Received 02/27/14

Revised 03/21/14
Accepted 04/17/14
DOI: 10.1002/cdq.12008

Time Perspective and Vocational

Identity Statuses of Emerging Adults
Brian J. Taber and Maureen S. Blankemeyer
Achievement of a vocational identity is an important developmental task for individuals
entering adulthood. The present study examined relationships between vocational
identity statuses and time perspective in a sample of 165 emerging adults. Results
of a canonical correlation analysis identified 2 interpretable variates. The 1st variate
indicated that diffuse vocational identity status is associated with negative views of
the past and lower orientation toward the future. The 2nd variate indicated that
achieved vocational identity is associated with a largely hedonic view of the present,
along with being mindful and less inclined to be fatalistic. These results suggest
that differing views on time perspective accounts for some of the variation in dif-
ferent vocational identity statuses. Interventions based on time perspective may
prove useful in helping individuals attain an achieved vocational identity. Future
research should examine how time perspective relates to vocational identity status
in individuals at later stages of career development.

Keywords: vocational identity, time perspective, mindfulness, emerging adults,

career development

For individuals between the ages of 18 and 25 years, the developmental

period known as emerging adulthood, achieving a vocational identity is of
great importance (Arnett, 2000). The achievement of a vocational identity
is associated with career maturity (Graef, Wells, Hyland, & Muchinsky,
1985) and career decidedness (Chartrand, Robbins, Morrill, & Boggs,
1990; Vondracek, Schulenberg, Skorikov, Gillespie, & Wahlheim, 1995;
Wanberg & Muchinsky, 1992) and is viewed as integral to self-directed
career development (Hall, 2002) and employability (Fugate, Kinicki,
& Ashforth, 2004). Because vocational identity is important in career
decision making and career management, examining factors that differ-
entiate among various identity statuses warrant investigation. Thus, the
current study examines how time perspective—the nonconscious process
whereby personal experiences are assigned to temporal frames that give
order, coherence, and meaning to those experiences (Zimbardo & Boyd,
1999)—may account for variances among the vocational identity statuses
of achievement, foreclosure, moratorium, and diffusion in emerging adults.

Time Perspective and Identity

Conceptually, the psychological aspects of time are integral to the forma-
tion of identity. Erikson (1968) viewed the synthesis and continuity of
Brian J. Taber, Department of Counseling, Oakland University; Maureen S.
Blankemeyer, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Kent
State University. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed
to Brian J. Taber, Department of Counseling, Oakland University, School of
Education and Human Services, 440F Pawley Hall, Rochester, MI 48309-4401
(e-mail: taber@oakland.edu).
© 2015 by the National Career Development Association. All rights reserved.

The Career Development Quarterly JUNE 2015 • Volume 63 113

past, present, and future as important in identity formation. Similarly,
based on his work with identity status interviews, Marcia (1993) indicated
that one’s outlook on the future can account for the variation in identity
statuses. For example, people with a diffuse identity status, characterized
by the absence of exploration and commitments and lacking a sense of
identity, are likely to have little sense of the future and are primarily
focused on the present. People with a foreclosed status, characterized
by an absence of exploration and a conferred commitment by parents or
other authority figures, see the future as a plan for life created by others
that they seek to fulfill. In contrast, people with an identity achievement
status, characterized by both exploration and commitment and having a
self-constructed sense of identity, also tend to be focused on the future;
however, it is a future that they have designed for themselves. People
with a moratorium identity status, characterized by exploration without
commitment, vacillate between the past and the future while they are
simultaneously consumed with the present in the struggle for an identity.
Research has shown that time perspective is linked with identity sta-
tuses. For example, Rappaport, Enrich, and Wilson (1985) found that
identity achievers and people in the moratorium status have a higher
degree of futurity than do those who are in diffuse and foreclosed sta-
tuses. Pulkkinen and Rönkä (1994) also reported a positive relationship
between identity achievement with clarity of future plans and evaluation
of the future. Recent research has also affirmed that different identity
statuses relate to varying views on the past, present, and future. Laghi,
Baiocco, Liga, Guarino, and Baumgartner (2013) conducted a study
with a sample of adolescents and reported that achieved identity was
associated with an orientation toward the future, making connections
between present behavior and future outcomes, and a tendency to view
the past in positive terms. Moratorium and foreclosed identity statuses
were associated positively with future time perspective and positive
views of the past, with the exception that moratorium also tended to
be inversely related to negative views of the past. Diffuse identity status
was associated with less orientation toward the future, a tendency not
to make a connection between current behavior and future outcomes,
and a tendency to view the past negatively.
Although time perspective has been investigated in relation to achieve-
ment of global identity, it has not been studied in relation to the more
domain-specific vocational identity. This is particularly relevant because
domain-specific identities (e.g., vocational, religious, political, lifestyle)
should not be considered a unitary construct subsumed by global iden-
tity and, therefore, should be investigated separately when applicable
(Goossens, 2001). In fact, research suggests that vocational identity may
serve as a precursor to and facilitator of global identity development
(Skorikov & Vondracek, 1998).

