OPTICAL ELECTRONICS AJOY GHATAK and K. THYAGARAJAN Phystes Department. Indian Institute »f Technology. New Delhi CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge New York New Rochelle Melbourne SydneyPublished by the Press Syndicate of the U ‘The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 RP 32 East S7th Street, New York, N'Y 10022, USA 10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh Melbourne 3166, Aus versity of Cambridge: 1 Cansbridge University Press 1989 First published 1989 Printed i Great Britain at the University Pres. Cambridge British Library cataloguing in publication data Ghatak, AK. (Ajoy Kumar}, 1939. Optical electronics. 1. Electro-optics 1 Tie WM, Thyagarajan. K. 335 Library of Congress cataloguing in publication data Ghatak, AK, (Ajoy K.}, 1939 ‘Optical eleetronies/A-K, Ghatak and K, Thyagarajun. pcm Bibliography: p. Includes index, ISBN 0-521. 30643-4. ISBN 0-$21- 31408 9 (pbk.) LOptoelectronics. 1 Thyagarayan, K. U1. Title TAITSO.G48 1989 G2 IBO4I4-deld BR-10291 CIP ISBN 0 S21 30649 4 hard covers ISBN 0 521 31408 9 paperbacktl 1.2 13 14 15 1.6 31 32 33 34 35 Contents Maxwell's equations and propagation of electromagnetic waves Introduction Maxwell's equations Plane waves in a dielectric The Poynting vector The complex notation Wave propagation in an absorbing medium Additional problems Reflection and refraction of electromagnetic waves Introduction Reflection and refraction at the interface of two homog- eneous nonabsorbing dielectrics Total internal reflection and evanescent waves Reflection and transmission by a film Extension to two films Interference filters Periodic media Reflection and transmission in the presence of absorbing media Additional problems Wave propagation in anisotropic media Introduction Double refraction Some polarization devices Plane waves in anisotropic media Wave refractive index 62 63 63 63 4 783.6 3] 38 41 4.2 43 44 45 4.6 47 48 49 4.10 41 5 5.1 5.2 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.8 59 5.10 6.1 6.2 63 64 65 Contents Ray refractive index The ray velocity surface The index ellipsoid Problems Fraunhofer diffraction Introduction The diffraction formula Rectangular aperture The single slit diffraction pattern Circular aperture Directionality of laser beams Limit of resolution Resolving power of a microscope Annular aperture and apodization Fraunhofer diffraction by a set of identical apertures Resolving power of a prism Additional problems Fresnel diffraction Introduction The diffraction integral Uniform amplitude and phase distribution Diffraction of a Gaussian beam Intensity distribution near the paraxial image point of a converging lens Fresnel diffraction by a circular aperture Babinet’s principle Fresnel diffraction due to a circular disc Diffraction at a straight edge Fresnel diffraction by a long narrow slit Problems Spatial frequency filtering Introduction The Fourier transform and some of its important properties The Fourier transforming property of a thin lens Some elementary examples of the Fourier transforming property of a lens Applications of spatial frequency filtering 82 84 87 89 97 99 102 106 108 i4 117 121 122 124 135 137 140 140. 140 141 141 144 148 152 152 154 160 165 167 167 168 169 172 17566 67 7N 72 7.3 74 1S 7.6 WW 8.1 8.2 83 84 8.5 86 8.7 8.8 OL 9.2 93 94 9.5 9.7 OB 9.10 10 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 ‘Contents Phase contrast microscope Image deblurring The basic principle Coherence requirements Resolution Fourier transform holograms Volume holograms Some applications Lasers: I Introduction The Einstein coefficients Light amplification The threshold condition Laser rate equations Variation of laser power around threshold Optimum output coupling Line broadening mechanisms Additional problems Lasers: I Introduction Modes ofa rectangular cavity and the open planar resonator The quality factor The ultimate linewidth of the laser Mode selection Q-switching Mode locking in lasers Modes of a confocal resonator system General spherical resonator Higher order modes Some laser systems Introduction Ruby lasers Neodymium based lasers The He-Ne laser vii 177 178 Isl 181 182 188 188 190 194 194 201 201 202 208 211 214 226 234 236 243 245 245 246 252 254 256 264 272 280 287 291 294 294 297 300viii 10.5 10.6 10,7 10.8 10.9 IW Wh 11.2 11.3 14 ILS IL6 1.7 1.8 9 13 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 