the maxillary bone,
medial: tow ard the middle.
m ediastinum : sp ace in the ch est b etw een the pleural sacs of the lungs; con
tains the heart and all the viscera o f the chest except the lungs
m edulla (m edullae): the deep or inner su bstan ce ol an organ 0 1 part (us in
the m edulla oblongata),
membrane: thin layer o f tissue that covers, separates, binds, 0 1 lines eavl
ties or m em bers o f the body,
m em branous: characterized or form ed by m em brane (as In the mem
branous portion o f the vocal fold),
m sec./m illisecon d : the 1000th part of a second
m ucosa: m ucous m em brane.
m ucous m em brane: m em brane which lines p assage, and cavities ol the
body that com m u n icate with the cxtcrloi (as In the icsplrntory trai t),
m uscular proccss: a m arked process or p io |ei lion to w hich a m uscle is at­
tached (as in the sidew ard projections ol the arytenoid cartilages).
306 The Structure of Singing

m ylohyoid: paired m uscle attached to the inside edge o f the m andible


(lower jaw ) and to the hyoid bone, and form ing the floor o f the m outh,
m yoelastic: the property o f elasticity in m uscles.
m yoelastic-aerod ynam ic theory o f voice production: vocal fold vibration is
the result o f m uscular tension and breath pressure.

naris (nares): nostril.


neural: o f or pertaining to nerves or the nervous system ,
neuron: a nerve cell,
node: a knotty swelling.
nodule: a lum p form ed by an aggregate o f cells (as on the vocal fold),

occlusion: closure (as in glottal occlusion).


om ohyoid: m uscle that arises from the upper border o f the scapula and
inserts into the body of the hyoid.
orifice: an opening o f relatively sm all size—often a passage b etw een tw o
parts.
oropharyngeal lsthimiit the pa . .age from the m outh to the pharynx; that
part o f the ju n e tm e <>l m outh and pharynx w hich is visible w hen looking
into the m outh
oscillation: m oving Inn kwnrd and forward; vibration; pitch fluctuation; in
singing, goneiallv i< lei to a w obb le—pitch variant that is too w ide and
too slow
ohhcouh: bony.
ossify: to turn Into hone (as with cartilage, in aging). *
overtone: on e ol the uppei harm onic partials that togeth er w ith the fun da­
mental m ake up a com plex m usical tone; th ese are integral m ultiples of
the fundam ental frequency.

palate: roof o f the m outh.


palatoglossus: tw o m uscles w hich extend from the soft palate to the side of
the tongue.
palatopharyngeus: tw o m uscles w hich extend from the soft palate into the
pharyngeal wall. Fibers join the salpingopharyngeus and reach as far as
the thyroid cartilage,
palatosalpingeus: the tensor veli palatini m uscle.
paranasal sinus: sinus near the nose: ethm oid, frontal, maxillary, and
sphenoid; all exhibit tiny apertures into the nasal cavities,
pars: a part.
pars obliqua: fou r m u scles attach to the anterior o f the cricoid cartilage:
tw o o f these, the pars obliqua, are located at the sides o f the cartilage and
have diagonal fibers that pull the thyroid cartilage dow n and also pull it
forward.
pars recta: four m uscles attach to the anterior of the cricoid cartilage: tw o
o f these, the pars recta, are located in front and h ave vertical fibers that
pull directly on the thyroid cartilage,
partial: a com ponent o f a com plex tone,
pectoral: pertains to the chest.
Glossary o f N onm usical Term s 307

pelvic fascia: fascia lining the cavity o f the pelvis,


pelvis: the cavity o f the pelvis; the bony structure o f the low er trunk,
pericardium: the con ical sac o f serou s m em brane enc losing th e heart and
the roots o f the great blood vessels,
perichondrium: th e m em brane form ed o f fibrous con n ective lissue invest­
ing the su rface o f cartilage, except at joints,
period: interval o f tim e required for an oscillaiiny, body to com plete one
vibratory cycle.
peritoneum: serous m em brane that lines the abdom inal i avllv
phonation: the p rocess o f voicing; sound produi ed by tin voi .il lolds
phonem e: variant o f a speech sound.
phrenic nerve: a n e r v e o f e a c h s i de o f t h e body, aiisitif, l i ...... t h e l o m l h
cervical nerve and passing through I lu- thorax d ow n w in d to the ilia
phragm; it is distributed chiefly over the low er surface ol the dtaphi anm
piriform sinus: see pyriform sinus.
platysma: broad, thin m uscle layer on either side of the neck urulei tin
superficial fascia.
pleura (pleurae): serou s m em brane that lines each half o f the thorax; tin
cavity of the pleura contains serous fluid w hich renders the respiratory
m otions frictionless.
pleura costalis: delicate serous m em brane that adheres to the pericardium ,
to the side o f the thorax, and to the upper surface o f the diaphragm ,
pleura pulm onalis: the pulm onary layer, closely adherent to the lung,
w here it is con tinu ous w ith the pleura costalis.
plosive: a sp eech sou nd that is a com p lete stop, closure, and release o f air
by either the articulators or the glottis (as in som e form s o f [p, b, t, d, k, g]).
pom um Adami: laryngeal prom inence; A dam ’s apple,
posticus: posterior cricoarytenoid m uscle.
process: prom inence o f bone or cartilage (as in the vocal process),
proprioceptive: designating stim uli produced within the organism by its
ow n tension or m ovem ent, as in m u scle sense,
pyriform sinus: th e sp ace b etw een the laryngeal collar and the alae o f the
thyroid cartilage.

