G Model

EA 24591 No. of Pages 7

Electrochimica Acta xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Electrochimica Acta
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/electacta

Application of solar-cells in the electrokinetic remediation of

As-contaminated soil
Eun-Ki Jeon a , So-Ri Ryu a , Kitae Baek a,b, *
a
Department of Environmental Engineering, Chonbuk National University, 567 Baekje-daero, Deokjin-gu, Jeonju 561-756, Republic of Korea
b
Department of Bioactive Material Sciences, Chonbuk National University, 567 Baekje-daero, Deokjin-gu, Jeonju 561-756, Republic of Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: In this study, we evaluated the effectiveness of the solar-powered electrokinetic process for the
Received 14 January 2015 remediation of As-contaminated soil in order to reduce the electrical energy consumption on a pilot scale,
Received in revised form 9 March 2015 and this study also investigated the influence of oxalic acid for the treatment of As bound to amorphous
Accepted 9 March 2015
iron-oxide. The soil was collected from a former refinery plant located in Janghang, Chungnam, Republic
Available online xxx
of Korea. The experiments were designed two different power supply systems: a normal power supply
and a solar-powered system, and operated the experiments for five weeks. The normal direct current
Keywords:
(DC)-powered system removed 32% of the As, but the solar-powered system removed 27% of the As from
green remediation
solar cell
the soil over the five weeks of electrokinetic operation. The energy expenditure of the solar-based system
pulse was just 50% of that of the DC-powered system. The results show that the solar-powered electrokinetic
oxalic acid process can remove slightly smaller amounts of contaminants with much less electrical energy. Based on
these results, the solar-based electrokinetic process could be applied in order to remediate As-
contaminated soil. However, enhanced As removal should be achieved for actual application.
ã 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction factors, such as soil characteristics, cost of electricity, installation of

Many remediation processes have been developed and applied
in order to remediate various types of contaminated soil and
ground-water [1]. In order to select the remediation process,
several factors including soil characteristics, contaminant type,
economic feasibility, and field applicability should be duly
considered [1–3]. Among these factors, soil with a portion of fine
grained particles makes most remediation processes unfeasible
due to its low hydraulic conductivity and strong affinity to
contaminants [1,4]. Soil washing, including physical separation
and chemical extraction, is the most common technique used to
remediate metal-contaminated soil in Korea. However, the
removal of metals in fine-grained soil is not achievable by soil
washing [5–8]. Electrokinetic remediation (EKR) is one remedia-
tion technology be applicable for the treatment of fine-particle and
clay-like soil [1,2,4,6,9,10]. In order to enhance the performance of
the EKR process, many studies have investigated the feasibility of
certain additives to enhance the mobility of the pollutants.
However, the use of the EKR process to reduce the operation cost
or electric energy expenditure was relatively limited [11]. Several
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 63 270 2437; fax: +82 63 270 2449.
E-mail address: kbaek@jbnu.ac.kr (K. Baek).
equipment, and depth of contamination, influence the overall cost
of the EKR process [1,2,12]. Among these economic factors of the
EKR process, electric energy accounts for 10–15% of the total cost
[2]. Alshawabkeh et al. [1] reported that the electric cost was 16.1%
of the total cost of the EKR process. The total energy expenditure
was influenced by soil characteristics, contamination conditions,
and electrode configuration or spacing [1,12]. However, several
factors that influenced the energy expenditure of the EKR process
were discussed with the conventional DC power supply under
constant voltage or current. In addition, the EKR process using
constant voltage caused a risk for electrode corrosion by the
polarization effect [13,14]. The solar-based EKR process that
generates electric power by itself has attracted attention recently
[11]. The electric energy generated by a solar-cell depended on the
daylight, in other words, the electrical potential was influenced by
the weather conditions and was an attractive energy source
because it is a renewable energy source and is environmentally
friendly [15–18]. Furthermore, the solar-cell generated DC power
and was beneficial for the EKR process because it did not need to
use an AC to DC power converter for application to the EKR process
[11,18]. Yuan et al. [11] reported that the solar-based EKR process
was more economical than the traditional EKR process, and Kim
et al. [19] reported that the solar-based EKR process consumed less
energy for the removal of similar amounts of salts from soil.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2015.03.065
0013-4686/ ã 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: E.-K. Jeon, et al., Application of solar-cells in the electrokinetic remediation of As-contaminated soil,
Electrochim. Acta (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2015.03.065
G Model
EA 24591 No. of Pages 7

