CHAPTER - I I

HILL SOCIETY AND SOCIAL LIFE

A. THE PEOPLE
Himachal Pradesh is a mountainous state
where geographical divisions are sharply divided. This led to
poor communication, as a result different areas remained more
or less isolated from one another. There is also a great
diversification in the climatic conditions of the different
regions, resulting in a varied life style. As a consequence
people of different areas have varied social customs,
manners, dress habits, languages, food habits and sources of
entertainment. From the accounts of the English travellers,
interesting details about the hill society and social life of
practically all parts of the state have come to light. Most
of the travellers have left interesting details about the
people of the areas visited by them.

SIRWAUR

The appearance of Sirmaur people has been

described by Fraser (1815). According to him their stature
was almost universally diminutive. Individuals with large
stature were an exception. However, generally they were
remarkably stout, and compactly made. Their limbs,
particularly legs and thighs, were uncommonly muscular in
proportion to their size, and their general strength,
especially in carrying burdens, was very great. Fraser was
quite surprised to see the superior strength of these
people in carrying burdens in comparison to the inhabitants
of the plains who were otherwise much superior in size. The
colour of these people like that of their neighbours in the
plains was found of every shade, from dark brown or black to
 51

a tawny yellow, and in a few instances they approached to

white. Whatever the original colour may be, those exposed to
severe labour and the effect of the sun speedily became
dark. Their hair was black and they commonly wore it long at
the sides and back of the head. The crown was often shaven
bare, they all wore moustaches, and their own black beard
which they seemed to consider a great ornament, and cherished
with much care.

About the women of Sirmaur Fraser

noticed that they were in general more prepossessing in
appearance than the men; their stature was better in
proportion, and their features far more delicate and regular,
with pleasing softness in youth. They were commonly fair,
varying in colour from a mild yellow to a light shade of
brown; but labour and exposure to the sun and storm soon
destroyed all delicacy of features, colour, and beauty
2
leaving wrinkled sallow faces at young age.

PEOPLE OF SHIMLA HILLS

Fraser noticed that there was some

difference in character and disposition between the people of
Jubbal and Sirmaur. According to him the people of Jubbal
possessed a certain degree of superior smartness of
appearance and those peculiar manners usually attributed to
highlanders, in comparison to the inhabitants encountered by
him in Si rmaur.

James Bail lie Eraser, Journal of Tour in the

Snowy Ranges of the Himala Mountains and to the
sources of the Rivers Jamuna and Ganges.
(London,1820 ), pp. 67-68.
2. Ibid., p.69.
3. Ibid., p.143.
 Frassr describes that, 'Little change was
remarked in the natives, from the time we entered Joobal
(Jubbal). Those who are elevated above the mere populace have
perhaps a more frank and active air, and approach some what
nearer to our ideas of a Highlander. They are commonly small
and spare, but active; their features hard and high; their
look is rather quick, but the character of their countenance
has not undergone any material change.Their complexion still
continues of the same yellowish brown; those parts which are
much exposed being naturally darker than the rest."

Describing the people of the same area Mundy

writes that, "Jubbal is famous for the beauty of its
inhabitants; and the Ranah and his minister, who came in the
evening accoring to promise, both do justice to its fame. The
chief himself is about twenty five years of age, nearly as
fair as an European, with very handsome features, but his
eyes so immeasurably large, that they give a vague and
foolish expression to his countenance an expression which
is by no means belied by his intellect. The vaz ier is a
fine, stout young man, with a beard in better preservation
2
than his tunic."

About the people around Parala village in Theog

Mundy states that the few specimens of the male inhabitants
were handsome and stout, and appeared of remarkably cheerful
and contented dispositions, saluting him smilingly as he
passed.The women that
he noticed, on the contrary, were
3
'dumpy' and,for the most part grumpy.

1. J.B, Fraser, op. cit.. p.163.

2. Captain Mundy Pen and Pencil Sketches being the
Journal of a Tour in Inida. Vol. I,(London,1832),
p. 267.
Ibid.. pp. 256-257.
 53

Describing the inhabitants of Kumarsain as

peaceful, Gore(1890) writes, " The peacefulness of these
hill men is wonderful. They are much more like dwellers upon
the plains than mountaineers, and though they have probably
never even seen a soldier, and certainly have never heard a
shot fired in anger, yet they accept the white man's orders
with meek submission and obedience. The carrying of arms or
weapons of any sort is a thing never dreamed of in these
hills, for they have no danger from external enemies, and are
too cowardly by nature to fight amongst themselves. It is
difficult to account for this want of manly vigour, which
spreads through the Himalayas from Kashmir to the boundry of
fighting Nepal. Probabaly they were originally plain's men,
who have gradually spread up the valleys, where protected
from all external foes, they have never been forced by any
. 1
increasing want to forage for their needs*.

About the people of Kotgarh William

Lloyd observed that they were not as fair as he had
expected. The men were not unfrequently tall, all of them
were strong, but few of them handsome. Many of the women were
pretty.
According to Lloyd the disposition of
the inhabitants of Nawur valley (Rohru) was war like, and
consequently, trouble was often met with in collecting the
state tribute. The men were by no means handsome. They had
sallow complexions, affected beards and were rather tall
3
seemed active and many of the young women were very pretty.

F.St.J.Gore, Lights and Shades of Hill life in the

Afghan and Hindu Highlands of the Punjab (London,
1895), p. 21.
2. Sir William Lloyd, Narrative of a Journey from
caunpoor to the Boorendo pass in the Himalaya
Mountains via Gawalior. Agra.Delhi, and Sirhind.ed. by
George Lloyd, (London,1840), Vol. I p.171.
3, Ibid., pp. 212-213.
 54

On the contrary Mundy (1828) found the

beauty of Rohru people as remarkable. Quoting an example of
the appearance of the people of Karassa village he writes
that the beauty of the inhabitants was remarkable. A man of
some consequence in the village, who offered himself as his
guide, was particularly handsome and fair. He described this
man as having a straight well formed nose, open forehead,
gracefully waving hair and gently arched brows.

Capt. J.D. Herbert(1819) has mentioned

briefly about the people of Jaka which is the last village of
Chohara in Rohru through which he crossed while on his way
to Kinnaur via Gunas Pass as under. The village was not large
and the inhabitants appeared ill looking and dirty. They had
little cultivation, and depended chiefly on what they earned
as the medium of intercourse between the people of Kinnaur
and Chohara, in the exchange which was continually made of
2
their respective commodities.

On the other hand referring to the people of

same village Capt. Madden (1845) noticed them to be very
civil,frank, rough, good humoured set. the Mookheea
especially was a good example of these excellent adjectives
who surmounted every difficulty most pleasntly with a

1. Captain Mundy, op.c i t. , p.305; Russell was also impressed

by the appearance of the women of the same area (Rohru),
describing them as good looking, fair, with black hair,
straight and fine nose, and thin-rimmed rigid nostrils of
Rajput origin, William Howard Russell, My Diary in India
in the year 1858-59,(London, 1860), Vol.11, p.179.
2. Capt.J.D.Herbert,An Account of a Tour made to lay down the
Course and Levels of the River Setlej or Satudra, as far
as traceable within the limits of the British authority,
performed in 1819. Asiatic Researches Vol. the Fifteen,
(Delhi, 1980), p.344.
 55

laugh or a loud whistle. The people were of small stature

and dark complexion, negroes almost compared with fair
faces of the vallies below Shimla, which proved, if proof was
wanted, that the colour was not entirely dependent on
c1imate

Referring to the people of 'Kowar' in

Chohara area (Rohru) Madden describes that, " All the
advantages indeed, of this valley, Paradise are counter
balanced by some serious drawbacks, one of which, the goitre,
deforms rather than afflicts almost every inhabitant of Kooar
(Kowar); for while it shortens the breath, it does not, they
say, shorten life or cause pain. In so far as it disables
its subject from climbing the Mountains, nature may seem to
fail in adapting man's organization to his circumstances: but
I could not learn that with his breath she takes away his
mind too, as in those shocking samples Heof humanity."
2
further states that, the villagers were of dark complextion.

Alexander Gerard (1820-21) noticed the

people of Teekral near the source of Pabar and other high
villages near Shathal Pass in Rohru as warlike and
ferocious. He states that Teekral lay near the source of the
Pabar, in the heart of stupendous mountains. It was a savage
and inhospitable tract, affording bare sustenance for its
scanty but uncontrolled population. The character of natives

Captain Madden, 'Diary of an excursion to the Shatool

and Boorun passes over the Himalaya, in Sept. , 1845"
Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. (Calcutta,
No. CI XX 1846), p.119,
Ibid.pp.120-121; As per accounts of the travellers
goitre was a common disease in most parts of Himachal
except in Lahaul Spiti and Kinnaur; see account of
William L1oyd,op.cit.. p.120. Captain Mundy.op.ci t..
pp.2Ad-245, R.H.Tvackgf Q D . cit.. p.256. Moorcroft.
op.ci t.,p.182.
 56

there, and in the other high villages near Shathal, was

warlike and ferocious, only a few years ago they had opposed
the authority of Bushahr in every point, but particularly in
the collection of revenue, which was only obtained by the
presence of an armed force. They were formerly much given to
plunder, and had perpetual contentions with people of the
adjoining districts. According to A.Gerard they had left off
their old predatory habits, under the arm of British power,
but paid tribute unwillingly, and resented former injuries.
They neither drank nor ate with their neighbours who were
successful against them in war. This race of the people, was
marked with independence, and they wore strong features of
savage life. They were all hunters; and were experts at
striking a mark. Their only arms were long bamboo bows and
arrows pointed with iron, of various shapes; some of them
barbed, but more commonly of a spear form.

KULLU

A number of travellers have given

description about the appearance and disposition of Kullu
people, who like all other people in lower parts of the
state resembled in features of the Hindus of the plains and
were an active and fine race and often beautiful. The people
of Malana, however, have been described as different from
Kullu people.

Moorcroft (1820) has recorded his

impressions about the Kullu people as follows, "The people of
Kulu (Kullu) are stouter and more active, and a finer race

1. Alexander Gerard, Account of an Attempt to Penetrate by

Bekhur to Garoo and the Lake Manasarowara. (London,
1840), Vol.11 pp.290-291.
 57

than any of the hill tribes we have yet seen, but they are
savage and vindictive."

Harcourt (1867) has observed that while

people of Kullu resemble the Hindus of the plains, the people
of Lahaul and Spiti have Mongloid type of features. He
writes that, " The inhabitants of Kooloo(Kul1u) proper,
Wuzeeri-Rupi and Seoraj, partake largely of the
distinguishing features of the Hindoos (Hindus) of the
plains. The men are, as a rule, of the medium height, and are
strongly built, with intelligent and pleasing faces. Except
in certain localities, the hair is not worn long, and it is
rarely that large beards or whiskers are to be met with. The
women, and more particularly those in the upper Beas valley,
whether from the greater variety in their picturesque attire,
or whether from a really superior style of feature, are more
prepossessing than
are the men;and many of the children,
2
when young are quite beautiful."

F.St.J.Gore (1890) has described the

women of Kullu as very good looking, with clean cut features
and large eyes, and when seen dressed out in their holiday
attire, during fairs the close fitting blanket looked well
3
upon their finely-shaped figures.

William Moorcroft and George Treback, TraveIs in

the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the
Punjab; into Ladakh and Kashmir; in Peshawar. Kabul
Kunduz and Bokhara. 1819-1825, (new Delhi, 1971),
Vol.1, p.177; See for more details of Kullu people
inf ra account of Harcourt,Gore,Tyacke and
Younghusband, pp.57-59.
2. A.P.F.Harcourt, The Himalayan Districts of Kooloo,
Lahaol and Spiti (New Delhi,1982), p.42.
3. F.St.J.Gore, op.ci t. . p.96.
 58

Comparing the people of Kullu with the people

of plains, Sir Francis Younghusband (1884) writes that " In
this favoured valley the people are as charming as their
wooded mountains. They are not grave and sedate like the
people of plains. They are bright and cheerful laughter is
often on their lips. They love adorning themselves with
flowers. And any kind of tamasha - Singing, dancing, music
- they enjoy like childern. They have never been,so far as I
know, a war like race or very ambitious and I have never
heard of Kullu soldiers distinguishing themselves but they
are a happy, contented, prosperous people, and only ask to be
left in peace to cultivate their fields. And the women are so
good looking, cheerful and attractive that two or three of
the English settlers in the valley have married Kulu(Kullu)
women and permanently settled down in Kulu.*

Harcourt has given the following

description about the isolated Malana area of Kullu.'the
people are all densly ignorant, no one in the place being
able to read or write. The physiognomy of the inhabitants is
also not a little peculiar; the eyes have a startled and
frightened look, and the nose projects over the vacillating
mouth which, with
the narrow chin, gives a character of
2
feebleness to the entire face."

Writing about the people of the same

area Gore says that there was something mysterious about the
lonely little colony of Malana, for they did not know about
their origins,but lived in this narrow valley, and kept
themselves entirely aloof from their neighbours over the

1. Sir Francis Younghusband.Wonders of the Himalaya.

(London, 1924), pp. 30-31.
2. A.P.F.Harcourt. op.cit. . pp. 94-95; For an account of
Malana (isolated area of Kullu) people see inf ra account
of Gore, pp.58-59.
 59

mountains. Though they dressed much as the other inhabitants

of Kullu, they had quite different type of faces, somewhat
Jewish in appearance, with a prominent nose and a weak,
narrow chin.

Mrs. R.H.Tyacke(1891) describes the

Gaddis or Shepherds of Kullu as a queer nomad race,
almost as noisy, with their ear-piercing sheep calls, as
their big dogs. They lived all the year round in the open air
with their sheep. Most of them, according to her had never
slept under a roof in thier lives. They spent the winter with
their flocks in Mandi, and the summer fourteen thousand to
fifteen thousand feet above the sea in the pasturages of
Lahaul. They were an exceptionally hardy race, never taking
2
the trouble to erect for themselves any shelter.

Major General D.J.F.Newall while

travelling from Dharamshala to Bharmour has recorded
following comments about the Gaddis of that area. 'I had
with me, perhaps, about a dozen mountain men belonging to a
3
tribe of hill Rajpoots, called Guddes (Gaddis)." He refers
to the Gaddis as very active, good looking and interesting
race, and their women very pretty.

LAHAUL

About the people of Lahaul who had an

intermixture of Hindu and Mongloid features Harcourt writes
that, "The Lahaulees are not a comely race, and the

1. F.St. J.Gore, op.cit. . p.67.

2 R.H.Tyacke.op.cit.. p.55; For account about the
Gaddis of Bharmour see i nf ra account of Newall.
3. Major General D.J.F.Newa11.The highlands of india Vol.11
Being a Chronicle of Field, Sports and Travel in India.
(London, 1887), p. 232.
 60

intermixture of Hindoo (Hindu) and Tartar blood has failed

in producing a population remarkable for good looks. Both
sexes are short, and the women, perhaps bear off the palm for
ugliness, the Mongolian origin of the race being shown, in
many cases, by the oblique eyes, flat face, and large mouth;
but the Hindoo type is not unfrequently observable, and there
are both handsome men and women to be found in Lahaul.*

Mrs. Tyacke observed the Lahaulee women who were

deployed for carrying baggage from Kokser to Keylong and
describes them as strong, cheerful and ungrudging.She
states that,* these weight - carrying females merit a special
word of descrition. Of the pure Mongolian type, they were
short, thick-set, though well made, with small hands and
feet, and a complexion by no means dark, though leathery from
2
constant exposure to hot sun and icy winds." .

