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ELECTRIC POWER
APPLICATIONS, ENGINE
& GENERATOR SIZING
Contents
SECTION CONTENTS
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EP Applications, Engine & Generator Sizing Application and Installation Guide
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Figure 1
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Figure 2
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generator set to return to its normal all examples of loads which need
steady-state speed is called recovery small voltage dips.
time. This is illustrated in Figure 3. The human eye is sensitive to
slight lighting fluctuations. Even a
decrease of 1/2 volt on a 110 volt
incandescent bulb is noticeable. A
one volt dip, if repeated, becomes
objectionable. Figure 4 shows the
range of observable and objection-
able voltage dips, assuming direct
illumination and medium-sized bulbs.
If indirect lighting is used with no
incandescent bulbs below 100
Figure 3 watts, these values may be
broadened. This is also true if all
Sizing Criterion lighting is fluorescent rather than
Three primary criteria need to be incandescent.
provided to accurately size a Reciprocating compressors
generator set: seriously affect lighting quality.
• The acceptable percent of Torque pulsations vary motor
voltage & frequency dip current, causing sufficient voltage
fluctuation to flicker lights.
• The acceptable duration of
Unfortunately, this is a frequency to
the voltage & frequency dip
which eyes are extremely sensitive.
recovery time
A commonly accepted figure for
• The percent of a load step and
current variation limits for motor-
type of load to be connected
driven reciprocating compressors is
The larger the voltage dip a 66% of full rated motor current.
generator set can tolerate, the This limits horsepower rating of
smaller and perhaps more economical compressor motors to about 6%
the generator set can be. A 30% of generator kVA rating, which is in
maximum voltage dip is a typical the limit of objectionable light flicker.
limit for industrial motor control For example, a 30 hp motor may be
centers. Sensitive loads may be used on systems having not less
written in spec for much lower than 500 kVA of generator capacity
voltage dips. UPS, variable speed in operation (30 is 6% of 500).
drives, and medical equipment are
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Figure 4
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Figure 5
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Figure 6
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Air System
The load acceptance behavior of
an engine also depends on the type
of air supply to the combustion
system. Maximum engine power
may be airflow restricted. Power can
only be increased if airflow and fuel
Figure 7 rate are increased. Engine airflow is
determined by displacement of the
Explanation of Figure 7 engine, engine speed, and engine
Using Figure 7, the number of load inlet air density. More dense air
steps needed for desired power can allows the generator set to perform
be determined. First, find the BMEP more efficiently; thus a quicker
of the engine at rated speed; BMEP response to varying loads.
levels are shown for each rating in
For a given displacement, or given
the performance data of the TMI.
size of engine, more speed produces
If the percentage of block load is more airflow. The best way to
under the first load step curve, the increase airflow at speeds which
block load can be accomplished in are compatible with 60 Hz or 50 Hz
one step. is to increase the density of the air
If the percentage of the block load entering the cylinders. A turbo-
is greater than the first load step charger can increase pressure which
curve but smaller than the second will increase density. Density of the
load step curve, it will take two air can also be increased by cooling
load steps to reach desired power. the hot, compressed air with a heat
If the percentage of block load is exchanger called an aftercooler.
greater than the first two load step A separate water supply, jacket
curves but less than the third load water, or radiator airflow can be
step curve, it will take three load used for this cooling.
steps to reach desired power. The configuration of the air
Load blocks and response systems can also have an effect on
to block loading is one of many the transient response. A turbo-
considerations when sizing a charger equipped with a wastegate
generator set. Many turbocharged allows a larger turbocharger to be
and aftercooled four-stroke diesel used but limits the turbo boost
engines will not accept 100% block pressure under normal operating
load in one step. Always investigate conditions. The engine runs faster
to ensure the selected generator set and therefore increases airflow
will meet application requirements. without overspeeding. Another
example is the ability to decrease
Engine Configuration the transient response by increasing
The way an engine is configured the number of turbochargers. This
can affect the size of genset needed. would allow the engine to run at the
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same BMEP but have a different voltage dips and frequency changes.
transient response. Inlet air pressure When the governor on a gas engine
in a turbocharger affects the air calls for more power, the throttle
density as well. A smaller nozzle in opens and a larger flow of air/fuel
the turbine housing of a turbocharger mixture starts moving through the
increases air velocity which causes after-cooler core, air intake manifold,
the turbocharger to operate at a and then into the cylinder. This time
higher speed, thus, increasing boost delay detracts from the gas engines
and airflow. An engine equipped capability for accepting large block
with water-cooled exhaust manifolds loads.
