THE STUDY OF DRAMA

by Shaik Husseinudin b Babu Ali

INTRODUCTION
The first part of this topic will provide you with a basic understanding of the features
of this genre. It will also take you on a short historical tour of the evolution of
Western drama so that you can have a clearer understanding of how this genre has
evolved to be what it is now. In addition to this, you might also find it useful to know
some of the basic conventions of drama, where you will get to know about the various
types of Western drama performed around the world. The second part of this topic
will expose you briefly to the various elements in drama and dramatic devices used in
drama so that you'll be able to analyse drama which will in turn give you a more
comprehensive understanding of what you watch or read.

OBJECTIVES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
 list and briefly explain the conventions of drama
 describe briefly the history of western drama
 define and explain the types of drama
 define and explain the elements in drama
 define and explain dramatic devices

TOPIC MIND MAP

Take a look at the mind-map below. It will give you a clearer understanding of what
this whole topic is all about.

Introduction to Drama
Conventions of Drama
Historical Background
Types of Drama

THE STUDY OF DRAMA

Elements in Drama
Dramatic Devises
Plots & Sub-plots
Dramatic Irony
Characters & Relationships
Soliloquy & Monologue
Point of View
Comic Relief
Setting

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1. DEFINITION OF DRAMA
Take a couple of minutes to ask yourself what you understand by the term
'Drama'. Compare your idea with the two definitions provided below. THINK

Drama is usually a literary work or story written in dialogue form for the purpose
of being performed before an audience by actors on a stage.
(Morner, K.& Rausch, R. 1998:58)

Drama is a written script with stage directions, character parts, and divisions into
acts and scenes that is performed in front of an audience by actors who take on the
roles of characters and who present the story through dialogue and action.
(Kirszner, L & Mandell, S. 2004:595)

Were the definitions similar to your own?

Please note that these definitions might not be applicable to what is known as 'closet
drama', which is drama that is written only for the purpose of reading and not for
performance.

2. CONVENTIONS OF DRAMA
Brainstorm and list all the things that are needed for the production of a
Play. THINK

Script

List of things I need to put up a Play .....

2
 Check your list with the list below. Did you manage to identity all of
them? Below are some of the basic essentials needed in producing a SELF
play. CHECK

1. A script or a written play.

2. A theatre or a stage for the performance to take place. Please refer to the
sections below for a more detailed description of the various types of stages
that are available.

3. A director whose main role is to, 'establish the nature of the play, show,
entertainment, opera etc. which is to be realised in production' (Banks,
1985:298). What is important is, 'the director's interpretation of a play and
less on the playwright's intentions'.(Cook, 1983:155).

4. Actors who ideally capable of communicating the message of the play to the
audience and leave a lasting impression in the minds of the viewers.

5. The costume designer whose task is to design appropriate costumes

according to the setting presented.

6. The master carpenter and his workers, whose job is to design sets for the
play.

7. The sound operator, whose function is to manage and monitor the sound
effects or recorded music so that it matches the action on the stage.

8. The lighting operator, whose duty is to control and manage the relevant
lighting effects.

9. The stage manager whose job is to take charge of the stage and the people
involved and ensure the smooth running of the play.

10. The producer or the person who provides funding for the production.

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3. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Take a look at the pictures below.

Have you ever seen them before? What do you think they are? Where do THINK
you think they come from?
Read the section on Greek theatre and you will find out.

Figure 1: Stylised masks or ‘Persona’

3.1 GREEK THEATRE

The origins of western drama can be traced to Ancient Greece where the performance
of drama was a part of the Spring religious festival. People wrote plays and
performed them at religious gatherings where the plays had the dual function of a
competition as well as an offering for the entertainment of the gods and the people.
The plays were performed during the day, at an open-air, semi-circular theatre that
was built on the slopes of hills. It would have looked like our modern day sports
stadiums, but except for the bleachers, seats would have been carved out of the slopes.
In the middle of the theatre, there was an area called the orchestra where a 'chorus' or
a group of men sang and chanted. Behind this place, there was a platform which was
raised a little from the ground where the actors, who were also all men, performed.
Rolling carts and cranes were used to move characters or to lower and lift things from
the roof.
Behind this platform or stage was a 'skene' which was a building that was used as a
resting place, exit and entrance for the actors.

