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DEPARTMENT OF ORTHODONTICS
Growth and development of the Mandible
Dr F.J. du Raan
2921936
September 2017
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................ 4
Embryology and prenatal development ................................................................................................................. 6
Development by intra‐membranous ossification ............................................................................................... 6
Development of secondary cartilages .............................................................................................................. 10
Pre‐Natal remodelling of the mandible ............................................................................................................ 12
Anatomy of the mandible ..................................................................................................................................... 14
Functional Units ................................................................................................................................................ 14
Lateral view: ..................................................................................................................................................... 15
Anterior view .................................................................................................................................................... 16
Medial view: ..................................................................................................................................................... 16
Posterior view ................................................................................................................................................... 17
Post‐natal development of Mandibular growth ................................................................................................... 18
The Condylar Head ........................................................................................................................................... 19
The Condylar Neck ............................................................................................................................................ 20
The Posterior margin of the Ramus .................................................................................................................. 23
The Sigmoid Notch ............................................................................................................................................ 24
The Coronoid Process ....................................................................................................................................... 26
Buccal side of the Ramus .................................................................................................................................. 30
Lingual side of the Ramus ................................................................................................................................. 31
The Antegonial region ...................................................................................................................................... 33
The Mandibular Body ....................................................................................................................................... 34
The Trihedral Eminence .................................................................................................................................... 39
The Mandibular Arch ........................................................................................................................................ 40
The chin area .................................................................................................................................................... 41
Summary of post‐natal growth ......................................................................................................................... 43
Condylar Growth mechanisms ............................................................................................................................. 44
Dimensional changes ............................................................................................................................................ 49
Change in width ................................................................................................................................................ 50
Change in length ............................................................................................................................................... 51
Changes in Length ............................................................................................................................................. 51
Rotational changes ........................................................................................................................................... 52
Magnitude of Growth in the Mandible ................................................................................................................. 53
Ricketts principle of arcial growth of the Mandible ............................................................................................. 57
Genetic control of mandibular growth ................................................................................................................. 63
Mandibular height ............................................................................................................................................ 63
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Mandibular Prognathism .................................................................................................................................. 64
Effect of treatment on Mandibular Growth ......................................................................................................... 65
Effect of Removable functional appliances ...................................................................................................... 65
Effect of Fixed Functional Appliances ............................................................................................................... 67
Effect of fixed functional appliances in combination with Multi‐bracket Appliance ........................................ 69
Effects of Chin‐cup therapy on Mandibular growth ......................................................................................... 70
Developmental Abnormalities .............................................................................................................................. 73
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................ 77
References ............................................................................................................................................................ 78
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INTRODUCTION
An understanding of the biological principles related to the development,
growth, and adaptation of the structures composing the craniofacial complex is
essential for attaining competency within the field of orthodontics.
Emphasis for the advanced practice of orthodontics is placed on the hard
tissues comprising the craniofacial regions, the skeletal structures, and the
teeth because these are the primary elements that the orthodontist addresses
during treatment.
The mandible is an osteological component of the splanchno/ viscerocranium,
the lower face and the Oral apparatus. (Figure 1)
As can be seen in the schematic, the mandible has an important anatomic and
functional role to play, and a thorough understanding of its growth and
development, and the effect that treatment can have on its development and
function is of crucial importance to the clinician.
Figure 1: The division of the craniofacial skeleton into anatomic and functional regions.
Viewed from a functional perspective, mandibular development provides the
basis for normal occlusal relationships and the production of significant
masticatory force.
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Through increases in the size of the ramus, body, alveolar processes and the
eruption of teeth, the growth of the mandible occurs in parallel with that of
the nasomaxillary complex and dentition.
This reciprocal growth is essential if proper occlusion is to be achieved and an
in‐depth understanding of this growth is necessary during daily clinical
practice.
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EMBRYOLOGY AND PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
The mandible develops bilaterally within the mandibular processes of the first
branchial arch, where it is preceded by the cartilage of the primary
cartilaginous skeleton, Meckel's cartilage.
Each embryonic mandibular process contains the rod like cartilaginous
Meckel’s cartilage core, which is an extension of the chondrocranium into the
viscerocranium, and its accompanying inferior alveolar artery, vein, and nerve.
Meckel's cartilage takes no direct part in the formation of the corpus of the
mandible, but acts as a support not only for the mandibular nerve but for the
membrane bone which will develop later.
Proximally, Meckel’s cartilage articulates with the cartilaginous cranial base in
the petrous region of the temporal bone, where it gives rise to the malleus and
incus bones of the inner ear.
Meckel’s cartilage completely disappears by approximately 24 weeks
gestation, remaining in remnant form as the dense sphenomandibular
ligament and giving rise to the malleus and incus.
(Goose & Appleton 1982; Graber et al. 2011)
DEVELOPMENT BY INTRA‐MEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION
The first structure to develop in the region of the lower jaw is the mandibular
division of the trigeminal nerve that precedes the ectomesenchymal
condensation forming the mandibular arch. The prior presence of the nerve
has been postulated as requisite for inducing osteogenesis by the production
of neurotrophic factors. This mandibular ectomesenchyme must interact
initially with the epithelium of the mandibular arch before primary ossification
can occur.(Geoffrey H. Sperber 2001)
By 6 weeks gestation, a condensation of mesenchyme occurs in the angle
formed by the division of the inferior alveolar nerve and its incisor and mental
branches. At 7 weeks, a centre of ossification appears in the perichondral
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membrane lateral to Meckel’s cartilage (note that ossification of the mandible
takes place in membrane lateral and adjacent to Meckel’s cartilage, and not
endochondrally within Meckel’s cartilage itself). (Figure 2) (Nanci 2003)
Intramembranous ossification of the body of the mandible starts as a mass of
fibrous tissue lateral to the bifurcation of the incisive and mental nerves and
proceeds distally toward the mental symphysis and proximally up to the region
of the mandibular foramen (Figure 3). As it does so, Meckel’s cartilage begins
to degenerate and involute as the infero‐alveolar neurovascular bundle
becomes enveloped by the developing mandibular bone.
Figure 2: Histological section showing Meckel’s Cartilage (MC) medial to the developing
Mandible (M). MST = masseter muscle.
Figure 3: Diagram showing the relationship of Meckel's cartilage to the mandibular nerve
and the site where membrane bone formation is initiated.
The spread of membrane bone encloses the mental nerve in a groove and
forms a plate extending laterally to the inferior alveolar nerve.
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From below the groove containing the nerve, bone formation extends beneath
the incisive nerve and upwards between the incisive nerve and Meckel's
cartilage.
The groove containing the mental nerve becomes the mental foramen by the
extension of bone over the nerve. With the formation of bone over the incisive
nerve, the incisive canal is formed.(Goose & Appleton 1982; Nanci 2003)
The ramus of the mandible develops by a rapid spread of ossification
posteriorly into the mesenchyme of the first arch, turning away from Meckel's
cartilage. This point of divergence is marked by the lingula in the adult
mandible, the point at which the inferior alveolar nerve enters the body of the
mandible. Figure 4
Figure 4: Spread of mandibular ossification away from Meckel's cartilage at the lingula.
Bone formation spreads backwards, resulting in a plate lateral to the
inferior dental nerve. At this stage, the developing dental lamina is remote
from the bone of the mandible (Figure 5).
Later, as the tooth germs differentiate, they will become enclosed by the
lateral and medial plates of the mandibular bone. These plates will extend
above the level of the roof of the canals for the incisive and inferior dental
nerves to form the alveolar plates.
As a result, the tooth germs become enclosed in a trough which is later divided
by septa extending mediolaterally to form crypts or alveoli.
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Figure 5: Histological section through the developing mandible, showing the dental germ
lying outside of the developing mandibular bone. MC, Meckel's cartilage; ∙ MB, membrane
bone of mandible; IFD, inferior dental nerve; TG, tooth germ.
The bone of the two halves of the mandible comes into close relationship in
the midline where they are separated by fibrous tissue to form a symphysis
in which nodules of the remnants of Meckel's cartilage may be seen until
birth.
Complete bony union to form a synostosis is not complete until the end
of the first year after birth.
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DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY CARTILAGES
By approximately 10 ‐12 weeks gestation, secondary cartilages appear. These
are the symphysial, angular, coronoid and condylar cartilages.
The symphysial and coronoid cartilages disappear before birth.
The most important cartilage in relation to the development and growth of the
mandible is the condylar cartilage.
As the cartilage comprising the mandibular condyle arises “secondarily” within
a skeletogenic membrane and apart from the primary embryonic cartilaginous
anlagen, it is referred to as a secondary cartilage.
Secondary cartilage has the characteristics of both intramembranous bone and
certain histologic and functional features of hyaline growth cartilage.
Secondary cartilage is formed in areas of high stresses and strains within
intramembranous bones, as well as in areas of rapid development and growth
of bone.
Within the craniofacial complex, the angular and the coronoid processes of the
mandible also may exhibit the presence of secondary cartilage because these
are sites of very rapid bone growth associated with the function of the muscles
of mastication.(Graber et al. 2011)
The condylar cartilage attains its fullest form at about 12 weeks of intrauterine
life and the condylar process appears as a separate carrot‐shaped blastema of
cartilage extending from the ramus proximal to the mandibular foramen and
extending up to articulate with the squamous (membranous) portion of the
developing temporal bone. (Goose & Appleton 1982; Graber et al. 2011)
The articulation between the condylar cartilage and the squamous portion of
the temporal bone becomes apparent as the temporomandibular joint (TMJ)
by about 12 weeks gestation (Figure 6).
The condyle grows rapidly at its distal end both appositionally and interstitially.
By 14 weeks endochondral ossification is taking place and the bone thus
formed is indistinguishable from the membrane bone of the mandibular
corpus.
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The of condylar cartilage is converted quickly to bone by endochondral
ossification, so that at 20 weeks only a thin layer of cartilage remains in the
condylar head.
This remnant of cartilage persists until the end of the second decade of life,
providing a mechanism for growth of the mandible, in the same way as the
epiphyseal cartilage does in the limbs.(Nanci 2003)
Figure 6: Histologic section of human foetus, showing the relation of the condylar cartilage
to the squamous portion of the temporal bone. MCC = Mandibular condylar cartilage; CP,
coronoid process; AP, angular process;
Histologic analysis of the human TMJ has demonstrated progressive changes in
the thickness of cartilage and as such the growth activity of the condyle
cartilage throughout development.(Graber et al. 2011; Lubsen et al. 1985)
These changes appear to be coordinated with functional changes associated
with occlusal development.
In general, the growth‐related layers of the condylar cartilage begin as a
relatively thick structure in the neonate (1.25 to 1.5 mm thick) but become
much thinner (0.3 mm) by the mixed dentition stage. The cartilage remains
generally thin but well defined and actively growing in the permanent
dentition stage until, by age 20 to 30 years, the cartilage essentially disappears
and the condyle is capped by a bony plate.
The coronoid cartilage appears at about 4 months of development, located at
the anterior border and top of the coronoid process. Coronoid cartilage is a
transient growth cartilage and disappears long before birth.
