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Production Logging: Exxon Production Research Co
Production Logging: Exxon Production Research Co
SPE
Society of Petroleum Engineers
Production Logging
*Member SPE-AIME
563
2 PRODUCTION LOGGING SPE 10035
Specifically, we will discuss temperature, The flow is therefore associated with perforations
noise, cement bond and radioactive tracer surveys that have earlier been closed by "squeeze cementing"
along with flowmeter, fluid density, and fluid to eliminate water production. These perforations
capacitance surveys. These are the surveys most are now leaking. For larger diameter pipe, the
widely used for problem diagnosis. Most of these record from a small diameter collar locator may be of
have been the subject of earlier production logging such poor quali.ty that a separate run with a nuclear
discussions, Refs. (4) and (5), which the present logging tool is necessary. The logging cable can
paper hopes to update. then be marked at selected depths for subsequent
runs.
With the increasing value of oil and gas, those
logs that assist in the economic production of a In what follows, any necessary depth corrections
reservoir are becoming equally important. These are on logs will be made without further elaboration.
the cased hole nuclear logging devices that are The remaining discussion is divided into two major
useful in monitoring fluid contacts for the reservoir classes - those devices which are useful in detecting
engineer and in locating new completion zones for the flow behind the pipe containing the logging tool and
workover engineer. Details of these logs would those useful for the detection of flow within the
lengthen the paper considerably. There is already an pipe.
extensive literature on these devices, Refs. (6),
(7), and (8), for example. Consequently, they are Behind Pipe Flow: Temperature, Noise, Radio-
discussed only peripherally in this paper. active Tracer, and Cement Bond Surveys. Of the
commercial devices, only the temperature and noise
Another very important aspect of production surveys are capable of giving positive indications of
logging is depth control. This will be discussed at behind pipe flow in those situations where there is
this point and then assumed to be a part of all the no fluid connection with the outside environment.
other logs in the remainder of the paper. A new well These are complementary surveys that can be obtained
is usually completed from a perforation depth control with one logging run. The temperature log is
log, a PDC log, which is a cased hole nuclear log, obtained going into the well to prevent vertical
such as a gamma ray or neutron log plus a collar log. mixing of wellbore fluid, while the noise log is
The nuclear log is correlated to a similar log run obtained coming out.
before casing the well. In this manner, the collar
depths are tied to the depth scale on the original Temperature Surveys - Although temperature
open hole logs. The collars on this PDC log then surveys in a wellbore are the oldest production
serve as the depth reference for all subsequent logging techniques, Refs. (1) and (9), they remain
production logs, each of which should have its own exceedingly useful for problem well diagnosis. A
collar survey. Figure 1a shows that a collar locator temperature log indicates the presence of flow by
section consists of a coil of wire, with many turns, causing a departure of the borehole fluid temperature
placed between two cylindrical magnets whose poles from its static or geothermal value. Under static
are reversed. As the locator is pulled past a collar conditions, temperature increases gradually with
joining two sections of pipe, the increase in metal depth. Although quite variable with location, a
thickness distorts the magnetic fields cutting the geothermal gradient of 0.017 °F/ft is "typical" of
coil. This induces opposite polarity voltages in the sand-shale sequences. While the local gradient may
coil as each end passes through the collar. These not be known with great accuracy, an estimate is
voltages are recorded as Ittic lt marks at the surface. usually sufficient.
Such collar records are absolutely essential when
logging deviated wells, where repeated reversals in The type of disturbance that a particular flow
the direction of cable travel are necessary to work situation produces, relative to geothermal tem-
the logging sonde into the well, or when repeated perature, can be classed as one of three cases: an
passes are to be taken. Although the counter wheels injection gradient, a production gradient, or a
on modern production logging units are accurate to circulation gradient. Each flow situation produces
about 5 feet out of 5000 feet, any reversal of the type of temperature profile illustrated schema-
logging direction causes slippage between the cable tically in . 2. Injected fluid is usually cooler
and counter wheel. For the two situations mentioned, than ,rh~rm~l temperature at some depth, such as A
cumulative errors of 20 feet or more is not uncommon. in Fig. 2a. Below this depth, the flow cools the
Furthermore, even 5 feet may be too much error in a wellbore below geothermal to the deepest point of
particular situation. Fig. 1b shows a collar record injection, the perforated zone C in the figure.
recorded on both the run into and the run out of a Below this depth, the temperature returns to geo-
well completed with 2-7/8" pipe. A 3-foot "pup" therm~l by vertical conduction which gives a
joint appears at 6018-21 feet depth as a reference profile that is concave toward geothermal. Once the
mark. On the run out, this joint appears about injection is stopped, those portions of the borehole
three feet too high. A noise log, which is discussed not coincident with injection zones will return to
in detail later, appears on Fig. Ie. This log was geothermal fairly rapidly, leaving a cold anomaly at
taken coming out of the hole and shows flow at a an injection zone, location C on Fig. 2a. If the
liquid level at 7004 feet. A four foot shift upward injection has continued for several days, then the
would place this level at the bottom of existing injection cold anomaly will appear to "grow" in size
perforations. Since this is a gas well, this is the on sequential shut-in logs as the rest of the bore-
depth at which the liquid level should be located. hole returns to geothermal. The behavior of the cold
However, from the collar record, Ib, the depth at the spot at B in Fig. 2a shows sustained injection at
level should be shifted downward about three feet. this location as well. This is the way in which an
injection problem shows up. If gas is injected,
564
SPE 10035 R. M. McKinley 3
then some expansion cooling may occur whenever the A recent evolution of the thermometer which will
gas pressure drops, such as at the injection zone C help in determining the flow path is the radial
of Fig. 2a. differential thermometer (RDT). In addition to the
section shown on Fig. 3, the RDT device has a section
1f a well is on production, then the flow heats which can be anchored by bow springs at a given
the borehole above the point of fluid entry, zone A depth. Two arms containing the temperature sensing
on Fig. 2b. Once the production ceases, the borehole elements are then extended to contact the casing
will return to geothermal from the hot side. wall. The difference in the output of these sensors
Figure 2b shows that flow continues at a lower rate is then recorded as they are rotated around the
up to depth B after the well is shut-in. Gas pro- circumference of the casing. If this device were
duction can show cooling at the productive zone, due anchored about 10 feet below the perforations in the
to its expansion, as indicated on Fig. 2b. Finally, example of Fig. 4, it should show one side of the
a circulation profile is shown on Fig. 2c. The two pipe preferentially cooler if the injected water is
previous profiles have been either parallel to or flowing in a channel behind pipe. A most promising
concave towards the geothermal gradient; however, feature of this device is its potential to orient a
the ci~culation profile is concave away in the perforating gun to shoot into the channel. A proto-
cooled portions of the wellbore. type of this thermometer has been demonstrated for
field use, Ref. (10), and it is ~Ull11UCLLi avail-
Before actual logs are illustrated, a brief able on a limited scale.
description of how a moderrr, surface recording
thermometer operates is given. A sketch in Other logging devices that would be useful for
Fig. 3 shows that the resistive sensing element, determining the flow path are the radioactive tracer
usually a wire coil, is in a cage at the bottom of and the noise logging tools. These are discussed
the device. The element is part of either a bridge later.
circuit or a constant current circuit such that a
voltage proportional to temperature can operate a Considerable effort has also gone into making
voltage controlled oscillator that transmits a quantitative rate determinations (injection profiles)
frequency modulated Signal (FM signal) to the from temperature logs such as those of Fig. 4. That
surface. This eliminates the attenuation influence this is very difficult for the shut-in anomalies is
of varying cable lengths. At the surface, the FM well illustrated by the model study of Ref. (11). It
signal is reconverted to a voltage for recording as a is much easier to relate the rate to displacement of
temperature. A continuous record of temperature is the flowing curve from geothermal, Refs. (9) and
obtained as the device is run into the well at (12). The last reference summarizes the details of
logging speeds of 20-30 feet per minute. This record rate estimation excellently.
