FUNDAMENTALS OF ARCHITECTURAL

ACOUSTICS
Architectural acoustics (also known as room acoustics and building acoustics) is
the science and engineering of achieving a good sound within a building and is a branch
of acoustical engineering. The first application of modern scientific methods to
architectural acoustics was carried out by Wallace Sabine in the Fogg Museum lecture
room who then applied his new found knowledge to the design of Symphony Hall,
Boston.

Architectural acoustics can be about achieving good speech intelligibility in a

theatre, restaurant or railway station, enhancing the quality of music in a concert hall or
recording studio, or suppressing noise to make offices and homes more productive and
pleasant places to work and live in. Architectural acoustic design is usually done by
acoustic consultants.

Building skin envelope

This science analyzes noise transmission from building exterior envelope to

interior and vice versa.The main noise paths are roofs, eaves, walls, windows, door and
penetrations. Sufficient control ensures space functionality and is often required based
on building use and local municipal codes. An example would be providing a suitable
design for a home which is to be constructed close to a high volume roadway, or under
the flight path of a major airport, or of the airport itself.

Inter-space noise control

The science of limiting and/or controlling noise transmission from one building
space to another to ensure space functionality and speech privacy. The typical sound
paths are ceilings, room partitions, acoustic ceiling panels (such as wood dropped
ceiling panels), doors, windows, flanking, ducting and other penetrations. Technical
solutions depend on the source of the noise and the path of acoustic transmission, for
example noise by steps or noise by (air, water) flow vibrations. An example would be
providing suitable party wall design in an apartment complex to minimize the mutual
disturbance due to noise by residents in adjacent apartments.

Interior space acoustics

This is the science of controlling a room's surfaces based on sound absorbing

and reflecting properties. Excessive reverberation time, which can be calculated, can
lead to poor speech intelligibility.

Diffusers which scatter sound are used in some

rooms to improve the acoustics

Ceiling of Culture Palace

(Tel Aviv) concert hall is
covered with perforated
metal panels
 Sound reflections create standing waves that produce natural resonances that
can be heard as a pleasant sensation or an annoying one. Reflective surfaces can be
angled and coordinated to provide good coverage of sound for a listener in a concert
hall or music recital space. To illustrate this concept consider the difference between a
modern large office meeting room or lecture theater and a traditional classroom with all
hard surfaces.

An anechoic chamber, using acoustic

absorption to create a "dead" space.

Interior building surfaces can be constructed of many different materials and

finishes. Ideal acoustical panels are those without a face or finish material that interferes
with the acoustical infill or substrate. Fabric covered panels are one way to heighten
acoustical absorption. Perforated metal also shows sound absorbing qualities. Finish
material is used to cover over the acoustical substrate. Mineral fiber board, or Micore, is
a commonly used acoustical substrate. Finish materials often consist of fabric, wood or
acoustical tile. Fabric can be wrapped around substrates to create what is referred to as
a "pre-fabricated panel" and often provides good noise absorption if laid onto a wall.

Prefabricated panels are limited to the size of the substrate ranging from 2 by 4
feet (0.61 m × 1.22 m) to 4 by 10 feet (1.2 m × 3.0 m). Fabric retained in a wall-mounted
perimeter track system, is referred to as "on-site acoustical wall panels". This is
constructed by framing the perimeter track into shape, infilling the acoustical substrate
and then stretching and tucking the fabric into the perimeter frame system. On-site wall
panels can be constructed to accommodate door frames, baseboard, or any other
intrusion. Large panels (generally, greater than 50 square feet (4.6 m2)) can be created
on walls and ceilings with this method. Wood finishes can consist of punched or routed
slots and provide a natural look to the interior space, although acoustical absorption
may not be great.

There are three ways to improve workplace acoustics and solve workplace sound
problems – the ABCs.

A = Absorb (via drapes, carpets, ceiling tiles, etc.)

B = Block (via panels, walls, floors, ceilings and layout)

C = Cover-up (via sound masking)

Mechanical equipment noise

Building services noise control is the science of controlling noise produced by:

-ACMV (air conditioning and mechanical ventilation) systems in buildings,

termed HVAC in North America

-Elevators

-Electrical generators positioned within or attached to a building

-Any other building service infrastructure component that emits sound.

Inadequate control may lead to elevated sound levels within the space which can
be annoying and reduce speech intelligibility. Typical improvements are vibration
isolation of mechanical equipment, and sound traps in ductwork. Sound masking can
also be created by adjusting HVAC noise to a predetermined level.
Maximize Your Space

No matter what kind of equipment you’re using, the space they are in determines
sound performance more than anything else. The size and shape, levels of absorption
and reflection, even the materials used in construction all affect the way sound waves
move through a space.

This science of sound is a dense subject, but a few fundamentals can help you
understand how sound waves behave, and what parts of your space are helping – and
hurting – what you hear.

FREQUENCIES AND WAVES

Sound is measured in frequencies (Hz), which travels in the form of waves. The
higher the frequency, the higher the pitch! Higher pitches (or higher frequencies) have a
much shorter wavelength than lower frequencies/pitches. This affects how the sound
waves travel, and one of the reasons you can hear lower pitches (bass) at a further
distance from the sound source.

It’s important to keep these things in mind when you’re doing acoustic treatment,
or just when listening to how a particular room sounds. The larger wave forms of lower
pitches cover more distance with each cycle, so the bass in the back of a room may be
drastically different than right near a subwoofer or amplifier (for just one example).

REFLECTION VS. DIFFUSION

When sound waves hit a surface, they behave in a variety of ways. When they
“bounce,” it is typically with either reflection or diffusion. Sound waves reflect when they
strike a flat surface and bounce back in the same direction. Because a tiny fraction of
the energy is lost, the reflected frequency is quite identical – this leads to overtones and
distortion within the nearly identical sound waves, and is the primary reason that large,
flat surfaced rooms sound harsh to the ear.

Alternatively, when sound waves strike rounded or uneven surfaces, they are
diffused – meaning they are “bounced” in multiple directions. Since they don’t reflect
exactly back on themselves, there isn’t interference among the waveforms. This is why
you see acoustic treatment with textured surfaces, or why rooms with many angles and
objects tend to sound “warmer” or less harsh.

ABSORPTION

Sound waves are also absorbed by the objects they hit. Different materials offer
different levels of absorption, and frequencies ranges behave in their own unique
waves. Higher frequencies are more easily absorbed, while lower frequencies can pass
through objects. This means that lower frequencies often far more difficult to control.
Absorbent materials, like foam, sound absorbing panels, etc. certainly help, but those
large waves have to go so somewhere!

There are sophisticated devices and calculations for determining materials

absorb what frequencies, and all of these come into play when designing a room with
acoustics in mind – or simply adding treatments to a space to improve acoustic
properties.

MORE RESOURCES

In fact, the science of sound is far more than high and low pitches, or what
direction your speakers are pointing. It’s math and physics, vibrations in the air moving
at incredible speeds and behaving in fascinating, complex ways. For many audio
engineers, getting a handle on the basics of acoustics – especially within rooms – is
important to mastering their equipment. For architectural acoustic designers, it’s an
entire world of study… And for physicists, it’s even deeper!
Useful Formulas
ELECTRICAL FORMULAS

Demand for Power (kW) = System Input Wattage (W) ÷ 1,000

Energy Consumption (kWh) = System Input Wattage (kW) x Hours of Operation/Year

Hours of Operation/Year = Operating Hours/Day x Operating Days/Week x Operating

Weeks/Year

Lighting System Efficacy (Lumens per Watt or LPW) = System Lumen Output ÷ Input
Wattage

Unit Power Density (W/sq.ft.) = Total System Input Wattage (W) ÷ Total Area (Square
Feet)

Watts (W) = Volts (V) x Current in Amperes (A) x Power Factor (PF)

Voltage (V) = Current in Amperes (A) x Impedance (Ohms) [Ohm's Law]

ECONOMIC FORMULAS

Simple Payback on an Investment (Years) = Net Installation Cost ($) ÷ Annual Energy
Savings ($)

5-Year Cash Flow ($) = 5 Years - Payback (Years) x Annual Energy Savings ($)

Simple Return on Investment (%) = [Annual Energy Savings ($) ÷ Net Installation Cost
($)] x 100

DESIGN FORMULAS

Footcandles & Lumens

Footcandles (fc) = Total Lumens (lm) ÷ Area in Square Feet

1 Lux (lx) = 1 Footcandle (fc) x 10.76

Lux = Total Lumens ÷ Area in Square Meters

Calculating Light Level at a Point

For planes perpendicular to the direction of candlepower (Inverse Square Law):

Footcandles (fc) = I ÷ D2

I = Candlepower in candelas (cd)

D = Direct distance between the lamp and the point where light level is calculated

Many workplanes are not perpendicular to the direction of light intensity, which is
why calculating light level at a point is useful for such applications. In these cases, we
often must determine light levels on workplanes that are not horizontal and
perpendicular but tilted or even vertical. For tilted-horizontal or vertical planes:

Horizontal Footcandles (fch) = (I ÷ D2) x H

Vertical Footcandles (fcv) = (I ÷ D2) x L

I = Candlepower in candelas (cd)

D = Direct distance between the lamp and the point where light level is calculated

H = Distance between the lamp and the point direct below on the workplane

L = Distance between that point and the point where light level is being calculated

D = Square Root of (H2 + L2) or D2 = H2 + L2

Calculating Average Light Level Throughout a Space (three

formulas)

Average Maintained Illumination (Footcandles) = (Lamps/Fixture x Lumens/Lamp x No.

of Fixtures x Coefficient of Utilization x Light Loss Factor) ÷ Area in Square Feet
Average Maintained Illumination (Footcandles) = (Total Lamps x Lumens/Lamp x
Coefficient of Utilization x Light Loss Factor) ÷ Area in Square Feet

Average Maintained Illumination (Footcandles) = (Lamps in One Fixture x

Lumens/Lamp x Coefficient of Utilization x Light Loss Factor) ÷ Area in Square
Feet/Fixture
Lumen Method

Required Light Output/Fixture (Lumens) = (Maintained Illumination in Footcandles x

Area in Square Feet) ÷ (Number of Fixtures x Coefficient of Utilization x Ballast Factor x
Light Loss Factor)

Light Loss Factors (more on Light Loss)

Light Loss Factor (LLF) = Ballast Factor x Fixture Ambient Temperature Factor x Supply
Voltage Variation Factor x Lamp Position Factor x Optical Factor x Fixture Surface
Depreciation Factor x Lamp Burnouts Factor x Lamp Lumen Depreciation Factor x
Fixture Dirt Depreciation Factor x Room Surface Dirt Depreciation Factor

Lamp Burnout Factor = 1 - Percentage of Lamps Allowed to Fail Without Being

Replaced

Zonal Cavity Method (determining cavity ratios)

Room Cavity Ratio (for regular rooms shaped like a square or rectangle) = [5 x Room
Cavity Depth x (Room Length + Room Width)] ÷ (Room Length x Room Width)
Room Cavity Ratio (for irregular-shaped rooms) = (2.5 x Room Cavity Depth x
Perimeter) ÷ Area in Square Feet

Ceiling Cavity Ratio = [5 x Ceiling Cavity Depth x (Room Length x Room Width)] ÷
(Room Length x Room Width)

Floor Cavity Ratio = [5 x Floor Cavity Depth x (Room Length x Room Width)] ÷ Room
Length x Room Width

Room surface reflectances can be predicted in a new design or measured in an existing

facility. If existing facility:

Room Surface Reflectance (%) = Reflected Reading ÷ Incident Reading

Reflected Reading = Measurement from a light meter holding it about 1.5 feet away
from the surface with the sensor parallel and facing the surface.
Incident Reading = Measurement from a light meter held flat against the surface and
facing out into the room.

Calculating Number of Lamps And Fixtures And Spacing

Required No. of Fixtures = (Lumens/Lamp x No. of Lamps x Coefficient of Utilization x

Light Loss Factor x Area in Square Feet) ÷ (Lumens/Lamp x Lamps/Fixture x Coefficient
of Utilization x Light Loss Factor)

Required Lamps = Required Lumens ÷ Initial Lumens/Lamp

Maximum Allowable Spacing Between Fixtures= Fixture Spacing Criteria x Mounting

Height

Fixture Spacing Criteria: See the manufacturer's literature

Mounting height: Distance in feet between the bottom of the fixture and the workplane

Spacing Between Fixtures = Square Root of (Area in Square Feet ÷ Required No. of
Fixtures)

Number of Fixtures to be Placed in Each Row (Nrow) = Room Length ÷ Spacing

Number of Fixtures to be Placed in Each Column (Ncolumn) = Room Width ÷ Spacing

For the above two formulas, round results to the nearest whole integer.

