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?g Q¦¥ /› §C …GVESEJI
@ §B¨±
ADCŽdSf)GH
dI [K þ µ²ªN¨ ­ þ ­Eªv© þ µ²ªN¨
6fL?I [N
XyX ¶ ÷²é Ó r€‰lvkmNjˆoqrypskj|ÖSwTr€m0o’jŒp¿z{DmBuv‰Ÿ{Dpqj€p
XyX ¶ X é Ó jŒp„tvknmNj€}n{Ttv{žwDrymˆ½suvm—oqryÁNmvkÂoqry
XyX ¶ ê é psry“vk{DtNj€t|{T¢tv{†}nrywTj€p„t|kmNj€}n{T
XyX ¶ ë é ¾ ½s{D‰‹“|}ry
6

@ §B¨±
ADCŽdZg-GH
dI [K 6fS’PIþ µ²ªN¨ ­ þ ­Eªv© þ µ²ªN¨
[N
X ë ¶ ÷²éãùj€p„kj€wTknrymv{D ¶ ùÒj€p„kj€wDkrymv{DwDrym]p„{D“"{DoqknwTknxym
 ÷Û
X ë ¶ X é 6{Dp„‰lu|o’jŒwTknrymv{T ¶ 6{Dp„‰lu|o’jŒwTknrymv{TwTrym]ps{T“"{Do„kwDkxym
X ë ¶ ê é Ó ry‰lvknmNj€wDkrym|{T ¶ Ó ry‰lvknmNj€wDkrymv{DwDrym]p„{D“"{DoqknwTknxym
6 

@ §B¨± BADCedSŒ)GHEJI DK þ µˆª ­ þ ­EªN© þ µˆªv¨

RgL–˜I [N
X Ø ¶ ÷²é p„r€“vk{DtNj€tv{Dtv{ž}nrymBÔ|‰‹{Dp„ry¢wDry‰lvknmNjŒoqr€p„knr€
X Ø ¶ X é ¾ ½s{TpswTknwTkr€ ¶¾ ½s{TpswTkwDkr€jŒtvkwDkrymNjŒ}n{TDÖ ]þ Tª
6
u“ X g
@ §B¨± BADCedS‘)GH
dPI [K þ µˆªv¨ ­ þ ­EªN© þ µˆªv¨
Rg…dPI [N
X ¶ ÷²é p„r€Nj€vkn}kntNjŒt ¶Ë rBwTknrymv{D¢NŠ€„knwj€ ¶ ü {T£y}j:t|{œi·jŒ“v}~j€wD{
X ¶ X é â „k£€mNj€wTknxymztv{ž“vp„ryvj€vk}nkntNjŒtv{T
 6

X ¶ ê é p„r€Nj€vkn}kntNjŒtzwTrym|tvkwDkrymvj€tNj

 6

^ Z› šXµ²ª ª þßý §0µŒ¨ þ ·ªN© i{D{Tp¢}~j€s{TwDwTknxymwDryp„ps{T„“"r€mvtvk{Dm0o„{œj:¸ˆj€p„kj€v}{D¢j€}n{jˆoqryp„kjŒ ¶

C œG
@ §B¨±BADCedLLGH
dPI [K þ µˆªv¨ ­ þ ­EªN© þ µˆªv¨
RgDghI [N
X ¶ ÷²é ¾ ½s{TpswTknwTkr€
X ¶ X é ¾ Ζ“"{Tpsk‰Ÿ{Tm0o„ry¢tv{†ú{Dp„mvryu|}}k


X ¶ ê é…‡ŠŒ{™½s{Tp„wDkwDkry



@ §B¨±
BADCedS™)GH
dPI [K þ µˆªv¨ ­ þ ­EªN© þ µˆªv¨
Rg…‘PI [N
 pqŠ€w‘oqkwTj:wTrym‡…‡j€“|}{€Ö µˆ¯v³€­²±<³yª

  ?f

^ §B®°ª µ²ª þ ¨ þ µ²ªN¨

˜Œ Q©¨ |ª mGEU™PI

@ §B¨±
BADCedS’)GH
dPI [K þ µˆªv¨ ­ þ ­EªN© þ µˆªv¨
Rg…™PI [N
X ¶ ÷²é¡iry l“vuv{Dm0oq{DÀtv{ Àr€mvksá{Dp„£
X ¶ X 顎{‘ÁNmvknwTkr€mv{T¢NŠ€skwTj€
mž M a«

X ¶ ê é â t|¿—j€wD{TmvwDk~j€{žknmvwTkntv{Tm|wTkj€
mž

X ¶ ë é û pqj€t|r.tv{žuvmƒ¸yàTp”oqkwD{
mž

X ¶ Øyé û pqj€t|rytv{ž{Tm0o„pqj€tvj:¿zqj€}nktvj
mž
mž

@ §B¨±
BADCef–ƒGH
dPI [K þ µˆªv¨ ­ þ ­EªN© þ µˆªv¨
8ŒS–˜I [N
ê Û ¶ ÷²é û pqjŒš›r€wTr€mmvr€‰lvp„{ ¶ÒË Ôv‰Ÿ{TpsrŸtv{ ¸yàDpsoqknwT{D¢¿ƒj€psksoqj€{DmwjŒtNj.wjŒ„r
ê Û ¶ X é ó u|v£ypqjˆš›ryTÌvuvmvkx€mgÌv“vpsrBtvuvwDo„r.¿z“Nj€p”oqkwDkx€m
@ §B¨±
BADCefƒEGHEJI DK þ µˆª ­ þ ­EªN© þ µˆªv¨
8Œ-EJI [N
ê ÷ ¶ ÷²é…‡jˆoqp„knwT{D¢tv{†j€t|¿—j€wD{TmvwDk~jŒ
ê ÷ ¶ X é…‡jˆoqp„knwT{D¢tv{žkmvwDktv{DmvwTkj€
ê ÷ ¶ ê é ¾ ½s{TpswTknwTkr€ ¶¾ ½s{TpswTkwDkr€jŒtvkwDkrymNjŒ}n{T þ Tª
x“ X ˜Œ
 i>jlkmjon"pMqsrutwvxran"yRz-{|qo}~ys{"yRJr€vxtq~ƒ‚Y„…q#†‡‚‰ˆxp ÷y÷
§B¨±
@ ADCŽfSd)GH
dI [K þ µ²ªN¨ ­ þ ­Eªv© þ µ²ªN¨
6ŒSfPI [N
ê—X ¶ ÷²é Ó jŒ‰‹knmvry¡{Tm]£ypqjŒš›r€
ê—X ¶ X é Ó r€mv{‘Ζknxym ¶ Ó ry‰Ÿ“"rymv{Dm0o„{TwDrymv{òÎvjŒ
ê—X ¶ ê é Ó jŒ‰‹knmvry¿z‰‹jŒoqp„knwT{D
ê—X ¶ ë é Ó pskno„{Tp„knr:tv{žwTrym|{‘Ζkx€m
@§B¨± ADCŽfSf)GH
dI [K þ µ²ªN¨ ­ þ ­Eªv© þ µ²ªN¨
6ŒSŒPI [N
êyê ¶ ÷²é û pqjˆš›ry{‘oqk º uv{‘o’j€t|ry
êyê ¶ X é psryv}{D‰‹j:tv{D}wj€‰Ÿkm|r:‰‹Ðnmvkn‰Ÿr ¶¼â }£yr€p„kÂoq‰.rltv{œŽÀk ½ 0so„pqj ¶
ê—X ¶ ê é ¾ ½s{Dp„wTknwTknry
6 ¬

^ µ²ª ª þßý §0µˆ¨ þ ªN© i·{D{Tp¢}~jŒ„{DwTwTknrymv{DÀtv{ž£yp„jŒš›ry{Duv}{Dp„kj€mvry¡¿ÏÙNj€‰Ÿk}Âo„rymvknj€mvr€

Z› —X C œG
@ §B¨± ADCŽfZg-GHE‹I [K þ µ²ªN¨ ­ þ ­Eªv© þ µ²ªN¨
6ŒS‘PI [N
Ó rym—oqp„r€}tv{ž}ry¡o„{T‰‹j€ž÷yÌ X ¿ ê ½s{T‰Ÿ“v}nrytv{ž{Tso„rywTr€m0oqpsry}{D¢„{ž“vuv{Tt|{Tm¸y{Dp
{Tm]}~jl“NŠ€£yknmNj ã{Tr.{Tm]{T}wTj€“vÐno„uv}r ¶Ò¾ ¶
©O c

@ §B¨± ADCŽfSŒ)GHE‹I [K þ µ²ªN¨ ­ þ ­Eªv© þ µ²ªN¨

6ŒL?I [N
ê Ø ¶ ÷²é Àp„"ry}n{T ¶ Ž{‘ÁNmvknwTknrymv{T¢NŠŒ„kwTj€ ¶
ê Ø ¶ X é Àp„"ry}n{TwTrym]p„j€Ð  ¶
8­

ê Ø ¶ ê é× {Dryp„{D‰»j:tv{ž}~j€Ù|rŒ½„jŒ¢tv{žuvmŠ€p„"r€} m•™j€p„knr

8­

§B¨±
@ ADCŽfS‘)GH
dI [K þ µ²ªN¨ ­ þ ­Eªv© þ µ²ªN¨
6ŒS’PI [N
ê ¶ ÷²é Àp„"ry}n{Ttv{žvÔv º uv{DtNj
ê ¶ X é Àp„"ry}n{Ttv{žtv{TwDkskxym
 8­

ê ¶ ê é Àp„"ry}n{T£y{Tm|{TpqjŒtvryp„{D
 8­

ê ¶ ë é Àp„"ry}g£y{Dmv{Tp„j€tvryp¢‰ŸÐm|k‰.r
 8­
 8­

§B¨±
@ ADCŽfLLGHE‹I [K þ µ²ªN¨ ­ þ ­Eªv© þ µ²ªN¨
6‘–˜I [N
ó {D„kx€m]tv{ž{ѽs{Dp„wTknwTknry
§B¨±
@ ADCŽfS™)GH
dI [K þ µ²ªN¨ ­ þ ­Eªv© þ µ²ªN¨
6‘SdPI [N
ê Ú ¶ ÷²é ‚o„p„ry6j€s“"{TwDo„ryStv{Òo„{TrypsÐ~j¢tv{ã£ypqjˆš›ryç›„{T}n{TwDwTkr€mNj€p }r€ º uv{‰‹Š€ knm0oq{Dp„{D„{DmgÌ
{T}ps{Tso„r‹“|uv{Ttv{†s{TpoqpqjŒNjˆ½sr:“"{Tps„rymNjŒ}îé
-¢

§B¨±
@ ADCŽfS’)GH
dI [K þ µ²ªN¨ ­ þ ­Eªv© þ µ²ªN¨
6‘ZghI [N
 pqŠ€w‘oqknwj:tv{œ…‡j€“v}n{ ¶ µˆ¯v³€­²±<³yª
  /g

^ §B®°ª §–©›ªN³—± þ §B¨ þ µˆªv¨

P‘ Qa® C mGVESEJI
 ÷X
@ §B¨± BADCefS’)GHEJI þ µˆª ­ þ ­EªN© þ µˆªv¨
DK 8‘DŒPI [N
ê ¶ ÷²é ü {T}j€wTknrymv{D ¶ Ž{‘ÁNmvknwTknrymv{T¢NŠ€skwTj€
ê ¶ X é ü {T}j€wTknrymv{Dtv{ž{ º uvk¸Œj€}n{TmvwDk~j
Wž

ê ¶ ê é ¾ ½s{T‰Ÿ“v}nry
Wž
Wž

@ §B¨± þ µˆªv¨ ­ þ ­EªN© þ µˆªv¨

ë Û ÷²é {T“vps{T„{Dm0oqj€wTknxymtv{žps{T}~jŒwTknrymv{T ¶ Ó rymˆ½suvm—oqry ¶ ×6j€v}j€ ¶ û pqjŒš›ry¡tvkpsk£ykÂtvry ¶
BADC¯gD–ƒGH
dPI [K 8‘…?I [N

…jŒoqp„knwT¶ {D ¶ ü
ë Û ¶ X é¡i·j€¢“|p„ry“vkn{TtNjŒtv{T¢{Tm]wjŒtNj.p„{D“vp„{D„{Dm0o’jŒwTkx€m
ë Û ¶ ê é Ó }j€uv„u|pqj.ps{ N{òΖkn¸Œj:¿z„kn‰‹à‘oqpskwj
4°

@ §B¨± þ µˆªv¨ ­ þ ­EªN© þ µˆªv¨

ë ÷ ¶ ÷²é Ó }j€uv„u|pqj:o„pqj€m|„kno„kn¸Œj ¶ Žryj€}£€ryp„kÂo„‰Ÿr€
BADC¯g*EGH
dPI [K 8‘D’PI [N