Time Perspective and Career Development

Research in career development regarding the psychological aspects of
time has focused largely on future time perspective. Future time perspec-
tive has been found to be integral to career maturity (Lennings, 1994;
Savickas, Silling, & Schwartz, 1984), career decidedness (Ferrari, Nota,
& Soresi, 2010), and career planning (Janeiro, 2010; Marko & Savickas,

114 The Career Development Quarterly JUNE 2015 • Volume 63

1998). This research suggests that future time perspective is associated
with career-related variables that are also associated with an achieved
vocational identity (e. g., Chartrand et al., 1990; Graef et al., 1985;
Wanberg & Muchinsky, 1992). However, these studies have generally
focused on the degree to which participants were able to orient them-
selves toward the future and did not examine how other psychological
aspects of time may relate to the outcomes in question.
Although not extensively studied, some research suggests that time
perspectives other than the future alone may influence career develop-
ment. Taber (2013) reported significant multivariate relations among
past, present, and future time perspectives and career decision-making
difficulties in a sample of adults seeking career counseling. The results
of the study indicated that viewing one’s past as negative while viewing
the present in hedonistic terms and feeling that the future is outside
one’s control was related to difficulties associated with decision-making
readiness, lack of information regarding the self, and conflicts regarding
inconsistent occupational information. Furthermore, being oriented
toward the future and feeling in control of it was related to motivation
to engage in the career decision-making process and less indecision.
Finally, viewing the past as negative and not being able to experience
pleasure in the present was related to less motivation to engage in career
decision making, more difficulties with occupational information, and
being internally conflicted about occupational choice. Similarly, Zhang
and Rottinghaus (2011) reported that mindfulness—the awareness of
what is taking place in the present moment in a nonjudgmental way—was
inversely related to problems in career decision making, with regard to
anxiety and pessimism, and positively related to vocational self-concept
and identity. Results from studies such as these suggest that views on
the past, present, and future may account for psychological facilitators
of and barriers to career development.

Purpose of the Study

Considering that vocational identity represents a unique domain of
emerging adult development (Skorikov & Vondracek, 1998), it would
seem useful to examine the relations between vocational identity statuses
and time perspective. Understanding the nature of the relationship be-
tween vocational identity and time perspective could assist theorists and
researchers in making more informed inferences regarding vocational
identity and could provide practitioners with a possible means of inter-
vention to facilitate vocational identity achievement. Time perspectives
represent cognitive temporal frames that shape expectations, goals,
judgments, decisions, and actions (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Thus, the
motivational and judgment components of time perspective may play a
significant role in vocational identity statuses.
Because of the linkages between the psychological aspects of time
and identity (Marcia, 1993), we expected that there would be shared
variance between the subscales of time perspective (Past-Positive, Past-
Negative, Present-Fatalistic, Present-Hedonistic, Mindfulness, and
Future) and vocational identity statuses (Achievement, Moratorium,
Foreclosure, and Diffusion). Although the nature of this study was
exploratory, we anticipated some associations among the time and vo-