quadrangular: having four angles or sides.

radiography: photograph m ade by roentgen (X) rays (nam ed l o i pin n i ,i


W ilhelm Conrad Rontgen).
nim us: the posterior, vertical part o f the jaw that ai lit -niâtes with Ilie sl< nil
rtiphè: the seam -like union o f tw o lateral halves o l an o ir a n (as o l 111<
tongue), having a ridge or furrow,
rectus: any o f several straight m uscles (as the le e lu s ahdouilntt. and Ilit
pars rectus).
reclUH abdom inis: a l ong, Hal m u s c l e t o t a l e d o n eil hei stilt ol iln l i m a
a l ba, extending t h e w h o l e l e n g t h ol t h e l i oi i l ol tin a b d o m e n , 11 mi ne s
f r o m t h e p u b i c c r e s t a n d i n s e r t s Into t h e < at l l l u p , ol 111, ah fith a n d /lli
libs; its u p p e r t h r e e f o u r t h s is e n c l o s e d In t h e i ci lie. s h e a t h lot ineil l>v t h e
30H The Structure of Singing

aponeuroses o f the external and internal oblique m u scles ventrally, and


the internal oblique and transversus abdom inis dorsally.
recurrent nerve: branch o f the vagu s nerve that supplies all laryngeal m u s­
cles, except the cricothyroid m uscle,
residual breath: breath that rem ains in the lung after the strongest possible
(forced) expiration,
respiration: the breath cycle; the exchan ge o f internal and external gases,
respiratory passage: the nostrils, the nasal cavities, the pharyngeal cavities,
the oral cavity, the larynx, the trachea, and the bronchial tubes,
rhom boideus: a m uscle under the trapezius w hich joins the scapulae to the
spine.
rima: aperture (as in rima glottidis).
rima glottidis: the opening betw een the true vocal folds,
risorius: a narrow band o f m uscle fibers arising from the fascia over the
m asseter m uscle, inserted into tissu e at the corners o f the mouth; a m u s­
cle of the cheek.

scalenus: three d eep m uscles (scalenus anterior, scalenus m edius, scalenus


posterior) on each side o f the neck, extending from the transverse pro­
c e sse s o f tw o or m ore cervical vertebrae to the first or secon d rib; a cces­
sory m uscles o f respiration,
scapula: the shoulder blade.
septum: a division betw een tw o cavities (as the septum o f the nose),
serous fluid: thin, watery fluid found in cavities o f the body,
serous membra»»-: thin m em branes (as in the peritoneum , pericardium ,
and the pleurae) that form a sac, lining a cavity or the organs in it.
serratus: m uscles that arise from the ribs or vertebrae,
sheath: con n ective tissue covering an elongated organ or parts (as in
abdom inal sheath),
sibilant: characterized by a hissing sound (as in [s] and [z]).
sinus: a cavity, recess, depression (as in the sinus o f M orgagni or the
paranasal sinuses),
spectrogram: diagram o f a spectrum .
spectrograph: apparatus for photographing the spectrum ; photograph or
picture o f a spectrum ,
spectrum analyzer: a d evice that displays the relative am plitudes of all the
overtones o f th e voice in a phonation; vow el definition is show n as spectral
peaks, and the singer’s form ant is displayed as a region of strong acoustic
energy.
sphenoidal sinus: o n e o f tw o irregular cavities (of the sphenoid bone) that
com m un icate with the nasal cavities,
sphincter: a ring-like m uscle around an orifice, w hich is capable o f induc­
ing closure.
squam ous epithelium : stratified epithelium which in its ou ter layers con ­
sists o f sm all scalelike cells,
sternocleidom astoid: a thick, superficial m uscle on each side o f the neck,
arising from the sternum and the clavicle and inserting into the m astoid
bone.
Glossary o f N onm usical Terms 309

sternohyoid: pertains to the sternum and the hyoid (as in the m uscle that
extend s from th e m edial part o f the clavicle and the first segm ent o f the
sternum to the hyoid bone),
sternothyroid: pertains to sternum and thyroid (;»s in sternothyroid m uscle),
striated m uscle: fibers bound together in bundles and cm losed in a sheath
o f protective tissue,
styloglossus: a m u scle con n ectin g the styloid process and Ilu* lou eu r
stylohyoid: pertaining to the styloid process anil hyoid Ixiiir, Ilu- Mylohyoid
m uscle.
styloid process: a long, slender process found on Ilie lo w ii side ol llir Irm
poral bone.
subclavius: a sm all m u scle extending from the In ■! i ih to tin iimli i sut Iat r
o f the clavicle,
subglottic: b elow the glottis,
superficial: on or near the surface,
superior: upper.
supplem ental air: air that can be expelled forcibly beyond what is exhaled
during quiet breathing (also known as reserve air).
supraglottic: ab ove the glottis,
suprahyoid: above the hyoid bone.
suprahyoid m uscles: geniohyoid, stylohyoid, m ylohyoid, and digastric
m uscles.
sym physis: point o f union o f tw o structures (as in the tw o halves o f the
low er jaw).
synapse: the area in w hich im pulses are com m u n icated b etw een neurons
(the synapse is the selective elem en t o f the nervous system ; it d eterm ines
w hether a nervous im pulse will pass through it to the next neuron),
synergy: the w orking together o f tw o or m ore m u scles (or groups) or
organs.
synovia: a transparent, viscid lubricating fluid secreted by the synovial
m em branes of articulations, bursae, and tendon sheaths,
synovial: o f or pertaining to synovia; secreting synovia.