ë ÷ ¶ X é ¾ ½s{TpswTknwTkr€ ¶¾ ½s{TpswTkwDkr€jŒtvkwDkrymNjŒ}n{TDÖ ]þ Tª u“

þ µˆªv¨ ­ þ ­EªN© þ µˆªv¨

X ˜‘
@ §B¨±
ë X ¶ ÷²é Ó rym²½suvm0o„ry“vj€p„wDk~j€}n‰Ÿ{Tm—oq{‚ryp„t|{TmNjŒtvry
BADC¯gLd)GH
dPI [K x)EJI [N

ë X ¶ X 顎kj€£yp„j€‰»jŒ¡tv{ ì jŒ„„{
ë X ¶ ê é ¾ }{D‰‹{Dm0o„ry¢wTj€p„j€wDo„{Tp„Ðnso„kwTr€¢t|{†u|m
ë X ¶ ë é ¾ ½s{T‰Ÿ“v}nry
?±•²8³Z´aµ

@ §B¨± þ µˆªv¨ ­ þ ­EªN© þ µˆªv¨

ë ê ¶ ÷²é˜™mvwD}uvskxymƒtv{žuvm]rypstv{Tm]“Nj€pswTkj€}g{Dmuvm|r.oqr€oqj€}
BADC¯gLf)GH
dPI [K xfPI [N

ë ê ¶ X é ⠓v}knwj€wDkxymzj.}j:£y{Dso„kxymƒtv{ o’jŒp„{jŒ
ë ê ¶ ê é ¾ ½s{TpswTknwTkr€
@ §B¨± þ µˆªv¨ ­ þ ­EªN© þ µˆªv¨
pqŠ€w‘oqkwTj:wTrym‡…‡j€“|}{€Ö µˆ¯v³€­²±<³yª
BADC¯gSg-GH
dPI [K xŒPI [N

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¶ ·¸‡¹+&3º(-!:'¼»s·¾½¾¿

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Ç „ÀÄîÉ™Ê so’jmBuv{‘¸Œjš›ryp„‰‹j†tv{‚‰Ÿ{Tt|kpãj€tvry“|oqj}jœ“vp„{D„“"{DwDoqk¸Œjltv{T}2j€}nuv‰‹m|r
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À
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t|{†}j.j€sk£ymvjŒoquvp„j º uv{ ¸ŒjŸj.ps{TwDkvknp ¶

¾ mzm0uv{Dsoqp„jl{òΖ“"{Tp„kn{TmvwDk~jœtv{{Dmv„{D¹Nj€mv Tj:tv{À{Tsoqjlj€„kn£ymNjˆoquvp„jœ“"rBt|{T‰Ÿryã“vp„{D„{TmB•
oqj€p{T}sk£yuvkn{Tm—oq{ wDxy‰‹“|u|oqr.tv{žwTpsàTtvkÂoqry ¾ Ó × ó Ö
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ryp„j€¢tv{žwDrym0oqj€wDo„r yØ X ¶Ø
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× p„ìj€Nj²½srŸwD}~j€s{Toq{Dxyp„knwj€
C

ê ¶X


× pqj€Nj²½sr.wT}j€„{D“|pqŠ€w‘oqkwTj€ 10 ×402 +×252 =× 801 = 45 ÷ ¶Ú

¾Ó rymvm—suvoqp„}noq{Dj.£—j.tvtv{ž{ž}~jl“vp„vr€knvv}}kn{Dr€‰»£yp„jŒjŒ š›Ðnj ÷ X ¶Ø
5 × 4 = 20
Û ¶Ú
Û ¶Ø
i·r º uv{†wDrymvso„kno„u|¿y{†u|m]o„r€o’jŒ}gtv{ R³yµ²¦B´6±î­ þ ¨
™ƒGlŒ ©È ¥ ^ @ ¶
ø tvrym|tv{†s{œj€“|}kwTj€mz}r€„kn£yuvk{Dm0o„{TwTp„kÂoq{Dp„kr€t|{†wDrym0¸y{Dp„skxymgÖ
ê Û:Ùvryp„j€¢tv{žwD}~j€s{žwTr€mvsoqkÂoqu|¿€{TmR÷žwTp„àDtvkno„r ¾ Ó × ó ¶
Ó j€tNj‹Ùvrypqj‹t|{wT}~jŒ„{†oq{Tx€p„knwj‹m|{TwT{D„kÂo’j»tvryÙ|rypqjŒtv{œo„pqj€Nj²½sr‹“"{Tps„rymNjŒ}S“"r€p
•

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X ØlÙvryp„j€¢tv{ o„pqj€Nj²½sr.“"{Dp„„r€mNj€}wTrym|soqkÂoqu|¿y{DmR÷†wDp„àDtvkno„r ¾ Ó × ó ¶
Ó j€tNj°wT}~jŒ„{‡tv{'}~j€"r€pqjŒo„ryp„kÂrRmv{TwD{T„kÂo’j?tvry»ÙvrypqjŒÏtv{‡o„pqj€Nj²½sr°{‘ÎBoqp„j?{Tm+{T}
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Ó j€tNj'wT}~jŒ„{Ïtv{z“vp„ry|}{D‰»j€mv{DwT{D„knoqjuvmNjÙvr€pqj'tv{Ïoqp„j€Nj²½sr“"rypl“NjŒpsoq{Ïtv{T}
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X ØñÙvryp„j€»tv{o„pqj€Nj²½sr°“vp„Š€wDo„kwDr+ç4{ѽs{Dp„wDkwDkry‹r?}j€"ryp„jŒoqr€p„knr—élwTrymv”oqkÂoqu|¿y{Dm*÷
•
wTpsàTtvkÂoqr ¾ Ó × ó ¶
Ó j€tNjÙ|rŒ½„j¡tv{“vpsryv}{D‰‹j€gmv{DwT{D„knoqj ë Ùvryp„j€{òΖo„pqj€r€p„tvknmNj€p„kj€2tv{“vps{T“Nj€p„j€wTknxymgÌ
•
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•
X ØlÙvryp„j€¢tv{žvknv}knrŒoq{DwjlwTr€mvso„knoqu–¿y{TmR÷žwTp„àDtvkÂoqr ¾ Ó × ó ¶
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Û ¶ ÷ ÜÀmvj.“vp„ry“|uv{T”o’jŸt|{žo„{T‰Ÿ“"rypqjŒ}kn jŒwTknxym ¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶
Û ¶ X Ó p„àDtvkno„ry ¾ Ó × ó ¶œ¶†¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶ ÷X


÷ ¶ ÷ á±4³yiª xy£yknwjl{žkm|š›r€p„‰‹ŠŒoqkÂwj ¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶ ÷

E ` ASb EU’

÷ ¶ X ixy£yknwj¿z‰ŸrBtv{T}nry‰‹jŒo„{T‰‹ŠŒoqknwDry ¶œ¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶ X÷
ž

÷ ¶ ê ixy£yknwjl“vp„ry“"r€„kwDkr€mNj€} ¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶ X€ê

÷ ¶ ê ¶ ÷ ir€¢wTrymv{DwDo„kn¸yry¢}xy£€kwDry ¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶†¶œ¶†¶†¶ X€ê
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ó ky}j€wDk{DmvwTkj€{òÎ|“"{Dp„kn‰‹{Dm0oqj€}{D„kn£yuv{Tmžuvm.ÿ»ÊÃBȑæÊÄîí"ÀïVƑÉ4Ä €ÊˆÌ²}j€g‰»jŒo„{T‰‹ŠŒoqkÂwj€
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t|{†}j:mv{DwT{D„kntNj€ttv{ contar ryB½s{Do„ry ¶
ó k—j€„u|‰‹kn‰‹r€TÌwTry‰Ÿr“vp„kn‰‹{Dpqj¡j€“vp„rΖk‰‹j€wTknx€mgÌ º uv{uvmvj¢s{Tm—oq{Tm|wTk~j¢{D verdadera
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õ

3 · 1010 + 2 · 1010 = 5 · 1010

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3 · 1010 + 2 · 1010 = 5 · 1010

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Œ

A1 := p ⇒ (q ∨ r) A2 := q ⇒ ¬r

ó { oqpqjˆo’j:tv{žtv{D‰‹ry”oqp„j€p º |u {†A}~jl:=“vp„r€p“"ry„knwTAkx€mƒ:=sk£yqu|∧k{Tm—¬r.oq{ P {Tu|mNj:o’j€u–oqry}nry£yЍj–Ö

3 4

ó koqry‰‹j€‰Ÿry Ì ¿ „{œryvs{Tp”¸Œj u|{}j.“vpsry“"ry„knwTknxym P oqr€‰»j:{T}

A1 ∧ A 2 ∧ A 3 ⇒ A 4 .

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1

i j:wTr€mvwT}nuv„knxymƒ{TDÖ A := (q ∧ s) ⇒ r.
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ó { oqp„jŒo’j:t|{†t|{T‰Ÿryso„pqj€p„k}j:skB£yu|:=k{Tm—oqs{ ⇒“|p„pry“"ryskwDkxymz{T¢uvmNj:o’jŒu|oqry}nry£yÐnj|Ö
ø ÙNj€wDk{DmvtvrŸsu]o’jŒv}~jltv{ ¸y{TpstNj€ts{†wDry‰‹“|p„uv{DNj º vu {†mvr.}r:{T ¶
(A1 ∧ A2 ) ⇒ B.
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“|p„ry“"ryskwDkxymz„kn£yuvk{Dm0o„{ {T¢{Tm{‘š›{Tw‘oqrŸuvmNj:o’jŒu|oqry}nry£yÐnj|Ö


((p ⇒ q ∧ i) ∧ q ∧ ¬i) ⇒ ¬p.

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X Eš–

p ↓ q ⇔ ¬(p ∨ q)
p ↓ p ⇔ ¬(p ∨ p) ⇔ ¬p
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p|q ⇔ ¬(p ∧ q)
p|p ⇔ ¬(p ∧ p) ⇔ ¬p
¬p|¬q ⇔ ¬(¬p ∧ ¬q) ⇔ p ∨ q
(p|q)|(p|q) ⇔ ¬(p|q) ⇔ p ∧ q

þ Ó ry‰‹rÀ}jÙ|k“"x€o„{T„kn P (x)∧¬P (x) {DSsk{T‰Ÿ“vps{Қ4jŒ}qj¢}~j¢k‰Ÿ“v}nknwTj€wDkx€m

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X T§0µˆ³—±<³—± þ ¶ ó {žtv{Tt|uvwT{Dm‡tvkps{TwDoqj€‰Ÿ{Tm—oq{ tv{ž}~jo’j€u|o„ry}r€£yЍj–Ö
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{Tm T{ }‚“vp„kn‰Ÿ{TpÏwTj€„rÝjŒ“v}knwŠ€m|∃xtvry}Pj?(x)j ¬P⇔ (x)¬(∀x¬P ¿+{Dm (x)){T}‚„{T£€uvmvtvr8wj€srdoqr€‰»j€m|tvrß}~j

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a 6= 0 ²=a

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¿ P (x) = ÅEȑǡäNȑÇòÄÍÊTÃ€ÄÅ‘É Uå€Ö E(x) =

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r.{ º uvk¸Œj€}n{Tm0o„{T‰Ÿ{Tm—oq{
ó um|{T£—j€wDkxymƒ{DTÖ ∃x ∈ U (E(x) ∧ ¬P (x)).

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¾ m—oqrymvwD{TDÖ
õh ò

ó um|{T£—j€wDkxymƒ{DTÖ (∃x ∈ U B(x)) ⇒ (∀x ∈ U B(x)).

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(∃x ∈ U B(x)) ∧ (∃x ∈ U ¬B(x)).
õ í # ò ì í  ò

ê é mñ{T}¼uvmvkn¸y{Dp„sr tv{.}j€‚“"{Tp„srymNj€ž„{:oqr€‰»j€m}nry “|p„{Tt|kwjŒtvry M (x) ñȒÅ

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õ
õ ì

∀x ∈ U ∃y ∈ U (P (x, y) ∧ M (y)).
ó um|{T£—j€wDkxymƒ{DTÖ
∃x ∈ U ∀y ∈ U (¬P (x, y) ∨ ¬M (y)).
¾ ”oqrŸ{TTÌSÈ yčőÉÑȑí‹äNȑÇqÅEʈí"åˆÅ ïVȞí2Êzƒʈí2ÊEƒȑíå»íNÄîí0ô –í'ÿ»ÊTÀčőÉÑÊ ¶
õ í m

ëé
ó um|{T£—j€wDkxymƒ{DTÖ ∀p, q ∈ R p < q ∃s ∈ Q p < s < q

∃p, q ∈ R p < q ∀s ∈ Q ((s ≥ q) ∨ (s ≤ p)).

