Professional Documents
Culture Documents
EMT Formula Sheet BSC Level PDF
EMT Formula Sheet BSC Level PDF
Institute for NET/JRF, GATE, IIT-JAM, JEST, TIFR and GRE in PHYSICAL SCIENCES
1. Electrostatics
The electric field at any point due to stationary source charges is called as electrostatic
field.
1.1 Coulomb’s Law and Superposition Principle
The electric force on a test charge Q due to a single point charge q, which is at rest and a
distance R apart is given by Coulomb’s law Q
1 Qq
4 0 R 2 R
F . R
where Qenc is the total charge enclosed within the surface. This is Gauss’s law in integral
form.
1
Gauss’s law in differential form: .E
0
r R
Gaussian surface
where is some standard reference point. V then depends only on the point r. It is called
the electric potential.
Evidently, the potential difference between two points a and b is
b
V b V a E .d l E V
a
1 (r )
For continuous volume charge distribution V ( r ) d
4 0 R
1 (r )
The potential of line and surface charges are V (r ) dl
4 0 R
1 ( r )
and V ( r ) da .
4 0 R
1.4 Laplace’s and Poisson equations
Since E V and .E 2V .
0 0
This is known as Poisson's equation.
In regions where there is no charge, so that 0 , Poisson's equation reduces to Laplace's
equation, 2V 0 .
1.5 Electrostatic boundary condition
The boundary between two medium is a thin sheet of surface charge .
above below
||
and Eabove ||
Ebelow E above E below nˆ
0 0
where n̂ is unit vector perpendicular to the surface, pointing upward.
Vabove Vbelow
Vabove Vbelow
n n 0
V
where V nˆ denotes the normal derivative of V (that is the rate of change in the
n
direction perpendicular to the surface.)
In this sense potential is potential energy (the work it takes to create the system) per unit
charge (just as the field is the force per unit charge).
1 q q
W3 q3 1 2 .
4 0 R13 R23
1 q1q2 q1q3 q2 q3
The work necessary to assemble the first three charges is W .
4 0 R12 R13 R23
1 n n qi q j 1 n n qi q j 1 n
In general, W
4 0
i 1 j 1 Rij
8 0
i 1 j 1 Rij
qiV ri ,
2 i 1
j i j i
where V(ri) is the potential at point ri (the position of qi) due to all other charges.
(i) Energy of a uniformly charged spherical shell of total charge q and radius R is
q2
W .
80 R
(ii) Energy stored in a uniformly charged solid sphere of radius R and charge q is
1 3q 2
W .
40 5R
1.7 Basic properties Conductors
1. E 0 inside a conductor.
2. 0 inside a conductor.
3. Any net charge resides on the surface.
4. A conductor is an equipotential.
5. E is perpendicular to the surface, just outside a conductor.
Because the field inside a conductor is zero, boundary condition
E above E below nˆ requires that the field immediately outside is E nˆ .
0 0
Vabove Vbelow V
In terms of potential equation yields 0
n n 0 n
These equations enable us to calculate the surface charge on a conductor, if we can
determine E or V .
1 2
Force per unit area on the conductor is f nˆ .
2 0
This amounts to an outwards electrostatic pressure on the surface, tending to draw the
conductor into the field, regardless the sign of . Expressing the pressure in terms of the
0 2
field just outside the surface, P E .
2
Note:
(a) When a dipole is placed in a uniform electric field ( E ), net force on the dipole is zero
and it experiences a torque p E where p qd .
(b) In non-uniform field, dipoles have net force F p E and torque p E .
(c) Energy of an ideal dipole p in an electric field E is U p.E .
U
1
4 0 r 3
p1 p 2 3 p1 rˆ p 2 rˆ .
1.8.2 Approximate potential at large distances
Approximate potential at large distances due to arbitrary localized charge distribution
R P
d '
r
r '
1 1 1 1 ' 2 3 1
V r
4 0 r r
r ' d ' 2 r ' cos ' r ' d ' 2
r r
2 ' '
'
2 cos 2 r d ...
1
The first term (n = 0) is the monopole contribution (it goes like ). The second term
r
1
(n = 1) is the dipole term (it goes like ). The third term is quadrupole; the fourth
r2
octopole and so on.