is called a "gradient" curve. Some form of amplifi-
cation is usually available on either the temperature The next example illustrates a typical produc-
or its rate of change (differential curve). The tion profile. The temperature log in Fig. 5 was run
absolute accuracy of the device is usually only about after a flowing oil well had been shut in for
±5°F due to a combination of logging speed and 24 hours. This particular well had pressure on both
infrequent calibration. The resolution is, however, the 2-3/8" - 5-1/2" annulus and the 5-1/2" - 9-5/8"
quite good. Changes of the order of O.l°F are easily annulus. The log shows a return to geothermal tem-
detectable. The customary depth scale of either one perature only over the top 400 feet. Below this
inch or five inches of log per 100 feet of depth is depth, there is a large crossflow originating at the
not all that satisfactory. From such a long strip of perforations; there is an underground blowout in
paper, it is difficult to recognize the subtle trends progress. Several features of the log are worth
indicated on Fig. 2. Consequently, the depth scale exam1n1ng. Above depth A, the CUrve shifts slightly
is greatly reduced on the examples that follow. The to lower temperatures. This can be looked upon as a
diameter of these type of thermometers range from "shielding" effect that the tubing provides for the
7/B-inch to 1-11/16-inches. thermometer once the flow shifts from inside to out-
side the tubing as illustrated in Fig. 5. Actually,
Our Fig. 4 shows a sequence of temperature logs the shift occurs because the thermometer, traveling
run to determine the source of water in a gas well. downward, does not equilibrate with its surroundings
A total of 200 barrels of field salt water was as rapidly in stagnant fluid as it does in moving
injected into the well at a rate of about 600 BPD. fluid. Proceeding up the hole, we see that the
On the log obtained while injecting, the temperature production profile is altered above depth B. Yet the
begins its "conductive" return to geothermal tem- temperature does not begin a conductive type decay
perature just below the perforations. There is a until above 600 feet, depth C on the figure. These
slight disruption in this return about 20 feet below observations suggest the indicated circulation
the perforations at depth A on Fig. 4. The shut-in between 1000 and 600 feet. Above 600 feet, the
curves after 1 and 2 hours show that a small amount temperature log shows some "anomalies" due to
of injection has occurred at this depth. Since there lithology.
is a water sand here, this is the most likely source
of water during production. The effect of injection Lithology can have a pronounced effect on a
at A has practically disappeared from the 17-hr temperature log. In Table 1, various earth materials
shut-in log. This is a good illustration of the and fluids are listed in Column A according to
sequential or "time-lapse" logging procedure where decreasing thermal conductivity, k. This will also
time is obviously critical to successful interpre- be the order of increasing static geothermal
tation. Note also that the logs do not give the path gradient. Groups of materials have similar con-
taken by the water in reaching depth A. The flow may ductivities. Gpnpr~ll , an increasing water content
leave through a casing hole at this depth or travel accounts for the decreasing conductivities. The
behind pipe from the perforations. dramatic difference between the static in
565
4 PRODUCTION LOGGING SPE 10035
shale and salt is illustrated in Fig. 6a for a well may continue to show temperature anomalies for years
drilled into a salt dome. The large heat flux after injection has ceased.
upward through the salt causes a high gradient in
the poorer conducting shales above. Figure 6b Finally, a standing liquid level produces a
shows that a shale-sand sequence also produces a shift similar to that illustrated at depth A in
non-linear gradient, which in fact somewhat Fig. 5 as the thermometer enters liquid from gas.
resembles an injection flow profile.
Our next example illustrates lithological
Most wells, however, are not at static condi- influences. Fig. 8a shows injection logs run 3
tions when first logged. Lithology also plays a weeks after a massive hydraulic fracturing treatment
role in the manner in which temperature returns to on the perforated interval indicated on the figure.
geothermal. The larger the thermal diffusivity Before injection, the log on the right, labeled as
k ' 3 weeks, was obtained. It shows a residual from
pc- , whe:e p is the density and c the heat
fracturing that indicates fluid injection or fluid
p capaclty, the more rapid is th~ return to geo-
thermal temperature. In column B of Table 1 redistribution over the entire interval. After this
materials are listed in order of decreasing ~hermal log, 240 barrels of water was injected over a one-
diffusivity, which is the same as the order of hour period at 4 bbl/min rate. The profile during
increasing lag time to get back to geothermal. While injection is the leftmost curve on Fig. 8a. It
a well is flowing, convective heat transfer produces shows that the shallowest injection point is at the
a profile nearly free of lithological detail. When top of the perforations. A second major injection
the flow is stopped, those portions of the wellbore is at a depth of about 9160 feet. The 1-hr shut-in
traversing high thermal diffusivity beds change is already beginning to show lithological influence
toward geothermal temperture most rapidly. The in the sand-shale sequence above the perforations.
lithological detail due to this radial heat flow The anomalies at 8750 and 8840 feet appear as
grows during the early stages of shut-in. This growing "cold" spots during the first 6 hours and
creates high vertical temperature gradients which then begin to be subdued at later times. These
oppose the radial heat flow. Consequently, the spots are at depths where the gamma ray log shows
lithological distortions die out with increased shales between massive sands. According to column B
shut-in times. This is illustrated in Fig. 7a in Table 1, shales should not return to geothermal
which shows a 6-hr shut-in log dominated by temperature as rapidly as do sands. This accounts
lithology and a 24-hr shut-in log on which the for the "cold" spots. By contrast, the injection
lithology effects are much more subdued. The anomalies at 9000 and 9160 feet continue to "grow"
"cold" spikes are water sands that can be correlated at least during the first 12 hours of shut-in.
with a self potential or gamma ray log. Had this These logs were run to determine if any flow behind
been an injection well, the "anomolies" would reverse. pipe was going into the sands above the perfora-
Water sands would show up as "hot" spikes. tions. There is no indication of such flow. The
temperature logs immediately after are
The nature of the well completion also also interesting. Two of these are shown on 8b
influences the manner in which temperature returns where we see the same cold injection interval
to its geothermal value. Fig. 7b is a montage of between 9100 and 9200 feet that appears on Fig. 8a.
illustrations from Ref. (13). After circulation is By contrast, the 9000-ft injection zone at the top
stopped, the hole enlargement at depth A looks like of the perforations is showing up as a "hot" spot.
an injection zone with the exception that the One would tend to say that no injection occurred
anomaly will first grow and then die out as shut-in here. However, this behavior has been observed
~ime increases. The cemented casing, starting at B, before, Ref. (14), where it was speculated to be the
lnsulates the formation and prevents its cooling as result of flow from one wing of the fracture through
far away from the well as does the open hole. On the wellbore into the second wing as earth stresses
shut-in, the insulated portion therefore returns to redistribute after fracturing. This flow, originat-
geothermal faster than the part below the casing. ing away from the wellbore, would be warmer.
