MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING

AND TECHNOLOGY

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY PRACTICAL

NO:1
TOPIC: TO DETERMINE PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS.

NAME: HUZAIFA ALI

ROLL NO: 18CE193
SUBMITTED TO: SIR AMMAR NOOR
MEMON
OBJECT:
To determine the physical properties of minerals.

THEORY:

1)MINERALS:
Mineral is a homogeneous body with a highly ordered arrangement of atoms in atomic structure as a
result of crystallization. Mineral is an integral part of the Earth's crust, and has a constant chemical
composition that can be expressed by chemical formula. In the specific conditions of temperature and
pressure, minerals have stable physical properties. Constancy of the chemical composition of a mineral
is reflected in the fact that any mineral of the same kind anywhere on the Earth has molecules of equal
composition. If we break it in smaller pieces, it will still have same characteristics and chemical
composition as of the parent mineral. For example, every piece of quartz(SiO2) always contains 46.73%
silicon and 53.27% oxygen.

2) MINEROLOGY:
Mineralogy is the systematic study that extensively covers description, crystallography, physical,
chemical and environmental features of all minerals. The mineralogy has more scientific branches such
as the following but we will discuss its only one branch:

 PHYSICAL MINEROLOGY:
Physical mineralogy is the study of physical properties of minerals, such as cohesion (hardness, cleavage,
elasticity, and density, optical, thermal and magnetic properties, electrical conductivity,
and radioactivity, and so on.

3) PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS:

Physical properties of minerals help us to identify the rock and is very important property because
chemical proproperties also depends upon physical properties.There are many physical properties which
are mentioned below:

4) CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AND HABITS:

Minerals usually form distinct crystals. The shape of the crystals has been found to play an important
role in the identification of minerals. The study of crystals is called crystallography and is an important
field of study. Not only do scientists in this field study natural crystals but also the crystals formed by
metal alloys, chemicals, and other synthetic materials
 1) CRYSTAL HABIT:
In nature perfect crystals are rare. The faces that develop on a crystal depend on the space available for
the crystals to grow. If crystals grow into one another or in a restricted environment, it is possible that
no well-formed crystal faces will be developed. However, crystals sometimes develop certain forms
more commonly than others, although the symmetry may not be readily apparent from these common
forms. The term used to describe general shape of a crystal is habit. Some common crystal habits are as
follows:

1) INDIVIDUAL CRYSTALS:

 CUBIC:

Cube shapes.

 OCTAHEDRAL:
Shaped like octahedrons.

 TABULAR:

Book-like (tablets) that are thicker than platy but not as elongated as bladed.Wulfenite forms
crystals that are a good example of tabular crystals.
  EQUANT:
Any three perpendicular axis through the crystal are more or less equal. Can be used to describe
rounded as well as angular crystals. Fluorite forms crystals that are a good example of equant crystals.

 ACICULAR:
Long and needle-like, thinner than prismatic but thicker than fibrous. Natrolite crystals can be good
examples of acicular crystals.
  PRISMATIC:
One of the most common of crystal habits. Prismatic crystals are "pencil-like", elongated crystals that are
thicker than needles. Indicolite (a variety of elbaite) forms good examples of prismatic crystals.

 BLADED:
Elongated and flattened like a blade of grass. More elongated than platy and thinner
than tabular. Kyanite forms crystals that are a good example of bladed crystals.

2) DISTINT CRYSTALS:

 DENDRITIC:
A branching growth of crystals usually on a surface or as an inclusion that forms plant-like patterns
similar to "Jack Frost" on windows and similar to arborescent,but less tree-like. Sal ammoniac forms
aggregates that are a good example of this form.
  RETICULATED:
A mineral specimen of reticulated habit seems to display a lattice, net, or network of small crystals. The
word 'reticulated' is derived from the Latin term rete, or 'net.'

 RADIATED:
Distinct crystals arranged in an orientation outward from a common point.Atacamite forms aggregates
that are a good example of this form.

 FIBROUS:
Thinner than acicular crystals in either individual crystals or in a tight compact almost cloth-like
mass. Okenite forms crystals that are a good example of the fibrous habit

 BOTRYOIDAL:
Resembling grape bunches with interlocking rounded masses. Formed from acicular or bladed crystals
growing from a common site for each rounded mass. The tops of the crystals are smooth and blend so
that individual crystal edges are indiscernible except from broken edges. Botryoidal is similar
to globular and mammillary; but more of an aggregation of rounded masses. Sub-botryoidal has more
discernible crystals. Hematite and smithsonite both form aggregates that are good examples of this
form.