The lowest nonzero term in the expansion provides the approximate potential at large r
and the successive terms tell us how to improve the approximation if greater precision is
required.
The monopole and dipole terms
Ordinarily, the multipole expansion is dominated (at large r) by the monopole term:
1 Q
Vmon r .
4 0 r
If the total charge is zero, the dominant term in the potential will be the dipole (unless, of
course, it also vanishes):
1 1 1 1 1 rˆ. p
Vdip r
4 0 r 2
'
' '
r cos r d '
4 0 r 2
'
' '
rˆ. r r d
4 0 r 2
,
where dipole moment p r r d .
' ' '
The dipole moment is determined by the geometry (size, shape and density) of the charge
distribute. The dipole moment of a collection of point charge is
n '
p qi ri .
i 1
Note: Ordinarily, the dipole moment does change when we shift the origin, but there is
an important exception: If the total charge is zero, then the dipole moment is independent
of the choice of origin.
1.9 Polarization
(Polarization) P dipole moment per unit volume
The value of e depends on the microscopic structure of the substance and also on
external conditions such as temperature.
In linear media we have
D 0 E P 0 E 0 e E 0 E (1 e ) E , where 0 (1 e )
This new constant is called the permittivity of the material.
Also r (1 e ) is called relative permittivity or dielectric constant, of the material.
0
1.10.3 Boundary Condition on D
The boundary between two medium is a thin sheet of free surface charge f .
|| || || ||
Dabove Dbelow f and D above D below P above P below
qd
x, y 3
2 x 2 y 2 d 2 2
One can determine the energy by calculating the work required to bring q in from
infinity.
d
d 1
d
q2 1 q2 1 q2
W F .dl
4 0 4 z 2
dz
4 0 4 z 4 0 4d
Let us examine the completely different configuration, consisting of the point charge q
R 2
together with another point charge q ' q placed at a distance b R to the right of
a a
the centre of sphere. No conductor, now-just two point charges.
1 q q'
The potential of this configuration is V(r, )
40 R R
q 1 1
V(r, )
40 r a 2ra cos
2 2
R 2
(ra / R) 2
2ra cos
Clearly when r = R, V 0
Force
The force on q, due to the sphere, is the same as the force of the image charge q, thus:
1 q 2 Ra
F
40 (a 2 R 2 )2
Energy
To bring q in from infinity to a, we do work
1 q 2R
W
40 2(a 2 R 2 )
2. MAGNETOSTATICS
The magnetic field at any point due to steady current is called as magnetostatic field.
2.1 Magnetic force on current element
The magnetic force on a charge Q, moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B is,
F mag Q v B . This is known as Lorentz force law. In the presence of both electric and
magnetic fields, the net force on Q would be: F Q E v B
2.1.1 Current in a wire v t
A line charge λ traveling down a wire at a v
speed v constitutes a current I v .
Magnetic force on a segment of current-
P
carrying wire is, F mag I dl B
2.1.2 Surface current density
When charge flows over a surface, we describe it by the surface current K .
d
K is the current per unit width-
dl
Flow
perpendicular to flow. dl
K
Also K v where is surface charge
density and v is its velocity.
Magnetic force on surface current F mag K B da
2.1.3 Volume current density
d
J is the current per unit area-perpendicular to J
da
da
flow. Also J v where is volume charge density
Flow
and v is its velocity. Magnetic force on volume
current F mag J B d .Current crossing a surface S is J d a
S
0 I1 I 2
currents I1 and I2 in same direction are: f .
2 d
2. If currents are in opposite direction they will repel with same magnitude.
3. The magnetic field a distance d above the center of a circular loop of radius R, which
I R2
carries a steady current I is B 0 zˆ .
2 (R 2 d 2 )3/2
I
At the center of the circle B(0) 0 zˆ
2R
2.3.2 Magnetic field due to Solenoid and Toroid
The magnetic field of a very long solenoid, consisting of n closely wound turns per unit
length of a cylinder of radius R and carrying a steady current I is:
0 nI zˆ inside the solenoid
B
0 outside the solenoid.