The Career Development Quarterly JUNE 2015 • Volume 63 115

cational identity status variables based on aforementioned research and
observations on global identity. Vocational identity achievement and
moratorium share self- and occupational exploration as integral com-
ponents in both of these statuses. Therefore, we expected overlap with
regard to time perspectives. Specifically, we anticipated that vocational
identity achievement and moratorium would be positively associated
with future time perspective (Marcia, 1993), positive views of the past
(Laghi et al., 2013), and mindfulness (Zhang & Rottinghaus, 2011).
Conversely, because vocational identity diffusion and foreclosure are
associated with a lack of internal volition, we anticipated that these
statuses would be inversely associated with future time perspective and
mindfulness, while being positively associated with present-fatalistic
time perspective (Marcia, 1993) and viewing the past in negative terms
(Laghi et al., 2013).

Method
Participants and Procedure
We recruited a convenience sample of participants from two sections
of an undergraduate family studies course at a large midwestern uni-
versity. The internal review board of the university approved this study.
Individuals who elected to participate in the study signed an informed
consent agreement and were offered extra credit in the course for their
participation. We offered students two options to receive extra credit if
they did not want to participate in the study. Research participants were
administered paper-and-pencil versions of the measures used in the study.
All measures were completed and collected in a single class period. In
all, 177 students elected to participate in the study. Of these, 12 of the
research protocols could not be used because of incomplete data. The
final sample consisted of 165 participants (148 women and15 men; two
did not report), ranging in age from 18 to 23 years (M = 20.28, SD =
1.34). The sample consisted of 81% European Americans, 12% African
Americans, 2% Hispanics, 2% Asians, and 3% multiethnic.

Measures
Vocational identity. The Occupational Identity Scale (OIS; Melgosa,
1987) is a 28-item measure that assesses vocational identity statuses
with four subscales reflecting achievement (seven items), foreclosure
(seven items), moratorium (eight items), and diffusion (six items). The
OIS uses a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5
(strongly agree) in response to statements pertaining to career exploration
and commitment that are reflective of each identity status. Each of the
subscales measures the degree of resemblance to the vocational identity
statuses based on the varying degrees of occupational exploration and
commitment. The vocational identity Achievement subscale reflects the
occupational commitment with exploration. The Foreclosure subscale
reflects occupational commitment without exploration. The Morato-
rium subscale reflects exploration without commitment. The Diffusion
subscale reflects no exploration and no occupational commitment.
Items reflect the identity statuses in relation to work. For example, the
statement “After analyzing many possible occupational options, I have

116 The Career Development Quarterly JUNE 2015 • Volume 63

it clearly in my mind what my occupation will be” reflects vocational
identity achievement. In contrast, the item “Although I don’t have a
clear idea of what my occupation will be, I don’t care at this point”
reflects vocational identity diffusion. The internal consistency reliabilities
(Cronbach’s alphas) for the current study were .83 for Achievement, .76
for Foreclosure, .84 for Moratorium, and .74 for Diffusion. Previously
reported internal consistency reliabilities ranged from .70 for Diffusion
to .87 for Achievement (Melgosa, 1987). The OIS has demonstrated
both construct and concurrent validity evidence (Melgosa, 1987).
Time perspective. The Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI;
Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999) measures participants’ time perspectives. The
ZTPI is a 56-item inventory with five subscales reflecting the temporal
zones of past-positive (nine items), past-negative (10 items), present-
hedonistic (15 items), present-fatalistic (nine items), and future (13 items).
The ZTPI uses a 5-point Likert scale response format ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Each of the subscales represents
the five temporal frames. Past-positive reflects a warm and sentimental
view of the past. Past-negative reflects a pessimistic and aversive view
of the past, which may be based on actual negative life experiences or a
negative reconstruction of past events. Present-hedonistic encompasses
living in the moment, immediate gratification, and pleasure seeking.
Present-fatalistic reflects a sense of hopelessness toward the future and
an inability to connect current behavior to future consequences. Fu-
ture time orientation denotes concern with achieving goals, delaying
gratification, and avoidance of wasting time. Sample items of the past
time orientations include statements such as “I get nostalgic about my
childhood,” which reflects past-positive, and “I often think about what
I should have done differently in my life,” which reflects past-negative.
Sample items of the present time perspective include “I make decisions
on the spur of the moment,” which reflects present-hedonistic, and
“You can’t really plan for the future because things change so much,”
which reflects present-fatalistic. “Before making a decision, I weigh the
costs against the benefits” is an example of a future time perspective
item. Estimates of internal consistency reliability for the current study
ranged from α = .71 for the Present-Fatalistic subscale to α = .86 for
the Present-Hedonistic subscale. Previously reported internal consistency
reliabilities ranged from .74 for Present-Fatalistic to .82 for Past-Negative
(Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). The ZTPI has demonstrated evidence of
construct and predictive validity (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999).
Mindfulness. In addition to the five time perspectives represented in the
ZTPI, we also included a measure of mindfulness because it represents
a specific type of present-time perspective. To assess mindfulness, then,
we used the Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown &
Ryan, 2003). The MAAS is a 15-item measure that assesses respondents’
mindfulness or their degree of attention and awareness of what is tak-
ing place in the present. The MAAS uses a 6-point rating scale ranging
from 1 (almost always) to 6 (almost never). Some sample items include
“I rush through activities without being really attentive to them” and
“I find myself doing things without paying attention.” Estimate of the
internal consistency reliability for the current study was .85. The previ-
ously reported internal consistency reliability was .87 (Brown & Ryan,