Figure 2

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In Greek theatre usually dealt with stories based on ancient Greek mythology or
comedies that satirized the religious and social issues of that time. There were only
about three main characters and the main character or the 'protagonist' was the one
who had the most number of dialogue. The other actors had non-speaking roles. The
actors used stylised masks or 'persona' to play various characters.

Classical greek theatre kept the place, action and time together in a very compact way.
This is known as keeping to the three unities.
Greek plays were divided into five parts. The first, the prologue or 'prolagos' was
where an actor would give the background information about the story which would
enable the audience to keep up with the rest of the story. Then, came the second part
known as 'parados' the chorus would come in to comment or summarise what had
happen as well as predict what is to come.
The third part comprised the 'episodia' where the characters came on stage and
developed the conflict in the play. This part was alternated with choral odes and
comments called 'stasimon'. The play was ended with an 'exodus' or the last scene
where the conflicts were resolved.

Can you think of a traditional local drama that makes use of actors and a
chorus (traditionally all male) in which the actors present a sketch and the THINK
chorus comments on the action and summarizes the theme for the
audience?

The answer? It is very popular in Pulau Pinang. It has five letters and
begins with a “B”. HINT

You can access the following website for a more detailed description
of Greek Drama. WEBSITE
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_drama

3.2 ELIZABETHAN THEATRE

Figure 3
Do you recognize these people above? Do you know why they were
famous? What do you think was the nature of their relationship? YOUR
Read the section on Elizabethan theatre to find out. IDEA

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The origins of Elizabethan theatre, which was strongly influenced by Greek and
Roman drama traditions, can be traced back to the 12th and 13th centuries. They
were usually performed during medieval festivals and they were known as mystery
plays or morality plays. Mystery plays were plays that depicted stories from the bible
which told the stories of the prophets from the Judeo-Christian tradition. Morality
plays, on the other hand, were plays that portrayed an allegory of the Christian way of
life. They would often deal with the struggles of the common man in his attempts to
fight against the forces or influences of good and evil both within him as well as those
that influence him from the outside.
Around the 16th century, the appeal of mystery and morality drama was superceded
by more popular plays based on non-religious issues such as revenge, war, murder
and politics.
What is known as Shakespearean theatre has its beginnings at the Globe Theatre in
England.

Figure 4: Globe Theatre

Shakespearean plays were performed by an all male cast, during the daytime, in an
open air yard that could accommodate around 2000 people. It had a large stage that
extended out into the open air yard and had no curtains. The extended stage allowed
people to view the play from three sides. The back area of the stage had a room
behind that was covered with a curtain that also served as a backdrop. This place was
used by the actors to disappear behind the main stage and it was also used to arrange
props for the scenes. The roof of the stage was called 'the heavens' and it had pulleys
and ropes which were used to lift and lower props and actors. The area beneath the
main stage was called the 'hell' that had a hollow room which allowed actors to
disappear or be buried. The area above the main stage, known as the 'chamber'
contained a room with windows which functioned as a balcony or enabled an actor to
speak or look out a window. Above the chamber was a balcony that housed the
musicians who provided music for the play. The 'hut' or large windows located above
the music gallery allowed actors to play guards or sentries. The plan of this type of
stage allowed several different actions to take part simultaneously during a single
scene.
The types of plays that were popular with the Elizabethan audience were tragedies
that were usually based on a historical background, comedies and tragicomedies. You
can learn more about these types of plays in section 4.

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Shakespearean plays flourished during this era partly due to the fact that Queen
Elizabeth I was an ardent fan and patron of theatre who provided the funding for
many plays to be staged.