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The symphysial cartilages appear in the connective tissue between the two
ends of Meckel's cartilage, but independent of it. They are obliterated within
the first year after birth. (Nanci 2003)
PRE‐NATAL REMODELLING OF THE MANDIBLE
(Enlow et al. 1975)
The beginning foetal mandible, as in the earliest growth stages of the other
bones of the skull, initially has outside surfaces that are entirely depository in
character.
At about 10 weeks, however, resorption begins around the rapidly expanding
tooth buds and is present thereafter.
By 13 weeks, distinct resorptive fields are becoming established:
on the buccal side of the coronoid process,
on the lingual side of the ramus, and
on the lingual side of the posterior part of the corpus.
The anterior edge of the ramus is already resorptive,
The posterior border is depository.
By 26 weeks, the basic growth and remodelling pattern that continues into
postnatal development is seen except, notably, in the incisor region (Figure 7).
In the foetal and early postnatal mandible, the entire labial side of the anterior
part of the corpus is depository.
The foetal mandibular corpus grows and lengthens mesially as well as distally
in conjunction with the establishment of the primary dentition.
The lingual side of the foetal corpus in the incisor region is resorptive after
about the 15th week. This contributes to a forward growth movement of the
entire incisor region of the corpus.
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Before the fifth or sixth year of childhood, the alveolar bone on the labial side
in the forward part of the arch undergoes a reversal to become resorptive, and
the lingual side becomes uniformly depository.
This change occurs in conjunction with the lingual direction of incisor
movement in the child 's mandible. From this time, the chin begins to take on
progressively more prominent form; the mental protuberance continues to
grow anteriorly, while the alveolar bone above it moves posteriorly until the
lower permanent incisors reach their definitive positions.(Enlow et al. 1975)
Figure 7: Mandible in the last trimester of foetal development. Dark stippling represents
resorptive fields, and light stippling indicates depository fields.
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ANATOMY OF THE MANDIBLE
Each half of the mandible is characterized anatomically by: (Figure 8)
a condyle, which articulates with the temporal bone to make up the
TMJ;
a ramus, which extends roughly vertically‐inferiorly from the TMJ and
provides insertions for the muscles of mastication; and
a corpus, or body, which extends roughly horizontally anteriorly to
provide a base for the mandibular dental arch and house the inferior
alveolar neurovascular bundle.
FUNCTIONAL UNITS
The anatomic structures of the mandible can also be considered in terms of 5
overlapping functional units.(Graber et al. 2011)
1. The mandibular condyle is closely related to the articular function of the
TMJ and movements of the mandible. At the same time, the condylar
cartilage also plays a significant role in mandibular growth.
2. The gonial region of the mandible, at the inferior aspect of the ramus, is
related to the function of the masseter and medial pterygoid complex of
muscles.
3. The coronoid process is primarily related to the temporalis muscle.
Variation in the growth and form of each of these regions is due in large part
to variation in the function of the muscles of mastication.
4. The alveolar process of the mandible functions to provide support for the
dentition.
5. The body of the mandible, extending from the mandibular foramen to the
mental process, provides support and structural connection between the
various functional components of the mandible.
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Figure 8: Supero‐lateral view of the Mandible
LATERAL VIEW:
In Figure 8, you can see landmarks of the mandible. The tip of the chin area is
called the mental protuberance.
Just posterior is the mental foramen, from which the mental blood vessels and
nerves for the lower lip and chin emerge (branches of the inferior alveolar
arteries and nerves). This foramen is just about at a position that divides the
body of the mandible below from the alveolar process above it.
The point where the inferior border of the mandible turns upward is the
mandibular angle. This is the dividing line between the body and the ramus.
Moving up along the posterior border of the ramus, we come to the condyle of
the mandible, which articulates with the temporal bone to form the TMJ.
When viewed from above, the condyle is roughly ovoid in outline, its
anteroposterior dimension (approximately 1 cm) being roughly half its medio‐
lateral dimension. The medial aspect of the condyle is wider than the lateral.
The long axis of the condyle is not at right angles to the ramus, but diverges
posteriorly. Thus, the lateral pole of the condyle lies slightly anterior to the
medial, and if the long axes of the two condyles are extended, they meet at an
obtuse angle (approximately 145°) at the anterior border of the foramen
magnum. (Figure 9)
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The slightly narrowed area just beneath the condyle is known as the condylar
neck.
In front of the condyle, the depression in the ramus is called the coronoid
notch or mandibular notch.
Just anterior to this notch is the coronoid process, which is the attachment for
one of the muscles of mastication, the temporalis.
The anterior border of the ramus ends in the external oblique line.(Brand et al.
2003)
Figure 9: Superior view of the Mandible
ANTERIOR VIEW
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Just in front of the foramen and running forward and down is the mylohyoid
line, the attachment for the mylohyoid muscle.
Below the mandibular foramen is the mylohyoid groove for the passage of the
mylohyoid nerve and vessels to the mylohyoid and anterior digastric muscles.
Toward the anterior part of that line are two depressions in the bone, one
above the line and one below it. These are the sublingual and submandibular
fossae (housing the sublingual and submandibular salivary glands).
The area immediately behind the third molars is referred to as the retromolar
triangle.
The lateral margin of this triangle is the external oblique line, and the medial
margin of this triangle is the internal oblique line. (Brand et al. 2003)
Figure 10: Postero‐medial view of the Mandible
POSTERIOR VIEW
Posterior view in Figure 10.
At the midline are two small projections, the superior and inferior genial
tubercles or mental spines, attachments for muscles that aid in tongue
movement and swallowing‐the genioglossus and geniohyoid muscles.
Just below these projections at the inferior border of the mandible are the
digastric fossae, also points of attachment for the anterior digastric muscle.
The lingula (meaning “little tongue”) is a projection of bone that partially
covers the opening of the mandibular foramen. This is a point of attachment
for the sphenomandibular ligament.(Brand et al. 2003; Norton 2011)
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POST‐NATAL DEVELOPMENT OF MANDIBULAR GROWTH
The mandible, at birth is small, with short ramus, large gonial angle, and flat
mandibular fossa with no articular eminence. The condyles are at the level of
the occlusal plane.
It appears as if mandibular growth is forward and downwards, and as such one
could suppose that the mandible enlarges by growth at the anterior end.
Studies by Brash and Brodie ( Brash 1924; Brodie Adamson 1941, as cited in
Enlow 1964), has however shown that growth mainly happens in a posterior
direction, with forward and downwards displacement. Figure 11
Figure 11:
Growth of the mandible was thought to occur principally by growth at condyle.
Superior and posterior growth of condyle presses against the glenoid fossa/
cranial base providing an anterior thrust to displace the lower jaw forward
(similar to growth of maxilla). The concept of posterior growth and anterior
displacement leads to primary displacement.
Moss considers that it is not the growth of condyle that leads to anterior
displacement, instead, the expansion of orofacial capsule leads to passive
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displacement of mandible with secondary adaptive growth in the condyle.
(Moss & Salentijn 1969)
Although the main translatory growth is by addition at the condyle and
posterior border of the ramus, there are numerous localized growth sites that
grows and remodels during the growth process of the mandible.
The post‐natal growth of the Mandible will be discussed in terms of the
changes taking place in the different regions. The majority of the information
was obtained from the handbook: “The Human Face” by Donald H. Enlow
(Enlow 1968)
THE CONDYLAR HEAD
The cartilaginous covering on the condyle serves a dual function:
1. It represents an articular cartilage (although covered by a fibrous
membrane), and
2. It functions as a growth cartilage.
The condyle is a major site of growth involved in the upward and backward
elongation of the ramus, in combination with coordinated growth activity by
the periosteum and endosteum in cortical parts of the condyle, neck, and
ramus.
The Condylar growth centre is however, not the primary centre for the
growth of the entire mandible and is not responsible for governing overall
mandibular growth.
The condylar growth mechanism represents a means for providing direct
linear growth in a field involving pressure, and it is a composite of articular
endochondral (pressure adapted) growth and membranous (cortical) growth.
The endochondral and membranous growth are mutually interdependent
processes of enlargement, and produces a movement of the entire condyle
that results in the elongation of the ramus.
The cartilage plate moves by growth on one side and bone replacement on the
other.
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As it grows, the deeper portion of the proliferating cartilage becomes
continuously replaced by endochondral bone, thereby producing medullary
bone additions in the condyle and its neck. This process is continuous, and as
the condyle moves by growth, former levels of the condyle become
simultaneously converted into the elongating neck.
The outer cortical plate is produced by the activity of the periosteum and
endosteum independent of the growth cartilage but in conjunction with it.
THE CONDYLAR NECK
As growth progresses, bone from one level in the condyle‐upper ramus region,
gets incorporated into the next level lower down.
In sequence: Condylar head parts incorporated into new upper Condylar neck
Upper parts of the neck undergo remodelling conversion into the new lower
parts The lower portions receive direct remodelling changes into the ramus
proper.
This is a simultaneous, continuous and repetitive process. The successive
growth movements involve the principle of area relocation, which represents
the basic factor that underlies these remodelling processes.
With each successive addition of new bone at the free end of the condyle, all
the levels down the line in the neck and ramus necessarily receive relocation in
their relative positions. Each local level, as it becomes repositioned, undergoes
adjustments in shape and dimensions to convert it into the next level in
sequence.(Enlow 1968)
The condylar head is much broader than the neck beneath it. Because the neck
is sequentially derived from the head by remodelling, a marked reduction in
width takes place. (Figure 12)
Reduction is brought about by surface resorption of bone on periosteal side of
the cortical plate together with continued, proportionate deposition of bone
on the endosteal surface.
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The entire cortex drifts in an endosteal direction as
(I) the head moves progressively away from the existing neck, and
(2) the neck becomes lengthened by this process of endosteal growth
behind the moving head.
Figure 12: The diameter of the narrow condylar neck is progressively reduced from the
wider dimensions of the posterior‐moving condyle.
The buccal and lingual cortical plates move in an inward, medullary direction
toward each other as the transverse dimensions of the neck become reduced.
The growth and remodelling processes in the condylar neck follow the V
principle. New bone is added to the inner side of the V ‐shaped neck while
bone is removed from the outer (periosteal) surface at the same time (Figure
13).
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Figure 13: Inward growth of the buccal and lingual cortices is accomplished by a
combination process of periosteal resorption (‐) and endosteal deposition
( + ). This is an example of the V principle
The V mechanism of remodelling provides three simultaneous growth
functions.
1. It moves the entire structure in a progressive course toward its free
(wide) end, causing a continuous change in position of the condyle and
neck to keep pace with the moving condylar growth cartilage.
2. Second, it produces an overall enlargement of the whole V‐shaped
region proportionate to the increasing size of the mandible as a whole.
3. Third, it results in a sequential reduction of the tapering wide part of
the head and neck into more narrow areas as the latter becomes
relocated into the former. This reduction is produced by cortical growth
in an endosteal manner.
The endosteal manner of cortical growth involves a process of cancellous
compaction which brings about a conversion of medullary spongy bone into
compact cortical bone. The inward drifting cortex continuously moves into
areas occupied by medullary cancellous bone, and deposition of endosteal
bone in the irregular spaces reduces their lumen size to that of ordinary
vascular canals.