The Career Development Quarterly JUNE 2015 • Volume 63 117

 2003). The MAAS has demonstrated both construct and criterion validity
evidence (Brown & Ryan, 2003).

Results
Preliminary screening of the data found that the Diffusion subscale of
the OIS had a substantial positive skew in its distribution (z = 5.29,
p < .001). Thus, to improve normality of the distribution and linear-
ity among the variables, we applied a logarithmic transformation, as
recommended by Tabachnick and Fidell (2007), to the vocational
identity Diffusion subscale for the statistical analyses. Assumptions of
normality regarding the other variables in the study were met. Means,
standards deviations, and correlations of the variables in the study are
presented in Table 1. It should be noted that we conducted the back
transformation of vocational identity Diffusion to identify the mean
and variance in the original raw score units. The bivariate associa-
tions among the vocational identity statuses and the time perspective
variables tended to be low, with correlations ranging from –.18 (p <
.05) between Moratorium and Mindfulness to .27 (p < .01) between
Moratorium and Past-Negative.
Because the focus of the current study was to examine the multivariate
relations among the variables in the study, we conducted a canonical
correlation analysis between the vocational identity statuses and time
perspective sets. This analysis allows for the assessment of the extent
and degree of relations among the variable sets. To explore the nature
of the interrelationships among specific variables, we also examined the
canonical loadings. Results indicated that the association between the
two variable sets was significant, Wilks’s Λ = .65, F(24, 541) = 2.91, p
< .001. Because Wilks’s Λ represents the variance unexplained, 1 – Λ
provides an effect size for the model. Therefore, 35% of the variance
was shared between the two variable sets.

Table 1
Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations of Vocational
Identity Status and Time Perspective Variables
Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. AC 23.40 5.62 .83
2. MO 24.30 6.78 –.53** .84
3. FO 14.93 4.71 .17* –.10 .76
4. DI 10.96a —b –.25** .30** .26** .74
5. PP 3.80 0.57 .14 –.09 .06 –.26** .75
6. PN 3.00 0.70 –.14 .27** .04 .26** –.40** .82
7. PH 3.60 0.57 .22** –.10 –.03 .04 .24** .05 .86
8. PF 2.70 0.59 .00 .02 .19* .20** .09 .30** .41** .71
9. MI 54.20 12.41 .05 –.18* –.13 –.13 .18* –.42** –.20* –.34** .85
10. FU 3.60 0.58 .03 –.06 .07 –.23** .12 –.20* –.34** –.34** .29** .81
Note. N = 165. Internal consistency reliabilities (alphas) are in boldface. AC = Achievement; MO
= Moratorium; FO = Foreclosure; DI = (log of) Diffusion; PP = Past-Positive; PN = Past-Negative;
PH = Present-Hedonistic; PF = Present-Fatalistic; MI = Mindfulness; FU = Future.
*p < .05. **p < .01.
a
The mean of the back-transformed data. bA 95% confidence interval was calculated for the back-
transformed data, with a lower limit of 10.96 and an upper limit of 12.02.