Get a copy of the film, "Shakespeare in Love" and watch it for a very
detailed view of the Shakespearean theatre as it was during this era. EXTRA

Write a brief description for the following.

a. Mystery plays TASK
b. Morality plays
c. Shakespearean plays

Check the information in your brief description with the section on

Elizabethan theatre above to check your understanding. SELF
CHECK

You can access the following website for a more detailed description
of Elizabethan Drama. WEBSITE

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabethan_theatre

Can you guess what sort of modern scientific discoveries made a big
difference in theatre in the modern era? Read the following section to THINK
find out more.

3.3 MODERN THEATRE

The beginning of modern theatre can be traced back to the 17th and 18th centuries.
These early beautifully designed and decorated modern theatres were covered with a
roof and had lighting (lit with candles or gaslights) so that plays could be performed
at night. These theatres presented plays in a long hall where the audience sat and
watched the play performed in a picture-frame stage or a 'proscenium- arch stage'
which is 'a square or oblong opening in the wall' (Cook,1983:163) . This type of stage
also allowed for the use of more elaborate types of props, sound effects and lighting
which gave room for more creativity.
Then in the 20th century electricity further enhanced the lighting system and also
paved the way for the use of sound amplification with microphones and eventually
cordless microphones.
Variations of the modern theatre would also include stages like the thrust or
promontory stage, where a part of the stage comes out into the area where the
audience is seated, arena staging (like a modern stadium) where the audience is seated
around the stage watching the action from all around , traverse staging where the
stage is in the middle of the auditorium and the audience sits on both sides of it, open
stage where a thrust stage or at least a convex shape curving out into the auditorium
(Cook, 1983:169) and totally variable of adjustable stage which can be adjusted to any
shape and size through mechanical means.

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 Thrust stage Proscenium stage Traverse stage

Figure 5: Modern Stages

One of the innovations that appeared in modern theatre was the element of realism
where the sets and action were designed to represent reality that was accurate to the
smallest detail instead of simply using painted backdrops. The time frame employed
in the plays were also realistic in nature as the followed the realistic passing of time.
Along with realism came a literary movement called naturalism which rejected
unrealistic plots and characters and the sentimentality of melodrama. There was a
focus on the exploration of the human condition where people were portrayed as
beings that are at constant struggle with their desires and fears against external forces
such as economic, social and biological forces that are beyond their control.

Can you list 3 innovations found in modern theatre that separates it from
Greek and Elizabethan theatre. You can scan the texts above again to SELF
confirm the answers. CHECK

Do not be too worried about all the new terminology. A little bit of
reading should take care of that. So, please access the website stated
below and key in the following headings in the ‘search’ box: realism, WEBSITE
naturalism, surrealism, and expressionism to find out more about the
literary trends that influenced modern theatre.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page

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4. TYPES OF DRAMA
In this part of the module you will learn about the various types of
Western drama. But, before you begin, take a couple of minutes to tick SELF
the types of drama with which you are familiar CHECK

Types of Drama I know it I know a I'm not Never

well little sure heard of it
1 Tragedy

2 Comedy

3 Tragicomedy

4 Melodrama

5 Theatre of the Absurd

Well, how did you do on the activity above? Don't worry if you didn't do so well.
You can read the following explanation for clarification about the types of drama that
can be found in the Western dramatic tradition.

4.1 TRAGEDY

A Tragedy is a serious type of drama that deals with the events in a character's life
that ends unhappily. It maintains a serious mood throughout except for a few scenes
of comic relief and the plot is focused and follows the pattern of 'cause-effect'
progression. The purpose of a tragedy is to arouse in the audience a feeling of pity,
admiration, dread and understanding about the downfall of the main character.
Tragedy raises important questions about the meaning of mans existence, his moral
nature and his social or psychological relationships.

