ME411 (CombustionKnock) (310816) 2

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 1
Reaction Rates and Flame Propagation

Propagation of the laminar flame (no turbulence) is evidence of a self
sustaining, exothermic chemical reaction, while the speed of the
laminar flame is evidence of the speed or rate of reaction.
Consider a chemical reaction wherein υa moles of species a and υb
moles of species b react to form υc moles of species c,
υa a + υ b b → υcc
The rate of reaction is defined as the rate of change of concentration
of a particular species, per mole of that species in the stoichiometric
equation,
1 dC a 1 dC b 1 dC c
rab = − =− =
υ a dt υ b dt υ c dt
where Ca, Cb, and Cc are the concentrations of species a, b, and c
respectively.
Reaction rate is a function of temperature and the concentrations of
reactants.
In many special cases, rab = K ab C a C b

a b
K = rate constant/ specific rate constant/ reaction velocity constant (or

coefficient).
a and b are orders.
K = f(T) = Ae− ΔE /R T
∗
o
ΔE* = activation energy, kcal/kmol; constant for reaction

A = constant of reaction
Let, ΔE* = 30,000 kcal/kmol
At 3000 K, e − ΔE /R T = e−30,000/6000 = e−5 = 6.7 x 10−3
∗
o
AT 300 k, e − ΔE /R T = e−50 = 1.9 x 10−22

∗
o
Applied Thermodynamics (Combustion and Knock) Dr. Bodius Salam

Types of flame
Premixed flame – when the reactants are gases, completely
homogeneous, the ensuing flame is called premixed flame
(approached in SIE).
Diffusion flame – when the mixing is incomplete, or two phases are
present, the appeared flame is called diffusion flame (as in CIE).
Laminar flame, Turbulent flame.
Unconfined-open flame (constant-pressure combustion as in a gas
turbine)
Confined flame–ICE
Deflagration – If the flame propagates at subsonic speeds.
Detonation – Flame propagates at supersonic speeds.
Propagation of flame in one dimensional steady flow (laminar)
(Unburned)
(Burned) Vs or Vg
Fig. 1: One-dimensional flame from propagating into laminar steady-

flow mixture (Ref: Internal Combustion Engines, E. F. Obert).
Vs = flame velocity, the absolute velocity of the flame front normal to

itself.
Vg = gas or mixture velocity, the absolute velocity of the unburned
gas normal to the flame front.
Vn = normal combustion or burning or transformation velocity, the
relative velocity of the unburned gas normal to the flame front.

V n = Vs − Vg
Methane, Vn = 33.8 cm/sec. (laminar)
Combustion in SIE
Combustion in the engine normally begins at the spark plug where
the molecules in around the spark discharge are activated to a level
where reaction is self-sustaining.
Initially the flame speed is abnormally low and the heat loss is high
since the spark plug is necessarily located on the cold walls of the
chamber. During this period the pressure rise is small because the
mass of the mixture burned is extremely small.
Once the reaction is well underway, a spherical flame front will
advance from the spark plug. The edges of the sphere will be ragged
because of convective currents in the highly turbulent mixture.
In the vicinity of the chamber walls both turbulence and temperature
are low and therefore the flame is doubly retarded.
In the final stage of combustion the flame slows down as it
approaches the walls of the combustion chamber because of heat loss
and low temperature and is finally extinguished.
Autoignition and chemical reaction

When a mixture of fuel and oxygen spontaneously react without the
necessity of a flame to initiate combustion is called self-ignition or
autoignition.
»» Abrupt increase of pressure and temperature, because of sudden
release of chemical energy.
Factors that control autoignition:
i) If the temperature is high, the particle energy is high and
therefore certain collisions may cause the formation of new
species.
ii) If the density is high, the number of collisions is large and

therefore the number of new species formed by collisions is
great.
The rate of reaction is also controlled by the relative concentrations of
the reactants as well as by the presence of inert molecules (N2) that
influence the collisions.
Ignition delay and self ignition temperature
Suppose that a homogeneous fuel-air mixture are rapidly compressed
and held at the high pressure and temperature achieved by the
compression.
ABC: For this condition of density, temperature, and air-fuel ratio, the
mixture may not self-ignite but will slowly cool.
AB′C′D′: If the compression ratio is raised, a state will finally be
reached where self-ignition will occur.
If the mixture is compressed to higher temperatures, the ignition delay
period is shortened.
D'
Self
ignition
tempt.
Temperature B' C'
B C
Ignition Delay
(order of magnitude
0.001 sec)
A
Time
Fig. 2: Ignition delay and the self-ignition temperature (Ref: Internal

