Sensors of mechanical vibration

vibration...oscillating motion of body about a reference position

- relative = sensor of displacement + reference point … often non-contact
- absolute = reference point inside of sensor + rel. sensor of displacement

electrodynamic sensor of vibration (geophone) v

piezoelectric (~) and capacitive (=) accelerometers a

Accelerometers for inertial navigation

accelerometers with electromechanical feedback
(servo-accelerometers)
 Absolute sensors of vibrations
Equation of motion of
mass-spring system

d 2z dx
m 2 + b + kx = 0
dt dt
z(t) = x(t) + y(t)

d 2x dx d2y
m 2 + b + kx = −m 2
inertial dt dt dt
force spring force
damping
presumption:

m - mass
y( t ) = Y( jω)e jωt
k - stiffness (spring constant) Solution:
b – viscous friction coefficient
x( t ) = X( jω)e j( ωt −ϕ )
 Amplitude frequency response:
6
0,1
B=0
X( jω ) 5
Y( jω ) 4 X( jω) Ψ2
=
3
0,2
Y( jω) (1 − Ψ 2 ) 2 + (2BΨ ) 2
0,3
0,4
2 0,5 1
0,7
1
2
0
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3

a) ψ
Phase frequency response
− 2B Ψ
-180
B=0 ϕ = arctg
1− Ψ2
0,01
ϕ 0,25
-150 0,1 0,5
1
-120 2 ω
where: Ψ = - normalised frequency
-90 4 ω0 (referenced to resonance freq.)
-60 b
B= - damping ratio
-30 b kr
0 b kr = 2m ω0 - critical damping ratio
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,21,41,61,8 2
k
ψ ω0 = - resonant frequency
b) m
 Two distinctive cases:
Ψ << 1, B < 1 (far below resonance frequency)

X( jω) ω 2
≈ Ψ2 = 2
Y( jω) ω0

X( jω) -amplitude directly proportional to 2. differentiation of y(t)

- mode of acceleration measurement
- principle of ACCELEROMETER (!)

Ψ >> 1, B < 1 (far above resonance frequency)

X( jω)
≈ 1, ϕ ≈ 180 0 - mode of amplitude measurement
Y( jω)

x(t) = - y(t) a z(t)=0 … m is at rest (seismic mass)

z(t), x(t), y(t)…time variable (AC) components
for y(t)=0…a gravitational acceleration g acts on mass m
kxo = mg
xo…length of spring for x(t)=0

xo=(m/k)g=(1/ωo)2g
easy calibration -- strain gage accelerometer
 Electrodynamic sensor of vibration
5 3
y
1 - pick-up coil
4 2 – damping winding
1
d2 y 3 – cylindrical part of mg. circuit
dt2
2
4 – permanent magnet
y
5 - membrane

- seismic mass = mass of coil 1 + mass of winding 2

- viscous damping – due to currents induced in winding 2
dΦ
- induced voltage u= proportional to the velocity of coil
dt
☺ - universality

GEOPHONE
- application: vibrations of machines, buildings, occupancy detection
☺ - cheap fr = 1 .. 100 Hz, m = 20g .. 5 kg
 Absolute sensors of acceleration -Accelerometers
- measurement of acceleration for high frequency of vibrations => high
resonant frequency of sensor is required
- optimumum - piezoelectric sensors of displacement of seismic mass with
respect to sensor case
k
… large k, small m ……………. ω0 =
m

- amplitude frequency response:

2 0
ω 20 X( jω )
1 X( jω) 1 ⋅ B=0,2
= ω Y( jω )
2

Ψ 2 Y( jω) 1,5
(1 − Ψ 2 ) 2 + (2BΨ ) 2 0,33

Ideal response 1 0,5

0,707
0,5
- difficulties with stability of damping
solution: 0
insertion of system to liquid 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2
ψ
 Piezoelectric accelerometer (~)
shear deformation
+ decreasing the sensitivity to thermal dilatation (deformation of bottom of
sensor case, thermal dilatation, acoustic effects
• delta shear accelerometr with shear strain :