SPITI

in Spiti the people were more clearly

of Mongolian descent. Oblique eyes and prominent cheek bones
were noticeable. The bodies of both men and women were well
developed, large and strong. They generally possessed mild
and benevolent disposition. According to Harcourt the people
of Spiti bore unmistakable evidences on their faces of their
Chinese or Mongolian descent. The men were stout, well-built
fellows, and the women were also very strongly framed. Many
of the men and women with the exception of a few, he found

1. A.P.P. Harcourt, op.cit.. p.42.

2. R.H.Tyacke, How I shot my Bears or two years tent
life in Kullu and Lahoul. (London, 1893), p.190.
 61

very far below the European standard of beauty.

According to J.G.Gerard, "The complexion of

the(Spiti) people is darker than might be assumed from the
influence of so cold a climate, but the solar beams are
equally or more ardent in an atmosphere, which, by its want
of humidity, excoriates to bitterness every trace of
vegetation, and parches to a ruddy and scabrous coarseness
the skin of the face, especailly in the females. The peop\e
of both sexes are naturally indifferent to shame, and
alienation of chastity in the females is here a mercenary
interest purchaseable upon the lowest terms. In figure they
are stout, waddling and dumpy; in address, presuming and
indecorous, but much of their open familiarity is the off
spring of immoderate curiosity. In face they are not
beautiful, even when young; when past their climacteric, very
unseemly; and when old, a picture of horrid ugliness; not
regardless of the aid of artificial charms, their hairs
glistening with rancid oil hangs loosely round their sun
burnt necks; sometimes it is woven into tresses which braid
the contour of the face but giving them a shaggy appearance
2
like wild beasts,"

About the appearance of Spiti Tartars Andrew

Uilson (1873) observes that the oblique eyes and prominent
cheek-bones were noticeable, though not in very marked
development; and though the noses were thick and muscular
they were sometimes straight or aquiline. The bodies

A.P.F. Harcourt, op.ci t., p. 4 3 ; Compare for more

details about Spiti people infra account of J.G. Gerard,
Alexander Gerard, and Andrew Wilson, pp. 61-62;Spiti
people, who were Tartars, were robust and good looking
and possessed more frankness and openness; compare to
people of other areas; Alexander Gerard, Account of
Koonawur, pp. 101-102.
J.G.Gerard,*Observat ions on the Spiti Valley and
Circumjacent country within the Himalayan", Asiatic
Researches (New Delhi,1980), Vol. 19 pp. 248-249. -
 62

were well developed, large and strong; but the men were
noticed to be disproportionally taller than the women.

Describing the Tartars of Spiti as

hospitable Alexander Gerard quoted that, "They are of a mild
and benevolent disposition, very far removed from the
ferocity commonly attached to the character of a Tartar. I
have had many instances of their humanity. At Peenoo, in
Speetee,(Spiti) where I was confined to my bed for two days
with rheumatism, I never experienced more attention; I was a
stranger to them and the first European they had ever seen;
the moment they heard I was unwell, some brought Nerbissi
(zedoary), which they reckon a sovereign remedy for most
complaints; others came with sugar and spices; whilst a
third party were busily employed in making tea; every one
seemed desirous of shewing me some kindness, which was
rather trouble some, but well meant. They were not, however,
2
intrusive, and did not stay a moment longer than 1 wished."

KINNAUR

Interesting observations have been made

by some travellers about the people of Kinnaur, While in
lower Kinnaur the people were of Aryan origin in upper

1. Andrew Wilson.Abode of Snow. (London,1875), pp.190-191.

2. Alexander Gerard, Account of Koonawur, 103-104;As per

Alexander Gerard," There is a sect of wandering
Tartars called Khampa, who are in some respect similar
to the Jogees of Hindoostan, they visit the sacred
places, and many of them subsist wholly by begging,
some are very humourous fellows; they put on a mask,
perform a dance, singing and accompanying it with a
drum, or they play, sing, and dance, all at once
holding the fiddle above the head,behind the back, and
in a variety of other strange pos itions.*. Ibid..p.117.

ISJ^, ^^^6
•••ill
 ua

Kinnaur Mongolian origin was more prominent. Kinnaurees were

generally deficient in beards much to the wonderment of some
2
travellers. They were also much impressed by the honest and
pleasent disposition of the people of this area.

Describing the people of Kinnaur

Alexander Gerard (1820-21)writes that the inhabitants were
generally of a dark complexion, but good looking, and some of
them had ruddy faces, they were well made and muscular, and
their stature was from five feet five inches to five feet
nine inches; they were frank, active, generous, hospitable
and highly honourable in their dealings. Thieves and robbers
were unknown, and a person's word could be implicitly relied
upon, in anything regarding money matters. They had not the
least distrust or suspicion, and Gerard had two remarkable
instances of that kind, which as per him was quite opposite
3
to the character of the natives of lower India.

Gerard has also mentioned in his account

that, "the koonawurees (Kinnaurees) pride themselves upon
their country, and well know how superior they are to the
4
other mountaineers". Commenting about their honesty he
states that, "it is only the natives of Koonawur (Kinnaur)
that are trusted with money or any message of importance:
most of the officers of court, and nearly all the attendants
5
of the Rajah are from this part of Busehur (Bushahr)."

1. "In lower Kunawar( Kinnaur) they seemed to be a gentle

and rather timid people, speaking an Aryan language;
and though the Tartars of the upper portion of Bussahir
(Kinnaure) were of rougher and stronger character, yet
they were quiet and friendly enough", Andrew Wilson,
op.cit.. pp.211-212.
2. See infra account of J.D. Herbert, p.65.
3. Alexander Gerard, Account of Koonawur p.76;
See for more details about Kinnaurees account by
J.D. Herbert, pp. 65-66.
4. Ibid.. p.77.
5. Ibid.
 64

Referring to the inhabitants of Kinnaur

closer to the Chinese border Alexander Gerard writes that
the Tartars of Kinnaur were not so stout as those farther to
the eastward, and had less of Chinese features. The others
were muscular, well made, and tall. Gerard saw few under
five-feet-ten inches, and many were six feet or more; their
strong athletic forms were remarkably contrasted with the
puny diminutive figures of his attendants, several of whom
were inhabitants of the plains. Their countenance was ruddy,
and they had small oblong eyes, high cheek bones, thin eye
brows, and very few had either moustaches or beard, which
they admired much.

Gerard further informs that," Many of ,

especially from twelve to eighteen years old, are extremely
handsome, of a very pre-possessing appearance, and fine
specimens of the Tartar youth. They have a degree of openness
and frankness of manner which is very pleasing; and they
possess none of the timidity peculiar to the natives of
Hindoostan(Hindustan). 1 did not like them at first so well
as the Koonawurees (Kinnaurees), but they improved on further
acquaintance with them and their language, and I now think
them by far the finest race of people in the hills, and much
2
superior to the inhabitants of the plains of India."

Alexander Gerard has also described the

shepherds of Kinnaur. According to him the high country
between Kinnaur and Garu, together with the part of Ladakh
was inhabited by shepherds, called Dokpo, who lived in tents.

1. Alexander Garard. Account of Koonawur. pp.101-102,

2. Ibid.
 65

and did not cultivate the ground. He continued to state that,

the shepherds roamed about from place to place where ever
they could find water and good pasturage for their numerous
herds of sheep, goats, yaks, and horses. Gerard saw several
of the tents, which were comfortable enough. They were made
of black yaks hair blankets, and were twenty or thirty
feet- long, ten feet broad and six or seven feet high they
were double poled, with round ends, and the tent ropes were
of goats or yaks hair.

Herbert is another traveller who has left

his impressions about the people of Kinnaur. He writes that
the people of Kinnaur were tall and rather handsome, with
expressive countenances, they were not however, so fair as he
had expected to find them in so cold a climate. Their
manners were good and they were open and communicative
2
without being deficient in respect.

Writing about the people of the border

area near Shipki Herbert observes that, "They seemed in
general a good natured looking people, though not what would
be called good looking; yet some of them had very expressive
countenances. We observed a great deficiency of beard though
it was not totally wanting, except in a very few, and these
had such smooth faces that we mistook them for women; none of
them had much, and we, as well as our musseI man servants,
derived not a little credit from our superiority in this
respect.

1. Alexander Gerard.Account of Koonwaur. pp.114-115,

2. J.D. Herbert, op.ci t., p. 354.
3. Ibid., p.373.
 66

Describing the Tartar women of Kinnaur

Herbert further informs that. * We noticed the Tartar women
to be much fairer than any we bad before seen. They had also
rosy complexions that might emulate those of Europe, and
their countenances, though possessing all the peculiar
features of that race, yet exhibited variety of character
and expression which is not to be seen in Hindustan. The
women of the lower mountains posses it also, but in a less
degree, no doubt owing to the mixture of Tartar blood."

We see from the foregoing observations of

the English travellers that in greater part of Himachal the
people were of Aryan origin snd resembled in features to
the people of the plains. In the border area towards Western
Tibet, people of Mongolian origin and intermixture of two
races were to be seen. The hill people were pleasent, and
peaceful, friendly and honest*

J.D. Herbert, op. ci t. . 372'

 67

B.DRESS AND ORNAMENTS

The English travellers took keen interest in the

dresses and garments worn in each region and the wide range
of jewellery which was adorned in profusion by the hill
people during the period of their travel.

A fascinating variety and variation in dress and

ornaments of people in different parts of Hiraachal have been
noticed by them. This is amply reflected in observations made
by Mrs. Murray Aynsley while travelling through Bilaspur.
According to her "in India, each town each state, each
little district almost, seems to have its different
manufactures, and special varieties in the styles of its
jewellery and ornaments, which it is frequently impossible to
procure except in their own particular locality. The
ornaments worn by the native women, as well as the style and
material of their dress, vary immensely in design and shape
in different district , so that the eye has to be perpetually
on the watch to grasp the new forms which sometimes are met
with at short distances from each other."

While Fraser has described the dress of the people

of Sirmaur and Jubbal, Moorcroft has written about the dress
and ornaments of people of Kullu and Lahaul. Hugel has
precisely recorded the costumes worn by the people in
Jwa1amukhi(Kangra). Harcourt has covered in detail the
dress and ornaments worn by the people of Kullu. Lahaul and
Spiti at the time of his travel.

Alexander Gerard and Andrew Wilson have given

details about dress and ornaments of people of Kinnaur and

J.C, Murray Aynsley, op.ci t., pp. 270-271,

 tiQ

Spiti while J.D. Herbert, George Francis White, J.G. Gerard,

have covered information about Kinnaur bordering Tibet,
Sangla in Kinnaur, and Spiti areas respectively. William
Lloyd has given details about dress and ornaments of
Kotgarh, Rampur, Nawur and Chohara in Rohru, while Captain
Mundy only about Chohara. William Howard Russell has
described dress and ornaments of Sungree (Rohru) and Maj.
Gen. D.J.F. Newall about Gaddis of Bharmour. F.St. J. Gore
has recorded information about dress and ornaments of Kullu
people including that of Malana, while Mrs. R.H. Tyacke and
Mrs. Murray Aynsley have observed in detail the dress and
ornaments of Kullu, Lahaul.and Mandi people.

DRESS AND ORNAMENTS OF KULLU.

Harcourt's (1867) description about the dress

habits of the people of Kullu, is contained in his following
account: "There are certain minor varieties of attire
throughout Kooloo (Kullu), but there are, after all, no very
great differences worthy of particular comment. The men in
summer wear loose grey woollen trousers, and a short coat of
the same material, which as winter comes on is covered with
a country blanket wound round the body and brought over the
shoulders, much as is a Highlander's plaid. The waist is
bound with another cloth either of linen or puttoo; and the
head dress consists of a black or deep maroon-coloured cap of
rolled cloth, with a patch of red at the top. A species of
skull-cap, with a border round the neck and ears, much the
same in form as that furnished to Punjab prisoners, is also a
good deal affected, and this is occasionally trimmed
with an edging of red cloth. In one or two villages in the
Surburri valley it is against custom ever to wear trousers.
The dress of the Kooloo(Kul1u) zemindar, when clean, which it
seldom is, both fitting and decent; and at met as. or fairs,
 69

when every one dons his best, the most fastidious could
hardly see room for fault-finding."

According to the same trave11er,the body-dress of

the women consisted, of a large plaid one end of which was
brought over the left shoulder, then passed behind the back
under the right arm, across the bosom and under the left arm
and over the first fold at the back, so that the projecting
corner may lie over the right shoulder, the lappets being
secured to the main portion of the costume in front by long
brass or silver pins also used by the men and these pins were
connected together by coloured string, or a silver or brass
chain. The plaids were of very different colours, from a
whitish-grey and deep maroon or brown, to black and white
check; but in the former there was always a running pattern
of coloured lines, or a border in tiers of different hues;
green, however, never appeared in their costume. This
according to him did not arise from their dislike to the
colour, but from inability to procure the dye. He did not
notice any Kullu women with any article of green in her
dress; but obviously they had no objection to this tint, as
it was common to see them with green leaves fastened in the
hair. Round the waist a smaller blanket was invariably worn;
and in the winter woollen trousers were adopted; but in the
summer they were, for the most part, bare-legged, though the
wives of the richer zamindars were occasionally observed
2
with cotton trousers of an ordinary blue-and-red pattern.

A.P.F.Harcourt, op.cit.. p.43; compare for more details

about the dress and ornaments of Kullu inf ra account
of Moorcroft, Gore,and Tyacke pp.70-73.
Ibid., pp.43-44;
 70

Harcourt goes on to describe that through out

Kullu generally there were three descriptions of head dress-
the loose kerchief of blue, red and yellow cotton; the small
cap, secured by a fillet or two of bright wool; or the full
gala attire, a fascinating style of which he has given a
detailed description in his account. He has also described
that the Kullu women were habitual of wearing excessive
^ 2
ornaments.

Moorcroft (1820) who came to Kullu after having

travelled through Nahan, Bilaspur, Kangra and Mandi writes
about the dress habits of Kullu people as follows,"The
clothing of the people thus far has been for the most part of
white and coloured cottons, but from hence woollen garments
prevail, generally of the colour of the fleece, but sometimes
dyed of two colours, where this is the case the pattern is
always a kind of plaid. The common garb of the poorer
classes is little else than a blanket which is first wrapped
round the waist, one end is brought over the shoulders, and
fastened across the breast with skewers, and the other is
passed round the thighs and secured to the waist; thelegs
3
and feet are bare. Both men and women wear woollen caps.
The women are generally small, and many are pretty. They
wear heavy rings in their ears and broad massive anclets of a
4
metal of the appearance of pewter."