Combustion Engines, E. F. Obert).
Preflame reaction occurs in the induction period to condition the

mixture for self-reaction. Exact mechanism of formation is unknown,
it is believed that some intermediate product of combustion appears in
the induction/ignition delay period and serves to catalyze the entire

reaction to explosive speeds.
Autoignition/self-ignition of a perfectly homogeneous mixture of

gases is controlled by several factors:
i) Temperature
ii) Density
iii) Time: the induction period
iv) Composition: (a) the fuel-oxygen ratio, (b) the presence of
inert gases
v) Turbulence.
Consider a definite and homogeneous mixture of air and fuel:

»» Factors: temperature, density, and time.
Ignition temperature
Induction time
Density
Fig. 3: Idealized temperature, density, time diagram for a specified
fuel and mixture composition.
» Self ignition temperature increases, ignition delay decreases.

» Density increases, self ignition temperature decreases.
» Density increases, ignition delay decreases.
Autoignition above the surface, no auto-ignition below the surface.

Knock in the SIE

Knock: The noise associated with autoignition of a portion of the
mixture ahead of an advancing flame front is known as knock in SIE.
Normal combustion: A combustion process which is initiated solely

by a timed spark and in which the flame front moves completely
across the combustion chamber in a uniform manner at a normal
velocity.
Surface ignition: Ignition of the mixture by a hot spot on the

combustion chamber walls such as an overheated valve or spark plug,
or glowing combustion chamber deposit.
Preignition: surface ignition occurring before the spark.
Postignition: surface ignition occurring after the spark.
Abnormal combustion: combustion with surface ignition or

autoignition.
Knocking mechanism (SIE)

After initiation of normal combustion the consequent rise in pressure
compresses the end gas ahead of the flame front and therefore its
temperature and density increase. Preflame reactions add to the
temperature rise. If the temperature of the unburned gas exceeds
above the self ignition temperature (SIT) and remains at or above this
temperature during the ignition-delay period, spontaneous ignition or
autoignition will occur and spread various pinpoint sources, to
complete quickly the combustion process. The combustion time is
always shortened by autoignition with consequent sharper rise in
pressure that may lead to an audible sound called knock.
In the act of autoignition two opposing factors appear:
i) The rate of pressure rise is favored by the rate of the
chemical reactions.

ii) The rate of pressure rise is opposed by the rate of

expansion.
Types of autoignition
i) Explosive (usual) autoignition.
ii) Nonexplosive autoignition.
Explosive autoignition: The rate of chemical reaction is greater than

the rate of expansion.
»» flame speed around 760 m/sec.
Nonexplosive autoignition: The rate of expansion is greater than the

rate of chemical reaction.
»» flame speed 120 – 250 m/sec.
Fig. 4: Schematic of flame in the SIE cylinder during combustion.

(Ref: Heywood).

Fig. 5: Cylinder pressure versus crank angle. (Ref: Heywood).
Pressure
TC TC
Normal combustion Knock
Two types of vibration during autoignition

i) A large amount of mixture may autoignite and so give rise to a
very rapid increase in pressure throughout the combustion
chamber. A thudding sound will be detected from the impact
and free vibration of the engine parts.
ii) A large pressure difference may exist in the combustion
chamber, and the resulting gas vibrations can force the walls of
the chamber to vibrate at the same frequency as the gas. An
audible sound or ping may be evident.

Factors affecting knock in SIE

A. Temperature factors: Increase of the temperature of the
unburned mixture (end gas) increase the possibility of knock in the
SIE.
Temperature of the unburned mixture will be increased by,
i) Raising the compression ratio
a) Supercharging
ii) Raising the inlet air temperature
iii) Raising the coolant temperature
iv) Raising the temperature of the cylinder and combustion-
chamber walls.
a) Opening the throttle (increasing the load).
The total energy release is proportional to the mass of mixture
in the cylinder, and therefore opening the throttle tends to raise
wall temperatures and so raise mixture and end-gas
temperatures.
v) Advancing the spark timing.
When spark is advanced, burning gas is compressed by the
rising piston and therefore temperatures (and densities) are
radically increased. Thus knock is encouraged by advanced
spark timings and relieved by retarded spark timings.
Design point: The temperature of exhaust valve is
relatively high (600oC) and therefore it should be
located near the spark plug and not in the end gas
region. The end gas can be effectively cooled by
decreasing the clearance between head and piston.
B. Density factors: Increasing of the density of the unburned