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THE POSTERIOR MARGIN OF THE RAMUS
As the condyle moves obliquely in a posterior and superior direction, the
posterior border of the ramus becomes lengthened vertically.
At the same time, it receives proportionate additions of bone along its entire
backward facing margin, keeping pace with the posteriorly moving condyle.
This process involves rapid deposition of relatively large amounts of new fine
cancellous, nonlamellar bone because it produces one of the dominant growth
movements in the mandible.
The condylar neck, as described above, is composed largely of endosteal
(inward‐growing) bone. An outward, periosteal reversal occurs, however, as
the base of the neck on its posterior side grades into the posterior margin of
the ramus. Here, a superimposed zone of periosteal bone is formed over the
older endosteal cortex that was produced earlier during the period of condylar
reduction. Below this reversal junction at the base of the condylar neck, a cap
of uninterrupted periosteal deposits continues down the length of the ramus.
Below the level of the neck, periosteal bone is laid down on the buccal in
addition to the posterior surface as this part of the ramus now begins to shift
its axis in a lateral direction (Figure 14 and Figure 17). The depository posterior
border forms a cap of periosteal bone that extends onto the lingual surface of
the ramus for a short distance.
Together with the condylar head, this portion of the ramus represents one of
the most active growth areas in the whole mandible in terms of distance
covered and total amount of new bone deposited.
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Figure 14: Schematic showing deposition at posterior margin of the ramus.
THE SIGMOID NOTCH
Growth in this area is usually explained as an addition of bone on the posterior
border of the coronoid process with removal from the anterior face of the neck
(Figure 14). This is an inaccurate interpretation, however, as will be seen
below.
An outward periosteal reversal occurs on the anterolingual side of the neck
(Figure 15) so that a zone of periosteal bone extends downward from a level
just below the condylar head. This periosteal reversal on the anterior face of
the neck takes place much higher than on the buccal side. Thus, the greater
part of the sigmoid notch in this area, which forms a distinct ledge on its
lingual side, is actually depository in nature rather than resorptive
24 | P a g e
Figure 15: Schematic showing the growth directions of the Sigmoid notch region.
Periosteal bone is added onto the lingual surface of the ramus in the region
just below the sigmoid notch. These periosteal deposits continue down from
the condylar head around the lingual side of the sigmoid notch and then
extend up to the apex of the coronoid process. This occurs only on the lingual
surface of the ramus.
This results in a shift of the anterior base of the neck in a lingual direction.
Note that this surface faces lingually and cephalically, and continued
deposition of periosteal bone produces a corresponding growth movement in
both a lingual and a cephalic direction. This, in addition to bone deposition
along the entire superior surface of the sigmoid notch, leads to an increase in
the height of the ramus.
The surface that faces away from the growth direction, in the perimeter of the
notch, is the buccal side. This side undergoes corresponding removal by
periosteal resorption of the same bone that just recently was laid down on the
opposite lingual side but transposed to the buccal as the whole cortical plate
drifted in a cephalic and lingual manner.
Actual resorption is thus involved only on the buccal side, and this takes place
around the entire perimeter of the notch along the coronoid process as well as
on the neck. This resorptive process is concerned primarily with the upward
growth of this region rather than with a posterior movement.
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It is clear that growth activity is not confined to the various anterior and
posterior edges of the sigmoid notch, condylar neck, and coronoid process.
The cortex on the buccal surface is composed of endosteal bone, and the
cortical plate on the lingual side is composed of periosteal bone. They join at
the thin edge of the sigmoid notch to become a single cortex composed
entirely of periosteal bone that is produced on the lingual side and resorbed
from the buccal surface.
The posterior (backward) movement of the sigmoid notch is produced by
periosteal deposits on the entire lingual face of the coronoid process. This
surface is oriented so that it is also directed posteriorly.
At the same time, the elongating condylar neck is growing upward and
backward behind the moving head. This serves to extend the sloping posterior
margin of the sigmoid notch in an obliquely posterior direction while it
simultaneously moves upward because of its periosteal bone deposits.
THE CORONOID PROCESS
To produce a backward movement of the ramus in toto, it is apparent that its
anterior margin, including coronoid process, must undergo progressive
removal.
The growth movement of the coronoid process, as well as the entire ramus,
does not represent a simple backward shift that follows a single plane in a
straight posterior direction (Figure 14).
The apices of the paired coronoid processes move farther apart as they grow
superiorly. They become shifted posteriorly as the entire ramus grows
backward.
The basal part of the process moves laterally, but the forward portion of each
base shift toward the midline as it joins the mandibular body. These complex,
multidirectional growth movements all occur simultaneously. (Figure 16)
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Figure 16: The lingual surface of each coronoid process faces three general directions, and
growth proceeds simultaneously in each direction. The coronoid process grows and moves
cephalically, posteriorly, and lingually as pictured in these diagrams.
Figure 17: Schematic showing various growth areas, with dark stippled areas being
resorptive and light stippled areas being depository.
In Figure 17, The front edge of the coronoid process as well as the entire
forward half on the lingual side faces anteriorly. This direction is oriented away
from the general course of posterior growth. Thus, the forward‐facing border
27 | P a g e
and the lingual surface anterior to the temporal crest are both resorptive, and
their cortices are composed of endosteal compact bone. This growth pattern is
associated with the backward mode of growth of the entire ramus.
Note also that the greater portion of the lingual face of the process is
depository, and that its cortex is composed of periosteal bone.
The entire buccal surface, however, is resorptive in nature, and the inward‐
growing cortex on this side of the coronoid process is composed of endosteal
bone.
The two coronoid processes are positioned in such a manner that they form a
vertically oriented V. The movement of this V in a direction toward its wider
end involves new bone deposition on the inner side with bone removal from
its outer surface.
Thus, vertical growth and movement of the two coronoid processes are
accomplished in a manner corresponding to the simplified V principle (Figure
18)
Bone deposition on the lingual surfaces of these two processes (the inner sides
of the V) brings about growth in a cephalic direction and at the same time
serves to move their apices farther apart, thus enlarging and widening the
broad superior ends of the V.
The contralateral buccal surface (outer side of the V) of each coronoid process
is resorptive, and its cortical plate similarly moves in a cephalic direction by
addition of bone on the endosteal surface of the cortex.
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Figure 18: Schematic showing the V‐principle of growth of the Coronoid process. Note that
the two coronoid processes become larger and higher and that they grow farther apart at
their apices (3) by additions on the lingual surface ( 4') with contralateral removal from the
buccal side ( 4). Note also that this same mechanism of lingual deposition brings their bases
toward each other (5).
In summary, the combination of (A) lingual deposition and (B) buccal
resorption using the V‐principle produces:
drift of the coronoid process in upward and backward directions,
because the lingual side faces toward these directions and the buccal
side faces away from them.
The apices of these processes move apart in lateral directions as they
grow in a superior course.
A progressive relocation of the base of the coronoid process, adjacent
to its junction with the ramus, successively higher as it follows the
upward moving apices.
Levels formerly occupied by the upward moving coronoid base become
sequentially converted by remodelling into the ramus below it. Because the
ramus is more medial in position than is the coronoid process, a medial
direction of growth is involved (an example of "area relocation").
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BUCCAL SIDE OF THE RAMUS
Figure 19: Schematic showing the buccal side of the Ramus
Figure 19 ‐ The upper part of the mandibular ramus on its lateral side
possesses a resorptive periosteal surface. Its cortex is of endosteal bone,
continuous with the condylar neck, the sigmoid notch, and the coronoid
process on their lateral (buccal) sides.
Thus, the resorptive outer surface continues down from the neck onto the
upper part of the ramus, and the resorptive surface of the coronoid process
similarly extends down well onto the ramus.
A reversal occurs on a line marked by the prominent change in contour along
the ridge that projects downward from the neck across the upper portion of
the ramus. Below this line, the entire remainder of the ramus has an outer
periosteal surface that is depository.
Above this line of reversal, the buccal surface of the ramus faces generally
away from the superior and posterior course of ramus growth. Its periosteal
surface is therefore resorptive in nature.
Because the entire ramus is growing posteriorly, the thicker part is sequentially
shifted backward by new periosteal deposits, and as such the posterior edge of
the ramus, as it grades into the neck, is noticeably thicker than the region
located anterior to it just below the sigmoid notch.
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Below the reversal line, the contour on the buccal side of the ramus is oriented
so that its outer periosteal surface obliquely faces the backward direction of
ramus growth. This surface is depository, and the inner endosteal side of the
cortex is resorptive.
Together with deposition of bone along the entire length of the posterior
margin of the ramus, periosteal deposits on this large expanse of the buccal
side of the ramus bring about continued posterior growth and relocation. In
the anterior buccal part of the ramus, periosteal deposits continue directly
onto the prominent trihedral eminence of the mandibular body.
LINGUAL SIDE OF THE RAMUS
The part of the ramus on the lingual side located anteriorly and superiorly to
the oblique ridge extending down from the neck onto the ramus is
characteristically depository in nature (Figure 20). Progressive additions
function to produce growth in a superior as well as a posterior direction.
This depository surface continues obliquely across the ramus and grades into
the lingual tuberosity of the mandibular body superior to the mylohyoid line.
As in other parts of the ramus, growth in this area conforms to the V principle,
as well as the principle concerned with surfaces facing directions of growth.
The right and left halves of the mandible in this region form a horizontal V
configuration. This entire area moves progressively in a posterior direction and
increases in overall size.
This pattern of growth functions to progressively reduce the dimensions of the
narrower base of the V. The result is a shift of this part of the posteriorly
growing ramus in a medial (lingual) direction as it merges with the more
medially positioned mandibular body, which itself continues to elongate in a
posterior direction.
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Below the ridge of the mandibular neck and the mylohyoid line, the periosteal
surface on the lingual side of the ramus is predominantly resorptive (Figure
20).
Figure 20: Schematic showing the lingual surface of the Ramus
The resorptive zone on the lingual side of the condylar neck descends in an
obliquely forward direction and extends across the entire breadth of the ramus
into the resorptive submandibular fossa of the body.
In the neck, this surface‐resorptive zone is concerned with condyle‐to‐neck
remodelling and reduction in diameter. As the resorptive zone crosses the
ramus, however, its functional basis changes.
Note that the main portion of the ramus has a curvature following an anterior‐
posterior plane. The arc of this horizontal curvature is such that the posterior
border is positioned more medially than the midportion of the ramus, which is
curved in a buccal direction. At the midpoint of the ramus, near the foramen,
both the buccal and lingual surfaces are lateral to respective points on the
posterior border.
Comparison of the buccal and lingual sides of the ramus shows an opposing
pattern of depository and resorptive surfaces. In general, the upper part of the
ramus, including the neck and coronoid process, is depository on the lingual
side but resorptive on the buccal side. In the lower part of the ramus, the
opposite combination occurs.
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The entire length of the posterior edge of the ramus, as previously mentioned,
is depository.
The depository posterior border forms a cap of periosteal bone that extends
onto the lingual surface of the ramus for a short distance. This is related to the
inward (lingual) flare along the border.