¾ ”oqrŸ{TTÌSÈ yčőÉÑȑíèÃBÊEŞí Bÿ»È‘ÇqÊEŞǒȄå€æÈ’Å p, q őÄîí'í Bÿ»È‘Ç’ÊEŠDŽåBƑÄÍʈí"å€æÈ’ŏȑíNÉ4ǒÈlȑæîæÊEÅ ¶
õ  

Øyé ó {j P {T}wTr€mˆ½suvm0o„rŸtv{ž}ry¡mBÔv‰Ÿ{Tpsry¢“vpsk‰ŸryTÖ

∀p ∈ P ∃q ∈ P p < q.
ó um|{T£—j€wDkxymƒ{DTÖ
¾ ”oqrŸ{TTÌSÈ yčőÉÑȞïBíí –ÿ»È‘Çqʂä"∃pÇòÄîÿ»∈Ê.PÿŸ∀qå 0ʈ∈Ç PïVpÈl≥ȑæq.ÇqȒőÉÑʋÃBȆæÊEŞí Bÿ»È‘Ç’ÊEŁäáÇòÄîÿ»ÊEÅ ¶
õ  mì í 
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¬(∀² ∈ R+ (∃n ∈ N(∀m ∈ N(m > n ⇒ |xm − a| < ²))))

¿ ¬p ∨ q Ö p⇒q

∃² > 0 ∀n ∃m > n |xm − a| > ².

È
X T§0µˆ³—±<³—± þ ¶ Ž{T‰Ÿry”oqpqjŒwTkr€mv{T¢“"r€p¢knmvtvuvwDwTkx€mgÖ
Eš‘
kîé
ú¡j€„{žtv1{ž+km|...tvuv+wTwDnkx€=mgÖn(n wDoqrŸ„¶ {žwTuv‰Ÿ“v}n{ º u|{ 1 = (1 · 2)/2 ¶
{Tm]{D+š›{D1)/2
Sj€„rŸtv{žkm|tvuvwTwDkx€mgÖuvqjŒmvtvrŸ}~jlÙvk“"x€o„{Tsktv{žkm|tvuvwTwDkxymƒs{žoqkn{Tmv{ŒÖ
1 + ... + n + (n + 1) = (1 + .. + n) + (n + 1) = n(n + 1)/2 + (n + 1).
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k k~é
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n 2
Σ (2k − 1) = n .
k=1

Sj€„rŸtv{žkm|tvuvwTwDkx€mgÖuvqjŒmvtvrŸ}~jlÙvk“"x€o„{Tsktv{žkm|tvuvwTwDkxymƒs{žoqkn{Tmv{ŒÖ
Σn+1 n 2
k=1 (2k − 1) = Σk=1 (2k − 1) + (2n + 1) = n + 2n + 1.

ø {Tm]{Dš›{DwDo„r‹„{ oqkn{Tmv{ŒÖ
n2 + 2n + 1 = (n + 1)2 .

k knk~é 2 ≤ (n + 1)!.
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Sj€„rŸtv{žkm|tvuvwTwDkx€mgÖuvqjŒmvtvrŸ}~jlÙvk“"x€o„{Tsktvº {žkm|2tvuv≤wTwD2!kxy=mƒs2{ž¶ oqkn{Tmv{ŒÖ
n

2n+1 = 2n · 2 ≤ (n + 1)!2.
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t|rymvtv{ (H1 ∧ H2 ) ⇒ T

H1 := ∀x ∈ U R(x) ⇒)P (x) ∨ ¬P (x)).

H2 := ¬P (a)

¿Gtvr€mvtv{ a ps{T“vps{T„{Dm0oqjÝj 6{Ttvpsr ¶ |„{Tp”¸Œj€‰Ÿry º uv{ H {Dƒ„kn{T‰Ÿ“vp„{ V ¿ º uv{

T := R(a)

o„ry‰‹j€mvtvr R(a) := F ¿ P (a) := F s{ oqk{Dmv{ º uv{ž{D}p„j€ Tr€mNj€‰Ÿk{Tm—oqrlmvr.{D¸ŒŠ€}nktvr ¶

Ù ¢
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dƒE

P (5, 10) : V P (2, 3) ⇒ P (5, 10) : V ∀m ∈ N ∀m ∈ N P (m, n) : F

Ì Ì
V, ∀m ∈ N P (m, 1) : F ¶
∃m ∈ N ∀n ∈ N P (m, n) : V ∃n ∈ N ∀m ∈ N P (m, n) : F ∀n ∈ N P (1, n) :

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ó uœmv{T£yj€wTknxym†{T ¬ (P (x) ⇒ q) Ì º u|{ã{T }xy£€kwTj€‰Ÿ{Dm0o„{{ º uvkn¸ˆj€}{Dm0o„{ãj ¬ (¬P (x) ∨⇒q)q ¶¶

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X T§0µˆ³—±<³—± þ ¶ j—é
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n
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 2

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2 2 2

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2 2 2 2 2

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2

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8872 = 125 × 70 + 122

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Ã

mcd(8872, 125) = mcd(125, 122).

•F(QhF&D.F(C%4G ê WB+?ß,!$B ê ä
® µ Ô µ/µ

125 = 122 × 1 + 3.
3%"!ß A ?~ß,% ä
<

mcd(125, 122) = mcd(122, 3)

 h õ ~õ¬‡é]³é Né
)é{èé{ç- ¨ð° NçŠðYæ)ôöé|çŠðés´
+ ‚) ê Õz×

‡BŠ?~Þ.BQ4% ä
®

122 = 3 × 40 + 2,
á / 4% !‹ß A ?ß,% ä
mcd(122, 3) = mcd(3, 2).
ë ß$! A Q4B ä
‘

3 = 2 × 1 + 1,
&# % ã Þ7BŠG$F(H4?.F IJA7ä Á–

mcd(3, 2) = mcd(2, 1).

@#¿!$BGXß$%†D.B‡D.F(QhF(D.F&! / %"! ê B+G‹GXF&BC / !$B / %"!)#&% ã Þ.B-B# mcd(8872, 125) = 1 ˆ@OGXß$%
¶
G$BGXÞ.B+#(B2F&?.D7F I+A ! I %4C% ã Þ.B 131 á ê G$%"? Ç r›cyd2Æ]Ägsj=o'r,gÄ '%nr,g z a"o˜cyxea"d2gsj=oqg
zÝ µ µ Ô háß¿
Ç rscyd2Æ]Ä ›ˆ 7Â

ÁÏ ÂÐ3Ñ'ҝÑ'Ó;Ð ^ ©^ ¡cfNÆ]ÄEj=¢Nd2gsr,Æ]Ägsj=o{gsr,Æ]Ä Ç Æ]Äscyo'cyx"Æ]Ä a, b ∈ Z x"gsr›c Ÿ‹t$a"j w à g

­ Á­
Ü-È à

mcd(a, b) = 1
Ä]g0f"cltugsj T Ô Ñ': ;< Ï Ð¿M ÔÏ < 4 ™XÆ6ÔeÏ ¦LÕ7MÑy\.Õ.: Ï Ð¿M Ï T Ô Ñ˜: ;< œ"‚
Ѫ Ѫ

© 
+Ï~Ô ÒÑ˜ÒÑ ·¶ a z t à z a Ç Æer”g z a z khÆer›cyo'd2Æ5fhg í à t z c'fhguÄWg z mcd(247, 9981) ‚
«ªÛ·u¹

ª =M]Õ=ҝÑLÓ;В^ ë #•!$BGXß,%¨D.BRD.F§QhF&D.F(! B+?ß,!$B b #(%nD.B+?.%*ß A !XB+C%4G a mod b I %"C5%

ª ¿
G$B A # A C5%4G‹B+?B+# I+A / (ß$Þ.#&% A ?~ß$B+!$F(%4! ›aˆ
” æ |Â

© 
+Ï~Ô ÒÑ˜ÒÑ Éí Ä]tsrsc Å gWgsj Ç Ä]g à fhƁtu}+f"c§khÆ5g z a z khÆer›cyo˜d2Æfhg í à t z c'fhguÄ ‚
«ªÛ·Mº

)’Ï :nÕ ©^ ©^ ™{fh6g 5-8g 7eÆ o ©g$a"j a, b ∈ Z j=¢hd2gsr,Æ]Ägsj=o{gsr,Æ]Ä Ç Æ]Äscyo˜cyx"Æ]ÄužYgXb4c&Äsoqgsj

fhÆ]Ćgsj=oqgsr,Æ]Ä s m t ola z guĔw Ãà g œ
Ñ­ Á­
ÜYÜ à

mcd(a, b) = sa + tb.
— sg d2Æ]Äso˜rXahtscl}ej ‚ OG0Þ.? AI %4?7G$B I Þ.B+? I F A D.B+# A #(H4%4!XF§ß,CE%D7B2OÞ I &# F(D.B+G â !$B I %4!XD.B+C%4G
ã Þ7B â GXÞ / %4?.F(B+?.D7% ã Þ.B a ≥ b â ß$B+? A C%4G‹Þ.? A B / !$B+GXF&Z4?D.B6# A L%"$! C A7ä
9æ m² ¾

a = q0 b + r0
b = q 1 r0 + r 1
ˆ§ˆ(ˆ
r0 = q 2 r1 + r 2
 ê Õ/Õ ðç‡ñOòJæ•ó3è’ôhõƒç-öé+æ ‡æUésð°ç ¨ôSóUèç-ö
) {)

rn−3 = qn−1 rn−2 + rn−1

rn−2 = qn rn−1
7D %4?.D.B r = mcd(a, b) ˆ
 A C%4G A D.B+C%4GXß$! A ! ã Þ.B / A ! AIJA D A
n−1
¿ ŠB NF&G¯ß,B+?pB?~ß,B!$%4G
 h² á D.B
C%hD.% ã Þ.B ä ri i ≥ 0 si ti

ri = si a + ti b.
OGXß,% I %"? I #(Þ á BŠB##&BC A / %4! ã Þ.B r = mcd(a, b) ˆ
A D.BC5%"GXß,! A"I F(Z4? ã Þ.B0Q A C5%"G A / !$BG$B+?ß A !‡BG â D.B A #(H4Þ.? A C A ?.B+! A â I %4?7GXß,!XÞ I
Ã
n−1
•
ß$F(Q A ˆ NF3D.BG / BqÝ A C%4G r B+?R# A / B+? 7#(ß,F(C A F&H"Þ A #(D A D â B / !$B+G A C%4G-B+# mcd(a, b)
#³ ° m²
I %4C% I %4CWV.F&? A"I F(Z4?„#&F(?.B A #@B?~ß$B+! A D.B
n−1
á LB+G¯ß,% ã Þ.F(B+!XB2D.B I F(! ã Þ7BB NF&G
¿ m² •
ß$B+?„D.%4G6? .CB+!$%"G6B+?ß,B!$%4G A á B D.BErC5%hD7% ã rÞ.B mcd(a, b) = Ar + Br sˆ
-°
n−3 n−2
Â
³ hFOQ A C%4G6D.B+G / B{Ý A ?7D.% r B+?P# A G$F(H4Þ.F&B?~ß$BEF&H4Þ A #&D A D â r B?n# AA ?ß,B!$F&%"!+ˆ§ˆ(ˆ á n−3 n−2

!XB I Þ.!$!XB+?~ß$B+CB+?ß,BQ A C%4GGXÞ.GXß$F(ß,Þ á B+?.D.%¨B?¤# A GEB / !XB+G$F(%4?.BG A ?~ß,B!$F(%4!$BG â A # =? A #

n−2
h²
n−3
‹–
m² B / !$BG A C%4G mcd(a, b) I %4C5% I %"C†V7F&? A"I F&Z"?#(F&?.B A #B?~ß$B+! A D.B a á b ã Þ.B”BGOÝXÞ.GXß A •
CB+?ß,B6#(% ã Þ.B ã Þ7B+!$BC5%"G+ˆ
=%4!$C A #(F A CE%4G‹B#! A %4? A CF(B+?~ß$% / %4!F&?.D.Þ I+I F(Z4? I %4C / #(Bß A B? i ˆ
㠈 
O# IJA GX% i = 0 B+G I F&B!Xß,% / Þ7B+GXß$% ã Þ.B ä
r0 = a − q0 b.
<3%"!ß A ?~ß,% s = 1 á t = −q .
O# IJA GX% i = 1 B+GYß A CWV7F +? I F&B+!¯ß,% / Þ.B+G¯ß,% ã Þ.B
0 0
ç—
0
ˆ ‡B0B+G¯ß,B”C%hD.% â
'®
GXÞ.GXß$F(ß,Þ á B+?.D7%2# A F(H4Þ A #(D A D A ?~ß$B+!$F(%4!)ß,B?.B+C%4G ä r 1 = b − q 1 r0

r1 = b − q1 (a − q0 b) = (1 + q1 q0 )b − q1 a.
<3%"!ß A ?~ß,% s = −q á t = 1 + q q ˆ
@B A C5%4G A à.%4! AEã Þ.BŠG$FB+#–#(B+C A B+G I F&B+!¯ß,% / A ! AEI Þ A # ã Þ.F(B+!‹Q A #&%"!BGXß$!$F I ß A CB?~ß,B
1 1 1 1 0