1. A.P.F. Harcourt, op.c i t.. p.44; the head dress of Kul lu

women has also been described by Tyacke inf ra p.73.
2. Ibid. Rtfif
3. For more details about head dress of Kullu see
Moorcroft, op.ci t.. pp. 181-182.
4. William Moorcroft, op.ci t.. pp. 180-181.
 71

Another traveller,F. St, J. Gore (1890) visited

Kullu and has commented about the ornaments of Kullu women,
saying that inspite of the poverty of their clothes, they
wore a great quantity of silver necklaces, prominent among
which were the regulation silver and blue enamel, pi agues, on
which the rude outline of a god was traced, which were
universally worn by men and women in Kullu. Their olive
throats were well set off by the strings of coral which mixed
with the silver, while here and there a rough green turquoise
added a little colour to their otherwise somewhat sober
appearance. According to him masses of earrings hung from a
little silk cap, which covered the upper half of the ears and
thus supported the weight, and though somewhat disfigured by
nose rings; they happily were not well enough off to wear the
little gold leaf shaped ornament, which, hanging from the
nose of many Kullu women, so marred the otherwise pretty
lines of their mouths.

Giving a true impression of the dress and

ornaments worn by the women during a fair at Naggar,Gore
observes that dressed in all colours they wore the soft
woollen blanket dress in which white and red, grey and
brown, with a great fondness for checks, largely
predominated. Bright-coloured handkerchiefs were tightly
tied around their heads. On such days they wore their
cleanest and the best and made a captivating effect. The
amount of jewellery worn was simply amazing, and was no small
proof of the very easy circumstances in which these peasants
must have lived. Scarcely a single woman was to be seen
without her silver necklace and her large hooped earrings;
while the olive brown skin and handsome faces of most of them
were almost hidden under the heavy weight of silver, with

F.St.J.Gore,op.cit., pp.51-52; The dress of Malana

(KulIu)people as noticed by Gore, was much like
the other inhabitants of Kullu, Ibid.. p. 87.
 72

which were mingled strings of red coral and frequently a

green turquoise or two.

About the dress habits and ornaments worn in the

same area, Mrs. R.H. Tyacke (1891)writes that the men's
costume in winter was a coat of home spun wool called
Puttoo, reaching to within three inches of the knee; a round
flat cap of black wool turned up all around, in the shape of
a pork-pie, and grass shoes, covering the front part of the
foot only. In summer they discarded everything except the
hat and the coat, and when they wished, for courting
purposes, to look particularly fascinating,they added to the
former a bunch of the lovely wild flower with which the
2
country abounded.

Further she commented that,the Kullu ladies wore

but one garment, and had no 'fashions'. It consisted of a
grey puttoo blanket. One end of this was brought over the
left shoulder, passed behind the back under the right arm
across the bosom under the left arm over the back again, with
the end brought over the left shoulder. Two brass pins,
connected with a coloured string, secured these ends, the
pins passing through the,strings and joining them to the main
portion of the blanket in front. There arms and legs were
bare and they wore absolutely no other artical of clothing.
For me 1 as or other festive occasions, they made no addition
to their dress but that of extensive gold and silver
ornaments, only the rich, however, affecting gold. The
jewellery consisted of bangles, armlets, ear and nose rings,
finger rings, necklets, and bands of silver across the head.
They prefered silver enamel to plain silver jewellery and

1. F.St.J.Gore.op.cit. , p. 96.
2. R.H. Tyacke, op.cit.. p. 12.
 73

certainly their taste was to be commended, for it suited

their colouring admirably. This enamel was made largely in
the neighbouring district of Kangra, and though the work was
coarse, the effect at a distance was very good. The women's
ears were pierced all round the edges, and were simply loaded
with rings, becoming an absolute disfigurement by being
forced down by the weight of their ornaments.

About their head dress Tyacke noted that their

head dress was their prettiest adornment. It consisted of a
band of silver filigree work, with a fringe , and in front
over the forehead, hung a crescent shaped ornament of enamel
work also edged with a fringe. One of their many finger
rings was almost invariably fitted with a piece of looking
glass the size of shilling piece, and they payed particular
attention to it, especially if they were endowed with good
2
looks, as many of them undoubtedly were.

DRESS AND ORNAMENTS OF LAHAUL

Moorcroft has given detailed information

about the dress of the people of Lahaul. According to him,
both men and women dressed in woollens, winter and summer.
The cloth was worn as it came from the loom and was made by
the peasantry. The dress of the men consisted of a woollen
cap, coat, trousers and a blanket, with grass sandals. The
trousers were made very long and loose above the middle of
the leg, where they fitted tight and the upper part, falling
over this, descended to the ankle, and answered the purpose
of stockings. Some wore tippets and coats of sheepskin,
cured by simply rubbing between the hands; the wool was

1. R.H. Tyacke, op. cit..pp. 12-13.

2. Ibid. , p. 13.
 74

clipped short, and worn next to the person. The women in

general, went bareheaded, but sometimes wore a circular
shallow plate or cup of silver on the crown, having a loop in
the lower edge of each side, through which a lock of hair
was passed, and plaited over the top. These women were the
wives of carriers (Traders), and as they marched alongwith
their sheep loaded with grain, they made almost as much
jingling sound. Men were as fund of ornaments as women, and
wore ear rings, armlets and necklaces.

Referring to the same area,Harcourt writes that

the dress of the Lahaul Zamindar was not very dissimilar to
that of the Kullu peasant, but prefered a fabric of a darker
hue, and discarded the waist-cloth and the red patch on top
of the cap. The hair of the Lahaulee women was twisted in
numerous braids, and these were gathered together at the back
and fastened either into a scallop-shell, or strung to beads
and, on the crown of the head, that was always bare, a small
and rather elegantly-chased saucer of silver was affixed;
this was set round in the inside with coral and turquoise,
garnished with gold, and occasionally on the forehead, a
rough specimen of turquoise was secured into the hair. The
dress was a long black woollen garment, fastened by a waist-
cloth, thick trousers of the same material, and grass shoes
completed the attire. Necklaces and earrings of amber and
rough stones were also common.

The interesting style of dressing hair, peculiar

to the Lahaulee women has been described by Murray Aynsley
also who noticed that the fair sex in Lahaul had a curious

1. William Moorcroft.op. cit.. Vol.1, pp. 199-201; compare

for more details about dress and ornaments of Lahaulees
inf ra account of Harcourt, Tyacke and Murray Aynsley
pp. 74-76.
2. A.P.F. Harcourt, op.cit.. pp. 44-45.
 75

mode of dressing their hair. They arranged it in a great

number of small plaits, which all (with the exception of
three on each side) hung down the back, their length being
supplemented with black wool. They were united at the waist,
and confined with an ornament made of a piece of some large
shell, fashioned somewhat in the form of a tortoise. These
ornaments were sometimes plain, but more often engraved. The
three plaits remaining on either side were brought forward
close to the face, and fastened together on the top of the
head with a large silver ornament.

Lastly, Mrs Tyacke too has given her observations

about the dress worn by Lahaulees as follows. "Attired in a
frock of grey home spun, with a piece of red, let down the
side, and girdled with a rope of goats hair, they wore very
tight home spun pyjamas. From one side of their waist hung a
long chain of brass and imitation turquoise beads, ending
with a brass spoon, which they always made use of at feeding
time. Their hair was plaited in very fine strands from the
forehead to the back, where it was tied with goat's hair
thread and fastened with a silver ornament. On the top of
the head they invariably wore a kind of silver saucer. They
were also adorned with silver necklets of bits of Jade,
coral, coloured bone, inferior turqoises and beads of
different sorts. Dressed in a thick, warm woollen coat of
sheep skin, with the wool inside, they wore pyjamas of felt
fastened round the leg like a Kashmir putti. with a garter
winding upward from the ankle. A sheep skin cap, likewise
with the wool inside, and with a curtain behind to protect

1. J.C. Murray Ayns1ey.op.cit.. p.284.

 76

the neck. Felt boots with soles of sheep or goat skin

completed their costume.

DRESS AND ORNAMENTS OF SPIT!

The garment of Spiti which were peculiar to that

area have also been observed with a keen interest by a number
of trave11ers.

Describing costumes and ornaments of Spiti

Harcourt noted that the costume of the men of Spiti was
peculiar, and differed from that worn either in Kullu
or Lahaul. The body garment of the males was a loose grey
coat, of a very substantial cloth that was peculiar to Spiti;
this was tightened round the waist by a roll of coloured
fabric, made up of cotton and silk, and sometimes the arms of
the coat were turned back from the wrists, and exhibited a
white lining, marked by a wide border of crimson, a fringe of
similar hue being bound round the skirts and front of the
robe. Trousers of the same substance as the waist cloth were
occasionally worn; but again these were often of coarse silk,
streaked horizontally black and white, and, seen
as they were just below the coat, they presented something of
2
the appearance of stockings.

Harcourt has also described about the head-dress

of the people of Spiti. According to him, 'Two descriptions
of head-dress are in fashion. One of these is a small round
skull-cap, which, when new, is an unattractive object. The

1. R.H. Tyacke.op.cit.. pp. 190-191.

2. A.P.F. Harcourt.op.ci t. . p.45; See for more details about
the dress and ornaments of Spiti people infra account of
Alexander Gerard, J.G.Gerard and Andrew Wilson pp.78-79.
 77

framework of the cap is covered with black cloth, and a broad

band of green or red is sfewn round the lower part, on either
side of which are white pipings that run up also to the
centre, where a small red knot is fixed, and to this are
occasionally attached tags of coloured silk, cloth, or
thread. The other head-dress is the Ladakh type, and is
probably borrowed from that country. A bag of thick furred
cloth, like plush, either grey or black, is sewn together,
the open end being a trifle larger than the head; this is
than one-half lined with red or yellow, and the other half
with blue or purple. The end is now turned back and fixed on
the head, the flap hanging on one side, somewhat in the style
of a Highlander's bonnet. Among the wealthier classes
these caps are made of beaver-skin outside, and lined with
yellow China silk. Over the coat a loose reddish- coloured
piece of half-silk, half-wool is carelessly thrown."

Harcourt also observed that the dress of the

women in Spiti was much gayer than that of the men. They
wore no caps on their heads, but over each ear
was arranged a large flap or lappet of cloth covered
with dyed wool, and fastened over the braids of hair; and
from the brow down the back to the waist was adjusted a broad
band of red- cloth, studded with large turquoises and other
stones of very dubious value; this was termed the pi rak.
Besides the above, every wife of a well-to-do zami ndar had a
profusion of earrings, nose rings and necklaces of very solid
gold and silver, picked out with beads and stones and silver
and white shell bracelets, displaying a rich array of
ornament.Thier body costume was made up of a dark cloth coat.

A.P.F. Harcourt, op. c i t. , p.45,

 76

coming down below the knees, strong trousers of a reddish

fibre, and either grass shoes or leather boots.

Alexander Gerard also has been a keen observer of

the dress of the Tartars of Spiti and writes that, "In
Speetee{Spiti) the Tartars are generally dressed in black
blanket; their upper garment resembles our great coats, and
looks very well; they wear stockings and boots like those of
Shipki; the woollen part of the latter is
two always of
colours, black and white, red and yellow, tartan and red . 2

Gerard saw two kinds of head dresses in Spiti. At

Manes they commonly wore hats resembling in shape the
English hats. They were made of yellow cloth, with a narrow
rim, fringed with red worsted projecting from near the crown
and hanging down on the sides two inches. This head dress
was extremely neat.
At Peenoo, they had black caps quite
3
like the Scottish bonnets.

Another traveller J.G. Gerard has described the

dress and ornaments of the people of Spiti. According to him
their wearing apparel accords with the exigencies of the
climate and the suddenness of the thermal changes. From the
sheep skin tunic to the chintzes and fine silks of Lahassa,
(Lhasa) which last were the insignia of the higher classes,
or from the vaz i r of the state to the Nomads of the desert,
there was little in education or manners to denote
distinction.

1. A.P.F. Harcourt, op.ci t.. p.A6.

2. Alexander Gerard.Account of Koonawur. pp.148-149.
3. Ibid., p.149.
4. J.G.Gerard, op.ci t.. p. 248.
 79

Further writing about their ornaments he states,

"There black greasy heads are embellished with 1 apis 1azuli.
their sun burnt necks with amber and coral, their w-rists and
ankles with snow white shells, and a girdle of beads and
other trinkets all shining in the sun's rays."

About the dress of the people of Spiti, Andrew

Wilson noticed that the dress of both sexes may be described
as tunics and trousers of thick woollen stuff, with large
boots, partly of leather, partly of blanket, which come up to
the knee, and which they were not fond of taking off at
anytime. In order to obtain greater warmth they often put a
quantity of flour into these boots, beside their, legs, which
he commented was a practice peculiar to Spiti but could be
2
introduced elsewhere.

According to the same traveller, their ornaments

were very much the same as those of the Chinese Tartars,
except that the women had sometimes nose rings, which added
to their peculiar fascination.

DRESS AND ORNAMENTS OF KINNAUR

Alexander Gerard has described in detail the dress

of the people of Kinnaur. There general dress was a frock of
white blanket often twice folded, reaching to the knees and
having sleeves, a pair of trousers, and girdle of the same, a
cap of black blanket, and shoes, of which the upper part was
woollen, and the sole alone leather. Every body had a steel
for striking fire, ornamented with brass, hanging from his

1. J.G. Gerard.op.cit.. p.249.

2. Andrew Wilson, op.ci t.. pp.243-244,
3. Ibid.. p.244.
 60

right side and they commonly wore a hatchet stuck in their

girdle, above which was tied a rope of goats hair, neatly
plaited and extremely strong, which they used in carrying
burdens.

Further Alexander Gerard noticed that the dress

of the women was much the same, and in front they had a brass
clasp called peechook. in shape like a pair of spectacles.
but much larger, they also wore bracelets, ear-rings and
anklets of pewter and silver. A garment of goats hair, name
kheear. was sometimes used, it was not so warm as the dress
2
of blanket but it keeps out rain well.

Describing the dress habits of the inhabitants of

Kinnaur close to the Chinese border Gerard writes that their
dress resembled that of the Kinnaurees; they all wore
stockings and boots; the former of white woollen stuff and
the latter of two colours, the lower half red, and the upper
of tartan blanket, the shoe part was leather, the sole formed
a considerable curve, and the boots were tied below the knee
with a garter: almost all went bare headed, even in the
coldest weather, with their hair plaited into numerous folds
3
ending in a cue of two or three feet.

Alexander Gerard, Account of Koonawur. pp. 78-79;

Compare for more details about the dress and ornaments
of Kinnaur i nf ra account of Herbert, Francis White,
Andrew Wilson, and Tyacke, pp.80-82.
Ibid., p.79; The Kinnauree women like to decorate
their flat balck caps with flowers and are very fond of
wearing ornaments; R.H.Tyacke, op.ci t., pp.281-282.
Capt, Alexander Gerard.Account of Koonawur p.110;
He also observed that women wore long gowns and went
bare headed with the hair hanging loose on all sides;
Ibid., p.111.
 ai

About thg ornaments of Tartars of Spiti the same

traveller noticed that the Tartars of both sexes were very
fond of ornaments, and they wore as many as they could afford
to purchase; some spending large sums upon their pipes,
knives and trinkets of all sorts, they had necklaces, upon
which were strung large irregular pieces of a yellow
substance called Poshi1. which looked like amber, and when
rubbed attracted feathers; they had beads of coral and other
precious stones, which resembled rubbies, emeralds, and
topazes, and the men often wore bracelets and ear-rings and
had tassels of red beads hanging from the back part of their
caps."

