Professional Documents
Culture Documents
controlled by various factors, including (1) the composition of their source rocks, (2)
depositional environment (e.g., marine versus fresh water), and (6) post-depositional
investigations are substantiating the above aspects pertaining to genesis of both ancient and
modern siliciclastic sediments (e.g., Dickenson et al., 1983; Nesbitt and Young, 1982,
1984; Bhatia, 1983; Roser and Korsch, 1988; McCann, 1991; Condie et al., 1992; Condie,
1993; McLennan et al., 1993; Nesbitt et al., 1996; Cullers, 2000; Hessler and Lowe 2006;
Nagarajan et al., 2007; Spalletti et al., 2008). Several studies have also been focused on the
siliciclastic rocks (e.g., Dickinson and Suczek, 1979; Bhatia, 1983; Bhatia and Crook,
1986; Roser and Korsch 1986; McLennan and Taylor, 1991). Among the terregenous
sedimentary rocks, shales are considered to represent the average crustal composition of
the provenance much better than any other siliclastic rocks (e.g., McCulloch and
Wasserburg, 1978). Shales retain most of the mineral constituents of the source and their
bulk chemistry preserves the near-original signature of the provenance and more faithfully
reveal palaeoweathering conditions (e.g., Pettijohn, 1975; Graver and Scott, 1995).
50
The present note examines the geochemistry of sandstones, shales and limestones
of Lower Jurassic Shemshak Formation, Kerman province, Central Iran and attempts to
constrain their source rocks, palaeoweathering and tectonic setting of the provenance.
Owing to limitations of analytical facilities, the present work is based on chemical analyses
data of major and select trace elements of the investigated sandstones, shales and
3.2 METHODOLOGY
samples of limestones were collected from fresh outcrops across the strike direction.
Whole-rock chemical analyses were carried out at the laboratory of the Institute of geology
and exploration for mineral deposits, Tehran, Iran. Major elements were analyzed by X-ray
fluorescence spectrometry (XRF), as per the procedure given by Ahmedali (1989). Trace
Spectrometry) following the procedure described by Jenner et al., (1990). The analytical
Major and select trace element concentrations of 13 samples of the sandstones are
provided in table 3.1 along with ratios of select pair of major elements. In the analyzed
samples, concentrations of major elements vary narrowly. The sandstones consist of 74.31
to 77.32 wt.% SiO2; 7.87 to 10.08 wt.% Al2O3; 0.28 to 0.35 wt.% TiO2; 3.66 to 5.52 wt.%
Fe2O3; 0.05 to 0.08 wt.% MnO; 2.43 to 2.89 wt.% CaO; 0.53 to 1.18 wt.% MgO; 0.34 to
1.26 wt.% Na2O; 1.48 to 1.92 wt.% K2O and 0.10 to 0.16 wt.% P2O5. Total iron is
expressed as Fe2O3. Among the analyzed trace elements, Co varies from 4.88 to 9.55 ppm;
74 ppm. Correlation coefficient data of major and trace elements are given in table 3.2.
51
Table 3.1 : Major (wt.%) and trace element (ppm) composition of sandstones.
Average
Elements PS(S1) PS(S2) PS(S3) PS(S4) PS(S5) PS(S6) PS(S7) PS(S8) PS(S9) PS(S10) PS(S11) PS(S12) PS(S13)
values
SiO2 74.61 75.08 74.31 76.33 75.63 75.45 74.64 75.29 74.53 75.82 77.32 75.91 74.55 75.34
Al2O3 9.97 9.43 10.08 8.98 9.25 9.38 9.93 9.40 9.97 9.13 7.87 9.08 9.97 9.42
TiO2 0.35 0.32 0.35 0.30 0.32 0.32 0.35 0.32 0.35 0.32 0.28 0.32 0.35 0.33
Fe2O3T 5.37 4.87 5.52 3.95 4.61 4.62 5.37 4.73 5.42 4.41 3.66 4.39 5.41 4.79
MnO 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.08 0.07
CaO 2.83 2.79 2.89 2.60 2.70 2.74 2.83 2.74 2.82 2.68 2.43 2.68 2.84 2.74
MgO 0.82 0.61 1.18 0.92 0.84 0.53 0.78 1.21 0.71 1.05 1.05 1.12 0.95 0.91
Na2O 0.81 0.74 0.56 0.61 0.34 0.83 1.26 0.49 1.12 0.95 0.70 0.60 0.40 0.72
K2O 1.88 1.74 1.92 1.57 1.65 1.67 1.87 1.64 1.89 1.62 1.48 1.60 1.90 1.73
P2O5 0.15 0.14 0.16 0.11 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.13 0.15 0.13 0.10 0.11 0.15 0.13
SO3 0.07 0.13 0.08 0.12 0.06 0.09 0.07 0.11 0.12 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.09
L.O.I 3.01 3.91 2.73 3.96 3.97 3.85 2.59 3.68 2.71 3.52 4.59 3.79 3.12 3.49
Total 99.94 99.83 99.84 99.50 99.57 99.69 99.91 99.81 99.87 99.79 99.60 99.71 99.78 99.76
Co 7.84 9.26 5.47 7.59 4.89 6.26 6.31 8.44 5.21 6.84 4.88 7.35 9.55 6.91
Ni 12.00 12.00 11.00 15.00 11.00 10.00 13.00 16.00 15.00 17.00 12.00 22.00 14.00 14.00
Cu 12.00 14.00 26.00 23.00 19.00 23.00 20.00 18.00 25.00 19.00 17.00 22.00 28.00 20.00
Zn 34.00 18.00 31.00 46.00 45.00 23.00 32.00 28.00 29.00 34.00 46.00 32.00 38.00 37.50
Cr 66.00 73.00 69.00 74.00 69.00 64.00 65.00 58.00 64.00 69.00 71.00 72.00 73.00 68.00
Al2O3 / TiO2 28.48 29.47 28.80 29.93 28.90 29.31 28.37 29.37 28.48 28.53 28.11 28.37 28.48 28.82
SiO2 / Al2O3 7.48 7.96 7.37 8.50 8.18 8.04 7.51 8.00 7.47 8.30 9.82 8.36 7.47 8.04
SiO2 / TiO2 213.10 234.60 212.30 254.40 236.30 235.80 213.20 235.30 212.90 236.90 276.10 237.20 213.00 231.62
K2O / Na2O 2.32 2.35 3.43 2.57 4.85 2.01 1.48 3.35 1.69 1.70 2.11 2.66 4.75 2.71
Al2O3 / K2O 5.30 5.42 5.25 5.72 5.60 5.61 5.94 5.73 5.27 5.63 5.31 5.67 5.24 5.51
Cr / Ni 5.50 6.08 6.27 4.93 6.27 6.40 5.00 3.62 4.05 4.05 5.91 3.27 5.21 5.12
Moles
Al2O3 0.10 0.09 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.09 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.09
CaO* 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Na2O 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
K2O 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
CIA 53.93 53.56 54.97 54.71 56.03 53.49 51.79 55.40 52.50 52.71 52.31 54.46 55.85 53.98
PIA 74.95 75.66 81.34 78.46 87.12 73.75 65.62 82.54 68.33 70.29 73.26 78.97 85.84 76.63
CIW 78.98 79.95 84.58 81.78 89.34 77.55 70.55 85.35 73.07 74.52 77.48 82.25 88.41 80.29
CIW´ 88.25 88.59 91.65 89.97 94.37 87.35 82.73 92.10 84.44 85.40 87.31 90.26 93.85 88.94
52
Table 3.2: Values of Pearson’s coefficient of correlation of major and trace elements of
sandstones.
Element SiO2 Al2O3 TiO2 Fe2O3 MnO CaO MgO Na2O K2O P2O5 Co Ni Cu Zn Cr
SiO2 1.00
K2O -0.95 0.93 0.95 0.98 0.64 0.91 -0.22 0.26 1.00
P2O5 -0.95 0.92 0.91 0.95 0.74 0.94 -0.31 0.26 0.94 1.00
Co -0.24 0.24 0.14 0.16 0.21 0.28 0.00 -0.24 0.14 0.10 1.00
Ni 0.19 -0.14 -0.08 -0.22 -0.26 -0.17 0.48 0.00 -0.28 -0.42 0.26 1.00
Cu -0.23 0.28 0.28 0.22 0.09 0.23 0.14 -0.13 0.27 0.20 -0.13 0.14 1.00
Zn 0.52 -0.45 -0.38 -0.45 -0.41 -0.57 0.38 -0.34 -0.36 -0.50 -0.33 0.00 0.10 1.00
Cr 0.32 -0.30 -0.28 -0.31 -0.43 -0.29 0.00 -0.30 -0.18 -0.33 0.17 0.32 0.10 0.38 1.00
PettiJohn, 1975; Crook, 1974; Blatt et al., 1980; Herron, 1988). Sandstones of the present
study were classified according to the scheme proposed by Herron (1988). In the bivariate log
(Fe2O3/K2O) versus log (SiO2/Al2O3) diagram (after Herron, 1988) the sandstones plot in the
field of litharenite (Fig. 3.1a). Crook (1974) classified the sandstones into 3 types (quartz-rich,
quartz-intermediate and quartz-poor) based on their Na2O and K2O contents. In the K2O wt. %
versus Na2O wt. % bivariate diagram (after Crook, 1974) the sandstones of the present study
plot essentially in quartz-rich field (Fig. 3.1b). However, the sandstones have lower content of
53
SiO2 (average SiO2 content: 75.34 wt.%) in comparison with typical quartz-rich sandstones
Fig. 3.1: Geochemical classification of sandstones. (a) Log (Fe2O3/K2O) versus log
(SiO2/Al2O3) bivariate diagram. (b) K2O wt.% versus Na2O wt.% bivariate diagram.