The same insulating effect is provided by the wash-
out at C which is filled with cement. The direction As a final example of some of the subtle
of these shielding anomalies assume that the well- features of temperature logs, there appears on
bore fluid temperature equalizes over the cross Fig. 9 a sequence of logs run on a new gas well that
section more rapidly than in the formation. This was drilled as an infill well in an old gas field.
may not be the case either for very short shut-in The log of Fig. 9a was run 20 days after the well
times or for short flow periods. Referring back to was cased to 5800 feet with 5-1/2" casing. Con-
Fig. 4, we see that the shielding effect of the sequently, the temperature should be near geothermal
tubing on the I-hr shut-in curve is the reverse of values. There are two features to the log: a
that shown in Fig. 7b at depth B. Initially, the "cold" anomaly at 5475 feet, and a "cold" interval
tubing-annulus insulation slows the transfer of heat from 5560 to 5675 feet. The latter behavior in the
to the fluid inside the tubing relative to that in 5500-5700 foot interval resembles the lithology
the casing below. By 2 hours shut-in this reverse pattern of a shale-sand sequence as illustrated in
shielding anomaly has disappeared, while on the Fig. 6b, and is probably not indicative of cross-
17-hr profile the anomaly is in the proper direction flow between sands Band C. The "cold spike" at
as shown on Fig. 7b. For very short flow periods, 5475, however, is not characteristic of a static
the anomaly may remain reversed as it appears on the geothermal profile, being instead suggestive of gas
1-hr profile of Fig. 4. In any case, the transient expansion cooling. This, in turn, suggests gas flow
distortions due to either lithology or completion from the higher pressured A-sand past a constriction
first grow and then die out on sequentially run at 5475 to the lower pressured M-sands. This is,
temperature logs. This contrasts to long-time flow however, undesirable since gas is being injected
anomalies which continue to grow. In fact, zones
566
SPE 10035 R. M. McKinley 5
into the A-sand for pressure maintenance. The size in noise level above ambient throughout the cross-
of the "cold spot," : : 1°F, is related to the size flow interval, A-C in the figure. Second, the
of the pressure drop at that location rather than record will show peak noise levels at those depths
to the amount of flow. For methane, the adiabatic where the fluid accelerates. This may occur at
(Joule-Thompson) cooling coefficient is typically fluid sources, sinks, or at constrictions to flow.
one Fahrenheit degree per 40 psi pressure drop. Hence, the log's character reveals information about
Actually there is at least a 200-psi pressure dif- the flow path. Finally, on either side of a peak,
ference between the A-sand and the M-sands. The there is a conductive carry-away of sound. In
flow is not adiabatic and is, in fact, at a low contrast to the temperature log, several thousand
rate. This low rate is evident from the fact that feet may be required for the lower frequency curves
the cooling is not carried downstream from 5475 to reach ambient noise level which is usually in
toward the M-sands. Figure 9b shows the two higher the range 0.1 - 4 millivolts. Because of the
frequency measurements on a noise log from this randomly changing phases, this carry-away can hide
well. This log, discussed more fully in the next smaller peaks on the record. For example, any
section, also shows crossflow in the 5400-5500 foot peak in the interval between depths A and B on
interval, but does not indicate any flow between Fig. lOb would need an amplitude exceeding the
the B- and C-sands below 5550 feet. The well was carry-away amplitude at the peak location if it
then perforated and flowed for 28 hours for clean is to be detected by the survey.
up. Subsequent shut-in temperature logs are shown
on Fig. 9c. These logs show that all the gas Four readings are taken at each stop to iden-
production came from the completed interval. The tify the frequency character of the sound source.
growth of the small flow anomaly at 5475 feet depth This, in turn, helps identify the type of leak. If
is evident. the flow in the confined environment behind pipe
consists of a single phase (gas or liquid) or a
The above examples illustrate the various mixture of liquids, then the turbulence generated by
factors that influence a temperature survey. How- the accelerating flow will have a relatively high
ever, a temperature log alone seldom gives enough frequency, 1000 Hz or above. The individual filter
information to completely diagnose a particular readings at the peak will be close together, at
problem. Therefore, it is prudent to run the tool least through the 1000-Hz cut, as illustrated in
in combination with other devices such as the noise Fig. 10c. If the flow consists, however, of gas
log discussed next. having to bubble or head through liquid, all the
peak readings will spread out as in Fig. lad. In
Borehole Sound Surveys - The detection of fact, the difference in amplitudes between the
sound generated by the turbulence associated with 200-and 600-Hz readings will generally exceed the
behind-pipe flow was described early in the history amplitude of the 1000-Hz This type of flow
of production logging, Ref. (15). A more complete generates considerable sound in the 200-Hz range.
discussion appeared in 1973, Ref. (16), shortly For a given flow rate, the amplitude is much greater
after which the service became available commer- than for single-phase flow. These concepts are
cially, Ref. (17). Specialized applications are illustrated by the following examples which discuss
described in Ref. (18). The logging device is a the combination temperature-noise survey.
hydrophone which is positioned at a particular
depth to record the sound level in the wellbore at Figure lla shows a temperature log run in the
that depth. Commercial tools range in diameter drill pipe of a well shut in after a pressure surge
from 1 inch to 1-11/16 inches, and are capable of (kick) occurred at the surface six hours earlier.
re~glving pressu~e oscillations as small as The log shows a crossflow from the greatest depth
10 psi in amplitude, Ref. (16). As indicated on reached up to 15,600 feet. The log, however, does
Fig. lOa, the device transmits an amplitude not tell how the flow gets to the shallower depth.
modulated voltage to the surface where it is passed The flow may take place inside the casing to a split
through a sequence of high-pass filters that span at 15,600 feet. Alternately, the flow may be behind
the frequency range from 200 Hz to 2000 Hz. Two the casing if the pressure surge destroyed the
optional filters at 4000 and 6000 Hz are also cement bonding. The remedial action required is
available. As discussed in Ref. (16), the audible different in the two cases. The noise log,
frequencies will usually be most sensitive to fluid Fig. lIb, helps decide the issue. The number of
turbulence generated behind pipe. At each stop, at peaks, starting at the casing shoe, on the log
least four readings are taken to give four curves indicates a very torturous flow path, i.e., a flow
of noise amplitude versus depth on the completed behind pipe to the 15,600-foot sink sand. Further-
log. The way each of these curves should look is more, the crowding together of the three lowest
illustrated in Fig. lab for the hypothetical frequency curves shows a single-phase type of flow.
situation shown. Fluid accelerating from the Since the well contained drilling mud, this single
source sand at depth A produces a peak in the noise phase requirement eliminates gas as a source fluid
record whose amplitude is proportional to the cube for the underground blowout. Note from Fig. lIb
of the velocity, Ref. (18), at that point. A that ambient or dead well noise levels are reached
second peak in the record appears at depth B where only above 13,000 feet which is some 2600 feet above
the fluid accelerates past a tight spot in the the sink sand. Also note that the highest frequency
cement. The peak amplitude will again reflect curve, the 2000-Hz curve, attenuates most rapidly to
localized velocity at depth B. If the fluid speeds ambient level. Consequently, the optional 4000-Hz
up to leave the channel at depth C, a third peak and 6000-Hz measurements can often be used for
will appear on the sound record at that depth. better vertical resolution.
Three points are illustrated in Fig. lOb. First,
the velocity of most leaks behind pipes will be
sufficiently large that there will be an increase
567
6 PRODUCTION LOGGING SPE 10035
The noise log of Fig. 12 should be contrasted Rates estimated from noise logs in the above fashion
with that of Fig. lIb. The Fig. 12 log also shows are crude, but can be satisfactory in deciding the
crossflow from 4800 feet to the 800-1000 foot level. seriousness of a particular problem.
However, the lack of peaks other than statistical
in the intervening interval means that the flow is Extraneous sOUrces of sound are the greatest
inside pipe or above cement tops outside pipe. impediment to noise log quality control. These
According to the well completion sketch, the flow is extraneous SOurces may be surface equipment noise or
apparently entering the 9-5/8"-7" annulus at inadvertant flow past the sonde or continued move-
4800 feet. ment of the logging tool during measurement, as, for
example, happens when logging in heavy mud or from
A noise log is particularly useful in detecting floating vessels. Fig. 14a shows a noise log run
small gas leaks into liquid. This is illustrated by from a floating drill ship. The combined motion of
the logs on Fig. 13 from a well that developed the ship and the telescoping of the pipe sections
annulus gas pressure before completion. Fig. 13a attached to the ship have created a high noise level
shows a temperature log obtained while venting about throughout the section of free pipe above the cement
50,000 scf/D of gas from the 13-3/8"-20" annulus. top at 5200 feet. Even below this depth, the noise
This log is dominated by the heat generated by levels are high and erratic. As a second example,
curing cement as evidenced by the hot interval from Fig. 14b is a noise log obtained from a supposedly
the bottom of the 20" casing at 560 feet to the shut-in oil well. There is actually a leak at the
cement top in the annulus at about 170 feet. The wellhead which allows a small flow of gas through
gas source is not evident on the log. By contrast, liquid originating at the perforations below 5550
the noise log of Fig. 13b shows a gas entry into feet. This flow does not create much of a problem
liquid at 2450 feet. This is the deepest gas source. until it enters the smaller diameter tubing. Here,
There is flow upward behind pipe from this depth. the clearance between the pipe wall and the sonde is
It is not possible to determine from the log whether so small that the flow velocity becomes significant.