tendon: a band o f dense, fibrous con n ective tissue that provides allai li
m ent o f m uscle to bone,
tensor: a m uscle that ten ses (as in tensor veli palatini),
thorax: that part o f the torso w hich h ouses the organs ol Incalhlii^. mIii
ated b etw een th e n eck and the abdom en, supported l*v the n l> \ l l u i o s l a l
cartilages, and the sternum ,
thyroid cartilage: the largest single cartilage ol the lai yns
thyroarytenoid m uscle: on e o f the tw o m uscles in Winy. below the thyroidal
notch and inserted into each arytenoid,
thyroepiglottic fibers: fibers o f the thyroid vtenolil that i ounei I llie thyroid
cartilage and the epiglottis,
thyrohyoid: see hyothyroid.
lliyroniuscularls: external thyroarytenoid must le
iliyrovocnlls: th e internal division ol the ihyroHi vtenold, also k now n as the
vocalis muscle.
310 The Structure of Singing

tidal air: air exchan ged during quiet norm al breathing (sam e as tidal
volum e).
trachea: the windpipe; the m ain tubular system by w hich air passes to and
from the lungs.
transverse: in a crossw ise direction (as in transverse abdom inis, or trans­
verse arytenoid).
transverse abdom inis: deep abdom inal m uscle that w orks synergistically
w ith other abdom inal m uscles in breath m anagem ent; lies just beneath the
oblique abdom inal m uscles,
transverse arytenoid: a single m u scle located horizontally b etw een the tw o
arytenoid cartilages, underneath the oblique arytenoid m uscles,
trapezius: large, flat, triangular superficial m uscle on each side o f the
upper back.
umbilicus: the navel.
uvula: fleshy pendant lobe located in m iddle of the posterior part of the
soft palate.
velum: a m em branous partition; the m uscular portion o f the soft palate,
ventral: in hum ans, situated anteriorly.
ventricle: a sm all cavity or pouch (as in th e ventricles o f M orgagni—the
laryngeal sinuses),
vestibule: the pm I ol the larynx above the false vocal folds,
vestlglul: refers to som e part o f the body w hich \sv as m ore fully developed in
.111 eai liei stayr, and that may now serve no purpose,
viscera (viseerae): the soft internal organs o f the body, especially those of
the trunk, such as the intestines,
vital capacity: m axim um am ount o f air that can be expired after m axim um
inspiration.
vocal folds: vocal cords, vocal bands; the low er part o f the thyroarytenoid
m uscles; the true vocal cords,
vocalis m uscle: the internal thyroarytenoid.
voiced: sou nd produced by vocal folds that have been set in m otion by
airflow.
xiphoid process: the low est division o f the sternum .
zygom atic arch: the arch o f the b one that extend s along the front and side
o f the skull, form ed by the union o f th e zygom atic p rocess o f the tem poral
bone w ith the zygom atic bone,
zygom atic bone: a bone o f the side of the face, below the eyes,
zygom atic m uscle: a slender band o f m uscle on either side of the face,
w hich arises from the zygom atic bone, and w hich inserts into the orbicu­
laris oris and the skin at the corners o f the m outh.
Glossary of Vocal Terms

attack ( attacco, Einsatz): on set o f voicing.


aggiustamento: vow el m odification in singing; .1 le t 111 iu|iu* 101 .it hicvlng an
even scale throughout the registers o f the singing voit t
appoggio: the establishm ent of dynamic balance between ............\pu.itory,
phonatory, and resonatory system s in singing
Bauchaussenstiitze: distended abdominal "suppôt I," 111-<ji it-i il Iv cm o u n ln cil
in som e Nordic schools,
bel canto: "beautiful singing”; a term now frequently'applied to early
solo vocal literature and singing, style 1» ">i It) the m iddle ol Ilie nineti out li
century; often narrowly resti i< ted to the vocal writing (and pei I...... lam c
practices) o f Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, and their contem poraries,
breath m anagem ent: a learned technique o f breath control for singing w hich
perm its efficient handling o f the breath cycle.
cabaletta: the second major portion o f the opera scena form (which gener­
ally con sists o f th e cavatina, a bridging recitative, and the su bsequ en t caba­
letta); usually a florid and dram atic contrast to the preceding cantilena,
cantabile: in singing style.
cantilena: a graceful flowing m elody in "singing” style.
chest voice: descriptive term for sensations experienced in low er range
w here “heavy m echan ism ” is allow ed to predom inate,
chiaroscuro tone: the "dark-light” tone w hich characterizes w ell-balanced
resonance in the singing voice,
colpo di glottide (also colpo della glottide ): the vocal onset w hich results
w hen airflow com m en ces over occlu ded vocal folds,
copertura: the tech n iq u e o f singing w ith voce chiusa tim bre ;is opposed lo
voce aperta (also, voce bianca) timbre,
coup de glotte: the onset o f singing tone that results when airflow com
m ences over the occluded vocal folds, resulting in a click like sound
cover: a term often used as a description of laryngeal events coupled with
ex cessive vow el m odification that produce darkened vocal timbre; an
exact definition is not possible because of the variai...... in meaning
Deckung: "cover.”
I'uch: a term universally used to designate vocal category; type of singing
voice.
fioriture: ornam ents, cadenzas, and florid passages
flageolet voice: a register of the female voice of’fen extending more than a
perfect fifth beyond the normal pilches ol the head voice, the result of
extreme vocal loltl damping.