0 NI
^
for points inside the coil
Magnetic field due to toroid is B 2 r
0 for points outside the coil
B above B below 0 K nˆ ,
where n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the surface, pointing “upward”.
Like the scalar potential in electrostatics, the vector potential is continuous across, an
boundary: Aabove Abelow
For . A 0 guarantees that the normal component is continuous, and A B , in the
form A
line
.dl B.d a
S
Aabove Abelow
But the derivative of A inherits the discontinuity of B :
n
n
0 K
4
First term, monopole dl 0 (no magnetic z
monopole)
0 m rˆ
Second term, dipole Adip r
4 r 2 r
0m 1
B dip r A
4 r 3
2cos ˆ
r sin
4 r
ˆ 0 3 3 m rˆ rˆ m
Note:
(a) When a magnetic dipole is placed in a uniform magnetic field ( B ), net force on the
dipole is zero and it experiences a torque m B .
(b) In non-uniform field, dipoles have net force F m B and torque m B .
(c) Energy of an ideal dipole m in an magnetic field B is U m.B .
(d) Interaction energy of two dipoles separated by a distance r is
U
1
4 0 r 3
m1 m2 3 m1 rˆ m2 rˆ .
.
2.8 Magnetisation M
Magnetization M is magnetic dipole moment per unit volume.
2.8.1 The Field of a magnetized Object (Bound Currents)
This means the potential(and hence also the field) of a magnetized object is the same as
amperian loop.
H plays a role in magnetostatic analogous to D in electrostatic: Just as D allowed us to
write Gauss's law in terms of the free charge alone, H permits us to express Ampere's
law in terms of the free current alone- and free current is what we control directly.
Note:
When we have to find B or H in a problem involving magnetic materials, first look for
symmetry. If the problem exhibits cylindrical, plane, solenoid, or toroidal symmetry, then
we can get H directly from the equation H dl I fenc .
B 0 H M 0 1 m H B H where 0 0 r 0 1 m , is
permeability of material.
2.9.3 Boundary Condition ( H )
The boundary between two medium is a thin sheet of free surface current K f .
And
H above
H below
M above
M below
F mag Q v B
This is known as Lorentz force law.
In the presence of both electric and magnetic fields, the net force on Q would be:
F Q E v B
Q
E
1 2
F QE
Acceleration of the charge particle in the direction of the electric field is a .
m m
If r is the position vector at any time t then ut
QE 2
r0 t
QE 2 2m
Let at t=0, r r0 C1 r0 r t ut r0
2m
1 2
QE 2 QE
If initially u 0, r0 0 r t and v t.
2m m
The energy acquired by the charged particle in moving from point 1 to 2 is
2 2 2 2
dv 1
W F .d l m a.d l m .vdt m v.d v W mv 22 v12
1 1 1
dt 1
2
1
If the potential difference between points 1 to 2 is V then W QV
2
m v 22 v12
If the particle starts from rest i.e v1 0 and final velocity is v then
1 2 2QV
W QV mv v
2 m
1 2 1 Q2E2 2 QE 2
Kinetic energy of the particle K .E. mv m. 2
t QE t QEr
2 2 m 2m
3.1.2 Charged particle enters in the direction perpendicular to field (Parabolic
motion)
Let us consider a charge particle enters in an electric field region with velocity v x at t=0.
The electric field is in the y-direction and the field region has length l. After traversing a
distance l it strikes a point P on a screen which is placed at a distance L from the field
region.
y
P
y2
L
vx y1 x
Ey
l
2
1 QE y x
Thus y a y t 2 and which represents parabolic path.
2 2m vx
2
QE y l
y1 and y 2 L tan
2m v x
2
QE y l
Thus distance of point P from the center of the screen is, y1 y 2 L tan
2m v x
dy QE y
Angle of deviation in the field region, tan x
dx mv x2
QE y
Angle of deviation in the field free region, tan l
mv x2
F mag Q v B
This is known as Lorentz force law.
3.2.1 Charged particle enters in the direction perpendicular to field (Circular
motion)
If a charge particle enters in a magnetic field at angle of 90o, then motion will be circular
with the magnetic force providing the centripetal acceleration. y
2
v mv
For uniform circular motion: QvB m R
R QB v
R
where R is the radius of the circle and m is the mass of the charge F
x
Q
particle.