the large peak at 1400 feet is an additional gas The problem becomes worse at shallow depths where
source, a constriction, or a water sand being additional gas evolution occurs.
charged by gas. In any case,the deepest source
should be eliminated first. This well was per- Another aspect of the noise log should also be
forated at 2100 feet after which cement was pumped illustrated. If flow is occurring, then a standing
behind the 13-3/8" pipe and allowed to set. The liquid level will show up dramatically on a noise
well annulus would still flow gas but at a greatly log since sound attenuation away from a source in a
reduced rate. A second noise log, Fig. 13c, shows liquid is much less than in a gas. The log on an
that this gas source is in the vicinity of 1500 feet. earlier figure, Fig. lc, shows a liquid level at
It is most likely the sand at 1400 feet in the log about 7005 feet depth. Because of the better sound
of Fig. 13b. A charged water sand is now discharging. transmission away from the source at 7005 feet, the
The pressure drop associated with charging inter- part of the borehole below the liquid level is much
mediate sands can cause shut-in gas pressure at the noisier than is a comparable section above the level.
surface to be a deceptive indicator of the depth of Also, the character of the noise below the liquid
a gas source. level is not due to flow behind pipe at these depths,
but results from variations in the source strength at
Flow rates within a factor of two to three can 7005 feet.
be estimated from peak noise levels. Details appear
in Refs. (16) and (18). Briefly, for single-phase The combination temperature-noise survey is the
flow, the noise amplitude is proportional to the primary detection procedure for flow purely behind
pump work creating the peak, i.e., pipe. If the flow can be tagged with a radioactive
tracer in the wellbore and then pumped out perfora-
tions, then the radioactive tracer device is a very
effective tool for observing the flow of the tagged
where q and ~p are the flow rate and pressure drop fluid behind pipe.
creating the sound peak, C is a calibration
1 Radioactive Tracer Surveys - The radioactive
constant, and Ninoo is the peak ~oise value from the
1000-Hz curve. TfilS latter read1ng must be cor- tracer tool assembly is seen in Fig. 15a* to consist
rected for cable attenuation, tool gain, and well of a casing collar locator (eCL) , a reservoir-
completion. For example, if the reader will refer ejector assembly, and two gamma ray detectors. The
back to Figs. 9a and 9b, he will recall that these spacing between the detectors can be varied - up to,
logs indicated a small gas flow from the A-sand to typically, ten feet - to accommodate a range of
the M-sands which were some 200 psi lower in pres- fluid velocities. The relative positioning of
sure. Using the methods outlined in Ref. 16 and the detectors to ejector can also be changed. As
1000-Hz noise level at 5475 feet depth, we estimate positioned in Fig. 15a, the detectors will time the
the loss from the A-sand to be about 100 cu. ft/day passage of a slug of tagged fluid flowing downward,
at bottomhole conditions or about 20,000 cu. ft/day as illustrated in Fig. I5b, where the times of
at standard conditions. maximum (peak) activity are used for timing. Since
the slugs can become dispersed, the times at one-
For small gas flow rates through liquid, the half peak value are sometimes employed. Usually, a
flow rate is proportional to the noise in the few seconds error is present in the timing. This
200-600 Hz band, Ref. (16) error determines the high velocity limitation of the
device. The device is excellent at low flow rates
568
SPE 10035 R. M. McKinley 7
if the density of the tagged fluid is closely matched water beind pipe has also been demonstrated,
to that of the we1lbore fluid. The low flow rate Ref. (20). This device uses a 14 Mev neutron
resolution is far better than any of the mechanical generator to activate oxygen to nitrogen-16 whose
flowmeters available. decay gamma radiation can then be detected. This
method has the potential to detect very low water
A variety of tracers are available including flow rates. However, the device is not available
water soluble, oil. soluble, oil/water soluble, and commercially at this time. Water flow behind casing
gaseous. Produced gas, however, will tend to strip is also known to precipitate radioactive salts
tracer from a liquid. Common fluid tracers are leached from shales. A sequence of gamma ray logs
Iodine-13I, with an 8-day half life, and Iridium-192, can sometimes be used to detect such flow, Ref. (21).
with a 74-day half life. Both emit gamma rays at
roughly 0.4-0.5 Mev level. In addition to the primary devices discussed
above, a properly run cement bond log can give
To track flow behind pipe, the device is used as information on the quality of a completion.
illustrated in Fig. 16. The wellbore interval is
first logged with a detector sensitivity sufficient Cement Bond Logs - A cement bond log evaluates
to give a base log comparable to a cased hole gamma the quality of a cementing operation by the fact,
ray log. The ejector is then located opposite the amply illustrated in our earlier Fig. 14a, that sound
perforations and a slug of tracer ejected with the travels along free pipe much better than along pipe
well shut in. A small amount of injection at the to which cement is bonded. The logging device is
surface is then used to displace the t:gged fluid similar in operation to an open-hole velocity logger,
into the perforations. The interval is re10gged to consisting of a pulsed transmitter and two receivers.
give the solid curve on Fig. 16 with peak activity at The log is presented in a format that indicates the
the perforations. Additional injection is then made amplitude of the 20-30 KHz signal that travels along
from the surface to push the tracer into the forma- the pipe from the transmitter to the first receiver.
tion or into any channel communicating with the This is an indicator of the lack of bonding of cement
perforations. A subsequent log, the dashed curve of to pipe. To identify signals traveling through the
Fig. 16, shows that some tagged fluid has moved up formation - and hence, cement bond to formation -
outside the pipe to the 9000 foot level indicating some form of wavetrain display, such as the variable
communication with gas sands at this depth. density displays of Refs. (22) and (23), is also
presented. Sound amplitudes are, of course, highly
Proper timing, acquired by experience, is non-linear functions of the fraction of pipe cir-
obviously important in the type of surveys cumference to which cement is bonded. Numerous
illustrated in Fig. 16. Also, the pressure dif- other completion factors also influence these
ferences may be such that all the injection enters amplitudes, Ref. (24). It is still difficult to
the completed interval. Crossf1ow because of relate bond log characteristics to the presence of
pressure imbalance should appear on temperature-noise flow behind pipe with any more consistency than
surveys with the well shut in. one can anticipate completion problems from, say,
an open-hole caliper log. The author does not feel
Most tracer devices eject the slug perpendicular that at the present time the bond log is a primary
to the axis of the sonde. This is not satisfactory production logging device. Opposing views are
in a borehole which contains fluid that exhibits expressed in Refs. (25) and (26).
plastic or yield behavior, such as heavy drilling
muds or certain fluid emulsions. Most of the ejected The primary logging devices discussed above will
tracer remains in the stagnant zone at the pipe wall. also respond to flow inside pipe. However, there are
The device should be modified to concentrate the specialized logging tools more appropriate to this
tracer near the pipe center. application. Modern practice is to run combination
tools (Ref. 27) including those above and those to be
For flow surveys inside pipe, the device should discussed next.
always be calibrated at a depth receiving 100% of the
total flow. This eliminates the question of what
velocity the device measures.