The tragic hero is usually a character who is great and noble, for example, a king or
someone really important and has the respect and admiration of the people. The
reason for this is, if the tragic hero is to arouse pity, fear, compassion and awe in the
audience, he must 'fall' from a great 'height'. The impact is much greater.The fall of
the tragic hero would come about as a result of some kind of tragic flaw that he has,
for example, excessive pride or passion, inability to tell truth from lie, ambition,
misplaced trust or some error. Therefore, the fall of the tragic hero would be partially
his own fault and partially the fault of his surroundings or his fate. The price that the
tragic hero pays for his mistake would often be much greater than the nature of his
mistake. The audience might even feel that the hero does not deserve this sort of
punishment. The tragic hero at the end, even if he dies, will reach a new or higher
level of self-awareness and understanding about himself and his flaws or mistakes,
which will be shared by the audience. Without this realization the tragedy will simply
be what is known as pathos that is the 'suffering that exists simply to satisfy the
sentimental or morbid sensibilities of the audience' (Kirzner & Mandell, 2004:605)
like what one might see in television soap operas. Instead of simply leaving the
audience totally depressed, the tragic ending produces a catharsis or an emotional
9
release for the audience at the end, a common experience that is shared by the
audience.

The tragic hero portrayed in the Greek and Elizabethan traditions were strictly larger
than life, people who are very important in society, for example kings and generals.
However, this portrayal lead to a change in trend in 20th century drama where middle
class and laboring-class characters were often portrayed as the victims of social,
heredity, and environmental forces. Aristotle identified the emotional effect of
tragedy as the arousal of pity and fear. However, these basic emotions include a wide
range of response for example understanding, pity admiration, dread and terror.

Take a few minutes to jot down some notes on tragedies according to the
list below to check if you have got all the key points. SELF
CHECK

1. Plot

2. Tragic hero

3. Tragic flaw

4. Mood of play

5. Ending of play

6. Feelings evoked in the audience

7. General themes

4.2 COMEDY

A Comedy is usually a light-hearted type of drama that has a happy ending. The main
aim is to amuse and make people laugh while at the same time provoke some thought
about human weakness and limitations. Comedies can be both critical and playful at
the same time. Instead of raising moral and philosophical issues like tragedies do,
comedies portray and examine human beings in social relationships. Instead of
portraying the noble aspects of the human condition as tragedies do, comedies portray
the weaknesses of human beings by showing them as 'selfish, hypocritical, vain,
weak, irrational and capable of self-delusion' (Kirzner & Mandell, 2004:607)

The plot of comedies are usually more complicated that the plots of tragedies which
usually have a more straight-forward plot. The plot of comedies depend on the
experiences of its characters in over-coming all sorts of obstacles such as mistaken
identities, confusion, misinterpretation of events, objections from other characters,
inappropriate disguises, coincidences and accidental discoveries and so forth.

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Before the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C, comedies often satirized religious and social
situations of that time and contained a rather crude form of humour. This type of
comedy based on satire was called Old Comedy. After this era, a comedies that dealt
with romantic situations with outrageous plots and situations became more popular
and is known as New comedy. You might want to note that these terms are different
from High Comedy, which refers to a brand of comedy that appeals to the intellect
and Low Comedy which has very little intellectual appeal such as farce. Although
farce is considered as a distinct dramatic type, it is basically a type of comedy that is
aimed at getting people to laugh by using crude humour and ways such as violent
conflicts, pranks, physical actions and ridiculous situations. The old television show,
'The Three Stooges' could be considered as an example of farce.

The black comedy or dark comedy is a product of the 20th century. This SELF
form of comedy relies on the portrayal of serious and tragic issues like CHECK
death, war and poverty in humourous or morbid situations. They deal
with anti-heroes, who instead of portraying a dignified and strong
character, usually appear to be weak, void of any moral fibre and lack
intergrity.

Take a few minutes to jot down some notes on comedies according to

the list below to check if you have got all the key points.