A resorptive reversal occurs on the lingual side, and as the posteriorly moving
ramus becomes relocated in a backward course, the cortices are then shifted
toward the buccal side. This cap of periosteal bone is seen to extend noticeably
farther onto the lingual side of the ramus in the region of the enlarged and
downward growing gonial angle, and it continues forward to a point just
behind the antegonial notch. (Figure 20)
The prominent lingula and the postlingular fossa drift posteriorly by
continuous resorption in the fossa together with periosteal additions on the
backward moving surface of the lingula. A periosteal reversal occurs on the
crest of the lingula, and here the resorptive surface terminates. This moves the
protruding lingula in a posterior direction into the area previously occupied by
the fossa, which has simultaneously drifted posteriorly.
The periosteal reversal on the crest of the lingual is marked by thick periosteal
deposits that continue forward across the anterior part of the ramus on its
lingual side to the temporal crest and down onto the lingual tuberosity.
THE ANTEGONIAL REGION
It was seen that a prominent zone of actively growing periosteal bone caps the
posterior margin of the ramus.
This continues around the angle and base of the ramus forward to the
antegonial notch. At this point a reversal occurs, and the periosteal manner of
growth is interrupted in the segment occupied by this notch. On the inferior
margin of the notch, periosteal resorption takes place on the surface of an
endosteal cortex (Figure 21). The cortical plate drifts in a superior direction,
33 | P a g e
thus producing a local elevation that is responsible for the formation of the
antegonial notch.
Figure 21: Schematic showing the growth pattern in the Antegonial region (a)
It is apparent that as the gonial region moves posteriorly, areas formerly held
by this area become successively relocated into the area of the antegonial
notch. Because the base of this notch lies at a higher plane than the gonial
angle, the remodelling process just described serves to elevate the basal cortex
from the gonial level to that of the antegonial incisure.
The antegonial notch grades anteriorly into the body of the mandible. Areas
formerly occupied by the backward‐moving notch, in turn, become relocated
into the posterior part of the lengthening body. A reversal occurs at this point.
(Figure 20)
The elevating basal cortex in the notch now undergoes a change in which the
resorptive surface becomes depository. This lowers the level of the basal plane
to a level in line with the bottom of the downward‐growing body.
THE MANDIBULAR BODY
An important remodelling transition occurs at the junction between ramus and
body. This is a key process because it involves conversion of one major portion
of the mandible directly in to another.
Because the shape, disposition, and relationships differ markedly between the
ramus and body, this remodelling conversion involves an extensive series of
34 | P a g e
sequential changes that in the end provide a full mandibular arch which
simultaneously has become displaced in a forward manner. It also becomes
lowered to a position that accommodates the downward growth of the upper
Jaw.
In the superimposed mandibles pictured in Figure 22, several contrasting
relationships are seen between the two growth stages.
The mandible has enlarged in all dimensions. The predominant course of
growth movement, however, is posterior.
The right and left condyles have become only slightly separated.
The body has increased proportionately in breadth,
Both the body and the ramus have become significantly lengthened.
Note particularly that the body elongates into regions previously held by
the ramus, which in turn is moving in advance of the backward
lengthening body.
In this figure, the coronoid process and most of the ramus of the younger
bone are within the area occupied by the body of the older bone.
Figure 22: Schematic showing super‐imposition of a young and adult mandible
The body of the mandible is growing continuously into areas previously
occupied by the posteriorly moving ramus, while the ramus in turn becomes
progressively relocated behind the backward moving condyles and posterior
edge of the ramus.
The posterior portion of the body becomes consecutively converted from the
former ramus by direct structural remodelling due to the V mechanism of
growth.
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New bone deposits are added onto the lingual surface of the V‐shaped,
anterior portion of the ramus and posterior portion of the body as they both
move posteriorly toward the wide end of the V. (Figure 23)
Figure 23: Schematic showing the V‐principle of growth of the Mandible in the horizontal
plane.
Note that the entire mandibular body with its dental arch lies on an axis or line
positioned more lingually from the ramus (Figure 22). The relocation of the
ramus into the elongating body requires a shift in a lingual direction to carry
the lengthening posterior body into a symmetrical line with the axis of the
dental arch.
By the progressive addition of new periosteal bone on the lingual surface,
(which faces posteriorly and cephalically, similar to the actual growth
direction), the anterior part of the ramus grows and moves in a lingual
direction to accommodate alignment with the growing body.
The lingual addition of bone thus serves to bring the basal part of the V toward
the midline. This provides successive relocation of the ramus, during this
conversion, into the more lingual position of the elongating body and dental
arch.
The broad resorptive zone that begins on the lingual side of the neck just
beneath the condyle extends obliquely downward and forward across the
36 | P a g e
ramus and passes beneath the lingual tuberosity. It then continues forward to
about the level of the canine or first premolar (Figure 17).
Copy of Figure 17
In the forward part of the mandibular arch lingually, this resorptive zone
narrows progressively until it terminates. Its functional role is comparable to
that seen beneath the large lingual tuberosity. It provides:
(I) proportionate cortical drift in a buccal direction by the formation of
endosteal bone, and
(II) it undercuts the diminishing ledge found in this alveolar area. The
result is a lateral movement of the lingual cortex associated with the
widening of the mandibular arch and an elevation of its superior
portion as the entire arch becomes heightened.
This narrowing resorptive zone terminates as it enters the genial region
opposite the chin where contours and relationships change.
The entire genial area is characterized by periosteal bone deposition on this
lingual side.
On the buccal side, the whole mandibular arch is depository in nature except,
the mental region.
The entire basal portion of the arch is also depository. This enlarges the
inferior border of the mandible in a downward. The thickness of the basal
cortical plate is increased at the same time. (This downward growth of the
body is less extensive than the opposite upward manner of growth movement
in the alveolar.
37 | P a g e
In the posterior region of the body, the periosteal surface of the buccal cortex
is primarily depository. Its superior surface, is resorptive in conjunction with
the remodelling conversion from ramus to body.
The lingual tuberosity is depository, but the fossa beneath it is resorptive. The
inferior border is also resorptive in relation to remodelling changes in the
antegonial notch.
As sections are examined toward the chin, the resorptive zone on the lingual
side gradually becomes narrowed as periosteal deposits continue around the
basal margin progressively farther onto the lingual surface (Figure 24). The
prominent ridge extending forward from the lingual tuberosity becomes
correspondingly less prominent. In the genial region behind the mental
protuberance, this resorptive zone ends, and the lingual cortex becomes
entirely depository.
Figure 24: Schematic showing the complex remodelling patterns in the Body of the
Mandible. A "buccal drift" of the posterior mandibular body is seen in a, b, and c as bone is
added on the buccal side with corresponding resorption and endosteal bone formation on
the lingual side. An area of periosteal bone deposition on the lingual surface has produced
the lingual tuberosity. In the area of the chin (e) the cortex on both sides grows in a
generally lingual direction with some periosteal deposits being added at the apex of the chin
itself.
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THE TRIHEDRAL EMINENCE
The depository type of surface on the buccal side of the posterior body is a
continuation of the depository zone extending across the ramus below the
sigmoid notch and coronoid process. These periosteal deposits in the
posterior portion of the body produce the bulbous trihedral eminence (Figure
25).
On the inferior basal margin of the body in this region, the transition zone
between the antegonial notch and the body occurs, so that gradual coverage
by periosteal bone extends progressively farther around the base until it
completely caps it in the region of the last molar (Figure 24).
The sloping cortical ledge located above the trihedral eminence just lateral to
the molars shows a reversal where the ramus merges with the body. Here, the
resorptive surface on the anterior margin of the ramus changes to depository
periosteal cortex. The superiorly and laterally facing cortex of this ledge
receives continued bone deposits that move it upward, with the moving teeth,
and outward as the entire area becomes both lengthened and broadened.
Figure 25: Schematic showing the location of the Trihedral Eminence
39 | P a g e
THE MANDIBULAR ARCH
The various anterior‐posterior levels within the mandibular body undergoes a
sequential shift in positions as the whole body becomes lengthened.
Thus the “molar" level at an early growth stage, for example, is relocated to
become the “premolar" area of a later stage, as a consequence of the
elongation of the mandibular arch.
The bone supporting any tooth and the level of the mandible occupied by that
tooth do not represent the same actual bone tissue and level at succeeding
growth stages.
The drifting of teeth further contributes to the changing relationships that
occur during these continuous remodelling adjustments as the whole bone
grows.
Increase in height of alveolar bone accompanies eruption of teeth. With the
descent of the maxilla and separation of two bones, the mandibular anterior
teeth erupt superiorly and lingually.
Similar to maxilla, mandibular width completes first, followed by depth and
height.(Premkumar 2011).
The distinctive resorptive nature of the anterior edge of the ramus, as it
merges with the dorsum of the body, is sometimes described as the means by
which additional space for the third molar is provided. This is true, but the
relationship is necessarily more complex, because the primary function of this
resorptive anterior surface is its posterior movement in conjunction with the
backward growth of the entire ramus and conversion from ramus to body
during relocation.
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THE CHIN AREA
The diminutive chin of the young mandible becomes progressively more
prominent with increasing age. The growth changes that bring this about
involve a differential combination of surface resorption and deposition in the
different parts of the mandibular arch in the general region forward of the
bicuspids.
Growth patterns of the chin are quite variable (Figure 26), more so than in
most other parts of the mandible. Perhaps the most typical combination of
remodelling changes is seen in Figure 23‐e.
Figure 26: Common variations in endosteal‐periosteal cortical patterns. Solid white lines
indicate surfaces that grow by additions of periosteal deposits. Dotted lines represent
surfaces that undergo resorptive removal during growth and remodelling.
The protuberance itself is usually marked by deposits of periosteal bone. These
periosteal deposits encircle the base and continue onto the lingual side where
they extend for the full height of the lingual cortex in the genial region. The
maturation of the chin in shape and size proceeds slowly through the postnatal
period of facial growth.
As the mental protuberance grades into the alveolar region above it, a
characteristic reversal occurs. Here, the cortex is composed of typical
endosteal bone, and its external (periosteal) surface is resorptive.
The positioning of the reversal line varies, however, a factor that appears to be
associated with the marked variation in morphology and dimensions of this
41 | P a g e
region among different individuals and differing bony adjustments involved in
occlusion with the growing maxilla.
The combination of continued periosteal deposition around the base and apex
of the chin, together with periosteal resorption and endosteal deposition in
the alveolar region above it, serves to progressively enlarge the whole mental
protuberance and change its contour. (Figure 27).
The alveolar region undergoes cortical regression and moves posteriorly while
at the same time the protuberance continues to grow forward. This brings
about an increasing projection of the chin and emphasizes its prominence.
Figure 27: Left: Schematic of the Symphysis, showing deposition on the lingual surface
and resorption on the labial alveolar surface. Right: Deposition on the chin to accentuate
the prominence
Resorption of bone at the anterior alveolus thins the bone on the surface of
roots of lower anterior teeth. Danger of exposure of root is avoided by gradual
uprighting of lower incisors that happen with age.(Premkumar 2011)
The cortical region at or just above the chin is the only place on the entire
surface of the mandible that remains stable during postnatal growth. This is
the reason for it serving as a useful site for superimposing successive
radiographs.(Graber et al. 2011)
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SUMMARY OF POST‐NATAL GROWTH
Successive growth additions at the condyle, posterior border of the ramus,
etc., require corresponding remodelling adjustments throughout all parts of
the mandible in order to adapt dimensions and regional shape to these
increases. The changes involved occur simultaneously, and almost all surfaces
are active as these remodelling movements proceed in various directions
during overall growth.