118 The Career Development Quarterly JUNE 2015 • Volume 63

 The dimension reduction analysis indicated that three out of four
canonical variates were significant. However, because the third variate
accounted for less than 10% of the variance, it was not interpreted. Table
2 shows the standardized canonical coefficients and canonical loadings for
each of the interpretable variates. The first canonical correlation was .40
for the first variate and accounted for 16% of the overlapping variance.
Only variable loadings greater than .30 were interpreted (Tabachnick &
Fidell 2007). The first canonical variate was characterized by a strong
negative loading on (log of) Diffusion (–.85) in the vocational identity
status set, and positive loadings on Past-Positive (.71) and Future (.67)
and a negative loading on Past-Negative (–.48) in the time perspective
set. It should be noted that loadings of the same sign indicate a positive
relationship. This pattern of relations suggests that a diffuse vocational
identity is associated with a generally adverse reconstruction of the past
and a lack of concern for the future.
The second canonical correlation was .36 and accounted for 13% of
the shared variance. This variate was characterized by a positive loading
on Achievement (.60) and negative loadings on Moratorium (–.74),
Foreclosure (–.52), and (log of) Diffusion (–.44) vocational identity
statuses, and by positive loadings on Present-Hedonistic (.44) and
Mindfulness (.58) and negative loadings on Present-Fatalistic (–.37)
and Past-Negative (–.65) time perspectives. This pattern of relations
suggests that achievement of vocational identity is associated with a
present time perspective focus and a tendency not to have an aversive
view of one’s past.

Table 2
Canonical Correlation Analysis for Vocational Identity Status
Variables With Time Perspective Variables
Variate 1 Variate 2
Variable Coefficient rs Coefficient rs
Vocational identity status set
Achievement –0.07 .18 0.38 .60
Moratorium 0.19 –.15 –0.60 –.74
Foreclosure 0.55 .25 –0.64 –.52
(Log of) Diffusion –1.07 –.85 0.00 –.44

% variance 0.21 0.34

Redundancy 0.03 0.05
Time perspective set
Past-Positive 0.70 .71 –0.21 .20
Past-Negative –0.20 –.48 –0.49 –.65
Present-Hedonistic –0.23 –.22 0.73 .44
Present-Fatalistic –0.12 –.26 –0.38 –.37
Mindfulness –0.37 .08 0.45 .58
Future 0.54 .67 –0.08 .00

% variance 0.22 0.19

Redundancy 0.04 0.03
Rc 0.40 0.36

Note. N = 165. Canonical loadings greater than .30 are in boldface.