1. Plot

2. Types of comedies

3. Mood of play

4. Ending of play

5. Feelings evoked in the audience

7. General themes

4.3 TRAGICOMEDY

Tragicomedy is another type of drama about which you should know. As the term
suggests, tragicomedies share the elements of both tragedy and comedy. They 'have a
serious theme appropriate for tragedy but it is usually potrayed in a lighter mood and
have a happy ending, usually because of a sudden turn of events' (Kirzner & Mandell,
2004:606). The protagonist would usually resemble or possess some of the main
characteristics and virtues of the classical tragic hero and find himself in a similar
predicament but he would usually be spared the tragic ending that would often befall
the tragic hero. A good example of a tragicomedy would be, 'The Merchant of

11
Venice' by William Shakespeare in which a noble Venetian merchant is put in a
predicament by a loan which he is unable to pay to a money-lender who in turn
demands that he settle his loan with a pound of his own flesh. The merchant,
however, is saved eventually, by the clever antics of his beloved who is disguised as a
male lawyer.

Tick [/] the similar characteristics shared by tragicomedies with tragedies

and comedies. TASK

Feature Tragedies Comedies

Theme

Main character

Mood

Ending

4.4 MELODRAMA

Melodrama is a type of drama that arouses the emotions of fear, pity, excitement and
amusement through a rather simplistic manner. The plot is the most important
element in melodrama. Character development and themes are of less importance.
Melodramas portray a world and characters that are rather flat and clearly
distinguishable. For example, the hero will be all good, nice and proper and the
villains would be totally evil, diabolical and have no redeeming qualities whatsoever.
The conflicts would be caused by the villain and the hero would have to deal with it.
In the end the hero would usually win and good will restored over evil. For example,
many films such as James Bond, Rambo and Superman and as such will fit very
nicely into this form.

List 3 films that you have watched before that would qualify as
melodrama. YOUR
IDEA

i. ______________________________

ii. ______________________________

iii. ______________________________

4.5 THEATRE OF THE ABSURD

Theatre of the Absurd as the term suggests is a type of theater, which presents
characters are removed from any religious and philosophical roots and live in
meaningless isolation in a non-realistic world. The underlying assumption to this type
12
of drama is, 'the human condition is irrational' (Kirzner & Mandell, 2004:610). This
type of drama presents the audience with a string of disjointed actions and exchanges
that do not really lead to anything. Hence, one might not be able to find any sort of
plot structure in it nor any type of a meaningful ending. The series of repeated
meaningless events or ideas are meant to reinforce the idea that real life is
meaningless and the universe in which we live simply cannot be deciphered nor
understood. You might want to read, 'Waiting for Godot' by Samuel Beckett if you
would like to have a 'taste' of this type of drama.

What is your personal opinion on the underlying philosophy of the theatre

of the absurd which claims that the human condition is irrational? Please YOUR
provide a reason for your answer. IDEA

You can access the website stated below and key in the headings of
the various types of popular western drama in the ‘search’ box to WEBSITE
further deepen your understanding.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page

5. ELEMENTS IN DRAMA
Now that you know some things about the types of drama, you will find it interesting
to know the elements of drama and how they all combine and function together to
make drama interesting. Go through the list below. You may have already come
across some of these terms in your earlier chapters.

5.1 PLOT

Plot is the sequence of events or incidents of which the story is composed. The plot
structure of drama is quite similar to that of prose. It has an introduction or
exposition, rising action which is punctuated or escalated by conflict, a climax, falling
action and a resolution or dénouement. While the main plot is developing a sub-plot
could be introduced in a play. The function of the sub-plot is to reinforce the
elements and themes found in the main plot. It either parallels the main plot or serves
as a contrast to it. In addition to these, flashbacks (recalling past events) and
foreshadowing (hinting at what is to come) may also be incorporated into the plot
and their function is similar to those found in prose. A good plot should have Artistic
Unity where the action and scenes are focused and well arranged and nothing
irrelevant to the plot is present. Another important aspect is called Plot Manipulation
where a good plot does not have any unjustified or unexpected turns or twists, no false
leads, no deliberate and misleading information that interferes or is irrelevant to the
story line.

