CAT EP Selcetion and Sizing Guide

A P P L I C A T I O N A N D I N S T A L L A T I O N G U I D E
ELECTRIC POWER
APPLICATIONS, ENGINE &
GENERATOR SIZING
Contents
Generator Set Rating Considerations ................................... 2

Rating Definitions ......................................................... 2
Engine/Generator Set Load Factor ............................... 2
Emergency Standby Power ........................................ 3
Standby Power......................................................... 3
Prime Power ............................................................ 3
Continuous Power .................................................... 3
The International Standards Organization (ISO) ............. 3
Continuous Operating Power (COP)............................. 3
Prime Running Power (PRP)........................................ 4
Limited-Time Running Power (LTP).............................. 4
Load Management ........................................................ 4
Isolated from the Utility Under 500 Hours per Year ....... 4
Isolated from the Utility Over 500 Hours per Year......... 4
Paralleled with the Utility Under 500 Hours per Year ..... 5
Paralleled with the Utility Over 500 Hours per Year ....... 5
Standards.................................................................... 5
Generator Rating Capability........................................ 5
Generator Mapping Limits .......................................... 7
Site Conditions Impact on Generator Set Ratings .............. 7
Altitude ................................................................... 8
Heat ....................................................................... 8
Corrosive Atmospheres ............................................. 8
Humidity ................................................................. 8
Dust ....................................................................... 9
Transient Response ...................................................... 9
Sizing Criterion......................................................... 9
Motor Starting ....................................................... 11
Block Load............................................................. 12
Transient Response Standards ..................................... 12
Engine Considerations ............................................. 14
Engine Configuration ............................................... 18
Air System ............................................................ 18
Gas Engines........................................................... 18
Block Load and Transient Capability .......................... 19
System Interaction.................................................. 19
Voltage Regulators ................................................. 20
Digital Voltage Regulator ......................................... 21
Customer Requirements .................................................. 22
Power Demand .......................................................... 22
On Site Power Requirement ..................................... 22
Load Management .................................................. 22
Loads Profiles ........................................................ 22
Estimating Load Data .............................................. 24
Categorizing Loads ................................................. 24
VA/FT2 Load Estimating........................................... 25
Load Steps ................................................................ 26
Prioritization........................................................... 26
Load Shedding ....................................................... 27
Intermittent Loads .................................................. 27
Additional Load Categories ...................................... 27
Load Management Strategies ................................... 27
Peak Shaving ......................................................... 27
Base Loading ......................................................... 28
Zero Import/Zero Export .......................................... 28
Peak Sharing.......................................................... 29
Co-generation ........................................................ 29
Load Duration Curves.............................................. 29
Estimating Guidelines .............................................. 30
Load Growth.......................................................... 30
Demand Factor .......................................................... 31
Diversity Factor.......................................................... 32
Demand Factor and Diversity Factor in Sizing................. 32
Frequency Dips ...................................................... 33
Block Load & Standards .......................................... 33
Starting Requirements................................................. 33
Load Acceptance.................................................... 34
Ten-Second Start ................................................... 34
Health Care Facilities & NFPA 99.............................. 35
Fuel Selection ........................................................ 35
Performance .............................................................. 36
Emissions .............................................................. 36
Correction Factors .................................................. 37
Nominal vs. Not to Exceed....................................... 37
Heat Balance.......................................................... 38
Co-generation Usage............................................... 38
Load Analysis ................................................................ 40
Lighting Loads ........................................................... 41
Linear Lighting Loads .............................................. 41
Lighting................................................................. 41
Incandescent Lighting ............................................. 41
Tungsten Lamp Inrush............................................. 42
Non-Linear Lighting Loads........................................ 42
Fluorescent Lamps.................................................. 42
Gas Discharge Lamps.............................................. 43
Motor Loads .............................................................. 43
Induction Motors .................................................... 44
Wound Rotor (Slip Ring) .......................................... 45
Slip Definition ........................................................ 46
Synchronous Motors ............................................... 46
DC Motors............................................................. 47
Single-phase Motors ............................................... 48
Three-Phase Motors ................................................ 48
Motor Performance ..................................................... 48
Design Class .......................................................... 48
Motor Starting ....................................................... 50
Starting Power Factor ............................................. 53
Motor Starting Load ................................................ 54
Motor Torque......................................................... 54
Motor Voltage ........................................................ 58
Motor Starting Techniques........................................... 60
Full Voltage Starting ............................................... 60
Soft Starting — Cushioning Motor Starting Under Load 63
Reduced Voltage Starting ........................................ 63
Reduced Starting Methods ....................................... 65
Intermittent Starting ............................................... 72
Motor Starting Troubleshooting Techniques ............... 72
Miscellaneous Loads ................................................... 72
Adjustable (Variable) Speed Drives............................ 72
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) Systems ................. 73
Welding Loads ....................................................... 75
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) .......................... 75
Regenerative Power ................................................ 81
Transformers ......................................................... 82
Critical Loads ......................................................... 84
Helpful Load Application Tips ................................... 84
Single-Phase Loads ................................................. 88
Load Balancing ....................................................... 88
One-line Diagrams .................................................. 90
Generator Set Selection Considerations ............................. 95
Load Types................................................................ 95
Linear Loads .......................................................... 95
Non-Linear Loads.................................................... 96
Harmonic Content ...................................................... 97
Generator Considerations ............................................ 99
Generator Heating .................................................. 99
Generator Reactance Impact .................................... 99
Waveform Distortion ............................................. 100
Generator AVR and Excitation ................................ 102
Determining Distortion .......................................... 102
Generator Pitch .................................................... 103
2/3 Pitch ............................................................. 103
Non-Linear Loads and 2/3 Pitch .............................. 104
Paralleling and 2/3 Pitch ........................................ 104
Applications Requiring 2/3 Pitch ............................. 104
Other Generator Set Selection Considerations .......... 104
Voltage Range/Number of Leads ............................. 105
Generator Set Voltage Selection ............................. 106
Multi-Engine Installations ........................................... 106
Paralleling............................................................ 107
Droop and Governors ............................................ 110
Regulator Compensation........................................ 111
Load Control ........................................................ 112
Load Order .......................................................... 112
Unit Shutdown..................................................... 112
Foreword
This section of the Application and Installation Guide generally describes
Electric Power Application, Engine and Generator Selection for Caterpillar®
engines. Additional engine systems, components and dynamics are
addressed in other sections of this Application and Installation Guide.
Engine-specific information and data are available from a variety of
sources. Refer to the Introduction section of this guide for additional
references.
Systems and components described in this guide may not be available or
applicable for every engine.
©2005 Caterpillar®
All rights reserved.
Information contained in this publication may be considered confidential.

Application and Installation Guide EP Applications, Engine & Generator Sizing
Electric Power Applications, Engine & Generator

Sizing
On-site engine/generator sets are used in a variety of applications. They
are becoming more popular for load management applications since the
deregulation and privatization of the utility industry. Some generator sets are
used strictly as “back-up” for emergencies and some as the only power
source.
Although computer programs can be used to assist in proper generator
sizing, an understanding of the formulas, calculations and non-numerical
factors is beneficial to determine proper generator sizing.
The following subjects must be considered and are specifically addressed
in this section.
• Engine Ratings
• Customer Applications
• Load Analysis
• Generator Set Selection Criteria
• Multi-Engine Installations
SECTION CONTENTS
Generator Set Rating • Demand & Diversity Factors

Considerations .................... 2 in Sizing
• Rating Definitions • Starting Requirements
• Load Management • Performance
• Standards Load Analysis ....................40
• Site Conditions Impact on • Lighting Loads
Generator Set Ratings • Motor Loads
• Transient Response • Motor Performance
• Transient Response • Motor Starting Techniques
Standards
• Miscellaneous Loads
Customer Requirements ..... 22
Generator Set Selection
• Power Demand
Considerations ...................95
• Load Steps • Load Types
• Demand Factor • Harmonic Content
• Diversity Factor • Generator Considerations
• Multi-Engine Installations
All rights reserved. Page 1
EP Applications, Engine & Generator Sizing Application and Installation Guide
Generator Set Rating Considerations

also be considered. The actual
Rating Definitions
power can be determined by
A generator set consists of an
performing a load analysis on the
engine and a generator. However, it
facility. This involves making a
is best to consider the engine and
survey of the power requirements
generator as a system. Individually,
over a period of time.
each has unique characteristics; but
together these qualities have a ekW = pf x kVA
significant impact on the ekW
bkW = + Fan Demand
performance and sizing of the eff
generator set system. kVA = kVA output of generator
Capabilities of both engine and pf = power factor of connected load
generator are considered individually ekW = electrical power (electrical kW)
and collectively when selecting bkW = engine power (brake kW)
generator sets. Engines produce eff = generator efficiency
brake horsepower (or kilowatts)
while controlling speed or frequency. When kW is qualified as neither
Generators influence engine electrical (ekW) nor brake (bkW), it
behavior, but are primarily is important to clarify between the
responsible for changing engine two when performing calculations or
power into kilovolt-amperes (kVA) product comparisons.
and electrical kilowatts (kW). They Engine/Generator Set Load Factor
also must satisfy high “magnetizing Load factor of a generator set is
current” draws (kVAR), or transient used as one criterion for rating a
conditions from electrical equipment. generator set. It is calculated by
Normally, a generator set is finding the product of various loads:
furnished with a generator which Load Factor = % of time x % of load
matches the engine output
capability. Engines are sized time at specific load
according to the actual power in kW % of time =
total operating time
required to meet the needs of the
facility. The generator, on the other
specific load
hand, must be capable of handling % of load =
rated load
the maximum apparent power which
is measured in kVA. The actual
power can be identified in several Extended idling time and the time
ways. It can be calculated by adding when the generator set is not
the nameplate ratings of the operating does not enter into the
equipment to be powered by the calculation for load factor.
generator. If this is done, the For example, assume a facility has
efficiencies of the equipment must a generator set rated at 550 kW and
Page 2 All rights reserved.
runs it two hours a week. During extra cost) of the published Prime
those two hours, it runs at 400 kW power over each 24 hour period.
for 1.5 hours. Find the load factor. 10% overload limited to 1 in 12
The formulas reveal the following: hours but not to exceed 25 hours
per year. The 10% overload is
400 kW
% of load = = 0.73 available in accordance with ISO
550 kW
3046-1 (2002). Life to overhaul of
the engine is dependent on
90 min. operation as outlined in ISO8528
% of time = = 0.75
120 min. (2005) and time spent during
operation above 100% load may
Load Factor = 0.73 x 0.75 = 54.75% affect the life to overhaul.
Continuous Power
This load factor would indicate Unlimited hours of usage. Load
that the generator set could be used factor 100% of the published
as a standby rated generator set Continuous Power. Generally, as ISO
because it meets the load factor and 8528 (2005) Continuous power.
other criteria of standby. Note: Operating above these rating
Power rating definitions for definitions will result in shorter life
Caterpillar generator sets are based and higher generator and engine
on typical load factor, hours of use costs per year.
per year, peak demand and
The International Standards
application use. Caterpillar generator
Organization (ISO)
set ratings for emergency standby,
ISO 8528-1 (2005) defines three
standby, prime and continuous
types of duty:
power are listed.
• Continuous Operating Power
Emergency Standby Power (COP)
Typical usage of 50 hours per year
with a maximum of 200 hours per • Prime Running Power (PRP)
year. Typical variable load factor of • Limited-Time running Power
70%. (LTP)
Standby Power Continuous Operating Power (COP)
Maximum usage 500 hours per Continuous operating power is the
year, up to 300 hours of which may power a generator set can operate
be continuous running with varying at a continuous load for an unlimited
loads. No overload is available. number of hours under stated
Rating is equivalent to Prime +10%. ambient conditions. Maintenance
Load factor maximum is 70% of according to the manufacturer must
Standby rating. be followed to reach these
standards.
Prime Power
Unlimited hours of usage. Load
factor (70% maximum /80% if no
Prime Running Power (PRP) categories in terms of load

Prime running power is the management:
maximum power a generator set has • Isolated from a utility
during a variable power sequence for
• Paralleled with a utility
an unlimited number of hours under
stated ambient conditions. Isolated from the Utility Under 500
Maintenance according to the Hours per Year
manufacturer must be followed to Output available with varying load
reach these standards. for less than 6 hours per day*.
* Fuel Stop Power in accordance with ISO 3046/1,
Limited-Time Running Power (LTP) AS2789, DIN6271 and BS5514.
Limited-time running power is the
Typical Load Factor = 60% or Less
maximum power that a generator
set delivers for up to 500 hours per Typical Hours per Year Less than 500
= hours
year under stated ambient
conditions. Only 300 hours can be Typical Peak Demand = 80% of rated ekW
continuous running. Maintenance with 100% of rating
according to the manufacturer must available for
duration of an
be followed to reach these
emergency outage.
standards.
Typical Application = Interruptible utility
Specifications are often stated in rates, peak
ISO terms and standards. Table 1 sharing.
shows ISO generator set ratings and
correlating Caterpillar generator set
ratings. Isolated from the Utility Over 500
Hours per Year
Output available without varying
Generator Set Ratings load for over 500 hours per year and
ISO Caterpillar less than 6 hours per day**.
Emergency ** Prime Power in accordance with ISO 8528.
ESP Overload Power in accordance with ISO 3046/1,
Standby Power
AS2789, DIN6271 and BS5514.
Emergency
LTP Typical Load Factor = 60% to 70%
Standby
PRP Prime Typical Hours per Year More than 500
= hours
COP Continuous
Typical Peak Demand = 100% of prime plus
Table 1 10% rating used
occasionally.
Load Management
Typical Application = Peak sharing or
Load management is the deliberate cogeneration.
control of loads on a generator set
and/or utility to have the lowest
possible electrical costs. In addition,
Caterpillar has two broad rating
Paralleled with the Utility Under 500 Standards

Hours per Year Caterpillar generator sets are in
Output available without varying accordance with The International
load for under 500 hours per year. Standardization Organization (ISO)
and the Society for Automotive
Typical Load Factor = 60% to 70%
Engineers (SAE) standards. Each
Typical Hours per Year Less than 500 organization uses different
= hours techniques and tolerances for power
Typical Peak Demand = 100% of prime ratings and fuel consumption.
rating used
occasionally. ISO standard 3046-1 is specific to
engines and ISO 8528 is followed
Typical Application = Peak sharing. for the generator set.
ISO 8528 has 12 sections. The
Paralleled with the Utility Over 500 first section describes applications,
Hours per Year ratings and performance. The
Output available without varying remaining sections are listed below,
load for unlimited time***. by section number.
*** Continuous Power in accordance with ISO 2. Specifies characteristics of
8528, ISO 3046/1, AS2789, DIN6271 and BS5514. engine.
Typical Load Factor = 70% to 100% 3. Alternating current generators
Typical Hours per Year No limit 4. Control gear & switchgear
= specifications
Typical Peak Demand = 100% of 5. Generating set specifications
continuous rating 6. Specifies test methods
used 100% of the 7. Technical declarations for
time. specification and design
Typical Application = Base load, utility, 8. Low power generator sets
peak sharing, 9. Requirements on
cogeneration, measurement and evaluation
parallel operation. of mechanical vibration
10. Standards for noise
11. Dynamic, uninterrupted
Depending on how the generator
power supply systems
set will be applied will determine the
12. Emergency power supply to
size needed. For example, if for a
safety services
given load, the generator set will
only be used as standby for a critical Generator Rating Capability
load only, then a smaller kW Generator sets are limited in their
generator set can be used, rather ratings by the conditions and
than one used for prime power. applications of both the generator
and engine.
Generator ratings are typically
thermal limited. They are limited by
the amount of internal heat that is

created and then the amount of heat Generator Set
Generator Temperature
that is dissipated. A more precise Class Rise °C
Package
definition is the increase in winding Rating
temperature above the ambient F 80 Continuous
H —
temperature. In other words, some F 105 Prime
heat is retained within the unit, H 125 Prime
raising the temperature of the unit. F 130 Standby
The National Electrical H 150 Standby
Manufacturers Association (NEMA) Table 2
generator ratings are based on the
generator's “temperature rise” limit. For prime power, the F class has a
Outside the United States, the 105°C rise or total temperature limit
International Electrotechnical of 155°C (40°C ambient
Commission (IEC) has limits on temperature + 10°C hot-spot
temperature rise for generators; margin + 105°C temperature rise)
these may be found in IEC 6034-22 or less.
(1996) and IEC 6034-1 (2004). The H class allows for a 125°C
Temperature rise is the increase in rise or total temperature limit of
winding temperature above the 175°C or less:
ambient temperature. Ambient 40°C + 10°C + 125°C
temperature is the temperature of
the cooling air as it enters the
ventilating openings of the machine. For standby power, the F class has
a 130°C temperature rise limit or
This temperature rise occurs
180°C total temperature:
because of the flow of current in the
windings and internal losses that 40°C + 10°C + 130°C
occur in the machine during
operation. The H class has a 150°C
The most common classes of temperature rise or 200°C total
generators are the “F” and “H” temperature limit:
class. For all classes, NEMA 40°C + 10°C + 130°C
assumes operation at 40°C ambient
or lower. The temperature rise limits
also allow for a 10°C margin for Voltage plays a key role in
hot-spots. A hot-spot is the spot in generator rating and must be
stator windings with the highest considered. In some cases,
temperature. generator voltage will not match the
preferred operating voltage. A
Table 2 shows temperature rise for
voltage regulator can provide
F and H class generators at various
voltage adjustment capability,
ratings.
however, when “dialing down”
generator voltage, the current will
increase for a given rating. This will

increase generator heat and may
require generator derating. An
alternative to generator derating is
to use a larger generator to maintain
the standard rating.
The standard set by NEMA allows
a generator to be adjusted up or
down by five percent (± 5%) as
installed. Caterpillar generators
typically have a minimum 10% dial
down capability; in some cases this
may result in a derate. Some
generators are specifically designed
as broad-range and may not require
derating. A check of the
manufacturer’s data is
recommended when using
generators at “off-design” voltage.
Generator Mapping Limits
Figure 1 is a reactive capability Figure 1
chart for a salient-pole generator. A
load point within this area defines Site Conditions Impact on
the: Generator Set Ratings
• Active Power An engine rating is primarily limited
by structural and thermal limits.
• Reactive Power These limits include maximum
• Apparent Power cylinder pressure during combustion,
• Current turbocharger speed, exhaust gas
temperature and in natural gas
• Power Factor
engines, fuel type. Where an engine
• Excitation operates relative to these limits will
The heavy dark line, with points determine the maximum altitude and
labeled m-n-p-s-q-u-t, indicates ambient temperature for a given
absolute limits that are tolerated in a rating. When an engine exceeds the
machine. Generators are rated maximum altitude or ambient
within these limits. (See the temperature, the engine must be
Generator Section for additional derated.
details.) The environment or site conditions
also impact an engine or generator
rating, thus impacting the rating of
the entire generator set. Conditions
which may affect a rating include
altitude, temperature, corrosive The altitude/temperature derating

atmospheres, humidity, and dust. chart found in TMI can be used for
Altitude and temperature most proper derating information.
heavily influence engine ratings. The Corrosive Atmospheres
higher the altitude, the lower the air Salt and other corrosive elements
density. Clean dense air is needed can cause damage to the winding
for efficient combustion. Likewise, insulation which can lead to failure
an increase in temperature lowers air of the generator. Protection from
density. Therefore, a derate of the these elements includes additional
engine must occur in high altitude coatings of insulation on the
and/or high temperature conditions windings during the manufacturing
in order for the generator set to process and epoxy compounds as a
meet performance expectations. final winding overcoat.
Altitude Humidity
Generators operating at altitudes Condensation resulting from
above 1000 M (3281 ft.) require humidity will present a problem for
temperature rise reduction of 1% for all generators unless they are fully
every 100 M (328 ft.) above base enclosed. Temperature rise of the
(1000 M or 3281 ft.). A derate machine and the circulation of
chart is available in TMI for cooling air with sufficient load
generators and each specific engine. operation will usually prevent
Figure 2 shows a sample engine TMI condensation. Space heaters should
derate chart. be used to raise the temperature to
Heat 5°C above the ambient temperature
Where the temperature of the to prevent condensation in high
ventilating air to the generator humidity areas.
exceeds 40°C (104°F), derating of
the generator may be necessary.
Figure 2
Dust referred to as frequency or voltage