2 E.-K. Jeon et al. / Electrochimica Acta xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

texture, and the initial pH and electrical conductivity (EC) were

measured with a pH & EC meter (IsTek Korea), respectively. The soil
was calcined at 550  C in order to measure the organic matter.
The soil composed of 26.8% sand, 9.9% silt, and 63.3% clay was
classified as clay. The initial concentrations of As (219.3 mg/kg), Cd
(4.6 mg/kg), Cu (304.5 mg/kg), and Pb (608.8 mg/kg) exceeded the
Korean regulatory standards (As: 25 mg/kg, Cd: 4 mg/kg, Cu:
150 mg/kg, and Pb: 200 mg/kg) (Table 1). The soil sample was
contaminated by many metals, but this study focused on reducing
the As concentration. The details of the soil properties are
summarized in Table 1.

2.2. Experimental set-up

A schematic of the electrokinetic remediation system used in

this study is shown in Fig. 1. It was provided direct current to
operating the pilot system in two different ways: the electrical
potential from a solar cell and that from a DC power supply. The DC
power supply generated an electrical potential of 40 V continu-
ously and the solar-cell can generate an electrical potential during
day time (with sunlight) up to 40 V. The EK testing apparatus was a
square type (H: 1 m, L: 1 m, W: 1 m) and divided the reactor into
two equal sections. Each section was provided electrical potential
by the DC supply and solar-based power. The electrode was
installed in a parallel configuration, and the electrode spacing
between the anode and cathode was 0.3 m. The spacing for the
same polarity electrode was 0.23 m (Fig. 1). The electrode system
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of electrode configuration and Osmosis flow circulation
system.

However, the studies on solar-based EKR were limited based on the

small laboratory scale and there have not been any pilot or field-
scale studies even though they are required to evaluate the
feasibility of the solar-based EKR process.
The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a
solar-cell in order to reduce the electrical energy consumption for
the remediation of As-contaminated paddy soil on a pilot scale.

2. Experimental

2.1. Soil characteristics

The heavy metals-contaminated soil used in this study was

collected near a former metal refinery. The soil sample was air-
dried and sieved using a No. 10 mesh sieve. This experiment used
soil with a particle size smaller than 2 mm. The American standard
test method (ASTM D422-62) was used in order to measure the soil

Table 1
Preperties and Initial concentration of heavy-metals of soil used in this study.

Category Result
Soil texture Clay
Sand (%) 26.8
Silt (%) 9.9
Clay (%) 63.3
Soil pH 7.04
Conductivity (uS/cm) 267.1
Soil organic matter (%) 4.6

Concentration of heavy metals (mg/kg) Regulation level (mg/kg)

As 219.3 25
Cd 4.6 4
Cu 304.5 150
Pb 608.8 200
Ni 9.9 100
Zn 207.1 300

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of electrode system.