mixture will increase the possibility of knock in the SIE.
Density of the unburned mixture (end gas) will be increased by,
i) Opening the throttle (increasing the load)
ii) Supercharging the engine
iii) Advancing the spark timing
iv) Raising the compression ratio
C. Time factors: Increase of the time of exposure of the unburned

mixture to autoigniting conditions will increase the possibility of
knock is SIE.
Exposure of time will be increased by,
i) Increasing the distance the flame has to travel in order to
traverse the combustion chamber.
ii) Decreasing the turbulence of the mixture and thus decreasing
the speed of the flame.
iii) Decreasing the speed of the engine, thus
a) Decreasing the turbulence of the mixture
b) Increasing the time available for preflame reactions.
If the chamber width is great, the end gas may have time to reach a
self-ignition temperature and pass through the delay period before the
flame has completed its travel. (a) The flame will have to travel the
entire distance A, and the length of time taken may be greater than
that necessary for the end gas to autoignite. (b) By locating the spark
plug at the centre of the chamber, the flame will have to travel only
about half the distance A, with a proportional saving in time. (C) The
same results could be achieved by using two spark plugs.
Considering one engine operating at constant speed, the tendency
toward knock is directly related to either the chamber dimensions or
the location and number of spark plugs.
D. Compositions: The properties of the fuel and the fuel-air ratio

are the primary means for controlling knock, once the compression
ratio and engine dimensions are selected.
The probability of knock is decreased by,
i) Increasing the octane rating of the fuel.
ii) Either rich or lean mixture.
Fig. 6: Effect of fuel-air ratio

on the ignition delay of
isooctane (Taylor et al.,
1950).
iii) Increasing the humidity of the entering air.

iv) Stratifying the mixture so that the end gas is less reactive.
Knock rating of SI fuels

The knock rating of a gasoline is found by comparing the knock with
that of a blend of primary reference fuels (PRF).
These primary reference fuels are,
n-heptane, octane number (ON) = 0 C7H16
Iso-octane (2, 2, 4, trimethyl pentene), ON = 100 C8H18
Octane rating (OR) of X

Indicates that a test fuel will yield the same knock reading in a
standard engine under prescribed operating conditions as a solution
(by volume) of X parts of isooctane and Y (=100−X) parts of n-
heptane.
X+Y=100
Octane Number (ON) calculation
X parts iso-octane, Y parts n-heptane

X Y
ON = × (ONiso − octane ) + × (ON n − heptane )
100 100
X Y
= × 100 + ×0
100 100
=X
The scale is extended above 100 by adding tetraethyl lead (TEL) to
isooctane.
A test fuel is said to have an octane rating of 100 plus, for example,
1.2 mL TEL (per gallon isooctane).
Octane numbers above 100 can also be computed by
28.28T
ON(above100) = 100 +
1 + 0.736T + 1 + 1.42T − 0.035216T 2
T = mL TEL/gallon
ON
Methane 120 (RON) and (MON)
Propane 112 (RON) 97 (MON)
Gasoline 92 – 98 (RON) 80 – 90 (MON)
Methanol 106 (RON) 92 (MON)
Ethanol 107 (RON) 89 (MON)
Octane rating methods
i) Research method (ASTM D2699)
ii) Motor method (ASTM D2700)
Motor method: In this method, the engine operating conditions are
more severe, i.e., the conditions are more likely to produce knock.
Operating conditions for research and motor methods
Research method Motor method
o
Inlet temperature( C) 52 149
Inlet pressure Atmospheric
Humidity (kg/kg da) 0.0036 – 0.0072
o
Coolant temperature ( C) 100
Engine speed (rpm) 600 900
Spark advance (degree 13 19 – 26
BTC)
Air/fuel ratio Adjusted for maximum knock

CFR engine: Engine used for octane rating

CFR = The Cooperative Fuel Research Committee. Now,
Coordinating Research Council, Inc.
CFR Engine specification