Conductive or abrasive dust drawn dip) and then returns to its steady-
in through the cooling fan can be state condition. The degree of this
very harmful to the generator. dip depends on the amount of active
Examples of abrasive dust are: cast power (kW) and reactive power
iron dust, carbon dust, sand, (kVAR) changes based upon the
powdered graphite, coke dust, lime voltage regulator settings, the total
dust, wood fiber, and quarry dust. capacity and dynamic characteristics
When these foreign particles blow of the generator set and the
through the generator, they act as electrical inertia of the other loads in
sandpaper scraping away the the system. On removal of load, the
insulation. These abrasions can engine speed increases momentarily
cause an electrical short within the (generally referred to as overshoot),
generator. An accumulation of these then returns to its steady-state
materials in the crevices of the condition. The time required for the
insulation system will act as an generator set to return to its normal
insulator or as a moisture attractor. steady-state speed is called recovery
Filters which fit over the unit’s time. This is illustrated in Figure 3.
intake air openings or enclosure
ventilation openings can prevent
damage. When using filters, it is
important that they be regularly
changed so as not to impede
airflow. The use of a generator air
filter will cause the generator to be
derated due to higher temperature
rise resulting from reduced cooling
airflow. Differential pressure
switches may be available as an Figure 3
option on many generator sets.
Sizing Criterion
Transient Response Three primary criteria need to be
Whenever a load is applied to or provided to accurately size a
removed from a generator set, the generator set:
engine speed rpm, voltage and
frequency are temporarily changed • The acceptable percent of
from its steady-state condition. This voltage & frequency dip
temporary change is called transient • The acceptable duration of
response. When a significant load is the voltage & frequency dip
applied, the engine speed recovery time
temporarily reduces (generally
• The percent of a load step If indirect lighting is used with no

and type of load to be incandescent bulbs below 100
connected watts, these values may be
The larger the voltage dip a broadened. This is also true if all
generator set can tolerate, the lighting is fluorescent rather than
smaller and perhaps more incandescent.
economical the generator set can Reciprocating compressors
be. A 30% maximum voltage dip is seriously affect lighting quality.
a typical limit for industrial motor Torque pulsations vary motor
control centers. Sensitive loads may current, causing sufficient voltage
be written in spec for much lower fluctuation to flicker lights.
voltage dips. UPS, variable speed Unfortunately, this is a frequency to
drives, and medical equipment are which eyes are extremely sensitive.
all examples of loads which need A commonly accepted figure for
small voltage dips. current variation limits for motor-
The human eye is sensitive to driven reciprocating compressors is
slight lighting fluctuations. Even a 66% of full rated motor current.
decrease of 1/2 volt on a 110 volt This limits horsepower rating of
incandescent bulb is noticeable. A compressor motors to about 6% of
one volt dip, if repeated, becomes generator kVA rating, which is in the
objectionable. Figure 4 shows the limit of objectionable light flicker.
range of observable and For example, a 30 hp motor may be
objectionable voltage dips, assuming used on systems having not less
direct illumination and medium-sized than 500 kVA of generator capacity
bulbs. in operation (30 is 6% of 500).
Figure 4
Typical voltage dip limitations are Greater voltage fluctuations permitted with emergency power
systems.
found in Table 3 for various
Table 3
facilities.
Motor Starting
Typical Voltage Dip Limitations The generator set’s ability to start
Permissible large motors without large frequency
Facility Application
Voltage or voltage dips depends on the
Dip entire system. System factors
Hospital, hotel Lighting load, 2% include:
motel, large Power Infrequent
apartments, load, large • Available engine power
libraries, Flickering highly
schools, and objectionable. • Capacity of the generator
stores.
Movie Theaters Lighting load, 3% • Energy stored in the rotating
(sound tone large Flickering Infrequent
requires objectionable.
inertia of the generator set
constant • Acceleration of the motor and
frequency. Neon
flashers erratic) its load (motor characteristics)
Bars and Power load, 5% - 10%
resorts. large Some Infrequent • Electrical components
flicker between the generator set
acceptable
Shops, Power load, 3% - 5% and motor.
factories, mills, large Some Frequent
laundries. flicker
A properly sized generator will
acceptable support the high starting kVA
Mines, oil field, Power load, 25% - 30%
quarries, large Flicker Frequent
(skVA) required and sustain
asphalt, plants. acceptable. adequate output voltage for the
motor so it can produce the needed Refer to the Motor Loads and
torque to accelerate its load to rated Motor Performance Sections on
speed. Pages 43 & 48 for more
After the initial voltage dip, it is information.
important that the generator restore Block Load
voltage to at least 90% to develop A block load refers to the
adequate torque to accelerate its percentage of rated power at rated
load to rated speed. Full voltage power factor instantaneously added
starting causes the largest voltage to the generator set. When block
dip. For this reason, public utilities loads are large, sometimes they
will not always allow full voltage should be accepted in smaller
starting of large motors. Details on portions in various steps. Step
motor starting are later discussed in loading is very common when load
the “load analysis” section of this acceptance performance criteria are
guide. required. For example, if a generator
Transient response of a generator set is rated 1000 ekW at 0.8 pf and
set is a description of the maximum a 250 ekW load at 0.8 pf is applied
voltage and frequency change on to the generator set, a block load of
application of a load and the time to 25% [(power applied/rated power) x
recover to nominal voltage and 100%] is applied.
frequency conditions. Typically, the
maximum allowable voltage dip is
Transient Response Standards
30%. The maximum frequency dip There are standards in various
is about 25% but modern equipment countries; and industries that require
is restricting this to tighter margins. generator sets to be capable of
accepting and recovering a full load
It is not always necessary to have step. However, many do not specify
the quickest transient response frequency and volt deviations. ISO
possible; only the best response for 8528 has set transient response
the application’s need. Generator standards. Four performance classes
sets all perform differently by the are designated in ISO 8528-1-7 to
design of the engine, governing, and describe a generator set in terms of
voltage regulation systems. voltage and frequency. The chart
Transient response characterizations below lists the performance class
must be compared to the equipment and their criteria and application
that will be used at the facility; this examples. The performance class
will ensure the generator set is sized relevant for the application must be
to the loads that will be applied. followed to be within the standard
and achieve maximum performance.
G1 Required for applications where the General purpose

connected loads are such that only basic applications Lighting &
parameters of voltage & frequency need
to be specified. electrical loads

G2 Required for applications where the Lighting systems,
demand on voltage is very much the same pumps, fans and hoists
as for the commercial power system.
When load changes, temporary deviations
in voltage and frequency are acceptable.
G3 Required for applications where the Telecommunications
connected equipment may make severe equipment
demands on voltage and frequency and
waveforms.
G4 Required for applications where the Data-processing &
demands on voltage, frequency, and Computer equipment
waveform are extremely severe.
Table 4 shows the acceptance but are not helpful when comparing
(dip) and rejection (overshoot) engines of different sizes and
parameters identified by ISO 8528- designs. Instead, engines can be
5. Class G4 is reserved for limits compared by referring to their brake
that are unique and must be agreed mean effective pressure (BMEP).
upon by the manufacturer and The “mean effective pressure” is
customer. ISO 8528-5 also sets an average of the pressure that
limits on recovery times for each would need to be present in the
class and identifies how recovery engine’s cylinder for the power and
time is measured. torque to be produced. BMEP refers
to the brake MEP or the useful work
Agreed between Manufacturer done at the engine flywheel.
and Customer (AMC)
Class Class Class Class BMEP is an indicator of how much
G1 G2 G3 G4 engine torque is available. The BMEP
Frequency %
–15 –10 –7 AMC can indicate if the pressure within
Acceptance
the cylinder is within the optimal
Frequency %
18 12 10 AMC performance parameter. BMEP is a
Rejection
Voltage % relative number that is only used as
–25 –20 –15 AMC
Acceptance a standard to compare engines of
Voltage %
35 25 20 AMC different designs or sizes. It can be
Rejection
expressed in psi, kPa or bar.
Time Seconds 5 5 3 AMC
BMEP Load Step
Table 4 Two engines of different sizes are
working similarly if they operate at
the same BMEP.
SAE Standard J1349 specifies
A BMEP load is described in the
inlet air and fuel supply test
following figures and text.
conditions. It also gives a method
for correcting observed power to Step-by-Step Events — Load Applied
reference conditions and a method Figure 5 and Figure 6 illustrate full
for determining net full load engine load addition to a generator set with
power with a dynamometer to a turbocharged-aftercooled (TA)
engines. engine, and a 1:1 Volt/Hz voltage
regulator. Figure 5 shows how the
Engine Considerations
parameters vary as a function of
Brake Mean Effective Pressure engine speed; Figure 6 presents the
(BMEP) same events versus time.
When sizing a generator set, Note: Reading through this topic,
comparing engines may be prior to reviewing the figures, will
necessary to determine optimal aid in understanding the content.
performance, especially when motor
starting. Both torque and
horsepower are necessary measures
Figure 5
1. Point 1 is the beginning of the 4. As the governor continues to

event. The generator set is increase fuel flow towards the
stable at no-load, BMEP is zero, rack stop, the additional fuel
and speed is at high idle. Full results in overfueling, smoke
load is applied instantaneously. and loss of power.
2. Speed falls and the governor 5. At point 5, the governor
increases fuel flow, increasing reaches the rack stop and
engine output BMEP. As speed overfueling no longer increases.
error and time increase, the 6. The turbocharger accelerates,
faster the governor increases increasing airflow and engine
BMEP. power using some of the excess
3. At point 3, the engine reaches fuel. Since the turbocharger is
an equivalence ratio of 1.0, and so much slower than the
power temporarily reaches a governor, power increases
maximum. The time is so short much more slowly.
that little turbocharger 7. At point 7, engine output BMEP
acceleration has occurred. finally matches the load
demanded by the generator. the engine lug curve, although

Since power and load are speed is still below rated. Power
exactly equal, there is no is now fuel limited.
acceleration or deceleration, and 10. The engine continues to
speed is constant for an instant accelerate, with BMEP limited
at the maximum speed dip. by the rack stop, as the load
8. Since the speed error is still line rises to meet it.
large, the rack is still wide Acceleration slows because the
open. Engine BMEP continues to excess BMEP is decreasing.
increase, exceeding the BMEP 11. Speed reaches rated, and the
demanded by the load. The governor reduces fuel input until
excess BMEP permits the engine BMEP output exactly
generator set to accelerate, matches the load BMEP
increasing speed towards rated. demand. Speed becomes
Power is still air limited. constant again at the new load.
9. At point 9, engine BMEP
reaches its maximum level at
Figure 6
Since only governor action is

required, the engine can reach point
3 in about 0.2 seconds. The BEMP
of TA engines can reach,
approximately, 140 psi without
requiring turbocharger response.
Thereafter, turbocharger
acceleration will allow engine BMEP Figure 7
to increase, roughly, 20 to 60 BMEP
per second; predicted turbocharger Explanation of Figure 7
response is modified for engine Using Figure 7, the number of load
underspeed error, overfueling, steps needed for desired power can
altitude, cold start and air be determined. First, find the BMEP
impingement. Given the 20 to 60 of the engine at rated speed; BMEP
BMEP per second increase, the levels are shown for each rating in
example requires approximately 1.5 the performance data of the TMI.
seconds to reach point 7, and If the percentage of block load is
approximately 4 seconds to reach under the first load step curve, the
point 9. block load can be accomplished in
As engines of a given one step.
displacement are designed for higher If the percentage of the block load
and higher outputs, their capability is greater than the first load step
to accept block loads does not curve but smaller than the second
increase. Although a turbocharged load step curve, it will take two load
engine can produce more power steps to reach desired power.
than a similar displacement naturally If the percentage of block load is
aspirated engine, its capability to greater than the first two load step
accept block loads does not curves but less than the third load
necessarily increase. The ISO step curve, it will take three load
(International Standards steps to reach desired power.
Organization) Standard on Generator
Sets has considered this Caterpillar generator sets are
phenomenon and the data in Figure similar to class G2 of the ISO
7, from ISO 8528-5, is the result. standard 8528-5. Class G2
generator sets must:
• Accept any load on the curves
• Not deviate more than 12%
of rated frequency
• Not deviate more than 25%
of rated voltage
• Recover to rated limits within supply, jacket water, or radiator

5 seconds. airflow can be used for this cooling.
Load blocks and response to block The configuration of the air
loading is one of many systems can also have an effect on
considerations when sizing a the transient response. A
generator set. Many turbocharged turbocharger equipped with a
and aftercooled four-stroke diesel wastegate allows a larger
engines will not accept 100% block turbocharger to be used but limits
load in one step. Always investigate the turbo boost pressure under
to ensure the selected generator set normal operating conditions. The
will meet application requirements. engine runs faster and therefore
increases airflow without
Engine Configuration
overspeeding. Another example is
The way an engine is configured
the ability to decrease the transient
can affect the size of generator set
response by increasing the number
needed.
of turbochargers. This would allow
Air System the engine to run at the same BMEP
The load acceptance behavior of but have a different transient
an engine also depends on the type response. Inlet air pressure in a
of air supply to the combustion turbocharger affects the air density
system. Maximum engine power as well. A smaller nozzle in the
may be airflow restricted. Power can turbine housing of a turbocharger
only be increased if airflow and fuel increases air velocity which causes
rate are increased. Engine airflow is the turbocharger to operate at a
determined by displacement of the higher speed, thus, increasing boost
engine, engine speed, and engine and airflow. An engine equipped
inlet air density. More dense air with water-cooled exhaust manifolds
allows the generator set to perform will transfer less heat to the
more efficiently; thus a quicker turbocharger, making it less efficient
response to varying loads. during short periods of acceleration.
For a given displacement, or given Gas Engines
size of engine, more speed produces Caterpillar gas engines are
more airflow. The best way to naturally aspirated (NA) or
increase airflow at speeds which are turbocharged-aftercooled (TA).
compatible with 60 Hz or 50 Hz is Atmospheric conditions affect the
to increase the density of the air way an NA engine can draw air into
entering the cylinders. A its system. An NA engine’s load
turbocharger can increase pressure capability is directly affected by
which will increase density. Density altitude and ambient temperature.
of the air can also be increased by TA engines have a turbocharger
cooling the hot, compressed air with which compresses air which
a heat exchanger called an increases its temperature. A
aftercooler. A separate water separate aftercooler is used so that
air density and detonation margin is unloads to be accomplished without

increased. TA engines can be turbocharger surge (rapid speed
derated so that they will not change of the turbocharger). These
experience premature detonation. two systems enable the G3516B
Block Load and Transient Capability generator sets for island operation.
The block load capability or The G3516B generator sets are able
transient response of the gas engine to accept 10% transient load steps.
generator set package is less than The generator sets are able to reject
its diesel engine counterpart. Most transient load steps up to 25% of
of this difference is directly rated power from any given load
attributed to the inherently different point.
fuel systems of the two engines. System Interaction
When the governor calls for more The generator and voltage
power, a diesel engine reacts by regulator are responsible for voltage
adding fuel directly into the cylinder. deviation and recovery. The power
This method permits the diesel produced by the generator is
engine to accept 100% block loads controlled by excitation of the rotor.
with acceptable voltage dips and The voltage regulator controls
frequency changes. When the excitation (DC current).
governor on a gas engine calls for Increased load draws more current
more power, the throttle opens and from the generator, which causes
a larger flow of air/fuel mixture the generator voltage to drop. As a
starts moving through the response, the regulator increases
aftercooler core, air intake manifold, rotating field excitation which
and then into the cylinder. This time increases its flux. This increase of
delay detracts from the gas engines flux brings the stator voltage back
capability for accepting large block up. Thus, the generator can produce
loads. the higher current and power
Considerable effort has been made demand at the same voltage.
to improve the transient electrical As discussed earlier in this section,
performance of the G3516B and maximum generator power is limited
G3516C generator sets. The by temperature. Heat is produced in
G3516B uses transient richening. the winding by current flow and
Transient richening is factory- magnetic flux changes.
programmed to the control software Temperatures above certain
that improves block load pick up. parameters cause the generator to
There is also a bypass line from the exceed its design limit. The best
aftercooler to the inlet of the method for increasing generator
turbocharger which is equipped with power without excessive heat is to
an electronic valve. This system is make the generator bigger; more
called the turbocharger bypass copper (windings) can carry more
which, in conjunction with factory- current without raising the
programmed software, allows block
temperature; more iron (laminations) generator set engines are not

can handle more flux without designed for increasing torque,
increasing temperature. significant amounts of frequency dip
When a load is added, the can occur.
generator voltage drops as magnetic Engine speed rpm decreases as
flux changes in the iron and air gap. any load is imposed on a limited bus
A bigger generator has more iron, so (generator). This causes
the flux deviation and voltage frequency/voltage to dip
deviation from a given kW is less. accordingly. Greater loads applied to
The sum of the time constants of the generator set will impose a
the voltage regulator, exciter, main greater percentage of dip; greater
rotor and main stator determine the loads will also require more time for
voltage response and recovery; the engine to recover.
typically, this is less than one The “Volts per Hertz” (1:1
second, with additional time for the Volts/Hz) regulator was designed to
regulator to stabilize. impose a decreasing torque on the
Voltage Regulators engine during frequency dips. The
The voltage regulator is a key Volts/Hz schedules voltage
component in determining the proportionally to speed.
amount of voltage/frequency If the speed dips 15%, the
deviation and recovery time. There Volts/Hz regulator will cause the
are several different types of voltage to dip by 15%. This will
regulators: reduce current flow into the load by
15%. The kW absorbed by the load
• Constant
is then 0.85 (85% of volts)
• Volts/Hertz multiplied by 0.85 (85% of current),
• 2 Volts/Hertz or 72.25% of rated power. The
• Digital Voltage Regulator engine only has to produce 72.25%
(adjustable Volts/Hz) of rated hp. Mathematically, the
formula for this concept is:
A constant voltage regulator
attempts to maintain rated voltage 0.85 volts x 0.85 current = 0.7225 power =
as the load is applied. Since the 0.85 speed x 0.85 torque
generator is maintaining rated Technology has allowed an
voltage, it is maintaining applied increase in engine ratings. This
load (ekW). We previously increase creates the possibility of
highlighted the relationship between more severe transient loading. In
ekW and bkW. some cases a Volts/Hz regulator
bkW = Speed x Torque/lambda cannot prevent excessive frequency
dip because of large load changes;
Therefore, when a constant the torque has increased so much
voltage regulator is used, it imposes the deceleration on load is extreme.
increasing torque on the engine Caterpillar has developed a 2
during frequency dips. Since most
Volts/Hz regulator to address this Digital Voltage Regulator

situation. The digital voltage regulator is a
The 2 Volts/Hz regulator decreases microprocessor-based voltage
voltage at twice the rate of regulator. Its main purpose is to
frequency dip. At 15% engine regulate output voltage of an engine
speed, the voltage would dip to generator set. It is designed to
30% (2 x 15%) and the load would improve performance by allowing
be reduced to 70%. The kW regulation characteristics to be
absorbed by the load is then 0.70 modified that were previously not
(70% of volts) multiplied by 0.70 modifiable. This allows the engine
(70% of current) or 49% of rated generator set to function in a more
hp. efficient manner and to provide
improved performance to the
If the generator set is large enough
customer.
to carry the running load the 2
Volts/Hz regulator may help in motor The digital voltage regulator can be
starting. A reduced motor starter software configured to optimize the
may not be required with the 2 transient response of any Caterpillar
Volts/Hz regulator when starting generator set package by changing
large motors depending on system the underfrequency characteristics
design and applied load steps. as well as the control loop gains.
However, the entire connected The microprocessor-based design
system would have reduced voltage, allows for unmatched flexibility in
not just the motor. diverse applications.
Customer Requirements
graph a complete year and
Power Demand determine any seasonal variations.
On Site Power Requirement A daily chronological load curve,
Before selecting an engine model illustrated in Figure 8, shows load
and rating, a load analysis needs to demand throughout the day. A
be performed. This section will chronological curve establishes the
consider the factors which affect peak daily demand and an energy
generator sizing including load usage profile which can aid in the
management needs, voltage and selection of an appropriately sized
frequency dip limitations, motor engine. This load curve is also useful
starting considerations, start-up in programming units for economical
needs and all required standards. operation.
Load Management
Load management is the deliberate
control of loads on a generator set
and/or utility to have the lowest
possible electrical costs.
Assessing the customer’s load
profiles is a key component to
establishing their load management
profile and ultimately the size of
generator set needed to operate
within that profile.
Loads Profiles
The duration and nature of a load
must be established to select and Figure 8
operate a generator set system at
Daily typical peaks for various
maximum efficiency. To analyze a
industries can be graphed based on
load, a family of load profile charts
typical loads as shown in Figure 9.
is necessary. Chronological and
duration load profiles best serve this
purpose.
Note: Unless the load is known to
be steady, this average cannot be
used to establish the engine and
generator requirements because the
Figure 9
average will always be lower than
the maximum kW demand. Duration curves, as shown in
The purpose of the monthly Figure 10, rearrange chronological
average number is to be able to curves and summarize daily load.
Such curves are developed for a For existing loads that are served
week, month, season or year. The by a utility, power bills or power
daily chart represents the average consumption records will provide the
kilowatt load for each day, while the needed data for a twelve-month
twelve-month chart, shown in Figure period. The average kW load can be
11, represents the average kilowatt determined by the following
load for each month. equation:
Average kW Total kW used in Month
=
Load for Month Total Monthly Hours of Operation
Figure 10
Figure 11
Estimating Load Data amperes (VA) per square foot

Obviously, historical load data (VA/FT2). In a commercial building,
does not exist for a plant or facility lighting loads typically range from
not yet constructed. Table 5 1.0 VA/FT2 in a storage area to 15.0
estimates the average load of VA/FT2 or more in an office area.
various facilities. While these Power loads involve loads other
numbers will have variations than lighting. Examples are motors,
depending on site conditions, they furnaces and rectifiers. Unlike
are reliable and helpful in making lighting loads, power loads vary
preliminary feasibility studies for based on a variety of factors; these
installation. including start and stop times,
Categorizing Loads percentage of output and the
When developing a load estimate, associated power factor.
it is helpful to categorize lighting and In addition to categorizing the
power loads. These loads are loads, lighting and power loads are
distinctly different. also estimated separately. The loads
Lighting loads are relatively are later combined to determine the
constant. They are most often approximate total load.
expressed as load density in volt-
Load and Power Consumption Estimating Data

Power Usage
Facility Watts/sq ft kWh/ft2/yr
Schools 4-5 average (43.06-53.82 W/m2 (Total) 11 to 17
Class Rooms 5-6 (53.87-64.58) (1.02 to 1.58
Locker Rooms, Auditoriums, 2-3 (21.53-32.29) kWh/m2/yr)
Halls and Corridors 20 Watts per running foot (65.62 W/m)
Shopping Centers 5 average (Total) 28 to 34 (2.6-3.2)
Stores, Large Department and Specialty 5-6 (53.87-64.58)
Stores 500 Watts per running foot (1640.5
Show Windows W/m)
Office Buildings 5-6 average 28 to 34 (2.6-3.2)
Private and General Offices 4 (43.06)
Professional Offices 6-7 (64.58-75.35)
Dentist, Drafting Rooms, etc. 7 (75.35)
Hotels and Motels 3-4 average (32.29-43.06) (Total) 12 to 17 (1.1-1.58)
Lounge 2 (21.53)
Rooms 3 (32.29)
Dining Rooms 4 (43.06)
Exhibition Halls, Shops, Lobby, Kitchen 3 (32.29)
Hospitals 1.5 to 2.5 kW per bed average 8500 to 11400 kWh
Lobby, Wards, Cafeterias 3 Watts/sq ft (32.29 W/m2) per bed per year
Private Rooms, Operating Rooms 5 Watts/sq ft (53.82 W/m2)
Operating Tables: Major Surgeries 3000 Watts each
Minor Surgeries 1500 Watts each
Apartment Houses 2-3 kW per unit (Total) 11 to 17 (1.20 to
Lobby 2 Watts/sq ft (21.53 W/m2) 1.58)
Apartments 3 Watts/sq ft (32.29 W/m2)
Small Appliances 1.5 kW/unit
Table 5
Load Example
VA/FT2 Load Estimating Calculate the load for a 10,000
For estimating purposes, power square foot office with electric air
loads and lighting loads can be conditioning.
measured in VA/FT2. However, a Solution
detailed analysis requires individual The left-hand column of Table 6
measurement of power loads to indicates the maximum lighting load
ensure accuracy. in an office building is 4.0 VA/FT2.
A simple table, based on VA/FT2, Therefore, the lighting load equates
is used to obtain a rough estimate of to:
a load as expressed in total kVA 4.0 VA/FT2 x 10,000 (square feet) = 40,000 VA
generated; Table 6 shows such a
table.
Volt Amperes Per Square Foot (VA/FT2)