B
Momentum of the charged particle p QBR z
p 2 Q2 B2 R2
Kinetic energy (KE)
2m 2m
2R 2m
Time period T
v QB
3.2.2 Charged particle enters in the direction making an angle with the field
(Helical motion)
If the charge particle enters in a magnetic field making an angle θ,
then motion will be helical.
v v sin and v|| v cos ,
B ||
mv
and the radius of helix is R QB .
3.3 Charged particle in uniform electric and magnetic field (Cycloid motion)
F Q E v B Q E zˆ Bz yˆ By zˆ
z
ma m z zˆ
y yˆ
E E
z y
y z ,
B
QB
where (cylotron frequency )
m
Solving above differential equations, we get
o
E E a b c y
y t t sin t , z t 1 cos t
B B
2 2 E B
y Rt z R R 2 where R
B
This is the formula for a circle, of radius R, x
E
whose center is 0, Rt , R travels in the y-direction at constant speed, v R
B
The curve generated in this way is called a cycloid.
Magnetic forces do not work because v B is perpendicular to v , so
Magnetic forces may alter the direction in which a particle moves, but they can not speed
up or slow down it.
4. Electromagnetic induction
4.1 Faraday’s Law
v v
I I I
B B B
d
(Where magnetic flux B.d a )
dt
In experiment 2, A changing magnetic field induces an electric field.
d
It is this “induced” electric field that accounts for the e.m.f. E dl
dt
B B
Then E dl t .d a E t
4.1.1 Lenz’s Law
In Faraday’s law negative sign represents the Lenz’s law. (The induced current will flow
in such a direction that the flux it produces tends to cancel the change).
For example if the magnetic flux is increasing then induced e.m.f will try to reduce and
vice versa.
5. Maxwell's equations
5.1 Maxwell’s equation in free space
5.1.1 Electrodynamics before Maxwell’s
(i) (Gauss’ Law),
0
(ii) B 0 (No name),
B
(iii) (Farday’s Law),
t
(iv) B 0 J (Ampere’s law).
5.1.2 How Maxwell fixed Ampere’s Law
From continuity equation and Gauss Law
E E
.J ( 0 .E ) . 0 . J 0 0 .
t t t t
E
Thus B 0 J 0 0
t
A changing electric field induces a magnetic field.
E
Maxwell called this extra term the displacement current J d 0 .
t
E
Integral form of Ampere's law B.dl 0 I enc 0 0 .d a
t
5.1.4 Maxwell’s equation in free space
(i) (Gauss’ Law),
0
(ii) B 0 (No name),
B
(iii) (Farday’s Law),
t
E
(iv) B 0 J 0 0 (Ampere’s law with Maxwell's correction).
t
In particular, if there is no free charge or free current at the interface between medium1
and medium 2, then
|| ||
(c) E1 E 2
(a )1 E1 2 E2 0
(b) B1 B2
and 1 || 1 || .
(d ) B1 B 2 0
1 2
1 2 B2
U em E d .
2
0
0
Suppose we have some charge and current configuration which at time t, produces
fields E & B . In next instant, dt, the charges moves around a bit. The work is done by
electromagnetic forces acting on these charges in the interval dt.
According to Lorentz Force Law, the work done on a charge ‘q’ is
F dl q( E v B) v dt qE v dt .
dW d 1 1 2 1
dt
0E2
dt V 2
B d
0 0 E B d a ,
S
6.2.2 Terminology
Let us consider a function f z, t A cos k ( z vt )
A is the amplitude of the wave (it is positive, and represents the maximum displacement
from equilibrium).
The argument of the cosine is called the phase, and is the phase constant (normally,
we use a value in the range 0 2 ).
Figure given below shows this function at time t 0 . Notice that at z vt , the phase
k
is zero; let's call this the “central maximum.” If 0 , central maximum passes the origin
at time t 0 ; more generally k is the distance by which the central maximum (and
therefore the entire wave) is “delayed.”
Central
maximum f z, 0
A v
/k
z
2
Finally k is the wave number; it is related to the wavelength as , for when z
k
2
advances by , the cosine executes one complete cycle.
k
As time passes, the entire wave train proceeds to the right, at speed v . Time period of
2
one complete cycle is T .
kv
1 kv v
The frequency (number of oscillations per unit time) is .