CB+?7%4! ã Þ.B i ß A C†V7F ?#(%EBG / A ! A i ˆç—

O?B LB I ß$% â ß,B?.B+C%4G ä
‘¾

ri = ri−2 − qi ri−1 .
YG A ?7D.%5# A à7F / Z"ß$B+G$F(GD.B6F&?.D.Þ I+I F(Z4? / A ! A
ð
ri−1
á ri−2
G$B6%4V7ß$F&B?.B ä
ri = (si−2 a + ti−2 b) − qi (si−1 a + ti−1 b).
3%"!ß A ?~ß,%
<

ai = si−2 − qi si−1
 hõ ~õ¬‡é]³é Né
)é{èé{ç- ¨ð° NçŠðYæ)ôöé|çŠðés´
+ ‚) ê Õ-Ô

á
bi = ti−2 − qi ti−1
à A"I B? ã Þ.BŠGXB6Q4B+!XF ã Þ.B6B+##(B+C A ˆ Á–

©
+Ï :nT3¦ ©^ ©^ í b Ç r,guÄ+a"r2g z mcd(35, 20) tuÆed2ÆtuÆed Å cyj;ahtscl}ej z cyj|g$a z fhg( * m

ªÑ­ ç­
ÜÐ
Ê9‚
A GB / !$+B GXF&%4?7B+GYD.B+# A #(H4%4!$F ß,CE%†D7B0OÞ I #&F(D.B+G ä
à m²

35 = 20 × 1 + 15
20 = 15 × 1 + 5
@?ß,%4? I BG â D.BG / B{Ý A ?.D.%”B# -B+?5# A G$BH4Þ.?.D A F(H4Þ A #(D A D†%4VNß,B+?7B+C%4G 5 = 20 − 15 × 1 ˆ
MÔ
®‡B+G / B{Ý A ?.D7%B# ê B+?R# A / !XF&CB+! A F&H4Þ A #&D A D
Ô ˆ NÞ.G¯ß,F§ß,Þ á B?.D.%SB# #³
G$B+H"Þ.?.D.%Q A #&%"!B+?# A / !XF&CB+! A F(H4Þ A #(D A D 5 = 1520 =− 35 − 20 × 1
(35 − 20 × 1 â
B+GD.B I F&! ä Â

5 = 2 × 20 + (−1) × 35.
Ô ;¦'Õ Ô Ñ ©^ ^ ©g$a"j fhÆ]ÄWj=¢Nd2gsr,Æ]ÄWj|ÆSj|glka"o˜cyx"Æ]Ä ¡c
ug Ä Ã j£gsj=oqgsruÆ Ç Æ]Äscyo'cyx"Æw à g2a,f"bcyx]∈c'fhg2Z a z|Ç ruÆ+f à tsoqÆ ab m mcd(a, p) ‚ = 1 1gsj=<o{Æepj|<tuguÄ abp
:¨ª ª «ªÑ­ Á­
Ü­ à à

f"cyx]c'fhg0a b ‚
— gsd2Æ]Äso˜rXahtscl}ej )%"C5% D.B#‡#&BC A D.B )B %4Þ7ß â G$BRD.B+D7Þ I B ã Þ.B
B NF&G¯ß,B+?B+?~ß$B+!X%4G‚ s, t ∈ Z mcd(a,D.B6C%hD.p)% ã =Þ.B ä1 â
´ ¡Þ 
h²

1 = sa + tp.
Þ.#(ß$F / #(F I+A ?.D7% / %4! b G$BŠ%"V7ß,F(B+?.B ã Þ.B ä
è

b = sab + tpb.
)%4C% p D.F(QhF(D.B A
´
ab
GXB6ß,F(B+?7B ã Þ.BŠB 7F(GXß$B
m²
c∈Z
ß A # ã Þ.B ab = pc â D.B6B+G¯ß,BŠC%hD.% ä
b = spc + tpb = p(sc + tb).
« / 4% !‹ß A ?ß,% p D.F§QNF(D.B A b ˆ
: Ô ;¦'Õ Ô Ñ ©^ ^ ©g$a"j p ž p ž ‚y‚y‚ ž p j=¢hd2gsr,Æ]Ä Ç r›cyd2Æ]Ä ‚ ¡c p f"cyx]c'fhg)a z+Ç ,r Æ+f à tsoqÆ
¨ª ª «ªÑ­ Á­
Üz¬ à à

p ...p
gsj=oqÆej|tuguÄWgXb4c&Äsoqg i ž@oÈa z w à g 1 ≤ i ≤ n m p = p ‚
1 n
1 n
i
 ê Õ ê ð ç‡ñOòJæ•ó3è’ôhõƒç-öé+æ ‡æUésð°ç ¨ôSóUèç-ö ) {)

— gsdÆ]Äso'rXahtscl}ej ‚@ A %4? A C%4G / %4!‹F&?.D7Þ I+I F&Z4?SB+? n â ã Þ.B6B+GB+#©? .CB+!X%ED.B A"I ß,%4!XB+G
 ° #¾

/ !$F&C%4Gˆ
NF n = 1 B# I %"!$%4# A !$F(%WB+Gß,!$F§QhF A # â / %4!D.B =?.F I F&Z4?D7BŠ? .CB+!$% / !$F(C%.ˆ
³ h– -°
NF p D.F§QNF(D.B A p ...p p B+?ß,%4? I BG â #&# A C A ?.D.% a A # / !$%hD7Þ I ß$% p ...p â ß,B+?7B+C%4G
³
ã Þ.B p D.F(QhF(D.B A # / !X%hD.Þ I ß$% ap ˆ NF mcd(a, p) = 1 B+?ß,%4? I B+G â / %4!-B+# I %4!X%4# A !$F(%
1 n n+1
¨³
1 n

A ?~ß,B!$F(%4! â p B+G@Þ.?5? .CB+!X% / !XF&C% ã Þ.BYD.F§QNF(D.B A p â ã Þ.Bß A CWV.F ?EBG / !$F(C%.ˆ 3%"!
-°
n+1
ç— <
ß A ?~ß$% I %4? I #&Þ7F&C%4G ã Þ.B p = p ˆ 3%hD.BC5%4GB+?ß,%4? I B+G•G$Þ / %"?.B+! r = mcd(a, p) 6=
<
n+1

ˆ@O? / A !¯ß,F I Þ.# A ! D7F(QhF&D.B A á I %4C% á BG / !$F(C5% B?~ß,%"? I BG ˆ ‡B

BGXß$BC%hD.% r = p D.rF§QhF&D.B A a =p pâ ...p á rGXB 6=I %41? I #&pÞ á B / %"!°à.F / â Z*ß,B+GXF&GD.BF&r?7D.=Þ IpI F&Z"?©ˆ
n+1
®
1
1 n

ü 'ü ˜ü ; <=
>

'? '? ßITK C9L SITKSL=NTG

ã 3F&? A #(F A C%"GSB+G¯ß A GXB I+I F&Z4? I %4?`Þ.? A / !$% / F&B+D A D LÞ.?.D A CB+?~ß A #6D7BP#&%"G? .CB+!$%"G
ˆ ¾ -°
B?~ß$B+!$%"G â # A D7B•# A A*I ß,%"!$F A"I F&Z4? .?.F IJAŠI %4C% / !$%hD.Þ I ß,%”D7B•? 7C5B!$%4G / !XF&C%4G+ˆOGXß,%
¾ ç Ê° °
BG â I+A D A ? .CB+!X%B?~ß,B!$%G$B / Þ.BD.BEB+G I !$F(V.F&!‡D.B L%4!$C A .?.F IJAI %4C% / !X%hD.Þ I ß,%D.B
-° »¾ °
-°? .CB+!$%"G / !$F(C5%"G+ˆ
Ü ™˜Ä+Ï a z x"ÔeÆ Ï :nÇ Æ]Õ Äsc ©z ^ gu©Ä6^ r,guÆerXfhÍ gsÆ+j;fha"Ƈd†j=cl¢hgsd2j=o{gsÆ]r,Ä ÆŠgstuj=Æeo{d2gsr,Æ Æ Çar,≥Æ+f 2 tsÇ oqÃÆ5g$fhfhgŠgYj=guÄ]¢htsd2r›c gsÅ r,cyÆ]r,ÄÄ]g‹Ç fhrsg¿cyd2ÎJÆeÆ]rsÄudž a-¢hj=clt$a
ª Û­ ç­
Ü·

Å œ Ã
a = pa11 × pa22 × ...pann
fhÆej;fhg z Æ]Äj=¢hd2gsr,Æ]Ä a ž ‚y‚y‚ ž a Ä]Æejpj=¢hd2gsr,Æ]ÄEj;a"o à rXa z guÄj|Æj à z Æ]Äm p ž p ž ‚y‚y‚ ž
Ä]Æej„j=¢hd2gsruÆ]Ä Ç r›cyd2Æ]Ćf"c&Äso'cyj=o{Æ]Ä ‚Šï z agXb Ç ruguÄscl}ejPfhg a fhg†a"rsr›c Å a2Ä]g z g zyz a"da
1 n 1 2

 Õ=Ò"M Ô Ñ@?Õ=ҝÑLÓ;ÐpT Ô Ñ˜:nÕÖ Ï Æ Ö Ï <JÒ ;:nT ;<JјҝÑLÓ;Ð Ï Ð  Õ=Ò"M ÔÏ <”T Ô Ñ˜: ¿<0Ö Ï a ‚
p n
ª /ª ª ª Ûª
a
— gsdÆ]Äso'rXahtscl}ej ‚ B A #(F I BC5%"GÞ7? A #(H4%4!$F ß,CE% / A ! A A"I ß$%4!$F A !B+#Y? 7C5B!$%nB?~ß,B!$% ¾ Á °
ˆ¥OGXß,B A #&H"%4!$F§ß$C%!XB I %4H4BB+# / !$% I B+D.F(C5F(B+?ß,% I # "GXF I %D.BF(! / !$%4V A ?.D.% I %4? ’
#(%4GW? 7C5B!$%4G / !$F&C%4G”CB+?.%"!$BG ã Þ.BSB+#‹? 7C5B!$% ã Þ.B ã Þ7B+!$BC5%"G A"I ß,%4!XF A !”à A GXß A
a ≥ 2
° ° ¾ ç
B? I %"?~ß,! A ! ä %V.F(B+? ã Þ.BW#(#&B+H A C%"G•à A GXß A a â ã Þ.BWBG / %4!•ß A ?~ß$% / !XF&C% â %2V.F&B? ã Þ.B
%"V7ß,B?.B+C%4GÞ7? A"I ß$%4! p â ã Þ.B„?7B I BG A !$F A C5B?~ß,B1B+G / !$F(C5% / Þ.B+GB+GB+# / !$F(C5B!$%
6¾ 6¿
ã Þ.B†B? I %"?~ß,! A C%4G ›ˆŠ@?1B+G¯ß A GXB+H4Þ7?.D A / %4GXF&V.F(#&F§D A DD.F§QhF&D.F(C%"G a/p / %4! # á B+C
| #— •

/ B A C%4GD.B6?~Þ.BQ4%5B# / !$% I B+GX% I %4?B# I % I F&B+?ß,B a/p ä

‘

@?ß,! A D A7ä a a > 2 ¿ Â

à.F&#(B a mod i 6= 0
i := 2
î

i := i + 1
i<a
ß,à7B+? r := c)guÄOÎahtso{ÆerŠfhg a B+#&GXB r := aguÄ Ç r›cyd2Æ
Ò1¾
 hõ ~õ¬‡é]³é Né
)é{èé{ç- ¨ð° NçŠðYæ)ôöé|çŠðés´
+ ‚) ê Õ-Ý

A #(F&D ANä r³

O? IJA GX%”D.B ã Þ7B a ?.% LÞ7B+! A / !$F(C5%6!$B / Bß,F(C%4G’B+# / !$% I B+G$% I %"?B# I % I F&B?~ß$B a/i ˆ
ž

©
+Ï :nT3¦ ©^ ©^ ·¶ a z t à z gsd2Æ]Ä z aYÎahtso{Æer›cA7]ahtscl}ej1fhg   * ‚

ªÑ­ ç­
ܹ

)%4C% ê W?7%B+G / A ! â ?.%EB+GYD7F(QhF&GXF&V.#(B / %"! ˆ

´ ×zÔ µ
NF7D.F§QNF(D.F&CE%4G3B+?ß,!XB -%"V7ß,B?.B+C%4G ã Þ.B 135 = 3×45 ˆ 3%"!°ß A ?~ß$% -B+GOÞ.? A*I ß$%4!
³ ß× [< Ó× ¾
!/ $F(C5%WD.B ê Nˆ ×zÔ
B+F&?7F I F A CE%4G6B# A #(H4%4!XF§ß,CE% I %4? Nˆ •%à A"I B A #(ß A / !$%"V A ! I %4?¨#(%4G / !$F&C%4G
ã Þ7BŠ ?.%D.F(QhF(D A ? A #? .C5B!$%D7B / A !Xß,F(D A â / %4! ã Þ.BŠ?.% / Þ7B+D.B?D.F(QhF(D.F&! A # I % I F(B+?~ß$B â
ÑÕ-Ô Û¿ U “¾
9æ -°
Q4B+!B{ÝXB+! I F I F(%EG$F(H4Þ.F&B?~ß$B sˆ Â
‡B6?hÞ.BsQ4%5B+GD.F(QhF&GXF&V.#(B‡B+?~ß$!$B B+G¯ß,%B+G ˆ
O# I % I F&B?~ß,B6D.B6?~Þ.BQ4%5BGYD.F§QhF&G$F(â V.#(B-B?~ß,!XB 45 â =153 =× 315× 5 ˆ
® %×
Å×
« 5 B+GÞ.?? .CB+!X% / !XF&C% ä 135 = 3 × 5 ˆ
°
3