Several major components in the posterior portions of the mandible become
progressively relocated in a general posterior course during growth. Thus, the
condyle, coronoid process, ramus, gonial angle, lingula and its fossa, lingual
tuberosity, posterior end of the body, trihedral eminence, and the antegonial
notch all become successively moved backward
They are sequentially repositioned, as each area moves into the old position of
the region just posterior to it. This pattern of consecutive movements
represents the essential plan of continued growth, and it is the basis for the
many remodelling processes associated with progressive mandibular
structuring. Figure 28
Figure 28: Schematic showing an overview of the growth directions of the Mandible.
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CONDYLAR GROWTH MECHANISMS
The mandibular condylar cartilage is a secondary cartilage that in subadult
individuals serves both as a site of growth and as a place of articulation.
The condylar cartilage represents an essential adaptation of the mandible,
allowing bone growth to occur at the condyle, which during function is in a
field of compression. This adaptation is necessary because the mandible is an
intramembranous bone, which in the skull grow via a periosteal mode of
osteogenesis within fields of tension on the surface periosteum, endosteum
and at sutures. Periosteal osteogenesis is not pressure‐adapted and
intramembranous bones are unable to grow within fields of compression.
During function, the mandibular condyle undergoes compressive loading
within the temporomandibular joint; therefore an adaptation is required
within this region to allow bone growth to occur. (Cobourne & DiBiase 2010)
Growth of the mandibular condyle is highly responsive to mechanical,
functional, and hormonal stimuli at the time of development and throughout
the growth period (Graber et al. 2011).
Due to its important role in the growth, function, and adaptation of the
mandible, it is important to consider the histomorphology of the condyle.
The secondary cartilage can be divided into two general layers: an articular
tissue layer and a subarticular growth layer.
The articular layer: This layer is continuous with the outer, fibrous layer of the
bilaminar periosteum encapsulating the condylar neck.
It consists of a largely avascular dense fibro elastic connective tissue whose
collagen fibres are oriented parallel to the articular surface.
The articular layer varies in thickness along the condylar head increasing in
thickness in the superior aspect of the condyle, where compressive forces
associated with mastication are the most.
The subarticular layer: Histomorphologically it is organized into a series of
layers that are related to the development and maturation of the skeletal
tissues.
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In general, at least three layers can be identified: (Figure 29)
The proliferative, or prechondroblastic, layer immediately deep to
the articular layer.
Its outer portion is composed of undifferentiated mesenchymal cells
that differentiate into skeletoplastic stem cells or prechondroblasts.
This layer appears densely packed with spindle‐shaped cells that
increase in size and become increasingly separated due to
production of intercellular matrix within the inner region of the
proliferative zone.
These mesenchymal cells provide the key to function of the condylar
cartilage because they are directly influenced by their local
environment.
During functional loading, they proliferate and grow, ultimately
differentiating into chondrocytes, which secrete cartilage. Once
differentiated, these condylar chondrocytes are unable to divide
further, becoming randomly arranged within the cartilage, reflecting
the multidirectional growth capacity of this region. (Cobourne &
DiBiase 2010)
The chondroblastic layer is composed of two subzones—the zone of
maturation and the zone of hypertrophy.
The chondroblastic layer contains larger, spherical, maturing
chondrocytes, with less extracellular matrix.
The cells hypertrophy, the nuclei become pyknotic, and the
cytoplasm is increasingly evacuated as the cells are encroached upon
by the endosteal region of the condyle.
The intercellular matrix begins to mineralize within the distal most
three to five layers of hypertrophying cells, and it is subsequently
eroded away by chondroblastic‐osteoclastic activity at the zone of
endochondral ossification. (Graber et al. 2011)
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Figure 29: Histologic section indicating the various layers of the secondary
cartilage in a growing mandibular condyle.
The absolute and relative size of the layers and their growth‐related activity
may vary, depending on the overall rate and amount of condylar growth and
on the functional requirements placed on the condyle.
In general, the combined growth‐related layers of the condylar cartilage begin
as a relatively thick structure in the neonate (1.25 to 1.5 mm thick) but become
much thinner (0.3 mm) by the mixed dentition stage. The cartilage remains
generally thin but well defined and actively growing in the permanent
dentition stage until, by age 20 to 30 years, the cartilage essentially disappears
and the condyle is capped by a bony plate. (Graber et al. 2011)
The mandibular condylar cartilage was initially considered to be a growth
centre with an intrinsic capacity for tissue‐separating growth. However, it is
now generally understood that growth of the mandibular condylar cartilage
is highly adaptive and responsive to growth in adjacent regions, particularly the
maxilla.
Experimental studies were conducted to assess the role that function and jaw
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position, in particular, might play in influencing the postnatal growth of the
mandibular condyle. (Petrovic 1973, as cited in Graber 2011) consistently
found a significant increase in the overall length of the mandible.
From these experiments, Petrovic and colleagues developed a “cybernetic”
model of mandibular growth regulation referred to as the “servosystem
hypothesis of mandibular growth” (Figure 30).
In this hypothesis, independent growth of the maxilla (A) creates a minor
occlusal deviation between the upper and lower dentition (B).
This occlusal deviation is perceived by proprioceptors (C), which provide a
signal to the muscles responsible for jaw protrusion to be tonically more active
(D), which causes the mandibular condyle to become slightly more anteriorly
located within the temporomandibular joint, thus stimulating condylar
growth (F).
Muscle function and the adaptive capacity of the condyle for growth are
enhanced by expression of hormonal factors (E), and thus condylar growth
may vary depending on the maturational and hormonal status of the
individual. (Carlson 2005)
Figure 30: Diagrammatic representation of Petrovic’s Servosystem Hypothesis.
It has been shown, that fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and insulin‐like growth
factor (IGF) are present in the matrix and cell surfaces of the condylar cartilage
47 | P a g e
and that they vary according to their specific location.
Less is known of the presence or importance of transforming growth factor‐
beta (Tgf‐β) or other growth factors, and knowledge of hormonal
influences on growth of the condylar cartilage is even more rudimentary and
somewhat contradictory.(Ramirez‐Yañez et al. 2005)
Several studies have begun to explore the effect of mandibular function and
position on mandibular growth at the condyle by using appliances that
replicate the effects (e.g. increased mitotic activity, cartilage thickness).
Fuentes and co‐workers (Fuentes et al. 2003) used an incisor‐borne
appliance that prompted a crossbite in growing rats and produced a
differential change in proliferation and cartilage thickness between
the crossbite and non‐crossbite sides. Gene expression for IGF‐1 and
FGF‐2 and their receptors in condylar cartilage was altered. The
changes in gene expression, which typically preceded the changes in
mitotic activity and cartilage thickness, were in most instances
opposite in direction between the crossbite and non‐crossbite sides.
Hajjar (Hajjar et al. 2003) found that rats fitted with an incisor‐borne
appliance that prompted anterior displacement of the mandible
exhibited increased expression of both IGF‐I and IGF‐II mRNA and
protein in the condylar cartilage.
Rabie and colleagues (Rabie & Hägg 2002; Tang et al.
2004)demonstrated the increased expression of:
o Sox9 (transcription factor Sox 9 is required for chondrocyte
differentiation and for expression of a series of cartilage‐
specific marker genes including types II, X, and XI collagens),
o Type II collagen, and
o Indian hedgehog (The findings suggested that Ihh acts as a
mediator of mechanotransduction that converts mechanical
signals resulting from anterior mandibular displacement to
stimulate cellular proliferation in condylar cartilage)
Even though animal studies show promising results of condylar growth after
stimulation with devices, as will be seen in the section on the effects of
treatment on mandibular growth, the effect in humans is less positive.
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DIMENSIONAL CHANGES
For the three planes of space in both the maxilla and mandible, there is a
definite sequence in which growth is “completed” Growth in width is
completed first, then growth in length, and finally growth in height.
Growth in length and height of both jaws continues through the period of
puberty. In both sexes, growth in vertical height of the face continues longer
than growth in length, with the late vertical growth primarily in the mandible.
Increases in facial height and concomitant eruption of teeth continue
throughout life, but the decline to the adult level often does not occur until the
early twenties in boys, somewhat earlier in girls. (Proffit et al. 2013)
Postnatal craniofacial growth follows a gradient of relative growth that ranges
between the neural and general somatic patterns (Proffit et al. 2013) Figure 31
Figure 31: The changing dimensions of the craniofacial complex.
Corpus length (Go–Gn) closely approximates the maturity pattern of midfacial
height; it remains more mature than ramus height throughout postnatal
growth. This supports the general principle that the vertical aspects of
craniofacial growth are less mature and have greater postnatal growth
potential than the anteroposterior aspects.
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Total mandibular length [Co–Me]) undergoes the greatest increases in
length: Approximately 25 mm and 30 mm for female and male,
respectively between 4 and 17 years of age,
followed by corpus length [Go–Pg]; approximately 18 mm and 22 mm
for females and males, respectively) and
ramus height [Co–Go]; approximately 14 mm and 17 mm for females
and males, respectively. (Graber et al. 2011)
CHANGE IN WIDTH
Growth in width of both jaws, including the width of the dental arches, tends
to be completed before the adolescent growth spurt and is affected minimally
if at all by adolescent growth changes. (Figure 31). For instance, intercanine
width is more likely to decrease than increase after age 12. There is a partial
exception to this rule, however. As the jaws grow in length posteriorly, they
also grow wider. For the maxilla, this affects primarily the width across the
second molars, and if they are able to erupt, the third molars in the region of
the tuberosity as well. For the mandible, both molar and bicondylar widths
show small increases until the end of growth in length. Anterior width
dimensions of the mandible stabilize earlier.(Proffit et al. 2013)
Figure 31: Average changes in mandibular canine and molar widths in both sexes during
growth. Molar widths are shown in blue, canine widths in green.
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Widening of the body of the mandible occurs through:
deposition of bone along the buccal surface of the mandibular corpus
and transverse rotation of the right and left corpii.
Expansion of the mandible also results from bony deposition along its
posterior surface, which, due to its posterolateral orientation, produces
a longer and wider mandibular corpus.
Growth in width of the superior aspect of the ramus is somewhat more
complex due to the substantial increases in height that occur. Viewed in
a coronal projection, the superior aspect of the ramus and coronoid
process are canted somewhat mediolaterally.
As the mandibular corpus and inferior aspect of the ramus increase in
width by deposition along the buccal surface, the buccal surface of bone
on the superior aspect of the ramus is resorptive, while the lingual and
superior surfaces of bone are depository(Enlow & Harris 1964).
CHANGE IN LENGTH
During the early years, condylar growth and remodelling of the superior
aspects of the ramus are directed posteriorly and superiorly, with roughly
equal amounts of growth in each direction. This orientation is important
because it rapidly increases corpus length to make room for the rapidly
developing dentition. After the first few postnatal years, growth of the
condyle and superior ramus slows down dramatically and changes orientation
toward a predominant superior direction.(Graber et al. 2011)
CHANGES IN HEIGHT
Because of the resorption of bone that normally occurs in the gonial region,
growth in the condylar region, leading to an increase in ramus height
(measured from gonion to condylion) is usually underestimated.