569
8 PRODUCTION LOGGING SPE.10035
570
SPE 10035 R. M. McKinley 9
Increasing demands to measure low rates of flow velocity does not exceed 26 ft/min. The two runs fi
of mixtures of gas, oil, and water are causing the the zero velocity point at a depth below the top of
reappearance of spinners similar to the packer types the lower set of perforations, shown in black, which
of Fig. 17a. These newer devices have motorized had been cemented to eliminate water production. An
vanes .or bonnets that can be extended to touch the area of very strong turbulence is evident at the top
casing wall. This diverts most of the flow through of the cemented perforations, which indicates a high
the tool throat past the spinner. These sondes are velocity entry at that depth. This turbulence is
usually kept stationary for readings, but they can even more pronounced on the lower figure which is a
operate up to 4000 BPD and apparently give satisfac- logging run down at 4 ft/min. The survey gives at
tory profiles in perforated intervals. A calibra- least qualitative information; namely, the cemented
tion curve for such a flow meter over the high-rate perforations are leaking. Figure 21b is a calibra-
range appears on Fig. 20.* The flow loop has a tion curve obtained in 100% flow at 7100 feet depth.
6.S-inch diameter while the flowmeter diameter is A plot of spinner speed versus logging speed for
2-1/8-inches. The flowmeter to handle the eight passes is given. The spinner speeds are visual
higher flowrates without leakage around averages from each pass. The response is reasonably
the diverting elements. linear with a s16pe near the liquid response slope
shown on Fig. 18a. The response line on Fig. 21b
Wellbore turbulence, i.e., velocity components extrapolates to a zero spinner speed at a logging
perpendicular to the wellbore axis, definitely speed upward of
interferes with the operation of the continuous
spinner flowmeters. These velocity components also Vi = 14.5 ft/min
exert their momentum on the spinner. In high
production rate wells, this turbulence may persist This would be the speed necessary for the logging
for a hundred or so feet above the perforations. tool to keep up, within frictional velocity, with the
flow stream. If S is set equal zero in our previous
Wellbore turbulence becomes very intense in Eq. (3), then the resulting fluid velocity is
wells producing more than one phase. Because of
buoyancy forces, the less dense phases rise faster
than the heavy phase. The lighter phases flow as
Vsf ~ V1 + Vf = 14.5 + 3.5 = 18 ft/min
discontinuous bubbles or slugs so that their passage
at a particular depth causes first an uplift of the If this value is taken equal to the average fluid
heavy phase followed by a fall back. The heavy velocity, V, then
phase therefore sets up localized circulation cells.
These circulation patterns maintain a holdup volume 0.131 x 18 2.36 cu. ft/min
fraction of heavy in the wellbore that is much
greater than the net fractional production rate of
the heavy phase. In fact, the percentage holdup of q = 2.36 x = 605 BPD
a phase does not approach its percentage flow rate
until the average flow velocity becomes several while the actual flow is closer to 900 BPD. From the
times greater than the buoyant or slip velocity for gas response curve of Fig. 18a, one would expect the
that phase. At about 10 times the slip velocity, gas flow to be underestimated. Another
the phases travel together. These slip velocities curve similar to that of Fig. 21b is at a
are large relative to typical flow rates. Gas, at depth between the two sets of perforations in order
typical downhole pressures, has a slip velocity to estimate flow from the lower set. It is evident
through water of about 40 ft/min. At pressures near from Fig. 21a that such a curve is not available
atmospheric, the apparent slip velocity can exceed because of wellbore turbulence. This is often the
100 ft/min, Ref. (29). Typical slip velocity for si tua tion throughout the completed interval. In
gas in oil is 20 ft/min and for oil in water is fact, flow loop data given in Ref. (29), Fig. 14,
10-20 ft/min. shows that for low pressure gas slugging through
water, there is almost no correlation between a
Such chaotic flow will, of course, cause con- continuous spinner reading and the average flow
siderable noise in a spinner record. Fig. 21 velocity. If the tool is stopped and readings are
contains spinner surveys from a well flowing oil, time averaged, then a correlation does exist as shown
water, and gas at the rates indicated. At bottom- on Fig. 20 of Ref. (29). This suggests that the
hole temperature and pressure, the total liquid rate practice of racing up and down the well with the
is about 400 BPD while the gas rate is about device may be counterproductive.
500 BPD. In 5-1/2" casing, the combined flow
produces an average fluid velocity of about Other possible solutions will be discussed after
30 ft/min, less than the gas-liquid slip velocity. describing fluid identification devices, but we
The top figure in Fig. 21a shows an up and down should point out that continuous flowmeter surveys
pass, each at a logging speed of 26 ft/min. The are not meaningful in deviated or inclined wells
noise above the perforations, relative to that where the lighter phases segregate and flow along the
below, is apparent. On the up-log, the relative top of the well. On the other hand, the diverting
velocity of the tool to the fluid is less than on meters, such as the basket flowmeter of Fig. 20,
the down-log; consequently, the noise level on the operate in inclined wells with little or no error due
up-log is worse. Also, since on the up-run at to deviation angle.
26 ft/min, the spinner does not go to zero speed or
reverse direction, the apparent average fluid Borehole Fluid Density Surveys - Two types of
density logging devices are available that give a
continuous record of borehole fluid density with
Dresser Atlas Wireline Services
571
10 PRODUCTION LOGGING SPE 10035
depth. The first is a pressure gradient tool, called tubing string than in the casing. The flowing
a gradiomanometer, illustrated on Fig. 22a. With a survey, the solid curve in Fig. 24a, does show a
sequence of three bellows, this device measures the decrease in density as the flow enters the tubing.
pressure difference across a two-foot distance in the At a 350 ft/min velocity, the oil and water should b
wellbore. For a vertical well without significant flowing together in the tubing. The flowing curve
flowing frictional losses, the tool output is does indeed cross the shut-in oil-water contact at
directly proportional to fluid density. It should 8250 feet at about 60% of the total separation
also give a representative cross-sectional sample. between oil and water. A short shut-in period
The second type of density logger is a gamma ray following the flowing survey is good practice. The
absorption device that consists of an open cage dashed curve on Fig. 24a was obtained after a
through which wellbore fluid can flow. At the base two-hour shut-in period. This log checks tool
of the cage there is a gamma ray source, typically operation and provides estimates of phase den~ities
Cesium-137, focused along the axis of the cage. if the phases separate rapidly. It also prov~des a
Focused detectors at the top of the cage measure the base against which the flowing run may be compared.
activity of the radiation. As the calibration curve Such a comparison in Fig. 24a shows that practically
of Fig. 22b shows, the logarithm of the activity is all of the oil is coming from the top set of per-
inversely proportional to fluid density. Since this forations. It is difficult to tell whether the
is a statistical measurement, stop readings are bottom perforations flow any oil.
advisable. The device also samples near the pipe
center which is where the lighter phases tend to The density contrast between oil and water is
flow. We also want to again emphasize that densities quite small for many heavy crude oils. Moreover,
are indicative of wellbore fluid holdups, not flow many wells produce only small amounts of one phase
rates, that is, relative to the other phase. This gives small
density contrasts. Another fluid identification
p (5 ) tool that shows greater contrast between water and
hydrocarbon is the capacitance logger. This device
(6) consists of a hollow insulated
from the tool sheath surrounds the
Holes in the sheath allow wellbore fluid to flow in
where p is the mixture density, p. and y. are the the annular space between the cylinder and the
pure phase densities and phase holdups, the sub- sheath. The inner cylinder is part of an oscil-
scripts w, 0, and g meaning water, oil, and gas, lating circuit whose frequency is a function of the
respectively. Since the holdup is weighted towards capacitance of the fluid in the annular space. The
the highest density phase, water, the mixture dielectric constant for gas and oil is about 1 and 2
density will be even more heavily weighted towards MRS units, respectively, while for water it is about
water. 80 units. This contrast is not actually achieved
since the device measures capacitance from an inner
A gradiomanometer and fullbore spinner survey is electrode to ground. However, as Fig. 24b shows,
illustrated in Fig. 23 for a well flowing 5000 BPD this device is apparently more sensitive to the
oil and 5000 BPD water. These rates correspond to an presence of small amounts of one phase than is the
average fluid velocity of 190 ft/min; consequently, density logger. 24b is a capacitance log from
the oil and water should travel together. The the previous well for both flowing and shut.in con-
spinner survey on the right shows that the perfora- ditions. The lower perforations are produclng some
tions centered around 7150 feet are not contributing oil which was not evident from the density survey of
to production. In fact, most production is coming Fig: 24a. If the logger is linear, then.this pro~uc
from the perforations below 7180 feet. The spinner tion amounts to more than 16% of total o~l flow s~nce
survey shows strong turbulence in the bottom 5 feet the oil rate percent would exceed the oil holdup.