138 13.9 Contents The argon ion laser The CO, laser Dye iasers Excimer lasers Semiconductor lasers Problems Electromagnetic analysis of the simplest optical waveguide Introduction Classification of modes for a planar waveguide TE modes in a symmetric step index planar waveguide TM modes in a symmetric step index planar waveguide The relative magnitude of the longitudinal components of the E and H fields Power associated with a mode Rai n modes Excitation of guided modes Maxwell's equations in inhomogeneous media: TE and TM modes in planar waveguides Additional problems Leaky modes in optical waveguides Introduction Quasi-modes in a planar structure Leakage of power from the core The matrix method for determining the propagation charac- teristics of planar structures which may be leaky or absorbing Calculation of bending loss in optical waveguides ‘Optical fibre waveguides Introduction The optical fibre The numerical aperture Pulse dispersion in step index fibres Scalar wave equation and the modes of a fibre Modal analysis for a step index fibre Modal analysis of a parabolic index medium Pulse dispersion Multimode fibres with optimum profiles 302 302 304 308 308 34 31S 315 318 319 328 330 331 333 334 339 342 M7 349 352 354 358 364. 367 368 369 374 7 387 390 39513.10 13.11 13.12 13.13 13.14 14 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 15 15.1 15.2. 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 16 16.1 16.2 16.3 164 7 17.1 17.2 V7.3 174 Contents First and second generation fibre optic communication systems Single mode fibres The Gaussian approximation ¢ loss The vector modes Integrated optics Introduction Modes in an asymmetric planar waveguide Ray analysis of planar waveguides WKB analysis of inhomogeneous planar waveguides Strip waveguides Some guided wave devices Additional problems The cleetrooptic effect Introduction The electrooptic effect in KDP crystals: longitudinal mode The electrooptic effect in KDP crystals: transverse mode The electrooptic effect in lithium niobate and lithium tantalate crystals General considerations on modulator design The index ellipsoid in the presence ofan external electric field Additional problems ‘The strain optic tensor Introduction The strain optic tensor Calculation of Ac fora longitudinal acoustic wave propagal- ing in an isotropic medium Calculation of Ae for a shear wave propagating along the z- direction in lithium niobate Problems Acoustooptic effect: Raman Nath diffraction Introduction Raman. Nath and Bragg regimes of diffraction A simple experimental set up to observe Raman- Nath Theory of Raman Nath diffraction 400 403 410 411 416 421 421 422 432 433 437 441 455 461 461 462 473 478 477 492 498 502 $02 304 505 506 S08 508 SOS 310 SIL18 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 18.8 18.9 19 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 9UO0> Qaim Contents Acoustooptic effect: Bragg diffraction Introduction Small Bragg angle diffraction Basic equations governing Bragg diffraction Coupled wave analysis for small Bragg angle diffraction Large Bragg angle diffraction Application to periodic media Transition to the Raman—Nath regime Vector approach to coupled wave equations Evaluation of @'Acé, Acoustooptic devices Introduction Raman-Nath acoustooptic modulator Bragg modulator Acoustooptic deflectors Acoustooptic spectrum analyser Nonlinear optics Introduction The self focussing phenomenon Second harmonic generation Appendices Wave equation and its solutions The index ellipsoid Density of modes Solution of the scalar wave equation for an infinite square law medium Leakage calculations of a packet of radiation modes WKB analysis of multimode fibres Coupled mode equations References and suggested reading Index 519 S19 520 524 526 $32 337 541 542 346 548 559 562 564 565 569 587 589 595 596 598 663 612 621Preface Ever since the invention of the laser in 1960, there has been a renaissance in the field of optics and the field of optical electronics encompassing generation, modulation, transmission etc. of optical radiation has gained tremendous importance. With optics and optical electronics now finding applications in almost all branches of science and engineering, study of these subjects is becoming extremely important. The present book intended for senior undergraduate and first year graduate students is an attempt at a