Please cite this article in press as: E.-K. Jeon, et al., Application of solar-cells in the electrokinetic remediation of As-contaminated soil,
Electrochim. Acta (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2015.03.065
G Model
EA 24591 No. of Pages 7
E.-K. Jeon et al. / Electrochimica Acta xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
Table 2
Experimental conditions for EKR process.
Power supply Potential gradient (V/cm) Pretreatment agent
D.C supply Constant at 1.33 Oxalic acid
Solar-cell Ranged at 0 to 1.33
was composed of two parts a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) casing and
an iron electrode (Fig. 2). Before installing the electrode in the soil,
the PVC casing was wrapped with filter cloth in order to prevent
electrolyte spillage, and each electrode casing was directly
connected to the electrode tank. The level of each electrolyte
was controlled to maintain equal amounts. The overflow of the
electrolyte was collected to measure the direction and amounts of
electro-osmotic flow (EOF). The electrolyte was circulated by a
peristaltic pump at a flow rate of 2 ml/min. A concentration of 0.1 M
oxalic acid was applied as a catholyte pursing solution in order to
supply oxalate to both of the EK systems. The experimental
conditions are summarized in Table 2. The contaminated soil was
pre-treated with a pursing solution at 30% water-content for
24 hours and packed the pre-treated soil into the pilot reactor
(H: 0.2 m, L: 0.45 m, W: 1 m). The experiments were carried out for
five weeks (35 days). The soil samples were collected at three
points between the anode and cathode by hand auger, and the
soil samples were divided into two 10-cm-deep layers (top layer
(0.0–0.1 m), bottom layer (0.1–0.2 m)). During the experimental
period, soil samples were collected four times every week (first,
second, third, and fifth samplings for weeks 1, 2, 3, and 5) (Fig. 3).
2.3. Analytical methods
The electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil and the water content
and pH of the soil were determined using the Korean standard test
method (KSTM). The heavy-metals were extracted from the
contaminated soil with an aqua-regia extraction solution (HCl:
HNO3 = 3:1), then the mixture was heated at 70  C for 1 hour, and
the extractant was filtered using 5B filter paper. The filtrate was
analyzed using induced coupled plasma optical emission spec-
trometry (ICP-OES, Agilent 720, USA). The fractionation of As in the
soil was analyzed according to the sequential extraction method
suggested by Wenzel et al. [20] and was sorted into the following
categories: non-specifically-bound (F1), specifically-bound (F2),
Fig. 3. Sampling point of this experiments during the experimental period.
Please cite this article in press as: E.-K. Jeon, et al., Application of solar-cells in the electrokinetic remediation of As-contaminated soil,
Electrochim. Acta (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2015.03.065
3
Electrolyte Duration (day)
Anolyte Catholyte
Tap water Oxalic acid 35
amorphous hydrous oxide-bound (F3), crystalline hydrous oxide-
bound (F4), and residual (F5).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Change in electrolyte pH
The change in electrolyte pH during the experimental period is
shown in Fig. 4a and b. In the early phase, the pH of the anolyte
decreased rapidly in both of the experiments. There was no
difference in anolyte pH between the solar-cell and the DC supply
despite differences in the current values observed in the two
experiments. The EK system used an iron electrode in order to
prevent acidification of the anodic region, because iron oxidation
instead of water oxidation did not generate hydrogen ions.
However, in the actual experiment, the soil was acidified by the
pretreatment and the circulation of the catholyte by oxalic acid.
Therefore, the effects of the iron anode were not clearly observed.
On the other hand, the pH of the catholyte remained at the initial
value from the beginning to the end of the experimental period
because the oxalic acid was circulated. However, the pH of the DC
supply was slightly higher than the pH value of the solar-cell. An
experiment using a solar-cell showed that it only generated OH
intermittently during the “on” time, therefore causing the differ-
ences in pH value.
3.2. Distribution of soil pH and accumulated electro-osmotic flow
The soil pH for each of the soil samples and the electro-osmotic
flow volume accumulation are shown in Fig. 4c and d. The soil pH
was initially 7.0 and was lowered to 4 after pre-treatment with
oxalic acid. The average pH value of each of the soil samples was 4.4
(1 weeks), 4.3 (2 weeks), 3.7 (3 weeks), and the pH value for the
solar-powered system were 3.9 (5 weeks) in the DC supply,
respectively, and 4.5 (1 weeks), 4.4 (2 weeks), 4.1 (3 weeks), and 4.2
G Model
EA 24591 No. of Pages 7

4 E.-K. Jeon et al. / Electrochimica Acta xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

7 2.5
Change of electrolyte pH (a) : Anolyte Anolyte of Solar-cell (b) : Catholyte
6 Anolyte of DC supply
2.0
5

1.5
4

3
1.0

2 Catholyte of Solar-cell
0.5 Catholyte of DC supply
1

0 0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000

Time/ h Time /h
8 8
(c) : DC supply 1st sampling (d) : Solar-cell
2nd sampling
3rd sampling
Soil pH distribution

6 5th sampling 6

4 4

2 2

0 0
Anode Middle Cathode Anode Middle Cathode

50
(e) Solar-cell
Electro-osmotic flow /L

DC supply
Accumulated Reverse

40

30

20

10

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000

Time /h
Fig. 4. Electrolyte pH distribution ((a): Anolyte, (b): Catholyte) and change of the soil pH((c): DC supply, (d): Solar-cell) and accumulated electro-osmotic flow volume (L) (e).