of perforations as well as a large flow entry over The position of the flowing trace on the oil/water
this interval. The density log on the left has two contact indicates linear operation. Calibration of
traces. The solid trace goes with the gm/cc scale at this device is apparently not yet complete. Also,
the bottom while the dashed trace is a five-fold heavy oils tend to form films on the in~er electrode
amplification. Above 7180 feet, the is which causes shifts in the water base l~ne. Its
constant indicating no additional fluid entry above performance in viscous crudes is disappointing to
this depth. The 1 gm/cc below the perforations date. In any case, the logger should be calibrated
indicates water as antiCipated. From the base of the in-situ as is shown in Fig. 24b.
perforations upward, the fluid density progressively
decreases which implies a progressively larger In stagnant gas the output response of the
accumulation of oil in the wellbore. Conversely, the capacitance meter is about 10% greate: than in oil.
water must enter at the bottom, probably within the This difference will be increased dur~ng flow due to
same interval showing high wellbore turbulence on the center line sampling. The capacitance tool has the
spinner survey. potential to give a value for wate: holdup, ~w,
directly. This may then be used w~th a dens1ty
A density survey run with a gamma-ray device is reading in Eqs. (5) and (6) to obtain oil and gas
shown on Fig. 24a. This well produces from the two holdups, y and y , respectively.
intervals at a total of 2520 BPD of oil and water at o g
62% by volume of oil. In the 5-1/2" casing, this It is possible to derive flow equations for the
production causes an average fluid velocity of individual phases since the total rate is the sum of
75 ft/min while in the 2-1/2" tubing, the velocity is the individual rates, i.e.,
350 ft/min. Therefore, the water holdup in the
tubing should be lower than in the casing. This (7)
means that the mixture density should be less in the
572
SPE 10035 R. M. McKinley 11
573
~rtUUULIIUN LU~~lN~ tin, lUUj)
The well in Fig. 26 has a top section of per- pressure drop, psi
forations that had been cemented to stop excessive
gas production. After the workover, the well still q flow rate, cu ft/D or cu ft/min
produced at a gas/oil ratio of 17,000 m3 /m 3 ,
Fig. 26a shows capacitance surveys from the well. On individual phase flow rates, cu ft/
the shut-in run, the dashed curve, there is an oil/ min, for water, oil, or gas
water contact just below 1800 meters depth and a
gas/oil contact at 1785 meters. The flowing run s spinner speed, rev. per sec.
shows gas production beginning at about 1795 meters
depth. Since this is in the interval of cemented V 9. average fluid velocity, ft/min
A
perforations, the log indicates that the squeeze
workover was unsuccessful. The horizontal spinner slip or buoyant velocity relative to
survey of Fig. 26b verifies this. Flow is coming water, ft/min, for oil or gas
from the entire bottom half of the cemented interval.
Note that the device gives very good vertical resolu- spinner frictional cutoff or bypass
tion. At present, the logger gives only qualitative speed, ft/min
results in multiphase flow, but it could possibly be
calibrated in a fashion similar to that discussed in ~ logging or line speed, ft/min
Ref. (18). Also, the low velocity cut-off point has
not been clearly established. spinner indicated fluid velocity
574
SPE 10035 K. l."l. l."lcJ.\.lnley .LJ
2" Dale, C. R.; "Bottom Hole Flow Surveys for 17. Robinson, W. S., "Field Results from the Noise-
Determination of Fluid and Gas Movements in Logging Technique," J. Pet. Tech. (November,
Wells," Trans. AIME 186 (1949), 205-210. 1976), 1370-1376.
3. Riordan, M. B.: "Surface Indicating Pressure, 18. McKinley, R. M., and Bower, F. M.: "Specialized
Temperature and Flow Equipment," Trans. AIME Applications of Noise Logging, fI J. Pet. Tech.
192 (1951), 257-262. (November, 1979), 1387-1395.
4. Wade, R. T., Cantrell, R. C., Poupon, A., and 19. Moon, K. E.: "An Improved Radioactive Tagging
Moulin, J.; "Production Logging - The Key to System for Stimulation Evaluation," Presented
Optimal Well Performance," J. Pet. Tech. at the Southwestern Petroleum Short Course,
" (February, 1965), 137-144. Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas,
April 20-21, 1978.
5. Petovello, B. G.: "Evaluation of Well Perfor-
mance through Produ<;tion Logging," presented at 20. Arnold, D. M., and Paap, H. J.,: "Quantitative
5th Formation Evaluation Symposium of the Monitoring of Water Flow Behind and in Wellbore
Canadian Well Logging Society, Calgary, Canada, Casing," J. Pet. Tech. (January, 1979),
May 5-7, 1975. 121-130.
6. Alger, R. P., Locke, S., Nagel, W. A., and 21. Killion, H. W., "Fluid Migration Behind Casing
Sherman, H.: "The Dual-Spacing Neutron Revealed by Gamma Ray Logs," The Log Analyst
Log -CNL," J. Pet. Tech. (September, 1972), (Jan.-Mar., 1966).
1073-1083.
22. Brown, H. D., Grijalva, V. E., and Raymer, L.
7. Hoyer, W. A., et al.: "Pulsed Neutron Logging, ff L.: "New Developments in Sonic Wavetrain
Soc. of Profession Well Log Analysts Reprint Display and Analysis in Cased Holes," The Log
Volume (March, 1976). Analyst (Jan.-Feb., 1971) 27-40.
8. Jameson, J. B., McGhee, B. F., Blackburn, 23. Walker, T.: "A Full-Wave Display of Acoustic
J. S., and Leach, B. C.: IfDual-SpacingTDT Signal in Cased Holes," J. Pet. Tech. (August,
Applications in Marginal Conditions,1I J. Pet. 1968), 811-824.
Tech. (September, 1977) 1067-1077.
24. Pardue, G. H., Morris, R. L., Gollwitzer,
9. Novak, T. J.: "The Estimation of Water Injec- L. H., and Moran, J. H.: "Cement Bond Log - A
tion Profiles from Temperature Surveys," J. Study of Cement and Casing Variables,!f J. Pet.
Pet. Tech. (August, 1953) 203-212. Tech. (May, 1963),545-555.
10. Cooke, C. E., Jr.: "Radial Differential 25. McNeely, W. E.: !fA Statistical Analysis of the
Temperature (RDT) Logging - A New Tool for Cement Bond Log," SPWLA Fourteenth Annual
Detecting and Treating Flow Behind Casing," J. Logging Symposium, May 6-9, 1973.
Pet. Tech (June 1979), 676-682.
26. Fertl, W. H., Pilkington, P. E., and Scott,
11. Smith, R. C., and Steffensen, R. J.: "Computer J. B.: "A Look at Cement Bond Logs," J.
Study of Factors Affecting Temperature Profiles Pet. Tech. (June, 1974), 607-617.
in Water Injection Wells," J. Pet. Tech.
(November, 1970), 1447-1458. 27. Anderson, R. A., Smolen, J. J., Laverdiere, L.,
and DaVis, J. A.: !fA Production Logging Tool
12. Curtis, M. R., and Witterholt, E. J.: IIUse of with Simultaneous Measurements," J. Pet. Tech.
the Temperature Log for Determining Flow Rates (February, 1980), 191-198.
in Producing Wells," SPE 4637 presented at 48th
Annual Fall Meeting of the SOCiety of Petroleum 28. Leach, B. C., Jameson, J. B., Smolen, J. J.,
Engineers, Las Vegas, Nevada, Sept. 30-0ct. 3, and Nicolas, Y.: "The Fullbore Flowmeter," SPE
1973 . 5089 presented at Annual Fall Meeting held in
Houston, Texas, Oct. 6-9, 1974.