Chemical analyses data reveal several geochemical features of the sandstones.
Composition of non-quartz component of the sandstones can be evaluated from the values of
Index of Compositional Variation (ICV) of Cox et al., (1995) in which ICV = (Fe2O3 + K2O +
Na2O + CaO + MgO + MnO + TiO2) / TiO2. ICV values of the sandstones of the present study
vary from 1.10 to 1.23 (average 1.18). Values of ICV more than 1 indicate the presence of less
clay minerals and more rock forming minerals such as plagioclase, K-feldspar, amphiboles,
pyroxenes and lithics (Cox et al., 1995). It is known that the values of K2O/Al2O3 of clays are
54
less than 0.3 and the values of the same ratio of feldspars range from 0.3 to 0.9. The values of
K2O/Al2O3 ratio of the sandstones vary narrowly from 0.17 to 0.19 (average = 0.18). These
values indicate preponderance of clay minerals over k-bearing minerals such as K-feldspars
Among the major elements SiO2 shows negative correlation with all major elements,
barring MgO, which it shows weak positive correlation (r = 0.22). MgO, inturn, is negatively
correlated with all other major elements. All other major elements (ie., Al2O3, TiO2, Fe2O3,
MnO, CaO, Na2O and K2O) exhibit positive correlations between themselves. Negative
correlations of SiO2 with major elements (except MgO) confirm that bulk of the SiO2 is
present as quartz grains. Values of Al2O3/TiO2 ratio of the sandstones are high (average =
28.82 wt.%) and indicate derivation of the detrital material from a continental source (Fyffe
and Pickerill, 1993). SiO2 shows strong negative correlation with K2O (r = - 0.95) indicating
decrease of clay content with increase of quartz. Al2O3 shows strong positive correlation with
K2O (r = 0.93). This co-variation indicates that K-bearing minerals have significant influence
on Al distribution and suggests that the bluk of Al and K is primarily contributed by clay
minerals (e.g., illite) (McLennan et al., 1983; Jin et al., 2006). However, contribution of Al
and K from feldspars and mica is also indicated from Al2O3/K2O ratios (average = 5.51). The
values of K2O/Na2O ratio vary from 1.48 to 4.85. Slightly high values of K2O/Na2O ratio
indicate the presence of K-bearing minerals such as K-feldspar, muscovite and biotite
(McLennan et al., 1983; Nath et al., 2000; Osae et al., 2000). Low contents of TiO2 (average =
0.33 wt.%) indicate the presence of phyllosilicates in minor amounts (Dabard, 1990; Condie et
al., 1992). Na2O exhibits negative correlations with SiO2 (r = - 0.19) and MgO (r = - 0.43).
MgO shows negative correlation with CaO (r = - 0.22). These relations rule out the possibility
55
of the presence of smectite. Presence of MgO in sandstones and its positive correlation with
SiO2 (r = 0.22) indicate the presence of biotite. (Fe2O3 + MgO) which exhibits strong positive
correlation with Al2O3 (r = 0.90) and this co-variance suggests the presence of chlorite and
ferromagnesian minerals (eg., biotite, hornblende). High content of Fe2O3 (average 4.79 wt.%)
indicates that a part of the Fe2O3 was possibly precipitated as limonite/goethite during
sedimentation and/or diagenesis. CaO exhibits strong negative correlation with SiO2 (r = -
0.99) suggesting that the carbonates are primary rather than secondary, because the presence
of secondary carbonates could result in scattered plots in the SiO2 wt.% versus CaO wt.%
Among the analyzed transitional elements (Co, Cu, Ni, Zn, Cr), Co and Cu exhibit
positive correlations with Al2O3 (r = 0.24; 0.28), TiO2 (r = 0.14; 0.28), Fe2O3 (r = 0.16; 0.22),
MnO (r = 0.21; 0.09), CaO (r = 0.28; 0.23) and K2O (r = 0.14; 0.27). Positive correlations of
Co and Cu with Al2O3, TiO2 and K2O indicate that Co and Zn are the adsorbed constituents of
clay minerals. Ni and Zn show positive correlations with MgO (r = 0.48; 0.38), the latter, as
mentioned earlier, exhibits positive correlations with SiO2 (r = 0.22). Cr shows positive
correlations with Co (r = 0.26) and Cu (r = 0.14). The sandstones have low contents of Cr
(average = 68 ppm) and Ni (average = 14 ppm). Cr/Ni ratios vary from 3.27 to 6.4 ppm
(average = 5.12 ppm). These features indicate that Cr, Ni and Zn constitute components of
clay minerals and other detrital material (e.g., chlorite, ferromagnesian minerals) (McCann,
1991).
3.3.1 Provenance
56
Several investigations have demonstrated that the mineralogical and chemical
compositions of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are related to those of their source and this
tenet has been used to characterize the source rocks from which the investigated sedimentary
rocks were derived (e.g., Kalsbeek and Frei, 2010). Detrital framework composition of
sandstones is a reliable indicator of the tectonic setting of the provenance. Detrital mode-based
ternary diagrams of Dickinson and Suckzek (1979), Dickinson et al., (1983) and Dickinson
(1985) are widely used to constrain the tectonic regime of the provenance of sandstones.
Modal analyses of framework components of 4 sandstone samples of the present study were
carried out (Table 3.3) and the obtained data have been plotted on the Qt-F-L ternary diagram
of Dickinson et al., (1983). The plots indicate the provenance of recycled orogen for the
studied sandstones (Fig. 3.2). Quartzolithic composition of the sandstones testifies their
derivation from a recycled source region. Source components of recycled orogens, according
to Dickenson (1985) are predominantly sedimentary strata and subordinate volcanic rocks,
partly metamorphosed, exposed to erosion by the orogenic uplift of fold belts and thrust
sheets. According to Roser and Korsch (1988), recycled sources represent quartzose sediments
of mature continental provenance and the derivation of the sediments could be from a highly
57
Fig. 3.2: Qt – F – L tectonic setting discrimination diagram (after Dickinson et al., 1983). Qt =
Total quartz, F = Feldspar, L = Lithic fragments including polycrystalline quartz.
discrimination diagrams are proposed to decipher the source rocks / provenance of the
siliciclastic sedimentary rocks (e.g., Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Floyd and Leveridge, 1987.,
Roser and Korsch, 1988; Floyd et al., 1989, 1990; McLennan et al., 1993; Condie, 1993; Gu et
al., 2002; Cingolani et al., 2003; Asieudu et al., 2004). On the major element-based
provenance discriminant function diagram of Roser and Korsch (1988). The sandstones of the
present study plot in the field of quartzose sedimentary provenance (Fig. 3.3).
58
Fig.3.3: Provenance discrimination diagram for sandstones (after Roser and Korsch, 1988).
Discriminant Function 1 = (-1.773×TiO2%) + (0.607×Al2O3%) + (0.76×Fe2O3T%) +
(-1.5×MgO%) + (0.616×CaO%) + (0.509×Na2O%) + (-1.22×K2O%) + (-9.09).
Discriminant Function 2 = (0.445×TiO2%) + (0.07×Al2O3%) + (-0.25×Fe2O3T%) + (-
1.142×MgO%) + (0.432×Na2O%) + (1.426×K2O%) + (-6.861).
composed of varied sedimentary lithounits (e.g., sandstones, shales, argillites, siltstones and
their metamorphic equivalents) and the detrital components involved in their formation may
be derived from different crystalline rocks and/or pre-existing sedimentary rocks. For
example, in the bivariate provenance discrimination diagram of Roser and Korsch (1988) the
boundaries of the P4 field (quartzo sedimentary provenance) were drawn based on the
chemical composition data of rock types of a certain terrain in New Zealand. This terrain is
rocks were derived either from a deeply weathered granitic-gneissic terrain (Laird, 1982) or
from a pre-existing sedimentary terrain (Nathan, 1976). The rock types of the “proximal”
quartzose sedimentary provenance of the sandstones of the present study can not be
59
deciphered from the geochemical data of the sandstones. However, the bulk chemical
composition (in terms of SiO2 content) of the “ultimate” crystalline rock provenance of the
sandstones can be inferred by using a simple equation provided by Hayashi et al., (1997).
Hayashi et al., while proposing the provenance discrimination equation, provided in brief the
following justification.