(5 weeks) during the same time period (Fig. 4c and d). The decrease positive by soil acidification, which influenced the velocity
in soil pH was strongly related to the electrolysis reaction, which distribution between the electrical force and the mobile cations
was directly proportional to the amount of electrical energy [21]. These experiments pre-treated the soil using 0.1 M oxalic acid
supplied. Therefore, the solar-powered system used less electrical in order to enhance the removal efficiency of the metals, and the
energy because the system could not generate electrical energy direction of flow was highly dependent on the chemical agent used
during the night time. for enhancing the efficiency. In general, the direction of the electro-
The electro-osmotic flow was influenced by several conditions, osmotic flow is from anode to cathode. However, the direction in
such as the zeta potential, the relative permittivity, and the this study was the opposite, that is, from cathode to anode.
viscosity [21]. The surface charge of the soil was changed to The acidification due to pretreatment with oxalic acid and the

Please cite this article in press as: E.-K. Jeon, et al., Application of solar-cells in the electrokinetic remediation of As-contaminated soil,
Electrochim. Acta (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2015.03.065
G Model
EA 24591 No. of Pages 7

E.-K. Jeon et al. / Electrochimica Acta xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 5

circulation of the acid in the catholyte changed the surface charge 50

of the soil to positive, which led to reverse electro-osmotic flow. (a) Solar-cell
DC supply
The overall volume of osmotic flow was 46.2 L and 23.2 L for the DC
40
supply and the solar-cell experiments, respectively (Fig. 4e). In the

Potential drop /V
experiment with the DC power supply, the voltage was continu-
ously supplied because the electric field, a driving force for electro- 30
osmotic flow, was generated continuously [22]. It is possible to
explain the correlation between the driving force of the EOF and 20
the electrical current using the electroosmotic permeability
coefficient, Ke (m2 V 1 s 1) in the following equation: 10
Qe=KeieA (1),
0
where Qe(mL/day) is the flow rate of the electroosmotic flow, ie
(V cm 1) is the voltage gradient, and A (m2) is the cross-sectional
area of the EKR system [21,23]. The average electroosmotic 0.5
permeability of the solar-cell was 6.05 * 10 10 m2 V 1 s 1 for only (b)

Current density /A cm-2

the “on” time, and that of the DC power was 1.21 * 10 9 m2 V 1 s 1.
0.4
These results indicate that the electroosmotic flow rate is
considerably correlated with the electrical current.
0.3

3.3. Current change and accumulated energy consumption

0.2
The normal DC power supply provided a constant voltage of
40 V to the system during the entire experimental period (Fig. 5a). 0.1
However, the solar-powered system supplied an electrical poten-
tial to the system ranging from 0 V to a maximum of 40 V. During
0.0
the day, the voltage was similar to the normal DC power. However,
the voltage decreased sharply to almost 0 V after sunset. The
voltage could also change during the day depending on the 80
-3
Energy consumption /kWh m

presence of direct sunshine. (c)