J.D. Herbert was much fascinated by the dress of

the people of upper Kinnaur, According to him,'some were bare
headed some wore caps with flat crowns ornamented with
fringe. Some had tails which were plaited and decended to
their heels; others had their hair close cut; some were
dressed in the skin of the shawl goat, the wool inside,
others had a coat of red woollen stuff, which they say is
manufactured in the interior; almost all wore what seemed to
us, breeches and stockings; the latter it is true were more
like bags. Their shoes were quite Chinese like, those
already noticed
at Dabling with round soles, such as to us
2
appeared to be a matter of no little skill to walk in."

According to Francis White the women of

Sang la(Kinnaur) wore silver and gold ornaments across the
forehead, rich and fantastical but not particularly
becoming; and those who were wealthy enough, loaded
themselves with a great variety of tasteless incumbrances-
chains and bells of precious metals, a profusion of ear

1. Capt. Alexander Gerard.Account of Koonawur p. 111.

2. Capt. J.D. Herbert,op.cit.. p.373.
 82

rings, and silver fringes pendent over the eyes, while their
bracelets, necklaces, amulets, nose rings, finger rings, and
clasps of various kinds of coloured stones, were
i nnumerab i e.

Petticoats of woollen dyed in stripes, generally

red and blue, formed the principal garment of the women of
Kinnaur as noticed by Francis White, and to this a boddice
was added, sometimes of coloured chintz, the favourite
material of the richer classes being finished by a mantle
folded gracefully over the left shoulder, and fastened in
front by an enormous clasp made of brass, grotesqually carved
and exceedingly heavy some of them weighing nearly two
. 2
pounds.

According to Andrew wilson who noticed the dress

and ornaments of the people of upper Kinnaur, both men and
women wore long tunic and loose trousers, a reddish colour
being predominent, and also large cloth Tartar boots; but
during the heat of the day many of both sexes dispensed with
the boots and some of the men appeared with the upper part of
their bodies entirely naked. All the men had pigtails, and
they wore caps like the ordinary Chinese skull caps, though,
from dirt and perspiration, the original colour and
ornamentation were scarcely distinguishable. The women had
some pigtails, some plaits, and were richly ornamented with
turquoises, opals, and pieces of amber, shells, corals , and
gold and silver amulets; while the men hadmetal pipes,
3
knives and ornamented daggers stuck in their girdle.

1. George Francis Uhite.op.c i t.. p. 46.

2. Ibid.
3. Andrew Wilson, op. ci t. . p. 190.
 83

DRESS AND ORNAMENTS OF SHIMLA HILLS

Dress habits of the people of Kotgarh (Shimla

Hills) have been keenly observed by William Lloyd.The dress
of both sexes according to him was nearly the same. It
always consisted of a drab coloured shirt and frock of
woollen cloth, called Sook1aat, trousers of the same
material, and, a flat black woollen cap. They also all bound
a girdle round the waist. The women instead of the cap, wore
a piece of cloth about the head, and twisted their hair into
one immense long plait, the end of which was ornamented with
slips of coloured cloth and reaches to the ground. As
however, few can boast of so great a length of natural
hai r,

About the ornaments worn by the people of the same

area, Lloyd noticed that they were very fond of ornaments,
their arms and ankles being covered with armlets and anklets,
to as great an extent as means could allow. These were of
various materials, as silver, brass, iron and polished bone.
They also.
like the Hindus of the plains women wore the
2
nuth. The plait was very becoming.

As against the dress of the common people who

wore woollen from head to feet, the Uazeers and the Chief of
Rampur were dressed
in white linen, and wore caps of gold
3
brocade, with but few ornaments.

According to William Lloyd, the women (of Rampur

area) were handsome, and wore round flat caps like the men,
but wound their hair round the head, and ornament it on each

1. Major Sir William Lloyd, op.ci t. , V o l . 1 , p. 1 7 1 .

2. Ibid..pp.171-172.
3. Ibid., pp.190-191.
 84

side behind the ears with large rosettes. Some of them

dressed in woollen trousers, others in large woollen wrappers
which they put on in such fashion as makes the lower part
form a petticoat. Both sexes of every age, were passionately
fond of flowers, and wore garlands of them suspended from
their caps or round their necks.

On his way to Buran pass William Lloyd observed

the dress of the people of Nawur valley in Rohru and writes
that the costume of both sexes was the same as that worn by
2
the people of Kotgarh, Rampur and Sarahan. However the
style of caps changed from place to place. In the elevated
area of Chohara (Rohru) Lloyd noticed that the natives of
these areas wore black conical cap, which had a tassel on the
3
top, and was puckered at the bottom.

Mundy took fancy to the ornaments worn by the

women in Chohara in Rohru and mentions procurement of a pair
of anklets from a women, made of metal resembling lead. He
noted that some of the females of these regions were
profusely ornamented with beautiful -worked ear-rings and
chains of gold, and both men and women wore usually a little
silver medallion containing a charm. In some parts of the
mountains the inhabitants were famous for their manufacture
of chains and filagree work in gold; the former ornaments
according to him closely resembled those of Trichinopoli, but
the metal , by its weight, softness, and colour, appeared to
4
be purer than that used by the southern manufacturers.

1. Major,Sir William Lloyd, op.ci t..Vol. 1, p.194.

2. Ibid., p. 213.
3. Ibid.. p.228; In Jangling village of Rohru Lloyd
noticed persons clothed in dark brown sooklaat with a
black conical cap peculiar to the area.Ibid pp.234-
235. Similar head dress consisting of high peaked
conical cap of brown woollen manufacture were observed
by Alexander Gerard in Teekral area in upper Pabar
valley (Rorhu), op.cit.. pp.290-291.
4. Captain,Mundy, op.cit.. p. 286.
 a&

At Sungree in Rohru during a fair William Howard

Russell saw the head dress of the hill women, which he found
very picturesque and effective. The forehead was covered
with a coronet of finely-worked silver, behind which the hair
was gathered up in thick wreaths, and secured to a high roll
of cloth at the back of the head. from which depended
streamers of various colours. Further about their dress he
writes that, "Their gowns, or petticoats, are gathered up
into bustles, or humps of prodigious size below the waist,
and fall in long folds to the ground, concealing the pretty
feet, and swaying to and fro at every step, Amber and
turquoises are largely used as ornaments. The dress in which
we now saw them differs widely from their ordinary bed gown
2
attire." About the dressing habit of Sungree men he
observed that the men were dressed very much as usual, in
flat round black caps of cloth ornamented with yellow
flowers, coarse tunic and Irousers of puttoo. and shoes made
3
of knitted whipcord with leather soles.

Fraser writes about the dress of people of Jubbal

and draws a comparison with that worn in Sirmaur, in the
following manner. "The appearance of the people of Jubbal
is somewhat altered. Instead of the dirty cotton cap and
gown of Sirmour they wore a black cap of shaggy wool, some
what like a high land bonnet compressed: a pair of trousers
of thick dark striped woollen stuff, very loose from the
wasteband, where it is tied with a string, to the knee, but
it becomes closer to the leg below; and reaches to the heals

1. William Howard Russell, op.ci t., p. 179.

2. Ibid., pp. 179-180.
3. Ibid. , p. 180,
 86

in small wrinkles. Their chief garment is a coat of similar

blanket stuff, which reaches down to the knees, gathered
tight round the waist, and falling round the lower parts and
thighs in many folds, somewhat like the scotch highland
philibeg. The better sort usually wear a piece of cotton,
such as the Hindoos(Hindus) do the doputta, and frequently
wrap it round the shoulders as a plaid. Their shoes are
formed of a sort of close net-work, or twill of woollen
thread attached to a leather sole"

DRESS OF SIRMAUR

Fraser who passed through Sirmaur noticed the

dress of the people as very simple. That of the middle class
consisted of the common jacket of cotton, ending in skirts,
which were shorter than usual, more full and puckered up into
folds and tied round the waist and reaching to the knee,
something like the Scotch highland philibeg; under these were
worn cotton trousers; around the shoulders they wrapped a
piece of cotton cloth in a manner resembling the Scotch
plaid, which in hot sun they threw over the head. The
usual covering for head was only a skullcap of cotton. This
was their warm weather clothing and during winters they wore
2
thick woollen drawers.

About the dress of women Fraser noticed that it

was quite the same as that of Hindus in the plains: a
short wrapper or coortee, covered the shoulders and breast; a
petticoat was tied around the waist and a doputta a long
piece of cloth was wrapped around the head, shoulders and
bosom, like a shawl, in various and elegant shapes.Entire
attire was fabricated of cotton, plain, coloured, or striped

1. J.B.Fraser.op.cit.. pp. 142-143.

2. Ibid., p.68.
 B7

and were manufactured in, and procured from the lower areas.
Ornaments of all sorts depending upon the affordabiIity were
worn by them as was usual in the hills. The women of poorer
class wore any kind of dress they could get, and not a
peculiar costume.

DRESS OF MANDl

Mrs. Murray Aynsley noticed that the men and

women, in the parts of Mandi through which she passed wore a
sort of loose dress of white woollen stuff, with a band or
rope round the waist. The former wore a high cap of the same
material, shaped like a bag. The women's head dress was of
the same form as that of the men, but made of a dark red
cloth: they rolled up the lower part, so that it looked like
a kind of turban. The young and pretty ones stuck this cap
consequently on the side of the head, and occasionally adorn
it with a bunch of flowers. The women's hair was all
gathered into a single plait, left hanging down the back: the
natural growth was added to and lengthened by having
black sheeps wool plaited
in with it, so that the tail of
2
hair almost touched the ground.

DRESS OF KANGRA

Hugel has written about the costumes worn by the

people around Jwalamukhi (Kangra) in the following manner:
•The costume in these parts differs little from what I had
observed elsewhere; the trousers are perhaps rather fuller,
the turban always black and the men invariably wear a long

1. J.B.Fraser,op.cit. . p. 70.
2. J.C.Murray Ayns1ey.op.ci t. , pp.266-267.
 aa
dark beard; the women a blue petticoat with a deep red border
descending to the knee, and the indispensable veil, which,
instead of concealing the face, is worn behind the head, and
is always pink.•

DRESS OF GADDIS

When Maj. Gen. D.J.F. Newall was on his way to

Bharmaur in Chamba he was accompanied by the Gaddis he
described the dress of both the sexes as follows, "These are
liberally displayed by the dress worn by both sexes-sort of
long loose tunic of woollen manufacture, gathered in at the
waist and descending to the knee or lower, at the option of
the wearer it is allowed to hang over the waist-girdle in
baggy form in which they carry various marching necessaries.
But if so desireable these folds can be dispensed with and
the garment elongated so as to cover more of the legs. Free
and facile play of the limbs is, however, necessary in
2
mountain climbing."
 89

From the above quoted accounts left by the

travellers a clear picture of dresses and ornaments worn in
different areas of Himachal come to light. In lower parts
cotton cloths similar to those in plains were worn but in the
higher areas a great variety of woollen garments were doned
and the costumes of each area were quite distinct. The
fascinating variety and the large quantity of jewellery worn
by the hill people was amazing and surprised the travellers.
The dress and jewellery worn during fairs and other social
gathering was particularly impressive.
 90

C. SOCIAL CUSTOMS

Several interesting social customs peculiar to the

hill people have come to light from the accounts left by
English travellers. These customs were not only distinct
from those in the plains but also varied widly from one
region to another. Different customs related to marriage have
been observed by the travellers. In some areas like Kullu and
Shimla hills polygamy was common while in areas like Kinnaur,
Lahaul and Spiti polyandry has been noticed. The condition of
widows in different parts has also attracted the eye of the
travellers. Some travellers have taken note of social customs
related to birth and death in different areas. Social evils
like sati pratha has been witnessed in lower areas like
Kangra and Mandi, while in higher hills this was not reported
to be a common occurance, and in Lahaul and Spiti this was
entirly unknown.

Existance of other social evils such as female

infanticide, selling of children as slaves has also been
pointed out. Caste system was partially or totally observed
where even Hinduism prevailed, but in upper Kinnaur,- Spiti
and to some extent in Lahaul caste system was not observed.
2
Begar or forced labour was yet another social burden
peculiar to the hills, observed by the travellers. parda
pratha was also limited to the lower areas of the state and
not noticed else where.

Marriage Customs

In Kullu, Harcourt noticed that polygamy generally

prevailed, but in some areas polyandry also existed, this

1. For more details of sati pratha and other social evils

see Chapter M l .
2. For description of Begar System see Chapter IV.
 91

system of marriage was on the decline. Harcourt writes that

throughout Kullu polygamy was the rule; but in parts of
Seoraj however it was not uncommon for two or more brothers
to have one wife between them and they also shared common
property in goods. In one house there could be three brothers
with one wife, and in the next three brothers with four
wives; yet in the adjoining house there would be an only son
with four wives to himself. It was a matter of means and of
land; a large farm requires several women to look after. The
system of polyandry appeared, however, to be dying out in
Kullu and was not regarded with favour. The women, too object
to the custom of polygamy, and for husband to take to himself
another wife was frequently a sure means of loosing the one
he a 1 ready had.

According to Harcourt the betrothal and marriage

ceremonies in Kullu were simple. A few presents were given by
the bridegroom to the bride, her parents and her brothers; a
2
goat was killed and 1ooeree was supplied, the ceremony
sometimes taking place in the house of the girl's relations
and frequently in the cottage of the bridegroom. It was
customary for the newly married women to pay her parents a
visit with a few months of her becoming a wife, and if the
husband was disliked occasion was taken to prolong the stay;
nor are the man's remonstrances attended to by either the
bride or her parents; the former refused to return till she
pleased, and her parents or brothers were only too glad to
get her services in the cultivating season, when every hand
3
that could be secured for field labour was of value.

1. A.P.F.Harcourt, op.c i t.. p.74.

2. Spirituous liquor made from rice in Kullu.
3. A.P.F. Harcourt.op.cit.,p.91; For marriage customs in
Himachal see Mian Goverdhan Singh, Himachal Pradesh
History. Culture and Economy. (Shimla,1990),pp.39-54.
 92

Harcourt further adds that the kullu zamindar. if

not betrothed as a child when he wanted to secure a wife,
visited a family where there were daughters, and expressed a
desire to marry one of the girls, whose willingness to the
proposed arrangements was seldom asked or considered.
Generally speaking the bridegroom would pay a certain amount
to the father of the bride. Harcourt views this as a kind of
recompense for the loss of the girls services in her parents
house and the privilege of securing an additional hand for
the field labour by the bridegroom.

Another traveller, Mrs. R.H.Tyacke has made

following comments about the marriage system in Kullu. "There
is practically no marriage ceremony. The men barter with the
parents of the girl they wish to make their wife, and thirty
to forty rupees is the average value of a women as a worker
in the fields. These marriages, if you can call them by such
a name, rarely turn out happily. The people are naturally
immoral; it is not unusual for a women to leave her husband
for days or weeks at a time, and when she returns or is
brought back, she remains unpunished. The husband is only too
glad to regain her services, and fears if he were to punish
her she would run away again. The number of wives a Kullu man
takes to himself, depends practically on the amount of land
2
he has under cultivation."

In Lahaul various travellers have observed that

polyandry was the general system of marriage but among higher
classes ploygamy also existed. According to Harcourt

A.P.F.Harcourt, op.cit.p.90. This was not the general

marriage System in Kullu. For the different
types of marriage systems see Mian Goverdhan Singh
op.c i t. .pp.39-54.

R.H.Tyacke, op. ci t. . p. 14. see supra account by

Harcourt pp.90-92.
 93

polyandry prevailed extensively in Lahaul one wife belonging

generally to a family of brothers; but in some parts brothers
prefered to have separate wives, and nearly all the men of
the higher class were polygamists.