The Al2O3 and TiO2 contents of the siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are considered as
remain essentially immobile, owing to low solubility of their oxides and hydroxides in low
temperature aqueous solutions (e.g., Stumm and Morgan, 1981; Yamamoto et al., 1986;
Sugitani et al., 1996). Hence, the values of Al/Ti ratios of residual soils can be considered to
be very close to those of their parent igneous rocks. In the residual detrital products of igneous
rocks, Al typically resides in clays (e.g., kaolinite, illite, smectite), micas and residual
feldspars. Ti occurs as a chemical constituent of clays and mafic minerals (e.g., biotite,
chlorite, ilmenite inclusions in silicate minerals). Several studies have shown that during
Yamamoto., et al., 1986). Hence, the Al2O3/TiO2 ratios of sedimentary rocks derived from
fluvially transported detrital siliciclastic material should be practically similar to those of their
It is well known that in normal igneous rocks Al resides mostly in feldspars and Ti in
mafic minerals (e.g., olivine, pyroxene, hornblende, biotite, ilmenite). Therefore, the Al/Ti
ratios of igneous rocks gradually increase with increasing SiO2 contents (Poldervaart, 1955;
Holland, 1984). Al2O3/TiO2 ratios increase (1) from 3 to 8 in mafic igneous rocks (SiO2
content from 45 to 52 wt.%), (2) from 8 to 21 in intermediate igneous rocks (SiO2 content
60
from 53 to 66 wt.%) and (3) from 7 to 21 in felsic igneous rocks (SiO2 content from 66 to 76
wt.%). According to Hayashi et al., (1997) the SiO2 content of normal igneous rocks can be
Since Al and Ti are immobile and behave similarly during weathering and
transportation, the Al2O3/TiO2 ratios of the siliciclastic sedimentary rocks can be considered as
practically equal to those of their source. Hence, the silica content of the source rocks can be
constrained from the Al2O3/SiO2 ratios using of the siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of the
above equation.
When Al2O3/TiO2 ratios of the sandstones of the present study are substituted in the
equation of Hayashi et al., (1997), the SiO2 content of the theoretically inferred magmatic
source rock of the sandstones are found to range narrowly from 66.32 to 69.15 wt. % (average
67.05 wt.%). These values of SiO2 content suggest that the parent rocks of the quartzose
sedimentary provenance of the sandstones could be felsic igneous rocks. SiO2 content (~ 67
wt.%) indicates that the inferred magmatic source rocks constitute lowest SiO2-bearing end
member of the felsic group, bordering intermediate group of igneous rocks. McLennan et al.,
(1980), recognizing the significance of Al and Ti in the provenance studies have accordingly
proposed Al2O3 wt.% versus TiO2 wt.% bivariate discrimination diagram to constrain
provenance of siliciclastic rocks. On this diagram the sandstones of the present study plot
along granodiorite trend line (Fig. 3.4a). The abundances of Cr and Ni in siliclastic sediments
are also considered as an useful indicator in provenance studies. Floyd et al., (1989) proposed
a bivarite TiO2 wt.% versus Ni (ppm) diagram to evaluate source rock composition. On this
diagram the sandstones plot falls in the field of acidic igneous rocks (Fig. 3.4b).
61
Fig.3.4: Provenance discrimination diagrams. (a) TiO2 wt.% versus Al2O3 wt.% bivariate plot
(after McLennan et al., 1980). The “granite line” and “ 3 granite + 1 basalt line” are
after Schieber, (1992). (b) TiO2 wt.% versus Ni (ppm) bivariate plot (after Floyd et
al., 1989).
The provenance discriminant function diagram of Roser and Korsh (1988), provenance
McLennan et al., (1980), and Floyd et al., (1989), together suggest that the detritus involved in
the formation of sandstones were derived from quartzose sedimentary provenance, the bulk
lithological provenance of the quartzose sedimentary rocks. Thus, for the sandstones of the
to Roser and Korsch (1988), constitute suites at either passive continental margins,
3.3.2 Palaeoweathering
composition, duration of weathering, climatic conditions and rates of tectonic uplift of source
region (e.g., Wronkiewicz and Codie, 1987). About 75% of the labile material of the upper
62
crust is composed of feldspars and volcanic glass and chemical weathering of these materials
ultimately results in the formation of clay minerals (e.g., Nesbitt and Young, 1984, 1989;
Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Fedo et al., 1995). During chemical weathering Ca, Na and K
are largely removed from source rocks. The amount of these elements surviving in soil
profiles and in sediments derived from them is a sensitive index of the intensity of chemical
weathering (Nesbitt et al., 1997). If the siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are free from alkali-
related post-depositional modifications, then their alkali contents (K2O + Na2O) and
weathering have been proposed based on molecular proportions of mobile and immobile
element oxides (Na2O, CaO, K2O and Al2O3). Among the known indices of
weathering/alteration the Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA; Nesbitt and Young, 1982) is
weathering and elemental redistribution during diagenesis also can be assessed using
Plagioclase Index of Alteration (PIA; Fedo et al., 1995) and Chemical Index of Weathering
rocks, a modified version of CIW (CIW′; Cullers, 2000) is also considered (e.g., Jafarzadeh
63
In the above equations the major oxides are expressed in molar propotions and CaO ٭is
The CaO content of the sandstones of the present study varies from 2.43 to 2.89 wt.%
(average = 2.74 wt.%). The P2O5 content ranges from 0.10 to 0.16 wt.%. There is no direct
method to distinguish and quantify the contents of CaO belonging to silicate fraction and non-
silicate fraction (carbonates and apatite). CIA values were determined, assuming the entire
CaO content of the sandstones as that of silicate fraction and the obtained values vary from
51.79 to 56.03% (average 53.98%). These unrealistic values underestimate the intensity of
chemical weathering of the recycled sediment of the present study and hence can not be
considered. McLennan (1993) proposed an indirect method for quantifying CaO content of
silicate fraction assuming reasonable values of Ca/Na ratios of silicate material. Procedure for
quantification of CaO content (CaO )٭of silicate fraction involves subtraction of molar
proportion of P2O5 from the molar proportion of total CaO. After subtraction, if the
“remaining number of moles” is found to be less than the molar proportion of Na2O, then the
fraction. If the “remaining number of moles” is greater than the molar proportion of Na2O,
then the molar proportion of Na2O is considered as the molar proportion of CaO of silicate
fraction (CaO)٭. Since Ca is typically lost more rapidly than Na during weathering, this
procedure of calculation of CIA values is likely to yield minimum CIA values, by upto about 3
fraction of siliciclastic rocks can provide reliable results if the ultimate source under
consideration consists of more or less equal proportions of moles of CaO and Na2O. In the
64
present study granodiorite was inferred as the “ultimate” source of the sandstones. A typical
granodiorite consist of more or less equal amounts of CaO (2.95 wt.%) (ie., 0.0524 moles of
Ca) and Na2O (3.31 wt.%) (ie., 0.534 moles of Na). Following the procedure provided by
McLennan (1993) CIA, PIA and CIW values have been determined and the obtained results
along with CIW´ values are presented in Table 3.1. According to CIA values, the degree of
source weathering varies from 61.69 to 76.19% (average = 69.07%). PIA values indicate the
intensity of weathering varying from 65.62 to 87.12% (average = 76.63%). CIW values
suggest the degree of source weathering in the range from 70.55 to 89.34% (average =
80.29%). CIW´ values vary from 82.73 to 94.37% (average = 88.94%). Average PIA and CIW
values (76.63%; 80.29%) indicate higher degree of source weathering than the degree of
weathering inferred from CIA values (69.07%). Average CIA value (70%) indicates moderate
source weathering, whereas the average PIA and CIW values (76% and 80%) suggest
moderate to intense weathering of the source material. If average CIW´ values (89%) are
considered, then we have to infer intense source weathering. The petrographic and chemical
analyses data (especially Na2O and K2O contents) do not suggest intense weathering of the
source area. Hence, relying on PIA and CIW values, it can be concluded that the provenance
sedimentation involving (1) chemical weathering of the source rocks, (ultimate granodioritic
source and proximal quartzose sedimentary source), (2) chemical weathering during fluvial
transport of the detritus, (3) chemical weathering of the detritus in depocenters, and (4)
65
PIA monitors and quantifies progressive weathering of feldspars to clay minerals (e.g.,
Fedo et al., 1995; Armstrong-Altrin et al., 2004). PIA values of the sandstones suggest
sedimentation, and diagenesis. During the initial stages of weathering Ca is leached rapidly
than Na and K. With increasing weathering total alkali content (K2O + Na2O) decreases with
increase in (K2O/Na2O) ratio. This is due to destruction of feldspars among which plagioclase
is more preferentially removed than K-feldspars (Nesbitt and Young, 1984; Nesbitt et al.,
1996).
Feldspathic material of the sandstones of the present study was subjected to variable
mobility of elements during final stages of chemical weathering of previously and variously
altered feldspars may be visualized from bivariate plots involving Na2O, K2O, CaO, SiO2 and
PIA. In the (K2O/Na2O) versus PIA diagram the values of (K2O/Na2O) ratio increase with
increasing values of PIA (r = 0.95; Fig. 3.5a). In the (K2O + Na2O) wt.% versus PIA diagram,
the total content of alkalies decreases with increasing values of PIA (r = - o.32; Fig. 3.5b).