Load Type
Facility Type Miscellaneous Air-Conditioning Air-Conditioning
Lighting
Power (Electrical) (Non-Electrical)
Office Building 2.5 - 4.0 2.0 4.0 - 7.0 1.5 - 3.2
Hospital 2-3 1.0 5.7 2.0 - 3.2
School 2.0 - 4.0 1.5 3.5 - 5.0 1.5 - 2.2
Table 6
Reading the table from left to BMEP load step analysis, described
right: earlier in this guide, is one system
2.0 VA/FT2 is required for for developing a starting method.
miscellaneous power loads: Most loads do not draw power in a
2.0 VA/FT2 x 10,000 (square feet) = 20,000 VA steady-state fashion; therefore, it is
important to know the operating
sequence and what else is running
7.0 A/FT2 is required for electrical when loads are connected.
air conditioning loads:
7.0 VA/FT2 x 10,000 (square feet) = 70,000 VA Prioritization
Prioritization is the process by
which the customer identifies what
Add the individual loads to electrical loads are needed and in
determine the combined load: what priority. The highest priority
40,000 + 20,000 + 70,000 = 130,000 VA loads would be in the first step;
even if all the generator sets are not
When using the table, it is ready for load. The first generator
important to remember that the set ready to accept the load would
table does not account for power take the first priority loads. The next
losses caused by the resistance step would go to the next highest
found in wires and cables. A power prioritized load. This process will
loss of up to 6% would be factored repeat until all loads are applied.
into the VA total when estimating a Smaller load steps equate to
facility with extensive wiring. smaller transients, which result in a
smoother transition. For example, a
Load Steps medical center might prioritize
Load steps refer to the amount of lifesaving equipment as their number
load that will be placed on a one need. That equipment (or
generator set at one time. A special outlets for that equipment)
generator set may accept load in would be the first supplied with
one load step, or may spread it out electricity from the first available
over several load steps. The generator set. Lights may be
customer can identify the needs of identified as the second most
the environment and then a proper important need and handled by the
method of starting can be applied. second load step.
When starting generator sets Additional Load Categories

without a preferred load order, it is There are no official guidelines for
suggested that the largest loads are categorizing loads. Architects,
started first. The largest transient consultants, customers and
will occur before the system is contractors will determine categories
heavily loaded. These large loads for loads based on each project.
will have the least effect on the rest For example: Loads on a project
of the system. may be divided into lighting, heating
Load Shedding and cooling loads. On another
Load shedding refers to the project, the loads may be
method by which needs are categorized as normal, emergency
prioritized after the generator sets and uninterruptible loads. The loads
are started. During periods of high on a third project may be labeled as
demand, some loads may be less base, intermediate and peak shaving
important to the facility than other loads.
loads. These can be “shed”, or not Load Management Strategies
powered, so the electricity can be Power utilities sometimes offer
used for predetermined, essential their customers power discounts if
loads. their loads do not fluctuate or
For example: In a factory, all exceed a certain limit. The most
welding equipment and other common are peak shaving, base
machines may be operated, at loading and zero import/zero export
capacity, at the same time, between control.
10 am and 12 noon and then again Peak Shaving
between 1 pm and 3 pm. During Figure 12 shows how a utility
these times, the load to lights in the customer can qualify for a
lunchroom and parking lot would be discounted rate by not allowing the
shed because they are less of a power demand to be above 500 kW.
priority. Any power generated over 500 kW
Intermittent Loads is supplied by the customer’s
Equipment, such as furnaces and generator. Thus, the customer
elevators, use power intermittently “shaves” the peaks from the
and are considered intermittent utilities’ responsibility. Peak shaving
loads. can be very demanding on an
All loads that follow an engine; it must be able to start
intermittent load must consider the quickly and automatically parallel to
intermittent load as part of its total. the utility. The response time of the
This increases skVA requirements engine is crucial because of the load
and a larger generator may be fluctuations.
needed to account for intermittent
loads.
Zero Import/Zero Export

The load management type in
which the customer supplies all the
electrical needs to the facility, while
still paralleling with the utility is
called Zero Import/Zero Export
control. Refer to Figure 14. If the
power requirements fluctuate
Figure 12 widely, a series of generator sets
can be used and brought on-line as
Base Loading required. Since the customer
The least demanding power remains paralleled to the utility, the
management type on an engine is demands made on the engines for
base loading. The generator this type are similar to base loading.
operates at a constant load and the Reliability is the chief concern for
utility imports power when the load these customers. Utilities will often
exceeds the generator output. The invoke demand charge penalties
user can also export power to the each time they are called upon to
utility if the load is below the output supply power.
of the generator. Figure 13 shows a
base loading system and indicates
when power would be imported or
exported. Since overloads are
handled by the utility and the
generator set is operating at a
constant load, size and engine
response time are not as crucial as
in peak shaving.
Figure 14
Figure 13
Concepts of Peak Shaving vs. Peak Sharing

Peak Shaving Peak Sharing
Customer sheds load or generates power to Customer generates power to help utility
reduce own demand peak reduce its peak
Practice is generally discouraged by utility Practice encouraged by many utilities with
companies generating capacity shortfalls
Customer benefits at utility’s expense in lost Because the utility benefits, it can afford
sales to reward the customer
Customer savings accrue from reduced Savings accrue from interruptible rates or
demand charges credits per kW of customer’s on-site
generating capacity
Concept is feasible only where customer Concept is viable even for customers with
experiences severe demand “spikes” and relatively flat load profiles
high demand charges
Customer decides when to run generators Utility dictates operation when utility
cannot meet all of its customers’ demands
If generators are installed for the sole purpose of taking advantage of peak-shaving
incentives, the customer gains the additional benefit of acquiring backup protection
against utility outages
Figure 15
Peak Sharing can operate independently of the

In a typical peak sharing utility or in parallel so the
arrangement, the customer installs cogenerator can purchase from or
and operates generators of specified sell power to the utility.
capacity when directed to do so by Load Duration Curves
the utility company. Under many Load duration curves can also
peak sharing contracts, utilities represent loads.
compensate the customer for each
time they operate their onsite
generators. The differences between
peak shaving and peak sharing are
outlined in Figure 15.
Co-generation
Co-generation is the term used to
describe the load management
system that produces electricity for
lighting and equipment operations
while at the same time it utilizes the
waste heat produced in the exhaust
for heating, cooling, or generation of Figure 16
process steam. Co-generation plants
As shown in Figure 16, loads are horsepower hour (BHP) of an air

arranged into descending order of compressor, rated at 125 psi, can
magnitude based on the percentage be found by multiplying the rated
of the total load. Generator sets cubic feet per minute (CFM) of the
powering the base load operate for compressor by 0.275. Fans,
the duration of a 24-hour period. blowers, inclined conveyors, and
Generator sets powering the welders can also be estimated using
intermediate load are activated for a the information in this chart.
limited period when the load Load Growth
increases to a specified level. The customers’ future needs are to
Generator sets earmarked to be taken into account when sizing
power the peak load are used to the generator set. If the customer
help power 100% of the load for a anticipates growth in their
short period. application due to increased volume
Knowing the type of load or expanded needs, oversizing the
management that is most engine or leaving room for another
economical to a facility can help generator to be installed at a later
determine the size of generator set date is reasonable and helpful to the
needed based on the load factor and customer. The projected load
application. growth for any application should
never be less than 10%. Table 8
Estimating Guidelines
shows typical load growth over a
Many guidelines can be used for
period of 10 years for various
estimating the varied types of loads.
applications.
For example: In Table 7, the brake
Typical Load Sizing Guidelines

Inclined Conveyors
Air Compressors Fans & Blowers Welders
(15° to 20°)
90 psi rating: Light Duty:
0.225 CFM = BHP 3 to 20 kW
100 psi rating: CFM x in H2O Ft. Vertical Lift x Tons/Hr
BHP = BHP =
0.25 CFM = BHP 6,346 x EFF. 500
125 psi compressor: Heavy Duty:
0.275 CFM = BHP 20 to 100 kW
Table 7
Load Growth Over 10 Years

Bank Medical Center
30 – 50% 30 – 50%
Church School
30 – 50% 30 – 50%
Hospital Warehouse
30 – 50% 30 – 50%
Table 8
on the system is 15 kW, which is

Demand Factor also the same as its connected load.
As mentioned, the load The operating load of the 100 hp
requirements must be defined as motor, operating at 87% of its total
accurately as possible to determine capacity, is 65 kW.
the best size of generator set
needed. The “maximum demand” or Example:
“demand factor” is the highest What is the demand factor of the
demand which is placed on the system shown in Figure 17?
supply within a specified period of Solution:
time. After the total connected load To calculate the numerator add the
has been found, it is important to individual kW loads:
know how much of the maximum 20 + 15 + 65 = 100 Operating kW Load
load will actually be used at a given
time. Another way to describe
demand factor is the mathematical For the denominator add the hp
ratio of the operating load divided by ratings for each motor:
the connected load. 50 + 20 + 100 = 170 hp Total Connected Load
Total Operating kW
X 100 = Demand Factor
Total Connected kW The conversion factor for hp to kW
is 0.7457 or 0.746. Therefore, total
connected load is multiplied by
0.746 to get 126.82 kW, or 127
kW:
0.746 x 170 = 126.82 = 127 kW)
To find demand factor use the

Figure 17
formula:
Figure 17 also illustrates demand Total Operating kW
X 100 = Demand Factor
factor. On this system, three Total Connected kW
motors, rated at 50 hp, 20 hp and
100 hp each, are connected to a 100 kW
X 100 = 79%
generator set. 127 kW
If the 50 hp motor were operated
at 100% capacity, its total
connected electrical load would be
37.3 kW. However, the 50 hp motor
is only expected to produce 54% of
its total capacity. Hence, the
operating electrical load is 20 kW.
Operating at 100% capacity, the
maximum load of the 20 hp motor
Shown in Table 9 is a range of Figure 18

common demand factors.
Range of Common Demand Factors Figure 18 can be used to illustrate
Total Connected diversity factor. It is important to
Apparatus know how much of the entire
Load
Motors for pumps, system’s maximum load present at a
compressors, given time. As shown in Figure 18,
20 to 60 Percent
elevators, blowers,
individual loads are connected to
etc …
Motors for semi- load centers. The load centers have
continuous 20 kW, 15 kW and 65 kW loads
operations, such as 50 to 80 Percent each, for a total connected load of
process plants and 100 kW. The 100 kW total
foundries connected load is routed to an 80
Arc welders 30 to 60 Percent
kW meter.
Resistance welders 10 to 40 Percent
Heaters, ovens, To determine the diversity factor
80 to 100 Percent
furnaces of the system shown, 20 kW, 15
Table 9 kW and 65 kW are combined to get
a total connected load of 100 kW.
Diversity Factor To find the diversity factor use the
Diversity factor is the value placed formula to solve:
on a small collection of loads. The Total Max. Demand
value for the whole system itself, X 100 = Diversity
kW
Factor
which is comprised of smaller Total Incoming kW
collections of loads, is called the
diversity factor. Specifically, 100 kW
diversity factor is the mathematical X 100 = 125%
80 kW
ratio of a system’s individual
maximum demands divided by the
Typical diversity factors include:
maximum demand of the system as
a whole. The formula used to • Lighting feeders:
calculate diversity factor is total 1.10 to 1.50%
maximum demand divided by total • Power & light feeders:
incoming kW times 100. 1.50 to 2.00% or higher
Total Max. Demand
kW
X 100 = Diversity Demand Factor and Diversity
Factor Factor in Sizing
Total Incoming kW
Demand and diversity factors are
advantageous when sizing generator
sets to the load.
However, the connected loads
should be interlocked so that they
cannot all be impressed upon the
generator set at the same time. If
the loads are not interlocked, the diversity factor is 1.4, for example,
generator set rating could be 690 kVA divided by 1.4 equals 492
exceeded. Despite this precaution, kVA. Hence, a generator set rated at
you must always assume that total 500 kVA would satisfy the load.
time-current characteristics of all In summary, all loads need to be
motors and other loads starting at analyzed so that the correct size
the same time will not exceed the generator can be matched to the
short-term generator set rating. load. When sizing a generator for an
Figure 19 illustrates how demand application, the steady state load
and diversity factors are used in and maximum transient load need to
generator set sizing. be considered.
Frequency Dips
Frequency dips are related to the
size of load being connected.
Twenty to 25% maximum frequency
dip is the standard limit. A
frequency dip above 35% may
cause the engine difficulty in
recovering. Frequency dips are
normally more tightly controlled than
voltage dips because they are
typically connected to more
sensitive electrical equipment.
Figure 19 Block Load & Standards
The NFPA (National Fire Protection
Association) standard 110 requires
In Figure 19, connected loads of that a generator set must be capable
300 kVA, 100 kVA and 500 kVA of picking up a 100% block load. It
are shown. After calculating demand does not specify frequency and volt
factors for each of the same loads, deviations.
the corresponding demand loads are ISO 8528 (2005) also has
240, 100 and 350, respectively. transient response standards that
When combined, the total demand are discussed in the Engine Ratings
load on the system is 690 kVA. section of this guide. The
When the diversity factor is 1.0, the performance class relevant for the
total 690 kVA is divided by 1.0 to application must be followed to be
get 690 kVA. To meet this load, a within the standard and achieve
generator set rated at a standard maximum performance.
size of 750 kVA is needed.
Starting Requirements
However, a different diversity
The time it takes to initiate a
factor on the same system will
generator set startup and when it is
change the total kVA needed. If the
ready to accept load is defined as its Also, in cases where air starting
starting requirement. Starting is used, the air system must
requirements will vary depending on supply the required air volume
the application. A typical starting and maintain a 100 psi (689.5
requirement is 10 to 30 seconds. kPa) minimum pressure.
Load Acceptance 2. Combustion air must be a
Load Acceptance is the point at minimum of 21°C (70°F).
which breaker closure is initiated. 3. A jacket water heater to
This is considered to be 90% of maintain a minimum of 32°C
rated frequency. Figure 20 (90°F) jacket water
graphically shows a packaged temperature.
generator set’s typical starting
4. A readily available supply of
performance.
clean fuel.
5. The generator rotating inertia
must not exceed that of the
standard Caterpillar generator.
Any variation in these conditions
will affect the start time.
Natural Gas Engines
Special engine conditioning is
required for a natural gas engine to
start in 10 seconds. Ten-second
starting is only possible on specific
Figure 20 gas engines. Consult the factory for
specific engine model starting
requirements.
Ten-Second Start Starting condition requirements for
Ten-second start refers to the natural gas engines are the same as
ability of a non-paralleled generator diesel engine starting requirements,
set to start, accelerate to rated except for one detail: The solenoid
speed and be ready to accept load gas valve must be located as closely
within 10 seconds after receiving a as possible to the carburetor or “A”
signal to start. regulator, depending on the fuel
For 10-second starting, the train consists. A maximum distance
following conditions must exist: of 0.61 m (2 ft) is desired.
1. Cranking batteries must be A customer’s starting time
adequately sized and fully requirements should be determined
charged. before sizing the generator set. A
Note: there is a difference for quick starting application requires
battery versus ambient consideration of altitude,
temperature sizing. temperature and other factors that
affect the engine starting to find the available in respective Application &
best solution. Installation Guides.
Refer to Emergency & Fast Natural Gas
Starting in the Starting Systems Natural gas engines are appropriate
Application and Installation Guide for for base loading, continuous
more information. operations. Natural gas does not
Health Care Facilities & NFPA 99 respond well to transients so it
The standard NFPA 99 is written would not be a good choice for
specifically for health care facilities. loads with fluctuations. Natural gas
can be less expensive, depending on
3-4.1.1.8 states the following:
availability, and it has superior
“The generator set(s) shall have
emissions.
sufficient capacity to pick up the
load and meet the minimum Diesel
frequency and voltage stability Diesel fuel is suited for large load
requirements of the emergency fluctuations. Fuel normally
system within 10 seconds after loss recommended for diesel generator
of normal power.” sets is No. 2 furnace oil or No. 2D
diesel fuel. When this fuel is used
Customers requiring this capability
for heating, common storage tanks
can achieve it by using the correct
for boilers and generator sets are
generator system. Select an
practical. In addition to reducing
appropriate generator set according
installation costs, this arrangement
to this standard for all health care
reduces fuel costs by quantity
facilities in the United States.
purchases and minimizes fuel
Sizing a generator set requires deterioration. Diesel is an excellent
knowledge of the customer’s loads choice for base loading and standby
and load management strategies as applications.
well as their requirements for
transient response, emissions and Heavy Fuels
starting. All these requirements need Heavy fuels are the by-products
to be determined before the from the refining process of oil. It is
generator set size and rating are extremely viscous and the fuel
established. quality is low. However, this fuel is
very inexpensive. For industries
Fuel Selection which burn large amounts of fuel,
Fuel selection can impact the heavy fuels are a choice to consider
performance of a generator set and, because of their economic
depending on availability, reduce advantages. Heavy fuels are not a
electricity costs for a generator set good choice for standby
user. Natural gas, diesel and heavy applications.
fuels are common choices.
Note: Detailed information on
gaseous fuels and diesel fuels is
Performance will only be present during startup

and will fade as the engine jacket
Emissions
water warms as the engine is
Standards on engine emissions are
loaded. Jacket water heaters help
constantly evolving.
reduce white smoke at startup.
Special engine configurations allow
The sulfur present in the fuel
operation with lower exhaust
oxidizes to form sulfur dioxide. The
emissions. Gaseous exhaust
emission of sulfur dioxide depends
emissions of diesel engines are the
on the amount of sulfur in the fuel
lowest of modern internal
and the fuel consumption of the
combustion engines. Engine
engine. Sulfur dioxide emissions can
emissions are measured using a
be calculated using the following
Horiba or Beckman gas analyzer,
formula:
with equipment and data
measurement techniques conforming SO2 = (00.01998) (BSFC) (% Sulfur In Fuel)
to U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Where:
Title 40, Part 53 or 86. SO2 = Emissions in g/kW-hr
Caterpillar has developed a BSFC = Brake Specific Fuel
correlation between smoke and Consumption
particulate concentration which can
% Sulfur = A percentage by
be used to estimate particulate
In Fuel weight
emissions.
Black Smoke
Black smoke is the soot portion of Nitrogen oxides are formed when
particulates and is caused by the combustion air oxygen and
incomplete combustion. Black nitrogen molecules combine. Nitric
smoke is not considered an exhaust oxide gradually oxidizes to become
emission; rather it is a compilation the more harmful, nitrogen dioxide in
of exhaust emissions with the atmosphere. Nitrogen dioxide is
particulate matter being the largest a poisonous gas which, when
contributor. Due to the fuel combined with hydrocarbons in the
composition, gas engines typically form of sunlight, creates smog.
do not have significant particulate Nitrogen dioxide emissions in parts
matter emission and do not emit per million by volume can be
black smoke. approximated from the mass
emission rate and exhaust flow:
White Smoke
White smoke is caused by NOx Mass
NOx Concentration = 629 Emissions
vaporized, unburned fuel passing x
through the engine. Like black Exhaust Mass Flow
smoke, white smoke is not
considered a defined exhaust Where:
emission. Typically, white smoke NOx = Parts Per Million
Concentratio outlined in ISO 8178-1 in regards to

n temperature, barometric pressure
NOx Mass g/hr of equivalent and fuel density. The nominal level
= of emissions data is derived under
Emissions NO2
these conditions. The specific
Exhaust Flow = Kg/hr
conditions can be accessed through
TMI.
Caterpillar offers standard (STD) Nominal vs. Not to Exceed
engines for areas where emission Engine emissions information is
levels allow. A catalytic converter typically published in one of two
can also be added for places where formats. The first is nominal, which
emission standards are more is what emissions levels would be
rigorous. Low Emission (LE) engines expected from a nominal engine;
are for areas where emissions are of while the second level is not to
primary concern. The LE engines use exceed, which is the maximum
lean burn technology. Lean burn emissions output expected for an
means that excess air is forced into engine. It is important to understand
the cylinder to cool the combustion these levels when comparing
process. This process reduces the competitive information and when
NOx in the exhaust. LE engines can providing information to engineering
sustain higher loads without consultants and end users.
detonating. Because of this, LE
“Not to Exceed” data includes a
engines have a higher rating than
“Tolerance Factor” to account for
STD engines, given the same
paralleling and instrumentation and
compression ratio and separate
facility variations. If the “Not to
circuit aftercooler temperature.
Exceed” value is exceeded during
Some measures that improve field measurements, it is likely that
emissions levels will affect other the test equipment is at fault or that
areas for sizing considerations. the engine has a problem.
Either kW are reduced or the
Caterpillar engines, at rated speed,
response rate value may be higher in
will not exceed the values specified
some instances. Of course, this can
in Table 10.
affect engine ratings and the
performance of the engine.
Correction Factors Diesel Natural Gas
Emission g/bhp-
Emission levels are affected by the h NA TA T
Catalytic Low
Converter Emission
engine rating, speed, turbocharger,
Nitrogen Oxide
timing, fuel and ambient conditions. 12.0 15.0 19.0 1.2 2.0
(NOx)
Higher ambient temperature and Carbon
higher altitudes increase nitrogen Monoxide 3.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 1.7
(CO)
dioxide and particulate emissions. Hydrocarbons
When engines are tested in the lab, 0.4 1.5 1.5 0.5 0.35
(NMHC)
they are tested to specific standards
Table 10 Additional information on this

subject can be found in the Cooling
Note: Depending on configuration Systems Application & Installation
and rating, many engines emit Guide.
considerably less emissions. Specific Co-generation Usage
emission data is available from the On a standard engine, the heat
specific product TMI. balance is not relevant to the
Heat Balance customer in terms of performance.
Before a cooling system is However, if the customer requires
designed, the designer must co-generation capability, it becomes
understand how much heat is being crucial in their application. Btu’s
rejected through each of the cooling must be matched, not just to the
circuits. The following guide will customers overall need, but to their
help interpret and apply the heat specific application need.
rejection data. Many factors about the customer’s
Heat balance is a term used to needs should be considered before
describe the following: determining the best solution.
The heat input into the engine equals the Assume the following situation: A
sum of the heat and work outputs. customer needs 45% Btu’s for heat,
45% for electricity and 10% is lost.
An example of this relationship is
Before selecting any unit that meets
shown in the following equation:
this criteria, additional questions
should be asked and might include
Work Output some of the following.
+ Total Exhaust Heat • Should a generator set be
+ Radiation offered that is long on heat
+ Jacket Water capability and short on
electrical capability with the
+ Oil Cooler
intent that the additional
+ Aftercooler electricity needed be
= Total Heat Input purchased from a utility?
• How about a generator set
In every calculation using engine that is long on electrical
data, there is a tolerance band or a capability and short on heat?
deviation from norm. Heat balance • Will that option save the
tolerances must be applied when customer money if a cooling
sizing cooling system components. system is used seasonally or
The tolerances recommended by year round?
Caterpillar vary depending on the
• What are the prices for
engine mode and are published in
heating and electrical fuel
TMI.
from the utility?
• What types of load current and future needs in mind