311
M2 The Structure of Singing

(■lollltischlag: stroke o f the glottis.

heavy mechanism: a term som etim es used to describe the predominant


action of the vocalis muscle; chest voice.

im posto (im postazione della voce): placem ent o f the voice.


Intendant: general m anager of an opera theater.
Knacklaut: a glottal attack.
light m echanism : a term som etim es used to describe the predom inant action
o f the vocal ligament as opposed to the predom inant action o f the vocalis
muscle; head voice.
lotta vocale (also lutta vocale, and lutte vocale): the vocal contest or struggle.
marking: an international term for the technique of sparing the voice in
rehearsal.
m ask sensations: vibratory sensation in the zygom atic and nasal regions of
the face, through bone conduction.
m elism a (melism at ic); several notes to a single syllable (florid singing).
oscillation (wobble): ill vocal pedagogy, generally refers to a pitch variant of
the vibrato phenom enon that is too slow and too wide.

panNngglo: vocal register pivotal point (as in prim o passaggio, secondo


passannio).
placement of the voice: a subjective term denotifig vibratory sensations dur­
ing singing.

reglnter: a series of consecutive voice tones of equal (or similar) timbre,


whic h can be distinguished from adjoining series of tones.

Schnarrbass: a register in the m ale voice that lies below the norm al pitches
used in speech or song.
sostenuto: the sustaining of the singing voice.
Sprengeinsatz: the heavy glottal stroke as a technique for vocal attack.
straight tone: tone devoid of vibrato, in which the relaxant principle that pro­
duces vibrato is not permitted to function.
Strohbass: see Schnarrbass.

tremolo: in vocal pedagogy the term properly refers to a vibrato rate that is
too fast and too narrow (in opposition to the w obble or oscillation).
trill: a pitch variant o f a sem iton e or m ore in w idth, p rod uced by an intended
oscillation o f the voice box.

vibrato: a phenom enon of the schooled singing voice; a pitch variant pro­
duced as a result of neurological im pulses that occur w hen proper coordina­
tion exists betw een the breath m echanism and the phonatory mechanism; a
n a tu ral r e su lt o f th e d yn a m ic b a la n c in g o f a irflo w and v o ca l-fo ld
approximation.
Glossary o f Vocal Terms 313

vocal fry: considered by som e as a register of the m ale voice; it resem bles a
"frying” sound; considered by o th ers to be a prolonged, inefficient vocal
onset.
voce aperta: open, unskillful singing,
voce chiara: clearly p roduced vocal tim bre.
voce chiusa: well-balanced resonance in the singing vole <•; avoidance of voce
aperta
voce coperta: tim bre th at is equalized in the uppci laiiyes ihrouyli propei
aggiustamento of the vowel so as to avoid slu ill 01 Mal.ml lim ine
voce finta: feigned voice; a tim bre in the mule volte tli.it avoid-, the votv
piena tim bre associated with the "well supported” voli e
voce mista: a descriptive term that refers to llie vo< .il lim ine in the outi
intermedia (zona di passaggio) w here elem ents ol votr ill lc\lti |',n a ll\ mod
ify action of the "heavy mechanism ,”
voce di petto: vocal tim bre produced largely by the vocalis .ullvily ol the
vocal folds; the "heavy mechanism .”
voce piena: “full” voice as opposed to voce finta and falsetto; the term does
not refer solely to dynamic level, but rath er to tim bre as well,
voce di testa: the “head voice” of the classic schools; there is a m arked
dim inution of "chest voice” activity in this range.
wobble: undesirable oscillation of the singing voice.
zona di passaggio: that area of the voice w herein a num ber of tones can be
sung by varying register principles; middle voice.
,
Bibliography

ARTICLES
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v e la r s o u n d s [k] a n d [g].” Vox, Hel l 1:6; 2:'>
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W e e r , R o b e r t L a w r e n c e (1948). Your Voice. L o s Angeles, CA: Privately
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W e is s , D. A., and B e e b e , H e l e n (1950). The C hew ing Approach in Speech
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Subject Index