Weak negative correlation between (K2O + Na2O) wt.% and PIA may be attributed to the
presence of K-bearing minerals (e.g., muscovite and illite). The behavior of Na during
progressing weathering of feldspars is clearly seen in the bivariate Na2O wt.% versus PIA
diagram (Fig. 3.6a). This diagram vividly shows decrease of Na2O content with increase of
values of PIA (r = - 0.96). In the CaO wt.% and K2O wt.% versus PIA diagrams (Fig. 3.6b and
c) decrease of CaO and K2O with increase of PIA is noticed and the weakly displayed negative
correlations between CaO wt.% and PIA (r = - 0.05) and K2O wt.% and PIA (r = - 0.24) may
66
be the consequence of the presence of carbonates, minor K-bearing primary minerals (e.g.,
muscovite, biotite) and retention of bulk of the mobilized K by aluminous material leading to
6 14
(a) r = 0.95 (b) r = - 0.32
5 13
4 12
K2O + Na2O
K2O / Na2O
3 11
2 10
1 9
0 8
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
PIA PIA
Fig.3.5: Bivariate diagrams depicting mobility of elements during weathering of feldspars. (a)
(K2O/Na2O) wt.% versus PIA. (b) (K2O + Na2O) wt.% versus PIA.
detrital feldspars of the sandstones leaves an impression (may be misleading) that major event
of chemical weathering of detrital feldspars has taken place essentially in the terminal basin
(depocenter of the sandstones) prior to the lithification of the detritus and during diagenesis.
The observed systematic depletion of Na2O content with increasing degree of chemical
weathering of the feldspars (Fig. 3.6a) lends support to the above speculation. Further, it is
known that detrital feldspar grains can survive more than one sedimentary cycle. Much of the
67
2.0 3.0
(a) r = - 0.97 (b) r = - 0.05
1.6
2.8
1.2
Na2O %
CaO %
2.6
0.8
2.4
0.4
0.0 2.2
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
PIA PIA
2.0
(c) r = - 0.24
1.8
K2O %
1.6
1.4
60 65 70 75 80 85 90
PIA
Fig.3.6: Bivariate diagrams depicting mobility of Na, Ca and K during processing weathering
of feldspars. (a) Na2O wt.% versus PIA. (b) CaO wt.% versus PIA. (c) K2O wt.%
versus PIA.
the molar proportions of Al2O3, Na2O and CaO( ٭CaO in silicate fraction) in A-CN-K ternary
diagram (Nesbitt and Young, 1982, 1984). In the A-CN-K diagram (A = Al2O3; CN = CaO ٭+
Na2O; K = K2O) the sandstones plot above plagioclase-potash feldspar join (Fig. 3.7). The
plots define a narrow linear trend and the trend line runs slightly at an angle to A-CN edge.
This is primarly because removal rates of Na and Ca from plagioclase or volcanic glass are
generally greater than the removal rates of K from microcline or volcanic glass (Nesbitt and
68
young, 1984) edge. The plots trend towards illite on the A-K edge (Fig. 3.7). The plots do not
show any inclination towards the K apex, thus indicating that the sandstones are free from
potash metasomatism during diagenesis. The trend line when extended backward intersects the
plagioclase-potash feldspar join near the field of granodiorite (potential ultimate source).
Linear weathering trend suggests steady state of weathering conditions where material
removal matches with production of weathering material (Nesbitt et al., 1997, Nesbit and
Young, 2004).
Fig.3.7: A-CN-K ternary weathering diagram. A = Al2O3; CN = (CaO ٭+ Na2O); K = K2O (all
in molar proporations). CaO ٭is the CaO content of silicate fraction. CIA = Chemical
Index of Alteration.
weathering process and can be used as an indicator of sediment maturity. With increasing
sediment maturity, quartz survives preferentially to feldspars, mafic minerals and lithics
(Roser and Korsch, 1986; Roser et al., 1996). Average SiO2/Al2O3 ratios in unaltered igneous
rocks range from ~ 3.0 (basic rocks) to ~ 5.0 (acidic rocks). Values of SiO2/Al2O3 ratio > 5.0
69
in sandstones are an indication of progressive maturity (Roser et al., 1996) As mentioned
earlier, the average Qt : F : L ratio of the detrital framework components of the sandstones is
67.25: 2.41: 30.48 (Table 3.3). The SiO2/Al2O3 ratios of the sandstones vary from 7.3 to 9.82
(average = 8.04). Values of K2O/Na2O ratio range from 1.48 to 4.85 (average = 2.71).
Presence of substantial quantities of lithics and feldspar (33 wt.%), low values of SiO2/Al2O3
ratios and high values of K2O/Na2O together indicate low to moderate sediment maturity. It is
to be noted that the detrital material of the sandstones, which has witnessed atleast two cycles
remain poorly to moderately matured. The low to moderately matured nature of the sandstones
suggests active uplift of the source region, rapid erosion of the variously weathered source
activity and climatic conditions in the source region. Increase of degree of chemical
weathering may reflect the decrease in tectonic activity and/or change of climate towards
warm and humid conditions which are more favourable for chemical weathering in source
region (e.g., Jacobson et al., 2003). The sandstones of the present study consist of minor
quantities (up to 3 wt. %) of fresh and altered feldspars. Presence of fresh and altered feldspars
would indicate humid and warm climatic conditions (Folk, 1980). Suttner and Dutta (1986)
proposed a binary SiO2 wt. % versus (Al2O3 + K2O + Na2O) wt. % diagram to constrain the
climatic condition during sedimentation of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. On this diagram the
sandstones plot essentially in the field of humid climate (Fig. 3.8). Deposition of the
sandstones of the present study under humid climatic conditions can also be inferred from the
70
Fig. 3.8: Chemical maturity of sandstones and their palaeoenvironment of deposition based on
SiO2 wt.% versus (Al2O3 + K2O + Na2O) wt.% bivariate diagram ( after Suttner and
Dutta, 1986).
Several studies have shown that the chemical compositions of siliciclastic sedimentary
rocks are significantly controlled by plate tectonic settings of their provenances and
depositional basins, and as a result, the siliciclastic rocks from different tectonic settings
posses terrain-specific geochemical signatures (Bhatia, 1983; Bhatia and crook, 1986; Roser
and Korsch, 1986). To infer tectonic setting of provenance of ancient siliciclastic sedimentary
proposed (Maynard et al., 1982; Bhatia, 1983; Bhatia and Crook, 1986; Roser and Korsch,
1986; McLennan et al., 1990; McLennan and Taylor, 1991, Floyd et al., 1991, Girty and
Among the various tectonic setting discrimination diagrams, the major element-based
discrimination diagrams of Bhatia (1983) and Roser and Korsch (1986) are widely used. In the
discrimination diagrams of Bhatia (1983) and Roser and Korsch (1986) the bivariates,
including discriminant functions, are based on immobile and variably mobile major elements,
including Na2O and K2O. Spalletti et al., (2008) are of the view that usage of highly mobile K-
71
and Na-based discrimination diagrams has to be considered cautiously. Van de Kamp and
Leake (1985) observed discrepancies in tectonic settings inferred from the fields proposed by
Bhatia (1983). Armstrong- Altrin and Verma (2005) tested the functioning of 6 major element-
based tectonic setting discrimination diagrams and found to yield inconsistent results.
According to them, the tectonic discrimination fields shown in several major element-based
According to McLennan et al., (1993), the tectonic setting discrimination diagrams can
provide reliable results for siliciclastic rocks that have not been strongly affected by post-
major element-based discrimination diagrams, the present authors have considered almost all
the available major element-based discrimination diagrams to arrive at the best possible
inference on tectonic setting of the provenance of the sandstones of the present study.
Chemical analyses data of the sandstones have been plotted on 8 tectonic setting
discrimination diagrams of Bhatia (1983), Roser and Korsch (1986), Kroonenberg (1994),
Murphy (2000) and Maynard (1982). In the (Fe2O3 + MgO) wt.% versus TiO2 wt.% and
(Fe2O3T + MgO) wt.% versus Al2O3/SiO2 diagrams of Bhatia (1983) the sandstones plot in and
near active continental margin (ACM) field ( Fig. 3.9 a and b). In the (Fe2O3T + MgO) wt.%
versus K2O/Na2O diagram of Bhatia (1983) the sandstones plot near and towards the ACM
field (Fig. 3.9c). In the discriminant function diagram of Bhatia (1983) the sandstones clearly
plot in ACM field (Fig. 3.9d). In the widely used K2O/Na2O versus SiO2 wt.% diagram of
Roser and Korsch (1986) the sandstones clearly plot in passive margin (PM) field (Fig. 3.9e),
but in the modified version of the same bivariate diagram (after Murphy, 2000) the sandstones
plot essentially in ACM field ( Fig. 3.9f ). In the SiO2/20 – (K2O + Na2O) – (TiO2 + Fe2O3 +
72
MgO) ternary diagram of Kroonenberg (1994) the sandstones plot in the overlapping fields of
oceanic island arc, continental island arc and active continental margin (Fig. 3.9g). In the
SiO2/Al2O3 versus K2O/Na2O diagram of Maynard et al., (1982) the sandstones plot in PM
Plottings in majority of the tectonic setting discrimination diagrams indicate that the
sandstones of the present study evolved in active continental margin setting. The observed
plottings of sandstones in two distinctly different tectonic setting fields (ie., ACM and PM)
may be attributed to either deficient functioning of the diagrams and/or abnormal (?) chemical
composition of the sandstones of the present study. As mentioned earlier, the sandstones
contain 2.43 to 2.89 wt.% CaO and are characterized by high K2O/Na2O ratios. Plottings in
discrimination diagrams having K2O/Na2O ratio as one among the two bivariates indicated the
passive margin setting (Fig. 3.9 e and h). The obtained inconsistent results may be attributed to
the high CaO and K2O and low Na2O contents of the sandstones. No comment can be made on
the validity of the field boundaries of tectonic settings shown in the diagrams of the various
authors.