will transfer less heat to the turbo- Considerable effort has been made
charger, making it less efficient to improve the transient electrical
during short periods of acceleration. performance of the G3516B and
Gas Engines G3516C generator sets. The
Caterpillar gas engines are G3516B uses transient richening.
naturally aspirated (NA) or Transient richening is factory-
turbocharged-aftercooled (TA). programmed to the control software
Atmospheric conditions affect the that improves block load pick up.
way an NA engine can draw air into There is also a bypass line from the
its system. An NA engine’s load aftercooler to the inlet of the
capability is directly affected by turbocharger which is equipped with
altitude and ambient temperature. an electronic valve. This system is
TA engines have a turbocharger called the turbocharger bypass
which compresses air which which, in conjunction with factory-
increases its temperature. A programmed software, allows block
separate aftercooler is used so that unloads to be accomplished without
air density and detonation margin turbocharger surge (rapid speed
is increased. TA engines can be change of the turbocharger). These
derated so that they will not two systems enable the G3516B
experience premature detonation. gensets for island operation. The
G3516B gensets are able to accept
Block Load and Transient Capability
10% transient load steps. The
The block load capability or
gensets are able to reject transient
transient response of the gas engine
load steps up to 25% of rated power
genset package is less than its diesel
from any given load point.
engine counterpart. Most of this
difference is directly attributed to System Interaction
the inherently different fuel systems The generator and voltage
of the two engines. When the regulator are responsible for voltage
governor calls for more power, a deviation and recovery. The power
diesel engine reacts by adding fuel produced by the generator is
directly into the cylinder. This method controlled by excitation of the rotor.
permits the diesel engine to accept The voltage regulator controls
100% block loads with acceptable excitation (DC current).
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Customer Requirements
graph a complete year and determine
Power Demand any seasonal variations.
On Site Power Requirement A daily chronological load curve,
Before selecting an engine model illustrated in Figure 8, shows load
and rating, a load analysis needs to demand throughout the day. A
be performed. This section will chronological curve establishes the
consider the factors which affect peak daily demand and an energy
generator sizing including load usage profile which can aid in the
management needs, voltage and selection of an appropriately sized
frequency dip limitations, motor engine. This load curve is also useful
starting considerations, start-up in programming units for economical
needs and all required standards. operation.
Load Management
Load management is the deliberate
control of loads on a genset and/or
utility to have the lowest possible
electrical costs.
Assessing the customer’s load
profiles is a key component to
establishing their load management
profile and ultimately the size of
genset needed to operate within
that profile.
Loads Profiles
The duration and nature of a load
must be established to select and Figure 8
operate a genset system at
maximum efficiency. To analyze a Daily typical peaks for various
load, a family of load profile charts industries can be graphed based on
is necessary. Chronological and typical loads as shown in Figure 9.
duration load profiles best serve
this purpose.
Note: Unless the load is known to be
steady, this average cannot be used
to establish the engine and generator
requirements because the average
will always be lower than the Figure 9
maximum kW demand.
Duration curves, as shown in
The purpose of the monthly Figure 10, rearrange chronological
average number is to be able to curves and summarize daily load.
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Such curves are developed for a For existing loads that are served
week, month, season or year. The by a utility, power bills or power
daily chart represents the average consumption records will provide
kilowatt load for each day, while the needed data for a twelve-month
the twelve-month chart, shown in period. The average kW load can be
Figure 11, represents the average determined by the following
kilowatt load for each month. equation:
Average kW Total kW used in Month
=
Load for Month Total Monthly Hours of Operation
Figure 10
Figure 11
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Load Example
2
VA/FT Load Estimating Calculate the load for a
For estimating purposes, power 10,000 square foot office with
loads and lighting loads can be electric air conditioning.
measured in VA/FT2. However, a Solution
detailed analysis requires individual The left-hand column of Table 7
measurement of power loads to indicates the maximum lighting load
ensure accuracy. in an office building is 4.0 VA/FT2.
A simple table, based on VA/FT2, Therefore, the lighting load
is used to obtain a rough estimate equates to:
of a load as expressed in total kVA 4.0 VA/FT2 x 10,000 (square feet) = 40,000 VA
generated; Table 7 shows such a
table.