Initially, the current value in the normal DC power system was
maintained at 40 mA until 75 hours, after which time the current
increased rapidly to 200 mA. The average current during the entire
experiment was approximately 140 mA (Fig. 5b). The continuous
supply of conducting ions, including oxalate and H+, greatly
increased the current, and the neutralization reaction between the
H+ and OH decreased the current value. However, the current in
the solar-power system was highly dependent on the voltage
generated by the solar cell, with an average current of approxi-
mately 80 mA, just 57% of that of the normal DC-powered system.
Although the average current produced by the solar power was
lower than that of the DC-powered system, the maximum current
value of the solar power was approximately 2 times higher than
that of the DC power. The transport of ions was enhanced by the
higher current value during the day time in the solar-power
system. This probably occurred due to the depolarization effect,
which reduced the diffusion phenomenon during the “off” period
[2,4,24–28].
In general, H+ and OH are continuously generated in the EKR
process because of the constant voltage, and this phenomenon
leads to decreases in the electrical gradient. It also causes a
diffusion effect on the direction of the EOF because the H+ and OH
are moved into the soil section [28]. However, an intermittent
cathode reaction led to the depolarization effect and prevented a
decrease in the electric current and a change in the soil pH because
the discontinuous cathode reaction reduced the quantity of OH
[2,23,29]. The abovementioned results of the catholyte pH,
maintenance of the soil pH value, and continuous current value
indicate that the EKR process with a solar-cell can effectively
prevent the polarization effect.
3.4. Removal efficiency of As, Cu, and Pb
The removal of As increased to 17.7, 23.0, 30.4, and 32.0% after
one, two, three, and five weeks in the normal DC power system.
60
40
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time /h
Fig. 5. Change of Potential value (a), current density (b), and accumulated electric
energy consumption (c) during the experimental period.
After five weeks, the As removal rate in the anode region, middle
section, and cathode region was 23.2, 31.7 and 41.1%, respectively,
which indicated that the As was transported from the cathode
toward the anode (Fig. 6a and b). These results indicate that the
primary removal mechanism of As is electromigration of oxy-
anionic As toward the anode. In addition, the direction of the
electro-osmotic flow enhanced the transport or removal of the As
toward the anode.
It is well known that oxalic acid is a strong chelating agent with
Fe(II) and Fe(III) [30,31], and it can extract Fe from soil by chelating,
which is enhanced by acidic conditions. The chelation of oxalic acid
with Fe can release As to soil water. In addition, oxalic acid can
reduce Fe(III) to Fe(II) and/or As(V) to As(III); the reduction of Fe
(III) can enhance the release of As(V); and the reduction of As(V) to
As(III) can decrease the re-adsorption of As onto the positively-
charged soil surface due to acidification [30,32]. As(III) is a neutral
compound below pH 9. Therefore, the transport direction of As(III)
was highly dependent on the direction of electro-osmotic flow,
which accelerated the accumulation of As near the anode. Various