 GLOBULAR:
Bubbly, rounded masses, similar to botryoidal or mammillary but less coherent.Gyrolite forms
aggregates that are a good example of this form.
  DRUSY:
Outwardly oriented crystals usually lining the inside of a geode, but is also applied to other outwardly
oriented crystal coatings. Amethyst, a variety of quartz, forms aggregates that are a good example of
this form.

 STELLATED:
radiating individuals that form a star-like shape.

5) COLOUR:
Color is sometimes an extremely diagnostic property of a mineral, for example olivine and epidote are
almost always green in color. But, for some minerals it is not at all diagnostic because minerals can take
on a variety of colors. These minerals are said to be allochromatic. For example quartz can be clear,
white, black, pink, blue, or purple. IT is the first thing someone notices when they view mineral.Color is
also one of the big reasons that attract people to minerals. Generally speaking, color is not a good
property to be used in the identification of minerals. It is usually the first property to confuse a novice
collector into making an incorrect identification. Many minerals have different colors and some
minerals' colors are identical to other minerals' colors. It is important to understand what causes color in
minerals in order to understand this mineral property. Below is a list of some coloring elements and the
color they produce in at least one mineral:

 Cobalt, Co, produces the violet-red color in erythrite, (cobalt arsenic sulfide).
 Chromium, Cr, produces the color orange-red color of crocoite, (lead chromate).
 Copper, Cu, produces the azure blue color of azurite, (copper carbonate hydroxide).
 Iron, Fe, produces the red color of limonite, (hydrated iron oxide hydroxide).
 Manganese, Mn, produces the pink color of rhodochrosite, (manganese carbonate).
 Nickel, Ni, produces the green color of annabergite, (hydrated nickel arsenate).
 Uranium, U, produces the yellow color of zippeite, (hydrated potassium uranyl sulfate
hydroxide).
 Vanadium, V, produces the red-orange color of vanadinite, (lead vanadate chloride).

6) HARDNESS:
Hardness is the resistance of a mineral to scratching or abrasion by other materials. Hardness is
determined by scratching the surface of the sample with another mineral or material of known
hardness. The standard hardness scale, called Mohs Hardness Scale , consists of ten minerals ranked in
ascending order of hardness with diamond, the hardest known substance, assigned the number 10. The
hardness kits we use in class contain only minerals 2-7, as these are the most useful for testing most of
the minerals we will encounter in this class. Since most of us don’t wander the outdoors with a pocketful
of standard minerals table one also lists the relative hardness of other common items.

THE MOHs SCALE:

The property of hardness has historically been measured according to the Mohs scale, which was
created in 1824 by the Austrian mineralogist Friedrich Mohs. Mohs based his system for measuring and
describing the hardness of a sample upon the definition of hardness as resistance to scratching. Mohs'
method thus relies upon a scratch test in order to relate the hardness of a mineral specimen to a
number from the Mohs scale. In order to define his scale, Mohs assembled a set of common reference
minerals of varying hardnesses and labled these in order of increasing hardness from 1 to 10. The
reference minerals of the Mohs scale are as follows:

7) LUSTER:
Minerals may be categorized according to whether they are opaque or transparent. Opaque minerals
typically reflect between 20% to 50% or more of the light incident upon them. In contrast, most of the
light which is incident upon a transparent mineral passes into and through the mineral; transparent
minerals may reflect as little as 5% of the incident light and as much as 20%. Typically those minerals
which possess metallic bonding are opaque whereas those where ionic bonding is prevalent are
transparent.
Relative differences in opacity and transparency are described as luster. The term luster refers to the
quantity and quality of the light which is reflected from a mineral's exterior surfaces. Luster provides an
assessment of how much the mineral surface 'sparkles'. This quality is determined by the type of atomic
bonds present within the substance. It is related to the indices of absorption and refraction of the
material and the amount of dispersion from the crystal lattice, as well as the texture of the exposed
mineral surface. Minerals are primarily divided into the two categories
of metallic and nonmetallic luster. Minerals possessing metallic luster are opaque and very reflective,
possessing a high absorptive index. This type of luster indicates the presence of metallic bonding within
the crystal lattice of the material. Examples of minerals which exhibit metallic luster are native copper,
gold, and silver, galena, pyrite, and chalcopyrite. The luster of a mineral which does not quite possess a
metallic luster is termed submetallic; hematite provides an example of submetallic luster.

 METALLIC:
looks shiny like a metal. Usually opaque and gives black or dark colored streak.

 NON-METALLIC:
Adjectives such as "vitreous', 'dull', 'pearly', 'greasy', 'silky' or 'adamantine' are frequently used to
describe various types of nonmetallic luster.