13. Smith, R. C., and Steffensen, R. J.: "Inter-
pretation of Temperature Profiles in Water 29. Cmelik, H.; "A Controlled Environment for
Injection Wells," J. Pet. Tech. (June, 1975), Measurements in Multiphase Vertical Flow,"
777-784. SPWLA Twentieth Annual Logging Symposium, June
3-6, 1979, Tulsa, Oklahoma.
14. Dobkin, T. A.: "Improved Methods to Determine
Fracture Height," J. Pet. Tech. (April, 1981), 30. Kading, H. W.: !fHorizontal-Spinner, A New
719-726. Production Logging Technique," Southwestern
Petroleum Short Course, Texas Tech University,
15. Enright, R. J.: "Sleuth for Down-Hole Leaks, ff Lubbock, Texas, April 17-18, 1975.
Oil and Gas J. (Feb. 38, 1955) 78-79.
575
TABLE 1
LITHOLOGICAL EFFECTS ON TEMPERATURE LOGS
A B
Quartzite Quartzite
Salt Salt
Anhydrite
Anhydrite
Dolomite Dolomite
Limestone
Limestone Sandstone
Sandstone
Shale
Shale Gypsum
Gypsum
Cement
Cement
Gas
Water
Water
Oil
Oil
Gas
576
Fig. 1a - Collar locator section
-A- COLLAR LOG RUN GOING INTO HOLE
FOR TEMPERATURE LOG.
-6- COLLAR LOG RUN COMMING OUT OF
HOLE FOR NOISE LOG.
6900
6940
~~ ~:
6980 ~ ,~
~I
l
~
~ ..
< ti r r
2 7/B" i=~7020 I"
- c....
LoU
o t II I ~ J
°F-----"" °F-
Y iJl)
1
(A) INJECTION PROFILE
I
7060
)
» \
7100 ~
I~
~ 21 (C) CIRCULATION PROFILE
::r
Ii:
\~
'\~
\~
~V
c::J
c::J
c::J
c::J
II
~
f!
c::JN
c::J::r
LLJ
o
!
\~
~
c::J
e-.J s= to c::J
c::J
e-.J \
714°10 100 1000 \
\
PEAK-PEAK MILLIVOLTS NOISE
DF-
Fig. 1c-Noise log from shut-in gas well that will produce Fig. 2 - Typical temperature profiles
excessive water
577
FREQUENCY
CONTROLLED
VOLTAGE
SOURCE
RECORDER
3300
~I
I
I
3400
I-
C""l
0
5
LJ..i
~
!I
UJ
u..
::I:~
l-
e..
~
g3
UJ
II
c::l
3500
Fig. 4 - Logs from an injection test for the water source in a gas well
578
0000
\
\
9 5/8" J limoo \
\
\
\
t \
2000 \
t \~
t I-
L.U
L.U ~
~~ 3000 \~
t I-
c... ~
t L.U
C \'\
t 4000 \
t \
\
t \
2 3/8" t 5000 \
\
\
5 1/2" PERFS. \
6000
75 125 150 175
TEMPERATURE, OF
1000 4600
SP LOG
50001----+----+---l--+ 5000 1 - - - - - 4 - - - - + - - + - - - 1 - -
579
o ~--.~~------~----~------~------
I-
UJ
UJ
u..
::r.-- 4000 ~---+---
Ii:
UJ
c
6000 ~--+----+----
,,
C "
-- , ---+----+-----1------1
CEMENT "
LUMP ,
! I 'f<2>. ---I--..-........+--~
tu CASING SHOE <~
UJ
u.. '<~
::C 9000 ~-----I -+----+---- " ---+---1
Ii:
u.J
I',
c HOLE ENLARG6MENT',
10,000 I - - - - _ + _ _ ---+----+---, ,, ---I
,
11,000 1 - - - - - 4 - - "
9" HOLE 12,000 ~_~_--L.. _____ ~--::-+-:--~-=------:+___---'
140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
TEMPERATURE, of
580
8600 r---~--.,-------,;--------.---r---r-----'
8700
8800
i:B 8900
u....
=r:.'
I:i:
~ 9000
9100
9200
9300 =--~--L...---L--..L-----.!-----L........-_---l
120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
TEMPERATURE, DF
8900t----
I-
LU
LU
~- 9000
b:
LU
CI
9100
9200
160 220
581
5300 ,----,-----..-----.-----.---.----
5400
~
~
r.~ 5500
fuc
5 1/2"
5700
5700 L.----L....L---i----'-------L--l....---.J
146 148 150 152 154 156 158
TEMPERATURE, of 5800 2000'1000
0.1 1 10 100
Fig. 9a - Temperature log from an unperforated well 20 days after
NOISE LEVEl, PEAK M.v.
completion
Fig. 9b - Noise log from well of Fig. 9a
5300
~ f\,~
-
~ I .
~ \~
Sk \S
~
\
,
5400
,,
I
\
,,
,,
tu
,
LLJ
u..
r.~ 5500
Ii: ,,
,I
LLJ
C
I
t
5600
~ ,...-- ------- ..~
~..... ---- ...
-
5700 I
130 140 150 160
TEMPERATURE, OF
582
,
I
I-
I
C I
SPEAKER
,-
I
I
HIGH-PASS METERS ::::c: I
FILTERS 5: I-
UJ
c I
,-
I
I
I
I.· •. : ....._ A I
PIEZOELECTRIC I-
CRYSTAL I
MICROPHONE I
Fig. 10a - Noise logging sonde Fig. 10b - Hypothetical response of noise logger to flow behind casing
::::c:
b:
LU
CJ
2 3 4 6 B10
NOISE LEVEL
PEAK-TO-PEAK MILLIVOLTS
Fig. 10c - Frequency character of a Fig. 10d - Frequency character of gas into
single·phase leak liquid leak
583
12.000 . . . r - - - - , - - - - - . - - - . , . - - - - - , - - - - - - r - - - . , - - - _ _ .
13,000
DIFFERENTIAL
~
14,000
~
:::t:
b: 15,000
w
0
16,000
17,000 t----+---+-----+------t--~~_I__-__.I
12.000 , 4 4
,
~ ~ N
Q ::x:
~.
~ c:::::»
13,000
Q
Q
N
.'~ -.,
0
~
,- - I
-
1
I
I
I
.
I I
1:+
TI I I I
I ,
I 1-
.:!':
11'-'::
-L -L •
I ~ ~I
::::::::IIe-
-t-
~~~ ..
17,000 -- ~
.-- --;.-..~~
...... .,.. ---
18,000 I I
1 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100
PEAK-IO-PEAK MllllVOllS
Fig. 11 b - Noise log from well of Fig. 11 a
584
18 5/8" J L 0
1000 ,'.
, ,
"
"""
,
2000
20" , . "
~ ' .'
;,
3000 tij
13 3/8" "r I::t~
:::t:
l:i:
'; 4000 ~
7000 2500
7" 13 3/B"
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 70
PEAK MILLIVOLTS NOISE TEMPERATURE, of
Fig. 12 - Noise log from an oil well shutein 12 hours Fig, 13a - Temperature log from new well venting gas from annulus
t
:::t:
0000 .----......--g-§h§Hs----.-----.
J ~ ~ ~N
,',
I t.
0500
20" ,, . '; 0500
~ 20" , ....
I,'
" 1-1000
, LU
" LU
u...
.•.. :::t:~
'~, l:i:
. LU
:;: °1500
j: 2000 2000
~. "
2500 2500
13 3/8" 13 3/B"
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
PEAK MILLIVOLTS NOISE PEAK MILLIVOLTS NOISE
Fig. 13b- Noise log while venting gas from well of Fig, 13a Fig. 13c - Noise log after squeeze cementing at 2100 feet
585
4000 r---~--.------+---rf""""'----'
4200
4400
I-
4800 u.J
u.J
U-
9 5/8" ::r:
I-
5000 c...
u.J
Cl
5200
'~';'
','
, : ".