T 2
The angular frequency 2 kv
In terms of angular frequency , the sinusoidal wave can be represented as
f z, t A cos kz t .
A sinusoidal oscillation of wave number k and angular frequency traveling to the left
would be written
f z, t A cos kz t .
Comparing this with the wave traveling to the right reveals that, in effect, we could
simply switch the sign of k to produce a wave with the same amplitude, phase constant,
frequency, and wavelength, traveling in the opposite direction.
Central
f z, 0 maximum
v
z
/k
f z, t Re Aei kz t ,
where Re denotes the real part of the complex number . This invites us to introduce
f z, t Ae
i kz t
f z, t Re f z , t .
The advantage of the complex notation is that exponentials are much easier to manipulate
than sines and cosines.
6.2.4 Polarization
In longitudinal wave, the displacement from the equilibrium is along the direction of
propagation. Sound waves, which are nothing but compression waves in air, are
longitudinal.
Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature. In a transverse wave displacement is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
There are two dimensions perpendicular to any given line of propagation. Accordingly,
transverse waves occur in two independent state of polarization:
The polarization vector n̂ defines the plane of vibration. Because the waves are
transverse, n̂ is perpendicular to the direction of propagation:
nˆ.zˆ 0
6.3 Electromagnetic waves in vacuum
6.3.1 The wave equation for E and B
Write Maxwell’s equations in free space ( 0 and J 0 ) then,
2
2 E 2
2 B
E 0 0 2 and B 0 0 2
t t
1 2 f
Thus, E and B satisfy the wave equation 2 f .
v t 2
So, EM waves travels with a speed
1
v 3 108 m / s c(velocity of light in free space)
0 0
2
where 0 4 10 7 N 2 , 0 8.86 1012 C
A Nm 2
1
E r , t E0 cos k .r t nˆ ,
B r , t E0 cos k .r t
c
kˆ nˆ
1 1 2
The energy per unit volume stored in electromagnetic field is u 0 E 2 B
2 0
E2
In case of monochromatic plane wave B 2 2
0 0 E 2
c
1 1 2
So the electric and magnetic contributions are equal i.e. u E u B 0 E 2 B .
2 2 0
u uE u B 0 E 2 = 0 E0 2 cos 2 ( kz wt ) .
As the wave travels, it carries this energy along with it. The energy flux density (energy
per unit area, per unit time) transported by the fields is given by the Pointing vector
1
S ( E B)
0
For monochromatic plane wave propagating in the z-direction,
S c 0 E02 cos 2 ( kz wt ) zˆ cu zˆ .
The energy per unit time, per unit area, transported by the wave is therefore uc.
Electromagnetic fields not only carry energy, they also carry momentum. The
1
momentum density stored in the field is 2 S .
c
1 1
For monochromatic plane wave, 0 E0 2 cos 2 ( kz wt ) zˆ u zˆ .
c c
1
Average energy density u 0 E02 ,
2
1 ^
Average of Poynting vector S c 0 E02 z ,
2
1 ^
Average momentum density 0 E02 z .
2c
The average power per unit area transported by an electromagnetic wave is called the
1
intensity I S c 0 E02 .
2
Note:
(a) When light falls on perfect absorber it delivers its momentum to the surface. In a
time t the momentum transfer is p Act ,
A
so the radiation pressure (average force per unit area) is c
1 p 1 I
P 0 E02 .
A t 2 c
ct
(b) When light falls on perfect reflector, the radiation pressure
2I
P
c
because the momentum changes direction, instead of being absorbed.
6.4 Electromagnetic waves in matter
Inside matter, but in regions where there is no free charge or free current. If the medium
1
is linear and homogeneous, D E and H= B .