In active continental margin settings, sediments are deposited at subduction arc basins,
strike-slip margins, and in proximal portions in back-arc basins (Alvarez and Roser, 2007).
During the present study, the tectonic setting inferred for the provenance and depositional
basin of lower Jurassic sandstones of the Shemshak Formation of the Kerman basin is in
73
74
Fig. 3.9: Tectonic setting discrimination diagrams based on major element composition of
sandstones. (a) (Fe2O3T + MgO) wt.% versus TiO2 wt.% diagram (Bhatia, 1983). PM: Passive
Margin., ACM: Active Continental Margin., CIA: Continental Island Arc., OIA=Oceanic
Island Arc. (b) (Fe2O3T + MgO) wt.% versus Al2O3/SiO2 diagram (Bhatia, 1983). Field setting
symbols as in Fig 9a. (c) (Fe2O3T + MgO) wt.% versus K2O/Na2O diagram (Bhatia, 1983).
Field setting symbols as in Fig 9a. (d) Bivariate discriminant functions diagram (Bhatia,
1983). Discriminant Function 1 = (-0.0447×SiO2%) + (-0.972×TiO2%) + (0.008×Al2O3%) + (-
0.267×Fe2O3%) + (0.208×FeO%) + (-3.082×MnO%) + (0.140×MgO%) + (0.195×CaO%) +
(0.719×Na2O%) + (-0.032×K2O%) + (7.510×P2O5%). Discriminant Function 2 = (-
0.421×SiO2%) + (1.988×TiO2%) + (-0.526×Al2O3%) + (-0.551× Fe2O3%) + (-1.610×FeO%) +
(2.720×MnO%) + (0.881×MgO) + (-0.907×CaO%) + (-0.117×Na2O%) + (-1.840×K2O%) +
(7.244×P2O5%). (e) SiO2 wt.% versus K2O/Na2O diagram (Roser and Korsch 1986). (f) SiO2
wt.% versus K2O/Na2O diagram (Roser and Korsch, 1986), modified after Murphy (2000) CR
= Continental Rift. (g) SiO2 / 20 wt.% - (K2O + Na2O) wt.% - (TiO2 + Fe2O3 + MgO) wt.%
ternary diagram (Kroonenberg, 1994). A: Oceanic island arc., B: Continental island., C:
Active continental margin., D: Passive margin. (h) SiO2/Al2O3 versus K2O/Na2O diagram
(Maynard et al., 1982). A1 = arc setting, basaltic and andesitic detritus., A2 = evolved arc
setting, Felsic-plutonic detritus.
75
Iranian plate is a major segment of Cimmerian Microcontinent Collage and was
originally a part of north eastern Gondwana land. It was detached during the Late Permian and
moved northwards and finally collided with the Turan Plate ( part of Eurasia) towards the end
of Middle Triassic (Sengor, 1990; Stampfli et al., 1991; Saidi et al., 1997). The resulting
orogenic movements (Early Cimmerian orogenic event) brought about a drastic change in the
sedimentary regime. Thus, the Middle Triassic platformal carbonate sediments were
succeeded (after a hiatus) by a thick pile of siliciclastic sediments of Late Triassic to Middle
Jurassic age. These siliciclastic sediments (Shemshak Group), owing to their development
during the orogenic event (Early and Middle Cimmerian Orogeny), are considered as a
molasse-type sediment package and constitute fore-land basin fillings (Stampfli 1978; Alavi,
1996). Rising and rapidly eroding Cimmerian mountain chain north of Kerman basin provided
the detritus involved in the formation of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of the Shemshak
Group. An alternative interpretation is that the Late Triassic to Middle Jurassic siliciclastic
sediments of the Shemshak group were deposited in a back-arc basin during its initial
Major and select trace element concentrations of four samples of shales of the present
study are provided in table 3.4 along with the ratios of select pairs of major and trace
elements. In the analyzed samples, concentrations of major elements vary narrowly. The shale
consist of 65.52 to 67.45 wt.% SiO2; 16.12 to 19.25 wt.% Al2O3; 0.41 to 0.48 wt.% TiO2; 4.78
to 7.03 wt.% Fe2O3; 0.62 to 1.38 wt.% MgO; 0.18 to 0.79 wt.% CaO; 0.30 to 0.49 wt.% Na2O;
1.89 to 2.17 wt.% K2O and 0.15 to 0.22 wt.% P2O5. Total iron is expressed as Fe2O3. Among
76
the analyzed trace elements, Co varies from 14.31 to 15.74 ppm; Cr from 92 to 108 ppm; Cu
Correlation coefficient data of major and trace elements are given in table 3.5.
Chemical analyses data reveal the following geochemical features of the shales.
1987) the shales as expected, plot in the field of Phanerozoic-Proterozoic shales (Fig. 3.10).
Fig. 3.11 shows distribution of major and select trace elements contents of the shales
normalized to PAAS (Post Archaean Australin Shale; Taylor and McLennan, 1985). In
comparison with the PAAS, the shales of the present study are slightly depleted in TiO2, K2O,
MnO, Cr and Cu and moderately depleted in MgO, CaO Na2O, Co and Ni contents. Depletion
of Na2O and CaO in the shales relative to PAAS suggests either lesser amount of plagioclase
detritus in the shales and/or comparatively intense chemical weathering at the source and
during fluvial transportation of the detrital material of the shales. Depletion of TiO2, K2O,
Fe2O3, Co, Cu, Ni and Cr indicates the presence of relatively lesser quantities of
phyllosilicates and ferromagnesian minerals in the shales (McCann, 1991; Condie et al.,
1992). Low content of TiO2 also suggests more evolved (felsic) source rocks.
77
Table 3.4: Major (wt.%) and trace element (ppm) composition of shales.
Average
Elements S1 S2 S3 S4 PAAS
values
SiO2 65.52 66.80 63.78 67.45 65.89 62.40
Al2O3 17.83 18.70 16.12 19.25 17.98 18.78
TiO2 0.46 0.46 0.41 0.48 0.45 0.99
Fe2O3T 7.03 4.74 7.24 5.72 6.18 7.18
MnO 0.05 0.09 0.13 0.07 0.09 0.11
CaO 0.18 0.61 0.79 0.76 0.59 1.29
MgO 0.62 0.92 1.38 0.87 0.95 2.19
Na2O 0.30 0.41 0.49 0.46 0.42 1.19
K2O 1.89 1.99 2.17 1.73 1.95 3.68
P2O5 0.16 0.15 0.18 0.22 0.18 0.16
SO3 0.05 0.08 0.11 0.06 0.08 -
L.O.I 5.76 4.90 6.48 2.81 4.99 -
Total 99.85 99.85 99.28 99.88 99.72 -
Co 14.31 15.74 13.50 15.16 14.68 23
Ni 18 33 25 24 25 55
Cu 25 36 48 41 38 50
Zn 85 71 75 83 79 85
Cr 97 92 108 104 100 110
Al2O3 / TiO2 38.76 40.60 39.31 40.10 39.69 -
SiO2 / Al2O3 3.67 3.57 3.95 3.50 3.67 -
K2O/Al2O3 0.11 0.11 0.13 0.09 0.11 -
Ni / Co 1.25 2.09 1.85 1.58 1.69 -
Cu / Zn 0.29 0.50 0.64 0.49 0.48 -
ICV 0.58 0.48 0.77 0.52 0.59
moles
Al2O3 0.1748 0.1833 0.1580 0.1887 0.1762 -
CaO* 0.0020 0.0066 0.0079 0.0074 0.0060 -
Na2O 0.0048 0.0066 0.0079 0.0074 0.0067 -
K2O 0.0200 0.0211 0.2300 0.0183 0.0724 -
CIA % 86.62 84.22 80.27 85.04 84.04 -
PIA % 95.69 92.47 89.52 91.99 92.42 -
CIW % 96.19 93.27 90.91 92.71 93.27 -
CIẂ % 97.30 96.52 95.23 96.22 96.32 -
ICV = Index of Compositional Variation, CIA = Chemical Index of Altration (Nesbitt and Young, 1982), PIA =
Plagioclase Index of Altration (Fedo et al., 1995), CIW = Chemical Index of Weathering (Harnois, 1988), CIW =
Chemical Index of Weathering (Harnois, 1988), PAAS = Post Archaean Australin Shale
78
Table 3.5: Values of Pearson’s coefficient of correlation of major and select trace elements of
shale.