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 Write the corresponding number beside the description of a plot structure
in the table provided below. TASK

4
2

1
5

Description Number
Falling action
Climax
Exposition
Denouement
Rising action / conflict

5.2 DRAMATIC CONFLICT

Dramatic Conflict is a clash of actions, ideas, desires or wills. A conflict can

occur between:

a. person against another person or others

b. person against environment - external force, physical nature, society,

or fate or God.

c. person against him/herself - conflict with some element in her/his

own nature; maybe physical,
psychological, emotional or moral.

Provide a real life example for each type of dramatic conflict mentioned
YOUR

14
 below. IDEA

Person VS Others:....................

My Examples
are.........

Person VS Self:....................

Person VS
Environment:................

5.3 CHARACTERIZATION

a) Protagonist, Antagonist and Foil

The protagonist is the central character in a play. He or she could be a sympathetic or

unsympathetic character. The forces working against the protagonist, whether they are
persons, things, conventions of society, or personal traits of their own character, are
the antagonists.
A foil is a character that shows contrasting characteristics from another character in a
play. The contrast created by the foil helps to highlight the character traits of the
other character.

b) How is a character revealed in plays?

Character is revealed primarily by what a character does and says. To get to know a
character we can examine the motivation, obstacles, and what the person does or will
do to get around the obstacle.

Characters in a play can be understood by the following ways.

15
i. Direct Presentation - the playwright tells us straight out in his stage directions
or through another character description.

ii. Indirect Presentation - the playwright shows us the character in action; the
reader or audience infers what a character is like from what she/he thinks, or
says, or does. These are also called dramatized characters and they are
generally consistent (in behavior), motivated (convincing), and plausible
(lifelike).

c) Types of characters

The types of characters can be classified in the following manner. This is similar to
what you would have learnt in the chapter on prose.

 A flat character is known by one or two traits;

 A round character is complex and multi-sided;
 A stock character is a stereotyped character (a mad scientist, the absent-
minded professor, the cruel mother-in-law);
 A static character remains the same from the beginning of the plot to the end;
 A Dynamic (developing) character undergoes permanent change. This change
must be:
a. within the possibilities of the character;
b. sufficiently motivated;
c. allowed sufficient time for change.

It is interesting to note that the best characters that have made an impression in plays
over time remain somewhat of a mystery. A character laid out clearly, rationally, and
fully explained is not only impossible, but dull and implausible.

5.4 THEME

The theme of the play is the central unifying idea or the controlling idea about the
play that emerges from the overall components of the play such as the characters,
action, images and so forth. It can account for all the major details of the story and not
be contradicted by any detail of the story.

A theme can be a revelation of human character; may be stated briefly or at great

length it is not the "moral" of the story.

'When you write about theme, you need to do more than tell what happens in the
story. The theme that you identify should be a general idea that extends beyond the
story and applies to the world outside fiction'. (Kirzner & Mandell, 2004:241)

16
Compare these two statements about, "An Inspector Calls" by J. Priestly.

Priestly's, "An Inspector Calls" is about an irresponsible, status conscious, wealthy

businessman's family that causes the suicide of a poor young working girl.

Priestly's, "An Inspector Calls" suggests that social irresponsibility and an

obsession with social class and status can bring ruin to the lives of many in a
society.

The first simply tells one what happened in the play or the plot while the second
identifies the theme or the message of the play, which is a comment about the human
condition in general.

Re write the following statement about “A Village by the Sea” into a

theme. TASK

“A Village by the Sea” is about a young boy called Hari who leaves his family to go
to the city and comes back with lots of ideas to help his family.

Anita Desai’s novel, “A Village by the Sea” suggests that..............