+Ï~Ô ÒÑ˜ÒÑ
© ©g$a"j a, b, c gsj=oqgsruÆ]Ä Ç Æ]Äscyo˜cyx"Æ]Ä ‚ Ã Ç Æejhka"d2Æ]Äw à g b f"cyx]c'fhga c ‚
«ªÛ·u¼ à à
— gsd2Æ]Äso˜rXa"rŠw à gšÄsc a j|Æ5f"cyx]c'fhg0a c gsj=o{Æej|tuguÄ a j|Æ5f"cyx]c'fhgŠa z tuÆ]tsclgsj=oqg0fhg c gsj=o˜r,g
b‚
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• 2 ≡ 7 ≡ 12 ≡ 17 ≡ 22... mod 5
• 3 ≡ 8 ≡ 13 ≡ 18 ≡ 23... mod 5
• 4 ≡ 9 ≡ 14 ≡ 19 ≡ 24... mod 5
_ Æ]Ä6j=¢hd2gsruÆ]Ä6j|glka"o'cyx"Æ]Ä6ola"d Å c sjÄ]Æej¥fhg0a z k à j|Æ5fhgWguÄ]Æ]Ä6o˜c Ç Æ]Ä+×
• 4 ≡ −1 ≡ −6 ≡ −11 ≡ −16... mod 5
• 3 ≡ −2 ≡ −7 ≡ −12 ≡ −17... mod 5
• 2 ≡ −3 ≡ −8 ≡ −13 ≡ −18... mod 5
• 1 ≡ −4 ≡ −9 ≡ −14 ≡ −19... mod 5
• 0 ≡ −5 ≡ −10 ≡ −15 ≡ −20... mod 5
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7421 × 124592 ≡ 1 × 2 ≡ 2 mod 5.

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x­ ñ¬ ç¼ à

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A/∼ = {a : a ∈ A}.

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Zp = {0, 1, ..., p − 1}.

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© ©^ ©^ ©g$a Ç ÆerWgL²Jgsd Ç;z Æ z atuÆejhk"r à gsj|tsc'a 3x + 3 ≡ 4 mod 5 ‚ ©gŠo'rXa"oÈa

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Ü à à
fhg Ä]t$a"r0o{Æ+fhÆ]ÄWaw g zyz Æ]Ä0j=¢Nd2gsr,Æ]Ägsj.o{gsr,Æ]Ä ola z guÄEw g†a z d à z o'c Ç;z clt$a"r z ÆÄ Ç Æer\
mEÄ Ã Å+dà a"r z gu6Ä Ä]ÆejPtuà Æejhk"r à gsj=oqguÄWtuÆej]1d2}+f à z xÆ * ‚ Ã
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@×

3x ≡A 1ã modA 5 I A
ˆOGXß$%2B+G â G$Þ.C A ! 'Z áA5ã Þ7B −3 ≡ 2 mod 5 A5A CWV;%4GY# A D.%4G
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° #¿ m² Â
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guÄgXb4c&Äsoqgg z cyj=x"gsr,Ä]Æfhg a Ç a"rXaPg z©Ç ruÆ+f à tso{Æ]ž0guÄfhgutscyr à j gsj=o{gsr,Æ b ola z
à

1
w à g a × b ≡ 1 mod p ‚
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1 = sa + tp
á / "% !ß A ?~ß$% A #©ß$! A V A Ý A !CZhD.Þ.#&% / ß,B+?7B+C%4G ä
1 ≡ sa mod p,
< 3%"!ß A ?~ß,% s B+GB+#F(?~Q4B!$G$%D.B a / A ! A B# / !$%hD.Þ I ß,%CZhD.Þ.#(% p ˆ
[†ì< Ï~Ô \7Õ=ҝÑ'Ó;Ð ^ ©^ ©g$a"j a m p gsj=o{gsr,Æ]Äuž”tuÆej p > 1 ‚ ¡cšgXb4c&Äsoqg b gsj=oqgsr,ÆoÈa z
t­ Á· Á­ à à
w à g ba ≡ 1 mod p gsj=oqÆej|tuguÄ b guÄ6¢hj=cltuÆd2}+f à z Æ p ‚
ÁSÏ : ;<M Ô Õ=ҝÑLÓ;В^ hÞ / %4?.H A C5%"G ab ≡ 1 mod p ˆYO?ß,%4? I B+G ab − ab ≡ 0 mod p â
Ѫ ³
BGXß$%6BG â p D.F§QNF(D.B A a(b−b ) ˆ NF mcd(a, p) = 1 / %hD.BC5%"G°Þ.G A !°B# )%4!X%4# A !$F(% 7ˆ 7ˆ ê
0 0
[³ `´ × × ×
á2A G p D.F(QhF(D.B A b − b #&% ã Þ.B I %4? I #&Þ á Bš# A D.BC5%4G¯ß,! A*I F(Z4?©ˆ NF r = mcd(a, p) 6= 1 â
2æ
0
T³
B?~ß$%4? I BG•B 7F(GXß$B+?B?~ß,B!$%4G s á t ß A #&BG ã Þ7B a = rs á p = rt 1 < t < p›ˆ ‡B6B+GXß$B
0
m² ¿ Â ®
C%hD.% ≡ 0 mod p ˆ )%4C% ab ≡ 1 mod p B+?ß,%4? I B+G t B+GYÞ7?C .#(ß$F / #(%WD.B p #(%
ã Þ.B6B+GYâ abt
o´ »°
Þ.? AEI %4?ß,! A D.F II F(Z4? â áAEã Þ.B 1 < t < p ˆ
[†ì< Ï~Ô \7Õ=ҝÑ'Ó;Ð ^ ©^ ±í j z aeÄ-d†c&ÄsdaeÄ0tuÆej;f"cltsclÆej|guÄ-fhg z o{guÆer,gsdaež3Äsc mcd(a, p) =
t­ Á· ñ¬

r 6= 1
j|ÆSgXb4c&Äsoqg b ∈ Z ola z w à g ab ≡ 1 mod p ‚
ÁSÏ : ;<M Ô Õ=ҝÑLÓ;В^ )%4C% mcd(a, p) = r 6= 1 â B?~ß,%"? I BG‡B NF&G¯ß,B+?B+?ß,B!$%4G s, t ∈ Z
Ѫ ´ h²
ß A #&BG ã Þ.B a = rs á p = tr I %4? 1 < t < p ˆ ‡BBGXß,BC%hD.% at ≡ 0 mod p ˆ *®
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m²

bat ≡ t mod p
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á D.B6B+G¯ß,BŠC%hD.%
t ≡ 0 mod p
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d2}+f à z Æ 11 ‚ ¶ Æed2ÆSÄ]Æej Ç r›cyd2Æ]ÄSgsj=o˜r,gEÄ -gsj=‚ao{Æe` j|tuguÄSgXb4c&Äsoqg aà ∈ Z ola z w à g 5a ≡5
©
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há

1 mod 11 ‚
¶ a z t à z a"d2Æ]ĕg z xea z Æerfhg a ‚ í‘z a z khÆer›cyo'd2Ɗfhg í à t z c'fhguÄYfa z aŠc'fhgsj=o˜c'faf
fhbg 5-8g 7Æ à ol×
1 = 11 + 5 × (−2).
iYÆer6ola"j=oqÆ]ž’d2}+f à z Æ  ×
1 ≡ 5 × (−2) mod 11.
iYÆer z Ƭw à g a = 9 guĨg z cyj=x"gsr,Ä]ƃfhg * d2}Jf à z Æ  ‚ ™ U Å Äcsr›x"guÄ]g¥w à g −2 ≡
9 mod 11 ‚ œ
@G¯ß,% / B+!XC5F§ß,Bš!XB+GX%4#(Q4B!# AWI %4?.H"!$Þ.B? I F AEã Þ.B / %4? A C%4G‹B?Þ.?B{ÝXBC / #&% A ?~ß$B+!$F(%4! ä
!æ

3x + 3 ≡ 4 mod 5.
NB A # A C%4G ã Þ.BŠD.F I à AEI %4?.H4!XÞ.B+? I F A B+! A B ã Þ.F(Q A #&B?~ß$B â / A G A ?.D.%B# E!XB+GXß A ?.D.% â A
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3x ≡ 1 mod 5.
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3 · 1 ≡ 3 mod 6 3 · 2 ≡ 0 mod 6 3 · 3 ≡ 3 mod 6

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5x + 2 ≡ 5 mod 7.
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x ≡ 2 mod 3
x ≡ 3 mod 5
x ≡ 2 mod 7
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x = 2 × 35 × 2 + 3 × 21 × 1 + 2 × 15 × 1 = 233
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5888851358 ≡ 72 mod 99
5888851358 ≡ 78 mod 97.
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259632147 ≡ 47 mod 100
259632147 ≡ 93 mod 99
259632147 ≡ 7 mod 97.
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x ≡ 47 + 58 mod 100
x ≡ 72 + 93 mod 99
x ≡ 78 + 7 mod 97
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x ≡ 25 mod 99

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x ≡ 13 mod 97
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100 · 99 · 97 = 960.300

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O#4B+#(B+CB+?~ß$%?.B+Þ7ß$!$% / A ! A B# / !$%hD.Þ I ß,%B+G–# A C A ß,!XF F(D.B+?ß,F(D A D â I %4?6# A D7F A H4%"? A #

ç
L%4!$C A D A / %4!Þ.?.%"G á B#!$BGXß,% I B+!$%"G+ˆ
¾

µ ¶
1 0
0 1
U%4C A ?.D.% / 4% !B{ÝXBC / #&%E# A GC A ß,!XF I B+G
Y

µ ¶
1 1
M=
0 1
 ê
Wê/ê ðç‡ñOòJæ•ó3è’ôhõƒç-öé+æ ‡æUésð°ç ¨ôSóUèç-ö
) {)

µ ¶
1 0
N=
1 0
$G B / Þ.B+D.B I %4C / !$%4V A ! ã Þ.B M N 6= N M I %4?#(% ã Þ.BŠB# / !$%hD.Þ I ß,%D.B6C A ß,!XF I BG
?7%B+G I %4?.CWÞ7ß A ß,F§Q4%.ˆ
©
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«ªD·u¹ / µ Õ-Ý ¶
šB+?ß,!XB ê Nê B+G Nˆ°O#¡!$B+G¯ß,%0D.BYD.F§QhF&D.F(! ê 7ê B+?ß,!XB šBG ê4ê ˆOO#¡!XB+GXß$%0D.BYD.F(QhF(D.F&!
µ Õ-Ý ¶ Õ-Ô W¶ JÕ-Ô
†B?~ß$!$B ê"ê BG ê ˆ 3%4!‹ß A ?ß,% ä
ÕzÔ T<

mcd(9981, 247) = mcd(247, 101) = mcd(101, 45) = mcd(45, 11) = mcd(11, 1) = 1.

©
+Ï~Ô ÒÑ'ÒÑ ˆ
«ªÑ·Mº
O?~ß,! A D A7ä a, b ∈ N â a ≥ b
i := a â j := b
î à.F&#(B j 6= 0
r := i mod j
i := j
A #(F&D A7ä
³
j := r
i
© 
+Ï~Ô ÒÑ'ÒÑ ˆ NÞ / %4?7H A C%4G ã Þ.B a D.F(QhF&D7B A # I % I F(B+?~ß$B q = c/b ∈ Z B?~ß$%4? I B+G
«ªx·u¼ ±³
B NF&GXß$B‹Þ.?WB+?ß,B+!X% s D.B‹C%hD.% ã Þ.B as = q ˆ°OG¯ß,%šF(C / #&F IJA c = abs B? I %"?~ß,! A D.F I+I F(Z4?
m²
I %4?B+#à.B I à.%5D.B ã Þ.B a ?.%D.F§QNF(D.B A c ˆ

+Ï~Ô ÒÑ'ҝÑ
© «ª*·uƈ‹O#–? .CB+!X% ê E?.%5BG / A ! / B+!$%5G UBG•C .#§ß,F / #(%†D.B 7ˆ)@?ß,%4? I B+G
° ê Ô× 2æ »° Å×
D7F(QhF&D.F(B+?.D7%¨B+?ß,!XB ¨G$B1%"V7ß,F(B+?.B 1653 = 3 × 551 ˆ ë à.%4! A V.F&B? 23 = 529 á
À×
ˆ 3%4!ß A ?ß,% ê à A D7B6ß,B?.B+!YÞ7? A"I ß,%4!C5B?.%4!%F(H4Þ A # ã Þ.B 7ˆ’O# ê
2
o< ±ÔÔ ¸¾ µ × 
D7F(QhF&D.B A ê ˆ NBšß,F(B+?.B ã Þ.B 551 = 19 × 29 ˆ )%4C5% BG / !XF&C%†GXB6ß,F(B+?.B ä
2
24 = 576
Ô/Ô ³ ´ µ

1653 = 3 × 19 × 29.