The Career Development Quarterly JUNE 2015 • Volume 63 119

Discussion
The present study examined multivariate relations among vocational
identity statuses and time perspectives. Results indicated two distinct
patterns of relations between the two variable sets. The first pattern of
relations suggests that a diffuse vocational identity is directly associated
with a negative view of the past and inversely related to the capacity
to look toward the future. The second pattern indicated that achieved
vocational identity is inversely related to other vocational identity
statuses. Furthermore, this second pattern of relations indicates that
achieved vocational identity is associated with the capacity to be mind-
fully aware of and to experience pleasure in the present, while making
connections between current behavior and future outcomes and not
viewing the past in negative terms. These results only partially support
what was expected based on previous research on time perspective and
global identity statuses (Laghi et al., 2013; Marcia, 1993; Rappaport et
al., 1985). Accordingly, these results underscore the distinctiveness of
vocational identity from global identity (Goossens, 2001).
The first variate, characterized by diffuse identity status, an adverse
view of the past, and a tendency to not look toward the future, only
partially matched our expectations. Consistent with Laghi et al. (2013)
and Marcia (1993), we anticipated that diffuse vocational identity would
be inversely related to future time perspective, while being positively
associated with present-fatalism and viewing the past negatively. How-
ever, although the lack of future time perspective is evident, the views
on the past proved to be a significant contributor to the variance in
diffusion, whereas the present time perspectives had no bearing. It is
possible that people with a diffused vocational identity may be preoc-
cupied with negative past experiences or at least construct the past in
such aversive terms that it may be difficult for them to engage in ca-
reer exploration or contemplate a vocational future worth pursuing or
committing to it. Indeed, this domination of the past in the absence of
thinking about the future may lead to a lack of motivation to engage in
career exploration. Furthermore, this pattern of time perspectives may
indicate that vocational identity diffusion is associated with a degree of
psychological distress. Research has examined the relationships between
time perspective and psychopathology (van Beek, Berghuis, Kerkhof, &
Beekman, 2011). Results indicated that a past-negative time perspec-
tive was positively associated with self-reported symptoms of depression
and suicidality, whereas past-positive and future time perspective were
inversely related to such symptoms. It is possible that vocational identity
diffusion is associated with a degree of hopelessness and helplessness
that may contribute to the indifference toward work and career that
typifies this vocational identity status.
The second variate was characterized by vocational identity achieve-
ment being inversely related to the other vocational identity statuses
and past-negative and present-fatalistic time perspectives while being
positively associated with present-hedonism and mindfulness. This
result only partially conformed to our expectations. Here it appears
that achievement of vocational identity is associated largely with the
present time perspective. Specifically, from the standpoint of the time

120 The Career Development Quarterly JUNE 2015 • Volume 63

perspective, the vocational identity achievement is associated with mind-
ful awareness of the present; that is, being able to enjoy the here and
now while acknowledging a connection between current behavior and
future consequences. Furthermore, there is tendency to not view the
past in negative terms. This differed from diffuse vocational identity,
which showed no association with present oriented time perspectives
and a general tendency to view the past negatively. This overall pattern
suggests that attuning to the present in terms of what is pleasurable is
important to achieving a vocational identity in emerging adults. We find
it interesting that future time perspective played no role in vocational
identity achievement. The overall hedonic tone, found in the second
variate, could be construed to mean that vocational identity achievement
in this population is related to exploring and committing to whatever
emerging adults find enjoyable in relation to work. However, it should
be noted that beyond hedonism itself, there is a connection between
current behavior and future consequences and a mindful awareness of
the present. This is significant because these views on time are linked
to coping and emotion regulation (Boyd & Zimbardo, 2005; Hill &
Updegraff, 2012). Therefore, it is likely that being able to enjoy the
here and now while being able to self-regulate may be key in exploring
and identifying what emerging adults are interested in with regard to
work. Indeed, career guidance theories (e.g., Holland, 1997) have long
emphasized that a good fit between people and their work is at least in
part a function of the degree to which they find the nature of the job
interesting and enjoyable. Within this context, it would make sense that
commitment to an occupation would involve having the capacity to be
aware of, and attentive to, what one enjoys without a preoccupation
about past negative events.
Counseling Implications
Results of the current study have implications for counseling. Time
perspective, like vocational identity, develops over time (Seginer, 2009).
Furthermore, time perspective is malleable and has been demonstrated
to be responsive to intervention (Marko & Savickas, 1998). Thus,
because significant relations were found between the two variable sets,
interventions that focus specifically on time perspective may be useful
in facilitating vocational identity achievement. Raskin (1989) pointed
out that those with a diffuse identity generally do not voluntarily seek
out career counseling services unless they are referred by someone or
face some external pressure to do so, because they are indifferent to
making career choices. Diffusion may at least in part be associated with
aversive views of the past and an absence of thinking about the future.
Therefore, counselors may need to attend to these aspects in clients’
views on time to begin the process of having clients engage in career
exploration. Considering that an aversive view of the past coupled
with a lack of concern for the future may be part of the reason for the
indifference toward career exploration, specific time perspective inter-
ventions focusing on the past may be warranted (Zimbardo & Boyd,
2008; Zimbardo, Sword, & Sword, 2012), in addition to the enhance-
ment of future time perspective (Marko & Savickas, 1998). Orienting
individuals experiencing vocational identity diffusion toward the future

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may promote career awareness and the subsequent desire to engage in
career exploration and planning (Savickas, 2002). Vocational identity
achievement appears to be largely related to a hedonic tone in which
one has the capacity to be mindful and experience both joy and a sense
of control in the present. Thus, career exploration could be enhanced
through specific interventions. In particular, mindfulness-based interven-
tions (Germer, 2005; Jacobs & Blustein, 2008) can facilitate awareness
of the here and now with an emphasis on focusing attention to activities
that the client finds enjoyable. Enhancing mindfulness could facilitate the
career exploration and commitment process for those already motivated
to engage in these processes.