Single cylinder engine
4 stroke overhead (I) valve engine
82.6 mm (3.25") bore
114.3 mm (4.4") stroke
Compression ratio = 3 – 30 (continuously variable)
Knockmeter
In the Motor and Research methods the rate of pressure change of
combustion and autoignition is picked up by the transducer. The
output is filtered and the cyclic signal integrated so that a constant
value can be shown on a voltmeter. The voltmeter is arbitrarily
graduated from 0 to 100 units of knocks and is therefore called the
knockmeter. p
TC time
dp
dt
dp
+
dt
TC
dp
− time
dt
Fuel sensitivity
The octane rating of a gasoline may have different values for different
tests. A fuel is sensitive if it has widely different octane ratings under
different test conditions and engines.
Sensivity = Research rating − Motor rating
Antiknock agents for gasoline

i) Tetraethyl lead (TEL), (C2H5)4Pb »»cheap
ii) Tetramethyl lead (TML), (CH3)4Pb
iii) Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT).
Combustion in the CIE

Fuel is injected at high velocity by the fuel-injection system in to the
engine cylinder toward the end of compression stroke. After injection
fuel atomizes into small drops and penetrates into the combustion
chamber. The fuel vaporizes and mixes with the high-temperature
high-pressure cylinder air. Since the air temperature is above the
fuel’s ignition point, spontaneous ignition of portions of the already
mixed fuel and air occurs after a delay period. The cylinder pressure
increases as combustion of the fuel-air mixture occurs. The
consequent compression of the unburned portion of the charge
shortens the delay before ignition for the fuel and air which has mixed
to within combustible limits, which then burns rapidly. Injection
continues until the desired amount of fuel has entered the cylinder.
Atomization, vaporization, fuel-air mixing, and combustion continue
until essentially all the fuel has passed through each processes.
Fuel jet disintegration
Fuel
nozzle
Core of jet
Spray envelope
Velocity
Depth of jet
Core of fuel
Jet disintegrates
Spray envelope of air and fuel particles
Spray envelope is created by,

i) Atomization and vaporization of the fuel and
ii) Turbulence of the air in the combustion chamber passing
across the jet and stripping the fuel particles from the core.
Delay period
• Physical delay
• Chemical delay
Physical delay: Time between the beginning of injection and the
attainment of chemical-reaction conditions. In this period, the fuel
is atomized, vaporized, mixed with air, and raised in temperature.
Chemical delay: In this period, reaction starts slowly and then
accelerates until inflammation or ignition takes place.
Physical delay + Chemical delay = Ignition delay

Ignition delay in SIE ≡ Chemical delay in CIE
Unburned mixture in CIE

Not homogeneous rather heterogeneous regions exist with
• Droplets of fuel alone
• Fuel vapor but not air
• Air alone
• Fuel-air mixture
Combustion period stages

1. Ignition delay.
2. Rapid pressure rise (probable premixed flame).
3. Controlled pressure rise (probable diffusion flame).
4. Burning on the expansion stroke.

In most CIE, Ignition Delay < duration of injection.

SIE vs. CIE
1. In the SIE, ignition occurs at one point, with consequent slow
rise in pressure.
In the CIE, ignition occurs at many points, with consequent
rapid rise in pressure.
2. In the SIE the flame front was mainly controlled by turbulence
created before the start of combustion (primary turbulence).
In the CIE primary turbulence assists the breaking up of the
fuel jet and continues on in intermixing the burned and
unburned portions of the mixture.
Nozzle
No air swirl
Nozzle
With air swirl
Knocking phenomena in CIE

In CIE the fuel is injected into hot air and combustion begins with
autoignition. Before autoignition the fuel has to pass through ignition
delay period. During the delay period a certain amount of fuel will be
injected and accumulated in the chamber. When these accumulated
fuel will autoignite together, a pressure will rise suddenly is called
knock.
Physical delay period influenced by,

1. The density and temperature of the air in the cylinder.
2. The atomization, penetration, and shape of the spray.

3. The properties of the fuel, such as volatility and viscosity, which

affect the spray characteristics.
4. The turbulence of the air, which promotes mixing.
Factors affecting knock in CIE

The knock in the CI engine can arise from the same factors as in the
SI engine plus the complications introduced by the
• Heterogeneous mixture
• Physical delay and
• Injection system
Audible knock is controlled primarily by the events at the very start

of combustion, where autoignition tends to be particularly violent
because of the accumulation of fuel in the combustion chamber
during the ignition-delay period.
To reduce knock in the CIE, the first elements of fuel and air should
have,
A. High temperature
B. High density
C. Short delay
D. Reactive mixture
A. Temperature
If initially formed mixture temperature decreases, knock increases in
CIE.
Initially formed mixture temperature decreases by,
1. Lowering the compression ratio
2. Lowering the inlet air temperature
3. Lowering the coolant temperature
4. Lowering the temperatures of the cylinder and combustion
chamber walls
(a)Decreasing the load
5. Advancing or retarding the start of injection from an optimum
position.