Element SiO2 Al2O3 TiO2 Fe2O3 MnO CaO MgO Na2O K2O Co Ni Cu Zn Cr
SiO2 1.00
Co 0.91 0.90 0.78 -0.96 -0.42 0.00 -0.49 -0.12 -0.61 1.00
Ni 0.28 0.22 0.00 -0.78 0.47 0.55 0.37 0.46 0.28 0.58 1.00
Cu -0.28 -0.36 -0.52 0.00 0.86 0.95 0.91 0.98 0.41 -0.27 0.40 1.00
Zn 0.16 0.21 0.45 0.45 -0.72 -0.49 -0.60 -0.46 -0.67 -0.20 -0.90 -0.47 1.00
Cr -0.48 -0.51 -0.49 0.62 0.50 0.56 0.64 0.65 0.19 -0.71 -0.35 0.71 0.21 1.00
Fig. 3.10: SiO2/Al2O3 versus K2O/Na2O bivariate age discrimination diagram for shales.
79
Fig. 3.11: Distribution of PAAS normalized abundances of major and trace elements of shales.
Major element compositions of the analyzed samples are controlled mainly by clay
minerals relative to non-clay silicate phases. This trend can be illustrated from the values of
the Index of Compositional Variation (ICV; Cox et al., 1995) in which ICV =
are low and vary from 0.48 to 0.77 (average = 0.59). These < 1 values are typical of minerals
such as kaolinite, illite and muscovite and lower than higher values (>1) expected in rock
forming minerals such as plagioclase, K-feldspar, amphiboles and pyroxenes. Hence, the
shales of the present study are enriched in clay in comparison with rock forming minerals.
Values of K2O/Al2O3 ratio of clays are less than 0.3 and the values of the same ratio of
feldspars range from 0.3 to 0.9 (Cox et al., 1995). The values of K2O/Al2O3 ratio of the shales
of the present study vary narrowly from 0.08 to 0.13 (average = 0.10). These values also
indicate preponderance of clay minerals over K-bearing minerals such as K-feldspars and
Ratios of abundance of major oxides and correlation coefficient data of major and trace
elements (Table 3.4 and 3.5) reveal certain other features of the shales. Values of Al2O3/TiO2
ratio are high (average = 39.95) and indicate derivation of the detrital material from a
continental source (Fyffe and Pickeril, 1993). SiO2 exhibits strong negative correlation with
80
K2O (r = – 0.83) indicating decrease of K-bearing minerals (in the present case, K-feldspar,
muscovite and biotite) with increase of quartz. SiO2 shows positive correlation with Al2O3 (r =
0.99) and TiO2 (r = 0.94). Al2O3 exhibits co-variance with TiO2 (r = 0.96). These linear
relationships suggest detrital sorting trends. SiO2 shows negative correlation with several
major elements (Table 3.5) indicating quartz dilution (Kampunzu et al., 2005; Deru et al.,
2007). Positive correlation of TiO2 with Al2O3 and negative correlations of TiO2 with several
major elements (Fe2O3, MnO, CaO, MgO, Na2O and K2O) suggest that TiO2 occurs as a
chemical constituent essentially of clays (kaolinite) rather than of mafic minerals. Low
contents of TiO2 (average = 0.45 wt.%) indicate presence of phyllosilicates in minor amounts
(Dabard, 1990; Condie et al., 1992). Al2O3 exhibits strong negative correlation with K2O (r = -
0.86) and strong positive correlation with SiO2 (r = 0.99). These linear trends suggest the
presence of kaolinite. The values of K2O/Na2O ratio vary from 3.76 to 6.30 (average = 4.83)
indicating the presence of k-bearing minerals such as k-feldspar, muscovite and biotite. Na2O,
even though exhibits positive correlations with CaO (r = 0.99) and MgO (r = 0.84), it shows
negative correlations with Fe2O3 (r = – 0.10), Al2O3 (r = – 0.20) and SiO2 (r = – 0.12). These
relationships suggest that smectite may not be present in the shales. CaO shows no correlation
with SiO2 (r = 0.00) indicating that carbonate minerals, if present, could be of secondary
origin. Scattered plots of the shales on the CaO wt.% versus SiO2 wt.% diagram suggest the
Among the analyzed trace elements (Co, Ni, Zn, Cu and Cr), Co, Ni and Zn show
positive correlations with SiO2, Al2O3 and TiO2 indicating their presence in clays adsorbed
components. Cu and Cr positively correlate with MnO, CaO, MgO, Na2O and K2O suggesting
81
3.4.1 Provenance
sedimentary rocks is related to that of their source regions and this tenet has been used to
characterize the source rocks from which the investigated sedimentary strata were derived
(e.g., Fralick and Kronberg, 1997 and references there in; Cullers, 2000; Alvarez and Roser,
2007; Manikyamba et al., 2008; Spalletti et al., 2008; Akarish and El-Gohary, 2008; Paikaray
et al., 2008; Dey et al., 2009; Kalsbeek and Frei, 2010; Mishra and Sen, 2010). In the
diagrams have been proposed to infer the source/provenance of siliclastic rocks (Roser and
Korsch, 1988; Floyd et al., 1989, 1990; McLennan et al., 1993). In the provenance
discrimination diagram of Roser and Korsch (1988), the formulated discriminant functions
(i.e., bivariates) are based on concentrations of both immobile and variably mobile major
elements. On this diagram the shales of the present study plot in the field of mafic igneous
provenance (Fig. 3.12). On the TiO2 wt.% versus Ni (ppm) diagram (Floyd et al., 1989) the
shales, on the contrary, plot in the acidic igneous field (Fig. 3.13a). These two contradicting
inferences (ie., mafic versus acidic) can be resolved with the available chemical analysis data
of major and select elements utilizing other options. Hayashi et al., (1997) suggested an
82
Fig. 3.12: Provenance discrimination diagram for shales (after Roser and Korsch, 1988).
low solubility of their oxides and hydroxides in low temperature aqueous solutions (e.g.,
Stumm and Morgan, 1981; Yamamoto et al., 1986; Sugitani etal., 1996). In residual soils Al
typically resides in clays (e.g., kaolinite, illite, smectite), micas, feldspars, cholorites and to a
chemical constituent of clays and mafic minerals (e.g., biotite, chlorite, ilmenite inclusions in
silicate minerals). Several studies have shown that during fluvial transportation of Al and Ti-
bearing detrital minerals, Al and Ti involve insignificant fractionation (e.g., Yamamoto. et al.,
1986). Hence, the Al2O3/TiO2 ratios of sedimentary rocks derived from fluvially transported
detrital siliciclastic material should be practically similar to those of their magmatic source
rocks.
In normal igneous rocks Al resides mostly in feldspars, and Ti in mafic minerals (e.g.,
olivine, pyroxene, hornblende, biotite and ilmenite). Therefore, the values of Al/Ti ratio of
igneous rocks gradually increase with increasing SiO2 contents (Poldervart, 1955; Holland,
83
1984). The values of Al2O3/TiO2 ratio increase (a) from 3 to 8 in mafic igneous rocks (SiO2
content, from 45 to 52 wt.%), (b) from 8 to 21 in intermediate igneous rocks (SiO2 content,
from 53 to 66 wt.%) and (c) from 7 to 21 in felsic igneous rocks (SiO2 content, from 66 to 76
wt.%). According to Hayashi et al., (1997) the SiO2 content of normal igneous rocks can be
Since Al and Ti are immobile and behave similarly during residual weathering and fluvial
transport, the silica content of the source rocks can be inferred from the Al2O3/SiO2 ratios of
siliciclastic rocks using the above equation. When Al2O3/TiO2 ratios of the shales of the
present study are substituted in the equation of Hayashi et al., (1997), the SiO2 contents of the
theoretically inferred magmatic source of the shales are found to range narrowly from 71.72 to
72.45 wt.% (average 72.09 wt.%). These values of SiO2 content suggest that the source rocks
of the shales of the present study are felsic igneous rocks. Average SiO2 content (~72 wt.%)
indicates that the inferred source rocks constitute are high in SiO2 –bearing end member of
84
Fig. 3.13: Provenance indicating diagrams. (a) TiO2 wt.% versus Ni (ppm) bivariate diagram
(Floyd et al., 1989). (b) TiO2 wt.% versus Al2O3 wt.% bivariate diagram
(McLennan et al., 1980). (a) The “granite line” and “ 3 granite + 1 basalt line” are
after Schieber, (1992). (c) Al2O3 – (CaO+Na2O+K2O) – (FeOT+MgO) ternary
diagram (Hayashi et al., 1997). (d) Fe2O3 – K2O – Al2O3 ternary diagram (Condie,
1993).
studies, proposed Al2O3 wt.% versus TiO2 wt.% bivariate discrimination diagram to constrain
provenance of siliciclastic rocks. On this diagram the shales of the present study plot along
granite trend line (Fig. 3.13b). On the Al2O3 – (CaO+Na2O+K2O) – (FeOT+MgO) ternary
diagram (Hayashi et al., 1997) the shales plot away from (FeOT+MgO) apex and trend toward
85
Al2O3 apex (Fig. 3.13c). The plots of the shales on this diagram is another illustration to
confirm (albeit indirectly) the felsic nature of the source rocks. This inference is further
confirmed by the plots of the shales on Fe2O3 – K2O – Al2O3 ternary diagram (Condie, 1993).