Research Implications
Results of the current study have implications for future research on
identity. The patterns of relations identified in the present study suggest
that time perspective in relation to vocational identity differ somewhat
from what has been reported in relation to global identity. One of the
interesting findings from the current study was that achieved vocational
identity does not appear to be related to future time perspective. Previ-
ous work has indicated that future time perspective is evident in achieved
global identity (Laghi et al., 2013; Marcia, 1993; Pulkkinen & Rönkä
1994; Rappaport et al., 1985). One possible explanation for this finding
could be that global identity encompasses other ideological domains (e.g.,
politics, religion) and lifestyle and interpersonal domains. It could be that
these domains work synergistically to orient individuals toward the future.
Alternatively, achieving identity in all domains may require the capacity
for future time perspective. Future research in this area may do well to
compare and contrast time perspectives in relation to identity statuses in
differing identity domains. Considering that vocational identity achieve-
ment seems to be associated largely with a present-focused hedonic, albeit
self-regulated, tone, it does call into question whether vocational com-
mitments are in fact wise for emerging adults. Recent research suggests
that people tend to view themselves in the present as being at a pinnacle
of their development and underestimate how much they will change in
the future (Quoidbach, Gilbert, & Wilson, 2013). Furthermore, people
tend to view their present life as the best possible one, with respect to the
past and future (Gomez, Grob, & Orth, 2013). Thus, emerging adults
may be exploring and committing to an occupational trajectory wherein
they believe that they are on the right track based on current self-views.
This may, in part, explain voluntary midcareer transitions, considering
that early career choices are based on how one felt about the present
during emerging adulthood. Thus, research examining time perspective
and vocational identity with people in the maintenance stage (Savickas,
2002) of their career could potentially help us understand why some
chose to continue in their current occupation and why some may decide
to transition into a different occupation.
Future research in the area of time perspective and vocational identity
should further examine the nature of the relationship between time
perspective and vocational identity statuses. Longitudinal research
could examine if there are reciprocal effects between time perspective
and vocational identity. For example, Luyckx, Lens, Smits, and Goos-

122 The Career Development Quarterly JUNE 2015 • Volume 63

sens (2010) reported that the present and future time perspectives and
identity styles (similar to identity statuses) were mutually reinforcing
over a 4-month period in a sample of college students. A similar study
could examine whether such reciprocity is evident with time perspective
and vocational identity. Another area of future research could examine
whether the efficacy of time perspective interventions that we recom-
mended are in fact useful in developing and facilitating an achieved vo-
cational identity. Such a study would be especially relevant if additional
research found that the relationship between vocational identity status
and time perspective is in fact reciprocal over time.

Limitations
The current study has some limitations. First, the nature of the study is
correlational, and no cause-and-effect statements can be made. However,
the patterns of relations suggest that differences in vocational identity
statuses appear in part to be because of differing time perspectives. Sec-
ond, participants in the study consisted mostly of European American
women enrolled in college, so the selected sample limits generalizability
of the findings. Previous research has indicated sex and cross-cultural
differences in time perspectives (Andretta, Worrell, Mello, Dixson, &
Baik, 2013; Ely & Mercurio, 2011; Mello & Worrell, 2006; Sircova et
al., 2007; Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). However, research examining sex
differences in vocational identity status have not been found, and re-
search examining cross-cultural differences and similarities in vocational
identity is lacking (Skorikov & Vondracek, 2007). Thus, future research
relating to time perspective and vocational identity should incorporate
more diverse and noncollege participants to see if the same pattern of
results emerge. Such research could be especially informative regarding
any cross-cultural similarities or differences in vocational identity.

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