Further Harcourt has noticed a peculiar marriage

custom which was prevailing in Lahaul. According to him, 'In
Lahaul, when a father thinks his son(perhaps only twelve
years of age) should have a wife, he fixes on some particular
girl, and sends to her parents a bowl of chanq or 1oogree.
which if drunk, is a favourable sign, and if refused the
father knows he must seek elsewhere. Some months afterwards
he forwards another bowl of the same drink, and should this
be accepted all is supposed to be prospering toward the
coming connection. When the third bowl and a rupee are sent,
and these are accepted, the whole matter is settled, and the
bride, always much older than her husband, is brought to the
latter by her parents. Sometimes, however, after the second
instalment of liquor has been accepted, the girl objects, or
her parents decline, to allow the matter to proceed further;
but then the father of the bridegroom tries to win the girl
over, if not by persuasion, by force, and, failing in the
former, a lot of young fellows are sent to watch the fair one
as she goes unattended to the village spring, when she is
pounced upon and carried off, and locked up in some secret
place, where no food is given to her. Meanwhile the person
who has instigated the abduction despatches a deputation to
reconcile the girls parents and this, as a rule is not a very

A.P.F. Harcourt, op. ci t. . p.74; Also see inf ra. account by

Aynsley and Tyacke, p.94.
 94

difficult operation, A great deal of talking takes palce,

extending over two or three days, but at last peace is
made."

Commenting about the marriage custom in Lahaul

Mrs. Tyacke sums up that, polyandry was the rule and not the
exception in Lahual. It was the custom for several brothers
to live together with one wife, which had the advantage of
preventing the subdivision of estates, and also of keeping
down a population already dependent on outside help for
support; though the moral effect on the people was
disastrous. As a consequence of polyandry, a certain number
2
of girls in each family were made nuns.

Polyandry prevailed in Spiti also Harcourt

observes that the men in Spiti married at twenty to twenty
one years of age, and the women between fifteen and twenty;
and a man in good circumstances kept two or three wives. In
marriages the knot was tied by a Iama in the open air, when
prayers were read, the sacred mark was imprinted on the
forehead, and when the newly married couple enter in their
home white silk scarfs were presented to them by the 1ama,
who then departs, with few or many gifts depending upon the
3
wealth and generosity of the parties.

Endorsing the views of Harcourt about prevalence

of polyandry in Spiti Andrew Wilson observed that, *As
polyandry exists in the province, the surplus women have to
remain in the houses of their parents or other relatives; but

1
2.
 95

there is no reason to consider the Spiti people as immoral,

though they indulge in heavy drinking on special occasion;
and, like most moutaineers, they are exceedingly enamoured of
their own lofty country, treeless and sterile though it be,
and are extremely unwilling to go down any of the passes
which lead to more genial climes.*

According to Wilson the curious and revolting

custom of polyandry existed all over the country of the
Tibetan speaking people; i.e., from China to the dependencies
of Kashmir and Afghanistan, with the exception of Sikkim, and
some other provinces on the Indian side of the Himalaya,
where, though the Tibetan language partly prevailed yet the
people were either Aryan in race, or have been much
influenced by Aryan ideas. He found polyandry to be existing
commonly from Taranda in the Sutlej valley, a few marches
from Shimla up to Chinese Tibet and from there to Suru, where
it disappeared in the polygamy of the Mohammedan Kashmiris.
But it is well known to exist, and to be an almost universal
custom, all through Chinese Tibet, Ladakh little Tibet and
nearly all the Tibetan-speaking provinces. According to him
it was a common marriage custom of atleast thirty million
, 2
people.

Passing through the upper Kinnaur Andrew Uilson

noticed that marriages there were often concluded at a very
early age, by the parents, of the parties, and sometimes when
the latter were children. In such cases the bride and
bridegroom often lived for years separate, in the houses of
their respective parents. When the matter had not been
previously arranged by his father, the young man who wished
•
to marry went to the parents of the girl he has selected.

1. Andrew Uilson, op.ci t. .p.245.

2, Ibid., p.225.
 96

with a gift of chang. a species of beer which was brewed

among the mountains, and which he partook along with them. A
second visit of the same kind followed, and then a third,
when he met with the object of his choice, and the nuptials
were arranged. In some part of the country more valuable
presents, and even gifts of money, were expected, there being
a great deal of difference in local usage as to the
preliminaries. Women had property in their own right; and as
a rule, childless women were not regarded in any particular
manner. The choice of the wife was the right of the elder
brother, and among the Tibetan speaking people it universally
prevailed that the contract he makes is understood to involve
a marital contract with all the other brothers, if they
chose to avail themselves of it.

Similar marraige system (polyandry) was noticed in

Chohara area of Rohru by William Lloyd. According to him,
polyandry, was frequently observed and the men assigned as a
reason, that their trading vocations often forcing them to be
absent for a long period from their homes, it was requisite
2
that the females should have more husbands than one.

Status of Widows

In the lower areas of Himachal such as Kangra the

customs in relation to widows were observed to be similar to
3
that of the plains. Sat i Pratha was actually witnessed by
some travellers. Widows in these areas did not wear coloured
cloths and ornaments and ate only vegetarian food. But in

1. Andrew Wilson, op.ci t. , p.233.

2. William Lloyd, op.ci t. . p. 255.
3. For eye witness account of this social evil in Kangra
and Mandi see detailed account of G.T. Vigne and
Moorcroft in Chapter III.
 97

higher hills these restrictions were not there and widow

remarriage was nothing unusual as shall be seen from the
following observations of the English travellers.

Mrs. Murray Aynsley herself saw the condition of

widows of a former Raja of Chamba who had died about eight
years before her visit. The age of these widows varied from
twenty two to perhaps twenty six years, the youngest was thus
a widow at the age of fourteen. Their widowhood custom had
obliged all of them to leave off wearing jewels, to dress
entirely in white, and to abstain from eating either meat or
fish.

Aynsley also noticed a differnet type of custom

followed by the widow of Raja of Kullu. The customs in Kullu
as regards widows differed slightly from those existing at
Chamba. At Sultanpur she saw the widowed lady dressed in
bright colours, and wore jewe1s-though the prohibition
regarding eating meat and fish applied equally in both the
2
cases.

Referring to Kinnaur, Fraser noticed that there

was no Sati Pratha among the Bhoteas. But in case of the
death of the wife, the husband could not marry again at least
for three years. As per customs prevalent the widower had to
wear his cap by turning inside out for eight days as showing
the external sign of deep mourning. The widow had to remain
without her head dress for the same period, but they did not
3
burn or bury themselves with the body of their husband.

1. J.C. Murray Aynsley, op.ci t. . p. 263.

2. Ibid., p. 280.
3. J.B.Fraser, op.ci t.. p.334.
 98

Custom of funeral and Burial

Generally in Himachal the dead bodies were

disposed off by burning, but in Kinnaur the dead were either
buried or burnt. Among Tibetan speaking people the dead were
exposed on the crests of the mountains. In Theog area (Shimla
Hills) Fraser noticed that the people burnt their dead by
carrying them to the heights of the hills and then erected a
pile of stone on the spot. But sometimes they used to plant
a pole or a stick with rags on them just to mark that spot
sacred in the memory of the deceased. Further he noticed
that, there was a custom in Sarahan to erect stones in
memory of the deceased on the place where the body was burnt.
But sometimes the body of a dead was burnt on the peaks and
Teebas and in that case a pole with a flag was sticked. Each
passanger and those who happened to pass that place had to
add a stone or hang a rag on the pole as per custom. Fraser
further pointed out that such places become sometimes sacred
2
places and the dead enjoyed the reputation of a deota.

In upper Kinnaur, Fraser noted that the body of

the deceased was kept for three of four days and the Lamas
were called in and the priests and friends were treated
with feasts in the house. The women of the vicinity met and
expressed their sorrows with loud lamentation. But this
action was only done before those men who were really much
affected. The body of the dead was wrapped without bath,
unlike Hindus, in a rich cloth in proportion to the means of
the family and was carried to the graves by the nearest
rleations of the deceased. The women of the family followed
with the lamentation the dead body up to a certain distance

1. J.B.Fraser, op. ci t. . p.216,

2. Ibid., p.358.
 99

but not upto the graveyard. The body was buried after reading
and showering the prayers by a priest. The expenditure was
made according to the means of the family. The priests were
feasted and presents were given to them after the completion
of the ceremony. Grain, Ghee and Salt were also distributed
after the burial ceremony in the village of the deceased. In
memory of the deceased a monument was erected on the third
year either over the grave or on any other place. A heavy
expense was incurred in third year on erecting monuments and
on offerings. The lights were also lit on monuments on
particular days for the dead ones.

The English travellers have left significant

accounts about some social customs peculiar to the hill
people, although some of their observations might have been
some what superficial. In the higher hills the social customs
differed drastically from one area to another and there was a
contrast between social customs prevalent among the people of
Aryan origin and those of Tibetan speaking areas.

1. J.B.Fraser, op.ci t.. p.334.

2. Andrew Wilson, noticed that the dead were disposed of
by burning in Lahaul, whereas in Tibet proper they were
exposed on the crest of mountains; op.ci t., pp.286-287.
 100

D.LANGUAGES

In Himachal several dialects, which varied at

short distances, were spoken. The language in the hills was a
mixture of corrupted dialects of Hindustanee in which
Sanskrit and Hindi words were predominent. In Lahaul and
Spiti the language was of Tibetan origin. In Kinnaur about
five different dialects, peculiar to the area were noticed.

Referring to the areas of Sirmaur and Shimla Hills

Fraser noticed that, their language for a considerable way
into the hill has a corrupted dialect of true Hindustanee, in
which Sanskrit and Hindi words predominate. The further one
penetrated to the north, the more corrupt it became, till it
was so mixed with foreign tongues as to be unintelligible by
a low countryman.

Harcourt has recorded his observations about the

languages spoken in the areas of Kullu, Lahaul and Spiti. He
has given the following description: "In Kooloo (Kullu) the
dialect in common use is made up chiefly of Sanskrit, Oordoo
(Urdu) and Paharee. a patois of the hills, with an infusion
of Thibetan (Tibetan) words, which last become more
noticeable in the upper portion of the valley towards the
Rohtang Pass. In the out-of-the-way villages the people know
hardly anything of Oordoo, nor can what they say be
understood by those who have not some acquaintance with
Paharee. At the village of Malana, the people have a dialect
which is only known to themselves; and here, although, the
hamlet is far out of reach of contact with the Thibetans
(Tibetans) of Lahaul or Spiti, situated as it is off the

J. B. Fraser, op.cit.. p. 114-115.

 101

Parbutt99 (Psrvati) valley, there are many pure Thibetan

words in use, - and this notwithstanding the fact that
Thibetan is quite unknown in any of the surrounding
V11lages.*

According to Harcourt," In Lahaul there are four

languages - first, the true Thibeten, generally used about
Kolung (Keylong) in the Bagha Valley, and at Kokser, in the
Chundra Valley; secondly, Boonuun, spoken in Davee Chund's
jaghi re at Goomerung kothee, Kardung Kothee. and Barbok
Kothee. this dialect being half Thibetan as far as the words
go, but a separate language as far as grammar is concerned;
thirdly, Manchat, or in vernacular papers, puttun. composed
of Hindee(Hindi) principally, a little Thibetan, and the
rest quite a local language; this is spoken in the six
kothees by the Chundra Bagha, viz., at Tandee, Uarpa, Ranee
ka. Yanampel or Yampee, Jobrong and Goee or Gooshall;
fourthly, Teenuun, made up with Thibetan words, Manchat,
Boonuun, a little Hindee, and some few persian words; this is
2
used in Kothee Gondla, on the chundra."

Andrew Wilson, noticed the language of the

Lahaulees as Tibetan, having being little affected by the
Hindus of the neighbouring provinces of Kullu. He writes
that, "It is of interest to notice that there are remnants
of what, for want of a better phrase, may be called an
aboriginal language. It is called the Boonan, and resembles
the Tiberskad spoken at Sungnam in the upper Sutlej Valley.

A.P.P. Harcourt, op.cit.. p.42; The language in Malana,

the isolated area of Kullu, according to Gore was totally
distinct which is a proof of their almost complete
isolation for some centuries, since it is inconceivable
that they could have come from anywhere but from the
plains below. F.St. J.Gore, op.cit.. p.87.
2. Ibid, p. 42,
 102

Further, he described it as an oboriginal, unwritten non-

Aryan language, and having a grammar more perfect than the
Tibetan, as for instance, in distinguishing different persons
in the verb; but on this principle it must be more perfect
than the language of Shakespeare and Milton.

Describing the language of Spiti, Alexander Gerard

writes that, "The language abounds with z, zh. pa. ba. and
kh. and is distinct from the tongues spoken in lower Koonawur
(Kinnaur); it prevails from Lahassa (Lhasa) all over Ludak
(Ladakh), and as far as the confines of Yarkund, where it
becomes mixed with the Toorkee or Turkish, which is spoken in
that country. To the westward of Ludak, it is corrupted with
Persian, Pooshtoo, Hindee (Hindi) and Kashmerian. it is very
easy to learn in comparison to the dialects of Koonawur,
where there is some slight difference in almost every
village, which is perplexing to a person who wishes to
2
acquire the language."

The language of Kinnaur has been observed in great

detail by Alexander Gerard, he writes that, "There are five
different dialects spoken in Koonawur. But I have got a
vocabulary of only three of .them.With the exception of
compounds which are easily distinguished, the words are
monosyllabic or dissyllabic. First the Milcha, or Common
Koonawuree, which is most generally used. The chief
characteristics are the terminations, ang.ing,and ung. which
occur very frequently, and might make a person suppose it was
derived from the Chinese. These terminations sometimes form
the only distinction between the Milchan and Hindoostanee;

1. Andrew Wilson, op.c i t.. p. 287.

2. Alexander Gerard, Account of Koonawur, p. 155;
According to Andrew Wilson and Harcourt, the language
of Spiti was Tibetan op.cit.. p.243; p. A2.
 103

there are other differences, such as sb,st. ts, sk, at the

beginning, and ts, gs. ps. at the ends of words. 5h. z into zh^
are very common and they like these letters so much, that
they generally change s_ into sji and z_ into zji, when talking
Hindoostanee, and these are sounds that can be pronounced by
but few natives of India, unless Pesian and Sanskrit
scholars. The infinitives of the verbs end in mig and nig.
Second the Theburskund, spoken at Soongnum, is very different
from the Milchan, and the infinitives terminate in bung and
pung. Third dialect used in Lubrung and Kanum, in which the
infinitives of verbs end in ma and na. Fourth that spoken at
Leedung, where the terminations of the infinitive are ens".

It is turely remarkable that the travellers like

Harcourt, Alexander Gerard, Andrew Wilson and Fraser had
observed the language of different areas to such a great
depth.

1. Captain.Alexander Gerard, Account of Koonawur, pp.

87-88; In lower Kinnaur people spoke an Aryan Language,
Andrew Uilson, op.ci t., p.211.
 106

E.FOOD HABITS;

The food habits have been keenly observed

by the English travellers. A wide variation in the food
habits in different areas has been noticed. Eating and
drinking habits especially in the high mountain regions,
where the food was entirely distinct from that in the plains,
has been recorded by several English travellers.