©
+Ï~Ô ÒÑ'ÒÑ ˆ hF «ª~¹uÈ D³
pâ
B?~ß$%4? I B+GGXBSß,F(B+?.B ã Þ.BB NF&G¯ß,B? h²
B?~ß$B+!$%"G-?7%?7B+H A ß$F(Q4%"rG =q á a qmod
ß A #&BpG ã =Þ.B bamod á b = pq + r ˆ NB0G$F&H"Þ.B ã Þ.B ³

a − b = p(q − q ) â
I %"?#(% ã Þ.B a ≡ b mod p ˆ
0
0
= pq + r 0
 hõGw~õ @öšðésðésô ö °ó @è–æ)ô
4‰‹Š ‰ '+ J‰+ c‰ '+ ê ê Ý

NF(? / B+!XD.F&D A D.BWH"B+?.B! A #(F&D A DRGXÞ / %4?.H A C5%"G a ≥ b ˆ 3%"!-B#3ß,B%4!$BC A D7B+#!$BGXß$%
³ Ó<
á B?~ß$B+!$%"G r á r ß A #&BG ã Þ.B 0 ≤ r < p â 0 ≤ r < p á a = pq + r
á b = pq + r ˆ)O?ß,%4? I B+G a − b = p(q − q ) + (r − r ) ˆ ‡BŠB+GXß$B0C%hD.% r − r =
q, q ∈ N 0
∪ {0} 0
o®
0

B+GWÞ.?pC 7#(ß,F / #(%D.B p ˆ )%4C% −p < r − r < p B?~ß$%4? I BG

0 0 0 0 0
° Û´
(a I − b)
?.B B+G A !$F A C5B?~ß$B r = r â I %4C% ã Þ.B+! A C%4GD7B+C%4GXß$! A !ˆ
0 0
− p(q − q )
2æ
0


+Ï~Ô ÒÑ˜ÒÑ
© ˆ 2 ≡ 4 mod 2 / %4! ã Þ.B 2 − 4 = −2 ˆ
«ªÛ¹HÜ

13 ≡ −2 mod 5 / ã
%4! ã Þ.B 13 + 2 = 5 × 3 ˆ
15 ≡ 3 mod 3 /
%4! Þ7B 15 − 3 = 4 × 3 ˆ
©
+Ï~Ô ÒÑ˜ÒÑ ˆ NF a ≡ c mod p B+?ß,%4? I B+GYB NF&G¯ß,B6Þ.?B+?ß,B+!X% s ß A # ã Þ.B ä
«ªÛ¹uÐ ³ h²

a − c = sp.
NF
³
b ≡ d mod p
B?~ß$%4? I BG•B NF&GXß$BŠÞ7?B?~ß$B+!$% t ß A # ã Þ.B ä
m²

b − d = tp.
NÞ.C A ?.D7% A CWV A GF&H"Þ A #&D A D.BGG$Bšß,F(B+?.B ä
³

(a + b) − (c + d) = p(t + s).
‡B6C5%hD.% ã Þ.B a + b ≡ c + d mod p ˆ
®

3%4!%"ß,!X%E# A D.%†CWÞ.#§ß,F / #(F IJA ?7D.% / %4! b # A / X! F&CB+! A F(H4Þ A #(D A DG$Bšß,F&B?.B ä
<

ab − bc = spb.
Þ.#§ß,F / #&F IJA ?.D.% / 4% ! c # A GXB+H"Þ.?.D A F(H4Þ A #(D A DG$B6ß$F&B?.B ä
è

bc − dc = tpc.
NÞ.C A ?.D7%¬# A GD.%"GF&H4Þ A #&D A D.B+GSG$B¥ß,F&B?.B ã Þ7B ab − dc = p(ab + tc) I %"C5%
³
ã Þ7B+! A C%4GD.BC5%"GXß,! A !+ˆ
7æ


+Ï~Ô ÒÑ˜ÒÑ
© ˆ 2345 + 214 × 432 ≡ 6 mod 7 ˆ
«ªÛ¹u­

2419 + 987 ≡ 4 mod 7

ˆ

+Ï~Ô ÒÑ˜ÒÑ
© ˆ NF)B NF&GXß$B x ∈ Z ß A # ã Þ7B 3x + 4 ≡ 5 mod 6 â B+?~ß$%4? I B+G 3x ≡
«ª ¹`¬ À³ m²

1 mod 6 â
D7BŠC%hD.% ã Þ7BŠB NF&G¯ß,B6Þ.?B+?ß,B+!X% k ß A # ã Þ.B
h²

3x = 6k + 1
 ê 1 Wê ðç‡ñOòJæ•ó3è’ôhõƒç-öé+æ ‡æUésð°ç ¨ôSóUèç-ö ) {)

(# % ã Þ.BŠD A Þ.? AEI %4?~ß$! A D7F I+I F&Z"? / Þ.BG ê ?.%EB+GYC .#§ß,F / #§%WD.B Nˆ »° Å×

© 
+Ï~Ô ÒÑ'ÒÑ ˆ )%4C% 5x + 2 ≡ 5 mod 7 / A G A C%4GOB+#.D.%4G@!XB+GXß A ?.D.% / A ! A %4VNß,B+?7B+!
«ª¸¹u· ´
ˆ )%4C%EB+#
´ B?~ß,%"? I BG•B NF(GXß,B6B#F&?Q4B+!$GX%D.B / A ! A B+#
h² ÅÔ
!/ $%hD.Þ I ß,%CZhD.Þ.#&% Nˆ”O?„mcd(5,
5x ≡ 3 mod 7
íÝ B LB I ß,% â 7)D.F =I à.%S1 F(?~Q4B!$G$%BG áASã Þ.B 5 × 3 ≡ 1 mod 7 ˆ
h¾ %×
•BSBGXß,BC%hD.%RCWÞ.#§ß,F / #§F I+A ?.D.% / %4! %4V7ß,B?.B+C%4G x ≡ 2 mod 7 ˆ1O?~ß,%"? I BG†# A G
® »×
GX%4#&Þ I F&%"?.B+GG$%4?D.B6# A G$F(H4Þ.F(B+?ß,B L%4!XC A D.%"?.D.B k ∈ Z ä
#¾

x = 7k + 2.

©
+Ï~Ô ÒÑ'ÒÑ ˆ A G I %4?7H4!$Þ.B? I F A G†#(F&?.B A #(B+G / # A ?ß,B A D A G”ß,F(B+?7B+? GX%4#&Þ I F&Z"? / %"!†B#
«ª~¹u¹ ÑÃ
ß$B+%4!XB+C A†I à7F&?.%ED.B6#&%4G‹!$B+G¯ß,%4Gˆ ‡F I à A G$%"#&Þ I F&Z4?SB+G ê ˆ ˆ
o® ß× ê ×/× ¶

%4GB{ÝXB! I F I F(%4G â 1 â á NB / !$BG$B?~ß A ?à.B I à.%4G I %4? A / #&B*ˆ

à ê Ý/ ê z ê/ Â Ý ¶ ‹³ Äè

ü @x Xý y
'? '? éIOFHOâEJFfG z$ { }| &
{F‚C9ITKSL=NTG K TG I #R=F

:0Õ=:1ì3Ñ ;<EÖ Ï ì3Õ=< Ï Ö Ï <+ј<M Ï :nÕ¥Ö Ï Ð î : Ï~Ô Õ=ҝÑLÓ;Ð

ª
@B A C5%4G I Z"C5%GXB / Þ.BD.B+?pF&C / #(B+CB?~ß A !ŠB? A / #&B5D.F&G¯ß,F&?ß,%4G A #&H"%4!$F§ß$C%"GŠD.B
"è
I+A CWV.F&%†D7BŠV A G$B*ˆ
©
+Ï~Ô ÒÑ'ÒÑ ¿^
«ªÑ¹Mº
ÁSÏ ìUÕ=< Ï PÕPìUÕ=< Ï a Ü-È
A B?~ß$! A D A B+GB#6? .C5B!$%ƒB?~ß,B!$%`j á # A V A G$B¤a"ˆ®O# A #(H4%4!XF§ß,CE%pD.B+V;B„F&!
à -°
I+A # I Þ.# A ?.D.%E# A G I F L! A GD.B+#? .CB+!X%B+?V A G$B2a2à A*I F&B?.D.%D.F§QhF&G$F(%4?.BGG$Þ I B+G$F§Q A G / %4!
Á¾ °
a á ß$%4C A ?.D.%5#(%4GY!$BGXß$%4G+ˆ A G A #&F&D A GXB+! 2Þ.? A #(F&GXß A a â a ⠈(ˆ§ˆ â a D.B0C5%hD7% ã Þ7B
Jà 7’

n
GXBŠBG I !$F&V;B I %4C% a ...a a B+?V A G$B5a"ˆ
m 1 0
0 1 m

> a, 5Q˜MV/X9l_~,TZ=\^!_9XQaib=0og7,9d

> e-Xa/,Qe˜oghVig2j[g.eg|vZ
> VZ]\/0@Z vZ]\YliZ
> }zyMVze/8;V€+k~ w9X
> ˜@k7v:noZ]\`V"5YXwf,TZ
> vZ]\`v€‚YliZ
> VZ]\-39e-X-X:_TbhV.ƒ/,`di€
> X:woZ
> v8.„b]˜@k=j/ng2j-\Yl†…k….v+‡!l/dc€
> 8:0QwZ
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hõGw~õ4‰‹Š ‰ @öšðésðésô ö °ó @è–æ)ô
'+ J‰+ c‰ '+ ê
ê/

> a, 5˜SV/X9l_~-,[b7†g7q9di€

0, 0, 0, 1

> a, 5˜SV/X9l_~-,[b8ˆqz„Tgt‰`dc€

4, 0, 2, 3
)%4C / $! %"V;B+C%4G ã Þ.BŠB?B LB I ß$% GXß,B6B+GYB#!$BG$Þ.#§ß A D.% ä
´ ‘¾ “—

> „0Š3‰ ‹r~.‚+~ Š3‰Œ‹9lc‚Qq Š3‰Œ‹/q.‚ƒŒŠr‰ ‹ƒ€

724
ë ß,!X%BqÝXB+C / (# % á GXÞ I %4C / !$%4V A*I F(Z4? ä
> a, 5˜SV/X9l_~-,[bWlq-ƒz„Tg2†udi€

2, 2, 3, 2

> q Šib2†0‹3~9df‚qŒŠcb2†0‹!l/d€‚ƒŒŠcb2†0‹q`df‚Qq Šcb2†0‹:ƒudi€

1234

©
+Ï~Ô ÒÑ'ÒÑ «ªÑ¹uÆ ˆ
> a, 5˜SV/X9l_~-,[bWlW„ ‰-…[g7q`di€

1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1

> a, 5˜SV/X9l_~-,[bWlW„ ‰-…[g7…`di€

0, 3, 3, 1, 2

> a, 5˜SV/X9l_~-,[bWlW„ ‰-…[gtˆudi€

2, 6, 1, 4
3%4!ß A ?~ß,% ê ¥B+?£V A GXB â B+?£V A G$B
< Õ ê Ô µ ¡Ô á B+?£V A G$B PBG â X! B+G / B I ß$F(Q A C5B?~ß$B â
¡Ý
ê 7ê4ê 7ê4ê4ê 7ê â hê á ê ˆ
¶ W¶ ¶¶ µ ×/× ¶ Õ ê/µ

ÁÏ ìUÕ=< Ï a ÕPìUÕ=< Ï Ü-È

ê Ý ¶ ð ç‡ñOòJæ•ó3è’ôhõƒç-öé+æ ‡æUésð°ç ¨ôSóUèç-ö
) {)

O# / !$% I B+D.F(C5F(B+?ß,%†B+GB+#GXF&H4Þ.F(B+?ß,B ä
> a, 5Q˜MV/X/,ulf~TZ=\^!_9XQaibmeg7,9d
> e-Xa/,QefvcghVZ
> vZ]\9e[kmlWnoZ
> 39X:_pV43-_`X5rqts`X40uX ^Yvib|eQd
> w9X
> vZ]\`v€‚!e[k.V n0Š/, ‹cbhV+‡QlzdZ
> X:woZ
> vc€
> 8:0QwZ

@B A C5%4GB{ÝXBC / &# %4G ä

> a, 5Q˜MV/X9l_~,b.…k‰kˆg2ƒ`dc€

0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 2

> a, 5Q˜MV/X/,ulf~b9k7a/, 5Q˜MVzX9lf~-,[b7…+‰.ˆTgƒudngƒudi€

567

> a, 5Q˜MV/X/,ulf~b9kmlHg‘lHg‘lHgt~g‘lnTg7q9dc€

23
©
+Ï~Ô ÒÑ'ÒÑ «ªÑ¹u¼ ˆ
> a, 5Q˜MV/X/,ulf~b9kmlHgt~gt~g‘lHgt~gt~g‘lHgt~g‘lnTg7q9dc€