Spacingrow = Room Length ÷ (Number of Fixtures/Row - 1/3)

Spacingcolumn = Room Width ÷ (Number of Fixtures/Column -1/3)

If the resulting number of fixtures does not equal the originally calculated number,
calculate impact on the designed light level:

% Design Light Level = Actual No. of Fixtures ÷ Originally Calculated No. of Fixtures

To calculate fixtures mounted in continuous rows:

Number of Luminaires in a Continuous Row = (Room Length ÷ Fixture Length) - 1

Number of Continuous Rows = Total Number of Fixtures ÷ Fixtures Per Row

MAINTENANCE

Lamp Life

Calendar Lamp Life (Years) = Rated Lamp Life (Hours) ÷ Annual Hours of Operation
(Hours/Year)

Lamp Burnout Factor

Lamp Burnout Factor = 1 - Percentage of Lamps Allowed to Fail Without Being

Replaced

Group Relamping Cost

Annualized Cost ($) = A x (B + C)

A = Operating Hours/Year ÷ Operating Hours Between Relampings

B = (Percentage of Lamps Failing Before Group Relamping x Number of Lamps) x

(Lamp Cost + Labor Cost to Spot Replace 1 Lamp)

C = (Lamp Cost, Group Relamping + Labor Cost to Group Relamp 1 Lamp) x Number
of Lamps

Spot Relamping Cost

Average Annual Cost ($) = (Operating Hours/Year ÷ Rated Lamp Life) x (Lamp Cost +
Labor Cost to Replace 1 Lamp) x Total Number of Lamps

Cleaning Cost

Cleaning Cost ($) = Time to Wash 1 Fixture (Hours) x Hourly Labor Rate ($) x Number
of Fixtures in Lighted Space

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Average Reduced Air Pollution (lbs. Carbon Dioxide) = Energy Savings (kWh) x 1.6 lbs.

Average Reduced Air Pollution (g. Sulphur Dioxide) = Energy Savings (kWh) x 5.3 g.
Average Reduced Air Pollution (g. Nitrogen Oxides) = Energy Savings (kWh) x 2.8 g.

Pounds = Grams ÷ 454

Tons = Pounds ÷ 2,000

Architectural acoustics

 Acoustics is the science of sound. It relates to recorded music, to speech and

hearing, to the behavior of sound in concert halls and buildings, and to noise in
our environment. It is the technology of designing spaces and systems that meet
our auditory needs. Architectural acoustics deals with sound in and around
buildings of all kinds. Good acoustical design ensures the efficient distribution of
desirable sounds as well as the exclusion of undesirable sound. All acoustical
situations consist of three parts: (1) source, (2) Path, and (3) Receiver.

Sound

 Definition: An energy that is propagated by vibration in an elastic medium such

as air, water, most building materials, and earth.
 Cycle, period, and frequency of sound: A full circuit by a particle of a medium
displaced by vibration is a cycle. Time required to complete one cycle is called
the period. Number of complete cycles per second is the frequency of sound.
Unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz).
 Wavelength: The distance a sound wave travels during one cycle of
vibration. Wavelength = Velocity of sound/Frequency of sound.
 Sound intensity: Sound travels freely in all directions (i.e. spherically). Sound
intensity is the strength of sound per unit area of a spherical surface.
 The decibel scale: It is used to measure sound intensity. In decibel scale, (1) min.
intensity of perceptible sound is given a value of 0, (2) whole numbers are used,
and (3) an increase of every ten units equals a doubling of loudness. It is a
logarithmic scale.
 o Inverse-square law: Sound intensity decreases at a rate inversely
proportional to the square of the distance from the sound source. The
relationship can be expressed as:
 I = W/4 r2
 Where I = sound intensity in watts per square centimeter; W =
sound power in watts; r = distance from the sound source in
centimeter.
 If the distance is measured in feet, 4 r2 has to be multiplied by 930
(because 1 square foot equals 930 square centimeter).

Sound propagation

 Direct: Reaches the receiver directly from the source.

 Reflection: Occurs when sound waves bounce off a surface at the same angle at
which it was incident on the surface.
 Diffraction: It is the bending or flowing of a sound wave around an object or
through an opening.
 Diffusion: Scattering or random distribution of sound from a surface.
 Reverberation: Persistence of sound after source of sound has ceased. Results
from repeated reflections. Some reverberation is good (particularly for musical
performances), but not always desirable. Intelligibility and subjective quality of
sound is rated by reverberation time (RT).
o Reverberation Time (RT): It is the time required for sound to decay 60 dB
after the source has stopped producing sound. Reverberation time = 0.05
* volume of room/total absorption of sound. (Average ceiling height in
spaces with upholstered seats and absorptive rear walls is approximately
related to mid-frequency reverberation time. Ceiling height 20 * Mid-
frequency Reverberation Time in Seconds.)
 Echo: Distinct repetition of original sound clearly heard above the general
reverberation. A reflected sound can be perceived as discrete echo if the
 reflected sound wave is heard 0.05 second or later after it was heard as a direct
sound.

Sound absorption

 When sound energy strikes a surface, part of the energy is absorbed.

Reverberation and echoes may be controlled by effective use of sound
absorption quality of a surface. Acoustic absorption is defined in terms of an
absorption coefficient. It is the ratio of absorbed sound intensity by a material to
the intensity of the sound source.
Absorption coefficient = absorbed sound intensity/total intensity of sound source.
Total absorption by a surface = surface area * absorption coefficient. Unit of
sound absorption is Sabin.

Ray diagram

 Ray diagram is analogous to specular reflection of light. Analysis of ray diagrams

can be used to study the effect of room shape on the distribution of sound and to
identify surfaces that may produce echoes. A ray diagram shows both reflected
and direct sound paths. The difference between these two paths is called path
difference (Path Difference = Reflected Path - Direct Path). A path difference in
excess of the distance that can be traveled by a sound wave in 0.05 seconds
indicates that the reflected sound can be perceived as discrete echo.

Weighting networks

 A-weighting network: Generally, the sensitivity of human hearing is restricted to

the frequency range of 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. The human ear, however, is most
sensitive to sound in the 400 to 10,000 Hz frequency range. Above and below
this range, the ear becomes progressively less sensitive. To account for this
feature of human hearing, sound level meters incorporate a filtering of acoustic
signals according to frequency. This filtering is devised to correspond to the
 varying sensitivity of the human ear to sound over the audible frequency range.
This filtering is called A-weighting. Sound pressure level values obtained using
this weighting are referred to as A-weighted sound pressure levels and are
signified by the identifier dBA. Simply speaking, it may be defined as a
frequency-response adjustment of a sound-level meter that makes its reading
conform, very roughly, to human response.
 C-weighted network: The C-weighted network provides unweighted microphone
sensitivity over the frequency range of maximum human sensitivity (over 1000
Hz).

Sound Transmission Class (STC) of Materials

 STC is a single number rating of the air-borne transmission loss (TL) of a

construction. It measures the sound transmission loss (TL) of a construction at
one-third octave band frequencies.
o For measurement, analysis, and specification of sound, the frequency
range is divided into sections or bands. One common standard division is
into ten octave bands identified by their mid-frequencies: 31.5, 63, 125,
250, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000, 8000, and 16000.
 The STC of a given material is determined by comparing its measured TL values
against a standard STC contour using the following criteria:
o The maximum deviation of the test curve below the standard contour at
any single test frequency shall not exceed 8 dB.
o The sum of deviations below the standard contour at all frequencies of the
test curve shall not exceed 32 dB.
 When the contour is adjusted to the highest value (in integral dB) that meets the
above requirements, the STC of the material would be the TL value
corresponding to the intersection of the standard STC contour and 500 Hz
frequency ordinate.
 Sound Transmission Class (or STC) is an integer rating of how well
a building partition attenuates airborne sound. In the USA, it is widely used to rate
interior partitions, ceilings/floors, doors, windows and exterior wall configurations
(see ASTM International Classification E413 and E90). Outside the USA, the Sound
Reduction Index (SRI) ISO index or its related indices are used. As of 2012, these are
defined in the ISO - 140 series of standards (under revision).

Measuring Sound Transmission Class with NTi Audio instruments.

The STC rating figure very roughly reflects the decibel reduction in noise that a partition
can provide.

Rating methodology

The ASTM sound transmission loss test methods have changed every few years.
Thus, STC results posted before 1999 may not produce the same results today, and the
differences become wider as one goes further back in time–the differences in the
applicable test methods between the 1970s and today being quite significant.
Sound Transmission Class Report Sample from NTi Audio showing Transmission Loss
in the sixteen standard frequencies

The STC number is derived from sound attenuation values tested at sixteen
standard frequencies from 125 Hz to 4000 Hz. These Transmission Loss values are
then plotted on a sound pressure level graph and the resulting curve is compared to a
standard reference contour. Acoustical engineers fit these values to the
appropriate TL Curve (or Transmission Loss) to determine an STC rating. The
measurement is accurate for speech sounds, but much less so for amplified music,
mechanical equipment noise, transportation noise, or any sound with substantial low-
frequency energy below 125 Hz. Sometimes, acoustical labs will measure TL at
frequencies below the normal STC boundary of 125 Hz, possibly down to 50 Hz or
lower, thus giving additional valuable data to evaluate transmission loss at very low
frequencies, such as a subwoofer-rich home theater system would produce.
Alternatively, Outdoor-Indoor Transmission Class (OITC) is a standard used for
indicating the rate of transmission of sound between outdoor and indoor spaces in a
structure that considers frequencies down to 80 Hz (Aircraft/Rail/Truck traffic) and is
weighted more to lower frequencies.
Sound Isolation Techniques

The following sound isolation results and methodologies are presented with data
that is measured within the standard frequency range specified by appropriate ASTM
standards. Although it is worthwhile to discuss the utility of sound transmission loss data
that lies outside the standard frequency range (especially in the low-frequency region),
for simplicity results will be primarily be presented and discussed within these standard
limitations.

Typical interior walls in homes (1 sheet of 1/2″ (13 mm) gypsum wallboard
(drywall) on either side of a 2x4 (90 mm) wood studs spaced 16" (406 mm) on-center
with fiberglass insulation filling each stud cavity) have an STC of about 33. When asked
to rate their acoustical performance, people often describe these walls as "paper thin."
They offer little in the way of privacy. Multi-family demising partition walls are typically
constructed with varying gypsum wallboard panel layers attached to both sides of
double 2x4 (90 mm) wood studs spaced 16" (406 mm) on-center and separated by a 1"
(25 mm) airspace. These double-stud walls vary in sound isolation performance from
the mid STC-40s into the high STC-60s depending on the presence of insulation and
the gypsum wallboard type and quantity. Commercial buildings are typically constructed
using steel studs of varying widths, gauges, and on-center spacings. Each of these
framing characteristics have an effect on the sound isolation of the partition to varying
degrees.

Sound Absorption
Adding absorptive materials to the interior surfaces of rooms (e.g. fabric-faced
fiberglass panels, thick curtains) will result in a decrease of reverberated sound energy
within the room. However, absorptive interior surface treatments do not significantly
improve the sound isolation from one room to another through demising partitions over
the typical frequency range measured currently. Installing absorptive insulation (e.g.,
fiberglass batts, blow-in cellulose, mineral fiber batts) into the wall or ceiling cavities
affects the sound isolation of the partition to varying degrees, depending on the framing
configuration and joist or stud depth. For example, the presence of type of insulation in
single 2x4 wood stud framing spaced 16" (406 mm) on-center results in only a few STC
points. In contrast, adding standard fiberglass insulation to an otherwise empty cavity in
light-gauge (25-gauge or lighter) steel stud partitions can result in a nearly 10 STC-point
improvement. As the stud gauge becomes heavier, the presence and type of insulation
matters less.

Mass
The effect of adding multiple layers of gypsum wallboard to a frame also varies
depending on the framing type and configuration. Doubling the mass of a partition does
not double the STC, as the STC is calculated from a non-linear decibel sound
transmission loss measurement. So, whereas installing an additional layer of gypsum
wallboard to a light-gauge (25-ga. or lighter) steel stud partition will result in about a 5
STC-point increase, doing the same on single wood or single heavy-gauge steel will
result in only 2 to 3 additional STC points. Adding a second additional layer (to the
already 3-layer system) does not result in as drastic an STC change as the first
additional layer. The effect of additional gypsum wallboard layers on double- and
staggered-stud partitions is similar to that of light-gauge steel partitions. Due to
increased mass, poured concrete and concrete blocks typically achieve higher STC
values (in the mid STC 40s to the mid STC 50s) than equally thick framed walls.
However the additional weight, added complexity of construction, and poor thermal
insulation tend to limit masonry wall partitions as a viable sound isolation solution in
many building construction projects. Temperate climates and hurricane- or tornado-
prone areas may, however, require the use of masonry walls for structural stability.
Decoupling
Structurally decoupling the gypsum wallboard panels from the partition framing
can result in a large increase in sound isolation when installed correctly. Examples of
structural decoupling in building construction include resilient channels, sound isolation
clips and hat channels, and staggered- or double-stud framing. The STC results of
decoupling in wall and ceiling assemblies varies significantly depending on the framing
type, air cavity volume, and decoupling material type. Great care must be taken in each
type of decoupled partition construction, as any fastener that becomes mechanically
(rigidly) coupled to the framing can short-circuit the decoupling and result in drastically
lower sound isolation results.