On this diagram the shales plot near the field of granite (Fig. 3.13d). Thus the provenance
discrimination equation (Hayashi et al., 1997) and plots of the shales in (a) TiO2 wt.% versus
Ni (ppm) diagram, (b) Al2O3 wt.% versus TiO2 wt.% diagram, (c) Al2O3 – (CaO+Na2O+K2O)
– (FeOT+MgO) ternary diagram and (d) Fe2O3 – K2O – Al2O3 ternary diagram together
indicate felsic (granitic) nature of the source rocks of the studied shales. Hence, the “mafic
igneous provenance” for the shales of the study area, as inferred from the discriminant
functions diagram of Roser and Korsch (1988) (Fig. 3.12) will not be considered.
3.4.2 Palaeoweathering
The CaO content of the shales of the present study varies from 0.18 to 0.79 wt.%
(average = 0.58 wt.%). The P2O5 content ranges from 0.15 to 0.22 wt.%. There is no direct
method to distinguish and quantify the contents of CaO belonging to silicate fraction and non-
silicate fraction (carbonates and apatite). CIA values were determined, assuming the entire
CaO content of the shales as that of silicate fraction and the obtained CIA values vary from
Following the procedure of McLennan (1993), the CIA, PIA and CIW values of the
shales have been determined and the obtained results along with CIW´ values are provided in
table 3.4. According to CIA values, the degree of source weathering varies from 80.27 to
86.62% (average = 84.03%). PIA values indicate the intensity of alteration of source material
varying from 89.52 to 95.69% (average = 92.41%). CIW values suggest the degree of source
weathering in the range from 90.91 to 96.19% (average = 93.27%). CIW´ values vary from
86
95.23 to 97.30% (average 96.31%). Avarage PIA and CIA values (92% and 93%,
respectively) indicate higher degree of weathering than the degree of weathering inferred from
CIA values (84%). Phyllites of the present study consist of reasonably significant amount of
alkalies (average = 2.30 wt.%). Hence, the CIW´ values (average = 96%), which indicate very
high degree of chemical weathering, can not be considered. Relying on CIA, PIA and CIA
values ranging from 84 to 93%, it can be said that the litho-components of the shales were
PIA monitors and quantifies progressive weathering of feldspars and volcanic glass to
clay minerals (Fedo et al., 1995). PIA values of shales suggest intense destruction of feldspars
during the course of source weathering, fluvial transport, sedimentation and diagenesis.
rapidly than Na and K. With increasing weathering total alkali content (K2O+Na2O) decreases
with increase in K2O/Na2O ratio. This is due to destruction of feldspars among which
plagioclase is more preferentially removed than K-feldspars (Nesbitt and Young, 1984).
alteration witnessed at source region and during transport, sedimentation and diagenesis. The
mobility of elements during progressing chemical weathering of clastic feldspars in the shales
may be visualized from bivariate plots involving Na2O, K2O, CaO and PIA. In the K2O/Na2O
versus PIA diagram the values of K2O/Na2O ratio increase with increasing values of PIA (r =
0.78; Fig. 3.14a). In the (K2O+Na2O) wt.% versus PIA diagram, the total content of alkalies
decreases with increasing values of PIA (r = – 0.79; Fig. 3.14b). The mobility of Na, Ca and K
during progressing weathering is clearly seen in the bivariate Na2O wt.% versus PIA, CaO
wt.% versus PIA and K2O wt.% versus PIA diagrams (Fig. 3.14 c,d,e). These diagrams vividly
87
show decrease of Na2O, CaO and K2O contents with increase of values of PIA (r = – 0.96;
ferromagnesian minerals can be demonstrated in the bivariate MgO wt.% versus CIA diagram.
This diagram clearly shows decrease of MgO with increase of values of CIA (r = – 0.99; Fig.
3.14f).
and post-depositional chemical modifications of the shales can be evaluated by plotting the
molar proportions of Al2O3, Na2O and CaO( ٭CaO in silicate fraction) in A-CN-K ternary
diagram (Nesbitt and Young, 1982, 1984). In the A-CN-K diagram (A = Al2O3; CN = CaO ٭+
Na2O; K = K2O) the shales plot above plagioclase-potash feldspar join (Fig. 3.15). The plots
define a narrow linear trend and the trend line runs slightly at an angle to A-CN edge. This is
primarly because removal rates of Na and Ca from plagioclase are generally greater than the
removal rates of K from microcline (Nesbitt and young, 1984). The plots trend towards A
apex (Fig. 3.15). The plots do not show any inclination towards the K apex, thus indicating
that the shales were not subjected to potash metasomatism during diagenesis. The trend line
when extended backward intersects the plagioclase-potash feldspar join near the field of
granite (potential source rock). Linear weathering trend suggests steady state of weathering
conditions where material removal matches with production of weathering material (Nesbitt et
88
7 3.0
(a) r = 0.78 (b) r = - 0.79
6 2.8
K2O / Na2O
K2O + Na2O
2.6
5
2.4
4
2.2
3 2.0
84 88 92 96 100 84 88 92 96 100
PIA PIA
0.6
1.0
(c) r = - 0.96
(d) r = - 0.93
0.8
0.4
0.6
Na2O %
CaO %
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0 0.0
84 88 92 96 100 84 88 92 96 100
PIA PIA
3.0 2.0
(e) r = - 0.52 r = - 0.99
(f)
2.5 1.5
MgO %
K2O %
2.0 1.0
1.5 0.5
1.0 0.0
84 88 92 96 100 78 81 84 87 90
PIA CIA
Fig. 3.14: Bivariate diagrams showing the mobility of Na, Ca, K and Mg during progressing
weathering of lithocomponents of shales. (a) K2O/Na2O versus PIA bivariate
diagram. (b) (K2O + Na2O) wt.% versus PIA bivariate diagram. (c) Na2O wt.%
versus PIA bivariate diagram. (d) CaO wt.% versus PIA bivariate diagram. (e)
K2O wt.% versus PIA bivariate diagram. (f) MgO wt.% versus CIA bivariate
diagram.
89
Fig. 3.15: A – CN – K ternary diagram showing weathering trend. A = Al2O3; CN = (CaO ٭+
Na2O); K = K2O (all in molar proporations). CaO = ٭CaO content of silicate
fraction. Stars: G = Granite; A = Andesite; B = Basalt.
activity and climatic conditions in the source region. Increase of degree of chemical
weathering may reflect the decrease in tectonic activity and/or change in climate towards
warm and humid conditions (e.g., Jacobson et al., 2003). Suttner and Dutta (1986) proposed a
binary SiO2 wt.% versus (Al2O3+K2O+Na2O) wt.% diagram to constrain the climatic
condition during sedimentation of siliciclastic rocks. On this diagram the shales plot in the
field of semiarid climate (Fig. 3.16), indicating that the shales of the present study were
90
Fig. 3.16: SiO2 wt.% versus (Al2O3 + K2O + Na2O) wt.% bivariate palaeoclimate
discrimination diagram ( after Suttner and Dutta, 1986).
based on their chemical analyses data. According to Jones and Manning (1994) values of
Ni/Co ratio below 5 indicate oxic environment where as values of the same ratio above 5
suggest suboxic and anoxic environment. The values of Cu/Zn ratio are also considered as an
indicator of palaeo-redox conditions. According to Hallberg (1976) high values of Cu/Zn ratio
indicate reducing conditions, while low values of the same ratio suggest oxidizing conditions.
The values of Ni/Co ratio of the shales vary from 1.25 to 2.09 (average = 1.70) and the values
of Cu/Zn ratio vary from 0.29 to 0.64 (average = 0.48). These low values of Ni/Co and Cu/Zn
ratio suggest deposition of the shales of the present study under oxic conditions.
Several studies have shown that the chemical compositions of siliclastic rocks are
siliclastic rocks from different tectonic settings posses terrain-specific geochemical signatures
(Bhatia, 1983; Bhatia and Crook, 1986; Roser and Korsch 1986).