With the advance of the injection, fuel, air temperature decrease

because of more heat loss from more exposed area, but at the same
time turbulence increases.
With the retard of injection, fuel, air temperature increase because of
less heat loss from less available exposed area, but at the same time
turbulence decreases.
The shortest ignition delay is usually secured with injection beginning
appreciably before TDC (10 deg bTDC).
B. Density
If initially formed fuel-air mixture density decreases then ignition
delay increases, so knock increases.
Density of the initially formed mixture can be decreased by,
1. Decreasing the inlet air pressure
2. Decreasing the compression ratio
If the compression ratio decreases
the density of the mixture decreases
which results in less collision among molecules
So ignition delay increase
Knock increases
C. Time
If the amount of fuel in the initially formed mixture increases or
time required for forming a homogeneous mixture increases, the
knock will increase in CIE.
Time required for forming a homogeneous mixture will be increased
by,
1. Decreasing the turbulence of the compressed air.
2. Increasing the speed of the engine.

3. Decreasing the injection pressure.

4. Increasing the rate of injection.
2. In the most instances, the effect of increasing speed is to increase

knock. When speed increases, the rate of fuel injection also increased.
If the ignition delay of the fuel were to be constant, more than normal
amount of fuel would be injected during the delay period, and
therefore the initial pressure rise could be particularly violent.
But when speed increases, turbulence of the mixture increases, also
temperature of the mixture increases, which reduces the ignition
delay. So knock could be reduced with the increase of speed.
D. Composition
The probability of knock in the CIE is decreased by the following
factors,
1. Raising the cetane rating of the fuel (decreasing the chemical
delay).
2. Increasing the volatility of the fuel (decreasing the physical
delay).
3. Decreasing the viscosity of the fuel (promoting mixing and
therefore decreasing the physical delay).
Knock rating of CI fuels

The knock rating of a CI engine fuel is found by comparing the fuel
under prescribed conditions of operation in a special engine with
primary reference fuels.
These primary reference fuels are,
n-cetane, cetane number = 100 C16H34
Heptamethyl nonane, cetane number = 15
Cetane number calculation

X parts n-cetane, Y parts heptamethyl nonane
X Y
Cetane number = × (CN n - cetane ) + × (CN heptamethyl nonane )
100 100
X Y
= × 100 + × 15
100 100
= X + 0.15Y
Cetane rating of 66
A cetane rating of 66 indicates that a fuel has the same ignition delay
in a standard engine under definite operating conditions as a mixture,
by volume of 60 parts n-cetane and 40 parts heptamethyl nonane.
Cetane number = X + 0.15Y
= 60 + 0.15×40
= 66
X = 50, Y = 50
Cetane number = 50 + 0.15×50 = 57.5
X = 40, Y = 60
Cetane number = 40 + 0.15×60 = 49
Combustion chamber design of CIE

The basic functions of combustion chamber:
(a) To assist and supplement the injection system in the preparation
of cylinder charge for high power output.
(b) To obtain an efficient combustion of the charge for high
thermal efficiency.
(c) To result in smooth and noiseless operation of engine.
High power output requires:

i) Proper mixing of fuel and air particles.
ii) Small quantity of excess air and proper regulations of quantity
of fuel injected.
(iii) Fine atomization and even distribution of fuel.
(iv) Requisite compression turbulence.
(v) High compression ratio.
(vi) High charge density.
(vii) Complete utilization of fuel and air.
High thermal efficiency requires:

(i) Minimum heat loss during combustion.
(ii) Proper setting of injection timing.
(iii) Fine atomization and even distribution of fuel.
(iv) High inlet air temperature.

(v) Large engine size.
(vi) Low surface to volume ratio.
Smooth engine operation requires:

(i) Moderate rate of pressure rise.
(ii) Low r.p.m.
(iii) Short delay period.