Damping
Sound damping tapes and other materials have been used to reduce both
vibration and sound transmission through materials since the early 1930s. Although the
applications of sound damping was largely limited to defense and industrial applications
such as naval vessels and aircraft in the past, recent research has proven the
effectiveness of damping in interior sound isolation in buildings. Constrained-layer
damping gypsum wallboard panels increase sound isolation in building partitions by
drastically reducing the vibration of panels and, incidentally, the radiation of sound
through panels. The shear loading of a highly visco-elastic interlayer sandwiched
between two more rigid constraining layers causes decreased displacement due to
vibration, reducing the amount of sound energy radiated through a panel between
enclosures. Damped gypsum wallboard panels are effective in reducing sound
transmission over a broad range of frequencies and especially useful for achieving high
levels of speech privacy between partitions.
Addressing Sound Flanking
Sound isolation metrics, such as the STC, are measured in specially-isolated and
designed laboratory test chambers. It is important to note that there are nearly infinite
field conditions that will affect sound isolation in situ when designing or remodeling
building partitions and enclosures. Partitions that are inadequately or inappropriately
sealed—that contain back-to-back electrical boxes, untreated recessed lighting, and
unsealed pipes to name just a few—provide flanking paths for sound. Sound flanking
paths include any sound transmission path other than the wall or ceiling partition itself.
Great care and caution must be applied to any acoustically-treated building partition to
ensure that the field sound isolation performance more closely approaches laboratory-
tested values (see data from the National Research Council of Canada.)

Legal and practical requirements

Section 1207 of International Building Code 2006 states that separation between
dwelling units and between dwelling units and public and service areas must achieve
STC 50 (STC 45 if field tested) for both airborne and structure-borne. However, not all
jurisdictions use the IBC 2006 for their building or municipal code. In jurisdictions where
IBC 2006 is used, this requirement may not apply to all dwelling units. For example, a
building conversion may not need to meet this rating for all walls.

In serious cases (e.g., a bedroom adjacent to a home theater room, and an

inconsiderate nocturnal neighbor, to boot) a partition to reduce sounds from high-
powered home theater or stereo should ideally be STC 70 or greater, and show good
attenuation at low frequencies. An STC 70 wall can require detailed design and
construction and can be easily compromised by 'flanking noise', sound traveling around
the partition through the contiguous frame of the structure, thus reducing the STC
significantly. STC 65 to 70 walls are often designed into luxury multifamily units,
dedicated home theaters, and high end hotels.
STC What can be heard

25 Normal speech can be understood quite easily and distinctly through wall

Loud speech can be understood fairly well, normal speech heard but not
30
understood

35 Loud speech audible but not intelligible

40 Onset of "privacy"

42 Loud speech audible as a murmur

45 Loud speech not audible; 90% of statistical population not annoyed

Very loud sounds such as musical instruments or a stereo can be faintly heard;
50
99% of population not annoyed.

60+ Superior soundproofing; most sounds inaudible

STC Partition type

Single pane glass window (typical value) (Dual pane glass window range is 26-
27
32)"STC Ratings".
 Single layer of 1/2″ drywall on each side, wood studs, no insulation (typical
33
interior wall)

39 Single layer of 1/2″ drywall on each side, wood studs, fiberglass insulation [14]

44 4″ Hollow CMU (Concrete Masonry Unit) [15]

45 Double layer of 1/2″ drywall on each side, wood studs, batt insulation in wall

Single layer of 1/2″ drywall, glued to 6″ lightweight concrete block wall, painted
46
both sides

46 6″ Hollow CMU (Concrete Masonry Unit) [15]

48 8″ Hollow CMU (Concrete Masonry Unit) [15]

50 10″ Hollow CMU (Concrete Masonry Unit) [15]

8″ Hollow CMU (Concrete Masonry Unit) with 2″ Z-Bars and 1/2″ Drywall on each
52
side [16]

Single layer of 1/2″ drywall, glued to 8″ dense concrete block wall, painted both
54
sides

54 8″ Hollow CMU (Concrete Masonry Unit) with 1 1/2″ Wood Furring, 1 1/2″
 Fiberglass Insulation and 1/2″ Drywall on each side [16]

Double layer of 1/2″ drywall on each side, on staggered wood stud wall, batt
55
insulation in wall

Double layer of 1/2″ drywall on each side, on wood stud wall, resilient channels
59
on one side, batt insulation

Double layer of 1/2″ drywall on each side, on double wood/metal stud walls
63
(spaced 1″ apart), double batt insulation

8″ Hollow CMU (Concrete Masonry Unit) with 3″ Steel Studs, Fiberglass

64
Insulation and 1/2″ Drywall on each side [16]

8″ concrete block wall, painted, with 1/2″ drywall on independent steel stud walls,
72
each side, insulation in cavities

Acoustic Absorption

Acoustic absorption refers to the process by which a material, structure, or object

takes in sound energy when sound waves are encountered, as opposed to reflecting the
energy. Part of the absorbed energy is transformed into heat and part is transmitted
through the absorbing body. The energy transformed into heat is said to have been
'lost'.

When sound from a loudspeaker collides with the walls of a room part of the
sound's energy is reflected, part is transmitted, and part is absorbed into the walls. Just
as the acoustic energy was transmitted through the air as pressure differentials (or
deformations), the acoustic energy travels through the material which makes up the wall
in the same manner. Deformation causes mechanical losses via conversion of part of
the sound energy into heat, resulting in acoustic attenuation, mostly due to the
wall's viscosity. Similar attenuation mechanisms apply for the air and any
other medium through which sound travels.

The fraction of sound absorbed is governed by the acoustic impedances of both

media and is a function of frequency and the incident angle. Size and shape can
influence the sound wave's behavior if they interact with its wavelength, giving rise
to wave phenomena such as standing waves and diffraction.

Acoustic absorption is of particular interest in soundproofing. Soundproofing aims

to absorb as much sound energy (often in particular frequencies) as possible converting
it into heat or transmitting it away from a certain location.

In general, soft, pliable, or porous materials (like cloths) serve as good acoustic
insulators - absorbing most sound, whereas dense, hard, impenetrable materials (such
as metals) reflect most.

How well a room absorbs sound is quantified by the effective absorption area of
the walls, also named total absorption area. This is calculated using its dimensions and
the absorption coefficients of the walls.[2] The total absorption is expressed
in Sabins and is useful in, for instance, determining the reverberation time of auditoria.
Absorption coefficients can be measured using a reverberation room, which is the
opposite of an anechoic chamber

Sound reflection

When a longitudinal sound wave strikes a flat surface, sound is reflected in a

coherent manner provided that the dimension of the reflective surface is large compared
to the wavelength of the sound. Note that audible sound has a very wide frequency
range (from 20 to about 17000 Hz), and thus a very wide range of wavelengths (from
about 20 mm to 17 m). As a result, the overall nature of the reflection varies according
to the texture and structure of the surface. For example, porous materials will absorb
some energy, and rough materials (where rough is relative to the wavelength) tend to
reflect in many directions—to scatter the energy, rather than to reflect it coherently. This
leads into the field of architectural acoustics, because the nature of these reflections is
critical to the auditory feel of a space. In the theory of exterior noise mitigation, reflective
surface size mildly detracts from the concept of a noise barrier by reflecting some of the
sound into the opposite direction. Sound reflection can affect the acoustic space.

Acoustic transmission

Is the transmission of sounds through and between materials, including air, wall,
and musical instruments.

The degree to which sound is transferred between two materials depends on

how well their acoustical impedances match.

In building design

Acoustic transmission in building design refers to a number of processes by which

sound can be transferred from one part of a building to another. Typically these are:

1. Airborne transmission - a noise source in one room sends air pressure waves which
induce vibration to one side of a wall or element of structure setting it moving such
that the other face of the wall vibrates in an adjacent room. Structural
isolation therefore becomes an important consideration in the acoustic design of
buildings. Highly sensitive areas of buildings, for example recording studios, may be
almost entirely isolated from the rest of a structure by constructing the studios as
effective boxes supported by springs. Air tightness also becomes an important
control technique. A tightly sealed door might have reasonable sound reduction
properties, but if it is left open only a few millimeters its effectiveness is reduced to
 practically nothing. The most important acoustic control method is adding mass into
the structure, such as a heavy dividing wall, which will usually reduce airborne sound
transmission better than a light one.

2. Impact transmission - a noise source in one room results from an impact of an object
onto a separating surface, such as a floor and transmits the sound to an adjacent
room. A typical example would be the sound of footsteps in a room being heard in a
room below. Acoustic control measures usually include attempts to isolate the
source of the impact, or cushioning it. For example carpets will perform significantly
better than hard floors.

3. Flanking transmission - a more complex form of noise transmission, where the

resultant vibrations from a noise source are transmitted to other rooms of the
building usually by elements of structure within the building. For example, in a steel
framed building, once the frame itself is set into motion the effective transmission
can be pronounced.

Mechanisms of sound absorption

The four classical mechanisms of sound absorption in material media are shearvi
scosity, heat conduction, heat radiation, and diffusion. These attenuationmechanisms ar
e generally grouped together and referred to as classical attenuationor thermoviscous at
tenuation.

Reverberation time

Reverberation time is defined as the length of time required for sound to decay
60 decibels from its initial level. Classrooms should have reverberation times in the
range of 0.4-0.6 seconds, but many existing classrooms have reverberation times of 1
second or more. In such cases, the teacher is competing against the lingering
reflections of his or her own voice for the student's attention. The result is a chaotic
jumble of sounds.

There are two ways to determine reverberation time: 1) to measure it with a

meter or 2) to estimate it. If you want to actually measure reverberation time, you'll need
to hire an acoustical consultant. But, you can make a fairly simple estimate for the
classrooms you suspect are problems. The following section from the booklet
Classroom Acoustics describes the procedure.

Over 100 years ago, a Harvard physics professor named Wallace Clement
Sabine developed the first equation for reverberation time, which has since been named
after him and is still used today. Reverberation time is defined as the length of time
required for sound to decay 60 dB from its initial level. Sabine’s simple formula is:

Where:

RT (60) = reverberation time (sec)

V = room volume (ft3 )
S = surface area (ft 2 )
= absorption coefficient of material(s) at given frequency
indicates the summation of S times ? For all room surfaces

To use this formula, the volume of the room, surface area of each material in the
room, and absorption coefficients for those materials must be known. Absorption
coefficients are measured in specialized laboratories, and represent the fraction of
sound energy (not sound level-dB) the material will absorb as a decimal from 0 to 1.
 Figure 15 gives absorption coefficients for common classroom materials.

A commonly used one-number rating called NRC, Noise Reduction Coefficient, is

simply the average of the absorption coefficients at 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 Hz. This
simple, one-number rating can be useful for comparing the relative absorption of two
materials; however, examining absorption coefficients in each octave band gives a
better idea of the performance of a material at various frequencies.

Reverberation time is often calculated with the room unoccupied. Since people
and their clothing provide additional sound absorption, an unoccupied room is the worst-
case scenario, though not an unreasonable one, since occupancy of most classrooms
varies. In a complete analysis, this calculation should be performed for each octave
band, as the RT can vary widely at different frequencies. However, for a quick estimate,
the RT of a classroom can be calculated for just one octave band representative of
speech frequencies, such as 1000 Hz. If this RT is acceptable, then the RT throughout
the speech range will likely be acceptable.

To demonstrate the use of the Sabine equation, Figure 16 provides an example

calculation of the RT at 500 Hz for the acoustically poor classroom example given in
Figure 10a. Try calculating the RT at 500 Hz of the acoustically satisfactory classroom
in Figure 10b with only a sound-absorbing ceiling added. Note that the ceiling is lower in
that example, so the volume and surface areas will change. The RT of the satisfactory
classroom is approximately 0.4 seconds.
What is a desirable reverberation time?
Directivity contours for speech

The polar coordinate graph below plots contours of sound levels for speech. The
shapes of the contours show the directional characteristics of speech at low frequencies
(<= 500 Hz to represent vowels, which contribute to the tone of an individual’s speech)
and at high frequencies (=> 4000 Hz to re present consonants, which strongly influence
intelligibility of sibilants). 00 is the direction the speaker is facing, 180° the direction
behind the speaker. Sound levels at low frequencies are diminished very little at the
sides (90° orientation) and moderately at the rear (8 dB lower). However, sound levels
at high frequencies are diminished by about 6 dB at the sides and 20 dB (about one-
fourth as loud) at the rear. When speakers turn their backs to the audience, consonants
can become completely inaudible
Sightline

A sightline (also sight line) or visual axis is a normally unobstructed line of

sight between an intended observer (or spectator) and a subject of interest, such as
a stage, arena, or monument. Sightlines are a particularly important consideration
in theatre and stadium design, road junction layout and urban planning. In cities such
as London, construction within sightlines is restricted to protect the key views of
famous landmarks.