management options are before recommending a solution.
available to them?
In addition, these items should be
considered with the customer’s
Load Analysis
Load analysis is the process of work. It is the product of power and
considering size, starting time.
characteristics and intended usage Energy = Power x Time
of electrical loads and their
collective impact on a generator set
power source. In electric power generation,
electrical energy produced or
At times, it may be necessary to
consumed is expressed in kilowatt-
conduct a detailed analysis, through
hours (kW-Hrs). A single kW-Hr of
discussion and observation, with the
energy is one kW of electrical power
user, customer, or
used for one hour.
consulting/specifying engineer to
determine the exact nature of the kW-Hrs = kW x Hrs
loads.
Determining the electrical load of a Loads have different electrical
facility is the first and most characteristics. When developing a
important step in supplying a load analysis, it is helpful to
generator set. The generator set categorize loads into groups with
supplier is looked upon as the expert common characteristics. There are
when it comes to choosing the right no rigid standards for categorizing
generator set to power the load. As loads. Architects, consultants,
a supplier of high-quality Caterpillar customers and generator set
generator sets, it is important to suppliers will determine or speak of
understand electrical loads and categories for loads based on the
possess a working knowledge of needs of the project involved.
basic load analysis. For example, loads may be
An electrical load is a device that categorized as normal loads and
uses electricity; lights, motors, emergency loads or perhaps critical
heaters, welders and loads and non-critical loads. There
communications equipment are just may be further division of the
a few examples of electrical loads. emergency or critical loads into
It is important to understand the additional categories of life-support
relationship between energy and or uninterruptible loads. On a
power when discussing electrical different project, the loads may be
loads. Power is a rate of doing work. labeled as base, intermediate and
It is a product of force and motion. peak shaving loads.
Electrical power is the product of Load analysis should define those
electromotive force (volts) and loads that are considered linear
current flow (amps). It is expressed (draw current in a sine waveform)
in watts or kilowatts. Energy is and non-linear (draw current in
pulses or non-sine waveform).
Further definition of linear & non- Lighting Loads

linear loads is included in the Load
Linear Lighting Loads
Type Section on Page 95.
Linear loads are loads that draw
Proper selection of a generator set current in a sinusoidal waveform as
as a power source frequently shown in Figure 20. There are many
requires detail within these examples of linear loads, but lighting
categories of linear or non-linear. In is the most common.
addition, loads can be separated as
lighting loads, motor loads, and
miscellaneous loads. A generator set
is a limited power source,
sometimes referred to as a “limited
bus”. The limited bus does not have
the reserve capability of a utility
grid. It is necessary to analyze and
categorize generator set loads to
assure proper consideration of their Figure 21
power demand characteristics.
Lighting
The loads discussed in this chapter Lighting loads are typically
are going to be categorized by type considered a constant load for sizing
and if they are linear or non-linear. purposes; even though individual
Primarily we are going to separate light circuits or lamp usage can be
the load as lighting loads, motor very diverse. Lighting is often
loads, and miscellaneous loads that expressed in volt-amperes (VA) or
have unique characteristics. kilovolt-amperes (kVA) because it is
primarily a resistive load with a near
Typical Electrical Loads unity (1.0) power factor (pf).
Lighting Therefore, if a lighting load is given
Incandescent lamps, fluorescent in kVA, it is usually assumed to be
lamps, high-intensity discharge (HID) of an equal kW value. There are
and arc. several types of lighting.
Heating
Resistor ovens, convection ovens, Incandescent Lighting
dielectric heating, induction heating, An incandescent lamp has a
arc furnaces. filament, which is heated to
Welding
Resistance welding, arc welding,
incandescence by an electric
and induction welding. current. This is a very simple and
Motors commonplace electrical load.
DC, induction and synchronous. Incandescent lamps are rated by
Miscellaneous voltage and wattage requirements.
Rectifiers, solid-state controllers and
The power factor is 1.0, so
communications.
incandescent bulbs can operate on
Table 11 either alternating or direct current.
These loads are often rated in watts. Non-Linear Lighting Loads

For example, ten 100-watt light Non-linear loads are AC loads in
bulbs would be a 1000 watt or 1 which the current is not proportional
kW load. Current drawn by a lamp is to the voltage. Non-linear loads
found by dividing its wattage rating create harmonics, or additional sine
by a specified input voltage: waves, that are a multiple of the
A = W/ V generated frequency in the current
waveform; Figure 21 illustrates
Incandescents draw high inrush
harmonics. This will influence the
currents and are suitable in
generator size. Harmonics are
applications which require flashing
discussed in detail in the Generator
or dimming, with operation over
Systems Application & Installation
wide voltage ranges. Any voltage
Guide (LEBW4993).
fluctuation can affect the lamp
brightness while extreme voltage
fluctuations shorten filament life.
Tungsten Lamp Inrush
Tungsten filament lamps are
resistance devices. The resistance of
a tungsten filament increases rapidly
with an increase in temperature. At
room temperature, with the lamp
“off”, resistance is low. However,
the filament temperature increases
rapidly when the lamp is turned “on”
and, consequently, the resistance
Figure 22
increases as the lamp assumes
normal operating temperature. This Fluorescent Lamps
is called tungsten lamp inrush. Fluorescent lamps are also rated
Tungsten lamp inrush current can by voltage and wattage. Due to the
be up to 17 times greater than the use of a ballast transformer, these
normal current but the surge lasts lamps have power factors slightly
only a few cycles. Switches must be lower (0.95 to 0.97) than
designed to handle such surges. incandescent lamps. When
When using a generator power incandescent or fluorescent type
source, this phenomenon is lights operate from step-down
generally inconsequential. However, transformers, power factor
very large blocks of tungsten contribution of the transformer must
lighting load may cause a be considered. Uncompensated
momentary voltage dip transient to fixtures can show power factors as
occur. low as 0.5 lagging.
Gas Discharge Lamps motors being used because of the

Gas discharge lamps are various starting characteristics.
fluorescent, high-pressure sodium or Starting characteristics may drive
similar lamps which use a gas-filled the need for a larger or smaller
chamber in combination with a low generator.
energy, high voltage sustained As compared to a utility buss feed,
electric arc. Gas discharge lamps are an on-site generator set is a limited
rated by voltage and wattage. source of horsepower, from the
The high voltage required by a gas engine, and kVA from the generator.
discharge lamp is obtained by using Thus, a generator set must be large
ballast transformers and electronic enough to start as well as run
ballasts. connected motor loads.
Ballast transformers with Motors convert electrical energy
saturating reactors are used to into mechanical motion. They can
provide high voltage and control present severe demands on the
lamp current. Current produced by power source during starting and
this type of ballast is high in third acceleration to rated speed. Current
harmonic content due to the demand can range from four to ten
saturating reactors. Electronic times normal full load current during
ballasts use electronic power circuits this period. That above normal
to generate and control the lamp current demand is called starting
current. kVA (skVA) and often has great
Like fluorescent lamps, gas influence on generator selection.
discharge lamps have power factors Starting an electric motor can
slightly lower (0.95 to 0.97) than create voltage dips in excess of
incandescent lamps. Gas discharge 40% if the generator set is not
lamps may be sensitive to transient properly sized. This can create
voltage dip. Certain types of gas serious effects on the existing loads
discharge lamps may extinguish such as the dimming or
during a severe transient voltage dip extinguishment of lights or stoppage
and delays in re-illumination may be of motors due to insufficient
experienced. Lamp manufacturers or voltage. The starting of motors will
suppliers should be contacted for be discussed later in this section.
characteristics. This is not typical of Pre-loads on motors do not vary
fluorescent lamps. As a rule, avoid maximum starting currents, but do
heavy SCR loads, large block determine time required for motors
switching loads and large motor to achieve rated speed and current
skVA loads on gas discharge lighting and to drop back to normal running
circuits. value. If motors are excessively
loaded, they may not start or may
Motor Loads
run at a reduced speed. Both
When sizing a generator set, it is
starting and running current are
important to identify the types of
considered when analyzing total

kVA requirement.
AC electric motors represent
inductive loads with lagging power
factors between 0.5 and 0.95,
depending on size, type and loading.
With few exceptions, there are
two basic types of AC motors:
• Induction Motors
• Synchronous Motors
Induction Motors Figure 23
Induction motors, shown in Figure
23, are the most common motors in Squirrel Cage
The squirrel cage motor is the
use today. Induction motors have a
most widely used of all motors in
stationary armature connected to
industry. Most three-phase motors
the power source. The rotor
are squirrel cage type. When a
winding, with rotating shaft, is
constant speed drive with no
excited by voltage induced from the
continuous low-speed running is
magnetic field developed by the
required, a squirrel cage motor is
stationary armature windings.
used.
Voltage, induced in the rotor, results
in current flow within the rotor The name is derived from
winding. This current creates construction of the rotor circuit.
another magnetic field around the Solid conductor bars are arranged
rotor conductors. Rotation of the around the rotor periphery with their
rotor results from the interaction of ends short-circuited. If this
rotor and armature magnetic fields conductor assembly were removed
as the armature magnetic field from the steel core, it would
rotates around the stationary resemble the appearance of a
armature with the progression of AC circular small animal cage.
current flowing in the armature Squirrel cage induction motors are
windings. manufactured with design variants
The two types of induction motors for specific performance features
are the squirrel cage and the wound such as starting torque,
rotor. speed/torque characteristic and
locked rotor amps. Squirrel cage
motors are divided into four designs;
A, B, C and D. Descriptions of these
classes are discussed in the Motor
Performance section of this guide.
Table 12 lists the specifications for current. Because these motors have
each class of motor. no code letter, exact operating
performance must be obtained from
the motor nameplate or the
Squirrel Cage Motor Torques in Per Unit
of Full-Load Torque manufacturer. Typical applications
Locked-
are large pumps, long conveyers,
Class Breakdown Pull-Up large diameter fans and large
Rotor
rotating drum devices.
A 1.40 Over 2.00 1.00
B 1.40 2.00 1.00
The characteristics of current are
shown in Figure 24, as they
Over
C 2.00 1.90 correspond to steps in resistance.
1.40
Also shown are percentages of total
Not Not
D 2.75
specified specified
rated resistance in the rotor circuit.
With 100% or maximum resistance
Table 12 when the motor is started at zero
speed, the initial inrush line current
Wound Rotor (Slip Ring) is in the range of 100% full load
A wound rotor motor is a special current. If all rings were shorted at
induction motor which features a start up, as in a squirrel cage motor,
rotor that is wound with coils. there is zero resistance and starting
Windings are placed in slots around current would be approximately
the rotor periphery and connected to 460% of full load current. This
slip rings. The slip ring brushes are would present a much more severe
then connected to external resistors. starting condition. Normal operation
Changing the rotor circuit resistance of this motor is with all resistance
will change the induced rotor circuit shorted.
current and vary the motor’s
speed/torque characteristics. High
rotor resistance provides a high
starting torque with low starting
current. A wound rotor induction
motor normally has five to seven
steps of resistance in the rotor
circuit.
Wound rotor motors are used for
starting large rotating mass or high
inertia loads with a long acceleration
time. They provide a smooth start
with minimized motor heating during
the acceleration period. Usually the
motors are started near unity (1.0)
Figure 24
power factor. Starting current is
limited to 130% of rated operating
Slip Definition 1140 r/min at full-load when

Speed of an induction motor is supplied with power from a 60 Hz 3-
almost constant from no-load to full phase line. What is the percent slip
load in relationship to the supply at full-load?
frequency. Ideally, if there were no Solution
resistance to rotor rotation, the Slip at Full Synchronous Speed – Full Load
rotor’s magnetic field would follow Load (%) = Speed
exactly in synchronism with the Synchronous Speed
armature’s magnetic field. However,
in induction motors, the armature’s Synchronous
=
120(f) 120(60)
= 1200 rpm
rotating magnetic field must cut Speed # Poles 6
through the rotor conductors to
create the torque. In other words, an 1200 – 1140
= 5% Slip
1200
induction motor must run at less
than synchronous speed in order to
produce a driving torque. Slip is a Synchronous Motors
reduction of speed with increased Synchronous motors, like induction
load. motors, demand large skVA when
The amount of slip varies with starting.
motor design. A slip of Typically, synchronous motors are
approximately 3% at full-load is practical only in sizes above 40
common with an induction motor. horsepower in which heavy loads
Slip is the difference between the are in constant operation.
speed of the rotor and the speed of Synchronous motors maintain
the stator rotating magnetic field. constant speed, synchronized with
The equation used to calculate power line frequency.
percentage of slip at full-load is: Synchronous motors have two
Slip at Full Synchronous Speed – Full Load features that distinguish them from
Load (%) = Speed induction motors.
Synchronous Speed
• Synchronous motors run at
exactly synchronous speed.
Synchronous speed is established
• The rotor of a synchronous
by the supply frequency and
motor is separately excited
configuration of the stator winding
with DC while running at
into a number of magnetic poles.
synchronous speed; this
In general, as the load of an allows operating power factor
induction motor increases, its speed to be varied.
decreases below synchronous
Characteristics of synchronous
speed.
motors vary from motor to motor.
Example This variability requires that
A six pole induction motor runs at performance characteristics be
almost 1200 r/min at no load and obtained from the motor
manufacturer as this information = AC kVA

may not appear on the nameplate.
Note: A variation of the induction Example
motor, known as the synchronous Find the amount of single-phase
reluctance motor, is available for power which can be safely drawn
applications such as synchronized from a three-phase, 125/216 volt,
conveyor systems. These motors four-wire generator set, rated to
run without slip at exactly deliver 100 kW at 0.8 pf. The coil
synchronous speed, regardless of current rating of the generator set is
load, but should not be confused 334 amperes. Assume the single-
with true synchronous motors. phase load is connected from one
Power factor is not adjustable and line-to-neutral and has an operating
is, in fact, poorer than for standard power factor of 0.9 lagging. In
induction motors, locked rotor and addition, assume that the generator
full load currents are also higher set is supplying a three-phase load
than for standard squirrel cage of 50 kW at a 0.8 pf.
motors. Modern synchronous Solution
reluctance motors require no 1. Find the current drawn from
external source of de-excitation. each of the lines by the three-
They are offered in numerous phase load.
versions, including gear motor 3 V x I x pf
styles. P=
1000
DC Motors
DC motors are used in applications P x 1000 50 x1000
I= = = 167 amperes
3 V x pf 1.73 x 216 x 0.8
requiring speed control, heavy load
starting or where other system
elements require a DC power 2. Find the coil current capacity
source. Full load efficiencies vary remaining for the single-phase
from 86 to 92%. load.
334 – 167 = 167 amperes
DC motors have no power factor;
however, when driven through a 3. Find the single-phase power
silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) by available.
an AC generator, the AC does have P=
V x I x pf
=
125 x 167 x 0.9
= 18.8 kW
a power factor. Use the following 1000 1000
formula to determine DC loads on an
AC generator: When DC motors are at maximum
DC DC kW x1000 AC amps = DC amps x rpm, the system power factor is also
amps= DC volts 0.816 maximized.
According to the application
AC volts x AC amps x 1.732
AC kVA = requirements, motors can be
1000
designed to provide various speed
Power Factor DC kW and torque characteristics. Modern
applications will usually involve the total kW load may also be slightly
use of packaged static component higher because small motors are
drive controls, commonly called SCR frequently less efficient than large
drives. SCR drives are discussed in motors.
detail later in this section. If the single-phase motor load
A major consideration when sizing cannot be distributed, it may be
a generator is to look at the necessary to verify the ability of the
provision or inclusion of a suitable generator to provide the skVA.
DC supply. There must be enough Generally, with large blocks of
kVA to power both the DC supply single-phase motors started from
and the load. one phase, the available skVA of the
Single-phase Motors generator will be 56% of the normal
Single-phase motors are common three-phase skVA.
in fractional horsepower sizes. They Three-Phase Motors
may occasionally be used in sizes as Three-phase motors are very
high as ten horsepower. Single- common in industry. They provide
phase motors do not have the more output for physical size than
benefit of rotating magnetic fields single-phase motors and have the
produced by spaced voltage cycles advantage of having a simple
of a three-phase circuit. Therefore, a designed rotating magnetic field that
separate starter winding is included turns the rotor for starting. In a
in the stator with provisions to three-phase motor, there are three
supply a magnetic field that is out of equally spaced voltage cycles
phase with the main stator winding feeding respective windings in the
field. This results in a rotating field stator. A rotating magnetic field is
to start things moving. A centrifugal produced which the rotor
switch disconnects the starter immediately begins to follow.
winding as it achieves rated speed. Therefore, no special starter winding
Single-phase motors are not is required to begin rotation.
generally of great concern when
Motor Performance
started by a generator which is
Most three-phase motors are
relatively larger in size. It is good
squirrel cage type as mentioned
practice to divide multiple single-
earlier. When rotor slot cross
phase motor loads into equal blocks
sections are changed, different
per phase. If blocks of single-phase
torque and speed characteristics
motors are spread equally over the
result. How a motor and its load
three-phases and started as a group,
impact a generator is highly
this motor load can be considered as
dependent on the characteristics of
a single three-phase motor of equal
the motor.
hp. The skVA may be higher
because the skVA per hp is typically Design Class
higher for single-phase motors. The Motors with various rotor designs
are classified in the U.S. by the
National Electrical Manufacturers these machines are suitable for

Association (NEMA) as Design A, B, applications in which they are
C or D. Figure 25 shows a typical required to start with very low load
motor nameplate. torque.
Design B
The Design B motor is
overwhelmingly the general-purpose
motor of industry. Its combination of
low starting current and normal
torque and slip makes it an excellent
choice for driving many types of
Figure 25 industrial loads.
In the following design Design B motors run at a slip of
descriptions, “slip” applies to the less than 0.05 at full load with
difference between motor full load larger machines running a very
speed and its synchronous speed efficient 0.005. These motors are
Note that these descriptions do not applicable for systems requiring low
include synchronous reluctance or medium torque.
motors. Design C
For example, a four pole 60 Hz Design C motors have high starting
motor has a synchronous speed of torque, low starting current and low
1200 rpm, actual full load speed slip. The high breakaway torque
might be 1164 rpm, in which case makes the Design C a good choice
the slip would be 3%. Each motor for hard-to-start loads.
design has its own unique These motors are designed to start
characteristics. at full load torque and run at slips of
Design A less than 0.05 at full load. Class C
Design A motors are quite motors have higher starting torque
comparable to Design B motors, per ampere of starting current than
having normal torque, slip and class “B” motors.
starting current. The most Design D
significant difference is that starting Design D motors have very high
currents are limited by NEMA for starting torque, high slip and
Design B and not for Design A. relatively low starting current.
Design A motors have low rotor Design D permits high breakaway
resistance and operate with small torque and high running horsepower
slip at full load. A disadvantage of to be concentrated in a relatively
this design is the low starting torque small frame size.
and high starting current. Because These motors are applicable when
they achieve full speed rapidly and “soft” speed is required. Intermittent
do not overheat during starting, drives requiring high acceleration
under high-impact loads would use a Load requires only

normal starting
Centrifugal pumps
and compressors,
B or A
Class D motor. The breakdown torque; continuous reciprocating

duty capability with compressors started
torque of a Class D motor runs at a ability to handle unloaded, fans with
slip of 0.5 or higher. This makes a minor temporary normal inertia,
overloads palletizers,
Class D motor very inefficient. Also, conveyors, lathes,
milling machines,
to keep the starting current low, saws, grinders,
rotor bars of high heat resistant sanders, drill
presses
material are used. The losses of the Hard-to-start loads Reciprocating com- C
rotor circuit necessitate building a in continuous or pressors started
intermittent service; loaded, conveyors
large and therefore expensive some overload started under heavy
capability required load, Banbury
machine for the given power. This mixers, crushers
strategy has to be weighed against without flywheels,
hammer and ball
the advantage of the soft speed mills, high-inertia
characteristic which is needed in fans
High breakaway Cranes, hoists, D
some applications to determine if a torque required; elevators, crushers
intermittent or and punch presses
Class D motor should be used. reversing/plugging with flywheels,
service; high-inertia large-diameter fans,
Characteristics of each design are loads with long reversing-type
shown on the speed and torque acceleration time; machine tools
heavy fluctuating
characteristic curves, in Figure 26. loads
Table 13
Of these characteristics, torque is

most important to the original
designer in selection of a motor for a
specific application. The design
class of a motor is not normally
considered when sizing a generator
set because of the greater
importance of the starting kVA
requirement. Starting kVA usually
dictates the size and selection of a
generator set which will provide
Figure 26 more than adequate power for the
motor to produce the required
Table 13 presents general starting torque. However, the use of
guidelines for selecting a motor of oversized generators, reduced
the proper NEMA design letter. voltage motor starting and heavily
Desired or Recommended
loaded motors may require special
Typical
Required
Applications
NEMA Design consideration.
Conditions Letter
Motor Starting
A motor’s starting characteristics
have a major impact on system
response to a motor start; this However, motors can draw more