About the eating and drinking habits of

Kullu people Moorcroft noticed that the people were moderate
in their diet, and lived cheifly on wheat and barley flour.
The Satu of barley or barley boiled, parched and ground to
flour, mixed into a paste with a little water, was a common
article of diet especially when travelling. Various common
grains, buck wheat, chenopodium. and poppy seeds, were ground
and made into bread. Although orchards were common, little
esculent vegetables were reared. Moorcroft was under the
impression that spirituous liquor was not known to the
mountaineers, at least beyond the buza. which everyone drank.
A narcotic preparation of the juice of hemp was also used,
but it was noticed that few made excessive use of this,
opium, and tobacco.

Harcourt who also travelled through

Kullu, noticed that, "In Kooloo (Kullu) the people eat three
times a day; the breakfast, called Ku1ar is at eight or nine
A.M.; the dinner, dopaharee or dhyan at one or two P.M.; and
the bya1ee, or supper at sunset. Those who are better off eat
both the best descriptions of rice and flour but the more

1. Uilliam Moorcroft, op.ci t. ,Vo1.- 1, p. 182; some other

travellers have given information about the food habits
of the people of Kullu. See inf ra account of Harcourt, and
Tyacke, pp.104-105.
 105

general food of the Zemindars is made up of sidhoo, pheemra

or kuppee. Sidhoo is formed from atta joa or mukkh i. worked
into thin cakes; pheemra is either ghulla or sureara
(amaranth) and rice mixed together, or rice with a little
atta, and such vegetable roots as are procurable; while
kuppee is a connection of rice and vegetable stewed. Unlike
Hindoostanees (Hindustanee),the Kooloo people put salt in
their food when eating it, and not while it is being cooked.
During the meal no fermented liquor is drunk, but at feasts
and me 1 as it is partaken of largly in the form of 1oogree.*

According to R.H.Tyacke in Kullu both

sexes were good at drinking. The liquor was Loogree. a kind
of beer made of rice water, powerful, and very detrimental to
the health. It was generally made by the Lahaulees and looked
2
like dirty milk.

Tyacke noticed some strange eating habits

of the Gaddis. She writes that, "When they kill a sheep or a
goat, they tear it in to pieces with their hands, and eat the
flesh raw. This habit probably arises from the fact that,
when travelling in Ladakh; they cannot carry or find
firewood, and cannot cook their food. Another custom of the
gaddis is almost too loathsome for description. They puncture
a hole in the side of the goats, near the kidneys, and
inserting a straw drink the fat. The custom is not at all
.3
uncommon.

1. A.P.F. Harcourt, op. c i t. . p. 81.

2. R.H.Tyacke, op.ci t., p.67.
3. Ibid., p.261; The researcher is of the view that this
information cannot be taken as normal eating habit among
the Gaddis but practiced in extreme conditions for
surv ivaI.
 106

In Lahaul the food habits were quite

different than in Kullu. Accoridng to Harcourt, buckwheat was
the principal staple of food in Lahaul, and. from this, two
descriptions of flour were made; one called drape, of the raw
grain, which was when boiled with water, eaten as gruel ; and
the other termed niukusu made of grain first boiled and then
roasted. Further, Harcourt noticed that, wheaten flour was
eaten largely made into a sort of soup,-with such vegetables
as could be obtained, as, in spring, dendelions and other
field weeds (in summer chiefly the leaves of the buck w h e a t ) ;
and this soup formed the chief morning meal. Rice flour was
used much in the same way as the wheaten by the poorer
people but the weathier classes preferred it in the Ladakh
fashion, mixed with apricots, sugar and condiments, and
boiled with butter; barley flour was utilized in the same
manner as was wheaten flour, and roasted barley was
frequently eaten, but was regarded in the light of a
delicacy. Cakes formed of dried apricots were much
appriciated and always kept ready for visitors in houses of
richer people.

Giving further information about the

drinking habits in the same area Harcourt observed that, tea
cooked .with clarified butter, was much in use among the
higher classes. This was made into a thick mess, and, as a
substitude the poorer people infuse the leaves of the
Potentilla i ngI is i i.Chang, very much the same as the Kullu
Ioogree was made from rice and barley, the grain being
boiled, and then squeezed by hand. Chang like 1oogree was a
thick, dirty looking fluid, with a most nauseous smell,and a
taste that was, accoridng to him, detestable to those

A.P. F. Harcourt, op.ci t., pp.82-83. Compare for more

detils about the food habits of Lahaulees infra account
by Tyacke, p. 107.
 107

accustomed to European liquors; a species of arrak was also

made from barley. The milk of the sheep, goat and cow was
also drunk by Lahaulees. The hybrid between the yak and the
cow gave the best milk, from which first class butter was
made; butter milk was also much esteemed, and was
occasionally converted into a fermented beverage by mixing
it with a species of leaven mad© from roasted barlev meal,

Mrs. R,H, Tyakce also noticed the food

habits of the people of Lahaul as follows; "The poor people
drink Chang, made of an infusion of water on boiled barley;
the richer, tea, cooked with clarified butter and salt, and
concocted with a churn kept in every house for the purpose,
2
They also distill a kind of muddy whisky,"

She further observes that, the poor 1ived

on ground buckwheat, eaten like porridge, or ground into
flour and made into bread by being mixed with chang. The well
to do people ate rice boiled with ghee, and mixed with sugar
and dried fruits. It was against the creed of the Lahaulees
to eat the flesh of cattle, but some were killed on the sly,
and also many sheep, which were dried, and kept at all events
through the winter in this climate. They appeared to have no
scruples, however, against devouring animals that died a
natural death; and the low caste Lahaulees even ate beef, and
3
bear's or panther's flesh.

2.
3.
 108

Like Lahaul in Spiti also barley was the

main grain consumed in various forms. But animal food was
more prominently consumed. They drank a great deal of tea and
spirits made from grains. The Spiti men also smoked.

About the food habits of Spiti people

Harcourt writes: "The Spiti people have three meals a day.
First, in the morning hot gruel, made, from parched barley-
meal called pholoo; a bit of meat is added if they have it.
Secondly, at midday, a huge lump of suttoo or parched barley
meal, kneaded into a tough dough, which is washed down with
Chang, butter-milk, or water, as the case may be. This seems
a most uncomfortable meal in every respect. It is eaten in
the fields, or on the road, or wherever a man happens to be,
the mass of dough being carried about in the breast of the
cost (next the skin of course, as no under garment is worn)
until dinner time. The evening meal is gruel, as in the
morning. '

Tea in Spiti according to Harcourt was

prepared in the following manner: It was placed in a pipkin,
with a little cold water and some soda, and boiled; some hot
water was then added, and the hot tea poured into the tea
churn; butter and milk being added, the whole was well
churned, and served up with the froth on. The tea in use was
imported from Lhasa, and was only used by the better classes
who could afford the luxury; the Indian tea was not liked by
the people.

1. A.P.F. Harcourt, op.ci t., p.83; See for more

details of eating habits of Spiti people i nfra
account of J.G. Gerard p.109.
2. Ibid.. pp.83-84
 109

Harcourt further noticed that tobacco was

smoked both in the Ch i11 urn and also from the steel pipe which
each Spiti 2ami ndar carried in his waist cloth, his pouch
of tobacco being also fastended close to his chuckmuck or
strike light. The women in Spiti did not smoke.

J.G. Gerard found the eating habits of

the people of Spiti similar to the Tibetans. He noticed that
their common repast consisted of a greasy soup, called Lappi
and buttered tea; animal food was also naturally abundant in
a region where pasturing flocks were almost in a state of
nature, and in every house could be seen the dried carcasses
of sheep and yaks, and skins of fat and butter. They were
much addicted to tobacco and fermented liquor, and upon the
whole the comforts of life were in their kind neither
2
sparing nor unsubstantial.

According to Alexander Gerard the food

of the people of Kinnaur included bannocks of different kinds
of grain, kitchen vegetables, and a great proportion of meat;
their most usual drink was tea, and they occasionally take a
dram of spirituous liquor, and at their festivals they
indulge pretty freely.

Describing the food habits of the people

of upper Kinnaur (Tartars) Gerard wrties that the food of the
people was almost wholly flesh, for even part of the little

1. A.P.F. Harcourt, op.c i t., p. 84.

2. J.G.Gerard, op.ci t. , pp.247-248; According to another
traveller in Spiti "They smoke continually, eat almost
nothing but animal food; and drink a great deal of tea,
and spirits made from grain called chang. They herd
vast droves of sheep, goats, horses, and yaks, all of
which are killed and eaten," Alexander Gerard, Account
of Koonawur, p.149.
3. Alexander Gerard, Account of Koonawur p.77; Also
see inf ra account of Andrew Wilson for more details
about the eating habits of Kinnauress p.110.
 110

grain produced in this area was exported, and made into an

intoxicating liquor, named chang. The Tarters as well as
Kinnaurees, like the Scotch Highlanders, took their dram of
spirits in the cold mornings and in their long journey over
the bleak mountains, where water was frequently not found
until they reached their encamping ground, they took a dish
of tea before starting, which, they believed was an excellent
preventative against thirst. Tea was prepared by an infusion
of boiling water, and used butter salt, spices, and a little
meal, instead of milk and sugar and they stirred it about
with a stick. The tea pots were of pewter, exactly like
English ones in shape; the tea was poured out into china
cups or wooden bowls beautifully lined with silver.

2
Sattu was eaten by the mountain people
especially while travelling. This is reflected in the
following observations made by Andrew Wilson about the eating
habits of the people of Kinnaur, "They always had something
before starting, however, early the hour might be; and
whenever we halted for a little on the way, they took out
their Sattu. or roasted barley flour, and if there happened
to be any water accessible, kneaded this flour into large
balls about the size of a cricket ball, and so ate it with
great gusto.

About the Nako (Kinnaur) people Wilson

noticed that
they had a nourishing diet of milk, mutton,
4
game, wheat and barley flour. He also noticed the great pots
of tea-broth into which they put salt, butter, flour,
sometimes even meat, and infact almost anything eatable which
turned up.

1. Alexander Gerard, Account of Koonawur. pp. 113-114.

2. Sattu is roasted barley flour.
3. Andrew Wilson, op.ci t.. p.207.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid.
 Ill

In lower areas of Mandi, Kangra and

Bilaspur the eating habits were quite similar to those in the
plains. This is evident from the observations made by G.T.
Vigne. He was welcomed by the contemporary ruler of Mandi and
was also invited for a dinner. Having availed of the Raja's
hospitality Vigen recorded: "The dinner he gave me consisted
of the usual eastern delicasies-rice, curries. sweetmeats,
and sherbats; and 1 afterwards received the customary Ki1aat.
or dress of honour, which said Ki1aat is generally made up of
a Kashmir shawl or two, of little value, pieces of the
K imkab, or brocade of Benares, and severl pieces of different
stuffs, usually the produce of Kashmir, or peculiar to the
country of the donor.*

Some of the customs followed in Kangra at

that time about eating in utensils etc., are brought to light
when vigne was given a breakfast by the elder son of Sansar
Chand the ex-raja of Tira. He writes; "Being Hindus, they did
not eat with me themselves, but a table was placed for me
beside them, and they talked to me during the repast, which
was served up in dishes, made of dock leaves, sewn together
and my drinking cup was also of the same material. The sikhs
are less particular in these matters than the natives of
Hindustan, and will eat twice, and oftener, out of the same
plate, and many of the Sikh Surdars are in possession of
European china; but the Hindu, more especially the Brahmin,
or the Rajput, of which latter caste was the Tira Rajah, will
not eat twice out of any vessel that cannot be cleaned with

G.T.Vigne, Travels in Kashmir,Ladak, Iskardo, the

countries Adjoining the Mountain - course of the Indus
and Himalaya. North of the Punjab., (Delhi, 1981),
Vol . I , p. 81.
 112

earth, and consequently, they are eternally scouring their

brazen cooking pots. When, therefore, they play the host, the
Hindus( and the Sikhs, also, in many instances), cause their
dishes to be made of dock leaves, which are thrown away after
they have been used, and the expense of purchasing new
crockery is avoided. The comparative absence of superstitious
ceremony on the part of the Sikhs would render thera, as
Sepahis, better adapted for actual service than the other
natives of Hindustan.*

Mrs. J.C. Murray Aynsley also noticed the

food habits in Bilaspur area. She writes; "The rajah sent us
in a native dinner consisting of two kinds of meat, one
vegetable, rice, sweet cakes, sugar butter, sweet meats and
chapatties', which last are the substitute for bread. Each
dish was served in a separate platter, made of the leaves of
some trees, pinned together with the thorns of a plant so
artfully arethese dishes constructed, that not a drop of
2
gravy seems to escape," Hence it is revealed that in the
lower hills the eating habits were similar to those in the
plains but in higher areas typical food habits were
p r e V a.l e n t.

1. G.T. Vigne, op.cit.. pp. 108-109,

2. J.C. Murray Aynsley, op.cit., pp. 270-271.
 113

F.ENTERTAINMENTS

Fairs or me 1 as were the most important source of

amusement and recreation among the people of Himachal as
testified by the various English travellers. Fairs were helc
all the year round in most parts of the state and were mostljj
accompanied by dancing, merry making and festivity. Several
travellers have given details about the various fairs
witnessed by them. Some other sources of entertainment such
as horse-racing, gambling, a curious sport of rolling stones
down the hill slopes were also noticed by them.

Referring to the me 1 as or fairs as the main source

of amusement in Kullu Harcourt writes that, "The Me 1 as or
fairs may, however, be properly classed among the national
amusements. At such gatherings, with the exception of those
at Sooltanpore (Sultanpur),P1ach and Nirmand nothing is sold,
these gala days, which are numerous, being merely of a
festive character. Almost every village of any size has its
me 1 a; and in the more important of these, nominally held in
honour of the local Deota or Davee.The people collect in
considerable numbers. The scene is a highly attractive'
, 1
one.

According to Harcourt, the amusements of the

people in Kullu, Lahaul and Spiti were not numerous. In many
villages in Kullu the men and boys were seen playing what
might be called hockey, but which, in reality, was simply a
game of knocking about a worsted ball with sticks in a
promiscuous manner. There was also a species

1. A.P.F. Harcourt.op.cit., p.69; For more details

about amusements of the people of Kullu see
ibid., pp. 69-70. Also compare details about
Kullu fairs, infra account by Gore, Aynsley,
and Tyacke pp. 114-118.
 114

of bear-baiting, that was in vogue among the children. One

boy was seated on the ground, and held a long waist cloth,
which was grasped at the other extremity by the lad acting as
bear leader, whose business it was to rush after and beat off
the other players who may have attempted to bonnet the
, 1
bea r.

Gore (1890) has witnessed interesting details

2
about the fair of Naggar held in the month of May.
Implying that Kullu people participated enthusiastically in
the fairs which was a great source of amusement for them, he
had noted that people from the surrounding areas thronged to
the fair, dressed in their best clothes and observes that,
"On every path are to be met brightly dressed women in all
colours and men gaily adorned with flowers, hastening to the
rendezvous for the me 1 a is dear to the Kullu heart. As the
morning wears on the crowd increases about the little temple,
for religion is mixed up with their pleasure, and it is a
field day for the Brahmins, who sit at the receipt of custom,
impressing with no great difficulty the ignorant peasants
with their sanctity and virtue. Suddenly amidst the hubbub
is heard a renewed tomtoming as, headed by several men
blowing discordant blasts upon great curved trumpets, another
village contingent arrives, escorting its deity.. The latter
arrangement consists in a sort of chair carried on the
shoulders of two men by long poles. The chair is covered with
trappings of all sorts, on which are arranged many silver
masks of rough workmanship, the whole being much bedecked
with flowers. There is apparently a fashion in gods as well
as in most things, for there is little variety to be seen in
the appearance of any of these village patrons, except that a

1, A.P.F. Harcourt, op.c i t. , 68.