C-value

Good sightlines allow spectators to see all areas of a venue stage or field of play.
To ensure this designers utilize the C-value. The C-value is the vertical distance from
the spectator eye to where it intersects the sightline of the spectator directly behind.

The vertical distance from a spectator's eyes to sightline of the spectator directly
behind is called a C-value. The C-value is a value that helps produce a rake. The
stadium bowl rake if based on consistent C-values will follow half of a parabola in
section. The curvature will be greatest closest to the pitch and will become an
increasingly flatter curve as it moves to the upper rows. As a general rule the rake or
curve of the seating bowl will flatten as the first row of seats move away from the side-
line for a constant C-value. It is impractical to make different step heights for every
single row. In practice the riser height is the same for a set of 4 or 5 rows at the bottom
of the bowl with the number of rows in each same height set increasing for higher up
rows. The uppermost tier could have only 2 or even 1 different step heights.

• D = the horizontal distance from the eye to the point of focus

• N = the riser height

• R = the vertical height to the point of focus

• T = the seating row depth

It is the lowest rows of seats that are the most sensitive to the impact of the C-
value because of the very flat view angle to the touch line. The higher seats can have a
reduced C-value without impacting as seriously on the clear view of the field of play

Sightlines in theatres

Sightline criteria in theaters can include: the "isacoustic curve" defined by John
Scott Russell in 1838 and applied at the Auditorium Building in Chicago and the Emery
Theatre in Cincinnati; alternate row sightlines where each patron sees between the
heads of patrons in the row in front and over the heads of patrons in the second row in
front; next row sightlines where each patron sees over the heads of patrons in the row
immediately in front; and basic considerations like pointing the chairs more or less
toward the performance, being able to see the conductor in the pit, being able to see
other patrons, being able to see actors on elevated scenery, and not being obstructed
by a wall, railing, column, ceiling overhang, loudspeaker cluster, or any other
obstruction. The design of sightlines includes considerations of how much of the stage
and scenery each patron can see. For example, can each patron see the top of the
scenery or not, and can each patron see the whole stage floor or not? Design of
sightlines is divided into two related exercises, vertical sightlines and horizontal
sightlines. Design of proper sightlines includes resolving both technical and aesthetic
issues. At issue is the emotional response of the audience: whether a performer can
hold the audience's attention or not; whether the patron feels they had a "good" seat
and their ticket was fairly priced or not; whether the audience gets the emotional impact
of the performance or not; and whether the patron wants to come back and see another
performance in that theater or not. Building codes restrict the maximum and minimum
rise per row, limit the minimum width per row, limit the maximum deviation in the size of
steps from row to row to achieve the curvature of the rake, and limit other aspects of
sightline design.

Sightlines in stadium

The spectator view in modern stadia is optimised very carefully to balance the
uninterrupted clear view to the field for every seat whilst not making the seating terraces
any higher than necessary to satisfy structure, cost and safety considerations.

Typical Architectural Section of a stadium.

 This is done with careful modelling utilizing the C-Value to ensure the ideal rake
or curvature of the seating bowl. C-values are improved with a steeper slope or moving
the seating rows away from the focus point. Inadequate views result in spectators
jumping up for a better view during exciting play. This is an annoyance to others and
can lead to fights and in the context of large crowds this can be a serious safety threat.
The maximum step height between terraces or rows is usually limited to 540mm. If this
is exceeded then a continuous guardrail is required as protection against falling. Even
with a 540mm terrace step many spectators become uncomfortable and start to feel the
impact of vertigo. An ideal maximum terrace step height that will avoid most people
feeling insecure is 450mm.

Sightlines in plan

The illustration indicates the partially obstructed view of the front row spectators
looking at the far corner flag of the adjacent touchline. One eye can see the action on
the field whilst vision to the second eye is blocked.
 The C-Value considers the sightlines in the vertical plane. The sightlines in the
horizontal plane need to be considered for the front row spectators in the instance
where they look acutely sideways, typically adjacent far end corner flag. At the extreme
end of the front row, spectators could have their view from one of their eyes blocked by
the head of the adjacent spectator. During exciting play this can lead to spectators
jumping up out of their seats to get a better view. A clear view for both eyes for all front
row spectators can be achieved by the use of curved stands in plan. It can also be
argued that with play that is already a long distance away a better view of the game is
available on the big video screen.

Focus point

The touch-line (or side-line) and the goal-line are considered the C-Value focus point in
Stadia.

Obstructed view seats

There should be a clear view of the playing field from all seats. Roof supports
should be eliminated entirely from the seating area. In calculating the sight lines it
should be appreciated that advertising boards of 90–100 cm in height may be erected
around the field at a distance of five metres from the touch lines and five metres behind
the centre of the goal lines. FIFA ticketing carry out an assessment of all seats and
those seats that have an obstructed view of the game will be classed obstructed view
seats and will not be sold. Quite often these are the first few seats adjacent to the pitch
with their view partially blocked by the advertising hoardings. This is an especially big
problem with football stadiums that have running tracks around them. These seats are
either covered with a fabric and not occupied during the game or the tickets are issued
to non-paying spectators.
Luminous intensity

Photopic (black) and scotopic (green) luminosity functions. The photopic includes
the CIE 1931 standard (solid), the Judd–Vos 1978 modified data (dashed), and the
Sharpe, Stockman, Jagla & Jägle 2005 data (dotted). The horizontal axis is wavelength
in nm.

Luminous intensity, the quantity of visible light that is emitted in unit time per unit
solid angle. The unit for the quantity of light flowing from a source in any
one second (the luminous power, or luminous flux) is called the lumen. The lumen is
evaluated with reference to visual sensation. The sensitivity of the human eye is
greatest for light having a wavelength of 555 nanometres (10 -9 metre); at this
wavelength there are 685 lumens per watt of radiant power, or radiant flux (the
luminous efficiency), whereas at other wavelengths the luminous efficiency is less. The
unit of luminous intensity is one lumen per steradian, which is the unit of solid angle—
there are 4π steradians about a point enclosed by a spherical surface. This unit of
luminous intensity is also called the standard candle, or candela, one lumen per
steradian.

Lumen

Lumen, unit of luminous flux, or amount of light, defined as the amount streaming
outward through one steradian (a unit of solid angle, part of the volume of space
illuminated by a light source) from a uniform point source having an intensity of one
candela. The lumen is used in…

In photometry, luminous intensity is a measure of the wavelength-

weighted power emitted by a light source in a particular direction per unit solid angle,
based on the luminosity function, a standardized model of the sensitivity of the human
eye. The SI unit of luminous intensity is the candela (cd), an SI base unit.

Photometry deals with the measurement of visible light as perceived by human

eyes. The human eye can only see light in the visible spectrum and has different
sensitivities to light of different wavelengths within the spectrum. When adapted for
bright conditions (photopic vision), the eye is most sensitive to greenish-yellow light at
555 nm. Light with the same radiant intensity at other wavelengths has a lower luminous
intensity. The curve which measures the response of the human eye to light is a defined
standard, known as the luminosity function. This curve, denoted V(λ) is based on an
average of widely differing experimental data from scientists using different
measurement techniques. For instance, the measured responses of the eye to violet
light varied by a factor of ten

Relationship to other measures

Luminous intensity should not be confused with another photometric

unit, luminous flux, which is the total perceived power emitted in all directions. Luminous
intensity is the perceived power per unit solid angle. If a lamp has a 1 lumen bulb and
the optics of the lamp are set up to focus the light evenly into a 1 steradian beam, then
the beam would have a luminous intensity of 1 candela. If the optics were changed to
concentrate the beam into 1/2 steradian then the source would have a luminous
intensity of 2 candela. The resulting beam is narrower and brighter, though its luminous
flux remains unchanged.

Luminous intensity is also not the same as the radiant intensity, the
corresponding objective physical quantity used in the measurement science
of radiometry.

Units

Like other SI base units, the candela has an operational definition—it is defined
by the description of a physical process that will produce one candela of luminous
intensity. By definition, if one constructs a light source that emits monochromatic green
light with a frequency of 540 THz, and that has a radiant intensity of
1/683 watts per steradian in a given direction, that light source will emit one candela in
the specified direction.

The frequency of light used in the definition corresponds to a wavelength of

555 nm, which is near the peak of the eye's response to light. If the source emitted
uniformly in all directions, the total radiant flux would be about 18.40 mW, since there
are 4π steradians in a sphere. A typical candle produces very roughly one candela of
luminous intensity.

Prior to the definition of the candela, a variety of units for luminous intensity were
used in various countries. These were typically based on the brightness of the flame
from a "standard candle" of defined composition, or the brightness of an incandescent
filament of specific design. One of the best-known of these standards was
the English standard: candlepower. One candlepower was the light produced by a
pure spermaceti candle weighing one sixth of a pound and burning at a rate of
120 grains per hour. Germany, Austria, and Scandinavia used the Hefnerkerze, a unit
based on the output of a Hefner lamp. In 1881, Jules Violle proposed the Violle as a unit
of luminous intensity, and it was notable as the first unit of light intensity that did not
depend on the properties of a particular lamp. All of these units were superseded by the
definition of the candela.

Usage

The luminous intensity for monochromatic light of a particular wavelength λ is given by

where

Iv is the luminous intensity in candelas (cd),

Ie is the radiant intensity in watts per steradian (W/sr),

is the standard luminosity function.

If more than one wavelength is present (as is usually the case), one must sum or
integrate over the spectrum of wavelengths present to get the luminous intensity:

Luminous flux

Integrating sphere used for measuring

the luminous flux of a light source.
 In photometry, luminous flux or luminous power is the measure of the perceived
power of light. It differs from radiant flux, the measure of the total power
of electromagnetic radiation (including infrared, ultraviolet, and visible light), in that
luminous flux is adjusted to reflect the varying sensitivity of the human eye to
different wavelengths of light.

Units

The SI unit of luminous flux is the lumen (lm). One lumen is defined as the
luminous flux of light produced by a light source that emits one candela of luminous
intensity over a solid angle of one steradian. In other systems of units, luminous flux
may have units of power.

Weighting

The luminous flux accounts for the sensitivity of the eye by weighting the power
at each wavelength with the luminosity function, which represents the eye's response to
different wavelengths. The luminous flux is a weighted sum of the power at all
wavelengths in the visible band. Light outside the visible band does not contribute. The
ratio of the total luminous flux to the radiant flux is called the luminous efficacy.

Context

Luminous flux is often used as an objective measure of the useful light emitted by
a light source, and is typically reported on the packaging for light bulbs, although it is not
always prominent. Consumers commonly compare the luminous flux of different light
bulbs since it provides an estimate of the apparent amount of light the bulb will produce,
and a lightbulb with a higher ratio of luminous flux to consumed power is more efficient.
 Luminous flux is not used to compare brightness, as this is a subjective
perception which varies according to the distance from the light source and the angular
spread of the light from the source.

Relationship to luminous intensity

Luminous flux (in lumens) is a measure of the total amount of light a lamp puts
out. The luminous intensity (in candelas) is a measure of how bright the beam in a
particular direction is. If a lamp has a 1 lumen bulb and the optics of the lamp are set up
to focus the light evenly into a 1 steradian beam, then the beam would have a luminous
intensity of 1 candela. If the optics were changed to concentrate the beam into 1/2
steradian then the source would have a luminous intensity of 2 candela. The resulting
beam is narrower and brighter, however the luminous flux remains the same.

SI photometry quantities

Quantity Unit Dimension

Notes
Symbol[n
Name Name Symbol Symbol[nb 2]
b 1]

The lumen second is

Luminous
Qv [nb 3] lumen second lm⋅s T⋅J sometimes called
energy
the talbot.

Luminous
flux / Luminous energy
Φv [nb 3] lumen (= cd⋅sr) lm J
luminous per unit time
power

Luminous candela (= lm/sr Luminous flux per

Iv cd J
intensity ) unit solid angle
 Luminous flux per
unit solid angle per
unit projected sourc
candela per
Luminance Lv cd/m2 L−2⋅J e area. The candela
square metre
per square metre is
sometimes called
the nit.