Please cite this article in press as: E.-K. Jeon, et al., Application of solar-cells in the electrokinetic remediation of As-contaminated soil,
Electrochim. Acta (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2015.03.065
G Model
EA 24591 No. of Pages 7
6 E.-K. Jeon et al. / Electrochimica Acta xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
Fig. 6. Concentration change of As during the experimental period ((a): DC supply, (b): Solar-cell) and Fractionation change of As ((c): DC supply, (d): Solar-cell) during the
experimental period. Fractionation of As analyzed by Wenzel method.
chemical solutions including acids or chelating agents have been
used to enhance the desorption of metals from soil [9,33]. In
addition, arsenic (As) can be extracted or released into solution
from soil by the application of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
(EDTA) due to its ability to extract Fe from the soil, where most of
the As exists with Fe oxyhydroxides. However, EDTA has an adverse
effect on the environment because of its low biodegradability
[34,35]. Oxalic acid has the advantage of causing less damage to the
soil environment than that caused by chelating agents, however, it
is apprehended that the soil pH will be acidified continuously
circulated oxalic acid rather than circulation of EDTA. [36]. Oxalic
acid can form stable complexes with Fe. Therefore, they precipitate
in the form of ferrous oxalate, with indicates that iron can return to
the soil after washing [37,38].
In the solar-powered system, the removal of As increased to
15.1, 15.4, 24.8, and 27.0% after one, two, three, and five weeks
(Fig. 5b). Even though the removal was enhanced with operation
time, the removal efficiency of As was lower than that of the
DC-powered system due to a small supply of current or energy. The
DC-powered system consumed 67.5 KWh/m3, while the solar-
powered system used 33.7 KWh/m3 (Fig. 5c). The solar-powered
system removed 27.0% of the As from the system with approxi-
mately 50% less energy than the DC-powered system (32% removal
of As after five weeks). In general, the removal of contaminants in
electrokinetic remediation is proportional to the energy supplied.
Therefore, similar removal with expenditure of much less energy is
abnormal. The enhanced removal of As by solar power can
probably be explained by the influence of pulsed power. The
variation in the voltage gradient from the solar-cell according to
daylight was similar to the pattern of pulsed current that
periodically repeated during the “on/off time” using the DC power
supply. The application of pulsed current “off time” can diminish
the negative effects of the polarization effect (during the “on
Please cite this article in press as: E.-K. Jeon, et al., Application of solar-cells in the electrokinetic remediation of As-contaminated soil,
Electrochim. Acta (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2015.03.065
time”), such as activation, resistance, and concentration polariza-
tion [2,29,39,40]. Additional advantages of the solar-powered EK
system are its environmental friendliness and the lower operating
cost.
3.5. Fractionation changes
Initially 64.2% of As in the soil existed as a form bound to
amorphous iron oxide (F3); the electrokinetic treatment lowered
the fraction of As to 22.8% in the DC-powered system and 20.6% in
the solar-powered system (Fig. 6c and d). In addition, the fraction
of As bound to crystalline iron oxide changed from 14.0% to 3.6% for
the normal DC-powered system and to 3.4% for the solar-powered
system. The fractions of other compounds were not changed
significantly. Oxalic acid can extract Fe from the soil though
chelating-enhanced extraction, and amorphous Fe can be easily
extracted by the oxalic acid in comparison to the crystalline Fe. The
extraction of Fe by oxalic acid released the As bound to the fraction,
which was transported by electromigration and/or electro-osmotic
flow.
4. Conclusions
This study investigated the electrokinetic process powered by
solar energy in order to reduce the energy cost, a major portion
of the operating cost of the process, for the remediation of
As-contaminated soil on a pilot scale. The pretreatment and
circulation of the catholyte using oxalic acid acidified the soil and
changed the surface charge of the soil to positively, which led to
reverse electro-osmotic flow. The As was transported toward the