91
Tectonic settings of provenances of ancient siliclastic rocks can be inferred from
several major-, trace-, and rare earth-based discrimination diagrams proposed by several
investigators (Maynard et al., 1982; Bhatia, 1983; Bhatia and Crook, 1986; Roser and Korsch,
1986). These diagrams classify the provenances into three or four categories on the basis of
the bulk geochemistry contrasts (e.g., oceanic island arc, continental island arc, active
continental margin, passive margin; Bhatia and Crook, 1986). On the bivariate discriminant
functions diagram of Bhatia (1983), the shales of the present study plot in the field of active
continental margin (Fig. 3.17). In active continental margin settings, sediments are deposited
at subduction arc basins, strike-slip margins, and in proximal portions in back-arc basins
(Alvarez and Roser, 2007). During the present study, the tectonic setting inferred for the
provenance of the shales of Shemshak Formation of the Kerman Province is in agreement with
the tectonic evolutionary events witnessed by the central Iran during Jurassic period.
originally a part of north eastern Gondwana land. It was detached during the Late Permian and
moved northwards and finally collided with the Turan Plate (part of Eurasia) towards the end
of Middle Triassic (Sengor, 1990; Stampfli et al., 1991; Saidi et al., 1997). The resulting
orogenic movements (Early Cimmerian orogenic event) brought about a drastic change in the
sedimentary regime. Thus, the Middle Triassic platformal carbonate sediments were
succeeded (after a hiatus) by a thick pile of siliciclastic sediments of Late Triassic to Middle
Jurassic age. These siliciclastic sediments (Shemshak Group), owing to their development
during the orogenic event (Early and Middle Cimmerian Orogeny), are considered as a
molasse-type sediment package and constitute fore-land basin fillings (Stamplfi 1978; Alavi,
1996). Rising and rapidly eroding Cimmerian mountain chain located north of Kerman basin
92
provided the detritus involved in the formation of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of the
Shemshak Group. An alternative interpretation is that the Late Triassic to Middle Jurassic
siliciclastic sediments of the Shemshak group were deposited in a back-arc basin during its
Fig. 3.17: Tectonic setting discrimination diagram (Bhatia, 1983). Discriminant Function 1 =
(-0.0447×SiO2%) + (-0.972×TiO2%) + (0.008×Al2O3%) + (-0.267×Fe2O3%) +
(0.208×FeO%) + (-3.082×MnO%) + (0.140×MgO%) + (0.195×CaO%) +
(0.719×Na2O%) + (-0.032×K2O%) + (7.510×P2O5%). Discriminant Function 2 = (-
0.421×SiO2%) + (1.988×TiO2%) + (-0.526×Al2O3%) + (-0.551× Fe2O3%) + (-
1.610×FeO%) + (2.720×MnO%) + (0.881×MgO) + (-0.907×CaO%) + (-
0.117×Na2O%) + (-1.840×K2O%) + (7.244×P2O5%).
as a potential tool for evaluating the degree of diagenesis and for detecting the original
mineralogy of the different stabilized carbonate phases. The Mg and Sr elements are useful in
carbonate facies studies (Bathurst, 1975; Chilingar et al., 1979). Sr and Mn are diagenetic
indicators because of their widely divergent partition coefficients, their acceptance in to the
carbonate lattice, and their large compositional differences in marine and meteoric water
93
(Bondine et al., 1965; Turekian, 1972).The micritisation by recrystallzation is common in
shallow water carbonate grains in tropical regions around the world (Pamela and Macintyre
1998).
During the present study four limestone samples were analysed for their major and
trace element contents and the obtained data are presented in Table 3.6 and 3.7. In the
limestones SiO2 content varies narrowly from 9.88 to 12.25wt % (av. = 10.96 wt%). Al2O3
content varies from 1.70 to 2.64 wt % (av. = 2.14 wt%) which suggests the presence of minor
amount of clay minerals. Fe2O3 content varies from 5.28 to 5.77 wt% (av. = 5.56 wt%)
indicate ferruginous nature of the limestone. CaO content ranges from 41.22 to 44.86 wt %
(av. = 42.90 wt%). High CaO content indicates CaO rich nature of the limestone. MgO content
varies narrowly between 0.51 to 0.71 wt% (av. = 0.61 wt%) which suggesting appreciable
variation in their MgO content. Na2O content also varies narrowly from 0.02 to 0.03 wt % (av.
= 0.03 wt%). The presence of sodium is considered are possible index of diagenetic influx.
K2O content varies from 0.12 to 0.14 wt% (av. = 0.13 wt%). P2O5 content varies from 0.02 to
0.08 wt% (av. = 0.05 wt%). TiO2 content ranges from 0.09 to 0.18 wt% (av. = 0.14 wt%). The
loss on ignition (LOI) varies from 35.90 to 36.98 (av. = 36.51 wt%).
94
Table 3.6 : Major (wt.%) element data of limestone.
Average
Elements PS(Li1) PS(Li2) PS(Li3) PS(Li4)
values
SiO2 9.88 11.43 10.26 12.25 10.96
95
Table 3.7 : Trace Element (ppm) data of limestone.
Average
Elements PS(Li1) PS(Li2) PS(Li3) PS(Li4)
values
Hg 0.33 0.28 0.16 0.24 0.25
As 12.95 9.68 14.23 12.43 12.32
Cd 8.36 7.54 11.65 7.31 8.72
Co 41 28 35 29 33
Cr 184 161 173 188 176.50
Cu 24 36 35 29 31
Mn 962 869 1012 811 913.50
Ni 34 43 32 38 36.75
Sr 251 326 284 221 270.50
Se 2.17 2.67 2.88 2.14 2.47
Zn 73 89 84 93 84.75
The average contents of CaO (41.22 to 44.86), SiO2 (9.88 to 12.25) and Al2O3 (1.70 to
2.64) indicate the influx of sediments from terrigenous source as suggested for similar
limestones elsewhere. The Fe2O3 content ranges from 5.28 to 5.77 wt % suggesting that the
iron content might have been incorporated with calcite during primary precipitation in
The major element data of limestone of the study area are plotted in various bivariate
diagrams to know the provanence for the limestones of the study area. The SiO2 versus MnO,
P2O5 and K2O diagrams (Fig. 3.18a) indicate a positive correlation suggesting the terrigenous
influx into the basin. The SiO2 versus MgO , Na2O and SO3 diagrams (Fig. 3.18b) suggest that
a sulfur, magnesium and sodium possibly associated with the detrital components.
CaO versus Al2O3, MgO and SO3 diagrams (Fig. 3.18c) suggest positive correlations
and CaO vs. TiO2, P2O5 and K2O (Fig. 3.18d) exhibit a negative correlations suggesting that
96
CaCO3 content possibly increased at the sites of fossiliferous sediment deposition. There is an
increase in the SiO2, TiO2, P2O5, Fe2O3 and K2O contents with a proportionate decrease in
CaO. This indicates that SiO2 which is largely remained in the insoluble fraction and therefore
could be related to the detritial influx during sedimentation (Nagendra and Nagarajan, 2003).
The Al2O3 versus Fe2O3 and SiO2 diagram (Fig. 3.18e) have negative correlation while
Al2O3 versus MgO, Na2O and SO3 (Fig. 3.18f) exhibits positive trend indicating that the
limestone of the study area might have been derived from the fossils sources. Various
carbonate sediments during weathering and leaching of the rocks and their deposition.
Adsorption of some of the trace elements was mainly influenced by principal adsorbents like
The trace elements like Hg, As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Sr, Se and Zn are determined
in the limestones of the study area and presented in Table 4.5. The trace element data
presented in Table 4.5 indicate that the Hg varies from 0.16 to 0.33 ppm, (average = 0.25
ppm). The As varies from 9.68 to 14.23 ppm, (average = 12.32 ppm). The Cd varies from 7.31
to 11.65 ppm, (average = 8.72 ppm). The Co varies from 28 to 41 ppm, (average = 33 ppm).
Cr varies from 161 to 188 ppm, (average = 176.5 ppm). The Cu varies from 24 to 36 ppm,
(average = 31 ppm). Mn varies from 869 to 1012 ppm, (average = 913.50 ppm). The Ni varies
from 32 to 43 ppm, (average = 36.75 ppm). The Sr varies 221 ppm to 326 ppm, (average =
270.5 ppm). The Se varies from 2.14 to 2.88 ppm, (average = 2.47 ppm). The Zn varies from
97
Fig 3.18a Fig 3.18b
MgO/Na2O/SO3
MnO/P2O5/K2O
2.8
0.18
2.6 CaOVsAl2O3 CaOVs TiO2
2.4 CaOVsMgO 0.16 CaOVs K2O
2.2 CaOVsSO3 0.14 CaOVs P2O5
Al2O3/MgO/SO3
2.0
TiO2/K2O/P2O5
0.12
1.8
1.6 0.10
1.4 0.08
1.2
1.0 0.06
0.8 0.04
0.6
0.02
0.4
41 42 43 44 45 41 42 43 44 45
12 1.2
Al2O3VsMgO
11 1.0 Al2O3VsNa2O
Al2O3VsSO3
10
MgO/Na2O/SO3
0.8
Fe2O3/SiO2
Al2O3VsFe2O3
9
Al2O3SiO2 0.6
8
0.4
7
6 0.2
5 0.0
1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8
Al2O3 (wt%) Al2O3 (wt%)
Fig. 3.18a,b,c,d,e,f : Diagrams for major elemental variation in Limestones of the study area.
98
The trace element data of limestones of the study area are compared with the trace
element data of PAAS. Limestone are characterized by higher concentration of Hg, Cr, Mn
and Se and lower concentration of Cd, Cu, Ni, Sr and Zn in ratio to PAAS. The variation in
chemical composition represents changes in the supply of material and a variation in physico
elements suggest that most of the trace elements that found their way into the ancient
sediments appear to have invaded the lattices of carbonates, silicates and clay minerals and
Significance trace element in limestones indicates that presence of these elements may
be due to their inter-element affinities. The Mn can be used as indicator of original carbonate
mineralogy and associated depositional and early diagenetic environments. In the study area
Mn content ranges from 811 ppm to 1012 ppm. The variation of Mn values in limestone are
characterised by the rate of precipitation of diagenetic calcite (Rao, 1990). The high
99