Luminous
Illuminanc
Ev lux (= lm/m2) lx L−2⋅J flux incident on a
e
surface

Luminous
Luminous
exitance /
Mv lux lx L−2⋅J flux emitted from a
luminous
surface
emittance

Luminous Time-integrated
Hv lux second lx⋅s L−2⋅T⋅J
exposure illuminance

Luminous
lumen second lm⋅s⋅m−
energy ωv L−3⋅T⋅J
per cubic metre 3
density

Ratio of luminous
flux to radiant flux or
Luminous M−1⋅L−2⋅T3⋅
η [nb 3] lumen per watt lm/W power consumption,
efficacy J
depending on
context

Luminous Luminous efficacy

efficiency / V 1 normalized by the
luminous maximum possible
coefficient efficacy

See also: SI · Photometry · Radiometry

1. Jump up^ Standards organizations recommend that photometric quantities

be denoted with a suffix "v" (for "visual") to avoid confusion with
radiometric or photon quantities. For example: USA Standard Letter
Symbols for Illuminating Engineering USAS Z7.1-1967, Y10.18-1967

2. Jump up^ The symbols in this column denote dimensions; "L", "T" and "J"
are for length, time and luminous intensity respectively, not the symbols
for the units litre, tesla and joule.

3. ^ Jump up to:a b c Alternative symbols sometimes seen: W for luminous

energy, P or F for luminous flux, and ρ or K for luminous efficacy.

Examples

Table of comparative luminous flux of several light sources[5][6][7]

Source Luminous flux (lumens)

37 mW "Superbright" white LED 0.20

15 mW green laser (532 nm wavelength) 8.4

1 W high-output white LED 25–120

Kerosene lantern 100

40 W incandescent lamp at 230 volts 325

7 W high-output white LED 450

6 W COB filament LED lamp 600

18 W fluorescent lamp 1250

100 W incandescent lamp 1750

40 W fluorescent lamp 2800

35 W xenon bulb 2200–3200

100 W fluorescent lamp 8000

127 W low pressure sodium vapor lamp 25000

400 W metal-halide lamp 40000

Values are given for newly manufactured sources. The output

from many sources decreases significantly over their lifetime.

Light is a transverse, electromagnetic wave that can be seen by humans. The wave
nature of light was first illustrated through experiments on diffraction and interference.
Like all electromagnetic waves, light can travel through a vacuum. The transverse
nature of light can be demonstrated through polarization.

 In 1678, Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) published Traité de la Lumiere, where

he argued in favor of the wave nature of light. Huygens stated that an expanding
sphere of light behaves as if each point on the wave front were a new source of
radiation of the same frequency and phase.

 Thomas Young (1773–1829) and Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1788–1827) disproved

Newton's corpuscular theory.

Sources

Light is produced by one of two methods

 Incandescence is the emission of light from "hot" matter (T ≳ 800 K).

  Luminescence is the emission of light when excited electrons fall to lower energy
levels
(in matter that may or may not be "hot").

Speed

Just notes so far. The speed of light in a vacuum is represented by the letter c from the
Latin celeritas — swiftness. Measurements of the speed of light.

Veramente non l'ho In fact I have tried the

sperimentata, salvo che in experiment only at a short
lontananza piccola, cioè distance, less than a mile,
manco d'un miglio, dal from which I have not
che non ho potuto been able to ascertain
assicurarmi se veramente with certainty whether the
la comparsa del lume appearance of the
opposto sia instantanea; opposite light was
ma ben, se non instantaneous or not;
instantanea, but if not instantaneous it
velocissima…. is extraordinarily rapid….

Galileo Galilei, 1638 Galileo Galilei, 1638

Ole Rømer (1644–1710) Denmark. "Démonstration touchant le mouvement de la

lumière trouvé par M. Roemer de l'Académie des Sciences." Journal des Scavans.
7 December 1676. Rømer's idea was to use the transits of Jupiter's moon Io to
determine the time. Not local time, which was already possible, but a "universal" time
that would be the same for all observers on the Earth, Knowing the standard time would
allow one to determine one's longitude on the Earth — a handy thing to know when
navigating the featureless oceans.
 Unfortunately, Io did not turn out to be a good clock. Rømer observed that times
between eclipses got shorter as earth approached Jupiter, and longer as earth moved
farther away. He hypothesized that this variation was due to the time it took for light to
travel the lesser or greater distance, and estimated that the time for light to travel the
diameter of the Earth's orbit, a distance of two astronomical units, was 22 minutes.

 The speed of light in a vacuum is a universal constant in all reference frames.

 The speed of light in a vacuum is fixed at 299,792,458 m/s by the current

definition of the meter.

 The speed of light in a medium is always slower the speed of light in a vacuum.

 The speed of light depends upon the medium through which it travels.The speed
of anything with mass is always less than the speed of light in a vacuum.

Other characteristics

The amplitude of a light wave is related to its intensity.

 Intensity is the absolute measure of a light wave's power density.

 Brightness is the relative intensity as perceived by the average human eye.

The frequency of a light wave is related to its color.

 Color is such a complex topic that it has its own section in this book.

 Monochromatic light is described by only one frequency.

o Laser light is effectively monochromatic.

o There are six simple, named colors in English (and many other languages)
each associated with a band of monochromatic light. In order of increasing
frequency they are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet.

o Light is sometimes also known as visible light to contrast it from "ultraviolet

light" and "infrared light"
 o Other forms of electromagnetic radiation that are not visible to humans are
sometimes also known informally as "light"

 Polychromatic light is described by many different frequencies.

o Nearly every light source is polychromatic.

o White light is polychromatic.

 A continuous spectrum is one in which every frequency is present within some

range.

o Blackbody radiators emit a continuous spectrum.

 A discrete spectrum is one in which only a well defined set of isolated

frequencies are present.
(A discrete spectrum is a finite collection of monochromatic light waves.)

o The excited electrons in a gas emit a discrete spectrum.

The wavelength of a light wave is inversely proportional to its frequency.

 Light is often described by it's wavelength in a vacuum.

 Light ranges in wavelength from 400 nm on the violet end to 700 nm on the red
end of the visible spectrum.

Phase differences between light waves can produce visible interference effects.
(There are several sections in this book on interference phenomena and light.)

Leftovers about animals.

 Falcon can see a 10 cm. object from a distance of 1.5 km.

 Fly's Eye has a flicker fusion rate of 300/s. Humans have a flicker fusion rate of
only 60/s in bright light and 24/s in dim light. The flicker fusion rate is the
frequency with which the "flicker" of an image cannot be distinguished as an
individual event. Like the frame of a movie… if you slowed it down, you would
see individual frames. Speed it up and you see a constantly moving image.
Octopus' eye has a flicker fusion frequency of 70/s in bright light.
  Penguin has a flat cornea that allows for clear vision underwater. Penguins can
also see into the ultraviolet range of the electromagnetic spectrum.

 Sparrow Retina has 400,000 photoreceptors per square. mm.

 Reindeer can see ultraviolet wavelengths, which may help them view contrasts in
their mostly white environment.

Light

A triangular prism dispersing a

beam of white light. The longer
wavelengths (red) and the
shorter wavelengths (blue) are
separated.

Light is electromagnetic radiation within a certain portion of the electromagnetic

spectrum. The word usually refers to visible light, which is the visible spectrum that is
visible to the human eye and is responsible for the sense of sight. Visible light is usually
defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400–700 nanometres (nm), or 4.00 ×
10−7 to 7.00 × 10−7 m, between the infrared (with longer wavelengths) and
the ultraviolet (with shorter wavelengths). This wavelength means a frequency range of
roughly 430–750 terahertz(THz).

The main source of light on Earth is the Sun. Sunlight provides the energy that
green plants use to create sugars mostly in the form of starches, which release energy
into the living things that digest them. This process of photosynthesis provides virtually
all the energy used by living things. Historically, another important source of light for
humans has been fire, from ancient campfires to modern kerosene lamps. With the
development of electric lights and power systems, electric lighting has effectively
replaced firelight. Some species of animals generate their own light, a process
called bioluminescence. For example, fireflies use light to locate mates, and vampire
squids use it to hide themselves from prey.

The primary properties of visible light are intensity, propagation direction,

frequency or wavelength spectrum, and polarization, while its speed in a vacuum,
299,792,458 metres per second, is one of the fundamental constants of nature. Visible
light, as with all types of electromagnetic radiation (EMR), is experimentally found to
always move at this speed in a vacuum.

In physics, the term light sometimes refers to electromagnetic radiation of any

wavelength, whether visible or not. In this sense, gamma rays, X-
rays, microwaves and radio waves are also light. Like all types of EM radiation, visible
light propagates as waves. However, the energy imparted by the waves is absorbed at
single locations the way particles are absorbed. The absorbed energy of the EM waves
is called a photon, and represents the quanta of light. When a wave of light is
transformed and absorbed as a photon, the energy of the wave instantly collapses to a
single location, and this location is where the photon "arrives." This is what is called
the wave function collapse. This dual wave-like and particle-like nature of light is known
as the wave–particle duality. The study of light, known as optics, is an important
research area in modern physics.
Electromagnetic spectrum and visible light

Electromagnetic spectrum with light highlighted

Generally, EM radiation, or EMR (the designation "radiation" excludes static

electric and magnetic and near fields), is classified by wavelength into
radio, microwave, infrared, the visible region that we perceive as light, ultraviolet, X-
rays and gamma rays.

The behavior of EMR depends on its wavelength. Higher frequencies have

shorter wavelengths, and lower frequencies have longer wavelengths. When EMR
interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior depends on the amount of
energy per quantum it carries.

EMR in the visible light region consists of quanta (called photons) that are at the
lower end of the energies that are capable of causing electronic excitation within
molecules, which leads to changes in the bonding or chemistry of the molecule. At the
lower end of the visible light spectrum, EMR becomes invisible to humans (infrared)
because its photons no longer have enough individual energy to cause a lasting
molecular change (a change in conformation) in the visual molecule retinal in the human
retina, which change triggers the sensation of vision.

There exist animals that are sensitive to various types of infrared, but not by
means of quantum-absorption. Infrared sensing in snakes depends on a kind of
natural thermal imaging, in which tiny packets of cellular water are raised in temperature
by the infrared radiation. EMR in this range causes molecular vibration and heating
effects, which is how these animals detect it.

Above the range of visible light, ultraviolet light becomes invisible to humans,
mostly because it is absorbed by the cornea below 360 nanometers and the internal
lens below 400. Furthermore, the rods and cones located in the retinaof the human eye
cannot detect the very short (below 360 nm) ultraviolet wavelengths and are in fact
damaged by ultraviolet. Many animals with eyes that do not require lenses (such as
insects and shrimp) are able to detect ultraviolet, by quantum photon-absorption
mechanisms, in much the same chemical way that humans detect visible light.

Various sources define visible light as narrowly as 420 to 680 to as broadly as

380 to 800 nm. Under ideal laboratory conditions, people can see infrared up to at least
1050 nm; children and young adults may perceive ultraviolet wavelengths down to
about 310 to 313 nm.

Plant growth is also affected by the color spectrum of light, a process known
as photomorphogenesis.

m
Speed of light

The speed of light in a vacuum is defined to be exactly 299,792,458 m/s (approx.

186,282 miles per second). The fixed value of the speed of light in SI units results from
the fact that the metre is now defined in terms of the speed of light. All forms of
electromagnetic radiation move at exactly this same speed in vacuum.

Different physicists have attempted to measure the speed of light throughout

history. Galileo attempted to measure the speed of light in the seventeenth century. An
early experiment to measure the speed of light was conducted by Ole Rømer, a Danish
physicist, in 1676. Using a telescope, Rømer observed the motions of Jupiter and one
of its moons, Io. Noting discrepancies in the apparent period of Io's orbit, he calculated
that light takes about 22 minutes to traverse the diameter of Earth's orbit.[15] However,
its size was not known at that time. If Rømer had known the diameter of the Earth's
orbit, he would have calculated a speed of 227,000,000 m/s.

Another, more accurate, measurement of the speed of light was performed in

Europe by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1849. Fizeau directed a beam of light at a mirror several
kilometers away. A rotating cog wheel was placed in the path of the light beam as it
traveled from the source, to the mirror and then returned to its origin. Fizeau found that
at a certain rate of rotation, the beam would pass through one gap in the wheel on the
way out and the next gap on the way back. Knowing the distance to the mirror, the
number of teeth on the wheel, and the rate of rotation, Fizeau was able to calculate the
speed of light as 313,000,000 m/s.