anode by electromigration and reverse electro-osmotic flow.
Oxalic acid extracted the As bound to the amorphous iron oxide
to the pore solution via chelation with Fe. The solar-powered
G Model
EA 24591 No. of Pages 7
E.-K. Jeon et al. / Electrochimica Acta xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
system generated an electrical potential during “day time”
(sunlight) and it led to difference between DC power supply and
the solar-based EKR. The electrolyte pH of solar-powered system
was slightly lower than the pH of DC power supply, which only
generated OH intermittently during the “day time”. Intermittent
cathode reaction during day time led to the depolarization effect,
and this phenomenon prevented the electrode corrosion which
influenced considerably a decrease in the electric current and a
change in the soil pH. The solar-powered system removed a slightly
smaller amount of As than the normal DC-powered system at half
the total energy supply. In other words, the solar-powered system
can reduce the operating cost using sustainable energy and
removes only slightly smaller amounts of As from the soil. These
results show the feasibility of the solar-powered electrokinetic
process on a pilot scale and this process has potential for
sustainability and lower operating cost of electrokinetic process.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by a grant from Korea Environment
Industry and Technology Institute (KEITI) through GAIA project.
References
[1] A.N. Alshawabkeh, A.T. Yeung, M.R. Bricka, Practical aspects of in-situ
electrokinetic extraction, Journal of Environmental Engineering-ASCE 125
(1999) 27–35.
[2] J. Virkutyte, M. Sillanpaa, P. Latostenmaa, Electrokinetic soil remediation -
critical overview, Science of the Total Environment 289 (2002) 97–121.
[3] E.-K. Jeon, J.-M. Jung, W.-S. Kim, S.-H. Ko, K. Baek, In situ electrokinetic
remediation of As-, Cu-, and Pb-contaminated paddy soil using hexagonal
electrode configuration: a full scale study, Environmental Science and
Pollution Research 22 (2015) 711–720.
[4] Y.B. Acar, A.N. Alshawabkeh, Principles of Electrokinetic Remediation,
Environmental Science & Technology 27 (1993) 2638–2647.
[5] W.-S. Kim, G.-Y. Park, D.-H. Kim, H.-B. Jung, S.-H. Ko, K. Baek, In situ field scale
electrokinetic remediation of multi-metals contaminated paddy soil:
Influence of electrode configuration, Electrochimica Acta 86 (2012) 89–95.
[6] D.-H. Kim, B.-G. Ryu, S.-W. Park, C.-I. Seo, K. Baek, Electrokinetic remediation of
Zn and Ni-contaminated soil, Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009)
501–505.
[7] J.-S. Yang, J.Y. Lee, K. Baek, T.-S. Kwon, J. Choi, Extraction behavior of As, Pb, and
Zn from mine tailings with acid and base solutions, Journal of Hazardous
Materials 171 (2009) 443–451.
[8] G. Dermont, M. Bergeron, G. Mercier, M. Richer-Lafleche, Soil washing for
metal removal: A review of physical/chemical technologies and field
applications, Journal of Hazardous Materials 152 (2008) 1–31.
[9] Y.B. Acar, R.J. Gale, A.N. Alshawabkeh, R.E. Marks, S. Puppala, M. Bricka, R.
Parker, Electrokinetic Remediation- Basiscs and Technology Status, Journal of
Hazardous Materials 40 (1995) 117–137.
[10] M.M. Page, C.L. Page, Electroremediation of contaminated soils, Journal of
Environmental Engineering-ASCE 128 (2002) 208–219.
[11] S. Yuan, Z. Zheng, J. Chen, X. Lu, Use of solar cell in electrokinetic remediation of
cadmium-contaminated soil, Journal of Hazardous Materials 162 (2009)
1583–1587.
[12] D.S. Schultz, Electroosmosis technology for soil remediation: laboratory
results, field trial, and economic modeling, Journal of Hazardous Materials 55
(1997) 81–91.
[13] D.-H. Kim, S.-U. Jo, J.-C. Yoo, K. Baek, Ex situ pilot scale electrokinetic
restoration of saline soil using pulsed current, Separation and Purification
Technology 120 (2013) 282–288.
[14] S.-U. Jo, D.-H. Kim, J.-S. Yang, K. Baek, Pulse-enhanced electrokinetic
restoration of sulfate-containing saline greenhouse soil, Electrochimica Acta
86 (2012) 57–62.
Please cite this article in press as: E.-K. Jeon, et al., Application of solar-cells in the electrokinetic remediation of As-contaminated soil,
Electrochim. Acta (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2015.03.065
7
[15] S. Zhang, J. Zhang, X. Cheng, Y. Mei, C. Hu, M. Wang, J. Li, Electrokinetic
remediation of soil containing Cr (VI) by photovoltaic solar panels and a DC-DC