3
4
1 - platform
2 - segments
2
2 3 – central stick
4 – piezoceramics plates

1 - seismic mass = ring holder + segments

- k – stiffness – piezoceramic elements
Bruel –Kjaer
Max. 20 000 g
Problem of piezo-accelerometers:
no static response (static charge is drained by leakage)
Problems of signal recovery – special amplifiers:

charge amplifier
 Capacitive accelerometers

- mass spring system = thin membrane with helical

slits and openings

- location of membrane: between solid electrodes

- analogy to viscous damping = pumping of air

through slits by movement

0.2 .. 1000 g
fr = 20 Hz .. 15 kHz
 Accelerometer with vibrating beam

☺ -suitable for MEMS technology

R1 k - beam
m - seismic mass
k
m

R2
y(t)
M
 Strain gage accelerometer (=)
- air bag system

-thick layer strain gages measures deformation of triangular beam tuned by a mass

- at collision the condition for velocity measurement must be fulfilled

- normal drive – system must not be activated

m m
tenzometry

strain gages
 Micro-mechanical accelerometer
- also for air bag system
- fabricated by MEMS technology (microsensor)
2 5 3

UA NO
m
4 a
1 UB
UC

UB NS
R SD Z

0V REF
UA
G CDP
1MHz
UC
0V
- platform – plate made from polycrystalic Si
- 2 bow strings anchored on polycrystalic Si substrate
- teeth of comb (seismic mass) = movable central electrodes
ADXL 02, ADXL 50 .. electrostatically compensated (electromechanical feedback)
ADXL 202 .. dual -axis without electromechanical feedback
 Accelerometer with piezoelectric layers
- polymer piezoelectric film
Y2
-high sensitivity
Θ
☺
- stability Y1
- small dimensions
- easy assemblage Y Z
- cheap Z
Y1, Y2, Z - beams

- application: detection of hard disk shaking

- measurement of acceleration of translation movement in direction of X, Z
- measurement of angle acceleration - Y1, Y2

d2Θ d2Θ d2Θ

u a − u b = 2 rMA − 2 (r + d)MB = 2 dM
dt dt dt
 Sensors for inertial navigation
- measurement of acceleration vector components in 3 axis by absolute
sensors, then double integration of the output signals

Note: angular rate sensors often (wrongly) known

as “gyros” - not the same as real gyroscopes
 Sensors for inertial navigation
- measurement of acceleration vector components in 3 axis by absolute
sensors, then double integration of the output signals
Resonant micro-accelerometer
 Sensor of angular velocity based on Coriolis force

→ →
ωi
F = 2m ω× v r
vr
Vn
R
Uv
KD

Vd
Z
 -Butterfly-Gyro“ (SensoNor)
(fork gyro)
approximately 0.1 °/sec at 50 Hz bandwidth

-Dual Axis Angular Rate Sensor (Berkeley)

Min 1.2°/sec, 20Hz bandwidth
 (YAZDI N., AYAZI F., NAJAFI K)
(DELPHI INTELLEK)

Gyros with vibrating ring

Scanning Electron Photomicrograph of thesensor

 Accelerometers with electromechanical
feedback (servo-accelerometers)
i
2 1 C Měřicí obvod Zesilovač
kapacitního
k snímače 3
4 m
5 b)
1
u R
3 x(t)
k 6
M y(t)

a)
2 c)
1 - electrodes
2 – elastic elements b) measuring circuit Air planes
3 - magnet c) detailed view of missiles
4 - coil elastic elements inclinometers
Linearity 0.01 %, reproducibility 5*10-4 g for FS = 50 g, resolution 1 µg
2. Relative sensors of vibrations
d2 x d( x − y )
m 2 +b + k( x − y ) = F( t )
dt dt

y(t) = konst

Ψ << 1 ⇔ ω 〈〈 ω 0

- condition for preserving

permanent mechanical
contact of sensor tip
 2. Relative sensors of vibrations
d2 x d( x − y )
m 2 +b + k( x − y ) = F( t ) y(t)=konst
dt dt

m d 2 x b dx F s(t)
2
+ +x=
k dt k dt k

- amplitude frequency response.:

X( jω) Ψ2
=
F s ( jω) k (1 − Ψ 2 )2 + (2BΨ )2
model of relative
sensor of vibrations
- phase frequency response.:
2B Ψ Ψ << 1
ϕ = −arctg
1− Ψ2 - condition for proper operation
- hopping of the tip when not fulfilled
 Mechanical filters for accelerometers
- Problem: saturation of amplifier = consequence of shocks, shaking, and other
high frequency vibrations beyond the useful range
- Workaround: mechanical filtering
akcelerometr
butylová
butyl
guma
rubber

a(t)