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Reading the table from left to right: earlier in this guide, is one system
2
2.0 VA/FT is required for for developing a starting method.
miscellaneous power loads: Most loads do not draw power in
2
2.0 VA/FT x 10,000 (square feet) = 20,000 VA a steady-state fashion; therefore, it
is important to know the operating
sequence and what else is running
7.0 A/FT2 is required for electrical when loads are connected.
air conditioning loads:
7.0 VA/FT2 x 10,000 (square feet) = 70,000 VA
Prioritization
Prioritization is the process by
which the customer identifies what
Add the individual loads to electrical loads are needed and in
determine the combined load: what priority. The highest priority
40,000 + 20,000 + 70,000 = 130,000 VA loads would be in the first step;
even if all the gensets are not ready
for load. The first genset ready to
When using the table, it is
accept the load would take the first
important to remember that the table
priority loads. The next step would
does not account for power losses
go to the next highest prioritized
caused by the resistance found in
load. This process will repeat until
wires and cables. A power loss of
all loads are applied.
up to 6% would be factored into the
VA total when estimating a facility Smaller load steps equate to
with extensive wiring. smaller transients, which result in
a smoother transition. For example,
Load Steps a medical center might prioritize
Load steps refer to the amount of lifesaving equipment as their number
load that will be placed on a genset one need. That equipment (or special
at one time. A genset may accept outlets for that equipment) would be
load in one load step, or may spread the first supplied with electricity
it out over several load steps. The from the first available genset.
customer can identify the needs of Lights may be identified as the
the environment and then a proper second most important need and
method of starting can be applied. handled by the second load step.
BMEP load step analysis, described When starting generator sets
without a preferred load order, it
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Figure 14
Figure 13
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Figure 15
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Table 8
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EP Applications, Engine & Generator Sizing Application and Installation Guide
you must always assume that total kVA. Hence, a generator set rated at
time-current characteristics of all 500 kVA would satisfy the load.
motors and other loads starting at In summary, all loads need to be
the same time will not exceed the analyzed so that the correct size
short-term generator set rating. generator can be matched to the
Figure 19 illustrates how demand load. When sizing a generator for
and diversity factors are used in an application, the steady state load
generator set sizing. and maximum transient load need to
be considered.
Frequency Dips
Frequency dips are related to the
size of load being connected. Twenty
to 25% maximum frequency dip is
the standard limit. A frequency dip
above 35% may cause the engine
difficulty in recovering. Frequency
dips are normally more tightly
controlled than voltage dips because
they are typically connected to more
sensitive electrical equipment.
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Load Analysis
Load analysis is the process Energy = Power x Time
of considering size, starting
characteristics and intended usage
In electric power generation,
of electrical loads and their collective
electrical energy produced or
impact on a generator set power
consumed is expressed in kilowatt-
source.
hours (kW-Hrs). A single kW-Hr of
At times, it may be necessary to energy is one kW of electrical power
conduct a detailed analysis, through used for one hour.
discussion and observation,
kW-Hrs = kW x Hrs
with the user, customer, or
consulting/specifying engineer to
determine the exact nature of the Loads have different electrical
loads. characteristics. When developing a
Determining the electrical load load analysis, it is helpful to
of a facility is the first and most categorize loads into groups with
important step in supplying a common characteristics. There are
generator set. The generator set no rigid standards for categorizing
supplier is looked upon as the expert loads. Architects, consultants,
when it comes to choosing the right customers and generator set
generator set to power the load. As suppliers will determine or speak of
a supplier of high-quality Caterpillar categories for loads based on the
generator sets, it is important to needs of the project involved.
understand electrical loads and For example, loads may be
possess a working knowledge of categorized as normal loads and
basic load analysis. emergency loads or perhaps critical
An electrical load is a device that loads and non-critical loads. There
uses electricity; lights, motors, may be further division of the
heaters, welders and emergency or critical loads into
communications equipment are just additional categories of life-support
a few examples of electrical loads. or uninterruptible loads. On a
different project, the loads may be
It is important to understand the
labeled as base, intermediate and
relationship between energy and
peak shaving loads.
power when discussing electrical
loads. Power is a rate of doing work. Load analysis should define those
It is a product of force and motion. loads that are considered linear
Electrical power is the product of (draw current in a sine waveform)
electromotive force (volts) and and non-linear (draw current in
current flow (amps). It is expressed pulses or non-sine waveform).
in watts or kilowatts. Energy is work.
It is the product of power and time.
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These loads are often rated in watts. to the voltage. Non-linear loads
For example, ten 100-watt light create harmonics, or additional sine
bulbs would be a 1000 watt or 1 waves, that are a multiple of the
kW load. Current drawn by a lamp is generated frequency in the current
found by dividing its wattage rating waveform; Figure 21 illustrates
by a specified input voltage: harmonics. This will influence the
A = W/ V generator size. Harmonics are
discussed in detail in the Generator
Incandescents draw high inrush
Systems Application & Installation
currents and are suitable in
Guide (LEBW4993).
applications which require flashing
or dimming, with operation over
wide voltage ranges. Any voltage
fluctuation can affect the lamp
brightness while extreme voltage
fluctuations shorten filament life.