B ronchi, 269
Abdomen, 10, 12, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, B u c cin ato r, 67
28, 30,31,32, 33,38,41,42, 265, B u c c o p h a ry n g e a l p o stu re , SH, V), 60, 64,
277-78 74, 94 '
“Abdominal” vibrato, 184, 185, 190, 191
Acoustic at-rest posture, 69, 97 “Call” of the voice, 116-1H
Acoustic energy, 50 cantare come si parla, 74
Aditus laryngis, 248 Cervical vertebrae, 153, 154
Aerodynamics, 2, 20, 22 Chest, open, 136
aggiustamento, 150, 151, 155, 156, Chest mixture (female), 136 41
157-60, 165 Chest posture, 29, 30, 278
Agility, 19, 32, 37, 40, 41, 42, 43-47 Chest register (male), 116-17
Air pressure, 2, 20, 23 Chest voice (female), 33, 115, 133, 136
Airflow, 2, 7, 13, 14, 20, 22, 23, 37, 41, 48, Chest wall muscles, 23
56, 152, 172, 257, 290, 292, 293 Chewing, 233-35
Alveoli, 269 Clavicular breathing, 28, 29, 267
Anal sphincteral closure, 38 Coloratura soprano, 133, 134, 148, 161,
Anterolateral abdominal wall, 25, 26, 27, 178
28, 33, 37, 94, 191, 275-78 Communication in singing, 201, 204
Antihistamines, 230, 231 Complemental breath, 278, 279
appoggio, 23, 24, 25, 29, 38, 41, 61, 126, Consonants, voiced and unvoiced,
184, 186, 187 293-96
arrotondamento, 156, 158 Constrictor pharyngis, inferior, medius,
Articulatory system, 48, 52, 53, 69, 293 and superior, 65, 285
Aryepiglottic folds, 245, 248 Contralto, 133, 135, 136, 137
Arytenoid cartilages, 23, 48, 49, 245 Conus elasticus, 246, 247
Arytenoid muscle, 245 copertura, 156
Associative function, 198 Corniculate cartilages of Santorini, 245
Atmospheric pressure, 20 Corniculate pharyngeal ligaments, 248
Attack (see Onset) Costals, 22, 26, 34, 265
Auditory monitoring, 198 Coughing, 232-33
Axial alignment, 30 Counter-tenor, 123-125
Coupled consonants, 106-107
Baritone, 117, 119, 123, 125, 155 "Covering,” 150-151, 152, 153-55, 158
Bass, 123 Cricoarytenoid muscles, 2, 244
basso profondo, 116 Cricoid cartilage, 243, 244, 245, 285
Bauchaussenstütze, 237-38 Cricothyroid ligament, 67, 248
bel canto, 150, 194, 196, 216 Cricothyroid muscle, 2, 27, 118, 133, 11ft,
Bell register (see Flageolet voice) 184, 185, 192, 198, 244, 245, 255, 257,
Bellows analogy, 22 287-90
"Belly breathing,” 278 Cricotracheal ligament, 24ft
Bernoulli principle, 22, 23 Cricovocal ligament, 24ft
“Breaks" and “lifts,” 15, 115, 118 Cuneiform cartilages ol Wiishei g, 245
Breath energy, 36, 108-109
Breath management, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, D am ping, 291 ‘>2
25, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34, 37, 38, 39, 94, D eclcunn, 15ft
114, 172-73, 270, 278 D eltoid m ust If, 27 1
Breath mixture, 108, 119, 172, 177, 179 D iaphragm , 23, 24, 10, 33, *4, 40, 191,
Breath renewal, 10, 12, 14, 25, 29, 31, 32, 262, 2ft4, 265, 267
34, 35, 36 Diet, 219, 237 tH
Breathiness, 3, 8, 15, 177 Digiistiii imiNile, 249, 250, 251
Breathing, 5, 12, 24, 26, 28, 30, 31, 33, 34, D iplilhiingi/iitlun, 90
36, 38, 266, 267 l)i h mil rnuHi U'H, 25, 38, 272
The Structure of Singing

l>i miml U soprano, 123, 133, 134, 137, Heavy mechanism, 133
I7H High-chest breathing (see Clavicular
Dvimmic muscle equilibrium, 1, 2, 4, 5-9, breathing)
13, 23, 34, 37, 40, 128, 171, 172, 188, Hohe Quinta (see Flageolet voice)
193 Horizontal transverse arytenoid muscle,
245
Echo voice (see Flageolet voice) Hyoepiglottic ligament, 248
Edema, 224, 225, 232 Hyoglossus muscle, 67, 251
Electromyography (EMG), 2, 8, 28, 264 Hyoid bone, 94, 155, 242, 244, 246
Emphysema, 220 Hyothyroid membrane, 246
Epigastric-umbilical region, 10, 12, 24, Hyperfunction, 1, 3, 19, 133, 136, 192-93
25, 30, 32, 33,41, 184 Hypofunction, 1, 3, 136, 192-93
Epiglottis, 48, 49, 151, 152, 184, 193, 245, Hypogastric distention, 37
247, 283, 285, 291 Hypogastric region, 25, 30
Esophagus, 49, 67, 291
Eustachian tube, 57 Impedance, 294
Expiration, 20, 28, 31, 34, 40 impostazione della voce, 60, 61, 62, 63,
External frame function, 291, 292 68, 295
External listening, 201 imposto (see impostazione della voce)
External oblique muscle, 25, 26, 29, 277 Inferior constrictor, 65, 67, 245
External thyroarytenoid muscle, 244 Inferior cornu, 243, 245
Externally applied vibrato (see Infrahyoid muscle, 251
"Abdominal” vibrato) Infraspinatus muscle, 273
Extrinsic laryngeal muscles, 249-52 Inhalation, 1, 10, 12, 14, 24, 25, 29, 30, 31,
32, 39, 114, 153
Face, 75,.85, 202, 281-82 (See also Inhalation-exhalation cycle, 20, 30, 31,
Forehead, Nose, Lips) 32, 34, 38, 40
Fach (Fâcher), 161, 162, 178, 228 Inspiration (see Inhalation)
FuUetto, I, 117, ll<)-25, 132, 133, 179, Intercostal muscles, 22, 24, 26, 34, 262
I HI) Internal oblique muscle, 25, 26, 27, 277,
Faucon, V), ISS 278
Fiberoptic examination, IH4, 193, 195 Internal thyroarytenoid (vocalis) muscle,
fioriture, 40 244, 252
Flageolet voice, 122, 147-49, 292 International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), 3,
Flanks, 25, 32, 265-66 297-300
Flute register (see Flageolet voice) Intranasal sound pressure, 294
flûte registre (see Flageolet voice) Intrapleural pressure, 20
Forehead, 61 Intrapulmonary pressure (see
Formants, 50, 51, 56, 57, 70, 75, 150, 296 Intrapleural pressure)
forte, 119 Intrathoracic pressure, 269
Freedom, 19, 108 Intrinsic laryngeal muscles, 2, 187, 252,
Fundamental frequency, 50, 74, 75, 258 257, 287
Italian School, 23, 33, 59, 61, 89, 115, 121,
Geniohyoid muscle, 67, 251 167, 182
Gesture of inhalation, 14
Glides (see Transition sounds) Jaw, 48, 51, 58, 59, 61, 69, 74, 75, 88, 95,
Glottis (see also Onset), 3, 4, 5, 8, 12, 18, 99, 185, 193, 281
19, 20, 22, 23, 26, 29, 31, 32, 36, 37,
101, 114, 177, 191, 248, 287 Laryngeal cartilages, 242-46
Glottis respiratoria, 248 Laryngeal depression, 58, 59, 88, 150,
Glottis vocalis, 248 152, 154
Kola aperta, 58, 59, 60, 103, 295 Laryngeal depressors (see Infrahyoid
Growl register, 126 muscles)
"Grunt," 3, 4, 8, 13, 18 Laryngeal descent, 153, 291
Laryngeal elevation, 119, 185, 193, 291
Head mixture (female), 140, 142-43 Laryngeal elevators (see Suprahyoid
Head register (male), 116, 118, 122 muscles)
I lead voice (lemale), I 11 Laryngeal function, 2, 37, 38, 40
Subject Index 369