Swirl
Swirl is the circular motion of the charge about the cylinder axis
imparted during the suction stroke or the scavenging period.
Rotational movement of air around the inside of the cylinder created
by introducing air inside the engine cylinder, through a port tangential
to the piston or forcing it to take a rotational movement by means of a
mask on the intake valve seat or a lip on the intake valve head.
Valve
seat
Lip Shrouded Masked
Valve
Mask
head
Squish
Squish is the flow of air from periphery to the center of the cylinder,
and is created towards the end of the compression stroke.
Bowl-in-piston
DI
Types of combustion chamber in CIE

1) Direct injection (DI) / Open combustion chamber.
2) Indirect injection (IDI) / Divided combustion chamber.
An open combustion chamber diesel engine has the entire

compression volume in one chamber formed between the piston and
head. The shape of the chamber helps or creates the swirl or
turbulence that is present to assist mixing of fuel and air or

combustion products and air.
Fig. 7: Common types of direct-injection CI combustion systems:

(a) Quiescent chamber with multihole nozzle typical of larger
engines; (b) bowl-in-piston chamber with swirl and multihole nozzle;
(c) bowl-in-piston chamber with swirl and single-hole nozzle (M
combustion chamber). (b) and (c) used in medium to small DI engine
size range. (Ref: Heywood).
A divided-combustion chamber has the entire compression volume
in two (or three) distinct chambers, each separated by a restricting
(throttling) passageway. Here the volume between piston and cylinder
is called main chamber and other volume is called antechamber or
prechamber. The fuel is injected into the prechamber which is
connected to the main chamber via a nozzle, or one or more orifices.
Primary swirl and primary turbulence are induced before

combustion on the inlet and compression strokes by the flow
geometries of the inlet passageways and the chamber.
Secondary swirl and secondary turbulence arise from the

combustion process and are directed by the flow geometry of the
combustion chamber and containing walls.

Direct injection/open combustion chamber systems

In the largest-size engines, where mixing rate requirements are least
stringent, quiescent DI systems (Fig. 7a) are used. The momentum
and energy of the injected fuel jets are sufficient to achieve adequate
fuel distribution and rates of mixing with the air. Additional organized
air motion is not required. The combustion chamber shape is usually a
shallow bowl in the crown of the piston, and a central multihole
injector is used.
As engine size decreases, increasing amounts of air swirl are used to
achieve faster fuel-air mixing rates. The swirl rate can be increased as
the piston approaches TC by forcing the air toward the cylinder axis,
into a bowl-in-piston type of combustion chamber (Fig. 7b, 7c).
Fig. 7b: Medium-size diesels, 10 – 15 cm bore.
Fig. 7c: Small-size diesels, 8 – 10 cm bore.
Divided combustion chamber/indirect injection systems

In small high-speed diesel engines, inlet generated air swirl, despite
amplification in the piston cup does not provide sufficiently high fuel-
air mixing rates. In that case indirect-injection or divided-combustion
chamber engine systems are used, where the vigorous charge motion
required during fuel injection is generated during the compression
stroke. Fuel is injected into the prechamber at lower injection
pressure. Combustion starts in the prechamber. The pressure rise
associated with combustion, forces fluid back into the main chamber
where the jet issuing from the nozzle entrains and mixes with the
main chamber air.
Size Largest Medium Smallest

Direct injection Direct injection Indirect injection
Requirements
No swirl Swirl

Types of divided combustion chamber

• Swirl or turbulent chamber
• Precombustion chamber
• Air-cell
• Energy-cell
Swirl or turbulent chamber

High primary swirl in a large prechamber is created to break up the
fuel spray and initiate combustion, while forming essentially a
homogeneous mixture. Since prechamber is connected to the main
chamber by a restricted passageway, the shock of autoignition is
confined within the swirl chamber to some degree. The spherically
shaped swirl chamber contains about 50% of the clearance volume
and is connected to the main chamber by a tangential throat.
A Nozzle
A C
Fig. 8: Ricardo swirl chamber (Ricardo, 1953).

Precombustion chamber
A small prechamber to initiate combustion and to create a high
secondary turbulence (or secondary swirl) for mixing and burning the
major part of the fuel and air is called a precombustion chamber. The
prechamber is connected to the main chamber by a passageway which
is more restricted than that in a swirl-chamber to increase secondary
turbulence and to imprison the initial shock of combustion within the
prechamber. Precombustion chamber contain about 20-30% of the

clearance volume with one or more outlets leading to the main

chamber.
Air cell
A small antechamber to supply air and secondary turbulence to finish
the combustion process is called an air cell. The antechamber or air
cell contains around 15% of the clearance volume with a very
restricted orifice leading to the main chamber. Initial combustion
corresponds to that in an open chamber. The rise in pressure with

combustion in the main chamber forces additional air (and particles of
fuel or vapor) into the air cell. Later in the expansion stroke, when the
pressure in the main chamber falls below that in the air cell, the air

cell starts to discharge and so creates a light secondary turbulence.