Léon Foucault carried out an experiment which used rotating mirrors to obtain a
value of 298,000,000 m/s in 1862. Albert A. Michelson conducted experiments on the
speed of light from 1877 until his death in 1931. He refined Foucault's methods in 1926
using improved rotating mirrors to measure the time it took light to make a round trip
from Mount Wilson to Mount San Antonio in California. The precise measurements
yielded a speed of 299,796,000 m/s.
 The effective velocity of light in various transparent substances containing
ordinary matter, is less than in vacuum. For example, the speed of light in water is about
3/4 of that in vacuum.

Two independent teams of physicists were said to bring light to a "complete

standstill" by passing it through a Bose–Einstein condensate of the element rubidium,
one team at Harvard University and the Rowland Institute for Sciencein Cambridge,
Massachusetts, and the other at the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, also
in Cambridge. However, the popular description of light being "stopped" in these
experiments refers only to light being stored in the excited states of atoms, then re-
emitted at an arbitrary later time, as stimulated by a second laser pulse. During the time
it had "stopped" it had ceased to be light.

Optics

The study of light and the interaction of light and matter is termed optics. The
observation and study of optical phenomena such as rainbows and the aurora
borealis offer many clues as to the nature of light.

Refraction

An example of refraction of light. The straw

appears bent, because of refraction of light as it
enters liquid from air.

Refraction is the bending of light rays when

passing through a surface between one
transparent material and another. It is described
by Snell's Law:

where θ1 is the angle between the ray and

the surface normal in the first medium, θ2 is the angle between the ray and the surface
normal in the second medium, and n1 and n2 are the indices of refraction, n = 1 in
a vacuum and n > 1 in a transparent substance.

When a beam of light crosses the boundary between a vacuum and another
medium, or between two different media, the wavelength of the light changes, but the
frequency remains constant. If the beam of light is not orthogonal (or rather normal) to
the boundary, the change in wavelength results in a change in the direction of the
beam. This change of direction is known as refraction.

The refractive quality of lenses is frequently used to manipulate light in order to

change the apparent size of images. Magnifying glasses, spectacles, contact
lenses, microscopes and refracting telescopes are all examples of this manipulation.

Light sources

There are many sources of light. A body at a given temperature emits a

characteristic spectrum of black-body radiation. A simple thermal source is sunlight, the
radiation emitted by the chromosphere of the Sun at around 6,000 kelvins (5,730
degrees Celsius; 10,340 degrees Fahrenheit) peaks in the visible region of the
electromagnetic spectrum when plotted in wavelength units and roughly 44% of sunlight
energy that reaches the ground is visible. Another example is incandescent light bulbs,
which emit only around 10% of their energy as visible light and the remainder as
infrared. A common thermal light source in history is the glowing solid particles
in flames, but these also emit most of their radiation in the infrared, and only a fraction
in the visible spectrum.

The peak of the blackbody spectrum is in the deep infrared, at about

10 micrometre wavelength, for relatively cool objects like human beings. As the
temperature increases, the peak shifts to shorter wavelengths, producing first a red
glow, then a white one, and finally a blue-white colour as the peak moves out of the
visible part of the spectrum and into the ultraviolet. These colours can be seen when
metal is heated to "red hot" or "white hot". Blue-white thermal emission is not often
seen, except in stars (the commonly seen pure-blue colour in a gas flame or
a welder'storch is in fact due to molecular emission, notably by CH radicals (emitting a
wavelength band around 425 nm, and is not seen in stars or pure thermal radiation).

Atoms emit and absorb light at characteristic energies. This produces "emission
lines" in the spectrum of each atom. Emission can be spontaneous, as in light-emitting
diodes, gas discharge lamps (such as neon lamps and neon signs, mercury-vapor
lamps, etc.), and flames (light from the hot gas itself—so, for example, sodium in a gas
flame emits characteristic yellow light). Emission can also be stimulated, as in a laser or
a microwave maser.

Deceleration of a free charged particle, such as an electron, can produce visible

radiation: cyclotron radiation, synchrotron radiation, and bremsstrahlung radiation are all
examples of this. Particles moving through a medium faster than the speed of light in
that medium can produce visible Cherenkov radiation. Certain chemicals produce
visible radiation by chemoluminescence. In living things, this process is
called bioluminescence. For example, fireflies produce light by this means, and boats
moving through water can disturb plankton which produce a glowing wake.

Certain substances produce light when they are illuminated by more energetic
radiation, a process known as fluorescence. Some substances emit light slowly after
excitation by more energetic radiation. This is known as phosphorescence.
Phosphorescent materials can also be excited by bombarding them with subatomic
particles. Cathodoluminescence is one example. This mechanism is used in cathode
ray tube television sets and computer monitors.
A city illuminated by colorful artificial lighting

Certain other mechanisms can produce light:

 Bioluminescence

 Cherenkov radiation

 Electroluminescence

 Scintillation

 Sonoluminescence

 Triboluminescence

When the concept of light is intended to include very-high-energy photons (gamma

rays), additional generation mechanisms include:
  Particle–antiparticle annihilation

 Radioactive decay

Units and measures

Light is measured with two main alternative sets of units: radiometry consists of
measurements of light power at all wavelengths, while photometry measures light with
wavelength weighted with respect to a standardised model of human brightness
perception. Photometry is useful, for example, to quantify Illumination (lighting) intended
for human use. The SI units for both systems are summarised in the following tables.

Table 1. SI radiometry units

Dimen
Quantity Unit
sion
Notes
Symb Symbo
Name Name Symbol
ol[nb 1] l

Energy of
M⋅L2⋅T
Radiant energy Qe[nb 2] joule J electromagnetic
−2
radiation.

joule per
Radiant energy M⋅L−1⋅ Radiant energy per unit
we cubic J/m3
density T−2 volume.
metre

Radiant energy emitted,

reflected, transmitted or
M⋅L2⋅T
Radiant flux Φe[nb 2] watt W = J/s received, per unit time.
−3
This is sometimes also
called "radiant power".
 Φe,ν[nb watt M⋅L2⋅T
Radiant flux per unit
3] per hertz W/Hz −2
frequency or wavelength.
Spectral flux or or or or
The latter is commonly
Φe,λ[nb watt per W/m M⋅L⋅T−
measured in W⋅nm−1.
4] metre 3

Radiant flux emitted,

watt reflected, transmitted or
Radiant Ie,Ω[nb M⋅L2⋅T
per stera W/sr received, per unit solid
intensity 5] −3
dian angle. This is
a directionalquantity.

watt per
steradia
Radiant intensity per unit
Ie,Ω,ν[nb n per M⋅L2⋅T
W⋅sr−1⋅Hz− frequency or wavelength.
3] hertz −2
Spectral 1 The latter is commonly
or or or
intensity or measured in
Ie,Ω,λ[nb watt per M⋅L⋅T−
W⋅sr−1⋅m−1 W⋅sr−1⋅nm−1. This is
4] steradia 3
a directionalquantity.
n per
metre

Radiant flux emitted,

reflected, transmitted or
watt per received by a surface,
steradia per unit solid angle per
Le,Ω[nb
Radiance n per W⋅sr−1⋅m−2 M⋅T−3 unit projected area. This
5]
square is a directionalquantity.
metre This is sometimes also
confusingly called
"intensity".
 watt per
steradia
n per Radiance of
square a surface per unit
metre frequency or wavelength.
Le,Ω,ν[n
per hertz W⋅sr−1⋅m−2 M⋅T−2 The latter is commonly
b 3]
Spectral or ⋅Hz−1 or measured in
or
radiance watt per or M⋅L−1⋅ W⋅sr−1⋅m−2⋅nm−1. This is
Le,Ω,λ[n
steradia W⋅sr−1⋅m−3 T−3 a directionalquantity.
b 4]
n per This is sometimes also
square confusingly called
metre, "spectral intensity".
per
metre

Radiant flux received by

watt per a surface per unit area.
Irradiance
Ee[nb 2] square W/m2 M⋅T−3 This is sometimes also
Flux density
metre confusingly called
"intensity".

watt per Irradiance of

square a surface per unit
metre frequency or wavelength.
Ee,ν[nb
Spectral per hertz W⋅m−2⋅Hz− M⋅T−2 This is sometimes also
3]
irradiance or 1 or confusingly called
or
Spectral flux watt per or M⋅L−1⋅ "spectral intensity". Non-
Ee,λ[nb
density
4]
square W/m3 T−3 SI units of spectral flux
metre, density
per include jansky (1 Jy =
metre 10−26 W⋅m−2⋅Hz−1)
 and solar flux unit(1 sfu =
10−22 W⋅m−2⋅Hz−1=
104 Jy).

Radiant
flux leaving (emitted,
watt per reflected and transmitted
Radiosity Je[nb 2] square W/m2 M⋅T−3 by) a surface per unit
metre area. This is sometimes
also confusingly called
"intensity".

watt per
Radiosity of
square
a surface per unit
metre
Je,ν[nb frequency or wavelength.
per hertz W⋅m−2⋅Hz− M⋅T−2
3] The latter is commonly
Spectral or 1 or
or measured in
radiosity watt per or M⋅L−1⋅
Je,λ[nb W⋅m−2⋅nm−1. This is
4]
square W/m3 T−3
sometimes also
metre,
confusingly called
per
"spectral intensity".
metre

Radiant flux emitted by

a surface per unit area.
This is the emitted
watt per
Radiant component of radiosity.
Me[nb 2] square W/m2 M⋅T−3
exitance "Radiant emittance" is an
metre
old term for this quantity.
This is sometimes also
confusingly called
 "intensity".

Radiant exitance of
watt per
a surface per unit
square
frequency or wavelength.
metre
Me,ν[nb The latter is commonly
per hertz W⋅m−2⋅Hz− M⋅T−2
3] measured in
Spectral or 1 or
or W⋅m−2⋅nm−1. "Spectral
exitance watt per or M⋅L−1⋅
Me,λ[nb emittance" is an old term
square W/m3 T−3
4]
for this quantity. This is
metre,
sometimes also
per
confusingly called
metre
"spectral intensity".

Radiant energy received

by a surface per unit
area, or equivalently
joule per
Radiant irradiance of
He square J/m2 M⋅T−2
exposure a surface integrated over
metre
time of irradiation. This is
sometimes also called
"radiant fluence".

joule per
square Radiant exposure of
He,ν[nb metre a surface per unit
M⋅T−1
3] −2 −1
per hertz J⋅m ⋅Hz frequency or wavelength.
Spectral or
or or or The latter is commonly
exposure M⋅L−1⋅
He,λ[nb joule per J/m
3 measured in J⋅m−2⋅nm−1.
T−2
4]
square This is sometimes also

metre, called "spectral fluence".

per
 metre

Radiant exitance of
a surface, divided by that
Hemispherical
ε 1 of a black body at the
emissivity
same temperature as
that surface.

Spectral exitance of
Spectral εν a surface, divided by that
hemispherical or 1 of a black body at the
emissivity ελ same temperature as
that surface.

Radiance emittedby
a surface, divided by that
Directional emitted by a black
εΩ 1
emissivity body at the same
temperature as that
surface.

Spectral
radiance emitted by
Spectral εΩ,ν
a surface, divided by that
directional or 1
of a black body at the
emissivity εΩ,λ
same temperature as
that surface.

Radiant flux absorbed by

Hemispherical a surface, divided by that
A 1
absorptance received by that surface.
This should not be
 confused with
"absorbance".

Spectral flux absorbed by

a surface, divided by that
Spectral Aν
received by that surface.
hemispherical or 1
This should not be
absorptance Aλ
confused with "spectral
absorbance".

Radiance absorbed by
a surface, divided by the
Directional radiance incident onto
AΩ 1
absorptance that surface. This should
not be confused with
"absorbance".

Spectral
radiance absorbed by
a surface, divided by the
Spectral AΩ,ν
spectral radiance
directional or 1
incident onto that
absorptance AΩ,λ
surface. This should not
be confused with
"spectral absorbance".

Radiant flux reflected by

Hemispherical
R 1 a surface, divided by that
reflectance
received by that surface.

Spectral Rν Spectral flux reflected by

1
hemispherical or a surface, divided by that
reflectance Rλ received by that surface.

Radiance reflectedby
Directional
RΩ 1 a surface, divided by that
reflectance
received by that surface.

Spectral
Spectral RΩ,ν
radiance reflected by
directional or 1
a surface, divided by that
reflectance RΩ,λ
received by that surface.

Radiant
Hemispherical flux transmitted by
T 1
transmittance a surface, divided by that
received by that surface.

Spectral
Spectral Tν
flux transmitted by
hemispherical or 1
a surface, divided by that
transmittance Tλ
received by that surface.

Radiance transmitted by
Directional
TΩ 1 a surface, divided by that
transmittance
received by that surface.

Spectral
Spectral TΩ,ν
radiance transmitted by
directional or 1
a surface, divided by that
transmittance TΩ,λ
received by that surface.

Hemispherical Radiant
reciproc
attenuation μ m−1 L−1 flux absorbed and scatter
al metre
coefficient ed by a volume per unit
 length, divided by that
received by that volume.