greatly influences the final package than rated kW during starting and
selection. When a motor is started, acceleration to rated speed. Motors
it draws approximately six times its connected directly to high inertia
full load current. This current centrifugal devices or loaded
remains high until the motor reaches reciprocating compressors cause
about 80% of speed. This high severe frequency excursions and
inrush of current causes a voltage lengthy motor run up. Comparing
dip in the generator. A motor starting currents between loaded
produces mechanical torque that is and unloaded motors shows the
proportional to the applied voltage. extended time loaded motors
In cases where generator voltage demand high current; refer to Figure
dips below rated voltage, the motor 27. The effect of loaded motors on
is producing less than proportional both engine and generator must be
torque. determined; particularly if large
The initial voltage dip associated motors, such as large centrifugal
with motor starting is primarily a fans and pumps, have high inertia
function of the generator magnetic loads and increase load during
circuit. Use of a permanent magnet acceleration.
excitor or other excitation support An accurately sized generator set
systems will assist in preventing will support the high starting kVA
total excitation collapse in extreme (skVA) requirements of the motor
voltage dip cases. It is important for and supply sufficient output voltage
the generator to restore voltage for the motor so it can develop
after initial voltage dip to accelerate adequate load to rated speed. The
the motor to rated speed. The generator set must have sufficient
degree of motor loading affects starting kVA capacity to limit
recovery time. momentary voltage drop. A 30%
voltage dip is generally acceptable,
depending on equipment already on-
line. Motor starting capability data is
available on specification sheets and
TMI for all Caterpillar generator sets.
NEMA identifies motors in the U.S.
with a code letter on the nameplate
to indicate starting characteristics.
Table 14 shows the NEMA code and
Figure 27 the starting skVA per horsepower.
Table 15 can serve as a guideline for
Although unloaded motors impose motors outside the U.S.
high inrush current (skVA) in
generators while starting, kW load Identifying Code Letters on AC Motors
on the engine is usually small.
NEMA Code Letter Starting skVA/hp Table 15 lists standard sizes for 50
A 0.00 - 3.14 Hz motors. The starting kVA
B 3.15 - 3.54 numbers should be used as a
C 3.55 - 3.99 guideline only. For the exact skVA
D 4.00 - 4.49 of a motor, consult the motor
E 4.50 - 4.99 manufacturer.
F 5.00 - 5.59
G 5.60 - 6.29
Motor Size kW Starting kVA
H 6.30 - 7.09
.37 N/A
J 7.10 - 7.99
.55 4.9
K 8.00 - 8.99
.75 6.9
L 9.00 - 9.99
1.1 9.5
M 10.00 - 11.19
1.5 13.4
N 11.20 - 12.49
2.2 19.8
P 12.50 - 13.99
3 29.7
R 14.00 - 15.99
4 41.4
S 16.00 - 17.99
5.5 53.8
T 18.00 - 19.99
7.5 73.1
U 20.00 - 22.39
11 103
V 22.40 -
15 143
Table 14 18.5 171
22 204
30 254
37 322
45 378
55 502
75 721
90 906
110 1049
132 1255
160 1557
200 1940
250 2476
315 3113
356 3421
Table 15
The rated hp and as starting kVA

must be known to properly evaluate
the impact starting a motor will have
upon a specific system. When sizing
a generator set, the acceptable level
of motor torque for starting must be
determined or the loads will squirrel cage motor has a lagging

accelerate slowly or even fail to power factor of approximately 0.25
reach full speed. pf.
Starting Power Factor Figure 28 can be used to help
Generator sets are typically determine the total kW needed
evaluated on the basis of their ability when a squirrel cage motor, or
to start electric motors and group of motors, is started.
accelerate to full speed. Regardless Example
of whether the motor has load or How much kW is needed when a
not, starting it requires kVA far in Code G 200 hp squirrel cage motor,
excess of the motor’s normal at 6.0 kVA per hp, is started?
running kVA demand. Generator
heating is produced by the current Solution
which is why generators are rated skVA = kVA/hp x hp
for maximum kVA and not maximum 6.0 x 200 hp = 1,200
kW. The ratio of kW/kVA is the
power factor. Motors exhibit low Use Figure 28 to find the lagging
power factors when starting. Normal power factor of a 200 hp squirrel
industrial loads have a power factor cage motor; the chart indicates 0.25
of 0.8. This is the value used for pf.
NEMA standard and Caterpillar
skVA x Starting pf = kW
ratings.
1200 skVA x 0.25 = 300 kW
Load imposed on the engine during
a motor start is calculated by:
kW = Starting kVA x Starting pf The chart in Figure 28 can also be
used to compare how much kW is
required for one motor versus a
Figure 28 shows the approximate group of motors.
starting power factor of squirrel
cage motors. Example
How much power is needed when
ten Code G squirrel cage motors
rated at 20 hp each are started?
Which requires more power — ten
20 hp motors, or one 200 hp motor?
The motors are rated at 6.0 kVA per
hp each.
Solution
First, find the total horsepower by
Figure 28
multiplying the number of motors by
As shown, a 5 hp squirrel cage the hp of each motor. Use the total
motor has a lagging power factor of hp (200) in the following equation:
approximately 0.6 pf while a 200 hp skVA = kVA/hp x hp
6.0 kVA x 200 hp = 1,200 skVA engine during starting is calculated

Next, use Figure 28 to find the by:
lagging starting power factor for a kW = Starting kVA x Starting pf
20 hp motor; it is approximately
0.46 pf.
Example
skVA x Starting pf = kW
By using the following equation
1,200 x 0.46 = 552 kW and the NEMA Code Chart in Table
14, the skVA/hp can be determined.
It was determined in a previous skVA = (skVA/hp) x hp
example that a 200 hp motor
required 300 kW. Therefore, ten 20
Motor Torque
hp squirrel cage motors require 84
Motor torque is required to
percent more kW than the 200 hp
accelerate and drive the load.
squirrel cage motor during starting.
Torque is a turning force. It defines
(300 kW vs. 552 kW)
the ability of the motor to twist the
Motor Starting Load motor shaft.
The nameplate of a motor provides
Motor loads are established to
important information in regard to
determine if generator and engine
sizing.
have, respectively, adequate kVA
The Motor Starting Codes identify and kW. Motor load is defined as
the starting kVA (skVA) per hp. If the torque required by load. This
the nameplate does not list the torque, expressed in N•m (lb-ft), is
motor starting code, it is likely to list usually related to speed. Motor load,
the Locked Rotor Amps (LRA). The in horsepower can be expressed in
LRA is a measurement of the initial the following equations.
inrush of current when a motor is N•m x rpm
started. hp =
7350
Motors, either loaded or unloaded,
draw several times rated full load hp =
lb-ft
current when starting. Satisfying 5250
this inrush, places a large
momentary kVA demand on the The following torque requirements
generator called the starting kVA must be established (usually
(skVA). SkVA can be calculated expressed as percent of running
from locked rotor current. torque): Breakaway torque,
skVA = (V x LRA x 1.732)/1000 accelerating torque, synchronous
torque and peak torque.
Starting (Breakaway) Torque
Motors generally exhibit low
Starting torque is the maximum
starting power factors (0.2 to 0.5)
torque required to start rotation.
when starting. Load imposed on the
Stated differently, it is the torque
required to initially breakaway or

overcome friction to start the load
from a standstill. Shown in Figure
29 is the relationship between
starting current and torque. The
starting current starts at the locked-
rotor value as determined by the
NEMA code or locked rotor amps on
the nameplate. The current then
drops to its rated value as speed and
torque approaches normal.
Sample
Motor Torque & Current vs. Speed Figure 30
• Locked-rotor torque (also

known as Starting Torque):
The torque a motor exerts at
zero speed. The locked-rotor
torque must be greater than
the mechanical breakaway
torque to allow the shaft to
rotate (to start the motor).
Refer to Figure 31.
• Pull-up torque: The minimum
torque produced between zero
and rated speed. In most
cases, this is equal to the
Figure 29
locked-rotor torque but in
Breakaway torque depends on the some motors may be less
load’s static resistance to rotation. than the starting torque.
The load’s static friction can be • Breakdown torque: The
higher than the rolling friction maximum torque exerted
depending on the characteristics of between zero and rated
the driven device. The load speed. This point is often the
breakaway torque must be less than highest generator load point
motor locked-rotor torque or the and must be considered when
load cannot be started. sizing large motors.
Shown in Figure 30 are types of • Full-load torque: The torque
torque and the names used for each. capability of the motor at
Also shown is a typical load torque rated load and speed. Note
curve. that speed is less than
synchronous speed for an
induction motor. This is due

to the slip required to produce
torque. If the actual running
torque demanded by the load
is less than rated full load
torque of the motor, running
speed will more nearly
approach synchronous speed.
• Breakaway torque: The torque
required to initially breakaway
or overcome friction to start
the load from a standstill. The
load breakaway torque must
be less than motor locked-
rotor torque or the load Figure 32
cannot be started.
Figure 32 represents speed torque
curves of typical squirrel cage
motors.
Acceleration Torque
Acceleration torque is the net
difference, at any speed, between
load required torque and motor
available torque. Minimum motor
torque must exceed maximum
torque demanded by the connected
load. The time necessary to achieve
full rated speed is of utmost
importance. Small accelerating
torque is usually caused by reduced
voltage at the motor.
Figure 31 Prolonged accelerating time with
high current draw will reduce useful
motor life. Figure 33 reflects typical
motor capabilities.
Acceleration Time
The difference between the torque
developed by the motor and the
torque required by the load will
determine the rate of acceleration or
acceleration time. If the load torque
exceeds the motor torque at any However, motor manufacturers

point, the motor will stall. provide general guidelines. A motor
Considerable heat can be start time greater than ten seconds
developed within the motor during may be of concern depending upon
startup, especially in the rotor. The the motor design and manufacturer.
motor can be damaged from Some motors are protected with
excessive heat if the starting time is thermal overload relays to trip off
excessive or exceeds the time before this becomes a problem. The
intended by the motor manufacturer. number of starts and time interval
between starts, as well as the frame
There is no precise limit for the
size, are items to consider.
amount of time allowed to avoid
motor damage during acceleration.
Figure 33
Estimated Acceleration Time Figure 34

Formula
The formula used to calculate Synchronous Torque
acceleration time is: The steady-state torque developed
Wk2 x ∆N by a synchronous motor at rated
AT = speed.
308T
Peak Torque
Where: Maximum torque a load requires
from its driving motor.
Wk2 = Total motor and load
inertia (lb. ft2) Wk2 + Motor Voltage
Motor Wk2 A properly sized generator set
∆N = Change of speed (rpm) must have adequate kW (power) and
kVA capability to satisfy the
T= Acceleration torque (lb.
demands of a motor during starting.
ft.)
Most motors are energized with
AT = Acceleration Time in
electrically operated contactors.
seconds
Extremes in voltage dip due to
In this example, change in speed is motor starting may cause the
from zero to full rated speed. To find electromagnetically held contactors
T, it is necessary to find the motor to dropout or close intermittently
torque average. A simple estimate thus preventing the motor from
may be found by measuring the starting.
length of several lines running
Low voltage operation can cause
between motor torque and load
overheating, extended load
torque as provided by motor
acceleration times, opening of circuit
manufacturer’s torque curves, such
breakers and engine/generator
as the one shown in Figure 34.
protection shutdowns. Table 16
Then, divide the number by the total
shows the minimum recommended
number of lines on the chart.
motor ratings.
Minimum Recommended Motor Ratings
Induction Synchronous
Volts RPM
Motors hp Motors hp
601-3,000 3,600 250 —
601-3,000 1,800 or less 250 250
3,001-5,000 3,600 350 —
3,001-5,000 1,800 or less 300 250
5,001-7,000 3,600 1,000 —
5,001-7,000 1,800 or less 800 600
Table 16
Inrush current to the motor causes

a rapid drop of generator output
voltage. In most cases, 30% voltage
dip is acceptable, depending on Single-speed, three-phase,

equipment already on-line. Degree of constant-speed induction motors,
dip must be identified by an when measured with rated source
oscilloscope. Meters or mechanical voltage and frequency impressed
recorders are too slow for this and with rotor locked, must not
measurement. exceed the values listed in Table 17.
Locked Rotor Current — NEMA MG 1
60 Hz - 230 Volts 50 Hz - 380 Volts

Locked Rotor Locked Rotor
Horsepower Design Letters Horsepower Design Letters
Current, Current, Amperes
Amperes* **
0.5 20 B,D,E 1 or less 20 B,D,E

0.75 25 B,D,E 1.5 27 B,D,E
1 30 B,D,E 2 34 B,D,E
1.5 40 B,D,E 3 43 B,C,D,E
2 50 B,D,E 5 61 B,C,D,E
3 64 B,C,D,E 7.5 84 B,C,D,E
5 92 B,C,D,E 10 107 B,C,D,E
7.5 127 B,C,D,E 15 154 B,C,D,E
10 162 B,C,D,E 20 194 B,C,D,E
15 232 B,C,D,E 25 243 B,C,D,E
20 290 B,C,D,E 30 289 B,C,D,E
25 365 B,C,D,E 40 387 B,C,D,E
30 435 B,C,D,E 50 482 B,C,D,E
40 580 B,C,D,E 60 578 B,C,D,E
50 725 B,C,D,E 75 722 B,C,D,E
60 870 B,C,D,E 100 965 B,C,D,E
75 1085 B,C,D,E 125 1207 B,C,D,E
100 1450 B,C,D,E 150 1441 B,C,D,E
125 1815 B,C,D,E 200 1927 B,C,E
150 2170 B,C,D,E
200 2900 B,C,E
250 3650 B,E
300 4400 B,E
*Locked rotor current of motors designed for voltages other than 230 volts shall be inversely proportional to the voltages.
**The locked rotor current of motors designed for voltages other than 380 volts shall be inversely proportional to the voltages.
Table 17
line, as shown in Figure 35. Full

Motor Starting Techniques
voltage starting is the most widely
There are various methods used to
used motor starting method.
start motors. Those that will be
discussed are full voltage, soft Full voltage starting uses a
starting and reduced voltage. momentary push button as the start
switch. When pushed, the button
Full Voltage Starting energizes contact coil “M”, as
The least complicated motor shown in Figure 35. Then the motor
starting method is full voltage contacts, “M”, close to start the
starting or across-the-line starting. motor; a seal in contact “M” holds
Motors are simply connected to the the contacts in until the “stop”
power source by switches in the
button is opened. The on-off control The generator set must have
commonly features integral overload sufficient motor starting kVA
protection. capacity to limit voltage drop. If
Full line voltage is supplied to the actual values of the motor starting
motor instantly when the motor current cannot be determined, an
switch is actuated; refer to Table approximate value of 600% of full-
18. Maximum starting torque is load rated current is a good
available; therefore, the motor will approximation for Design B motors;
have minimum acceleration time. approximate 1500% of full-load
Reduction of acceleration time is rated current for Design E motors.
advantageous for motors that cycle Refer to Figure 36.
off and on frequently. The shorter Full voltage starting is used unless
the time it takes the motor to get to there are limitations on inrush
full speed, the less heating will currents. Most public utilities do not
occur on the motor windings. This allow full voltage starting of large
will allow for increased service life motors. When large motors are
of the motor. started, a relief must be provided.
Figure 35
Reduced Voltage Starters

Line Current Starting Torque
Motor Voltage
Type of Starter % Full Voltage % of Full Voltage
% Line Voltage
Starting Current Starting Torque
Full Voltage Starter 100 100 100
Autotransformer
80% Tap 80 *68 64
65% Tap 65 *46 42
50% Tap 50 *29 25
Resistor Starter
Single Step (Adjusted
80 80 64
for motor voltage to
be 80% of line voltage)
Reactor
5
50% Tap 50 50
20
45% Tap 45 45
14
37.5% Tap 37.5 37.5
Part Winding
(Low speed motors only)
75% Winding 100 75 75
50% Winding 100 50 50
Star Delta 57 33 33
Solid State Adjustable
* % line current is 64%, 42% and 24% before addition of autotransformer magnetizing current.
Advantages Disadvantages
Autotransformer
1. Provides highest torque per amp of line current. 1. In lower hp ratings, it is most expensive design
2. Taps on autotransformer permit adjustment of
starting voltage.
3. Closed transition starting.
4. While starting, motor current is greater than line
current.
5. Low power factor.
Resistor
1. Smooth acceleration — motor voltage increases with 1. Low torque efficiency
speed. 2. Resistor heat
2. Closed transition starting. 3. High power factor during start.
3. Less expensive than autotransformer starter in lower
hp ratings.
4. Available with several accelerating points.
Part Winding
1. Least expensive reduced voltage starter. 1. Requires special motor design for voltages higher
2. Closed transition starting. than 230 v.
3. Most dual voltage motors can be started part winding
on lower of two voltages.
4. Small size.
Start Delta
1. Moderate cost — less than resistor or 1. Requires special motor design.
autotransformer. 2. Starting torque is low.
2. Suitable for high inertia, long acceleration loads.
3. High torque efficiency.
Table 18
• Selecting a motor with

inherent soft-start
characteristics.
• Interposing controls between
the motor and power source
to modify motor torque.
Reduced Voltage Starting
Reduced voltage starting reduces
the skVA demand on a generator set
Figure 36 for motor starting. There is also a
reduction in motor starting torque.
Soft Starting — Cushioning Motor Though a voltage dip can often
Starting Under Load cause problems, a controlled voltage
Motors may be soft-started dip can be beneficial. Reducing
(started with decreased load or at motor starting kVA can reduce the
reduced torque) to bring the load up required size of the generator set,
to speed gradually or to minimize reduce the voltage dip, and provide
starting currents. Motors may be a softer start for the motor loads.
over stressed when developing the However, time to reach full
torque necessary to start and operating speed increases. Figure 37
accelerate a large or high inertia shows the effect of reduced voltage
load. Also, a high starting current on torque.
may strain the electrical supply
system beyond its capability to
provide current to the starting motor
or other connected loads.
Three options for soft-starting
motors include:
• Installing a coupling to the
shaft of the motor. Doing so
allows the motor to reach full
speed before the load does.
Most common would be an
eddy-current clutch, magnetic
coupling, or variable-pitch
sheave drive. This technique
does relieve the generator set
engine of some horsepower
demand while starting, but
Figure 37
does not relieve the generator
of initial skVA demand.
Any reduction in voltage during x2 = 0.756 = Available Torque

starting sequence will have effect on The available torque is 75.6%.
both torque and load acceleration.
Reduced voltage during start can
Starting torque varies directly with give relief from excessive current
the square of the voltage impressed inrush demand and excessive
on the stator. If the voltage imposed transient disturbances. However, the
on the terminals of an induction motor may not have sufficient
motor being started is reduced from torque to accelerate to rated speed,
its rated voltage to some given especially if the motor is required to
percentage of this full value, the accelerate a connected load with a
power demand of the motor will be heavy inertial content.
reduced to a value equivalent to the
Starting current varies directly
full voltage start kVA times the
with the impressed voltage.
percent of full voltage squared.
% decrease of rated volts = x Example
What is the current draw of a 230
x2 = Available Torque
V motor that is reduced to 200 V?
Solution
Using Ohm’s Law, it is seen that 200
the power consumed in the circuit = 0.87
230
will vary directly as the square of
the current flow. Therefore, since Current draw is 87% of rated.
current flow in a given circuit is Figure 38 illustrates the effect of
directly proportional to the voltage reduced voltage on current.
across the circuit, the result of
reducing the voltage to some
percent of full voltage will be a
reduction in power consumed in the
circuit equal to the percent of full
voltage squared.
Example
If line voltage of 230 V is supplied
to a 230 V motor, the available
torque is 100%. If a 230 V motor is
reduced to 200 volts, what is
available torque?
Solution
% decrease of rated volts = x
x2 = Available Torque
Figure 38
200 There are several types of reduced

=x
230 motor starting.
• Autotransformer-Open squared or 64% of line current that

Transition would be drawn at full voltage. With
• Autotransformer-Closed the transformer action, the
Transition autotransformer starter provides
higher torque per ampere of line
• Reactor current than other types of reduced
• Resistor voltage starters. Actual line current
• Part Winding will be a few percent more than the
64% in the example because the
• Star Delta
autotransformer requires
• Solid State approximately 25 kVA per 100
All these reduced voltage starting motor horsepower for magnetizing
techniques decrease motor starting current.
torque. Decreased motor starting The transition to full voltage is
torque detracts from the motor’s usually determined by a timer.
ability to start and achieve rated However, in some cases it may be
speed when burdened by a load. If done manually. The simplest
reduced voltage starters are used, arrangement is open circuit transfer
the reduction in starting torque from reduced to full voltage, but it
developed by the motor must be causes severe electrical and
considered. mechanical disturbances during the
Reduced Starting Methods transition switch.
Autotransformer — Open Transition Figure 39 shows a circuit drawing
Autotransformer starters, also and torque chart of an
called auto compensators, reduce Autotransformer – Open
voltage to the motor terminals for arrangement.
starting by transformer action. They
are available for very large high and
low voltage motors. The
autotransformer has a reduced
voltage winding tap which is
removed from the circuit and
connected directly to the line as the
motor approaches rated speed.
Autotransformer starters typically
have three taps available to select
50%, 65% or 80% of line voltage.
With transformer action, current
drawn from the source will vary as
the square of voltage at the motor
terminals. When the 80% tap is
used, the line current will be 80%
seconds. It is the most expensive of

Autotransformer – Open all starters.
Current drawn from the line will
vary as the square of voltage at
motor terminals; when the motor is
connected to the third (80%) tap,
line current will be 80% squared, or
64% of line current that would be
drawn at full voltage. The starter
requires approximately 25 kVA per
100 motor horsepower as
magnetizing current. This is added
to the starting kVA of the motor
being started.
Figure 40 shows a circuit drawing
and torque chart of an
Autotransformer – Closed
arrangement.
Autotransformer – Closed
Figure 39
Autotransformer — Closed
Transition
An alternative to open transition
switching, is closed transition.
This technique minimizes shock by
providing continuous flow of current
while switching from
autotransformer tap to full voltage.
Closed transition switching, though
involving slightly more complex
switching, is preferred for
autotransformer starting.
Autotransformer starters are
magnetically controlled. Three taps
on the transformer secondary are
set for 50%, 65%, and 80% of full
line voltage. These three contactors, Figure 40
a timer, and a transformer make up
the starting device. This starter is
very smooth in acceleration and
allowance starting time is 30
Reactor — Resistor Figure 41 and Figure 42 show