2E2 2
2B
Now the wave equation inside matter is E 2 and B 2 .
t t
Thus EM waves propagate through a linear homogenous medium at a speed
1 c
v where n
n 0 0
1 1 1
The energy density u E 2 B 2 u E02
2 2
1 1 ^
The Poynting vector S E B S v E02 z
2
1
Intensity I S vE02
2
Thus in a medium c→ v, 0 and 0
This reflects the familiar fact that if we put some free charge on conductor, it will flow
out to the edges. The modified wave equation for E and B are,
2
2 E E 2
2 B B
E 2 and B
t t t t
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
The admissible plane wave solution is E z , t E 0 e i k z t , B z , t B 0 e i k z t
“wave number” k is complex. Let k k i where k and are real and imaginary part
of k .
1/2 1/ 2
2 2
k 1 1 and 1
2 2
Thus, E z, t E 0 e z e i kz t , B z , t B 0 e z ei kz t
1
The distance it takes to reduce the amplitude by a factor of is called the skin depth (d)
e
1
d ;
it is a measure of how far the wave penetrates into the conductor.
The real part of k determines the wavelength, the propagation speed, and the index of
2 ck
refraction: , v , n
k k
Like any complex number, k can be expressed in terms of its modulus and phase:
k Kei
2
where K k k 2 2 1
and tan 1 k
k Kei
B 0 E 0 B0 ei B E0 ei E .
Evidently the electric and magnetic fields are no longer in phase; in fact B E , the
magnetic field lags behind the electric fields.
1/2
B0 K
2
1
E0
E z , t E0 e z cos kz t E xˆ
Thus,
B z, t B0 e z cos kz t E yˆ
Note:
(a) In a poor conductor ( )
i.e independent of frequency.
2
(b) In a very good conductor ( )
1 2 1
, d
2 f
(c) When an electromagnetic wave strikes a perfect conductor ( ) then all waves
are reflected back i.e. E 0 R E 0 I and E 0T 0 .
v v 2v2 x
0 R 2 1 0 I , 0T 0 I I
1 2 T
v2 v1 v1 v2
Note: v1 v2
I T
Reflected wave is in phase if v2 v1 or n2 n1 z
y
and out of phase if v2 v1 or n2 n1 .
R
R Interface
In terms of indices of refraction the real
v1
amplitudes are
n1 n2 2n1
0 R 0I , 0T 0 I .
n1 n2 n1 n2
1
Since Intensity I vE02 , then the ratio of the reflected intensity to the incident intensity is
2
2 2
I E n n
the Reflection coefficient R R 0 R 1 2 .
I I E0 I n1 n2
The ratio of the transmitted intensity to the incident intensity is the Transmission coefficient
2
I v E 4n1n2
T T 2 2 0T .
I I 1v1 E0 I n1 n2 2
R T 1
sin T n1
.
sin I n2
7.1.3 Fresnel’s relation (Parallel and Perpendicular Polarization)
Case I: (Polarization in the plane of incidence)
Reflected and transmitted amplitudes kR
ER T
2
E 0 R E0 I and E 0T E0 I
BR kT
R T
T
cos T v n
where and 11 1 2 z
cos I 2v2 2 n1 I
These are known as Fresnel’s equations. I
kI 1 2
Notice that transmitted wave is always in phase with
I
the incident one; the reflected wave is either in phase ,
if , or 180 0 out phase if .
At Brewster’s angle ( B ) reflected light is completely extinguished when , or
n2
tan B and I B 90o
n1
When light enters from denser to rarer medium ( n1 n2 ) then after a critical angle ( C )
there is total internal reflection.
sin 900 n1 n2
sin c at C , T 90o .
sin c n2 n1
2 2
2
Reflection and Transmission coefficients are R and T
R T 1
CaseII: (Polarization perpendicular to plane of incidence)
1 2 kR
E0 R E0 I and E 0T E0 I BR
1 1
ER T kT
In this case B is not possible.
R T
T
2 2
1 2 z
Thus R and T I
1 1
R T 1 I kI
1 2
I
A
E V
t
Now from first Maxwell’s equation (i)
2V
t
A ...............(1)
0
From fourth Maxwell’s equation
2 2 A V
A 0 0 2 A 0 0 0 …............(2)
J
t t
Equations (1) and (2) contain all the information of Maxwell’s equations. Thus we need
to calculate only four components (one for V and three for A ) instead of six components
(three for E and three for B ).