There is approximately 1mm of resorption at gonion for every 3 mm of
superior condylar growth (Buschang PH, Santos‐Pinto 1998).
While an adolescent spurt in vertical mandibular growth certainly occurs, a
pronounced spurt for the anteroposterior and transverse growth has not been
established.
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ROTATIONAL CHANGES
The concept of rotations will be dealt with in more detail during the Seminar:
Growth Rotations. In this section only a broad introduction will be given.
The mandible undergoes substantial amounts of true vertical rotation and
more limited, but definite, transverse rotation.
The typical pattern of rotation is forward/counter clockwise. This is due to
greater inferior displacements of the posterior than anterior aspects of the
mandible (Buschang & Santos‐Pinto 1998).
Rates of vertical mandibular rotation have been estimated to range between
0.4 and 1.3 deg/y, with significantly greater rates of rotation during childhood
than adolescence.
Although relatively few (<10%) children are “true” posterior rotators, up to
25% of adolescents have been reported to be posterior rotators (Spady M,
Buschang PH 1992 cited in Graber 2012). Greater amounts of true mandibular
rotation occur during the transition to the early mixed dentition than at any
time thereafter.
The mandible also rotates transversely due to greater expansion of the
posterior than of the anterior aspects of the two corpii. This type of rotation
has been demonstrated repeatedly in subjects with metallic implants and
represents expansion of basal bone. It has also been shown that, when viewed
from frontal projections, the right and left mandibular nerves are displaced
laterally throughout growth.
Transverse rotation is also age related, with greater amounts occurring during
childhood than during adolescence. The posterior aspect of the mandible
expands approximately 65% to 70% as much as the posterior maxilla expands
at the midpalatal suture (Spady et al. 1992 as cited in Graber 2011)
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MAGNITUDE OF GROWTH IN THE MANDIBLE
As in the rest of the craniofacial complex, sex differences in mandibular growth
are evident at the earliest ages and become pronounced during adolescence.
At birth, males have significantly larger mandibles than do females.
Sex differences, which are greatest for overall length, followed by corpus
length and ramus height, respectively, which range from 0 to 2 mm between 1
and 12 years of age, when males initiate their adolescent phase of growth.
Mandibular dimorphism increases to 4 to 8 mm by the end of adolescent
growth phase. (Spady et al. 1992, cited in Graber 2012).
The greatest changes in mandibular growth occur during infancy.
Overall length (condylion to gnathion [Co–Gn]):
o Increasing 15 to 18 mm during the first year,
o 8 to 9 mm during the second year,
o and then slowing down to increase approximately 5 mm during
the third year.
By 4.5 years of age, ramus height has attained approximately 64% and 70% of
its adult size for males and females, respectively. Figure 32.
Corpus length (Go–Gn) closely approximates the maturity pattern of midfacial
height; it remains more mature than ramus height throughout postnatal
growth. This supports the general principle that the vertical aspects of
craniofacial growth are less mature and have greater postnatal growth
potential than the anteroposterior aspects. Total mandibular length (condylion
to menton [Co–Me]) undergoes the greatest increases in length
(approximately 25 mm and 30 mm for female and male, respectively) between
4 and 17 years of age, followed by corpus length (gonion to pogonion [Go–Pg];
approximately 18 mm and 22 mm for females and males, respectively) and
ramus height (condylion to gonion [Co–Go]; approximately 14 mm and 17 mm
for females and males, respectively). Figure 33.
Because of the resorption of bone that normally occurs in the gonial region,
ramus height (measured from gonion to condylion) substantially
53 | P a g e
underestimates the actual amount of growth that occurs at the condyle. There
is approximately 1mm of resorption at gonion for every 3 mm of superior
condylar growth (Buschang & Santos‐Pinto 1998).
Figure 32: By 4.5 years of age, ramus height has attained approximately 64% and 70% of
its adult size for males and females, respectively. Corpus length (Go–Gn) closely
approximates the maturity pattern of midfacial height.
Figure 33: Mandibular growth changes between 4 and 17years of age of males and
females. (Adapted from Bhatia and Leighton as cited in Graber et al 2011)
54 | P a g e
Condylar Growth:
o During later childhood and adolescence, the condyle shows
substantially greater amounts of superior than posterior growth.
For every 1 mm of posterior growth, there is 8 to 9 mm of superior
growth. (Buschang et al. 1999)
o It has been estimated that the condyles of females and males grew
2 to 2.5 and 2.5 to 3.0 mm/y, respectively, during childhood and
adolescence, with the greatest rates occurring during the earlier
childhood years and during the adolescent spurt. (Figure 33)
Figure 33: Percentile curves for condylar growth of females and males. (Modified from
Buschang et al cited in Graber et al 2012)
The coronoid process and sigmoid notch follow similar growth patterns.
Between 7 and 15 years of age, biantegonial and bigonial widths increase
approximately 10 mm and 12 mm, respectively (Bhatia & Leighton 1993)cited
in Graber 2012).
Table 1 shows growth changes as obtained from the Michigan Growth Studies:
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Table 1: Growth changes in length and height of the mandible
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RICKETTS PRINCIPLE OF ARCIAL GROWTH OF THE MANDIBLE
In 1972 Ricketts published a paper, “A Principle of Arcial Growth of the
Mandible”, where the purpose was to explain a method for finding the arcial
growth of the mandible.(Ricketts 1972).
The essence of the principle is as follows: A normal human mandible grows by
superior‐anterior (vertical) apposition at the ramus on a curve or arc which is a
segment formed from a circle.
The radius of this circle is determined by using the distance from mental
protuberance (Pm) to a point at the forking of the stress lines at the terminus
of the oblique ridge on the medial side of the ramus (point Eva).
Early studies by Ricketts suggested that:
Tendencies toward squareness, heaviness and strength of the
mandibular ramus tended to be associated with forward development
of the chin and deep faces.
Obtusity, fragility and weakness; of the mandible seemed to contribute
to more downward or backward development of the symphysis in the
face.
He then developed a primary method of "prediction" of development.
By plotting a line through the long axis of the condyle and neck and extending
it to the lower border of the mandible, the bending of the mandibular form
during growth could be studied. Consequently, findings from this method
suggested that the technique could serve as a working hypothesis for growth
projection.(Ricketts 1957). The problem with this method was, however that
the lower border of the mandible undergoes resorption during normal growth
and development (as proven by Bjork and Enlow), and as such cannot be used
in long‐term mandibular growth prediction.
Ricketts had to identify stable points in the mandible during its development,
that could be used to determine a new, long‐term stable, Corpus Axis.
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This Corpus axis could then be used to describe the bending of the mandible
during growth.
He identified a point of reference at the ramal centre, which he called Xi
(Figure 34). It was found that the occlusal plane holds a strong tendency to
pass through Xi point. Xi also represents the entrance of the neurotrophic
bundle into the mandible.
Figure 34: Shows the method for the determination of Xi point. The deepest point
on the subcoronoid incisure or R1 is selected, and a second point R2 is selected directly
opposite that point on the posterior border of the ramus. R3 is picked at the depth of
the sigmoid notch, and. R4 is a point directly inferior on the lower border of the ramus.
By using these four points the centroid of the ramus (Xi) is selected by forming a
rectan1le and connecting the corners.
Secondly, Supra‐pogonion (Pm, for protuberance menti) was selected as the
most stable and useful reference for anterior‐most basal bone in the
mandible.
This is substantiated as a reference because it is located at a stress centre
(Ricketts); it is the site of a reversal line (Enlow & Harris 1964); and also it is
consistent with the findings from implant studies (Björk & Skieller 1983) which
indicated stable unchanging bone in this area of the chin.
Thirdly, a point at the bisection of the condyle neck as high as visible in the
cephalometric film below the fossa. This point was labelled "Dc".
Accordingly, by connecting Dc point with Xi point, a repeatable "condyle axis"
was established. Further, by connecting Xi to Pm, a "corpus axis" was
erected. (Figure 35).
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Consequently, by studying linear growth on these planes and the form change
as a change in angulation between the two, an interpretation could be gained
regarding the characteristics of mandibular growth in a given patient as well as
for groups with sex and age differences
Figure 35: With Xi point a new condyle axis is erected bisecting the condyle neck
(DC). Xi, when connected with supra pogonion (PM), is used to describe the corpus
axis of the mandible. This central "core" through the ramus and body circumvented
the variation of peripheral mandibular structure.
Using the Corpus Axis to describe bending, Ricketts did a 5‐year study on
patients going from the mixed to permanent dentition.
It was recognized that a bending was occurring in an orderly manner and
therefore, the greater the magnitude of growth, the greater the bending.
It was apparent that a growth arc was operative.
Trying to determine how the growth arc should be constructed led to the
following:
1. Constructing an arc through the three points: Pm, Xi, Dc not enough
bending in form. (Figure 36, Left)
2. Constructing an arc using the tip of the coronoid process (CR), the
anterior border of the ramus at its deepest curve (R1) and Pm point resulted
in excessive bending (Figure 36, right)
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3. Constructing an arc using point Eva, Pm and TR (see text in Figure 37 for
instructions on how to construct these points) statistically accurate bending
of the growth arc of the mandible was obtained
Figure 36: Left – Construction of growth arc using Dc, Xi and Pm. Right‐ Construction of arc
using CR, R1 and Pm.
Figure 37: A line from Xi point to the sigmoid notch is bisected and a parallel point (RR) is
selected on the anterior border of the ramus. (This point is used in growth forecasting as seen
below). RR point is connected to point R3 at the lower border of the sigmoid notch. This line
is crossed by a second line selected from a point midway of the base of the coronoid process
to the Xi point. The crossing of these two lines (called point Eva) approximates the centre of
the upward and forward quadrant of the ramus. Eva almost exactly coincides with the forking
of the stress lines on the internal and outer table of the ramus. A third point is selected, of
equal distance from Eva and PM, which is TR (true radius), the true arc for growth of the
60 | P a g e
mandible. This point is used for the centre of the circle which is drawn from pogonion through
Eva. The heavy arrow shows the direction of growth of the mandible. At the point of
intersection of the arc with the border of the sigmoid notch, a point was selected which was
called point Mu.
Being satisfied with the arc as a tool for prediction, the amount of growth
could be forecasted on the arc.
The yearly increase from the combined studies was discovered to be
almost precisely 2.5 mm.
Cut‐offs for growth were determined to be 14.5 years for females and
age 19 for males.
The coronoid and condylar processes grow upward and outward in a
direction essentially as a function of the curve of the original arc. This
means that sigmoid notches with arcs of a small radius tended to stay
small, while widely divergent condyles and coronoid processes or
notches with wide radii tend to stay extended.