Reactor starters reduce voltage to circuit drawings and torque charts of
the motor by inserting resistance or sample Reactor/Resistor
reactance into each leg of the circuit arrangements.
and then short out when the motor
approaches operating speed. This Reactor
type of starter uses two contactors,
a timer, and a reactor or resistor as
the starting device.
Allowable starting time is five
seconds. It is the least flexible in
application of all starting devices but
smooth in acceleration and priced in
the middle of all starters.
The added resistance acts as a
voltage dropping device. It adds a
loss to the circuit and imposes load
on the engine. This method provides
smooth acceleration as the starting
circuit is removed without
momentarily disconnecting motor
from line. (The line current equals
motor current, resulting in a lower
Figure 41
“torque to source” kVA ratio for
starting than with autotransformers.)
Resistor
For example, with 80% voltage
applied to the motor terminals, the
motor current will be 80% of normal
full voltage current and likewise
80% current will be required from
the line. Contrast this to 64% line
current with an 80% tap
autotransformer.
Reactor starting uses two
contactors, a timer, and a reactor as
the starting device. Allowable
starting time is 15 seconds. Series
reactor starting is usually used on
large motors. Its application
flexibility is limited to only the high
voltages and currents.
the stator is designed for part

winding starting but standard dual
voltage are sometimes used. Two
contactors and a timer are the parts
of this starter. However, an
additional cost of the motor itself
has to be taken into consideration
since it may be up to 50% more
expensive than a standard squirrel
Figure 42
cage motor. Although this technique
Part Winding can produce a good torque to kVA
A special motor with two parallel ratio, it does not allow for a smooth
stator windings is required for part start and is not suitable for small,
winding starting. These are high speed motors. Acceleration
successively connected to the line time is between 5 and 15 seconds
as motor speed increases. depending on the type of motor
used.
Part Winding Figure 43 shows a circuit drawing
and torque chart of sample Part
Winding arrangement.
Wye (Star) — Delta SCR Gates
Wye-delta starting requires that
the motor being started have all six
or twelve leads brought out to the
connection box. The motor starts as
a wye (star) connected motor and is
then switched to run as a delta
connected motor.
When connected wye, voltage
impressed on each individual
winding is 58% of full value of delta
connection. Starting torque and
current are 33% of across-the-line
value. This type of starter has the
longest allowable acceleration time
Figure 43 of 45 to 60 seconds. When wye-
delta is used with a limited capacity
Full line starting is applied to a part generator set, the additional loss in
of the motor’s winding. Current and the motor’s starting torque due to a
developed torque are reduced to significant transient voltage dip
that of one winding while starting. usually results in the motor failing to
Torque characteristics are better if accelerate to near rated speed prior
to making transition to running angle of SCR’s. The conduction

mode. The power source is started angle varies from 20 to 100% which
almost as if it was started directly in turn controls the motor voltage
across the line, and therefore fails. from 40 to 80%. They have the
Note: Alternators powering motors advantage of operating without
equipped with delta starters should mechanical parts and large electrical
be sized as if the motors were being switching contacts. This provides a
started directly across-the-line. very smooth application of power.
Figure 44 shows a circuit drawing The solid-state starter is not to be
and torque chart of sample Wye confused with the solid-state
(Star) arrangement. adjustable speed drive. With a solid-
state starter, circuits are typically
Wye (Star) only active during starting and
therefore do not require additional
generator capability to
accommodate voltage distortion due
to the SCR’s. If the solid-state motor
starter does not have an automatic
bypass, the SCR’s voltage distortion
will have to be compensated by
oversizing the generator. A guideline
in this oversizing is to use two times
the kW load. Refer to the Harmonic
Content Section for more
information.
Figure 45 shows a circuit drawing
and torque chart of a sample Solid
State arrangement.
Solid State
Figure 44
Solid-State Starter
Solid-state starters offer many
options in achieving desired starting
characteristics. Solid-state starters
adjust torque, acceleration ramp
time and current limit to cause a
motor start which has a controlled
acceleration. Solid-state starters
offer smooth, step-less motor
starting by varying the conduction
Current Ramp
Use of the current limit ramp is
very common. Current is ramped up
within a prescribed time to reach a
programmed limit; refer to Figure
47. Current limit settings from
150% to 600% of full load current
are typically available. A 300% limit
Figure 45 reduces the starting kVA by 50%
from the normal 600% current with
The user adjusts the control to full voltage across-the-line starting.
deliver the best starting Use of the current limit setting
characteristic for the application. reduces motor torque available to
Variations of current and voltage the load as shown in Figure 45.
limit are sometimes used to achieve
linear speed ramp, however the
operating principle of the controlled
parameter is always based on
voltage control.
Voltage Ramp
Voltage/time ramp increases
voltage until full voltage is applied to
the motor terminals. Constant kVA
is maintained, and sudden torque
changes are eliminated, as illustrated
in Figure 46. Initial voltage step,
acceleration ramp, and current limit
are usually adjustable. An extended
acceleration ramp time and low
current limit setting results in the
least voltage and frequency dips.
Voltage Ramp
Figure 46
Current Ramp
Table of Methods and Types of Motor Starting
PU PU
Rated Rated
Method and PU Line
Start Start
Type of Voltage
Torque kVA
Starting Applied
Availabl Require
e d
Full Voltage
Across-the-Line 1.0 1.0 1.0
Full Voltage
Part Winding
Figure 47 (See Notes 1 & 1.0 0.70 0.70
3)
Reduced
Voltage 0.80, 0.64, 0.67,
Table 18 lists the various methods Autotransformer 0.65, 0.42, 0.45,
and types of starting, and their (See Note 2) 0.50 0.25 0.28
principle effects on motor starting. Reduced
Voltage
Extreme care should be given Reactor/Resisto 0.80, 0.64, 0.80,
when applying reduced voltage r (See Notes 1 0.65 0.42 0.65
starting to engine generator sets. & 3)
The amount of available starting Reduced
torque is reduced. Any transient Voltage Star- 0.58 0.33 0.33
Delta
voltage dip during start will further
NOTES:
reduce the starting torque. For
1. Values are typical. Various values of skVA and
example, if a motor is being started torque are available depending upon motor/starter
with an autotransformer starter on design. Consult the motor/starter manufacturer for
the 65% tap, the motor will have specific data.
only 42.25% of its full voltage 2. The calculated percentage values of Start kVA
have been increased by three percentage points to
starting torque available upon start. allow for the magnetizing kVA required for the
If the system voltage dips 20% autotransformer.
during transient, the voltage at the 3. Values listed are typical. Consult with the customer
motor terminals will be only 80% of or the manufacturer of the motor/starter for specific
65% of rated voltage (52% of full data.
voltage). Squaring 52% gives a net 4. In the absence of specific data, indicated typical
data may be used for estimating purposes, but should
value of 27% of full voltage starting be shown as “assumed values in lieu of specific data”.
torque, not the anticipated 42.25%. Performance of actual equipment may vary from
calculated performance on all calculations and
quotations.
Table 19
Intermittent Starting high kVA demand is

When a motor is run intermittently, shortened.
the transient response time must be • Improve system power factor.
considered. When an intermittent This reduces the generator set
motor is started, the voltage dip requirement to produce
which occurs must still be in an reactive kVA, making more
acceptable range that does not kVA available for starting.
adversely affect other loads which
• Unload the motors. Starting
are already connected. All loads
loaded motors can cause very
following the initial intermittent load
high generator set loads
(like a furnace) must include the
during the motor starting
intermittent load as part of its total
phase.
as well. By considering this, more
kVA may be needed and a larger Miscellaneous Loads
generator set may be appropriate. Most facilities will have both
Motor Starting Troubleshooting lighting and motor loads. Some
Techniques facilities may have additional
If motor starting is a problem, miscellaneous loads; these could
consider the following: include adjustable speed drives, UPS
• Change starting sequence. loads, single-phase loads and
Start largest motors first. elevator loads.
More starting kVA is Adjustable (Variable) Speed Drives
available, although it does not Electronic adjustable speed drives
provide better voltage are used to control the speed of
recovery time. both AC and DC motors. Speed
• Use reduced voltage starters. control allows application of motors,
This reduces the kVA required at their most efficient speed, to be
to start a given motor. If matched to the demand created at a
starting under load, remember particular moment. Terms used to
this starting method also describe these drives include the
reduces starting torque. following.
• Use current limiting starters. • Variable Speed Drive (VSD)
• Specify oversized generators. • Variable Frequency Drive
(VFD)
• Use wound rotor motors.
They require lower starting • Adjustable Frequency Drive
current, but are more (AFD)
expensive than other motors. • Adjustable Speed Drive (ASD)
• Provide clutches so motors These drives rectify incoming AC
start before loads are applied. power to form DC power. The DC is
While starting kVA demand is used to either power a DC motor
not reduced, time interval of directly, or power an inverter that
converts DC back into AC at a an input filter is used to limit current

desired voltage and frequency for to less than 10%, the sizing factor
driving a motor at any speed at any can be reduced down to 1.4 times
point in time. the running kW of the drive.
The rectification of AC with SCR’s Passive filters may be used to
distorts current waveforms and reduce the impact of harmonic
subsequently causes distorted distortion. However, the possible
voltage waveforms, which can have effects of leading power factor with
impact on other equipment tuned inductor/capacitor filters at
connected to the same source. start-up or with light loads may
VFD’s start at zero frequency and effect voltage regulation of self-
ramp up to a set point. Variable excited generators.
voltage drives start at zero voltage Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
and ramp up to a selected point. Systems
Both are under a current or torque SCR drives allow infinite speed
limit to avoid large inrush current. A adjustment of electric motors. They
variation of the variable speed drive are used in a variety of applications.
is the reduced voltage or reduced DC motors used in elevators, cranes
current starter; see description under and printing presses utilize SCR’s.
motor starting. Additionally, AC variable frequency
Generally, when these drives drives (VFD) and AC variable voltage
represent more than 25% of the input (VVI) drives used in pumps,
total load on the generator set, it fans, process conveyors, machine
may require a larger generator. tools and printing presses use
SCR’s.
VFD’s require large generators.
VFD’s are current limiting and Typically, SCR drives may require
reduce kW and kVA. Non-linear oversized generators. Operating DC
current is drawn which has motors at variable speeds causes
harmonics. This causes a voltage the generator Power Factor to vary.
drop across the reactance of the Accordingly, AC generators are
generator set. When Total Harmonic oversized to 0.6 or 0.7 PF to provide
Distortion (THD) exceeds 15%, more generator ampere capacity.
additional generator capacity may be Testable capacity of the generator
needed. Larger generators have set is given by the following
greater reduction in impedance of equation:
the generator; this reduces the EkW = (bhp – rad fan hp) x Gen eff x 0.746
effects of the harmonic current
distortion.
Additionally, the generator must be
For six-pulse VFD’s, twice the
form-wound to provide additional
running kW of the drive is a typical
mechanical bracing of the generator
sizing factor used to offset any
winding. This bracing resists the
reduction in starting kW or kVA. If
forces caused by current surges Turning the SCR “on” at some

resulting from operation of the SCR point during the applied voltage
controllers. Generator winding cycle creates an instantaneous
temperature rise design limit is also demand for a large amount of
lowered to compensate for current to flow in the circuit. With
additional heating caused by the an SCR, current does not flow until
SCR load. the SCR is gated “on”. This current
Undersized generators may cause flow results in an instantaneous
circuit breaker tripping. voltage drop within the internal
impedance or reactance of the
SCR systems lend themselves to
generator. Consequently, the
infinite speed control of motors,
voltage at the generator output
rectifiers and uninterrupted power
terminals appears as a distorted sine
supplies (UPS). Each of these
wave; refer to Figure 49.
devices converts the sinusoidal
supply voltage into a direct current
voltage. In some cases, the
equipment may convert the DC
voltage back to AC voltage. Used
with limited power sources, such as
engine-driven generator sets, SCR
switching causes severe voltage and
current waveform distortion at the Figure 49
power source. Current waveform
distortion can develop harmonic Over time, these distortions which
resonance in system equipment. occur on a three-phase power
This causes heating in motor and source can cause unfavorable
generator coils. performance of the entire system.
The creation of distortion with an When planning systems with SCR
SCR device can be shown by devices, the control manufacturer
looking at a simple generator must be informed that a limited
supplying an SCR controlled load; power source (generator set) will be
refer to Figure 48. used. The system can then be
designed to minimize distortion
problems. Limiting SCR loads to
66% of a Caterpillar generator’s
prime power rating ensures regulator
control and avoids generator
overheating caused by harmonics.
Applications requiring high load
factors must be analyzed on an
Figure 48
individual basis.
Welding Loads Static UPS systems use static

Welders draw erratic fluctuating components to provide quality
current. These current fluctuations power to critical equipment,
produce voltage waveform distortion independent of the quality or
due to relatively high-load source availability of the normal power
impedance. Generator sets may source. The simplest systems
require significant derating with consist of a rectifier (converter), a
welder loads. DC storage battery bank, and an
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) inverter.
A UPS system is an assembly of The rectifier, sometimes called
equipment used with electrical loads converter, is a device that converts
sensitive to power source AC current to DC current.
disturbances or that require absolute The inverter uses Solid State
continuity of power. The UPS can technology to convert DC to a
store energy for a period during waveform that is then filtered so it
power outages. The UPS continually is suitable for powering the critical
conditions power and if the normal load.
power source is not available, the
A bank of storage batteries
UPS provides power to the critical
“floats” on-line to provide seamless
load until the standby power
DC power to the inverter in the
generation can come on-line. The
event of power source loss to the
generator set should be sized to the
rectifier. The batteries get their
UPS rating, not the load.
restoring charge and standby float
Continuity and isolation from charge from the rectifier’s DC
power source disturbances can be output.
assured by using either a rotary or a
The DC output of the rectifier
static UPS system.
provides for two functions during
Rotary systems use a motor- the time when an AC power source
generator set to isolate the critical is available at its terminals.
load combined with kinetic inertia
1. It provides regulated DC to the
storage technique or batteries to
inverter for powering the critical
carry the critical load while cranking
load.
a diesel engine.
2. It maintains the “state of
Static systems isolate critical load
charge” on the bank of DC
through solid-state devices which
batteries; including recharging if
use batteries to bridge power
the state of charge has been
interruptions until a generator set is
depleted by a recent normal
available to power the system.
power outage.
UPS’s can also be used to perform
The AC output of the inverter is
an orderly engine shutdown to
“conditioned power” to match the
minimize restart damage.
voltage and frequency requirements at 105°C rise for Class F and H

of the critical load at all times. insulation systems should be
During a power interruption, power selected.
for the system comes directly from For a twelve-pulse system where
the reserve battery bank without the loads are less than 25% of the
switching. The load is seen as the generators standby rating, a
static power converter/battery standard generator and automatic
charger. voltage regulation system may be
Six-Pulse and Twelve-Pulse Rectifier applied.
The rectifier or converter unit, Size and cost considerations
which converts AC to DC in a UPS dictate the number of pulses to be
system, consists of large individual used in system design. Problems
rectifiers in circuits to control the with high THD with a six-pulse
DC output. They draw current in rectifier can typically be minimized
pulses from the AC source. These by the rectifier manufacturer using a
current pulses are not sine wave in properly designed passive filter.
shape and cause voltage waveform By-Pass Capability
distortion at the source. Refer to the Some UPS systems include
Non-Linear Load Section for additional components to allow the
examples. capability to by-pass the UPS in the
In three-phase rectifiers, the event of failure within the system,
circuits and circuit elements may be system maintenance or momentary
arranged to provide DC power with overloads on the critical load side.
six or twelve DC current pulses per Figure 50 is an example of a UPS
AC input cycle. with by-pass capability. A device
The higher the number of pulses called a static transfer switch allows
per cycle, the smoother the demand. automatic and virtually uninterrupted
Therefore, a six-pulse rectifier has a transfer of the critical load back to
more distorting demand than a the incoming source in the event of
twelve-pulse rectifier. a planned or unplanned system
event such as mentioned above.
A six-pulse system should have a
generator rated for continuous duty The UPS must have circuitry to
at 80°C temperature rise. An ensure the inverter output and by-
upgrade of the voltage regulation pass source are synchronized.
system may be necessary, as well. Source voltage and frequency must
The subtransient reactance should be within an acceptable range, or
also be determined before sizing the the UPS will disable the automatic
generator. by-pass feature.
For a twelve-pulse system, where The demand for close control of
these loads are more than 25% of voltage and frequency is of more
the generators standby rating, a concern for by-pass with a generator
generator rated for continuous duty set source. This is because of harsh
effects on voltage waveform caused frequency deviation due to pulsating

by the UPS rectifier and the load or small load changes.
possibility of generator set
UPS with Bypass Capability
Figure 50
An isochronous governor is typically with one or more UPS

recommended on the generator set systems than required to power the
and the UPS should be adjusted or load. Therefore, the critical load can
designed with the widest possible be sustained even with the loss or
window of voltage and frequency failure of any one individual UPS
acceptability for by-pass. system. A static switching bypass,
Parallel Redundant UPS although of lesser importance for
Extremely critical applications may reliability, may still be used for
use a parallel redundant UPS; refer maintenance or momentary overload
to Figure 51. These are multiple UPS and fault clearing capability.
systems operating in parallel,
Parallel Redundant UPS
Figure 51
Static UPS System
Figure 52
UPS Interface load changes are sufficiently

Electrical loads sensitive to power small to avoid speed changes.
disturbances during substation • Isolate critical load through a
switching, voltage fluctuations or motor-generator set to avoid
total outages require absolute five-cycle power interruptions
continuity of power. Continuity can of utility.
be assured by isolating critical loads
Combining the characteristics of a
and incorporating one of the
UPS system, particularly static
following:
systems as shown in Figure 52, and
• Assign a generator set solely a generator set present special
to the critical load. Sudden considerations to ensure
compatibility. An understanding of the UPS; however, the power factor

how these systems work and may become capacitive leading at a
interface is essential. part-load condition.
A UPS is rated in output kVA. In Generator sets inherently have
sizing a generator set, it is important difficulty controlling voltage with
to recognize the need to provide leading power factors, and rising
power based on UPS input. For voltage may be observed. This
instance, a rated UPS 100 kVA condition is emphasized during UPS
requires more than 100 kVA from start-up by the power walk-in
the power source; the difference feature. Typically, a UPS has some
between input and output kVA is means of gradually applying load to
the efficiency of the unit. In the source over a 10 to 20 second
addition, battery recharge load might period. An unloaded filter may
be as high as 25% of the output present a leading capacitive power
rating. factor load beyond the generator’s
UPS systems typically have voltage control capability.
electronic circuits that discern input Other loads connected to the
voltage and frequency change. All generator will counter this effect.
UPS should be designed or adjusted Also, disconnecting the filter at
with operating parameters that are lower UPS loads will minimize the
compatible with the generator set. problems.
This includes using the widest Filters may also act as stored
possible window of voltage and energy devices affecting circuit
frequency acceptance when used switching components such as
with a generator set. automatic transfer switches.
Coordination between the Indiscriminate filter designs may also
generator set supplier and the UPS cause resonant conditions with
supplier is critical in meeting the other circuit elements.
client’s needs. Impact of Other Loads
Input Filters Most electrical devices and
Filters may interact with other equipment are relatively unaffected
components within a system. when powered by generator sets
Therefore, they should be with UPS loads. However,
considered very carefully. Typical knowledge of potentially sensitive
tuned circuit filters represent some devices may be of value in system
compromise when used with planning. Many electronic devices
rectifiers that are exposed to broad contain internal AC to DC power
power changes, such as may be supplies with adequate filtering and
encountered in UPS applications. are relatively immune to waveform
Filters with capacitive reactance distortion. A few special purpose
components may have little effect electronic or control devices that
on power factor with rated load on depend upon source voltage “zero
crossings” for timing may perform UPS output for computer loads is
erratically. If these devices are of frequently stated in terms of kVA.
low power, a simple and low cost For approximating, if UPS output
filter will usually eliminate any kVA is given and kW is unknown,
problem. use 0.9 pf (typical for computer
Power factor correction capacitors systems).
are used primarily for economic Battery recharge kW generally
reasons. They can also be effective ranges from 0 to 25% of input kW
in reducing waveform distortion. (15% is typical). If unknown, use
Caution must be exercised where 25% of output kW for an
power factor correction capacitors approximation.
are used. A resonant condition at If UPS efficiency is unknown, the
one of the harmonic frequencies following guidelines are
with some part of the line recommended:
inductance such as a transformer,
• Use 0.85 if UPS < 100 kW.
on-line motor or the generator is
possible. Excessive and possibly • Use 0.875 if UPS > 100 kW,
damaging currents at the harmonic but < 500 kW.
frequency can flow through the • Use 0.90 if UPS > 500 kW.
equipment. It may be advisable to
Note: Maximum input with
keep them off line until effects of
redundant systems is less than total
operating on an emergency rating of individual systems.
generator set with non-linear loads
can be observed. Part B
Establish the minimum size
UPS Sizing Example
generator to contain waveform
The following is a procedure to use
distortion (quality of electric power).
in sizing Caterpillar generator sets
that have static UPS systems as • 6-pulse rectifier/charger:
part or all of their load. This Minimum standby rated
procedure has four parts: generator set =
UPS input kW x 1.6.
Part A
Establish UPS input kW. Use UPS • 12-pulse rectifier/charger:
Minimum standby rated
input kW from supplier data. (In this
example use 255 kW.) If not generator set =
UPS input kW x 1.4.
available from supplier, the following
procedure and guidelines are
recommended to approximate or
estimate UPS input kW.
UPS Output kW + Battery Recharge
UPS Input kW = kW
UPS Efficiency
Part C Loads on the generator set

Size the generator to frequently include large motors for
accommodate other loads. air conditioning and other support
functions. Following selection of the
• 6-pulse rectifier/charger:
generator set in Part D, a check
Minimum standby generator
should be made to determine if the
rating with other loads =
generator set has adequate motor
(UPS input kW x 1.15) + kW
starting skVA capability.
of other loads.
In special cases, it may be possible
• 12-pulse rectifier/charger:
to optimize economics by selection
Minimum standby generator
of a generator with standby rating
rating with other loads =
as determined in Part D and driving
(UPS input kW x 1.10) + kW
with an engine which has a standby
of other loads.
rating commensurate with the actual
Part D total kW load on the generator set.
Compare “B” and “C” for final Actual total kW load is the UPS
selection. Select larger of Part B or input kW plus kW of other loads.
Part C and round to nearest larger
Regenerative Power
size standby generator set.
Some motor applications, such as
Example: hoisting, depend on motors for
Select a standby generator set for braking. If a mechanical load causes
powering a UPS rated 200 kVA/180 the motor to turn faster than
kW. Other loads connected to the synchronous speed, the motor will
generator set total 100 kW. act as a generator and feed power
Solution: back into the system. The term
Part A: From supplier data, the “regenerative power” is sometimes
UPS input is 255 kW. used to describe the power
produced by these loads. If no other
Part B: The rectifier/charger is a 6-
loads are connected to absorb this
pulse circuit, 255 kW. Minimum
energy, these loads will cause the
standby rated generator set = 255
generator to act as a motor, possibly
kW x 1.6 = 408 kW.
causing engine overspeed which can
Part C: Sizing for other loads. lead to engine failure.
Minimum standby generator set
Only engine frictional horsepower
rating with other loads = (255 kW x
can be relied on for braking.
1.15) + 100 kW = 393 kW.
Exceeding frictional horsepower
Part D: Select larger of Part B or causes the generator set overspeed.
Part C. Part B (408 kW) is larger
In calculating the ability of a
than part C (393 kW); therefore, a
system to overcome regenerative
standby generator set of at least
power, it is conservatively
408 kW is recommended. A
recommended that only engine
Caterpillar 450 kW generator set will
friction horsepower be considered.
satisfy this application.
Engine friction horsepower at low exciting current level. The effect

synchronous speeds is available on the generator set can be ignored,
from the engine manufacturer. but, if voltage fluctuation to highly
Typically, a generator set will retard sensitive equipment must be closely
approximately 10% of its rating. controlled, kVA capability of the
When combinations of connected power source must include starting
load and engine frictional of this low power factor load.
horsepower are not sufficient to Typically, a generator set can
restrain regenerative energy, load energize a transformer that is two to
banks may be added to protect the four times the generator set’s kVA
generator set from being affected rating. A voltage dip occurs at the
regeneration. generator terminals, almost as if a
short circuit had occurred. However,
Transformers transformer flux builds up in a few
Transformers are used in power cycles and voltage is restored.
distribution systems for voltage
step-up, voltage step-down, or Transformer Efficiency Losses
circuit isolation purposes. They are Power transformers are relatively
commonly used to step-down efficient. Typical efficiencies are 95
transmission line voltage to a to 99% at full load. The efficiency is
useable distribution system voltage the ratio of real power output to
and to step-down service or supply power input. Losses are mainly
voltage to the utilization voltage of losses incident to magnetization at
user equipment. no-load and the addition of I2R
losses caused by the load current.
Transformer Magnetizing Current
When a transformer is initially Transformer Taps
energized, there is an inrush of Transformer taps can be used to
current to bring it from a residual adjust voltage levels. Transformers
flux level to normal steady state flux consist of a primary coil and a
level. Transformers have inductive secondary coil. The coil winding of a
characteristics similar to motors transformer can be tapped to
when charging, with inrush change the turns ratio and adjust the
(magnetizing) current as much as 40 voltage level of a system. Refer to
times full load current when Figure 53.
connected to a utility power source.
With a generator source, values of
generator subtransient reactance
(X”d) limit the inrush current to
values of 6 to 10 times generator
rated current. However, the process
of flux build-up in transformer
Figure 53
excitation takes only a few cycles
before current returns to a relatively
Example: increases voltage at the load to 474