8.2 Gauge transformation
Suppose we have two sets of potentials, V , A and V , A , which correspond to the
Electromagnetic waves confined to the interior of a hollow pipe or wave guide. The wave
guide is a perfect conductor, E 0 and B 0 inside the material itself, and hence the
boundary conditions at the inner wall are:
||
E 0 and B 0
Free charges and currents will be induced on the surface in such a way as to enforce these
constraints. Let us assume E.M. Waves that propagate inside the waveguide is
represented by:
E x, y, z, t E 0 ( x, y)ei kz t , B x, y, z, t B 0 ( x, y)ei kz t .
These electric and magnetic field must satisfies Maxwell's equations in the interior of the
waveguide.Since confined waves are not (in general) transverse; in order to fit the
boundary conditions we shall have to include longitudinal components Ez and Bz :
E 0 Ex xˆ E y yˆ Ez zˆ, B 0 Bx xˆ By yˆ Bz zˆ .
Putting this into Maxwells equations(iii) and (iv) and compare R.H.S and L.H.S
Ez E E y Ex
ikE y i Bx , ikEx z i By , i Bz
y x x y
Equation (ii), (iii), (v), and (vi) can be solved for Ex , E y , Bx , and By :
i Ez B i Ez B
(i) Ex 2 k z (ii) E y 2 k z
c k 2 x y
c k 2 y x
2 2
2 2 2 2
(i) 2 2 k 2 Ez 0 (ii) 2 2 k 2 Bz 0
x y c x y c
Note: It turns out that TEM waves can not occur in a hollow waveguide.
Suppose we have a wave guide of rectangular shape with height a and with b a b , and
y 2 2
2 2
The problem is to solve 2 2 k Bz 0 (since Ez 0 )
x y c
subject to boundary condition B 0 .
m x n y
Thus Bz B0 cos cos where m 0,1,2..... and n 0,1,2......
a b
This solution is called the TE mn mode. (The first index is conventionally associated with
the larger dimension.)
2
Wave number k is obtaine from equation k x2 kx2 k 2 0 by putting k x and k y .
c
If
2 2
c m a n b mn or f mn
c m 2 n 2
2 a
b ,
the wave number is imaginary, and instead of a traveling wave we have exponentially
attenuated fields. For this reason mn or f mn is called cutoff frequency for the mode in
question.
The lowest cutoff frequency (fundamental mode) for the waveguide occurs for the
mode TE10 :
c c
10 or f10 .
a 2a
Frequencies less than this will not propagate at all.
Wave number can be written more simply in terms of the cutoff frequency
1
k 2 mn
2
.
c
c c
The wave velocity is v c.
k
2
f
2
1 mn 1 mn
f
2 2
1 f
Group velocity vg c 1 mn c 1 mn c .
dk f
d
0 0
Wavelength inside the waveguide g
2 2
1 mn
f
1 mn
f
377 377
Characteristic impedanceTE
2 2
f
1 mn 1 mn
f
2
2 2 2
The problem is to solve 2 2
k Ez 0 (since Bz 0 )
x y c
||
subject to boundary condition E 0 .
m x n y
E z E0 sin sin where m 1,2,3..... and n 1,2,3......
a b
This solution is called the TM mn mode. (The first index is conventionally associated
with the larger dimension.)
Formula for cutoff frequency mn , wave velocity v , group velocity vg and g are same as
TE waves.
2
w
Characteristic impedance TM 377 1 mn
w
c 2 2
The fundamental mode is TM 11 and f11
2
a b
1 1 .
This is the energy (per unit time) that is transported out to infinity, and never comes back.
10.1.1 Power radiated by a point charge
The electric field E and magnetic field B of an EM wave due to a point charge q, having
acceleration a at any point P (position vector r ) is given by
qa sin qa sin z
E , B
r r
E
(where is the angle which r makes with z-direction) P
r
q 2 a 2 sin 2 0 q 2 a 2 sin 2 a
Thus S 2 rˆ q y
r2 16 2 c r
x
The total power radiated is evidently
q 2 a 2 sin 2 q 2a2
P S .da 0 2 2 r 2 sin d d 0
16 c r 6c
The direction of E can be determined from the following rule:
(i) r and E is always perpendicular.
(ii) a , r and E lies in one plane.