329

> a, 5Q˜MV/X/,ulf~b9kmlHgt~g‘lHg2qg‘lnTg2ƒ`dc€

145

> a, 5Q˜MV/X/,ulf~b9k1„gt~g‘lHg2qg=„gƒ-nTgtˆ`dc€

60764
ÁSÏ Uì Õ=< Ï a ՄìUÕ=< Ï Å
%„à A"I BC5%"GEÞ.G A ?.D.%„#&%"G / !X% I B+D7F&CF&B?~ß,%"G A ?~ß$B+GED.B .?.F&D.%"G â / A G A ?7D.% / %4!†# A
à ‘–
V A G$B ê ä ¶
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> a, 5˜SV/X/,:˜@Z=\/^Q_`Xaibmeg2,g1˜Sd

> e-Xa,!exs!8 5^‹Z
> s!8 5^‹Z]\9a, 5Q˜SV/Xz,ul_~[bmeg7,9dZ
> a, 5˜SV/X9l_~-,[bs!8:5^og]˜Sdi€
> 8:0QwoZ

¿ÝXB+C / (# %4G ä
> a, 5˜SV/X/,:˜b9khl‚gl‚gt~glWng2qgƒudi€

2, 0, 1
> a, 5˜SV/X/,ul_~[b9kmlHg‘l‚g8~g‘lnTg7q9dc€
> a, 5˜SV/X/,ul_~[b9k=qgt~[glnTg2ƒ`dc€

11

11

O
î :nÕ=<Ž¬T Ô Ö î Ò"M ;< Ï Ð£ìUÕ=< Ï
ª ª Ð

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° “’

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> sZ]\k.v8.„[b15'k|VngmV \Ml†…k…B0uX ^Yvcb15‚d-dcg|v/8.„b8~gmV:\Yl†…k…B0uX ^Yvcb|e!dk‡0uX ^Yvcb15‚d-d noZ
> _ok
~/nZ]\+~TZ
> VZ]\Yl
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> vk.VnZ]\[b|e[k|V n+‚zsk.V n=‚z_k.V+‡Qlnud"5MX:wfqZ
> _ok.VnZ]\z39e-XX_bb|e[k|V n+‚zsk|Vn=‚z_k.V+‡Qlnud.ƒ/q`dZ
> VZ]\`V€‚YliZ X:wZ
> vk.VnZ]\z_ok.V+‡!lWnZ
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> 8:0QwoZ

> vcz5`,qb!kmlWng!kmlnudi€

[0, 1]

> vcz5`,qb!k
~[glnTg!kmlWnYdc€

[1, 1, 0]
A C%4G@GXZ4#&%6# A F(D.B A / A ! A6I %4?.GXß$!$Þ.F(!@B+# A #&H4%"!$F§ß$C%šD.BYCWÞ.#§ß,F / #§F I+A"I F(Z"?©ˆ NBD.B+V;B
® [³
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³ ¶ o³
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¶ ” ¶
– T³ 7æ


+Ï~Ô ÒÑ'ҝÑ
© ˆ «ªDºSÜ
F ‘B+# q
 á q × b17ˆ
µ Œ×zäÓÔ µ µ ×zä
F&F ‘B# rq ê á B+# rq × ê ˆ
 cÔ ÓÝ/ä µ cÔ ÓÝ µ ä 
F&F(F ’B+# ê4ê q ê á B+# ê4ê q × Nê
 %Ôä Wê µ Ô/ä µ
F(Q á 3 × 4 = 12 ≡ 0 mod 12 â á 2 × 6 = 12 ≡ 0 mod 12sˆ
!Â@× ÕÄ¿ Â µ ê ¿ Â
Q á 1 2 × 8 = 16 ≡ 1 mod 15 â á 4 × 4 = 16 ≡ 1 mod 15›ˆ
! µ ¸¿ Â Õ ÕÄ¿ Â


+Ï~Ô ÒÑ'ҝÑ
© ˆ «ªDº9Ð
F Â

mcd(10223, 33341) = mcd(33341, 10223)

)%"C5%
´
33341 mod 10223 = 2672 â
mcd(33341, 10223) = mcd(10223, 2672)
)%"C5%
´
10223 mod 2672 = 2207 â
mcd(10223, 2672) = mcd(2672, 2207)
)%"C5%
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2672 mod 2207 = 465 â
mcd(2672, 2207) = mcd(2207, 465)
)%"C5%
´
2207 mod 465 = 347 â
mcd(2207, 465) = mcd(465, 347)
)%"C5%
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465 mod 347 = 118 â
mcd(465, 347) = mcd(347, 118)
)%"C5%
´
347 mod 118 = 111 â
mcd(347, 118) = mcd(118, 111)
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118 mod 111 = 7,

mcd(118, 111) = mcd(111, 7)

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)%4C% 111 mod 7 = 6 â

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mcd(111, 7) = mcd(7, 6)
F&? A #&CEB+?ß,B â I %4C%
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7 mod 6 = 1 â
mcd(7, 6) = mcd(6, 1) = 1
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mcd(385, 1729) = mcd(1729, 385)

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1729 mod 385 = 189 â
mcd(1729, 385) = mcd(385, 189)
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385 mod 189 = 7 â
mcd(385, 189) = mcd(189, 7)
)%4C%
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189 mod 7 = 0 â
mcd(189, 7) = mcd(7, 0)
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n = a0 + a1 10 + a2 102 + a3 103 + ... + am 10m

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4 + 8 = 12 = 2 mod 5
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9 × 8 mod 5 = (−1) × (−2) mod 5 = 2 mod 5

841234 mod 5 = (−1)1234 mod 5 = 1 mod 5
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(245 + 1321) mod 5 = (0 + 1) mod 5 = 1 mod 5
(4 + 5) mod 2 = (0 + 1) mod 2 = 1 mod 2
(1044 + 8) mod 2 = (0 + 0) mod 2 = 0 mod 2
(9 × 8) mod 2 = (1 × 0) mod 2 = 0 mod 2
841234 mod 2 = 01234 mod 2 = 0 mod 2
 F&F(F
(245 + 1321) mod 2 = (1 + 1) mod 2 = 0 mod 2
(3 + 75) mod 7 = (3 + (−2)) mod 7 = 1 mod 7
(234 + 458) mod 7 = (3 + 3) mod 7 = 6 mod 7
(9 × 8) mod 7 = (2 × 1) mod 1 = 2 mod 1
841234 mod 7 = 01233 mod 7 = 0 mod 7
(245 + 1321) mod 7 = (0 + 5) mod 7 = 5 mod 7.
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K1 ∈ Z
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x = (3 × 3 × 7 + 5 × 3 × 5) mod 35 = 138 mod 35 = 33 mod 35

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q1 13 ≡ 1 mod 11
q2 11 ≡ 1 mod 13
< @!X%4V A C%4G#(%4GD.F§Q4B+!XG$%4GQ A #(%4!$BG / %4G$F(V.#&BGYD7B á Q4B+C%4G ã Þ.B G A ß,F(G "A I BŠ# A
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x = (5 × 6 × 13 + 7 × 6 × 11) mod 143 = 852 mod 143 = 137 mod 143

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T otal : 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 63.
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T otal : 64 − 1 = 63.
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256 + 128 + 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 511.

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B+GXß A V.#(B I B+!”Þ.? A LÞ7? I F(Z4?nV7F á B I ß,F§Q A L!$B I %4!XD A !$BC5%"G0G$Þ¨D7B =?7F I F(Z4?PB+?n# A / !$Z NF(C A
¾ ¿ ‘– ²
G$B II F(Z4? ‹B+?ß,!$B6B+# I %4?eÝXÞ7?~ß,%D7B / %"G$F&V7#&B+GCF&?.F(G¯ß,!$%"G A"I %"C / A A ?ß,B+G á B+# I %4?eÝXÞ.?ß,%
u ”

N14 = {1, 2, 3, 4, ..., 13, 14}.

O# / !X%4V.#(B+C A B+GWD.B I F&! I Þ "?~ß$%4G ánI Þ "#&BGWG$%"?p#&%4G0G$Þ.V I %4?eÝXÞ.?ß,%4G†D.BD.%"GWB+#(B
9’ 9’ h•
C5B?~ß,%"GD.B N ˆ –%Eà A"I B+C%4G%4!XD.B+? A D A CB+?ß,B ä
TÃ

%4GEGXÞ.V I %"?eÝXÞ.?~ß$%4G ã Þ.B I %4?~ß$F&B?.B+? A #‹B#&BC5B?~ß,% ê GX%4?ƒ#&%4G ê 1G$Þ7V I %4?eÝXÞ7?~ß,%"G
14
à ×
L%4!$C A D.%"G / %4!B+# ê á %"ß$!$%ECF&?.F(GXß$!$% I Þ A # ã Þ.F&B! A â B+G¯ß,%5BG â
¾

{1, 2}, {1, 3}, ..., {1, 14}.

A ! A B+#hB#&BC5B?~ß$% V A G¯ß A B+#(B+H"F&!–B+?ß,!XB ê A"I %4C / A A ?ß,BG 'D.B# A # ê / %"! ã Þ.B
< µ µ ” @¿ Q× Õ-Â
á A à.B+C%4Gß$B+?.F(D.%EB+? I Þ.B ?~ß A # A / A !XB{Ý A {1, 2} ˆ ë G G$%4? ê ä 7æ µ

{2, 3}, {2, 4}, ..., {2, 14}.

OGXß$B / X! % I B+GX%GXB / 7Þ B+D.B5F(!6!XB / F§ß,F(B+?.D.% á BG I !$F&V7F&!6# A #&F&G¯ß AI %4C / (# Bß A â A D.BC *G ±’
G$F&!¯Q4B / A ! A 7D B+C%4GXß$! A ! ã Þ.BŠ# A G / A !XB{Ý A G / %"G$F(V.#&BGGX%4? ä
13 + 12 + 11 + 10 + 9 + ... + 1.
« / "% !# A LZ4!XC†Þ7# A D.B6# A G$Þ.C A D.BŠ#(%4G ê / !XF&CB+!X%4G? .CB+!$%"G? A ß$Þ.! A #&B+G ä
¾ × -°

(14 × 13)/2.
3%4!Yß A ?~ß,% / !$F&? I F / A #(CB+?ß,B Ò ;пMJÕ Ô / B!$%2ß A CWV.F ?Ï Ð î : ÏhÔ Õ ÔEGX%4?R#&%"G•%4VhÝXB
< /ª ç— h•
ß,F(Q4%"GD7B+# IJA / (ß$Þ.#&%.ˆ æ
 ê1 ¶ ðç-ñOò+æ‡ó3è’ôCFhõ ðô n)é{Yç‡æ)ôöYéqç
')

Jíœ.› »˜— ‹ ‹ ¼
'¤ í¥¤ %§ ” í¢ ¤¦ Ïi¢‹¦

 A C5%"G A / !XB I F(G A !# A G‹D.B =?7F I F(%4?.BGD.B6#&%4G I %4? I B / ß$%4G ã Þ.BŠà.BC5%4G / !$BG$B+?ß A D.%.ˆ
‘–

ÁSÏ Â°ÐUÑ'ҝÑ'Ó;Ð –^ ©^ ©g$a"j A m B tuÆejJ² à j=oqÆ]ÄužÄ]g5fhgLŸ@j|g à j;a-qî Ð3ҝÑLÓ¿ÐÉÖ Ï A Ï Ð

4¬ ÁÐ Ü à
mÄ]gfhgsj|ÆeoÈa A → B a à j„Ä Ã7Å t›ÆejJ² à j=oqÆfhg z;Ç r,Æ+f à tsoqÆt$a"r›o{guÄsc'a"j|Æ A × B
B
fhg z aYÎJÆ*r›da {(a,f f:(a)) : a ∈ A} ⊂ A × B ‚
ÁSÏ Â°ÐUÑ'ҝÑ'Ó;Ð –^ ©^ ©g$a"j A m B fhÆ]ĊtuÆejJ² à j=o{Æ]ĕm f : A → B à j;a‹Î à j|tscl}ejfhg A
4¬ ÁÐ çÐ à
gsj B ×
©gf"cltug2w à g f guÄ Ñ'{Ð  Ï Ò"MÑy\.Õ Äsc Ç a"rXa„t$a~fa Ç a"r2fhgSg z gsd2gsj=o{Æ]Ä a, b ∈ A w à g
à
x"gsr›c Ÿ‹t$a"j f (a) = f (b) Ä]g6o˜clgsj|g0w à g a = b ‚
à ©gf"cltugw à g f guÄ < ¡ì ÔeÏ  Ï Ò"MÑy\.Õ Äsc Ç a"r$ant$afa b ∈ B gXb4c&Äsoqg à j g z gsd2gsj=oqÆ
ª
fhg6d2Æ+fhÆ5w à g b = f (a) ‚
a∈A
à ©g”f"cltug0w à g f guÄ ì3Ñ  Ï Ò"M]ÑL\7Õ Äsc)guÄ6cyj=m~gutso'cyxea5mEÄ]Æ Å r,gsm~gutso'cyxea ‚