To better understand transformer V. Keep in mind that the tap adjusts
taps, consider the 4160 V to 480 V the overall voltage level. It does not
distribution step-down systems change the voltage spread. In this
shown in Figure 54 and Figure 55. example, voltage at the transformer
On the system, voltage is dropped would have been increased from
from 480 V at the bus to 450 V at 480 V to 504 V. An automatic
the load. But, what if that load regulator on a generator set could
required more voltage than 450 V have also been used to adjust overall
from the 4160 V generator? voltage, instead of a transformer
tap.
Solution:
One way to remedy the situation is
with a –5% transformer tap, which
Figure 54
Figure 55
Transformers have a variety of synchronous timing from the power

taps. Table 20 is an example of taps source is used. Voltage variations of
found in a 4160-480 V transformer. ±10% are usually acceptable since
electronic circuits sensitive to
voltage variations contain internal
4160-480 Volt Transformer Taps
regulation circuitry.
Primary Secondary
Tap
Voltage Voltage Power for complex telephone
3952 480 –5% systems is frequently supplied from
4056 480 –21 2% building system mains. Voltage and
4160 480 Normal rating frequency stability requirements are
4264 480 +21 2%
usually not severe, however solid-
4368 480 +5%
state battery charging equipment
Table 20 may be part of the load and create
disturbance to a generator power
Critical Loads source.
Critical loads are loads that cannot
tolerate voltage and frequency dips. Medical Equipment
Data centers, communication X-Ray equipment typically needs
equipment and medical equipment very short duration, high voltage
are examples of critical loads. from power supplies. This need
results in high current draw in short
Data Centers/Computers
durations, which in turn results in
Data centers require a reliable low kW demand at near unity power
power source. Power quality factor.
requirements should be considered
prior to power system design. As a Power source equipment should be
rule, avoid heavy SCR loads, block selected to maintain x-ray quality.
switching loads and large motor As x-ray equipment is activated,
skVA on data processing equipment voltage dip due to inrush should be
power circuits. within 10% or within the
manufacturer’s recommended
Communications Equipment tolerance.
Communication equipment
These loads generally represent
includes broad ranges of electronic
only a small part of the generator
devices for transmission of
load, so x-ray pictures are not
information. Most common are radio
normally affected.
and television broadcasting
equipment, studio equipment, Helpful Load Application Tips
transmitters and telephone Some general rules can be used if
equipment. Generally, all devices the smallest but most effective on-
pass their power supply through site system is required:
transformers. Therefore, power • Across-the-line motors when
factor is slightly less than unity. started, should always have
Most equipment tolerates frequency the largest motor started first
variations of ±5%, except where
and then smaller motors load. Line voltage drop change with
sequentially after that. load change also affects voltage
• When motors with electronic regulation at the load, if the load
drives are started, the “largest varies.
motor first” rule does not Power losses are calculated as I2R
necessarily apply. Electronic loss in watts or kilowatts. Voltage
drives allow better control of drop is calculated as I2R loss. The
the load by controlling the amount of resistance is based on
maximum current load and length, cross-sectional area,
rate of load application. These temperature, and substance of the
loads are more sensitive to conductors. Standard electrical
voltage variation than the handbooks contain tables of
motors started “across-the- resistivity of wire and cable for
line”. making calculations. Line losses are
• When UPS loads are present, not typically a factor with short
load them last. Generators are cable lengths of proper size.
more stable and less affected Power Factor Loads
by non-linear loads when Self-excited, synchronous
linear loads have been running generators are not designed to
before non-linear loads are operate with leading power factor
applied. load. The AC voltage generated is
• Loads that have filters or use controlled by DC excitation. The
power factor correction for amount of excitation required is a
power quality improvement function of generator load.
should not be applied to a Excitation required to maintain
light load level. The capacitive constant voltage increases with
elements of these loads make load. Reactive lagging power factor
the generator susceptible to load requires more excitation than a
huge voltage increases. unity power factor load. Leading
Line Losses power factor loads require less
Wires and cables in circuits always excitation than unity power factor
have some resistance to current loads. When a generator has a
flow. This presents a power loss and leading power factor, the armature
a voltage drop. The losses are a flux reacts additively with the field
function of line length and line pole flux to increase saturation and
current carrying capability. These produce a higher terminal voltage for
losses must be considered. a given amount of excitation. The
automatic voltage regulator
Line voltage drop may be a more responds to control voltage by
important consideration. Voltage reducing excitation. At light load,
drop can represent a significant the regulator will go to its minimum
difference between generated excitation capability. However, the
voltage and voltage delivered at the
additive excitation from a leading set application. However, as can be

power factor will cause the terminal seen by the equivalent circuit of a
voltage to rise and will not be transmission line, there is distributed
controlled by the voltage regulator. capacitance between the lines and
It is not uncommon for this ground; refer to Figure 56.
condition to occur with power factor The line charging current varies
correction capacitors or tuned circuit with voltage, length, height, and line
filters, which are connected to spacing along with other factors.
circuits at light load conditions. This A problem arises, particularly with
same phenomenon can occur when an unloaded line, where the line
energizing long transmission lines charging load appears as a leading
due to distributed capacitance. power factor load to the generator.
Adding reactance to the circuit is a Power factors of 0.95 leading or
possible solution to overcome the more may result in the generated
problem should it occur. voltage going uncontrolled to the
Long Transmission Lines limit of the generator saturation
Long transmission lines may curve upon energization of the line.
require the effects of distributed line Having some lagging reactive load
capacitance to be taken into on-line will correct or avoid this
account. The definition of a “long” problem should it occur.
transmission line is a relative term
and difficult to define for a generator
Figure 56
Two-wire Circuit Power Loss Three-wire Circuit Power Loss

Formula Formula
The formula for calculating the The formula used to calculate
power losses for a two-wire circuit power for a three-wire circuit
(DC or single-phase) is: (assuming a balanced load) is:
24 x L x I2 36 x L x I2
=P =P
CM CM
Where: Where:
P= Power Loss in Watts P= Power Loss in Watts
L= One-way Length of a Circuit L= One-way Length of a Circuit
in feet in feet
CM = The Cross Section of a CM = The Cross Section of a
Conductor in Circular Mils Conductor in Circular Mils
I= Represents Current I= Represents Current
Example Example
Assume a single-phase motor rated Assume a three-phase motor rated
to deliver 7.5 hp at 115 V is to deliver 100 hp at 230 V
connected to a power source via a connected to the power source via a
200 foot, No. 1 AWG copper wire 400 foot cable sized at 250 MCM.
sized at 83,690 CM. Also, assume Also, assume the motor draws 248
the motor draws 80 amperes at full amperes at full load. What is the
load. What is the power loss? power loss?
Solution Solution
Use the formula for a single-phase Use the formula for a single-phase
motor: motor:
24 x 200 x 802 36 x 400 x 2482
=P =P
83,690 250,000
The result is a 367 watt power The result is a 3,543 watt power
loss. loss.
Single-Phase Loads three-phase kVA capacity),

In three-phase power generation, a unbalanced single-phase loading is
single-phase load is a load placed not cause for concern provided any
across one voltage phase of the of the three line currents do not
generator. exceed the generator set rated line
If single-phase loads are added to current.
the three-phase system, a condition To determine the maximum single-
of unbalance will exist unless the phase load which may be safely
single-phase loads are equally drawn from a generator set
distributed among each of the three supplying single-phase and three-
phases of the generator set. phase power simultaneously, use
Tests have shown that phase- Table 23 on Page 94 to help with
voltage unbalance of more than 2% calculations.
in three-phase will cause motor Example 1 (Closed Delta Generator)
overheating if the motor is operating Refer to Figure 57. Find the
close to full load. Some electronic amount of single-phase power which
equipment may also be affected by can be safely drawn from a three-
an unbalance of more than 2%. phase 120/240 volt four-wire
Load Balancing generator set rated to deliver 100
If the electrical distribution system kW at a 0.8 power factor. The coil
served by a three-phase generator current rating of the generator set is
set consists entirely of three-phase 334 amperes. Assume that the
loads, the system is balanced. The single-phase load is connected from
coils making up the generator’s one line-to-neutral, has an operating
three phases each supply the same power factor of 0.9 lagging and that
amount of current to the load. If the generator set is supplying a
single-phase loads are added to the three-phase load of 50 kW at a
three-phase load, however, a power factor of 0.08.
condition of unbalance will exist
unless the single-phase loads are
equally distributed among each of
the three phases of the generator
set.
Generators operate best with
balanced loads. If the loads are
unbalanced, the risk of overheating
is probable. When sizing a generator
all loads should be balanced.
Figure 57
In many applications, balancing of
single-phase loads may not be
practical. If these loads are small
(10% or less of the generator set
Solution 1
1. First, find the current drawn
from each of the lines by the
three-phase load.
1.732 x I x pf x V P x 1000
P= I=
1000 1.732 x V x pf
Figure 58
50 x 1000
= 151 Amperes
1.732 x 240 x 0.8 Solution 2
1. First, find the current drawn
2. Find the coil current capacity from each of the lines by the
remaining for the single-phase three-phase load.
load: 1.732 x I x pf x V P x 1000
P= I=
334 – 151 = 183 amperes 1000 1.732 x V x pf
3. Find the single-phase power 50 x 1000

= 173.5 Amperes
available: 1.732 x 208 x 0.8
V x I x pf 120 x 183 x 0.9
P= = = 19.8 kW 2. Find the coil current capacity
1000 1000
remaining for the single-phase
load:
Example 2 (Wye Generator)
Refer to Figure 58. The generator 334 – 173.5 = 161 amperes
set is rated to deliver 100 kW at a
0.8 power factor. It is a three-phase 3. Find the 208 volt single-phase
machine with a coil current rating of load current:
334 amperes. The three-phase load P x 1000 10 x 1000 = 60
to be supplied is 50 kW at 0.8 I= =
V x pf 208 x .08 Amperes
power factor. The single-phase load
consists of both 120 and 208 volt
4. Find the coil current capacity
circuits. The 120 volt load has a
remaining for the single-phase
power factor of 0.9 and is
120 volt load:
connected from neutral to one leg.
This leg is common with one of the 161 – 60 = 101 amperes
two supplying 10 kW at a 0.8 5. Find the 120 volt single-phase
power factor to the 208 volt load. power available:
VxIx
120 x 101 x 0.9
P= pf = = 10.9 kW
1000 1000
Example 3 remaining for the single-phase

Refer to Figure 59. Similar to the 120 volt load is 173.5 amperes.
previous example, the generator set
is rated to deliver 100 kW at a 0.8
3. Find the 120 volt single-phase
power factor. It is a three-phase
power available:
machine with a coil current rating of
334 amperes. The three-phase load VxIx
120 x 173.5 x 0.9
to be supplied is 50 kW at 0.8 P= pf = = 18.7 kW
power factor. The single-phase load 1000 1000
consists of both 120 and 208 volt
circuits. The 120 volt load has a One-line Diagrams
power factor of 0.9 and is One-line diagrams greatly simplify
connected from neutral to one leg. load and system analyses.
Different from the previous example,
this leg is not common with one of
the two legs supplying 10 kW at a
0.8 power factor to the 208 volt
load.
Figure 60
The one-line diagram shown in

Figure 60 represents a balanced
system. In the top diagram, the
Figure 59
generator is shown in its three
Solution 3 (Wye Generator) phases, which are separated with an
1. First, find the current drawn ELN line-to-neutral voltage. XS
from each of the lines by the represents generator reactance. RL
three-phase load. and XL are load resistance and load
reactance, respectively. The middle
1.732 x I x pf x V P x 1000
P= I= diagram illustrates the single-phase
1000 1.732 x V x pf
equivalent of all three phases. The
bottom diagram is a further
50 x 1000 simplification of the same thing. A
= 173.5 Amperes
1.732 x 208 x 0.8 simplified diagram is often used in
three-phase representation.
2. Since the 120 volt is the only
Example 4, Generator Set Sizing
single-phase load on this leg,
In all of the following steps, Figure
the coil current capacity
61 and Figure 62 will be used to
detail how to size a Caterpillar
generator set, using load

information; Figure 62 is used when Approximate Efficiencies of
motors with NEMA code letters are Squirrel Cage Induction Motors*
considered. Full-Load
hp kW
Efficiency
1. Using information from the 5 to 7.5 4-6 0.83
nameplate, fill out information in 10 7.5 0.85
Part I and II. The motor 15 11 0.86
efficiency can be estimated 20 to 25 15 to 19 0.89
using a chart of approximate 30 to 50 22 to 37 0.90
efficiencies in Table 21. 60 to 75 45 to 56 0.91
100 to 300 74.6 to 224 0.92
350 to 600 261 to 448 0.93
* Efficiencies are significantly influenced
by the motor class.
Table 21
Figure 61
Figure 62
2. Total engine load is determined requirements by starting the

by calculating motor efficiencies largest motors first. The motors
and adding to resistive load; add rating and NEMA code can be
the lighting loads, other non- found in Section II. The
motor loads and motor loads skVA/hp is found using the
together. NEMA code letter from Table
3. Select engine (Part IV) which 14 on Page 52
matches frequency (Hz), Find the Starting skVA using
configuration (gas, diesel, the following formula:
turbocharged, aftercooled, LRA x V x 1.732
skVV =
naturally aspirated), speed and 1000
load. Hz and configuration are
found in Section I. Speed is by 5. Motors on-line diminish skVA to
customer preference and the start additional motors. For item
load was determined in Section B1 - column 1, the first motor is
II. always zero if there is more
4. Generator Sizing: In Section V than one motor. Motor #2
fill in Part A for all motors from space is the kW in Section II
nameplate. Minimize starting from first sequence motor.
Additional motor’s kW are

added to the total for each Reduced Voltage Starting Factors
motor starting. Type Multiply
The items in the B2 row are skVA By
filled in using Section II Resistor, Reactor, Impedance
information as written. The 80% Tap 0.80
items in the B3 row use the 65% Tap 0.65
50% Tap 0.50
Motor Preload Multiplier formula 45% Tap 0.45
to determine the percentage of
Autotransformer
motor load.
80% Tap 0.68
The Motor Preload Multiplier 65% Tap 0.46
formula is B1 divided by B3 or: 50% Tap 0.29
All Motors Running Y Start, Run 0.33
% Motor Load = All Motors Running & Being X 100
Solid State: Adjustable, consult manufacturer
Started
or estimate 300% of full load kVA (Use 1 if no
reduced voltage starting aids used)
Under 40%, the multiplier is 1.0. Table 22
Over 40%, use a value from the
chart in Figure 63. If no starting aid is used, use 1.0.
Row B8 can be filled by using
Motor Preload Multiplier
information in Section II.
6. Use the effective skVA and
Acceptable Voltage Dip
numbers to find on TMI the
appropriate generator. Fill in C1,
C2 and C3, using the numbers
from TMI.
7. Generator set sizing (VI) can be
found by selecting the largest
generator set model of step IV
and step V. (C1).
Figure 63
If reduced voltage starting is used,

multiply the skVA by the factor
found in Table 22; fill in spaces for
rows B6 and B7.
kVA of AC Circuits
Table 23
Generator Set Selection Considerations

When choosing a generator set Linear Loads
these factors need to be considered: Linear loads are defined as
• Load Type alternating current (AC) loads which
draw current proportional to voltage.
• Load Steps
They draw current evenly, in sine
• Load Balance waveform, throughout the cycle.
• Generator’s The load may be resistive, inductive
o Temperature Rise (lagging power factor) or capacitive
loading (leading power factor).
o Pitch
Regardless of the type, current
o Voltage Range drawn by a linear load will remain
sinusoidal.
Load Types
All loads are different in their Conventional electrical formulas
power quality needs. A simple for determining electrical
incandescent light bulb does not characteristics such as voltage drop,
demand high quality power. The current flow measurement, power
amount of light will drop consumption and heating values are
proportionally to voltage, but applicable to linear loads and
frequency and voltage waveform assume there is no distortion of
free from distortion is not voltage and current waveforms.
significant. Other loads are sensitive Typical linear loads are:
to those type voltage variables. • Incandescent Lights
Loads are typically defined as linear
• Resistance Heaters
or nonlinear. One of the first steps is
to separate loads into linear and • Induction Motors
non-linear loads. Table 24 provides • Synchronous Motors
examples of linear and non-linear • Electromagnetic Devices
loads.
• Transformers (non-saturated)
Voltage and
Current Drawn Current Examples
Waveforms
Linear Proportional to Sine wave Incandescent light bulbs
voltage Induction and synchronous
motors
Electromagnetic devices
Resistance heaters
Non-Linear Non-proportional Pulses Silicon controlled rectifiers
to voltage Variable speed drives
Uninterruptible power
supplies
Battery chargers
Fluorescent lighting
Table 24
Non-Linear Loads Typical non-linear loads are:

An electrical load which changes • Silicon Controlled Rectifiers
or modifies the current or voltage • Variable Speed Drives
waveform to one that is not
• Uninterruptible Power
sinusoidal is a non-linear load. A
Supplies
load that draws current in pulses is
a non-linear load. • Battery Chargers
The development and application • Computing Equipment
of solid-state electronic components • Fluorescent and Gas
has proliferated nonlinear electrical Discharge Lighting
loads. Semi-conductors, particularly • Transformers (saturated)
silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR’s)
have the ability to turn “on” or begin All of these devices require
conducting at any point during the current, which cannot be provided
applied volt wave and draw without causing some distortion to
instantaneous pulses of current. the applied source voltage. Non-
These instantaneous pulse demands linear loads in the system can cause
result in harmonics, which result in problems for other loads.
the nonlinearity.
Another source of non-sine wave
current drawing loads is saturated
magnetic core equipment, such as
fluorescent ballast transformers and
saturated core reactor regulators.
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is

Harmonic Content
the measurement of the sum of all
Deviation from a pure, single sine
harmonics. Most loads will continue
wave can be expressed as additional
to operate with THD at 15 to 20%.
sine waves of frequencies, which
However, loads with sensitive
are a multiple of the generated
electronic equipment can develop
frequency. These additional
problems with THD greater than
frequencies are called harmonics.
5%.
Because three-phase generators
Non-linear loads cause harmonic
are magnetically symmetrical,
currents. These harmonics can
resulting in the cancellation of even
cause control problems and internal
harmonics, only odd harmonics are
heating of the generator limiting its
normally of any significance. For
capability. Generators are designed
example, a 60 Hz generated
to provide a given output at rated
waveform will contain the 60 Hz
frequencies of 50 or 60 Hz. It is
fundamental; a 180 Hz, 3rd
possible for a generator to carry less
harmonic; 300 Hz, 5th harmonic;
than its full rated current and yet
420 Hz, 7th harmonic and so on.
overheat because of a harmonic
Table 25 shows both even and odd
current generated by non-linear load.
harmonics of a 60 Hz generated
Form-wound machines typically
waveform.
provide better performance in high
A 50 Hz generated waveform will harmonic applications.
contain the 50 Hz fundamental; a
In cases where non-linear loads
150 Hz, 3rd harmonic; 250 Hz, 5th
cause increased generator heating,
harmonic; 350 Hz, 7th harmonic and
two techniques are typically used to
so on.
compensate for the increased
In general, the higher the harmonic generator heating. Deration is one
order, the lower the magnitude of method and using a generator that is
the harmonic. oversized for the kVA requirement is
another.
Harmonic Frequency Sequence

Fundamental 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th
60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540
Table 25
Figure 64
Figure 65
Figure 66
harmonic distortion to be created by