1) VITREOUS:
Vitreous luster occurs in minerals with predominant ionic bonding and resembles the reflective quality
of broken glass. The refractive index of such minerals is 1.5 to 2.0. Many silicates possess this type of
luster; quartz and tourmeline both demonstrate vitreous luster.
 2) RESINOUS:
A surface of resinous luster possesses a sheen resembling that of resin. Such materials have a refractive
index greater than 2.0. Sphalerite (ZnS) demonstrates a resinous luster.

3) PEARLY:
Pearly luster appears iridescent, opalescent, or pearly. This is typically exhibited by mineral surfaces
which are parallel to planes of perfect cleavage. Layer silicates such as talc often demonstrate a
pearly luster on cleavage surfaces.

4) GREASY:
A surface which possesses greasy luster appears to be covered with a thin layer of oil. A light-
scattering surface which is slightly rough, such as that of nepheline, may exhibit greasy luster.
 5) SILKY:
Silky luster occurs when light is reflected off of an aggregate of fine parallel fibers; malachite and
serpentine may both exhibit silky luster.

6) ADAMANTINE OR BRILLIANT:
A brilliant luster such as the sparkling reflection of diamond is known as adamantine. Minerals of
adamantine luster have high refractive indices (1.9-2.6) and are highly dispersive and translucent.
Covalent bonding or the presence of heavy metal atoms or transition elements may result in
adamantine luster.

 NON-METALLIC LUSTER MINERALS:

 8) Cleavage:Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break along certain planes to make
smooth surfaces.Halite breaks between layers of sodium and chlorine to form cubes with
smooth surfaces .A mineral that naturally breaks into perfectly flat surfaces is exhibiting
cleavage. Not all minerals have cleavage. A cleavage represents a direction of weakness in
the crystal lattice. Cleavage surfaces can be distinguished by how they consistently reflect
light, as if polished, smooth, and even. The cleavage properties of a mineral are described in
terms of the number of cleavages and, if more than one cleavage, the angles between the
cleavages. The number of cleavages is the number or directions in which the mineral
cleaves. A mineral that exhibits cleavage consistently breaks, or cleaves, along parallel flat
surfaces called cleavage planes. Cleavage quality is described as perfect, good, and poor.
Minerals with a perfect or excellent cleavage break easily along flat surfaces and are easy to
spot. There are many cleavage directions:

 PRISMATIC CLEAVAGE:
occurs when there are two cleavage planes in a crystal. Spodumene exhibits prismatic cleavage.
  NON-PRISMATIC CLEAVAGE:
In some minerals the two planes of cleavage may not be perpendicular – this is known as non-prismatic
cleavage.

 CUBIC CLEAVAGE:
Some minerals have three planes of cleavage: If the three cleavages intersect at 90° the mineral is said
to have cubic cleavage

 BASAL CLEAVAGE:
However, each of these cleavage surfaces is parallel to the other, so this mineral is said to have only one
cleavage direction. Minerals with one cleavage are often said to have a basal cleavage.

 RHOMBOHEDRAL CLEAVAGE:
If none of the cleavage planes intersect at right angles the shape is a squashed cube known as a
rhombohedron called rhombohedral cleavage.

 OCTAHEDRAL CLEAVAGE:
Occurs when there are four cleavage planes in a crystal. Fluorite exhibits perfect octahedral cleavage.
Octahedral cleavage is common for semiconductors. Diamond also has octahedral cleavage.

 DODECAHEDRAL CLEAVAGE:
Occurs when there are six cleavage planes in a crystal. Sphalerite has dodecahedral cleavage.
9) PARTING:
Parting is also a plane of weakness in the crystal structure, but it is along planes that are weakened by
some applied force. It therefore may not be apparent in all specimens of the same mineral, but may
appear if the mineral has been subjected to the right stress conditions. Parting is a property that often
gets confused with cleavage. And there is good reason for that. Parting is a break along structural planes
and is parallel to a possible face, just like cleavage. However, parting differs from cleavage in some
important ways. It cannot be found in every specimen as is true of cleavage for most every cleavable
mineral. It is not absolutely repeatable or reproducible as is cleavage down to theoretically the very
atomic layers that cause cleavage. Parting is caused by pressures that are applied to a crystal or
by twinning. The pressure breaks the crystal on a plane of weakness. Most parting is seen as fracture
lines that are incomplete or healed (the crystal continued to grow and sealed the break) and might
appear as striations or planes of concentrated inclusions. Parting occurs in many specimen as follows:

1) CHROMITE:(OCTAHEDRAL)

2) CORUNDUM:(RHOMBOHEDRAL)

3) CRYOLITE:(CUBIC)

4) HEMATITE:(TWO PLANES)

10) FRACTURE:
Fracture is a description of the way a mineral tends to break. It is different
from cleavage and parting which are generally clean flat breaks along specific directions. Fracture occurs
in all minerals even ones with cleavage, although a lot of cleavage directions can diminish the
appearance of fracture surfaces. Fracture is nondirectional: minerals which do not possess distinct
cleavage may fracture in any possible direction.Fractured surfaces may in some minerals possess a
characteristic appearance which can aid in identification. Although many minerals break in similar ways,
some have a unique fracture and this can be diagnostic.