Spectral radiant
Spectral
μν flux absorbed and scatter
hemispherical reciproc
or m−1 L−1 ed by a volume per unit
attenuation al metre
μλ length, divided by that
coefficient
received by that volume.

Radiance absorbed and

Directional scattered by
reciproc
attenuation μΩ m−1 L−1 a volume per unit length,
al metre
coefficient divided by that received
by that volume.

Spectral
Spectral radiance absorbed and s
μΩ,ν
directional reciproc cattered by a volume per
or m−1 L−1
attenuation al metre unit length, divided by
μΩ,λ
coefficient that received by that
volume.

See also: SI · Radiometry · Photometry · (Compare)

Table 2. SI photometry quantities

Quantity Unit Dimension

Notes
Symbol[n
Name Name Symbol Symbol[nb 7]
b 6]

The lumen second

Luminous
Qv [nb 8] lumen second lm⋅s T⋅J is sometimes called
energy
the talbot.

Luminous
flux / Luminous energy
Φv [nb 8] lumen(= cd⋅sr) lm J
luminous per unit time
power

Luminous candela(= lm/sr Luminous flux per

Iv cd J
intensity ) unit solid angle

Luminous flux per

unit solid angle per
unit projected sourc
Luminanc candela per
Lv cd/m2 L−2⋅J e area. The candela
e square metre
per square metre is
sometimes called
the nit.

Luminous
Illuminanc
Ev lux(= lm/m2) lx L−2⋅J flux incident on a
e
surface

Luminous Luminous
Mv lux lx L−2⋅J
exitance/ flux emitted from a
 luminous surface
emittance

Luminous Time-integrated
Hv lux second lx⋅s L−2⋅T⋅J
exposure illuminance

Luminous
lumen second lm⋅s⋅m−
energy ωv L−3⋅T⋅J
per cubic metre 3
density

Ratio of luminous
flux to radiant
Luminous M−1⋅L−2⋅T3⋅ flux or power
η [nb 8] lumen per watt lm/W
efficacy J consumption,
depending on
context

Luminous Luminous efficacy

efficiency / normalized by the
V 1
luminous maximum possible
coefficient efficacy

See also: SI · Photometry · Radiometry · (Compare)

The photometry units are different from most systems of physical units in that
they take into account how the human eye responds to light. The cone cells in the
human eye are of three types which respond differently across the visible spectrum, and
the cumulative response peaks at a wavelength of around 555 nm. Therefore, two
sources of light which produce the same intensity (W/m 2) of visible light do not
necessarily appear equally bright. The photometry units are designed to take this into
account, and therefore are a better representation of how "bright" a light appears to be
than raw intensity. They relate to raw power by a quantity called luminous efficacy, and
are used for purposes like determining how to best achieve sufficient illumination for
various tasks in indoor and outdoor settings. The illumination measured by
a photocell sensor does not necessarily correspond to what is perceived by the human
eye, and without filters which may be costly, photocells and charge-coupled
devices (CCD) tend to respond to some infrared, ultraviolet or both.

Light pressure

Light exerts physical pressure on objects in its path, a phenomenon which can be
deduced by Maxwell's equations, but can be more easily explained by the particle
nature of light: photons strike and transfer their momentum. Light pressure is equal to
the power of the light beam divided by c, the speed of light. Due to the magnitude of c,
the effect of light pressure is negligible for everyday objects. For example, a one-
milliwatt laser pointer exerts a force of about 3.3 piconewtons on the object being
illuminated; thus, one could lift a U.S. penny with laser pointers, but doing so would
require about 30 billion 1-mW laser pointers. However, in nanometre-scale applications
such as nanoelectromechanical systems (|NEMS), the effect of light pressure is more
significant, and exploiting light pressure to drive NEMS mechanisms and to flip
nanometre-scale physical switches in integrated circuits is an active area of research. At
larger scales, light pressure can cause asteroids to spin faster, acting on their irregular
shapes as on the vanes of a windmill. The possibility of making solar sails that would
accelerate spaceships in space is also under investigation.

Although the motion of the Crookes radiometer was originally attributed to light
pressure, this interpretation is incorrect; the characteristic Crookes rotation is the result
of a partial vacuum. This should not be confused with the Nichols radiometer, in which
the (slight) motion caused by torque (though not enough for full rotation against
friction) is directly caused by light pressure. As a consequence of light
pressure, Einstein in 1909 predicted the existence of "radiation friction" which would
oppose the movement of matter. He wrote, “radiation will exert pressure on both sides
of the plate. The forces of pressure exerted on the two sides are equal if the plate is at
rest. However, if it is in motion, more radiation will be reflected on the surface that is
ahead during the motion (front surface) than on the back surface. The backwardacting
force of pressure exerted on the front surface is thus larger than the force of pressure
acting on the back. Hence, as the resultant of the two forces, there remains a force that
counteracts the motion of the plate and that increases with the velocity of the plate. We
will call this resultant 'radiation friction' in brief.”

Historical theories about light, in chronological order

Classical Greece and Hellenism

In the fifth century BC, Empedocles postulated that everything was composed
of four elements; fire, air, earth and water. He believed that Aphrodite made the human
eye out of the four elements and that she lit the fire in the eye which shone out from the
eye making sight possible. If this were true, then one could see during the night just as
well as during the day, so Empedocles postulated an interaction between rays from the
eyes and rays from a source such as the sun.

In about 300 BC, Euclid wrote Optica, in which he studied the properties of light.
Euclid postulated that light travelled in straight lines and he described the laws of
reflection and studied them mathematically. He questioned that sight is the result of a
beam from the eye, for he asks how one sees the stars immediately, if one closes one's
eyes, then opens them at night. If the beam from the eye travels infinitely fast this is not
a problem. In 55 BC, Lucretius, a Roman who carried on the ideas of earlier
Greek atomists, wrote that "The light & heat of the sun; these are composed of minute
atoms which, when they are shoved off, lose no time in shooting right across the
interspace of air in the direction imparted by the shove." (from On the nature of the
Universe). Despite being similar to later particle theories, Lucretius's views were not
generally accepted. Ptolemy (c. 2nd century) wrote about the refraction of light in his
book Optics.
Classical India

In ancient India, the Hindu schools of Samkhya and Vaisheshika, from around
the early centuries AD developed theories on light. According to the Samkhya school,
light is one of the five fundamental "subtle" elements (tanmatra) out of which emerge
the gross elements. The atomicity of these elements is not specifically mentioned and it
appears that they were actually taken to be continuous.[31] On the other hand, the
Vaisheshika school gives an atomic theoryof the physical world on the non-atomic
ground of ether, space and time. (See Indian atomism.) The basic atoms are those of
earth (prthivi), water (pani), fire (agni), and air (vayu) Light rays are taken to be a stream
of high velocity of tejas (fire) atoms. The particles of light can exhibit different
characteristics depending on the speed and the arrangements of the tejas atoms.
The Vishnu Purana refers to sunlight as "the seven rays of the sun".

The Indian Buddhists, such as Dignāga in the 5th century and Dharmakirti in the
7th century, developed a type of atomism that is a philosophy about reality being
composed of atomic entities that are momentary flashes of light or energy. They viewed
light as being an atomic entity equivalent to energy.

Descartes

René Descartes (1596–1650) held that light was a mechanical property of the
luminous body, rejecting the "forms" of Ibn al-Haytham and Witelo as well as the
"species" of Bacon, Grosseteste, and Kepler. In 1637 he published a theory of
the refraction of light that assumed, incorrectly, that light travelled faster in a denser
medium than in a less dense medium. Descartes arrived at this conclusion by analogy
with the behaviour of sound waves. Although Descartes was incorrect about the relative
speeds, he was correct in assuming that light behaved like a wave and in concluding
that refraction could be explained by the speed of light in different media.

Descartes is not the first to use the mechanical analogies but because he clearly
asserts that light is only a mechanical property of the luminous body and the
transmitting medium, Descartes' theory of light is regarded as the start of modern
physical optics.
Particle theory

Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655), an atomist, proposed a particle theory of light

which was published posthumously in the 1660s. Isaac Newton studied Gassendi's
work at an early age, and preferred his view to Descartes' theory of the plenum. He
stated in his Hypothesis of Light of 1675 that light was composed
of corpuscles (particles of matter) which were emitted in all directions from a source.
One of Newton's arguments against the wave nature of light was that waves were
known to bend around obstacles, while light travelled only in straight lines. He did,
however, explain the phenomenon of the diffraction of light (which had been observed
by Francesco Grimaldi) by allowing that a light particle could create a localised wave in
the aether.

Newton's theory could be used to predict the reflection of light, but could only
explain refraction by incorrectly assuming that light accelerated upon entering a
denser medium because the gravitational pull was greater. Newton published the final
version of his theory in his Opticks of 1704. His reputation helped the particle theory of
light to hold sway during the 18th century. The particle theory of light led Laplace to
argue that a body could be so massive that light could not escape from it. In other
words, it would become what is now called a black hole. Laplace withdrew his
suggestion later, after a wave theory of light became firmly established as the model for
light (as has been explained, neither a particle or wave theory is fully correct). A
translation of Newton's essay on light appears in The large scale structure of space-
time, by Stephen Hawking and George F. R. Ellis.

The fact that light could be polarized was for the first time qualitatively explained
by Newton using the particle theory. Étienne-Louis Malus in 1810 created a
mathematical particle theory of polarization. Jean-Baptiste Biot in 1812 showed that this
theory explained all known phenomena of light polarization. At that time the polarization
was considered as the proof of the particle theory.
Wave theory

To explain the origin of colors, Robert Hooke (1635-1703) developed a "pulse

theory" and compared the spreading of light to that of waves in water in his 1665
work Micrographia ("Observation IX"). In 1672 Hooke suggested that light's vibrations
could be perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695)
worked out a mathematical wave theory of light in 1678, and published it in his Treatise
on light in 1690. He proposed that light was emitted in all directions as a series of waves
in a medium called the Luminiferous ether. As waves are not affected by gravity, it was
assumed that they slowed down upon entering a denser medium.

The wave theory predicted that light waves could interfere with each other like
sound waves (as noted around 1800 by Thomas Young). Young showed by means of
a diffraction experiment that light behaved as waves. He also proposed that
different colours were caused by different wavelengths of light, and explained colour
vision in terms of three-coloured receptors in the eye. Another supporter of the wave
theory was Leonhard Euler. He argued in Nova theoria lucis et colorum (1746)
that diffraction could more easily be explained by a wave theory. In 1816 André-Marie
Ampère gave Augustin-Jean Fresnel an idea that the polarization of light can be
explained by the wave theory if light were a transverse wave.[34]

Later, Fresnel independently worked out his own wave theory of light, and
presented it to the Académie des Sciences in 1817. Siméon Denis Poissonadded to
Fresnel's mathematical work to produce a convincing argument in favour of the wave
theory, helping to overturn Newton's corpuscular theory. By the year 1821, Fresnel was
able to show via mathematical methods that polarisation could be explained by the
wave theory of light and only if light was entirely transverse, with no longitudinal
vibration whatsoever.

The weakness of the wave theory was that light waves, like sound waves, would
need a medium for transmission. The existence of the hypothetical
substance luminiferous aether proposed by Huygens in 1678 was cast into strong doubt
in the late nineteenth century by the Michelson–Morley experiment.
 Newton's corpuscular theory implied that light would travel faster in a denser
medium, while the wave theory of Huygens and others implied the opposite. At that
time, the speed of light could not be measured accurately enough to decide which
theory was correct. The first to make a sufficiently accurate measurement was Léon
Foucault, in 1850. His result supported the wave theory, and the classical particle theory
was finally abandoned, only to partly re-emerge in the 20th century.

Electromagnetic theory

In 1845, Michael Faraday discovered that the plane of polarisation of linearly

polarised light is rotated when the light rays travel along the magnetic field direction in
the presence of a transparent dielectric, an effect now known as Faraday rotation. This
was the first evidence that light was related to electromagnetism. In 1846 he speculated
that light might be some form of disturbance propagating along magnetic field lines.
Faraday proposed in 1847 that light was a high-frequency electromagnetic vibration,
which could propagate even in the absence of a medium such as the ether.