coherent presentation of the basic physical principles involved in the understanding of some of the important optoelectronic effects and devices. The book starts with the basic formulation of the study of propagation of electromagnetic waves, reflection and refraction and propagation through anisotropic media. This is followed by diffraction and its application in the study of spatial frequency filtering and holography. Basic physics behind laser operation is treated next with a brief discussion on different laser types. The next four chapters deal with the subject of optical waveguides including fibre and integrated optics which are already revolutionizing the field of information transmission. The next five chapters deal with three very important effects which are used in many opto-electronic devices namely the electrooptic, acoustooptic and nonlinear optical effects. The various concepts in the book have been derived from first principles and hence it can also be used for self study. A large number of solved and unsolved problems have been scatiered throughout the book. This should particularly help the reader to a better appreciation of the concepts developed and also to get a feel for the numbers involved. Some of the problems are intended to extend the range of understanding beyond what is derived in the book. The writing of the book started in 1979 and during the past eight years portions of the book have been used in various courses, workshops and summer schools. The feedback received from the students and participantsxii Preface of these courses has been of immense value and has helped us in putting the book in its present form. During the preparation of the book, we have had numerous discussions with our colleagu n particular with Professor MS. Sodha, Professor LC. Goyal, Dr B.P. Pal, Dr Arun Kumar, Dr Anurag Sharma, Dr Enakshi Sharma, Dr G. Umesh and Dr M.R. Shenoy; to them we are greatly indebted for many invaluable suggestions. Portions of the book have also been used by Professor M.S. Sodha, Professor LC. Goyal, Dr B.P. Pal, Dr Arun Kumar and Dr G. Umesh at IIT Delhi and Dr Enakshi Sharma at the University of Delhi. We are very grateful to them for their constructive criticisms. One of us (AG) used a part of this book in presenting a course of lectures at University of Karlsruhe, West Germany. The many stimulating discussions with Professor G. Grau, Dr W. Freude and Dr E.G. Sauter are gratefully acknowledged. We would also like to thank Ms Swagatha Banerjee, Mr U.K. Das, Ms Supriya Diggavi, Ms Vrinda Kalia, Ms Jacintha Kompella, Mr Verghese Paulose, Mr Saced Pilevar, Mr Vishnu Priye, Mr M.R. Ramadas, Mr R.K. Sinha and Dr R.K. Varshney for their help during the preparation of the manuscript. We are grateful to Dr R.W. Terhune, Dr H. Kogelnik, Dr R.A. Phillips, Dr W. Freude and Dr M. Papuchon for providing some of the photographs appearing in the book. We are also grateful to Professor N.M. Swani, Director, IT Delhi and Professor M.S. Sodha, Head of our department for their encouragement and support of this work. New Delhi Ajoy Ghatak 14 September 1987 K. Thyagarajan1 Maxwell’s equations and propagation of electromagnetic waves 1.1 Introduction In this chapter we will use Maxwell's equations to derive the wave equation and study its solutions in a homogeneous, isotropic and linear medium; the medium could be either absorbing or nonabsorbing. The results derived in this chapter will be used almost throughout the book — in particular, the solutions will be the starting point in the next chapter in which we will study the reflection and refraction of electromagnetic waves by a dielectric and a metal surface. 1.2 Maxwell's equations All. electromagnetic phenomena can be said to follow from Maxwell's equations. These equations are based on experimental laws and are given by V-G=p (1) VeR=0 (1.2) Vx d= —c@/er (13) Vx HHS 4+E9/et (14) where p represents the charge density and J the current density; 8, 4,8 and # represent the electric field, electric displacement, magnetic induction and magnetic field respectively. We will consistently be using the MKS system of units. We will discuss the solution of above equations in a linear, isotropic and homogeneous medium where the following constitutive relations are satisfied Gab (5) R= nH (1.6)2 Maxwell's equations and propagation of waves and Jaoé (7) The parameters €, «and ¢ are known as the dielectric permittivity, magnetic permeability and conductivity of the medium and since the medium has been assumed to be linear and homogeneous, these parameters have a constant value.” Using the constitutive relations and assuming the medium to be charge free (i.c., p = 0), Eqs. (1.1)-(1.4) become Ve =0 (8) View =0 (1.9) Vix 6 = — (cot jer) (1.10) Vx H = 0d + €(04/a1) (11) Taking the curl of Eq. (1,10) and using Eq. (1.11) we obtain (1.12) But! Vi8 = V(V-8)- 9 x (Vx 4) (1.13) * Foran anisotropic medium, the parameters form a tensor so that, for example, & and @ are not in the same direction, see Chapter 3. We should mention here that (contrary to what is written in many books) Eq. (1.13) is mor a vector identity. Eq.(1.13) defines the operator V? acting on a rector. However, simple vector manipulations show that if we take a Cartesian component of Eq. (1.13) We would obtain (Fé) = ot ve, where the ¥* operator on the RHS ts now diverad. Thus (WA), = P-(VA) ‘On the other hand, if we take a non-Cartesian component. the above equation is no longer valid, For example working in the cylindrical coordinates, it ean easily be shown that which contains two extra terms in addition to divgrad1.3 Plane waves in a dielectric 3 Since V-é = 0 (see Eq. (1.8)), Eq, (1.12) becomes Ve zg tt + pte ef ct (1.14) Similarly, taking the curl of Eq. (1.11) and using Eqs. (1.9) and (1.10) we get Vit = pa tyie aay (1.15) 1.3 Plane waves in a dielectric We consider a perfect dielectric for which « = 0. Thus Eqs. (1.14) and (1.15) simplify to WS = peli? /e1*) (1.16) VP = pelo? A er) (1.17) which are known as vector wave equations. If we consider a Cartesian component of either of the two equations, we would obtain the scalar wave equation Pw = euler w ser) (LAR) where ‘¥ may represent ¢,. 4, or 4,, or #,, #, or #.. The solution of the above equation represents waves (see Appendix A) and therefore, Maxwell's equations (which were used to derive the wave equation) predict the existence of electromagnetic waves. The speed of these waves is given by (see Appendix A) v= ltenye (1.19) For free space €=€) = 8.854 x 10 C = fo =4n = 10-7 N/A? (1.20) The speed of electromagnetic waves in free space is denoted by the symbol ¢ and is given by c= Mery) = 2.99794 x 10° m/s (1.21) It may be worthwhile mentioning that except for the term corresponding to the displacement current (= 6%/¢r) in Eq. (1.4), all the experimental laws which are described in Eqs. (1.1)-(1.4) were known before Maxwell. By introducing the concept of displacement current, Maxwell (around 1860) could derive the wave equation (Eqs. (1.16) and (1.17)) and predict the4 Maxwell's equations and propagation of waves existence of electromagnetic waves. * Further, using the value of €y available to him, Maxwell found that the velocity of these electromagnetic waves should be about 3.1074 x 10% m/s. During the time of Maxwell the best known value of the speed of light was 3.14858 x 10° m/s (measured by Fizeau in 1849) and with ‘faith in rationality of nature’, Maxwell said that these two numbers cannot be accidentally equal and therefore light must be an electromagnetic wave. In the words of Maxwell himself, the speed of electromagnetic waves --calculated from the electromagnetic measurements of Kohlrausch and Weber, agrees so exactly with the velocity of light calculated from the optical experiments of M. Fizeau, that we can scarcely avoid the inference that light consists in the transverse undulations of the same medium which is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. Now, in a dielectric, the velocity of propagation of the electromagnetic wave can be written in the form (see Eqs. (1.19) and (1.20)) c=c/n (1.22) where n, Known as the refractive index of the medium, is given by t n~(£ ) (1.23) Eo Ho For most dielectrics st is very close to jp and we have n=Ki (1.24) where K =€/€, (1.25) is known as the dielectric constant of the medium. In Appendix A we have shown that the solution of the wave equation (Eq. (1.18)) can be written in the form Pe ( where 4 is a constant and &,,k, and &, (which represent the components of the vector k) and «» can take arbitrary values subject to the condition that Rak +k? +k? (1.27) * It was only in 1888 that Hertz carried out experiments Which could produce and detect clectromagnetic waves of frequencies much smaller than that of light