5.5 DRAMATIC OR OBJECTIVE POINT OF VIEW

The point of view in drama is known as the Objective or Dramatic Point of View.
Unlike points of view in prose, the point of view in drama displays authorial
objectivity. This can be compared to a movie camera capturing events and speech as
it happens. Very little of the past or the future is given and the events unfold as they
happen.

6 DRAMATIC DEVICES

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6.1 DRAMATIC IRONY

This term that refers to some sort of a discrepancy or incongruity or contrast between
what the audience knows to be true and what a character in a play believes or says. It
should not be confused with sarcasm which is simply language designed to cause
ridicule and hurt. For example, when Little Red Riding Hood walks into her
"grandmother's" cottage, where the disguised wolf is waiting, announcing happily that
she has brought her some "goodies", the audience knows that in that situation the
"goodies" actually refer to Red Riding Hood, a fact that is not realised by the little girl
at that time.

6.2 MONOLOGUE

Sometimes in a play, 'in addition to speaking to others, characters sometimes talk to

an absent or unspeaking listener'(Standford,J. 2003:33). This is to let the audience
know the intentions or the thoughts of the character. It also helps to keep the
audience on the 'right tract' as well as to advance the plot.

6.3 SOLILOQUY

Another device that is quite similar to a monologue is a soliloquy where 'a character
may directly address the audience, or a character might speak thoughts aloud without
any acknowledgement that an audience is there. This allows the audience a chance to
hear the uncensored thoughts of the character, thoughts that are shaped by the
interaction with another character in the play. (Standford,J. 2003:33)

6.4 COMIC RELIEF

Comic relief 'in tragedies or other serious work, is a humourous incident, action, or
remark that relieves emotional tension. The contrast offered by comic relief can
actually heighten the emotional impact of a dramatic scene or broaden its
implications'. (Morner,K. & Rausch, R., 1998: 40)

18
 Label the following descriptions of dramatic functions with the dramatic
devises listed below. TASK
DRAMATIC IRONY, MONOLOGUE, SOLILOQUY, COMIC RELIEF

b) To heighten the emotional impact of the dramatic sce

a) To allow the audience the chance to listen to the uncensored thoughts of a character

c) To allow the audience to infer a meaning beyond

d) To what
allow athe
character
audience
realizes
to knowor the
intends
intentions of a cha

SUMMARY

In this topic we looked at a brief history of drama and its evolution over the years and
the factors affecting its growth as an art form that has diverisfied into the many forms
that we consider as drama today. We have also studied the basic elements involved in
the production and interpretation of drama as a literary form.

TEST
19
Fill in the blanks with the correct terminology.

1. The _______________ theatre functioned as a form of entertainment for the

gods and the people.

2. The patronage and funding provided by several monarchs and nobility helped
_____________ theatre flourish during the 16th and 17th centuries.

3. Realism and naturalism are associated with _____________ theatre.

4. The emotional release found in tragedies is known as _____________ .

5. The comedy that appeals to the intellect is called _____________ comedy.

6. The idea that the human condition is irrational is the underlying philosophy of
the ______________________ .

7. Dramatic conflict can occur in the form of ______________________ ,

_____________________ and ______________________ .

8. Characters can be presented in two ways. They are _________________ and

_____________________ .

9. ______________________ is the central character in a play.

10. The hinting of what to come in a drama is known as _____________________

REFERENCE

Banks, R.A., 1985. Drama and Theatre Arts. London: Hodder and Stoughton.

Cook, Philip, 1983. How to Enjoy Theatre. London: Judy Piatkus Pub. Ltd.

Kirszner, L. & Mandell, S. 2004. Portable Literature- Reading, Reacting, Writing 5th
Ed. Canada: Thomson-Wadsworth

Morner,K. & Rausch, R., 1998. NTC's Dictionary of Literary Terms. Illinois,USA :
NTC Publishing Group

Stanford, J.A., 2003. Responding to Literature. 4th Ed. Mc Graw Hill:Boston

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