2. The fair described by Gore in the month of May is Sarhi
Jatra (local name of the fair). See Mian Goverdhan Singh,
Festivals, Fairs and Customs of Himacha1-Pradesh,De1hi,
1992, p.84.
 lis

richer village may perhaps afford a gold mask or two and

express religi(
its
religious fervour by an additional clamour of
1
trumpets and drums."

Describing the proceedings of the fair Gore

writes that ,"By midday the scene is most brilliant and the
noise of the drumming and piping deafening. The little arena
is crowded with men standing in long lines dancing a sort of
slow shuffle to the encouraging strains of the musicians.
Aimlessly and without any seeming purpose like all native
dances, they keep it up by the hour-to the great interest,
however, of the thronging bystanders. A booth or two have
been run up, and cover the stalls of sweetmeats, which find
eager buyers in the women and children. Even the Rai of
Kullu himself has come up from Sultanpurhis and under
2
immense umbrella sits hour after hour, a willing spectator.*

Gore has also made a reference of the Sultanpur

fair (present day Kullu Dushehra) in Kullu about which he
writes, "The Chief fair or Mel a in Kullu is held annually on
the Sultanpur roaidan in October and is the cause of assembly
of a great number of people of the valley and though it is a
semi-re 1igious holiday, at which over one hundred village
gods have been known to be present, yet it is in a great
measure the chief market of Kullu, the maidan being covered
with booths, while large flocks of sheep are brought down
from the mountain sides and find a ready sale to buyers, who
3
drive them down to the plains for killing."

1. F. St. J. Gore, op. ci t., p.96.

2. Ibid. , p. 96; the same fair at Naggar has been
witnessed one year later by R.H.Tyacke. See infra
p.118.
3. Ibid., p. 107; The Sultanpur fair was also attended
by Murray Aynsley. See inf ra p. 116.
 lie

Gore also noticed a cricket game being played at

Manikaran. He was surprised to see the Manikaran children
playing cricket writing about which he states that, 'I came
upon a game of cricket in full swing! 1 could hardly believe
my eyes. Yet there it was, with bats roughly cut from an old
plank, the regulation three stumps of rather unorthodox
lengths, and a ball made up of a hard lump of rags. it was
the Manikaran school ( I won't say "eleven* for I don't
suppose there was that number of boys in the school
altogether spending their half holiday in the enjoyment of
the noble game. The ground, it is true, was not large, for
the cliffs rose steep on one side and the torrent roared
fiercely on the other; but a few square yards of level ground
had been squeezed in between two Chalets, and there the game
proceeded with much vigour one of the fielders spending most
of his time on the shingle roof that always affords a safe
run from a well placed hit."

2
Aynsley too witnessed the annual fair of Kullu in
the year 1878. She writes that at the time of this fair
all the other gods in the valley were brought to Sultanpur to
pay Raghunath a visit, each temple had certain lands granted
to it rent free on the condition that its god should be
yearly taken to this fair. The funds arising from these
lands were applied to the support of its attendants and also
supplied food during their week long stay at Sultanpur to the
people of respective villages who had accompanied their idol
there.

1. F.St. J. Gore op. ci t. , p. 81.

2. The fair described by Murray Ayns1ey IS the
Dushehra of Kullu.
3. Murray Aynsley, op.c i t.. pp.295-296,
 117

Aynsley further recorded that, The inferior gods

were carried about in a palanquin, decorated with gay
coloured clothes and streamers, and adorned with flowers,
which was borne on men's shoulders some were so small that
they were carried by one man, who held the shrine like a
baby on his left arm. Raghunath,however, possessed a large
car on wheels, which was dragged about by means of an
enormous rope by two hundred or three hundred men.

Describing the final part of the proceedings

Aynsley writes, "The fair takes place on a raised plateau of
some extent which is situated to the south of the town. Ue
were al1 seated near the young Rajah, under an awning erected
for the occasion in a commanding position,so that we could
overlook all that was passing below. The ground formed a
natural semicircle beneath and on either side of us, and
there the women were seated, who were present as spectators
only, dressed in all their silver ornaments and gayest
clothes. Both men and women had wreaths of double marigolds
round their heads. The former took an active part in the
ceremonies which commenced by their placing the palanquins
containing the inferior gods on the ground, when they began
dancing round them in a slow and regular measure, each with
his left hand round his neighbours waist, to the
accompaniment of tom-toms and horns. After a time certain
solo-dancers came forward, who moved in a rapid and animated
manner. When the excitement was at its height, the
attendants danced the gods up and down likewise, and made
certain of them salaam to each other. Finally the Rajah
himself went down and headed a procession of all the gods,
taking hold of the rope attached to the car of
Rugonath,(Raghunath), and helping to drag it a considerable

J.C. Murray Aynsley, op.ci t.. p. 296.

 118

distance. When the car reached a certain point a large

bonfire was lit, which seemed to be the conclusion of the
festiVities,for after that there was a general dispersion of
the gods and there attendants to their respective homes."

Mrs. R.H. Tyacke has also given details of fair

witnessed by her in 1892 (understandably at Naggar) as
follows: *0n the i4th of May we went down the valley to
2
attend a me 1 a or native fair. Nearly every village in the
country indulges, periodically in one of these festivities.
which are all very much alike. A few days before the
tamasha. men, women, and children from the surrounding
villages begin to congregate at the spot where it is to be
held. There are no booths or tents pitched, for none are
needed. These people are a hardy race, and are quite content
with the one country-made blanket, without which they never
stir, wearing it on the hottest day, and having no more to
.cover them on the coldest night. On the day of the me 1 a ,the
tomtoming began at an early hour, announcing the approach of
the different dev tas which were to take part in it. They
had been removed from their various temples, and each placed
in a roughly made litter supported on poles and covered with
coloured rags of every description, and decorated with the
wild flowers of the season. Each was thus borne along on the
shoulders of four stalwart villagers, preceded by the priest
of the temple ringing a bell made of brass, iron, or tin,
according to the wealth of the shrine, and accompanied by a
native band of tomtoms, pipes, and the most ghastly sounding
3
cow horns, it is possible to imagine."

1. J.C. Murray Aynsley, op.ci t., pp. 296-297.

2. The fair witnessed by Tyacke at Naggar in the Month
of May is Sarhi Jatra see Mian Goverdhan Singh,
op.c i t. , p. 84.
3. R.H.Tvacke.op.ci t., pp.65-66.
 119

In Lahaul and Spiti the main amusement sources

were horse racing, dancing, playing on musical instruments
and feasting. Large feasts were often held in monasteries. In
winter months the people of these areas remained mostly
confined to the villages and spent time in sleeping,
drinking, gambling and dancing. This is evident from the
following observations recorded by the travellers.

In Spiti Harcourt noticed that the people were

fond of horse-racing, dancing and gambling, and there were
often large feasts in the monasteries, where the majority of
the revellers got hopelessly drunk, as they did in similar
bouts in Lahaul. Music and dancing were much appreciated in
Spiti and the strolling monks were said to act a soecies of
,
play. 1

Referring to the entertainment activities of the

people of the same area.A1exander Gerard commented that they
were a joyful set of people and during his stay in Spiti, he
observed them conducting horse races, singing, dancing,
2
playing upon musical instruments.

Similarly about the amusement activities of the

Lahaulees during winter months R.H.Tyacke observed that
during these months the Lahaulees seldom left their villages
, but spent days in sleeping, drinking, gambling and dancing.
According to her they were born gamblers. Nearly every
Lahaulee carried dice about him. Their dancing was prettier
than any she had seen in India. Men and women danced
together, Tyacke found their dance similar to the country
dance in England and very superior to the dances of other
hill men. Lahaulees also went in for horse racing as a source
of amusement.

1. A.P.F. Harcourt, op.cit. , p. 68.

2. Alexander Gerard, Account of Koonawur. pp. 149-150.
3. R.H.Tyacke.op.cit: . p.207.
 120

Mrs.Tyacke also got a chance to witness the

annual Lama dance or Chham in Lahaul.Describing it as a
grand annual festival she writes that, 'The ChamtChham) or
religious dances performed in the Thibetan(Tibetan)
monasteries are worth seeing. If introduced into a Christmas
pantomime in London, they would be effective as a spectacle.
The abbot and superior monks, in full canonicals, sit round
the courtyard of the monastery, clanking huge cymbals to a
slow time or measure. Bands of other monks dressed in
brilliant silk robes with hideous masks or extraordinary
head-dresses, and with strange weapons in their hands, dance
in time to the measure,advancing and retreating, turning and
whirling, with strange studied steps and gestures. The story
of the ballet is that of 'Lugon Jyabo dung-dri,' the
explusion of the prince of devils.The latter had become too
powerful, and tyrannical over mankind, so the gods descended
from heaven, took the shape of strange beasts, and in that
2
guise fought with and destroyed the demons."

Describing about the origin of the 1ama dance Mrs.

Tyacke further adds that, "The origin of the play, or 1ama
dance, which dates from the fourteenth century is thus
accounted for. There lived than at Lhasa, "the abode of the
gods," a King named Lungha Dharma, who persecuted the
Buddhists in every conceivable manner, and did his utmost to
exterminate them in the country. A 1ama who had been turned
out of a monastery close to Lhasa, vowed vengeance against

Devil dance Chham is a sacred masked dance done by the

Lamas in the monasteries before a large concourse of
spectators on some festive occasion. Since masks are
more or less those of the devils, it is also called
the devil dance. For more details see S.C. Bajpai,
Lahaul-Spiti; Forbidden Land in the Himalayas. (Delhi,
1987). p.65.
R.H. Tyacke, op. cit.. pp 274-275.
 121

the king, and circumvented him in the following manner. He

procured a black pony and whitewashed it. Then taking a bow
and arrow, he rode to Lhasa, where he happened to find the
king in the public market-place, in the act of reading a
proclamation from the emperor of China. He drew his bow and
shot the king in the back and killed him, and then galloped
away in the direction of the river, in crossing it the
whitewash disappeared from the pony, who became black again.
When he was overtaken, not being known to his pursuers, he
was unrecognized, and escaped, as they were in search of the
rider of a white pony. After the death of king Lungha Dharma,
Buddhism flourished once more, and ever since then, the
festival known as the *Lugon Jyabo dung-dri'. has been
annually kept to celebrate his death. The Buddhists believe
that he was the king of demons, who had been sent into the
world to destroy them. Hence their joy at having got the
better of him."

In Kinnaur, dancing, singing and playing on

musical instruments were the chief amusement besides which
they ran foot and horse races, and indulged in feasting and
drinking. Several annual festivals were celebrated. The
sources of amusement of Kinnaurees have been well enumerated
by Alexander Gerard who noticed that they were fond of
dancing and singing and they had several annual festivals,
which they celebrate with the degree of joy scarcely known
amongst other Asiatic nations. According to him the grandest
2
festival was called Mentiko, which prevailed through the

li^ R.H. Tyacke, op. cit. . p. 275-276,

The annual festival Mentiko described by Alexander Gerard
is a festival of Flaich or Oa-Khayang. see S.C. Bajpai,
kinnaur A Restricted Land in the Himalaya. De1hi,
1991, pp.. 70-71.
 122

whole of Kinnaur and was held in the beginning of September.

All the people who were able to move left their villages
and ascended the nearest hill: they proceeded slowly , making
a circuit of several days, and this was the time of greatest
festivity: they adorned themselves with garlands and flowers
and sang and danced to the sound of music, which was much
more melodious than the Hindustanee tunes; they played at
all sorts of amusements, ran foot and horse races when the
ground would allow performed feats of agility, feasted and
drank.

Further he states that. their musical

instruments were large and small trumpets. shells for
blowing, drums and kettle drums, these were chiefly used to
please the gods: but during their holidays they played upon
tambours, fifes.
pipes fiddles and double flageolets, and
2
many of their sirs were very pleasing.

J.D. Herbert also gives a brief account of the

singing and dancing which he witnessed at Namgea (in
Kinnaur). He writes: "In the evening we were much amused with
a dance to which these people invited us. 1 say dance rather
than a nach, for to the latter it had not the slightest
resemblance. On this occasion the performers were all women,
but the munsh i who accompanied us, and who had before visited
the place, told us the men frequently bore their part. Thev
stood in a semicircle on one side of the room joining hands,
and all singing in chorus, and kept time to their songs, by
swinging from one side to the other with one accord, there
was no motion of the feet, but merely the body was allowed
to sway about first from right to left and then back from
left to right.'"^

1. Captain Alexander Gerard, Account of Koonawur, p.81.

2. Ibid., pp.81-82.
3. Captain J.D. Herbert,op.cit., pp.371-372.
 123

As in case of Kullu valley, the people in Shimla

hills were also very fond of fairs and festivals which
appears to be the main source of amusement.

Alexander Gerard (1820) who passed through Rampur

states that, "There are three Mel as or fairs yearly at Rampur
which are attended by people from Mundee (Mundi),sooked
(Suket), Kooloo (Kullu), Koonawur (Kinnaur), and the plains.
One takes place about the 10th of May another on the 12th of
October, and third called the Dhal mela about Christmas. At
the last, a person from each Zamendar's house in Koonwur must
be present and the whole armed '.whence the name of Dhal . A
few carry matchlocks, some shields and swords, and by far the
greatest number of them hatchets or battle axes. They march
through the town of Rampur and are mustered before the
palace, where they fire a volley at the word of command; but
it occupies a full minute .1

Another traveller William Lloyd (1822) also

happened to witness the fairs at Rampur. He writes. In May
October and December large fairs were held at Rampur, which
were frequented by inhabitants of the states beyond the
Sutlej, as well as those from other parts of • Bushahr, from
2
Sirmaur, and some even from Ladakh and Chinese Tartary.

William Howard Russell (1859) had witnessed the

fair of Sungree (in Rohru). He has noted that this fair was
of a religious and commercial character and was held on the

1. Alexander Gerard, Account of an Attempt to Penetrate

by Bekhur to Garoo.Vol.il. pp. 313-314.
2. William Lloyd, op.c i t.. p. 157. The fair of Rampur
in the month of October has also been observed by
J.D. Herbert, op. ci t. . p.402.
 12A

occasion of the exhibition of a famous deity Kali,who had

been carried from her deot i or shrine. Indicating that
people danced for their own amusement he gives details about
the proceedings of the fair as follows, "Nothing could induce
any of the ladies to dance for us; and leaving some of my
companions to continue their promenade among the beauties,who
were rapidly slipping away from the meadows, I returned
towards the carpet on which the Rajah (Bushahr) had resumed
his seat,and where he was holding a rude durbar. The hill
men advanced towards him singing songs in unison, and making
offerings to him indicative of their callings. The shepherds
offered wool and wreaths of wild flowers - the husbandmen
presented rice and grain. Then,putting their arms around each
others waists they formed a long file,and began to dance to
the sound of the music, marking the bars by bending their
bodies sideways to the right and then to the left, all
together and singing at the same time. The effect of this
was very pretty. The long file had a slow circular sweep of
its own, which gradually increased its speed as the music
quickened,tiI 1 the dance ended in a run,and the panting
performers, releasing each other,sat upon the grass."