This helps in some small degree, to complete the combustion process.
Energy cell
A hybrid of precombustion chamber and air-cell. It contains about 10-
15% of the compressed volume in two cells, major and minor, which
are separated from each other and from the main chamber by
restrictive orifices. The main chamber has either a single- or double-
lobe above the piston, and the piston may have a wedge shape. On the
compression stroke, air is flowing into the energy cell at the time of
Fig. 9: Energy cell. (Ref: Paul Dempsey).

injection. The pintle nozzle delivers a small angle (8 degree) spray

with the main body of the spray entering or being caught in the
funnel-shaped opening into the minor cell. The fringe of fuel about
the spray starts to burn in the main chamber before the compression
stroke is over with consequent rise in pressure. The pressure rise, plus
the momentum of the injected fuel, carries most of the liquid spray
into both the major and minor cells. At about TDC the fuel in the
minor cell ignites, either from the flame in the main chamber or by
autoigniting. The explosion expels burning gases and liquid fuel into
the main chamber, with the outflow picking up the last remnants of
spray from the nozzle. A very strong swirl is set up by the contour of
the chamber. With fall in pressure of the minor cell, the major cell
also discharges with the outflow scavenging the minor cell, and
entering the main chamber to renew the swirl and to complete the
combustion.
Combustion chambers for SIEs

The design of the combustion chamber for an SIE has an important
influence on the engine performance and its knocking tendencies. The
design involves the shape of the combustion chamber, the location of
spark plug and the location of inlet and exhaust valves.
The requirements of an SIE combustion chamber are to provide
• High power output with minimum octane requirement.
• High thermal efficiency
• Smooth engine operation
High power output and high thermal efficiency
• A high degree of turbulence is needed to achieve a high flame
front velocity.
• High volumetric efficiency, i.e., more charge during the suction
stroke, results in an increased power output.

• Any design of the combustion chamber that improves its

antiknock characteristics permits the use of a higher
compression ratio resulting in increased output and efficiency.
• A compact combustion chamber reduces heat loss during
combustion and increases the thermal efficiency.
T-head type
(a) The distance across the combustion chamber is very long.
Knocking tendency is high in this type of engines. Requires two
camshafts.
L-head type
Two valves are provided on the same side of the cylinder and the
valves are operated by a single camshaft. The cross-section of an L-
head engine resembles the letter “L” written upside down and engines
with this type of combustion chamber are also called side-valve
engines. All valves, cams, valve lifters and all other moving parts are
part of cylinder block assembly.
(b) The air flow has to take two right angle turns to enter the cylinder.
* Loss of velocity head and a loss in turbulence ⇒ slow combustion
process.
(c) Turbulent head design provides fast flame speed and reduced
knock. The main body of the combustion chamber is concentrated
over the valves leaving a slightly restricted passage communicating
with the cylinder thereby creating additional turbulence during the
compression stroke.
⇒ Reduced knock.
I-head type (over head valve)
(d) Both valves are located on the cylinder head.
• Less surface to volume ratio and therefore less heat loss.
• Less flame travel length and hence greater freedom from knock.

• Higher volumetric efficiency from larger valves or valve lifts.

• Confinement of thermal failures to cylinder head by keeping the
hot exhaust valve in the head instead of the cylinder block.
F-head type
Compromise between L-head and I-head types. Combustion chambers
in which one valve is in the cylinder head and the other in the cylinder
block are known as F-head combustion chambers. Modern F-head
engines have exhaust valve in the head and inlet valve in the cylinder
block. Requires two camshafts.
Smooth Engine Operation

Moderate rate of pressure rise: The rate of pressure rise can be
regulated such that the greatest force applied to the piston as closely
after TDC on the power stroke as possible, with a gradual decrease in
the force on the piston during the power stroke.