Tungsten Lamp Inrush
Tungsten filament lamps are
resistance devices. The resistance of
a tungsten filament increases rapidly
with an increase in temperature. At
room temperature, with the lamp
“off”, resistance is low. However,
the filament temperature increases Figure 22
rapidly when the lamp is turned “on”
and, consequently, the resistance Fluorescent Lamps
increases as the lamp assumes Fluorescent lamps are also rated by
normal operating temperature. This voltage and wattage. Due to the use
is called tungsten lamp inrush. of a ballast transformer, these lamps
have power factors slightly lower
Tungsten lamp inrush current can (0.95 to 0.97) than incandescent
be up to 17 times greater than the lamps. When incandescent or
normal current but the surge lasts fluorescent type lights operate from
only a few cycles. Switches must step-down transformers, power
be designed to handle such surges. factor contribution of the
When using a generator power transformer must be considered.
source, this phenomenon is generally Uncompensated fixtures can show
inconsequential. However, very large power factors as low as 0.5 lagging.
blocks of tungsten lighting load may
cause a momentary voltage dip Gas Discharge Lamps
transient to occur. Gas discharge lamps are
fluorescent, high-pressure sodium or
Non-Linear Lighting Loads similar lamps which use a gas-filled
Non-linear loads are AC loads in chamber in combination with a low
which the current is not proportional energy, high voltage sustained
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DC Motors
DC motors are used in applications P x 1000 50 x1000
I= = = 167 amperes
3 V x pf 1.73 x 216 x 0.8
requiring speed control, heavy load
starting or where other system
elements require a DC power source. 2. Find the coil current capacity
Full load efficiencies vary from 86 remaining for the single-phase
to 92%. load.
334 – 167 = 167 amperes
DC motors have no power factor;
however, when driven through a 3. Find the single-phase power
silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) by available.
an AC generator, the AC does have V x I x pf 125 x 167 x 0.9
P= = = 18.8 kW
a power factor. Use the following 1000 1000
formula to determine DC loads on
an AC generator: When DC motors are at maximum
DC kW x1000 rpm, the system power factor is also
DC amps= AC amps = DC amps x 0.816
DC volts maximized.
According to the application
AC volts x AC amps x 1.732
AC kVA =
1000
requirements, motors can be
designed to provide various speed
DC kW
and torque characteristics. Modern
Power Factor = applications will usually involve the
AC kVA
use of packaged static component
Example drive controls, commonly called SCR
Find the amount of single-phase drives. SCR drives are discussed in
power which can be safely drawn detail later in this section.
from a three-phase, 125/216 volt, A major consideration when sizing
four-wire generator set, rated to a generator is to look at the
deliver 100 kW at 0.8 pf. The coil provision or inclusion of a suitable
current rating of the generator set is DC supply. There must be enough
334 amperes. Assume the single- kVA to power both the DC supply
phase load is connected from one and the load.
line-to-neutral and has an operating Single-phase Motors
power factor of 0.9 lagging. In Single-phase motors are common
addition, assume that the generator in fractional horsepower sizes. They
set is supplying a three-phase load may occasionally be used in sizes as
of 50 kW at a 0.8 pf. high as ten horsepower. Single-
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phase motors do not have the single-phase motors and have the
benefit of rotating magnetic fields advantage of having a simple
produced by spaced voltage cycles designed rotating magnetic field that
of a three-phase circuit. Therefore, a turns the rotor for starting. In a
separate starter winding is included three-phase motor, there are three
in the stator with provisions to equally spaced voltage cycles
supply a magnetic field that is out of feeding respective windings in the
phase with the main stator winding stator. A rotating magnetic field is
field. This results in a rotating field produced which the rotor
to start things moving. A centrifugal immediately begins to follow.
switch disconnects the starter Therefore, no special starter winding
winding as it achieves rated speed. is required to begin rotation.
Single-phase motors are not
Motor Performance
generally of great concern when
Most three-phase motors are
started by a generator which is
squirrel cage type as mentioned
relatively larger in size. It is good
earlier. When rotor slot cross
practice to divide multiple single-
sections are changed, different
phase motor loads into equal blocks
torque and speed characteristics
per phase. If blocks of single-phase
result. How a motor and its load
motors are spread equally over the
impact a generator is highly
three-phases and started as a group,
dependent on the characteristics
this motor load can be considered as
of the motor.
a single three-phase motor of equal
hp. The skVA may be higher Design Class
because the skVA per hp is typically Motors with various rotor designs
higher for single-phase motors. The are classified in the U.S. by the
total kW load may also be slightly National Electrical Manufacturers
higher because small motors are Association (NEMA) as Design A, B,
frequently less efficient than large C or D. Figure 25 shows a typical
motors. motor nameplate.