Faraday's work inspired James Clerk Maxwell to study electromagnetic radiation

and light. Maxwell discovered that self-propagating electromagnetic waves would travel
through space at a constant speed, which happened to be equal to the previously
measured speed of light. From this, Maxwell concluded that light was a form of
electromagnetic radiation: he first stated this result in 1862 in On Physical

Lines of Force. In 1873, he published A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism,

which contained a full mathematical description of the behaviour of electric and
magnetic fields, still known as Maxwell's equations. Soon after, Heinrich
Hertz confirmed Maxwell's theory experimentally by generating and detecting radio
waves in the laboratory, and demonstrating that these waves behaved exactly like
visible light, exhibiting properties such as reflection, refraction, diffraction, and
interference. Maxwell's theory and Hertz's experiments led directly to the development
of modern radio, radar, television, electromagnetic imaging, and wireless
communications.
 In the quantum theory, photons are seen as wave packets of the waves
described in the classical theory of Maxwell. The quantum theory was needed to explain
effects even with visual light that Maxwell's classical theory could not (such as spectral
lines).

Quantum theory

In 1900 Max Planck, attempting to explain black body radiation suggested that
although light was a wave, these waves could gain or lose energy only in finite amounts
related to their frequency. Planck called these "lumps" of light energy "quanta" (from a
Latin word for "how much"). In 1905, Albert Einstein used the idea of light quanta to
explain the photoelectric effect, and suggested that these light quanta had a "real"
existence. In 1923 Arthur Holly Comptonshowed that the wavelength shift seen when
low intensity X-rays scattered from electrons (so called Compton scattering) could be
explained by a particle-theory of X-rays, but not a wave theory. In 1926 Gilbert N.
Lewis named these light quanta particles photons.

Eventually the modern theory of quantum mechanics came to picture light as (in
some sense) both a particle and a wave, and (in another sense), as a phenomenon
which is neither a particle nor a wave (which actually are macroscopic phenomena,
such as baseballs or ocean waves). Instead, modern physics sees light as something
that can be described sometimes with mathematics appropriate to one type of
macroscopic metaphor (particles), and sometimes another macroscopic metaphor
(water waves), but is actually something that cannot be fully imagined. As in the case
for radio waves and the X-rays involved in Compton scattering, physicists have noted
that electromagnetic radiation tends to behave more like a classical wave at lower
frequencies, but more like a classical particle at higher frequencies, but never
completely loses all qualities of one or the other. Visible light, which occupies a middle
ground in frequency, can easily be shown in experiments to be describable using either
a wave or particle model, or sometimes both.
 In February 2018, scientists reported, for the first time, the discovery of a new
form of light, which may involve polaritons, that could be useful in the development
of quantum computers.

Light is the common name for electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths of 400-
750 nm. This term is sometimes expanded to include ultraviolet and infrared radiation.
The human eye is capable of detecting light, which distinguishes it from other regions of
the electromagnetic spectrum (despite having shared properties with light, most notably
speed).

Both the electric field component and the magnetic field component of
electromagnetic radiation travel in space, much like a wave travels in water. In fact,
these two components are perpendicular to each other, and are both also at a right
angle to the direction of propagation of the wave (e.g. if the wave travels along a z-axis,
then the electric field might be on the x-axis and the magnetic field on the y-axis). The
speed of travel of the wave is constant, equal to about 300,000 kilometers per second in
vacuum. According to Einstein's theory of relativity, this speed is unique in that it is not
affected by the speed of the observer.

Light obviously has a crucial role in our lives; allowing us to see, delivering us the
sun's radiation, warming the surface of the Earth, and more. Light is characterized by
several very interesting properties, the observation of which has led to the development
of the most prominent theories in contemporary physics – the theory of
relativity and quantum mechanics. In this article I will briefly review some of these
properties – the duality of light, light polarization and the interaction between light and
matter.

The duality of light

The concept of the duality of matter stands at the heart of quantum theory, and it
is well established today that matter can possess properties of both waves and
particles. With respect to light, this has been recognized for many years, and even
during the time of Newton it was realized that light can be described using either linear
optics (like a beam of particles), and also using wave-related phenomena, such as
interference and diffraction.

Today we can describe light at the macroscopic level using Maxwell's wave
equations which describes the propagation of the electromagnetic field in space, while
at the microscopic level we know that light is composed of energy quanta in the form of
photons.

Each photon's energy is determined solely by its frequency/wavelength

(i.e. color). This was first speculated by Max Planck in his theoretical studies regarding
the electromagnetic spectrum emitted by a "black body", thus laying the most important
cornerstone to the development of quantum mechanics.

The polarity of light

Another interesting property, which can also be associated with electrons the
polarity of light.

As mentioned earlier, light consists of electric field and magnetic field

components, both propagating in space in the form of a wave. Let us distinguish
between two different situations. In the first one, the direction of the electric field (and
hence of the magnetic field) is constant. This is called linear polarity. In the second
situation, termed circular polarity, the electric field rotates constantly around the axis
along which the light wave propagates. In this case, if the wave travels along the z-axis,
the electric field rotates continuously between the x- and y- axes.

This feature of light can be exploited in the making of polarizers, which are
devices that block out light waves of a specific linear polarity. The light coming from the
sun or from incandescent light bulbs is polarized in a completely random manner. By
passing it through a polarizer, one can reduce its intensity (as is done in sunglasses)
and obtain polarized light.
 Polarity can also be discussed with respect to quantum theory. Since photons
possess a spin that can take on one of two possible values (one or negative one), we
can make a polarizer that would completely block photons with a spin of negative one
and let through only photons with a spin of one. In fact, this property of photons is
utilized today as a means to encrypt information. This type of encryption is extremely
difficult to decipher without being discovered.

This type of quantum polarity can be described for electric current much like it is
described for light. Like photons, electrons also possess a spin, which can take on a
value of either half or negative half. Hence, one can think of a similar use of electron
spins in order to produce a polarized electric current. However, the implementation of
this is much more complicated.

The interaction of light and matter

One of the most interesting questions in the field is how light and matter interact
with each other. For example, why are some materials transparent while others are not?
Can light change the properties of materials? And so on.

Following the suggestion that light is composed of energy quanta in the form of
photons, it was Albert Einstein who proposed a mechanism by which photons that hit a
material can be absorbed by it and excite its electrons to a higher energy state, but only
if the photons possess the required amount of energy. If not, no matter how many
photons hit the material, they would not be able to excite the electrons and be
absorbed. It was this photoelectric effect that endowed Einstein with a Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1921. When this effect was later demonstrated experimentally, it provided a
practical proof for the very existence of photons.

The photoelectric effect was an important milestone in our understanding of the

interaction between light and matter. A photon can be absorbed only if it can transfer all
its energy to the material, exciting its electrons from their ground state to a higher
energy level. In doing so the photon is absorbed in the material, which is then said to be
opaque to light of the color of the photon. If the photon does not get absorbed, it simply
passes through the material.

Since a photon excites electrons when it gets absorbed, it can change some of
the properties of the material. For example, a photon can transfer electrons between
different energy levels, thus transforming the material from a non-conductive to a
conductive state. This phenomenon is exploited in devices such as night vision
instruments, photoelectric cells and more.

Einstein's suggestion that photons get absorbed and emitted when electrons are
moving between different energy levels led to the realization that this process can be
controlled and exploited to produce a unique light beam, the laser. This invention
brought about a true technological revolution.

Different Types of Lamps

In the 19th century, the first

practical incandescent lamp was
invented by Thomas Edison and Joseph
Swan. Since then there has been
significant improvements in different
types of bulbs and their efficiencies.
There are different types of lights or lamps around, and they all being designed with a
conceived image in mind. Major types of lamps or bulbs are commonly found in the
lighting systems of homes,offices, factories, electrical devices etc. The performance of a
light fixture depends on the bulb we use. Different types of light bulbs produce different
lighting effects.

A lamp is a device that produces light by the flow of electrical current, and it is a
general form of artificial lighting. Lamps or lights are vital for a lighting system and offer
efficient lighting. Generally, electrical lighting is powered by acentrally
generated electrical power. If main lights fail,lighting can also be powered by battery
systems, mobiles or generators. This article describes different types of lights, their
working and uses. To conserve energy, select an efficient light bulb, which is capable of
providing the type of lighting you need.

The different types of lights or lamps include the following

 Incandescent lamps

 Compact fluorescent lamps

 Halogen lamps

 Metal halide Lamps

 Light Emitting Diode

 Fluorescent tube

 Neon lamps

 High intensity discharge lamps

 Low pressure sodium lamps

Types of Lamps

Incandescent Lamps

Incandescent bulbs are standard bulbs and many people are quite familiar with
these bulbs. These incandescent bulbs
are available in a broad range of sizes
and voltages. An incandescent bulb
glows and produces heat when electricity
passes through the tungsten filament
present inside the bulb. The filament of
this bulb is placed either in a mixture of
nitrogen gas or in a vacuum. These bulbs
are being gradually replaced by LEDs, fluorescent lamps, and other service based new
technologies.

The reason for this is that when this bulb is switched on, the sudden flow of
current, energy and heat penetrate the thin areas, which in turn heat up the filament;
once the filament heats up, it tends to break and burns out the bulb. Incandescent bulbs
can last for 700 – 1000 hours and can also be used with a dimmer. Incandescent bulbs
generate steady heat, which is quite good for house hold applications. Luminous
efficiency of incandescent lamp is about 15 lumens per watt.

Compact Fluorescent Lamps

A compact fluorescent lamp is a modern

type of light bulb that works like a fluorescent
lamp. It contains mercury, which cause difficulties
to its disposal. A CFL is designed to replace an
Incandescent lamp. Generally, CFLs use less
power, produce same amount of light and have
long lifespan.Most of the compact fluorescent lamps consist of two or three tubular
loops. Sometimes they even look quite similar to incandescent bulbs. These lamps
cannot be used with dimmers, and usually they can last for 10,000 hours. Luminous
efficiency of a compact fluorescent lamp is about 60 lumens per watt.

Halogen Lamps

A halogen lamp consists of a tungsten

filament, which is sealed with a compact transparent
envelop and filled with an inert gas and small amount
of halogen (bromine or iodine). These lamps are
smaller than the conventional lamps. Halogen
increases the lifetime and brightness of the lamps.
Luminous efficiency of a halogen lamp is about 25
lumens per watt.

Metal Halide Lamps

Metal halide lamps consist of a discharge tube

or arc tube within a bulb. This tube can be made from
either ceramic or quartz and contains mercury, MH
salts and a starting gas. Metal halide lamps produce a
great amount of light for their size, and these lamps
are one of the most efficient lamps. These lamps are
most commonly used in halls, traffic lights, on stages
and in outdoor lighting systems for commercial
purposes.

Light Emitting Diode

LED lamp is an electrical component that

emits light through the movement of electrons in
a semiconductor device. It lacks a filament,uses
less power and has a long lifespan. LEDs produce more light than incandescent lamps
and help save energy in energy-conserving devices. LEDs are usually assembled into a
light bulb to be used as a LED lighting system. These diodes can emit light of an
intended color without the use of color filters. The initial cost of a LED is generally high
and these are used to build electronic projects.

Fluorescent Tube

A fluorescent tube is a gas discharge

tube that uses a fluorescence to produce
visible light.Luminous efficiency of a
fluorescent tube is about 45 to 100 lumens
per watt. Compared with the incandescent
bulbs, fluorescent tubes use less power for
the same amount of light, and are usually
more complex and expensive than the
incandescent lamps. Fluorescent lamps do
not have good color representation ability,
but these tubes are cool in appearance and color.Fluorescent tubes can be used in
many places around a home,but cannot be used with dimmers.

Neon Lamps

A neon lamp is a gas-discharge lamp

that contains gas at low pressure. It is
assembled by mounting two electrodes within a
small glass envelop. Standard brightness bulbs
are filled with an argon or neon gas mixture,
and high-brightness lamps are filled with a pure
neon gas. When a voltage is applied, then the
gas ionizes and starts to glow allowing a very
small current to travel from one electrode to the other electrode. Once the gas ionizes,
the operation of the lamp can be maintained at a lower voltage, and the maintaining
voltage may vary between 10-20 volts depending on the lamp and operating current.

High Intensity Discharge Lamps

mMetal halide, mercury vapor, self-ballasted-

mercury lamps and high-pressure-sodium lamps all
are high intensity discharge lamps. These lamps are
specially designed with inner glass tubes that include
tungsten electrodes with electrical arc. This inner
glass tube is filled with both metals and gas. With the
immunity of the self-ballasted lamps, auxiliary
equipment (starters and ballasts) must be provided
for proper operation of each bulb. These lamps
produce a large quantity of light compared to the
fluorescent and incandescent lamps. High-intensity-
discharge lamps are normally used when high levels of light are required over large
areas which include outdoor activity areas, gymnasiums, large public areas, pathways,
roadways and parking lots.

Low Pressure Sodium Lamps

Low-pressure-sodium lamp is the first

sodium lamp which has the maximum efficiency
than all the other lighting systems. These lamps
operate much like a fluorescent lamp and there is
a brief heat up period for the lamp to reach full
brightness. Low pressure sodium lamps are
commonly used in places like roads, pathways, outdoor areas and parking lot wherein
color is not important as such.