Reducing the possibility of knocking:

• Reducing the distance of the flame travel by centrally locating
the spark plug and also by avoiding pockets of stagnant charge.
• Satisfactory cooling of the spark plug and exhaust valve area
which are the source of hot spots in the majority of the
combustion chambers.
• Reducing the temperature of the last portion of the charge,
through application of a high surface to volume ratio in that part
where the last portion of the charge burns. Heat transfer to the
combustion chamber walls can be increased by using high
surface to volume ratio thereby reducing the temperature.
References
Heywood, John B., Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, 1988, McGraw-Hill Book
Com., Singapore.
Obert, Edward F., Internal Combustion Engines, 1970, International Textbook Company,
Pennsylvania.
-----

Exhaust valve temperature ≈ 600oC

Normal combustion rarely occurs in real engine without some trace of autoignition.
In normal combustion the flame speed ≈ 60 m/s.
Octane ratings of gasoline
Natural = 72 − 82
Straight-run = 58 − 70
Catalytically cracked = 87 − 93
Catalytically reformed = 83 − 98
Fuel pressure in injector = 100 − 2000 bar
Air temperature after compression, CIE ≈ 600 − 700oC, 40 bar
SIE ≈ 250 − 300oC

Mean piston speed (2LN) = 8 – 15 m/s (p. 32, K K Ramalingam)




ME411 (CombustionKnock) (310816) 2

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 1

Reaction Rates and Flame Propagation

In many special cases, rab = K ab C a C b

K = rate constant/ specific rate constant/ reaction velocity constant (or

ΔE* = activation energy, kcal/kmol; constant for reaction

AT 300 k, e − ΔE /R T = e−50 = 1.9 x 10−22

Applied Thermodynamics (Combustion and Knock) Dr. Bodius Salam

Propagation of flame in one dimensional steady flow (laminar)

Fig. 1: One-dimensional flame from propagating into laminar steady-

Vs = flame velocity, the absolute velocity of the flame front normal to

Applied Thermodynamics (Combustion and Knock) Dr. Bodius Salam

Autoignition and chemical reaction

ii) If the density is high, the number of collisions is large and

Fig. 2: Ignition delay and the self-ignition temperature (Ref: Internal

Preflame reaction occurs in the induction period to condition the

the induction/ignition delay period and serves to catalyze the entire

Autoignition/self-ignition of a perfectly homogeneous mixture of

Consider a definite and homogeneous mixture of air and fuel:

» Self ignition temperature increases, ignition delay decreases.

Autoignition above the surface, no auto-ignition below the surface.

Applied Thermodynamics (Combustion and Knock) Dr. Bodius Salam

Knock in the SIE

Normal combustion: A combustion process which is initiated solely

Surface ignition: Ignition of the mixture by a hot spot on the

Preignition: surface ignition occurring before the spark.

Postignition: surface ignition occurring after the spark.

Abnormal combustion: combustion with surface ignition or

Knocking mechanism (SIE)

Applied Thermodynamics (Combustion and Knock) Dr. Bodius Salam

ii) The rate of pressure rise is opposed by the rate of

Explosive autoignition: The rate of chemical reaction is greater than

Nonexplosive autoignition: The rate of expansion is greater than the

Fig. 4: Schematic of flame in the SIE cylinder during combustion.

Applied Thermodynamics (Combustion and Knock) Dr. Bodius Salam

Fig. 5: Cylinder pressure versus crank angle. (Ref: Heywood).

Normal combustion Knock

Two types of vibration during autoignition

Applied Thermodynamics (Combustion and Knock) Dr. Bodius Salam

Factors affecting knock in SIE

B. Density factors: Increasing of the density of the unburned

iv) Raising the compression ratio

C. Time factors: Increase of the time of exposure of the unburned

D. Compositions: The properties of the fuel and the fuel-air ratio

Fig. 6: Effect of fuel-air ratio

iii) Increasing the humidity of the entering air.

Knock rating of SI fuels

Octane rating (OR) of X

Applied Thermodynamics (Combustion and Knock) Dr. Bodius Salam

Applied Thermodynamics (Combustion and Knock) Dr. Bodius Salam

CFR engine: Engine used for octane rating

CFR Engine specification

Antiknock agents for gasoline

Combustion in the CIE

Fuel jet disintegration

Spray envelope of air and fuel particles

Spray envelope is created by,

Physical delay + Chemical delay = Ignition delay

Unburned mixture in CIE

Combustion period stages

Applied Thermodynamics (Combustion and Knock) Dr. Bodius Salam

In most CIE, Ignition Delay < duration of injection.

With air swirl

Knocking phenomena in CIE