If the single-phase motor load
cannot be distributed, it may be
necessary to verify the ability of the
generator to provide the skVA.
Generally, with large blocks of
single-phase motors started from
one phase, the available skVA of the
generator will be 56% of the normal Figure 25
three-phase skVA.
In the following design
Three-Phase Motors descriptions, “slip” applies to the
Three-phase motors are very difference between motor full load
common in industry. They provide speed and its synchronous speed
more output for physical size than Note that these descriptions do not
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Table 16
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squirrel cage motor has a lagging 6.0 kVA x 200 hp = 1,200 skVA
power factor of approximately Next, use Figure 28 to find the
0.25 pf. lagging starting power factor for
Figure 28 can be used to help a 20 hp motor; it is approximately
determine the total kW needed when 0.46 pf.
a squirrel cage motor, or group of skVA x Starting pf = kW
motors, is started.
1,200 x 0.46 = 552 kW
Example
How much kW is needed when a
Code G 200 hp squirrel cage motor, It was determined in a previous
at 6.0 kVA per hp, is started? example that a 200 hp motor
required 300 kW. Therefore, ten
Solution 20 hp squirrel cage motors require
skVA = kVA/hp x hp 84 percent more kW than the
6.0 x 200 hp = 1,200 200 hp squirrel cage motor during
starting. (300 kW vs. 552 kW)
Use Figure 28 to find the lagging Motor Starting Load
power factor of a 200 hp squirrel The nameplate of a motor provides
cage motor; the chart indicates important information in regard to
0.25 pf. sizing.
skVA x Starting pf = kW The Motor Starting Codes identify
1200 skVA x 0.25 = 300 kW the starting kVA (skVA) per hp. If
the nameplate does not list the
motor starting code, it is likely to list
The chart in Figure 28 can also be the Locked Rotor Amps (LRA). The
used to compare how much kW is LRA is a measurement of the initial
required for one motor versus a inrush of current when a motor is
group of motors. started.
Example Motors, either loaded or unloaded,
How much power is needed when draw several times rated full load
ten Code G squirrel cage motors current when starting. Satisfying
rated at 20 hp each are started? this inrush, places a large
Which requires more power — ten momentary kVA demand on the
20 hp motors, or one 200 hp motor? generator called the starting kVA
The motors are rated at 6.0 kVA per (skVA). SkVA can be calculated
hp each. from locked rotor current.
Solution skVA = (V x LRA x 1.732)/1000
First, find the total horsepower by
multiplying the number of motors by Motors generally exhibit low
the hp of each motor. Use the total starting power factors (0.2 to 0.5)
hp (200) in the following equation: when starting. Load imposed on the
skVA = kVA/hp x hp
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Figure 33
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EP Applications, Engine & Generator Sizing Application and Installation Guide
shown in Figure 34. Then, divide the dropout or close intermittently thus
number by the total number of lines preventing the motor from starting.
on the chart. Low voltage operation can cause
overheating, extended load
acceleration times, opening of circuit
breakers and engine/generator
protection shutdowns. Table 17
shows the minimum recommended
motor ratings.
Minimum Recommended Motor Ratings
Induction Synchronous
Volts RPM
Motors hp Motors hp
601-3,000 3,600 250 —
601-3,000 1,800 or less 250 250
3,001-5,000 3,600 350 —
3,001-5,000 1,800 or less 300 250
5,001-7,000 3,600 1,000 —
Figure 34 5,001-7,000 1,800 or less 800 600
Table 17
Synchronous Torque
The steady-state torque developed Inrush current to the motor causes
by a synchronous motor at rated a rapid drop of generator output
speed. voltage. In most cases, 30% voltage
Peak Torque dip is acceptable, depending on
Maximum torque a load requires equipment already on-line. Degree
from its driving motor. of dip must be identified by an
oscilloscope. Meters or mechanical
Motor Voltage recorders are too slow for this
A properly sized genset must have measurement.
adequate kW (power) and kVA
capability to satisfy the demands of Single-speed, three-phase,
a motor during starting. constant-speed induction motors,
when measured with rated source
Most motors are energized with voltage and frequency impressed
electrically operated contactors. and with rotor locked, must not
Extremes in voltage dip due to motor exceed the values listed in Table 18.