Apposition of the lower border of the symphysis for males occurs at
about 1 mm each 8 year. (Figure 38)
From point Mu, the mandible is grown on the arc at the sigmoid notch
about 2.5 mm each year. (Figure 38)
The coronoid process growth came to be 0.8 mm per year. (Figure 38)
The condylar k factor was discovered to be variable. Some condyles did
not grow at all from the original point Mu, while others grew
significantly.
o The short and small condyles were found not to grow and the
weak condyles were given 0.0 mm for forecasting.
o Good, well‐formed condylar heads with long necks accordingly
were given a k factor of 0.4 mm per year.
o Average condyles were to be given 0.2 mm per year or 1 mm of
extra growth every five years. (Figure 38)
The combined studies showed that the gonial angle drifted posteriorly
on the arc almost exactly one half the total increase in mandibular
growth on the arc.
The external oblique ridge will show apposition of +‐ 0.4 mm per year.
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Figure 38: Schematic showing the long‐term growth prediction using Ricketts’ arcial
principle of mandibular growth.
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GENETIC CONTROL OF MANDIBULAR GROWTH
Craniofacial morphology has a strong genetic component but it is also
influenced by environmental factors, making it a complex trait to study.
MANDIBULAR HEIGHT
Growth hormone (GH) is a craniofacial morphological determinant; it plays a
major role in the growth and development of the craniofacial complex by
directly and indirectly modulating the size and the angular relationships of the
craniofacial structures (Ramirez‐Yañez et al. 2005)
Disproportionate growth of the cranial base structures and jaws results in
facial retrognathia, with smaller posterior than anterior facial height in persons
with GH deficiency (Kjellberg et al. 2000)
Responses to systemic GH therapy are associated with an increase in cartilage
growth, particularly within the mandibular ramus (Simmons 1999) and shows
increased growth especially with respect to the height of the mandibular
ramus (Funatsu et al. 2006)
Children with Turner syndrome who received recombinant human GH
treatment showed a statistically significant increase in ramus growth
associated with mandibular ramus height, but not with mandibular body
length, maxillary length, or anterior cranial base length (Rongen‐Westerlaken
et al. 1993).
Growth hormone receptors (GHRs) are present in the mandibular condyle
(Lewinson et al. 1994). Analysis of the GHr knockout mouse has revealed that
the GH → GHR → insulin‐like growth factor 1 system is important in postnatal
growth and that GHR plays a role in maintaining proportional skeletal growth.
In GHr knockout mice, the height of the mandibular ramus is significantly
reduced (Ramirez‐Yañez et al. 2005), also patients with GHR deficiency showed
decreased vertical facial growth (Schaefer et al. 1994)
Zhou (Zhou et al. 2005) studied the relationships between genotypes of
different Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNP) of the Growth Hormone
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receptor and craniofacial linear measurements. They found that individuals
with the genotype CC of polymorphism I526L had a significantly greater
mandibular ramus length (condylion‐gonion/ articulare‐gonion) than those
with genotype AC or AA. Their results indicate that the GHR gene
polymorphism I526L is associated with mandibular height in the Chinese
population.
Thus, the presence of a specific GHr haplotype seems to be a determining
factor for the eventual Mandibular height of an individual.
MANDIBULAR PROGNATHISM
Yamaguchi identified three significantly linked chromosomal loci: 1p36, 6q25,
and 19p13.2 to Mandibular Prognathia.
These do not include the GHR locus on chromosome 5. They did not find any
GHR gene SNPs that were associated with mandibular corpus length or overall
mandibular length; there was also no identified association in the Chinese
population.
Jang et al (Jang et al. 2010) reported that polymorphisms in matrilin‐1 could be
used as a marker for genetic susceptibility to mandibular prognathism.
Xue et al (Xue et al. 2010)reported an association between genetic
polymorphisms in the EPB41 gene and mandibular prognathism.
Li et al. (Li et al. 2010) reported a novel suggestive linkage locus for
mandibular prognathism in Chinese populations. Regions on chromosome 4,
contains candidate genes including transforming growth factor beta 3 and
latent transforming growth factor beta binding protein that may play a role in
Mandibular prognathism.
Of interest to note is the fact that none of the genes linked with Mandibular
Prognathia are associated with Growth Hormone Receptor genes.
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EFFECT OF TREATMENT ON MANDIBULAR GROWTH
The mandible is the bone in the craniofacial complex with the most post‐natal
growth potential. As such it would be of great value to be able to manipulate
its growth during orthodontic treatment.
In the next section, we will look at literature with regards to the effect that
treatment has on mandibular growth.
EFFECT OF REMOVABLE FUNCTIONAL APPLIANCES
One of the most controversial topics in orthodontics relates to the
effectiveness of functional appliances on mandibular growth.
In skeletal Class II malocclusion, mandibular retrusion seems to be a major
contributing factor; it occurs in about one third of the population (McNamara
1981).
Functional appliances encompass a range of removable and fixed devices that
are designed to alter the position of the mandible, both sagittally and
vertically, to induce supplementary lengthening of the mandible by stimulating
increased growth at the condylar cartilage (Marsico et al. 2011)
Experiments have demonstrated that appliances that position the mandible
anteriorly stimulate significant mandibular growth by condyle remodelling in
animal models, but the effects produced in humans are not the same.
Evidence shows that favourable growth responses are not always achieved
with functional therapy; some authors reported increases in overall
mandibular length (Mills 1991) and changes in the amount of condylar
growth,(Baltromejus et al. 2002)but others believe that mandibular length
cannot be altered by such therapy (Creekmore & Radney 1983) It has been
claimed that most of the correction of the malocclusion is due to dentoalveolar
changes with a small but statistically significant amount of skeletal
effects.(Jansen et al. 2003)
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Marsico et al (Marsico et al. 2011) did a systematic review of the available
literature on the effect of removable functional appliances. Their search
started with more than 1500 articles. Thirty‐two articles fulfilled the
specific inclusion criteria and were identified as potentially appropriate
randomized clinical trials to be included in this meta‐analysis. Only 4 articles,
based on data from 338 patients (168 treated vs 170 controls) with Class II
malocclusion in the mixed dentition, were selected for the final analysis. The
quality analysis of these studies showed that the statistical methods were at
the medium‐high level.
The results obtained from the random‐effects model analysis showed a
statistically significant difference of 1.79 mm annual mandibular growth of the
treatment groups compared with the control groups.
This meta‐analysis showed that the treatment resulted in a change of skeletal
pattern; however, these effectively small increases of the mandibular length,
even if statistically significant, appear unlikely to be very clinically significant.
The data support recent reports that 2‐phase treatment has no advantages
over 1‐phase treatment.
Koretsi et al (Koretsi et al. 2015) did a systematic review on the effect of
Removable Functional Appliances. Seventeen studies were included (1031
patients; mean age: 10.6 years), with most of them originating from university
clinics and reporting short‐term effects (directly after the
removal of RFAs).
The short‐term evidence indicates that RFAs are effective in improving Class II
malocclusion, although their effects are mainly dentoalveolar, rather than
skeletal.
Their results were as follows:
Class II malocclusion of treated patients was moderately improved:
o ANB = −1.14 degree/year
o N‐A‐Pg = −3.16 degree/year
Minimal reduction of SNA angle of −0.28 degree/year
Minimal increase of SNB angle of 0.62 degree/year
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Upper central incisors were significantly retroclined :1s‐SN angle =
−3.29 degree/year; and the 1s‐NA angle = −5.21 degree/year.
Significant proclination of the lower incisors was observed via the 1i‐NB
angle = 1.81 degree/year.
influence of RFA treatment on the soft tissues was evident, as indicated
by the significant changes of especially the labiomental angle = 22.60
degree/year
EFFECT OF FIXED FUNCTIONAL APPLIANCES
The correction of Class II malocclusion due to mandibular retrognathia with the
use of Fixed Functional Appliances has also been investigated by various
researchers.
The findings of various studies were contradictory, where some authors found
favourable treatment outcomes based on mandibular growth, attributed either
as a mandibular length augmentation or effective condyle growth (e.g. Franchi
et al), others dispute the magnitude of these effects (e.g. Cozza). Moreover,
existing evidence indicates that the dentoalveolar changes produced by
functional treatment outweigh the skeletal changes attained (e.g. Cope).
Franchi et al (Franchi et al. 1999)did a study on the effects of acrylic splint
Herbst appliances. They showed that two thirds of the achieved occlusal
correction were due to skeletal effects and only one third to dentoalveolar
adaptations. Both skeletal and dentoalveolar effects were due mainly to
changes in mandibular structures. A significant amount of relapse in molar
relationship occurred during the posttreatment period which they ascribed to
the mesial movement of the upper molars.
Cozza et al (Cozza et al. 2006) did a systematic review in 2006 and the
following was found. Four RCTs and 18 CCTs were retrieved. The quality
standards of these investigations ranged from low (3 studies) to medium/high
(6 studies). Two‐thirds of the samples in the 22 studies reported a clinically
significant supplementary elongation in total mandibular length (a change
greater than 2.0 mm in the treated group compared with the untreated group)
as a result of overall active treatment with functional appliances. The amount
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of supplementary mandibular growth appears to be significantly larger if the
functional treatment is performed at the pubertal peak in skeletal maturation.
None of the 4 RCTs reported a clinically significant change in mandibular
length induced by functional appliances; 3 of the 4 RCTs treated subjects at a
prepubertal stage of skeletal maturity. The Herbst appliance showed the
highest coefficient of efficiency (0.28 mm per month) followed by the Twin‐
block (0.23 mm per month).
Cope et al (Cope et al. 1994) found that the majority of Class II correction with
the use of the Jasper Jumper was due to dental, rather than skeletal change.
The maxilla underwent significant posterior displacement. The maxillary
incisors retroclined and the maxillary molars tipped distally. Clockwise or
backwards rotation was evident for the mandible. The mandibular incisors
proclined significantly and the mandibular molars translated and tipped
mesially.
Zymperdikas (Zymperdikas et al. 2016) did a systematic review of the literature
available on the effect of Fixed Functional Appliances and the following was
found. Nine studies were included (244 patients; mean age: 13.5 years and 174
untreated controls; mean age: 12.8 years) reporting on cephalometric effects
directly after the removal of FFAs.
FFAs were found to induce a small reduction of SNA angle (MD = −0.83
degree/year, 95 % CI: −1.17 to −0.48),
Small increase of SNB angle (MD = 0.87 degree/year, 95 % CI: 0.30–1.43),
Moderate decrease of ANB angle (MD = −1.74 degree/year, 95 % CI:
−2.50 to −0.98) compared to untreated Class II pa ents.
FFA treatment resulted in significant dentoalveolar and soft tissue
changes.
Significant retroclination of the upper incisors was observed
as seen from the 1s‐SN (−7.50 degrees/year) and 1s‐NA (−4.24
degrees/year) angles
Lower incisors were significantly proclined, as seen from the 1i‐ML (7.99
degrees/year), 1i‐NB (4.20 degrees/year), and 1i‐VL (19.78 degrees/year)
angles.
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Consequently, a statistically significant decrease in the interincisal angle
was also noted (−8.32 degrees/year).
The influence of FFAs on the soft tissues was significant for almost
all available outcomes, with the labiomental angle providing the more
evident change (14.99 degrees/year). Further, the H‐angle was slightly
decreased (−1.95 degree/year), while the N′SnPg′ angle was slightly
increased (2.01 degrees/year) compared to untreated patients.