1) CONCHOIDAL:
The most common fracture type is conchoidal. This is a smoothly curved fracture that is familiar to
people who have examined broken glass. Sometimes described as a clam-shell fracture. Quartz has this
fracture type and almost all specimens that have been broken, demonstrate this fracture type very well.

2) SUBCONCHOIDAL:
Another common type is subconchoidal. Similar to conchoidal, just not as curved, but still
smooth. Andalusite can show this type.

3) UNEVEN:
Uneven is a type that is basically self explanatory. It is a common type that is found in anhydrite.

4) HACKLY OR JAGGED:
Unlike uneven, jagged has sharp points or edges that catch on a finger that's rubbed across the surface.
Usually this indicates a metal such as copper , a metal alloy or some sulfides or oxides.

5) SPLINTERY:
Splintery is a fracture type that occurs in fibrous or finely acicular minerals and in minerals that have a
relatively stronger structure in one direction than the other two. Chrysotile serpentine is a typical
mineral with splintery fracture and kyaniteis an example of a non-fibrous mineral that has this fracture.
 6) EARTHY: Earthy is a fracture that produces a texture similar to broken children's clay. It is
found in minerals that are generally massive and loosely consolidated such as limonite.

11) STREAK:
Streak is the color of a minerals powder when it is crushed. Some minerals have a different color powder
than their actual color. Every mineral has an inherent streak no matter what color it is. For
example, calcite occurs in many different colors, shapes, and varieties. But every single variety of calcite
has a white streak. Streak is useful to distinguish two minerals that have the same color, but a different
streak . A fine example is distinguishing gold, which has a yellow streak, and pyrite, which has a black
streak. Another example is distinguishing magnetite, which has a black streak, and hematite, which has a
reddish streak.
12) SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
Specific gravity (SG) is the measurement used to determine the density of minerals. Different minerals
that have the same volume have different weights. Specific Gravity is measured by the relative weight of
the item to water. The specific gravity value is how many times greater its weight than the same volume
of water. Water has a specific gravity of 1. A mineral with a specific gravity of 2.7 is 2.7 times heavier
than water. Minerals with a specific gravity under 2 are considered light, between 2 and 4.5 average,
and greater than 4.5 heavy. Most minerals with a metallic luster are heavy. The specific gravity can vary
slightly within a mineral because of impurities. Geologists measure specific gravity with expensive
laboratory tools, such as a hydrostatic balance. There are other methods to determine specific gravity,
such as using water displacement, but this is a complicated procedure that can provide inaccurate
results. Instead of testing actual specific gravity, the heft of a specimen can be noticed. It is easy to
notice a very light specimen, an average specimen, and a heavy specimen (an example could be galena
with a 7.5 SG compared with graphite with a 2.2 SG).
13) DIAPHANIETY(TRANSPARANCY):
Transparency, also known technically as diaphaneity, is a function of the way light interacts with the
surface of a substance. There are only three possible interactions.

1) TRANSPARENT:
If the light enters and exits the surface of the substance in relatively undisturbed fashion, then the
substance is referred to as transparent.

2) TRANSLUCENT:
If the light can enter and exit the surface of the substance, but in a disturbed and distorted fashion, then
the substance is referred to as translucent.
 3) OPAQUE:
If the light can not even penetrate the surface of the substance, then the substance is referred to
as opaque.

14) TENACITY:
The property of tenacity describes the behavior of a mineral under deformation. It describes the
physical reaction of a mineral to externally applied stresses such as crushing, cutting, bending, and
striking forces. Adjectives used to characterize various types of mineral tenacity include 'brittle,'
'flexible,' 'elastic,' 'malleable,' 'ductile,' and 'sectile'.

1) BRITTLE:
If a mineral is hammered and the result is a powder or small crumbs, it is considered brittle.

2) SECTILE:
minerals can be separated with a knife into thin slices.

3) MALLEABLE:
If a mineral can be flattened by pounding with a hammer, it is said to be malleable.

4) DUCTILE:
A mineral that can be stretched into a wire is ductile.

5) FLEXIBLE BUT INELASTIC:

Any mineral that can be bent, and retains the new position is flexible but inelastic.
6) FLEXIBLE BUT ELASTIC:
When these minerals are bent, they spring back to their original position.