starting may cause the electro-
magnetically held contactors to
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Table 18
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button is opened. The on-off control The generator set must have
commonly features integral overload sufficient motor starting kVA
protection. capacity to limit voltage drop. If
Full line voltage is supplied to the actual values of the motor starting
motor instantly when the motor current cannot be determined, an
switch is actuated; refer to Table approximate value of 600% of full-
19. Maximum starting torque is load rated current is a good
available; therefore, the motor will approximation for Design B motors;
have minimum acceleration time. approximate 1500% of full-load
Reduction of acceleration time is rated current for Design E motors.
advantageous for motors that cycle Refer to Figure 36.
off and on frequently. The shorter Full voltage starting is used unless
the time it takes the motor to get to there are limitations on inrush
full speed, the less heating will occur currents. Most public utilities do not
on the motor windings. This will allow full voltage starting of large
allow for increased service life of motors. When large motors are
the motor. started, a relief must be provided.
Figure 35
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Advantages Disadvantages
Autotransformer
1. Provides highest torque per amp of line current. 1. In lower hp ratings, it is most expensive design
2. Taps on autotransformer permit adjustment of starting
voltage.
3. Closed transition starting.
4. While starting, motor current is greater than line current.
5. Low power factor.
Resistor
1. Smooth acceleration — motor voltage increases with 1. Low torque efficiency
speed. 2. Resistor heat
2. Closed transition starting. 3. High power factor during start.
3. Less expensive than autotransformer starter in lower hp
ratings.
4. Available with several accelerating points.
Part Winding
1. Least expensive reduced voltage starter. 1. Requires special motor design for voltages higher than
2. Closed transition starting. 230 v.
3. Most dual voltage motors can be started part winding on
lower of two voltages.
4. Small size.
Start Delta
1. Moderate cost — less than resistor or autotransformer. 1. Requires special motor design.
2. Suitable for high inertia, long acceleration loads. 2. Starting torque is low.
3. High torque efficiency.
Table 19
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Starting torque varies directly with Reduced voltage during start can
the square of the voltage impressed give relief from excessive current
on the stator. If the voltage imposed inrush demand and excessive
on the terminals of an induction transient disturbances. However, the
motor being started is reduced from motor may not have sufficient
its rated voltage to some given torque to accelerate to rated speed,
percentage of this full value, the especially if the motor is required to
power demand of the motor will be accelerate a connected load with a
reduced to a value equivalent to the heavy inertial content.
full voltage start kVA times the Starting current varies directly with
percent of full voltage squared. the impressed voltage.
% decrease of rated volts = x
Example
x2 = Available Torque What is the current draw of a 230 V
motor that is reduced to 200 V?
Using Ohm’s Law, it is seen that Solution
the power consumed in the circuit 200
= 0.87
will vary directly as the square of 230
the current flow. Therefore, since
current flow in a given circuit is Current draw is 87% of rated.
directly proportional to the voltage Figure 38 illustrates the effect of
across the circuit, the result of reduced voltage on current.
reducing the voltage to some
percent of full voltage will be a
reduction in power consumed in the
circuit equal to the percent of full
voltage squared.
Example
If line voltage of 230 V is supplied
to a 230 V motor, the available
torque is 100%. If a 230 V motor
is reduced to 200 volts, what is
available torque?
Solution
% decrease of rated volts = x
x2 = Available Torque
Figure 38
200
=x There are several types of reduced
230
motor starting.
x2 = 0.756 = Available Torque
• Autotransformer-Open
The available torque is 75.6%. Transition
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Autotransformer – Closed
Figure 39
Autotransformer — Closed
Transition
An alternative to open transition
switching, is closed transition.
This technique minimizes shock
by providing continuous flow of
current while switching from auto-
transformer tap to full voltage.
Closed transition switching, though
involving slightly more complex
switching, is preferred for
autotransformer starting. Auto-
transformer starters are magnetically
controlled. Three taps on the
transformer secondary are set for
50%, 65%, and 80% of full line
voltage. These three contactors, Figure 40
a timer, and a transformer make
up the starting device. This starter
is very smooth in acceleration
and allowance starting time is
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Solid State
Figure 44
Solid-State Starter
Solid-state starters offer many
options in achieving desired starting
characteristics. Solid-state starters
adjust torque, acceleration ramp
time and current limit to cause a
motor start which has a controlled
acceleration. Solid-state starters
offer smooth, step-less motor
starting by varying the conduction
angle of SCR’s. The conduction
angle varies from 20 to 100% which
in turn controls the motor voltage
from 40 to 80%. They have the
advantage of operating without Figure 45
mechanical parts and large electrical
switching contacts. This provides a The user adjusts the control
very smooth application of power. to deliver the best starting
The solid-state starter is not to be characteristic for the application.
confused with the solid-state Variations of current and voltage
adjustable speed drive. With a solid- limit are sometimes used to achieve
state starter, circuits are typically linear speed ramp, however the
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Figure 50
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Figure 51
Figure 52
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filter will usually eliminate any use 0.9 pf (typical for computer
problem. systems).