L aryngeal innervation, 184-85, 198-200, Neurologicul so u rce of vibrato, 184, 185


257-58 "Noble" posture, 30, 32, 153
Laryngeal stabilization, 151, 153, 154 Non-nasal consonants, 90-107
Laryngeal ventricles, 49 Nordic Schools, 152, 153
Laryngeal whistle, 132, 148 Nose, 30, 48, 59, 61
Laryngologist, 235-36
Laryngopharynx, 59, 285 Oblique arytenoid m uscle, 245, 253
Larynx, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 22-23, 41-42, 48, O m ohyoid muscle, 252
58, 59, 94, 184, 241-58 Onset, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12-14, 18,
Lateral cricoarytenoid muscle, 245, 253 19, 41
Lateral hyothyroid ligam ent, 246 Open chest, 136
Latissim us dorsi, 273, 274 Open o r w hite quality, 150, 153
Legato, 40, 41 Open th ro a t (see also golti apvrta), 29
Legitim ate head voice, 120 O ral cavity, 53, 57, 81, 86, 107
Levator scapulae, 273, 275 Oral resonance, 65
L evator veli palatini, 67, 68, 284, 295 O ropharyngeal isthm us, 283
Lieder singers, 119, 177, 187, 188, 195 O ropharynx, 57, 59, 154, 283
Light m echanism , 133, 148 oscillazione, 182, 186, 187, 193
Linea alba, 277
Lips, 31, 48, 51, 52, 56, 61, 69 P alatal elevation, 53
Longevity (vocal), 238 Palatoglossus, 68, 283, 284
Lungs, 27, 28, 34, 38, 39, 48, 59, 265, P alatopharyngeus, 65, 68, 284
267-69, 278 Panting, 32, 40, 41
lutta vocale, 24, 39 P aranasal sinuses, 283
Partials (harm onic), 50, 56, 155-56
M andible (see Jaw) P ectoral region, 24, 25, 29, 273
Marking, 122, 222 Pectoralis m ajo r and pectoralis m inor
masque (Mask), 57, 61, 84-87, 88, 99 m uscles, 273
Maxillary area, 75 petit registre (see Flageolet voice)
Medial cricothyroid ligam ent, 248 Pfeifestimme (see Flageolet voice)
Melismas, 40, 4l Pharynx, 48, 49, 50, 56, 58, 61, 65, 66, 67,
messa di voce, 171, 175, 181 80, 107, 152, 285
mezza voce, 119, 188 Physical exercise, 238
Mezzo-soprano, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, piano dynam ic level, 119, 172, 174, 180
161, 196 Piccolo range (see Flageolet voice)
Middle hyothyroid ligam ent (m edium "Placem ent" (see also im postazione della
thyrohyoid ligament), 246 voce), 58, 61, 88
M odification (see Vowel M odification) Pleurae, 267-68
M otor activity, 198 Posterior and lateral ceratocricoid
M outh, 48, 50, 57, 59, 73, 74, 75, 89, 148, ligaments, 248
283, 286 Posterior cricoarytenoid, 245, 253
Muscle antagonism , 24, 25, 26, 39 Posticus (see Posterior cricoarytenoid)
M uscle balance, internal-external, 24 P osture (see “N oble” posture)
M uscle synergism , 39, 40, 191 P rephonatory tuning, 2, 4, 7, 13, 36, l‘>,
M usculus uvulae, 68, 185, 284-85 40, 200
Mylohyoid muscle, 67, 251 prim o passaggio, 115, 116, 117, l l ‘), 12 ',
126, 129, 131, 133, 136, 155, 156
Nasal cavities, 49, 81, 86, 89, 107, 281, Psychological control, l (>8 ')'>
283, 294 "Pushing” the voice, 177
Nasal continuants, 79-89, 91 Pyriform (piriform ) sinuses, 24H
Nasal resonance, 65, 89
Nasality, 88, 91, 295-96 OuadriuiKuliii mem hi une, ,Mf>
N asopharyngeal coupling, 54, 59, 64, 65, OuudrutuN luinbonim , 275
294
Nasopharynx, 49, 57, 59, 85, 100, 103, 285 Kmigr extension, 161 169
Neck, 23, 30, 39, 154, 187, 270-71, 291 Ket Ins abdom inis, 25, 277, 278
Neurological effects on phonation, 198, Kei Ins she»ill,
199 Rei ill i n il Illi yiiKCtil nerve, 257
370 The Structure of Singing