converter, Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology (2014) .
[16] I. Hassan, E. Mohamedelhassan, 2012; Electrokinetic Remediation with Solar
Power for a Homogeneous Soft Clay Contaminated with Copper, Journal ISSN
(1929) 2732.
[17] I. Hassan, E. Mohamedelhassan, Integrated solar electrokinetic remediation of
heterogeneous soils contaminated with copper.
[18] E. Mohamedelhassan, Laboratory study on integrated solar electrokinetic
barrier for preventing cadmium contamination, Res. J. Environ. Earth Sci 3
(2011) 521.
[19] D.-H. Kim, J.-M. Jung, S.-U. Jo, W.-S. Kim, K. Baek, Photovoltaic Powered
Electrokinetic Restoration of Saline Soil, Separation Science and Technology 47
(2012) 2235–2240.
[20] W.W. Wenzel, N. Kirchbaumer, T. Prohaska, G. Stingeder, E. Lombi, D.C.
Adriano, Arsenic fractionation in soils using an improved sequential extraction
procedure, Analytica Chimica Acta 436 (2001) 309–323.
[21] J. Mitchell, Fundamentals of Soil Behavior, 2nd Ed., Wiley, New York, 1993.
[22] L.M. Fu, J.Y. Lin, R.J. Yang, Analysis of electroosmotic flow with step change in
zeta potential, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 258 (2003) 266–275.
[23] B.-G. Ryu, J.-S. Yang, D.-H. Kim, K. Baek, Pulsed electrokinetic removal of Cd and
Zn from fine-grained soil, Journal of Applied Electrochemistry 40 (2010)
1039–1047.
[24] Y.B. Acar, A.N. Alshawabkeh, Electrokinetic remediation .1. Pilot-scale tests
with lead-spiked kaolinite, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering-Asce 122
(1996) 173–185.
[25] Y.B. Acar, J.T. Hamed, A.N. Alshawabkeh, R.J. Gale, Removal of Cadmium(II)
From saturated Kaolinite By The Application of Electrical Current,
Geotechnique 44 (1994) 239–254.
[26] Y.B. Acar, E.E. Ozsu, A.N. Alshawabkeh, M.F. Rabbi, R.J. Gale, Enhance soil
bioremediation with electric fields, Chemtech 26 (1996) 40–44.
[27] J.G. Sah, J.Y. Che, Study of the electrokinetic process on Cd and Pb spiked soils,
Journal of Hazardous Materials 58 (1998) 301–315.
[28] B. Kornilovich, N. Mishchuk, K. Abbruzzese, G. Pshinko, R. Klishchenko,
Enhanced electrokinetic remediation of metals-contaminated clay, Colloids
and Surfaces a-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects 265 (2005) 114–123.
[29] H.K. Hansen, A. Rojo, Testing pulsed electric fields in electroremediation of
copper mine tailings, Electrochimica Acta 52 (2007) 3399–3405.
[30] E.J. Kim, K. Baek, Enhanced reductive extraction of arsenic from contaminated
soils by a combination of dithionite and oxalate, Journal of Hazardous
Materials 284 (2015) 19–26.
[31] D. Chichester, F. Tanner, T. Furia, Handbook of food additives, Handbook of
Food Additives, 1 (1972).
[32] E.J. Kim, J.-C. Yoo, K. Baek, Arsenic speciation and bioaccessibility in arsenic-
contaminated soils: Sequential extraction and mineralogical investigation,
Environmental Pollution 186 (2014) 29–35.
[33] K.R. Reddy, S. Danda, R.E. Saichek, Complicating factors of using
ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid to enhance electrokinetic remediation of
multiple heavy metals in clayey soils, Journal of Environmental Engineering-
Asce 130 (2004) 1357–1366.
[34] S. Tandy, K. Bossart, R. Mueller, J. Ritschel, L. Hauser, R. Schulin, B. Nowack,
Extraction of heavy metals from soils using biodegradable chelating agents,
Environmental Science & Technology 38 (2004) 937–944.
[35] J.S. Jaworska, D. Schowanek, T.C.J. Feijtel, Environmental risk assessment for
trisodium S,S -Ethylene Diamine Disuccinate, a biodegradable chelator used in
detergent applications, Chemosphere 38 (1999) 3597–3625.
[36] S.A. Wasay, S.F. Barrington, S. Tokunaga, Remediation of soils polluted by heavy
metals using salts of organic acids and chelating agents, Environmental
Technology 19 (1998) 369–379.
[37] S.O. Lee, T. Tran, Y.Y. Park, S.J. Kim, M.J. Kim, Study on the kinetics of iron oxide
leaching by oxalic acid, International Journal of Mineral Processing 80 (2006)
144–152.
[38] S.O. Lee, T. Tran, B.H. Jung, S.J. Kim, M.J. Kim, Dissolution of iron oxide using
oxalic acid, Hydrometallurgy 87 (2007) 91–99.
[39] T.R. Sun, L.M. Ottosen, Effects of pulse current on energy consumption and
removal of heavy metals during electrodialytic soil remediation,
Electrochimica Acta 86 (2012) 28–35.
[40] M. Zhou, S. Zhu, F. Liu, D. Zhou, Pulse-enhanced electrokinetic remediation of
fluorine-contaminated soil, Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering 31 (2014)
2008–2013.