Power factor correction capacitors Battery recharge kW generally
are used primarily for economic ranges from 0 to 25% of input kW
reasons. They can also be effective (15% is typical). If unknown, use
in reducing waveform distortion. 25% of output kW for an
Caution must be exercised where approximation.
power factor correction capacitors If UPS efficiency is unknown,
are used. A resonant condition at the following guidelines are
one of the harmonic frequencies recommended:
with some part of the line
• Use 0.85 if UPS < 100 kW.
inductance such as a transformer,
on-line motor or the generator is • Use 0.875 if UPS > 100 kW,
possible. Excessive and possibly but < 500 kW.
damaging currents at the harmonic • Use 0.90 if UPS > 500 kW.
frequency can flow through the
Note: Maximum input with
equipment. It may be advisable
redundant systems is less than total
to keep them off line until effects rating of individual systems.
of operating on an emergency
generator set with non-linear loads Part B
can be observed. Establish the minimum size
generator to contain waveform
UPS Sizing Example
distortion (quality of electric power).
The following is a procedure to use
in sizing Caterpillar generator sets • 6-pulse rectifier/charger:
that have static UPS systems as part Minimum standby rated
or all of their load. This procedure generator set =
has four parts: UPS input kW x 1.6.
• 12-pulse rectifier/charger:
Part A
Establish UPS input kW. Use UPS Minimum standby rated
input kW from supplier data. (In this generator set =
example use 255 kW.) If not avail- UPS input kW x 1.4.
able from supplier, the following
procedure and guidelines are
recommended to approximate or
estimate UPS input kW.
UPS Output kW + Battery Recharge kW
UPS Input kW =
UPS Efficiency
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Figure 54
Figure 55
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and then smaller motors load. Line voltage drop change with
sequentially after that. load change also affects voltage
• When motors with electronic regulation at the load, if the load
drives are started, the “largest varies.
motor first” rule does not Power losses are calculated as I2R
necessarily apply. Electronic loss in watts or kilowatts. Voltage
drives allow better control of drop is calculated as I2R loss. The
the load by controlling the amount of resistance is based on
maximum current load and length, cross-sectional area,
rate of load application. These temperature, and substance of the
loads are more sensitive to conductors. Standard electrical
voltage variation than the handbooks contain tables of
motors started “across-the- resistivity of wire and cable for
line”. making calculations. Line losses are
• When UPS loads are present, not typically a factor with short
load them last. Generators are cable lengths of proper size.
more stable and less affected Power Factor Loads
by non-linear loads when Self-excited, synchronous
linear loads have been running generators are not designed to
before non-linear loads are operate with leading power factor
applied. load. The AC voltage generated is
• Loads that have filters or use controlled by DC excitation. The
power factor correction for amount of excitation required is a
power quality improvement function of generator load.
should not be applied to a Excitation required to maintain
light load level. The capacitive constant voltage increases with
elements of these loads make load. Reactive lagging power factor
the generator susceptible to load requires more excitation than a
huge voltage increases. unity power factor load. Leading
Line Losses power factor loads require less
Wires and cables in circuits always excitation than unity power factor
have some resistance to current loads. When a generator has a
flow. This presents a power loss and leading power factor, the armature
a voltage drop. The losses are a flux reacts additively with the field
function of line length and line pole flux to increase saturation and
current carrying capability. These produce a higher terminal voltage for
losses must be considered. a given amount of excitation. The
automatic voltage regulator responds
Line voltage drop may be a more to control voltage by reducing
important consideration. Voltage excitation. At light load, the
drop can represent a significant regulator will go to its minimum
difference between generated excitation capability. However, the
voltage and voltage delivered at the additive excitation from a leading
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power factor will cause the terminal set application. However, as can be
voltage to rise and will not be seen by the equivalent circuit of a
controlled by the voltage regulator. transmission line, there is distributed
It is not uncommon for this capacitance between the lines and
condition to occur with power factor ground; refer to Figure 56.
correction capacitors or tuned circuit The line charging current varies
filters, which are connected to with voltage, length, height, and line
circuits at light load conditions. This spacing along with other factors.