Regional speech, 95 Subglotlic pressure, 2, 4, 7, 8, 13, 21-23,


Register terminology, 115-126 36, 37, 38, 41, 56, 100, 108, 152, 171,
registre de flageolet (see Flageolet voice) 187, 195, 279, 290, 292
"Reinforced” falsetto, 117, 122 suono coperto (see voce coperta)
"Relaxation," 39, 192-93 Superior constrictor muscle, 65, 67
Release, 6, 8, 9, 10, 18, 19 Superior cornu, 243
Residual breath, 278, 279 Superior laryngeal nerve, 257
Resonator system, 48, 57, 61, 107 Supplemental breath, 278-79
Respiratory-phonatory action, 32, 98, 293 Supraglottal resonators, 23, 36
Rhinolalia (see Nasality) Suprahyoid muscles, 249
Rhomboid muscle, 273, 275 Supruspinatus muscle, 273
Ribs, 24, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 38, 259,
265-66, 278 tenure leggiero, 118, 123, 162
Rima glottidis, 248 tenore lirico, 116, 117, 132, 163, 164
Ring (see also Singer’s formant), 56, I SO tenorino, 162
Rouladen, 40 Tensor veli palatini, 67, 68, 284, 295
l eres major and teres minor muscles,
273
Scaleni muscles, 275 tessitura, 108
Scapula, 273 Thorax, 20, 23, 25, 29, 39, 184, 259-62
Schnarrbass, 126 Throat, open, 29
Schwa, 70 Thyroarytenoid muscle, 117, 133, 136,
seconda passaggio, IIS, 116 I I.M, I,’ft, ' 252, 253,290
127, 129, I U , I 16, 155, I Vi, ISH Throat "clearing,” 231-32
S e n so ry reporting., 57, I'M, .'tin Thyroepiglottic ligaments, 247
S rp m . i t i i mi «it i • i ’i h i v I U Thyrohyoid membrane, 94, 246
S e rra i u n iiiiiriiu i i m i n l r v } l \ Thyrohyoid muscle, 252
Slinko ( w t 11i iilolo) Thyroid cartilage, 49, 242-44, 247
Shi il I le^Ulei ( sec I luKeoIrl voic e) Tidal breath, 278-79
S houlder», <0, 271 Timbre concept, 205-6
Shouting, 118 Tongue, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 59,
Singer'll Formunt, 55, 56, 57, 158 66, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 80-81, 92,
Sinuses, 57, 61,81 95, 100, 150, 154, 155, 184, 185, 193,
Skull, 57 281
Smiling, 75 Tongue-point trill, 93-94
Smoking, 220-21 Torso, 10, 18, 22, 25, 29, 31, 32, 34, 37, 89,
soprano lirico, 132 114, 154, 187, 190, 273, 275-76, 291
Sostenuto, 19, 37, 40, 41, 108-114 Trachea, 23, 49, 242, 269, 291, 292
soubrette, 148, 178 Transition sounds, 79, 91-92, 95
Speech, 57, 115 Transversus abdominis, 25, 277, 278
Speech in relation to singing, 95, 132, Trapezius muscle, 274-275
133, 137, 152 Tremolo, 182, 186, 191-93
Speech vibrato, 190 Triticeal cartilages, 246
Sphincter action, 38, 108 Trill (trillo), 40, 182, 195-96
Staccato, 12-17, 33, 40, 41 Trunk, 23, 27, 94
Sternocleidomastoid muscle, 259, "Twang,” 155
270-71, 275
Sternohyoid muscle, 291 Umbilical-epigastric region, 12, 24, 30,
Sternothyroid muscle, 251 32, 33, 40,41, 191
Sternum, 10, 24, 25, 29, 31, 32, 33, 38, U.S.A. Standards Association pitch
251, 259-62, 278 designations, 9
Straight tone, 9, 13, 41, 185, 188, 189-91,
194-95 van den Berg maneuver, 31
Strohbass, 125-26 Velopharyngeal posture, 51, 63, 64, 66,
Styloglossus muscle, 65, 67 68
Stylohyoid muscle, 251 Velum, 51, 58, 59, 64, 68, 69, 80-81, 150,
Stylopharyngeus muscle, 67 283, 296
Subciavius muscle, 273 Ventricles of the larynx, 154
Nam e Index 371

Vestibule of the larynx, 248 voce intermedia, 129


Vibrancy, 9, 13, 14, 41, 182, 189 voce mis Ia, 118
Vibrato, 13, 182-86, 187, 190-91, 193-94 voce piena, 122, 123, 171
Vibratory cycle, 12, 22 voce piena in testa, 124
Vibratory sensation, 85 voix blanche (see voce bianca)
Vital capacity, 278, 279 Vowel differentiation, 76-78
Vocal fold, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13, 15, 18, Vowel formants, 50, 51, 70, 150, 295
22, 23, 37, 48, 50, 100, 118, 122, 123, Vowel modification, 150-60
132, 133, 172, 184, 191, 253, 279, Vowel tracking, 74, 158
287-90 Vowels, 14, 51, 53, 69, 70, 71-73
Vocal fry, 126
Vocal ligament, 245, 289 Weight, 236-37
Vocal rest, 229-30 Whispering, 1, 2, 3, 4, 13, 19
Vocal tract, 10, 22, 30, 31, 36, 39, 48, 50, Whistle register, 132-33
51, 52, 53, 57, 61, 70, 74, 88, 158, 185, White voice (see voce bianca)
283, 285
"Wobble" (see osci/lazione)
Vocalis muscle, 198, 252, 256, 257 "Woofy” sound, 156
voce acuta, 156, 158
voce aperta, 151, 155, 156
voce bianca, 151, 155, 156 Yawn, 58, 59, 60, 153, 155, 172
voce chiusa, 151, 156
voce coperta, 151, 156 zona di passaggio, 109, 115, 116, 118, 123,
voce di campanello (see Flageolet voice) 126, 128, 129
voce di petto, 115, 117, 136 zona intermedia, 116 119
voce di testa, 118, 143-47 Zweite Hôhe (see Flageolet voice)
voce finta, 119, 179, 180, 188 Zygomatic arch, 281