:., 5400
.'
:' :.!
500
5600
.\
'\
,', \.
.' , ~..
"
.. '., 1000
5800
0.1 1000
1500
::x: 2500
5:
u.J
Cl
Cl
u.J
a:
3000
:;::,
en
~ 3500
:!:
4000
4500
5000
0.1 1000
586
6
~-CCl
I
~ -
SWITCH
EJECTOR
PORT
.....
\ ,...
......
-
FIRST DETECTOR
--~
~
--- EJECT - !
--- 10.5 SECONDS
I"
)
\
I
~T
- - SECOND DETECTOR
- -
SWIT&
8900
50 -
-115 BBl. INJECTION-
2
0 1\. .,
--- I
5 BBlS. INJECTION
9000 ~
i=
uLU ...'
'"
50 -- ~
.....,
LU
LU
a: ,~ " '---~----- .... ~
c---
s----j _--:.It
0 I I I
~
u..
LU
cc .: :. I
C!l
9100 r - - 0
.....I
"
LU
en
<C
~I
50 f - - -
9200 t·
o 1DO 200 300 400 500 600 700
API GAMMA RAY UNITS
Fig. 16 - Behind-pipe flow detected by radioactive tracer survey
587
CCL
TUBING
ELECTRIC CARTRIDGE CASING
PICKUP COIL
1'--L>3I~--r -SPINNER SECTION
MAGNET ~- HYDRAULIC
CONTROL SECTION
PACKER BAG
CENTRALIZER
ARMS
PUMP SPINNER
'Z? BLADE-~
g FILTER PROTECTIVE
otl t) CENTRALIZER
DO o !) CAGE
,r, n o
(A) DIVERTING TYPE SPINNER, (B) CONTINUOUS TYPE SPINNER, (C) FULLBORE SPINNER REF. (28)
REF. (4) REF. (4)
c...:i
w
10
-.
CI)
:>-
w 8
a:
CI)
c..
a: 6
(A) CONTINUOUS c~
FLOWMETER ww
c..
CI)
4
a:
w
z 2
z
c::
CI)
40 280 320
10
~ 8
a:
(B) FULLBORE c:::r
w
w 6
CONTINUOUS c..
en
FLOWMETER a:
w 4
z
z
c::
CI)
2
0
0 240 280
588
SPINNER SPEED, RPS
5 10 15 20
15,600
l:i:i
It!
~. 650
w
CI
15,700 1 - - - - + - - -
o 20 40 60 80 100%
(B) PERCENT OF FLOW IN WEllBORE
750 ~9----r---u~ - - + - - - 1 Fig. 19b,c - Flow profiles from spinner survey of Fig. 19a
\'
}:i
15,600
650
o 5 10 15 20 25% 15,7001----
IC) PERCENT INJECTED
589
30 I ~
01 0
0 0
25 0 0
0 0
20 0
~ 0
a:
Cl 0
L.U 0
L.U
0...
en 15
a:
L.U
z
z
a:
en 10
7100 z
( ~
t:
""..,.
<;;'"
cc
C'-..I 1.8
<.:!: !ci0...: en
1.6
....
", 0...
ex::
<", ::::J 1.4
." Cl Cl~
L.U
50 I
c.!:I L.U
1.2
~
L.U
c.!:I 0...
<::) Cf.)
-I
1.0
....~ ex::
L.U SLOPE=0.040 RPS/(FT/MIN)
:..
c.... I
z
z
a: 0.8
1.. Cf.)
ti:i 1-"\--... 0.6
~.40.2
L.U
u...
:r.~
I-
c.... 7200
L.U
Q
o
", 0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
(UP) -0.2 FT/MIN LOGGING SPEED mOWN)
0.5
7150 0
Fig. 21b -In-situ flowmeter calibration above perforations in well of Fig. 21a
7200
590
100DOO
80,000
I-- 0
B4S
CCl w
60,000 I-
::::l
ELECTRIC Z
CARTRIDGE :E
a:
w O~
DIFFERENTIAL a..
TRANSFORMER MEASURING en
lOADING 1------+'I'"..a::.
BEllOWS 40,000 Iz-
::::l
SPRING Cl
u VV'41tll
UPPER SENSING
BEllOWS
lOWER SENSING
BELLOWS
lOG 10 (COUNTS) DENSITY
(A) GRADIOMANOMETER DEVICE, 20,000 I I I I I I
REF. (4) 0 0.5 1.0 1.3
FLUID DENSITY, GM/C.C.
(B) CALIBRATION FOR A GAMMA RAY
ABSORPTION DEVICE
40
Z
7150 ~--.f---~i--- 3:-
Cl
c
cW
60 Io..----.f---~- tg-
70 t..~--+-i-
SCALE S~IFT
C---i-- 80
<........._-
_:=It-- 90
r\
,
,~+--~
7200
\\ - - + - - 10
\
/'
DENSITY
X5 20
30
o 0.5 1.0 5 10 15
DENSITY, GM/C.C. SPINNER SPEED. RPS
591
8200 ------,-.-~-...,---.,...----.,
~- ....-- FLOWING
....----l__ __~_)
~SHUT
IN
8300 I----t-- --+---)I
)
tE
LL '\
, ~-----I
::r:,"
Ii:
LLI
C
,~,
\
8400 I-----+--_f__ -
,J, -t------1
5 1/2"
8500 """-----'_---'-_--'-_______....,
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
FLUID DENSITY, GM/CC
8200 ,....a:--r-----,----r---.....,.r---~--,......--::r-....,
LLI
i OIW CONTACT
8300
tu z
I'
LLI t-
LL
::::::>
::r:,... :J:
Cf.)
Ii:
LLI
....I
....I
C LLI
3:
8400
5 1/2"
8500 _ _........... _ - . l . _ _. . . . ! . _ _ - - - i -_ _ ..a....-_--"'-_---'
592
16,950
FLOW RATES:
+------1 17.000 ..== - - = ----1-1.2 MMSCF/O
:: LOGGED
17,000 =
; UP AT 221 - 19B BWPD
§ AT 700 PSI
-1-------117.050 ~ FT IMIN 17,050
17,'00
I-
UJ
UJ
u...
I-
::r:~
Ii:
17,'50 =
UJ
UJ
u... - UJ
C
=
-
17,200
-
c""
'"
250 =
(I)
17,250 =
u..
a::
UJ
e..
300 17,300
350 17,350
0 0.5 1.0 0 5 245 250 260
GM/CC
Fig. 25a - Density and flowmeter surveys from a well flowing 1.2 X 10 6 Fig. 25b - Temperature surveys from well of Fig. 25a
cu. ft.lD gas and 200 BOPD water
16,950
17.000
-- ,.J.1 .. ~
17,000 =
!!!
t4
~ ~ l t
17,050 17.050 ~ S
U
•
17,100
., • , t
~
•
••
17,100 ~
I-
UJ
UJ
tu
UJ ~ ~ ~
u.. u..
I.
:::r:.~
17,150 ::r:~ 17,150
Ii:
~ ~)j~ I~
l-
e..
LU UJ
c c
17,200 17,200
~~ ~~
~(~
~
17 ,250 ~ 'I"---+----+---ILfI-+---#----l 17,250 - f·r ?
17,300 H---f----+-",It-H-+--+----l 17,300 ~
V
5 1/2" ,. .:,4'J.4 ItN
881§g c::I
c::I
17 ,350 ____~~...:..:;1O.:..:00-=6:.:..:00~-=.20:.:.0---J 17,350 CICICI
Fig. 25c - Flowing noise log from well of Fig. 25a Fig. 25d - 3.5-hr shut-in noise log from well of Fig.
25a
593
, , I 1100
- -
FLOWING
,- 1150
SQUEEZE~ "
r- ,
I
-
SHUT -IN (_.I
PERFSl ' t-; -
1800
OPEN PERFS
T 4 1/2" I I I 1
594