same phenomenon can occur when A problem arises, particularly with
energizing long transmission lines an unloaded line, where the line
due to distributed capacitance. charging load appears as a leading
Adding reactance to the circuit is a power factor load to the generator.
possible solution to overcome the Power factors of 0.95 leading or
problem should it occur. more may result in the generated
Long Transmission Lines voltage going uncontrolled to the
Long transmission lines may limit of the generator saturation
require the effects of distributed line curve upon energization of the line.
capacitance to be taken into Having some lagging reactive load
account. The definition of a “long” on-line will correct or avoid this
transmission line is a relative term problem should it occur.
and difficult to define for a generator
Figure 56
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Where: Where:
P= Power Loss in Watts P= Power Loss in Watts
L= One-way Length of a Circuit L= One-way Length of a Circuit
in feet in feet
CM = The Cross Section of a CM = The Cross Section of a
Conductor in Circular Mils Conductor in Circular Mils
I= Represents Current I= Represents Current
Example Example
Assume a single-phase motor Assume a three-phase motor
rated to deliver 7.5 hp at 115 V is rated to deliver 100 hp at 230 V
connected to a power source via a connected to the power source via
200 foot, No. 1 AWG copper wire a 400 foot cable sized at 250 MCM.
sized at 83,690 CM. Also, assume Also, assume the motor draws 248
the motor draws 80 amperes at full amperes at full load. What is the
load. What is the power loss? power loss?
Solution Solution
Use the formula for a single-phase Use the formula for a single-phase
motor: motor:
24 x 200 x 802 36 x 400 x 2482
=P =P
83,690 250,000
The result is a 367 watt power The result is a 3,543 watt power
loss. loss.
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Figure 60
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hp kW Full-Load Efficiency
5 to 7.5 4-6 0.83
10 7.5 0.85
15 11 0.86
20 to 25 15 to 19 0.89
30 to 50 22 to 37 0.90
60 to 75 45 to 56 0.91
100 to 300 74.6 to 224 0.92
350 to 600 261 to 448 0.93
* Efficiencies are significantly influenced by the motor class.
Table 22
Figure 61
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Figure 62
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kVA of AC Circuits
Table 24
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Voltage and
Current Drawn Current Examples
Waveforms
Linear Proportional to Sine wave Incandescent light bulbs
voltage Induction and synchronous
motors
Electromagnetic devices
Resistance heaters
Non-Linear Non-proportional Pulses Silicon controlled rectifiers
to voltage Variable speed drives
Uninterruptible power
supplies
Battery chargers
Fluorescent lighting
Table 25
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Table 36
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Figure 64
Figure 65
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Figure 66
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Figure 67
Figure 68
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the use of a small genset to power sequence is not matched, the lamps
light, off-hour loads, will often result will never be light or dark at the
in long-term fuel economy. same time.
In installations where the load does A synchronizing meter such as a
not vary to the extremes encountered synchroscope, shown in Figure 73
between day and night conditions, it and Figure 74, can be used instead
is sometimes profitable to share the of the synchronizing lights for
load between several small units synchronizing two or more generator
operating in parallel. When the load sets. The direction the pointer rotates
is lighter, one or more of the units indicates whether the frequency of
may be shut down; thereby loading the incoming generator is slower or
the other units closer to capacity. faster than the frequency of the
For example, this type of system is on-line generator.
advantageous where load demand Similarly, the frequency at which
is seasonal or when maintenance is the pointer rotates indicates the
necessary and power interruption magnitude of difference in speed
must be avoided. between the generator sets. For
Paralleling paralleling, engine speed is changed
Generator sets can be paralleled to until the synchroscope pointer
other generator sets or the utility. To rotates very slowly (less than
operate in parallel, both units must 10 rpm), again keeping the incoming
match phase sequence, voltage generator set faster than the on-line
frequency, manage neutral currents, generator set. When the pointer is at
operate with the same frequency the zero position, the circuit breaker
directional rotation and produce can be closed, thereby synchronizing
almost exact sine waves. Only after the units.
these conditions are met can the
units be connected together by a
breaker.
Synchronizing lights or meters
are used in a manual paralleling
operation to confirm both rotational
requirements and phase voltage
requirements have been met.
Automatic, electronically controlled
measuring devices are used in
automatic paralleling.
The synchronized lights have
lamps, shown in Figure 72, that dim
and brighten. When the units are in
phase, the lights are at their dimmest
and the breaker can be tripped to
complete the paralleling. If phase
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Figure 72
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Figure 73
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