EFFECT OF FIXED FUNCTIONAL APPLIANCES IN COMBINATION WITH
MULTI‐BRACKET APPLIANCE
Fixed functional appliances (FFA) are compliance‐free, tooth‐borne appliances.
They do not require a second phase of treatment when used with multibracket
appliances (MBA).
They may be categorized into 2 major groups according to the timing of the
MBA.
Application before MBA: e.g. The Herbst and the mandibular
advancement repositioning appliance.
After levelling and alignment: e.g. The Jasper jumper, Forsus Fatigue
Resistant Device, Twin Force Bite Corrector, Sabbagh Universal Spring
and integrated Herbst.
There is considerable debate as to whether FFAs can stimulate mandibular
growth and potentially lead to lasting skeletal changes.
Ishaq et al (Ishaq et al. 2016) did a systematic review of available literature of
fixed functional appliances. Their search started with 662 articles, but after
elimination of those that did not comply to their criteria, they ended up using
seven articles in the qualitative synthesis and 5 in the meta‐analysis. The
included randomized controlled trials were at high risk of bias, and the
methodologic quality of the prospective controlled clinical trials was high.
Their results could be summarised as follows:
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No significant differences were observed when the treated
subjects were compared with the controls for any of the evaluated
outcomes.
The positional changes (SNB angle) did not significantly differ
when the treated subjects were compared with the control
groups.
Regarding effective mandibular length, no difference between the
treated and control patients was observed in the pubertal and
post‐pubertal groups.
Regarding the vertical changes, little impact on the vertical
dimensions was observed. It may therefore be tentatively inferred
that FFA can be used in high‐angle cases without concerns relating
to excessive increases in the vertical dimension.
EFFECTS OF CHIN‐CUP THERAPY ON MANDIBULAR GROWTH
Skeletal Class III malocclusion can be present with maxillary retrusion,
mandibular protrusion, or some combination of the two.
Studies on the prevalence of Class III malocclusion in Asian patients have
shown that a normal mandible with deficient maxilla occurred in 18%
and an excessive mandible with normal maxilla occurred in 52%, concluding
that overgrowth of the mandible is the main cause of Class III malocclusion.(Liu
et al. 2010)
A major treatment strategy of skeletal Class III malocclusion with mandibular
overgrowth in growing patients is retardation or redirection of mandibular
growth and posterior positioning of the mandible.
The chin cup has been used since the 19th century to control mandibular
growth in patients with excessive and/ or anteriorly positioned mandibles.
Over the years, many studies have been conducted to investigate the
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effects of chin cup force on dentofacial growth, but their results have varied a
lot. Some studies indicated that the chin cup had no effect on retarding
mandibular growth but only produced a backward rotation of the mandible.
Deguchi et al (Deguchi et al. 2002) reported that short‐term chin cup
treatment showed a significant backward rotation of the mandible, while long‐
term application of the chin cup force significantly inhibited growth of the
ramus height (2.2mm ) and body length of the mandible (3,6 mm) and showed
a significant closing of the gonial angle (8,2 degrees).
Many studies have, however, reported a tendency of a return to the original
skeletal morphology and growth pattern after chin cup therapy was
discontinued and uncertainties existed in the efficacy of chin cup therapy in
Class III malocclusion (Liu et al. 2010).
A systematic review done by Liu (Liu et al. 2010), stated that no RCTs were
found for the outcomes of chin cup therapy. All studies used in this review
were cohort studies, with shortcomings such as no randomization and
allocation concealment, no previous estimation of sample sizes, and no
discussion on the possibility of type II error occurring. No blinding was
reported in any of these studies, leading to higher possibilities of selection and
measurement bias. That said, their findings were:
SNB angle: All of the studies reported a significantly better result in the
chin cup group compared with the control group.
ANB angle. Chin cup therapy significantly increased the ANB angle, and
there was an improvement of the maxillomandibular relationship.
Gonial angle (Ar‐Go‐Me). Results showed that the gonial angle increased
after chin cup therapy.
Mandibular length (Cd‐Gn), body length (Go‐Me), and ramus height (Ar‐
Go). The studies included there was no significant change in these
variables
A systematic review was done by Chatzoudi (Chatzoudi et al. 2014), where
seven treated groups from five studies (no RCTs, four pCCTs, one OS) were
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included, assessing only the short‐term occipital pull chin cup effects. The
overall quality of these studies was low to medium.
With regard to the skeletal cephalometric changes in the sagittal plane, it was
revealed:
Statistically significant reduction in the SNB angle of the patients treated
with the chin cup (SDM = −1.97, CI = −3.09 to −0.84) indicating a
restriction effect on mandibular growth.
Statistically significant increase to the ANB angle (SDM = 2.48, CI = 1.36
to 3.61,
Statistically significant increase to the Wits appraisal (SDM = 3.62, CI =
1.32 to 5.92
SN‐ML angle increased significantly (SDM = 1.17, CI = 0.48 to 1.86)
The gonial angle decreased SDM = −0.80, CI = −1.52 to − 0.08) indicating
a tendency towards an increase of the vertical growth pattern and/ or
posterior rotation of the mandible.
The tendency towards increase of the anterior face height is further
supported by the statistically significant increase of the linear variable N‐
Me according to the exploratory analysis performed (SDM = 1.39, CI =
0.59 to 2.18
As far as the dentoalveolar changes are concerned, the results of the
exploratory analysis revealed that there was a statistically significant
increase of overjet (SDM =2.62, CI=1.06 to 4.19)
For the rest of the variables, namely SNA, Co‐Gn, UFH, LAFH, Co‐Go and
overbite, no statistically significant differences were derived.
Even though it does seem that chin cap therapy might be effective in the
treatment of Class III mandibular prognathic cases, the following must be
noted.
In all of the systematic reviews, the main critique was the fact that there
were no randomized clinical trials, that there was great variance
between study outcomes as well as research methodology.
High heterogeneity observed in most of the variables and the linear
manner of many of them suggest some precaution in the interpretation
of these conclusions.
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It seems that there is not enough evidence‐based data to make
definitive recommendations about the chin cup treatment.
DEVELOPMENTAL ABNORMALITIES
Developmental anomalies that affect the maxilla will usually also affect the
mandible as part of the same syndrome. This is due to the fact that the neural‐
crest cells that invaginate the region that will become the future mandible
comes from the same stream (first arch) as those that will become the naso‐
maxillary complex.
A central dysmorphogenic mechanism of defective neural crest cell production,
migration, or destruction may be responsible for the hypoplastic mandible
common to many syndromes.
Derivatives of the deficient ectomesenchyme (specifically the zygomatic,
maxillary, and mandibular bones) are hypoplastic or absent, accounting for the
typical facies common to these syndromes.
The diminutive mandible of micrognathia is characteristic of several
syndromes, including Pierre Robin, Cri du chat syndromes, mandibulofacial
dysostosis (Treacher Collins syndrome) , progeria, Down syndrome,
oculomandibulodyscephaly (Hallermann‐Streiff syndrome), and Turner
syndrome (XO sex chromosome complement). (Geoffrey H. Sperber 2001)
Agnathia: In this condition, the mandible may be grossly deficient or absent,
reflecting a deficiency of neural crest tissue in the lower part of the face.
First‐and second‐arch syndrome: This is a lethal condition with multiple
defects of the orbit and maxilla. Aplasia of the mandible and hyoid bone, well
developed ears and auditory ossicles is seen in this syndrome. The probable
cause is ischemic necrosis of the mandible and hyoid bone occurring after the
formation of the ear.
Pierre Robin syndrome: Figure 39 Mandibular micrognathia is the primary
aetiological factor. An excessively small mandible resulting in the tongue falling
73 | P a g e
downwards and backwards into the pharynx, being compressed between the
palatal shelves and preventing their closure. In addition to a large
and U‐shaped cleft palate, the tongue position can also cause life‐threatening
respiratory difficulty at birth, obstructing the epiglottis and preventing
ventilation(Cobourne & DiBiase 2010). The mandible can show some form of
catch‐up growth later in life.
Figure 39: Patient with Pierre Robin Syndrome
Mandibulofacial dysostosis: (Cobourne & DiBiase 2010) Figure 40 Also known
as Treacher Collins Syndrome.
The regions of the face affected are those derived from pharyngeal arches 1
and 2. A characteristic facial appearance is common:
Down‐slanting palpebral fissures;
Zygomatic, supraorbital and mandibular hypoplasia;
Colobomas (areas of tissue deficiency) of the lower eyelids;
Severe malformation of the ears, including the external ear, middle ear
ossicles and atresia of the external auditory canal, which together often
result in conductive hearing loss;
Isolated cleft palate, present in around one‐third of cases; and
Usually a severely class II skeletal pattern with increased vertical
proportions, due to mandibular deficiency and posterior mandibular
growth rotation.
Deficiency of the mandible is maintained throughout growth. In
unilateral agenesis of the mandibular ramus, the malformation increases
with age.
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Figure 40: Patient with Treacher Collins Syndrome
Hemifacial microsomia: Figure 41 (Cobourne & DiBiase 2010) Also
known as Goldenhar syndrome. It is a relatively common condition
associated primarily with unilateral developmental defects in the
orofacial region and becomes more severe with retarded growth. A wide
spectrum of clinical features is seen in association with HFM, but a
common presentation is:
Skeletal asymmetry of the facial region, associated with unilateral
aplasia or hypoplasia of the mandibular ramus and condyle;
A marked retrognathia, associated with mandibular asymmetry and
canting of the occlusal plane; and
A reduction in size or flattening of the facial bones.
The pinna of the ear is often severely malformed or absent (microtia);
Preauricular skin tags are common.
Figure 41: CT Scan of a kid with Hemi‐facial Microsomia.
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Variations in condylar form may occur, among them the rare bifid or double
condyle that results from the persistence of septa dividing the foetal condylar
cartilage.
Macrognathia, producing prognathism, is usually an inherited condition, but
abnormal growth phenomena such as Acromegaly, due to over secretion of
Growth Hormone may produce mandibular overgrowth of increasing severity
with age. In this condition, the following mandibular changes are seen:
Increase of mandibular corpus length (Ba‐Gn)
increase in the effective dimension of the mandible (Co‐Gn)
The lower anterior facial height (ANS‐Me) increases
Total anterior facial height (N‐Me) increases and
Gonial angle (Ar‐Go‐Me) are also significantly increased in patients with
acromegaly. (Balos Tuncer et al. 2015)
Congenital hemifacial enlargement of the mandible, the mandibular fossa,
and the teeth is of obscure aetiology; more common is isolated unilateral
condylar hyperplasia. Unilateral hypertrophy, evident at birth, tends to
intensify at puberty. (Geoffrey H. Sperber 2001)
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CONCLUSION
Knowledge of mandibular growth and development is of crucial importance to
the orthodontist.
As the mandible is the part of the craniofacial skeleton that shows the greatest
post‐natal growth potential, but with questionable response to growth
modification, it is important to know the possible growth timing, directions
and magnitude it may exhibit.
Armed with this knowledge the clinician can make informed decisions as to
possible treatment possibilities, be it orthodontic or surgical.
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