Russe11,further noticed that "some of the Coryphes

looked very solemn and very drunk, and on inquiry ascertained
that they had every reason to be intoxicated as the hillmen
2
on such occasions consume a coarse sort of rakee made from
corn, more than one bottle of which 1 had seen going the
rounds among the people. I was about sauntering off to look
at some boys who were dancing in imitation of their parents,
when the Rajah called out to me," Do not go sit down. They
are going to make the big devil dance." In that manner he
irreverently alluded to the Idol, which was now brought
forward, attended by the indefatigable band. Two men stood
between the poles, before and behind midway on which the idol

1. William Howard Russell, op.cit.. pp. 180-181.

2. Rakee is a spirituous liquor made from corn.
 125

sat in its chair. The priest a wild, squalid, dirty hill-

man, with sunken cheeks and eyes, long beared, and coarse
black hair-walked slowly by the side of the idol, with his
right hand on one of the yaks tails, which, fastened to the
top of the screen, fell like giants tresses,to the ground.
Ail the instruments ceased except the drum, which kept on a
faint drubbing as the idol was brought before the Rajah. I
could then perceive that the men who were carrying the chair
moved gently up and down to the sound of the drum, and thus
gave a motion to the poles on their shoulders, which was
communicated to the screen and its images so that it was
gently agitated; The priest,too, whose eyes were fixed upon
some point above our heads, kept time to the drum, which was
gradually beaten with greater vehemence and rapidity."

A curious sport of rolling stones down the hill

slopes, was a queer but frequent pastime amongst the people
of Muttiana (Shimla Hills) has been observed by William Lloyd
as follows, A frequent pastime amongst the inhabitants of
this country, was rolling down large stones, which slided
slowly at first, then sprung heavily from spot to spot and
suddenly increasing their velocity bounded far and lightly ,
surmounting many of the trees in their way, and even when
sight was lost of their long whirling leaps, they could still
hear the echoes of their successive heaving footings in the
2
profound depths below.

Reflecting that singing songs was a popular

entertainment source in Chamba Vigne writes, that, "An old
woman and her son were singing ballads on the green at
Chamba. 1 was struck with the wild music of their melodies,
and used to have them to sing to me whilst at breakfast and

1. William Howard Russe1 1.op.ci t. , pp. 181-182.

2. Major Sir William L1oyd,op.ci t. , p. 157.
 126

dinner. until I had acquired them. I subjoin them, in

the
hope that they will be looked upon as not without interest. .1
Vigne, went at length, to understand the meanings of these
songs, and has also written the musical code of these songs
in his travel account.

From the forgoing observations of the English

2
travellers we notice that me 1 as and fairs were the chief
source of amusement amongst the people of the hills.
Practically every village had a fair of its own and generally
these fairs were organised in honour of the local deity. The
fairs were innumrable, and with the exception of some, they
were merely of a festive character.

Indeed, the observations made by the English

travellers about the people of Himachal Pradesh in the
preceeding pages, brings fourth a true picture of the people
of that time, the dresses and ornaments adorned by them,their
peculiar customs, food habits and the languages spoken.

People

In the major portion of the state (with the

exception of Kinnaur and Lahaul Spiti) the inhabitants were
having distinguishing Aryan features of the Hindus of the
plains. Their colour varied from dark brown to a tawny yellow
and sometimes white. They had black hair wore moustaches and
black beards. In the higher hills fair complexion was more
noticeable. The highlanders were as a rule of a medium

1. G.T.Vigne, op.c i t., p. 167.

2. For some of the fairs and festivals witnessed by the
English travellers see Appendix-1 at the end of the
thes i s.
 127

height and strongly built with intelligent and pleasing

faces. Not unfrequently they were tall and strong and some
of them handsome with well formed noses and an open forehead.
The women were more prepossessing and their children were
also beautiful with fair and blushing complexions.

The people of Lahaul have been described as an

intermixture of Hindu and Tartar blood. Both sexes were
stout, the Mongol ion origion of the race being shown by
oblique eyes, flat faces and large mouths.

In Spiti the people wore a clearer evidence of

Chinese or Mongolian descent. The men were stout and well
built and women too were strongly framed. Oblique eyes and
high cheek bones were noticable. The noses were thick and
muscular but sometimes straight and aquiline. Men were
observed to be dispropotionat1y taller than women.

In upper Kinnaur the inhabitants were Tartars

while in lower Kinnaur they were of the Aryan origin. Great
deficiency of beard was noticed amongst the inhabitants of
this area. The people have been noticed to have complexion on
the darker side and were good looking, muscular, medium
statured, frank, active, generous, hospitable and highly
honourable in their dealings. Thieves and robbers were
unknown. The hill people, in general, possessed frankness and
openness in contrast to the people of the plains.

Dress and ornaments

The travellers also observed a great variation in

dress and ornaments worn in different areas of Himachal
Pradesh. In general, cotton clothes were worn in the lower
areas quite similar to those in the plains, while in the
higher areas woollen clothes of various styles were adorned.
 128

In Kangra valley, the men dressed up just like the people in

the adjoining plain area wearing turbans and the women wore
peticoats(ghagra) and veil which instead of concealing the
face was worn behind the head.

In Sirmaur (Shiwalik hills), it was observed that

the middle class men wore a cotton jacket ending in a kind of
skirt, puckered up into folds and tied around the waist and
reaching to the knee, under which they wore a cotton
trousers. They wrapped a cotton cloth around the shoulders
and wore a skull cap of cotton. The dress of the females was
quite the same as worn in the plains, a short coortee. a
doputta wrapped around the head and shoulders like a shawl.

In Jubbal (upper Shimla hills) men wore a black,

cap of shaggy wool, a pair of trousers of thick dark striped
woollen stuff, very loose from the waistband up to the knees
and reaching the heal in small wrinkles and a coat of
similar blanket stuff, gathered tightly around the waist and
falling around to the lower part of the thighs in many folds.
They wrapped a cotton plaid around the shoulders and wore
shoes formed of close network of woollen threads attached to
a 1eather sole.

In other parts of upper Shimla also men and women

wore similar woollen garments in the shape of a frock and
trousers of the same material and a flat woollen cap. The
women instead of a cap wore a piece of cloth about the head
and twisted their hair into one immence long plait, the end
of which was ornamented with slips of coloured cloth reaching
the ground. The women were fond of ornaments, their arms and
ankles being covered with armlets and anklets of various
materials such as silver, brass, iron and polished bones.
Nuth was also worn in this region. Some women wore
beautifully worked out ear rings and chains of gold and both

sexes wore a little silver medallion containing a charm.

 129

In Rampur area and in parts of Rohru, women wore

caps like the men and wound their hair round the head and
ornamented it on each side behind the ear with large
roselets. Some dressed in woollen trousers while others in
large woollen wrappers looking like a petticoat in the lower
part. Both sexes of every age were passionately fond of
flowers and wore garlands and suspended them from their caps.

The dress worn in Kullu has attracted attention of

many trave11ers.The Kullu men wore in summer loose grey
woollen trousers, a short coat of the same material, which,
as winters came was covered with a country blanket. The
waist was bound with a cloth of linen or puttoo the head
dress consisted of a dark cap of rolled cloth with a patch
of red cloth at the top. The Kullu women wore a large plaid
wound around and held with lappets. The plaids were of
different colours and checks. Round the waist a smaller
blanket was invariably worn and in winters a woollen trousers
was adopted. In summers they remained bare legged, though the
richer wore cotton trousers. As a head dress they wore a
coloured kerchiefs and caps of several kinds.

As elsewhere in the hills, the Kullu women wore

great deal of gold and silver oranments. Gold was worn by the
richer class. The jewellery consisted of bangles, armlets,
ear and nose rings, fingure rings, necklets and bands of
silver filigri work across the head, holding a crescent
shaped ornament over the forehead.

The Gaddis of Kullu were noticed to wear

a short, very full loose frock of puttoo which was fastened
with an anormous goat hair rope tied around the waist. The
legs and feet remained bare but the head was protected with a
peculia^r cap made of felt and which could be turned down to

protect the ear and neck.

 130

The dress of Lahaulee men resembled that of the

Kullu men, except that they prefered darker hue and
disregarded the waist cloth and red patch on the cap.
Sometimes they also wore coats and caps of sheep skin with
the wool inside and felt boots with soles of sheep or goat
skins. The Lahaulee women attired in long woollen garments
fastened by a waist cloth or girdle of rope of goats hair,
of dark coloured homespun material, trousers of the same stuff
and grass shoes. From one side of their waist hung a long
chain of brass and imitation turquoise beeds, ending with a
brass spoon, which they always made use of at feeding time.
The Lahaulee women generally kept their heads bare. The hair
were twisted into numerous braids and these were gathered
together at the back and fastened with some ornament. A
silver saucer shaped ornament garnished with gold and set
inside with coral and turquoise was generally worn at the top
of the head. They also adorned silver necklets of bits of
jade, coral, coloured bone, inferior turquoise and beads of
many sorts. Necklaces and earrings of amber and rough stones
were also common.

In Spiti the dress of both sexes was a peculiar

tunic and trousers of thick woollen stuff with large boots,
partly of leather, partly of felt which come up to the knee.
Some travellers observed that for greater warmth they put a
quantily of flour into these boots which was a peculiar
practice in Spiti. The tunic or the loose grey coat was
tightened around the waist by a roll of coloured fabric, made
of cotton and silk and sometimes the arras of the coat were
turned back from the wrists and exhibited a white lining. The
men wore two kinds of head dress, one a small skull cap and
the other the Ladakh type bonnet. The Spiti women did not
wear any caps, but over each ear was arranged a flap of cloth
which they covered with dyed wool and fastened over the
 131

braids of hair. The wealthier wore profusion of earrings,

noserings, necklaces of solid gold and silver picked out with
beads and stones and silvery and white shell bracelets. The
body costumes were made up of dark cloth, coming down below
the knee, strong trousers of a redish fiber, and either grass
shoes or leather boots.

In Kinnaur the general dress was a frock

of white blanket often twice folded, reaching to the knee and
having sleeves, a pair of trousers and girdle of the same, a
cap of black blanket and shoes of which the upper part was
woollen and the sole of leather. Every body had a steel for
striking fire, ornamented with brass, hanging from his right
side and they commonly wore a hatchet stuck in their girdle,
above which was tied a rope of goats hair, neatly plaited and
extremely strong which they used for carrying burdens. The
dress of the women was much the same. They also wore long
flowing gowns and in front they used a brass clasp called
peechook. They wore bracelets, earrings and anklets of pewter
and silver.

In upper Kinnaur people went bare headed even in

coldest weather and wore stockings and large boots. Both
sexes were fond of ornaments and spent great sums on their
pipes, knives, trinkets of all sorts. They wore necklaces
strung with several kinds of precious stones, beads of coral,
rubbies, emeralds, topazes and men often wore bracelets and
earrings and had tessels of red beads hanging from the back
part of their caps.

Languages

Several dialects were noticed by the

travellers which changed at short distances. The language
 13:

varied from Hindustanee dialects in the foot hills to pure

Tibetan in the north <Spiti). In Sirmaur and Shimla district
the language was a corrupted dialect of true Hindustanee in
which Sanskrit and Hindi words predominated, but towards
North it was further corrupted by infusion of Tibetan
language and became uninte11igeble for a low countryman.
Likewise in Kullu the dialects in common use was made up
chiefly by Sanskrit, Urdu and Paharee, with the infusion of
Tibetan words becoming noticeable towards the Rohtang pass.
Malana had a language which was completely distinct, a proof
of their total isolation. There were about four different
dialects in Lahaul which were a mixture of Tibetan and the
Hindu language of Kullu to a varying degree. In Spiti the
language was a purer Tibetan and there were few people who
could speak or understand the language of lower areas.

Food habits

In lower areas such as Bilaspur and Kangra food

habits were similar to those in the plains but in high
mountain region they were quite different. In low valley rice
wheat and corn were the common grains while in higher hills
wheat, barley and buck wheat were eaten. In Sirmaur and
Shimla hills as was also true about Kullu, people ate al i
kinds of grains and pulses. Mutton was eaten by all including
the Brahmins unlike to that in the plains. Sattu of barley,
boiled, parched and ground was a common article of diet
especially when travelling, in almost the entire state.
Various common grains, buckwheat, chenopodium and poppy seeds
were ground and made into bannocks and other kind of bread.
In Kullu, unlike in the plains, salt was added in food after
cooking and not while being cooked. In this area during
meals no fermented liquor was drunk but during feasts and
me I as it was taken in large quantities.
 133

Buck wheat was the staple food in Lahaul. The

flour made out of raw grains was eaten as a gruel cooked in
water alongwith vegetables. Sattu was also prepared out of
it. Rice was eaten in a special way as in Ladakh mixed with
apricots and other dried fruit, sugar and boiled with butter.
Tea, cooked with clarified butter and salt and concocted in
a churn kept in every house for this purpose was had by the
richer while the poor people drank chang made by an infusion
of water and boiled barley. It was against the creed of
Lahaulees to eat flesh of cattle. Sheep were killed and dried
and eaten all through the winters.

In Spiti also barley was the main grain consumed

in various forms, but animal food was more commonly consumed.
They ate flesh of all animals such as sheep, goats, horses,
and yaks, and drank great deal of buttered tea and spirits.

In Kinnaur the main food of the people was

bannocks of different kinds of grains, kitchen vegetables and
a great portion of meat. Their most usual drink was tea and
they occasionally took a dram of spiritous liquor, which in
festivals they had quite freely. However in upper Kinnaur the
food was almost wholly flesh, more or less similar to that in
Spi t i .

Social customs

Many social customs peculiar to the hills were

noticed by the travellers. Different marriage customs
prevailed in the various regions of the Pradesh. In Shimla
and Kullu district polygamy was the general pattern while in
Lahaul Spiti, Kinnaur, Chohara area of Rohru polyandry was
more common. Some strange marriage ceremonies were also
noticed. The Sati Pratha was found to exist in lower areas
 134

like Kangra and Mandi while in Shimla district it was very

rare. In Kinnaur, Lahaul and Spiti this custom did not exist
at all. In the lower areas the plight of widows was as
conservative as in the plains but in higher hills widow
remarriage was quite normal. While in the major part of the
state the dead were disposed off by burning, but in Tibetan
speaking areas the dead were more commonly disposed of by
burial or exposing them on hill tops.

Entertai nment

The main source of amusement among the hill people

appeared to be singing and dancing in which they took part,
most en thusiatical 1y, on all social occasions and gathering.
Me 1 as and fairs were held in different parts of the year.
There was hardly any village which did not have a fair of its
own. Many fairs and festivals which are popular even today
were witnessed by the travellers; chief among them are Kullu
Dushehra, Sarhi Jatra of Naggar, Chham festival of Lahaul,
Flaich festival of Kinnaur, Lavi fair of Rampur and
Sungree (Rohru) fair. Beside these, in Kinnaur Lahaul and
Spiti horse racing, gambling and drinking were also common
past times. Games resembling hockey, cricket and the sport
of rolling stones down steep hill sides were also noticed by
the foreign travellers.