Generator Considerations a non-linear load. Current reacts
Generator Heating with impedance to cause voltage
Generators are designed to provide drop. The internal reactance of a
a given output at rated fundamental generator to instantaneous current
frequencies of 50 or 60 Hz. Design change is the direct axis
considerations include making the subtransient reactance (X”d). A
most effective use of active material generator with the lowest per unit
to meet acceptable limitations of value of X”d at a given load will
temperature rise. (More on this topic typically have the lowest value of
is found in Engine Ratings section.) total harmonic distortion under non-
linear load conditions.
Generator Reactance Impact
Subtransient reactance (X”d) is a The internal reactance of a
primary indicator of the amount of generator due to line-to-neutral or
unbalanced loading is the zero loads are connected to the generator

sequence reactance (Xo). Any 3rd bus line-to-line, without a neutral
harmonic currents, also known as connection or supplied through
triplen harmonics, produced by the delta-wye transformer, any triplen
load will not cancel in the neutral harmonics, caused by the load, are
and the result is neutral current not recognized by the generator.
flow, even with balanced loads. The This harmonic blocking effect,
triplen harmonic circuit is the same although desirable to the generator
as three single-phase circuits with and other parts of the distribution
three parallel line-to-neutral branches system, can lead to excessive
sharing common neutral. transformer heating.
Phase conductor heating from the Generators operating at 400 volts
100% rated neutral 3rd harmonic or higher typically supply loads
current and other effects will add through delta-wye distribution
approximately 6 to 7% of additional transformers. Exceptions to this may
heat. This relatively high 3rd occur; of special concern is where
harmonic would only require 6 to gas discharge lamps are connected
7% derating of the generator. It can directly to the generator bus at line-
create distortion of the generator to-neutral voltage, without benefit of
voltage waveform and consequently, harmonic reduction techniques.
could have effects on circuit Smaller generators (typically below
protective devices and other 100 kW) often power the load
external circuit elements. directly at 208/120 volts with a wye
If the load generates 3rd connection. Whenever loads are
harmonics, the neutral current may connected directly to the generator
become quite large. The generator bus, line-to-neutral, the possibilities
will actually tolerate a fairly large of 3rd harmonic current should be
amount of 3rd harmonic current considered.
flow in the neutral with a moderate Waveform Distortion
increase in generator heating. Waveform distortions are greater
It is not uncommon for a facility to on a generator set than when the
have large banks of fluorescent loads are connected to utility power.
lighting and/or single-phase personal A generator can be compared to
computing equipment circuits; others by the level of distortion
creating large amounts of 3rd when running at full load. Since
harmonic current. A neutral larger loads increase harmonics, full
conductor larger than the load should be used for accurate
conventional half-rated neutral may comparison. Typically, a 5% or less
be required for these circuits. THD is specified, with no more than
Fortunately, the design of many of 3% from any one harmonic.
these facilities includes steps to The magnitude of a voltage
reduce 3rd harmonic current before waveform distortion caused by the
they reach the generator. Where
non-linear current demand of the Typically, computer room support

rectifier/charger is a function of the functions such as HVAC systems,
source impedance. Source chilled water systems, fire
impedance is not an easily defined protection systems, and room
value as generator reactance varies lighting must also be connected to
with time following a sudden load the standby generator set. These
change. Generator subtransient support systems are often as large,
reactance (X”d) and subtransient or larger, than the UPS load. It is
short circuit time constant (T”d) are frequently very desirable for system
primary parameters which influence operation and distribution reasons to
distortion during the short duration have small, three-phase,
of SCR commutation periods. continuously running air handler
A standby generator is motors in the computer and UPS
characteristically of higher room sharing a common feeder or
impedance than a transformer. power transformer with the UPS.
Further contributing to the Resistive loads are effective in
impedance difference is often a minimizing waveform distortion
significant difference in kVA rating caused by “ringing effect”.
in the two sources. Where as a Resistance acts as a damper to
facility source transformer is oscillation in a resonant circuit.
frequently sized to carry the total Adding a resistance load is one
facility load, the standby set is often technique used as a treatment to
only sized to carry the emergency or minimize waveform distortion
critical loads. A generator may have caused by system oscillation. This,
5 to 100 times greater subtransient however, is only effective if high
reactance than the normal source frequency oscillations are the cause
transformer. of the problem. If a resistance
Consequently, non-linear loads element is added strictly for
which work fine on utility, may react treatment purposes, the addition of
entirely different when powered by a a capacitor in series with the resistor
generator set. Using an oversized will reduce fundamental current with
generator to reduce reactance may minimum effect on high frequency
be of some benefit. However, to damping.
obtain a significant reduction in Adding a low pass filter to the
reactance is not usually generator output for attenuation of
economically feasible. A doubling of prevailing harmonics is theoretically
generator rating is required to possible, however, should be
reduce reactance by one-half. considered a last resort option.
Damping with other loads reduces Practical tuned circuit filters
effective bus reactance. Motors, in generally represent compromise and
particular, act as absorbers of may introduce more problems than
momentary voltage irregularities and they solve. Component size and
reduce harmonic content on the line. expense are also limiting factors. A
better approach is to specify or add Generator field power must be

filtering or other harmonic filtered to minimize interaction with
attenuating options such as isolation distortion from the load. A well-
transformers at the source of filtered regulator combined with the
distortion. Consultation with the inherent inductive filtering of a
UPS supplier will usually reveal such brushless design generator virtually
available options. eliminates this problem. The self-
Generator AVR and Excitation excited generator has a well-filtered
The voltage regulator must control regulator and excitation system
output voltage of the generator in which provides voltage control and
spite of the load causing a distorted stability of equivalent quality to that
wave shape. Various techniques can obtainable with a permanent magnet
be used to accomplish this task. pilot exciter. It is also fully capable
of sustaining excitation during the
Three-phase sensing minimizes short circuit periods occurring during
effects of waveform distortion by the commutation of load SCR’s
providing an average of all three without the benefit of excitation
phases at any given instant. Since sustaining options. A permanent
the SCR’s in three-phase rectifier magnet exciter, while capable of
loads do not all “gate on” at the sustaining excitation during a
same instant, a minimized distortion sustained fault condition, has no
average signal of the three phases is advantage in providing excitation
processed. In comparison, a single- during the short duration of load
phase sensing regulator will sense SCR commutation. Additional
severe distortion occurring at a regulator filters or optional features
given instant during the cycle in one are not required for all generators for
phase. The generator has a three- UPS applications.
phase sensing network with a
floating neutral as a standard Determining Distortion
feature. Thus, voltage disturbance in A review of the entire generator
any one phase will shift the neutral set distribution system should be
but not appreciably affect the made to determine if loads exist
voltage to the regulator. Waveform which require a source with low
notching is effectively blocked from distortion waveform. Unless the
the regulator. generator set system is large, it is
quite common for other loads to
Regulator circuits must include
share a common bus with the UPS.
features to isolate field power
If distortion-sensitive loads are
control from effects of distortion. If
suspected, a consultant or
SCR’s are used within the regulator,
distribution system designer with
circuits must be used to prevent the
knowledge of where harmonic
distortion from load SCR’s
distortion might be adverse and how
interfering with triggering of
to avoid it should be contacted.
regulator SCR’s.
To calculate total harmonic maximum voltage is produced. Such

distortion at a point in the a positioning of coils is called an “all
distribution system requires the pitch” winding. Very few machines
consultant to have access to system are wound full pitch because the
data such as subtransient reactance winding requires excessive end turn
and kVA rating of the generator and copper and provides little harmonic
any other rotating machines, control. Most generators are
reactance and resistance’s of fractional pitch windings.
transformers, cables, and other The magnitude and frequency of
circuit elements as well as harmonics generated by the machine
characteristics of the non-linear, will vary with the pitch factor and
distortion producing device. other design parameters.
The impact of generator pitch on 2/3 Pitch
load generated harmonic currents is The 2/3 pitch winding became
highly dependent on the system popular when manufacturers of
configuration. This too, is typically small generators wound their
not consequential except in special machines in delta to combine three-
cases. When supplying non-linear phase and three-wire single.
loads which have no neutral Generators with 2/3 pitch are
connection, the coil pitch has no sometimes thought to have an
effect on voltage waveform advantage with non-linear loads
distortion. because of their low zero sequence
Generator Pitch reactance (Xo — a low reactance to
Generators do not generate a 3rd harmonic zero sequence
perfect sine wave. Consequently, current.). However, 3rd or triplen
there are some harmonics harmonics are not normally present
generated. in three-phase rectifier loads, such
To produce voltage, a synchronous as encountered with UPS or variable
generator has a direct current (DC) speed motor drives, and this
excited structure consisting of characteristic becomes insignificant.
alternating north and south magnetic Additionally, a 2/3 pitch generator
poles, usually on the rotating typically generates higher 5th and
member of the generator or rotor. 7th harmonics which will cause
The magnetic field produced, additional heating in motors due to
sweeps the armature (usually the the higher frequency. In cases with
stator) and induces voltage in coils single-phase non-linear loads
placed in slots in the armature. connected line-to-neutral directly to
When the span of each of these the generator bus, the 2/3 pitch
coils is exactly equal to the span of generator has the potential to
the north to south field poles, the minimize, but not totally prevent,
maximum magnetic flux is 3rd harmonic, (load created) voltage
encompassed by the coil and the waveform distortion.
Non-Linear Loads and 2/3 Pitch difference. In some cases, there may
Non-linear loads generate harmonic be no advantage to 2/3 pitch
currents which cause waveform winding when paralleling.
distortion of the generator. For When paralleling with a utility the
balanced three-phase loads, 2/3 pitch winding may be a
distortion is caused by voltage drop disadvantage due to low zero
due to the harmonic currents in the sequence reactance. Typically, 3rd
subtransient reactance of the harmonic current flow in the neutral
generator. The subtransient is of the most significance.
reactance of a generator is not a Reactors, resistors, or switches can
function of coil pitch. Therefore, the be installed to limit these currents.
coil pitch does not affect waveform
distortion. Applications Requiring 2/3 Pitch
When paralleling, it is desirable to
The zero sequence reactance of a match the pitch of the existing
generator is effective only to generators. If the existing generators
currents which flow in the neutral have 2/3 pitch another generator of
line. Single-phase non-linear loads matching 2/3 pitch is preferable.
usually generate high 3rd harmonic Single-phase non-linear loads that
currents. When these loads are are connected in a balanced manner
connected in a balanced manner to a with a neutral connector directly to
three-phase generator, the 3rd the generator is also an acceptable
harmonic currents add in the neutral application of a 2/3 pitch. An
to produce very high neutral example of this is a 277 V lighting
currents. L-N.
Only where the load is connected
Other Generator Set Selection
directly to the generator does the
Considerations
low zero sequence reactance of a
There are times that a facility will
2/3 pitch generator reduce the
have reconnection issues. For
voltage waveform distortion. If the
example, if a generator set is being
load is supplied through a Delta-Wye
placed at a site and then moved to
transformer, the 3rd harmonic
another site (with perhaps different
currents do not appear in the
applications) the generator set will
generator and the 2/3 pitch winding
have to be sized to meet the
does not help reduce distortion.
different requirements of both sites.
Paralleling and 2/3 Pitch It is also possible that a customer
Paralleling generators of different will know that the facility will be
pitch can cause harmonic distortion. rewired from 480 V to 240 V. Such
A circulating current will flow a situation will require additional
between paralleled generators if consideration when sizing the
they do not have equal generated generator set.
voltage waveforms. The flow is
dependent upon the voltage
Voltage Range/Number of Leads are used with single-phase and

The voltage range and the number three-phase loads. Delta connections
of leads need to be considered so are found in rural communities
that a generator set can be matched where three-phase is not available.
to the job at hand. A generator can lose up to half of its
Phases are typically arranged in a rating if a delta configuration is
wye configuration as shown in hooked to a three-phase system. It
Figure 67 or a delta configuration as is most common for generators to
shown in Figure 68. have 12 or 6 leads. Figure 69 shows
a six-lead wye connection and
WYE Connection Figure 70 shows a six lead delta
connection.
Six Lead WYE Connection
Figure 67
Figure 69
Delta Connection
Six Lead Delta Connection
Figure 68
The wye phase connection has a

neutral point, often connected to
Figure 70
ground. The delta does not have a
neutral point. The wye configuration A twelve-lead wye connection is
is used with three-phase loads or the most common in North America.
line-to-line loads. Delta connections It allows the most versatility
because of the multiple used with MVA’s greater than 10

configurations allowed. are considered High Voltage.
A twelve-lead, wye connected, Figure 71 shows a voltage versus
480 V generator set is usually kVA chart, indicating low, medium
required for large air compressors, and high voltage selections.
motors, chillers, and air handlers. Depending on what voltage type is
240 V is typical for smaller three- applicable, will help determine the
phase motors. 120 V is common for size of the generator needed.
office equipment and small single-
phase motors.
Before choosing a generator set,
the current coming in must match
the neutral lead. If they do not
match, current will be lost in the
generator which will weaken the
insulation. Alternators would be
more susceptible to contamination
and failure. Differential protection is
a preventative item which checks
the current and determines if the
neutral matches the incoming
current. Figure 71
Generator set Voltage Selection
Multi-Engine Installations
Caterpillar identifies three voltage
In some situations, the use of
types:
more than one generator set is
• Low mandatory. In others, it may prove
• Medium more economical to have more than
• High one generator set. When the load is
too large for a single unit, two or
Low voltage is the voltage on a more generator sets may operate in
local level or part of a site. 600 V or parallel by being electronically
less with 800 kVA is the range for connected.
low voltage rating.
Critical installations in which the
Medium voltage is a low-level prime power source is a generator
distribution rating. This voltage is set may require additional backup
distributed to power residential sites power. A second generator set
and other campuses. 601 V-5000 V capable of carrying critical loads
with 5-10 MVA is the range for the should be made available in case of
medium rating. primary set failure and for use during
High voltage runs over regions and prime set maintenance periods.
is the voltage at a utility or the
national grid. 5001 V-15,000 V
Cases where multiple generator set can the units be connected together
installations may prove more by a breaker.
economical are those where there is Synchronizing lights or meters are
a large variation in load during the used in a manual paralleling
course of a day, week, month, or operation to confirm both rotational
year. Such variation is typical in requirements and phase voltage
plants in which operations are requirements have been met.
carried on primarily during the day, Automatic, electronically controlled
while only small loads exist at night. measuring devices are used in
The more closely a generator set automatic paralleling.
comes to being fully loaded, the
The synchronized lights have
greater the fuel economy per
lamps, shown in Figure 72, that dim
kilowatt produced. Therefore, the
and brighten. When the units are in
use of a small generator set to
phase, the lights are at their
power light, off-hour loads, will
dimmest and the breaker can be
often result in long-term fuel
tripped to complete the paralleling. If
economy.
phase sequence is not matched, the
In installations where the load lamps will never be light or dark at
does not vary to the extremes the same time.
encountered between day and night
A synchronizing meter such as a
conditions, it is sometimes profitable
synchroscope, shown in Figure 73
to share the load between several
and Figure 74, can be used instead
small units operating in parallel.
of the synchronizing lights for
When the load is lighter, one or
synchronizing two or more generator
more of the units may be shut
sets. The direction the pointer
down; thereby loading the other
rotates indicates whether the
units closer to capacity. For
frequency of the incoming generator
example, this type of system is
is slower or faster than the
advantageous where load demand is
frequency of the on-line generator.
seasonal or when maintenance is
necessary and power interruption Similarly, the frequency at which
must be avoided. the pointer rotates indicates the
magnitude of difference in speed
Paralleling
between the generator sets. For
Generator sets can be paralleled to
paralleling, engine speed is changed
other generator sets or the utility.
until the synchroscope pointer
To operate in parallel, both units
rotates very slowly (less than 10
must match phase sequence,
rpm), again keeping the incoming
voltage frequency, manage neutral
generator set faster than the on-line
currents, operate with the same
generator set. When the pointer is at
frequency directional rotation and
the zero position, the circuit breaker
produce almost exact sine waves.
can be closed, thereby synchronizing
Only after these conditions are met
the units.
Figure 72
Example of a Synchronizing Meter
Figure 73
types, imbalance during

transient load changes can be
anticipated.
As load is suddenly applied,
constant voltage units attempt to
supply the total requirement. As the
constant voltage generator drops
frequency, the volts-per-Hertz unit
Figure 74 begins to share load. The temporary
load imbalance passes, and kW load
Usually, identical generator sets is shared between generators.
operate in parallel without problems. Once two or more generators are
When paralleling unlike units, paralleled, it is as though they are
however, the following effects must mechanically coupled together. They
be considered. will operate at the same speed but
• Engine Configuration: not necessarily have the same
Response to load changes will power output. Each engine’s power
be affected by engine size, contribution is controlled by the
turbocharger, governor type, relative fuel system output.
and adjustment. Temporary Droop and Governors
unbalance of kW loads during Droop is when the governor
load change is likely, but can reduces speed with an increasing
quickly stabilize. load. Speed is lowest at full load and
• Generator Design: Circulating highest at no load. Droop is
currents and harmonic expressed as a percentage of rated
currents add to basic load speed. A 2 to 3% droop is typical.
current, increasing coil Two isochronous units, operating
temperatures, and causing in parallel, will operate at constant
circuit breaker tripping. speed (no droop) and be stable at
Circulating current is either no load or maximum load.
minimized by correct regulator Loads in between will shift randomly
adjustment. Harmonic between the two generators.
interaction between Electronic governors can be installed
generators must be calculated to limit this instability by causing
to determine compatibility. load to be shared more evenly. This
• Regulator Design: Automatic strategy is especially effective in
or analog voltage regulation allowing many units of unequal size
(AVR) of dissimilar design to share load in proportion to their
may be used when paralleling size.
generators. When constant An isochronous generator can also
voltage regulators are be paralleled with a droop unit. If
paralleled with volts-per-Hertz load is normally at 50% or more
then the droop unit can carry the Regulator Compensation

load up to 50%. The synchronous When two or more units are
unit then picks up load from 51% to operating in parallel, the regulators
100%. The droop unit can not vary must control the excitation of the
it’s load because its governor can alternators so they share the
only have one rack position at the reactive load. Two methods used to
isochronous speed setting. regulate excitation are:
If the load is normally under 50% • Reactive Droop Compensation
of rated, then the isochronous
• Reactive Differential (cross
speed generator would be set for
current) Compensation
rated speed and carry all loads up to
50%. If load exceeds 50%, the Reactive droop compensation does
isochronous unit slows down and not require a wiring interconnection
the droop unit picks up the between regulators. During parallel
additional load. The isochronous unit droop compensation operation, the
will stay at its reduced speed (the bus voltage droops (decreases) as
same speed as the droop unit), until the reactive lagging power factor
the load falls below 50%. load is increased.
If both units are in droop, load Reactive differential (cross current)
share is automatic after they are compensation requires the addition
adjusted to the same high-idle of interconnecting leads between
speed. If no load is connected, each the current transformer secondaries
unit will stay at high-idle speed. If and allows operation in parallel
full load is connected, both units without voltage droop with reactive
must operate at rated speed load.
(governor racks at full load setting). Cross current compensation can
All loads between no load and full only be used when all the paralleling
load will act accordingly, although current transformers on all the
frequency will vary. Since the generators delivering power to the
generators must operate at the same bus are in the CT secondary
speed and a given speed results in interconnection loop. Because of
one rack position with a droop this requirement, cross current
governor, the generators will operate compensation operation cannot be
at approximately the same power used when a generating system is
output. operating in parallel with the utility
power grid. Utility voltage can vary
enough to cause high circulating
current in a paralleled generator.
KVAR controllers must be used to
adjust generator voltage to match
utility and minimize circulating
current.
Load Control supply the week and the smaller the

There are many decisions which weekends.
will affect sizing that the facility Unit Shutdown
personnel must make. Load Unit shutdown order is determined
prioritization is a decision which by analyzing which loads can be
manufacturer expertise can help spared at certain times while other
influence or clarify but not dictate. loads are still connected. Again,
The end user has to decide upon the maintenance implications need to be
load acceptance order, load taken into consideration if it is
shedding order, unit starting order, determined that the same generator
unit shut down order, and/or set will be shutdown first each time.
redundancy.
Redundancy refers to the method
Load acceptance order determines of purchasing one or more generator
which loads are critical and must be sets than needed to operate at full
accepted by which generator.
load. This is especially important to
Load shedding determines which loads where a major percentage of it
loads are non-critical and shed so is critical. With additional generator
that loads that are more critical can sets, downtime can be kept to a
be given priority or additional load. minimum because an additional
Load Order generator set is always free to be
Site personnel must determine the connected. Figure 75 shows
order in which generator sets will be generator set #5 as a swing engine;
started. If #1 generator set is this engine can be used to backup
always started first, it will either critical load group if one of
accumulate hours and maintenance the engines requires service. Major
expenses at a high rate compared to maintenance can be performed on a
the remaining units. generator set while the additional
one is connected. If two or more
“Slobbering” of the generator sets
additional generator sets are present
may be another problem
then maintenance can be done on
encountered. The last unit started
two or more or have a backup for
may be lightly loaded and said to
the system when one is being
“slobber”. Slobber is a result of
serviced.
lubricating oil being drawn into the
cylinder under low load conditions.
This is not conducive to long life and
good performance.
A site may require a smaller supply
of electricity on the weekend, when
the loads are not as large. Generator
sets of different sizes can be
installed where the larger one(s)
Figure 75
LEBE5294-01 ©2006 Caterpillar® Printed in U.S.A.
All rights reserved.

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A P P L I C A T I O N A N D I N S T A L L A T I O N G U I D E

Generator Set Rating Considerations ................................... 2

Information contained in this publication may be considered confidential.

Electric Power Applications, Engine & Generator

Generator Set Rating • Demand & Diversity Factors

Generator Set Rating Considerations

Prime Running Power (PRP) categories in terms of load

Paralleled with the Utility Under 500 Standards

the amount of internal heat that is

increase for a given rating. This will

altitude, temperature, corrosive The altitude/temperature derating

Dust referred to as frequency or voltage

• The percent of a load step If indirect lighting is used with no

G1 Required for applications where the General purpose

to be specified. electrical loads

1. Point 1 is the beginning of the 4. As the governor continues to

demanded by the generator. the engine lug curve, although

Since only governor action is

• Recover to rated limits within supply, jacket water, or radiator

air density and detonation margin is unloads to be accomplished without

temperature; more iron (laminations) generator set engines are not

Volts/Hz regulator to address this Digital Voltage Regulator

Estimating Load Data amperes (VA) per square foot

Load and Power Consumption Estimating Data

Volt Amperes Per Square Foot (VA/FT2)

When starting generator sets Additional Load Categories

Zero Import/Zero Export

Concepts of Peak Shaving vs. Peak Sharing

Peak Sharing can operate independently of the

As shown in Figure 16, loads are horsepower hour (BHP) of an air

Typical Load Sizing Guidelines

Load Growth Over 10 Years

on the system is 15 kW, which is

To find demand factor use the

Shown in Table 9 is a range of Figure 18

Performance will only be present during startup

Concentratio outlined in ISO 8178-1 in regards to

Table 10 Additional information on this

• What types of load current and future needs in mind

Further definition of linear & non- Lighting Loads

These loads are often rated in watts. Non-Linear Lighting Loads

Gas Discharge Lamps motors being used because of the

considered when analyzing total

Slip Definition 1140 r/min at full-load when

manufacturer as this information = AC kVA

National Electrical Manufacturers these machines are suitable for

under high-impact loads would use a Load requires only

Class D motor. The breakdown torque; continuous reciprocating

Of these characteristics, torque is

response to a motor start; this However, motors can draw more

The rated hp and as starting kVA

determined or the loads will squirrel cage motor has a lagging

6.0 kVA x 200 hp = 1,200 skVA engine during starting is calculated

required to initially breakaway or

• Locked-rotor torque (also

induction motor. This is due

exceeds the motor torque at any However, motor manufacturers

Estimated Acceleration Time Figure 34

Inrush current to the motor causes

dip is acceptable, depending on Single-speed, three-phase,

Locked Rotor Current — NEMA MG 1

60 Hz - 230 Volts 50 Hz - 380 Volts

0.5 20 B,D,E 1 or less 20 B,D,E

line, as shown in Figure 35. Full