Name Index
Agostoni, Emilio, 22 Bôhme, G., 295
Aikin, W. A., 50 Bouhuys, Arend, 172, 263
Appelman, D. Ralph, 74, 150, 247, 252, Breuer, Joseph, 26
253 Briess, Bertram, 1, 290, 291
Arnold, Godfrey, E., 1, 3, 8, 50, 262, 265, Brodnitz, Friedrich S., 13, 120, 121, 151,
287, 290 158, 219, 234
Astraquillo, Corbelita J., 40, 41, 42, 277 Brown, William Earl, 109
Browne, Lennox, 266
Baer, Thomas, 48 Bunch, Meribeth, 200, 243 44
Ballantyne, John, 220
Bartholomew, W. T., 56 Callander, C. Latimer, 268, 271
Beebe, Helen, 234 Campbell, C. J. Moran, 262, 273, 274
Behnke, Emil, 266 Carhart, Paul W., 79
Bishop, Beverly, 278 Caruso, Enrico, 162
Bjoerling, Jussi, 121, 235 Comroe, J. H., Jr., 268, 269
Bjorn, E, 80
Bjork, L., 64 Delattre, Pierre, 56
Bloomer, Harlan H., 53 Domingo, Placido, 121
372 The Structure of Singing

Faaborg-Andersen, Knud, 2 Moore, Paul, 288


Fant, Gunnar, 64, 296 Mori, Rachele, 120, 121
Farinelli, Giuseppe, 30, 31
Fillebrown, Thomas, 85 Nadoleezny, M., 287
Fritzell, Bjorn, 64 Negus, Sir Victor, 241
Froeschels, Emil, 57, 233, 234, 235 Newsom Davis, J., 262, 279
Frommhold, W., 153 Nimii, Seiji, 68
Garcia, Manuel, 121 Piiec hierotti, Gaspare, 153
Gedda, Nicolai, 122 Puget, Sir Richard, 56
Gigli, Beniamino, 122 Pavarotti, Luciano, 121
Gold, Harry, 232 Pelsky, Boris Lastotchkine, 56
Gould, Wilbur J., 38 Peterson, Gordon E., 72
Graham, Martha, 239 I'roctor, Donald F., 118, 134
I’unt, Norman, 219
Hammer, Russell A., 58
Helmholtz, Hermann, 8 Rleci, Luigi, 223
Hering, Ewald, 26, 28 Rlngcl, Robert, 293, 294
Hines, Jerome, 122 Rumyantsev, Pavel, 203
Hirano, Minoru, 72, 93, 25t>, 294
Hiroto, L, 294 Schutte, Harm K., 172, 293
Hixon, Thomas J., 2(vl Sears, T., 279
Hollingsworth, II I ,, .M4
Hoppe, G, 15 < Seashore, Carl E., 182
House, Art hi 11 S , ftV }')*< Selkin, Stuart, 193
Hume, I’mil, ,’.’6
Shipp, Thomas, 184, 185, 191, 192
Silberman, H. D., 295
Isslllkl, N n ln ih lk u , 29 I, .’ 9-1
Sonninen, Aatto, 291
Stanislavski, Constantin, 203
Junes, I1 W ood, 8(1
Stevens, E. L„ 65, 295
Sundberg, Johan, 55, 56, 74-75, 152
K.ill,me, Joel, 132
Kunlner, Claude E., 50, 72, 197 Tagliavini, Ferruccio, 122
Kenyon, Elmer, 242 Takeuchi, Y„ 294
Klatt, Dennis H„ 293 Taylor, Robert M., 57
Kraus, Alfredo, 121 Tit/.e, Ingo, 132, 178, 256, 257
Kryssin-Exner, K., 221 Tosi, Pier Francesco, 287
Kuhn, George F., 71 Trojan, Felix, 221

Ladefoged, Peter, 21, 22, 72, 257, 258, van den Berg, Janwillem, 31, 34, 198, 289
293 Vennard, William, 23, 55, 116-117, 174,
Lamperti, Francesco, 24, 119 245, 246, 290
Lamperti, Giovanni Battista, 25, 32, 109, von Békésy, Georg, 57
199 von Leden, Hans, 23
Large, John, 120
Lawrence, Van, 219, 230, 231, 237 Watson, Peter, 264
Lobl, Karl, 176 Weiss, D. A., 234
Luchsinger, Richard, 1, 3, 8, 50, 262, 265, West, Robert, 50, 72, 197
287, 290 Wyke, B. D., 2, 4, 199, 200, 262

Meano, Carlo, 89 Zemlin, Willard, 23, 120, 132, 148, 241,


Miller, Richard, 60, 156, 158, 186, 193, 242, 245, 246, 253, 295
204, 278, 292 Zenker, Wolfgang, 125, 248, 287, 291
Minifie, Fred D., 48, 50, 70 Zwitman, Daniel, 64

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