+Ï :nT¦ ;< –^ ©^ |g,a m w gEa*ěc§k"j;aaRt$afa gz
w à g Rf j|à ÆguĆcyj=mgutso˜cyxea Ç Æexr$w ∈à gRfhÆ]Ä
© «ª ¬ ÁÐ Á­ à
xea z Æer†fhg”Ä à t à af"r$afhÆ fA(x)= =B x= ‚ R©gWfo˜clgs: j|RgE→ à
j=¢hd2gsr,Æ]Ä-rug$a z guÄ6f"c&Äso'cyj=o{Æ]Äuž Ç Æer0gL²Jgsd Ç;z Æg z 2 m2g z −2 žOx"gsrsc Ÿ‹t$a"j f (2) = f (−2) =
2

4‚
Í a"d Ç Æ]t›ÆguĚÄ]Æ Å r,gsm~gutso'cyxea Ç Æer$w à gšº7a"m2j=¢hd2gsr,Æ]Ä0r,g$a z guÄ5™ÈoqÆ+fhÆ]Ä z Æ]Ċj|glka"o˜cyx"Æ]Ä œ
w à gŠj|ÆWÄ]g Ç Ã g$fhgsjPguÄ]tsr›c Å cyr”tuÆed2Æg z t à af"rXafhÆ5fhg à j1j=¢hd2gsruÆEr,g$a z ‚
¶ Æed2ÆEj|ÆguĊcyj=mgutso˜cyxea™Èj=c°ola"d Ç Æ]tuƔÄ]Æ Å r,gsm~gutso'cyxea œ j|ÆguÄ Å cymgutso˜cyxea ‚
ÁSÏ Â°ÐUÑ'ҝÑ'Ó;Ð –^ ©^ ©g$a"j m fhÆ]ĔtuÆejJ² j=oqÆ]ÄužÄ]g6f4cltug6w gÏ ¦’Ò4Õ Ô Ö3Ñ'ÐUÕ=¦’Ö Ï
Ï <šÑLK î Õ.¦ N©î–ÏÏ ¦UÒ4Õ Ô ÖUÑ'ÐUÕ=A¦–Ö Ï BB žUmšÄ]g-guÄ]Ãtsr›c Å g |A| = |B| ž–à ÄscUgXb4c&Äso{g à j;a’Î à j|tscl}eAj
4¬ ÁÐ ˆ¬ à

Å cymgutso˜cyxea™XÆ Å cym~gututscl}ej œ gsj=o'rug A m B ‚

ÁSÏ Â°ÐUÑ'ÒÑ ;Ð Ï < –^ ^ ̖j¬tuÆejJ² à j=o{Æ A Ä]gf"cltug °ÐUÑLM Äsc&ž-Æ Å clgsj guÄ2g z tuÆejJ² à j=o{Æ

ª »¬ ÁÐ Á· ª
xeaht lÆ]žSÆ clgsjÉgXb4c&Äso{g m j;a cym~gututscl}ej gsj=o˜r,g m ž
Äsclgsj;fhÆ N Å g z tuÆejJ² à j=oqnƨfh∈g Nz Æ]Äj=à ¢hd2gsr,Å Æ]Äj;a"o à r$a fz guÄ: d2Agsj|→Æer,guNÄ1ÆPc§k à a z guAÄw à g Nn ž
há
n n

N = {1, 2, ..., n} ‚
n
n
¡c A guÄ6g z tuÆejJ² à j=o{Æ0xeaht lÆ A = ∅ fhgLŸ@j=cyd2Æ]Ěg zNÒ4Õ Ô ÖUјЖÕ=¦ fhg A tuÆed2Æ 9 ž’guÄso{Æ
à há
Ä]g0fhgsj|ÆeoÈa×
|∅| = 0.
¡c guÄ jntuÆejJ² j=o{ÆŸ@j=cyoqÆj|ÆExeaht lÆgsj=oqÆej|tuguÄ Ç a"rXa n j tsclgsr›oqÆ gXb4c&Äsoqg
jà ;a Å cyAmgututscl}eà j f : Aà → N mfhgLŸ@j=cyd2Æ]Ĕg z=Ò4Õ Ô Ö3Ñ'ÐUÕ.¦ fhg à A ut Æed2Æ nn× ∈ N
à há

|A| = n.
 hõ NõÉæ3•ð°Yésðç  ÉðôEæ Yô
F š™ Œ+ #‰ ‰ ê1ê
V.G$B!XQ A C5%"G ã Þ.B6# A ?.% I F&Z4?SD.B I+A !$D7F&? A #|BGXß †V.F&B?D7B =?.F(D A / %4! ã Þ.B6GXFB 7F(GXß$B
ë |’ ‘– m²
Þ.? A V.F á B II F&Z"?B+?ß,!XB N á N B?~ß$%4? I BG n = m ˆ n m


+Ï :nT3¦ ;< –^ ©^ c ©g$a g z tuÆejJ² j=oqÆfhg z aeÄ z gso'r$aeÄEfhg z a z Îa gsoqÆguÄ Ç a"¸|Æ z _ a
Æer$fhgsj;ahtscl}ej a z Îa Å so'œclt$a¤fhgsAo{gsr›d†cyj;a à à j;a Å cymgut›tscl}ejvgsj=o˜r,g A m ÅN ‚ iYÆer1ol‚a"j=o{Æ
©
ª »¬ çÐ Á¹ à

|A| = 29 ‚
29

cyc í)z t$a"r$f"cyj;a z fhg z tuÆejJ² j=oqÆPfhg z Æ]ÄSj=¢Nd2gsr,Æ]ÄSj;a"o rXa z guÄuž ž”j|Æ Ç g$fNg2Ä]gsr
Ÿ@j=cyo{Æ œ Ç Æer$w à g†j|ƺ7a"mj=cyjhk à j;à aa Ç;z clt$ahtscl}ej Å cymgutso˜cyxea1gsj=à o'r,g N m Nà jPÄ Ã7Å tuà Æ*j+² à j=oqÆ
Ä Ã mÆ2fhg z aYÎJÆer›da N ‚ n

 A C%4G AA ? A #(F A ! A #&H4Þ.? A GD.B@# A G / !$% / F(B+D A D.B+G–D.B@#&%"G IJA !XD.F&? A #&B+G©D.B I %4?eÝXÞ7?~ß,%"G
ç
=?.F(ß$%4G+ˆ hB A ?B+? IJA D AEIJA GX% A á B D.%"G I %4?eÝXÞ.?ß,%"GYD.B I+A !$D.F(? A # =?.F(ß$%.ˆ
– ³ M–

> Ô ¡TÑ Ï ÖUÕ.Ö ¡^ NF A ∩ B = ∅ B?~ß,%"? I BG |A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| ˆ

ª fÜ ³

> Ô ¡TÑ Ï ÖUÕ.Ö ©^ A D.%EB+#©G$Þ.V I %4?eÝXÞ.?ß,% B ⊂ A D.B =?.F&C%4G‹B+# I %4C / #(B+CB+?~ß A !$F(%”D.B
ª tÐ ® h–

B
B+? A â B+G I !$F§ß,% B â I %"C5% A − B = {x ∈ A : x ∈/ B} B+?ß,%4? I B+G
|B| = |A| − |B|.
> Ô ¡TÑ Ï ÖUÕ.Ö ^ NF A ⊂ B B+?~ß$%4? I B+G |A| ≤ |B|.
ª t­ ³

> Ô ¡TÑ Ï ÖUÕ.Ö U^ |A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B|.

ª ¬

> Ô ¡TÑ Ï ÖUÕ.Ö ^ |A × B| = |A| × |B|.

ª t·

@G¯ß A / !X% / F(B+D A D G$B5GXÞ.B+#(B5D.B+?7%4C5F(? A !Er,glk z a1fhg z|Ç ruÆ+f tso{ÆeˆSOGXß A V.#(B I B2#(%GXF&H4Þ
F&B+?ß,B ä GXF=B+#=? .CB+!$%6D.B / %4GXF&V.F(#&F§D A D7B+G / A ! A Þ.? A G$F§ß,Þ A"I F&Z"à ? / %"?.H A C%4G°# A / !$F(C5B! A
*Ô •
-° Ú¿
#&Bß$! A D.BWÞ.? A / A # A V.! A B+G n á B#? .CB+!X%SD7B / %"G$F&V7F&#&F§D A D7B+G / A ! A %"ß$! A G$F§ß,Þ A*I F&Z"?
 °

/ %4?.H A C5%"G‘# A GXB+H4Þ.?7D A #&Bß$! A D.B‡Þ.? A / A # A V.! A @BG B+?ß,%"? I BG# A G / %4GXF&V.F(#&F§D A D.BG
D.B# A G†D.%4GGXF(ß,Þ A"I F(%4?.BG I %4?eÝXÞ7?~ß A C5B?~ß,B 'D.F(H A C%4Gmâ â / A # A V.! A GED7BD7%4G#&Bsß,! A G WBG
¿ Â
Û¿ |Â

nm
ˆ
> Ô ¡TÑ Ï ÖUÕ.Ö ^”> Ô Ñ˜ÐUҝÑLTÑ nÖ Ï ¦)T3Õ.¦ ;:nÕ Ô ^ NF |A| > |B| B+?ß,%4? I B+G•?.%5à A]á Þ7? A
ª 6¹ ª
ª ³
¾LÞ.? I F(Z4?F&? á B I ß,F(Q A D.B A B? B ˆ

+Ï~Ô ÒÑ˜ÒÑ
© ɗ gsd2Æ]Äso˜rXa"rw à g z aeÄ Ç ruÆ Ç clg$fafhgu%Ä pm E Ä]Æej g$w à cyxea z gsj=oqguÄ ‚ — ›g P
«ª*ºuº
d2Æ]Äso˜rXa"r z aeÄ Ç r,Æ Ç clg$fafhguÄ  a * ‚
[Eì< ÏhÔ \7Õ=ÒÑ ¿Ð Ï < U^ ©^ c œ _ a Ç r,Æ Ç clg$faf Ê a Ç;z clt$afa5ao˜r,guÄWtuÆejJ² à j=o{Æ]Ä°Ÿ@j=cyoqÆ]ćÄ]g
«ª ʬ ÁÐ º
Ç Ã g$fhg•khgsj|gsrXa z cA7]a"r+×
|A ∪ B ∪ C| =
 ê1 µ ðç-ñOò+æ‡ó3è’ôCFhõ ðô n)é{Yç‡æ)ôöYéqç
')

¬Ä]g Ç =à g$|A|
l fNgsjp+guÄ]|B| zà ae∩Ća"B|j;€ −z Æ$k|BaeÄ ∩Ç a"C|rXaR−t$a|Afa ∩à C|
tsr›c +Å cyr‘|C|ÎJ}er›−d |A j=cl}e+jŸ@|Aj=cy∩olaBfh∩g5C|.
tuÆejJ² Ã j=o{Æ]Ä
Ÿ@j=cyoqÆ]Ä ‚
cyc œ í)z i)r›cyj|tsc Ç clÆWfhg z ia z Æeda"rÄ]g Ç Ã g$fhgkhgsj|gsr$a z cA7]a"r‡fhg z a”Äsc§k à clgsj=oqg‡da"j|gsr$a×
à©g$a"j m, n j=¢Nd2gsr,Æ]Äj¡a4o à r$a z gućtuÆej m > n ‚ ¡cw à gsr,gsd2Æ]ĕtuÆ z Æ]t,a"r m Æ Å ²JgsoqÆ]ćgsj n
à
t$aX²aeÄužOgsja z k à j;aWfhgšg zyz aŠº7a Å r$€0j|gutuguÄ+a"r›c'a"dgsj.o{g à j;a5t$a"j=o'c'faf†fhgšÆ Å ²JgsoqÆ]ÄYda"mÆer
ÆEc§k à a z w à g z a Ç a"r›o{gWgsj=o{gsrXafhg z t›Æ]tsclgsj=oqg m/n ‚
cycyc œ1Í a"d Å c sj z a Ç r,Æ Ç clg,faf5fhg z7Ç r,Æ+f à tsoqÆt$a"rsoqguÄsc'a"j|ÆWÄJg‡khgsj|gsrXa z Ac 7]a×
|A1 × A2 × ... × An | = |A1 | × |A2 | × ... × |An |.
©
+Ï :nT¦ ;< –^ ©^ fhg0a Ç;z clt$ahtscl}ej1fhg z aeÄ Ç ruÆ Ç clg$fafhguÄ ‚
«ª ¬ ÁÐ Á¼
c ©g$a g z tuÆejJ² j.o{Æ¥fhga z d†j|Æ]Ä2da"o˜r›clt z afhƁÄgsj£a z k j;aPaeÄsc§k"j;a"o r$a„fhg
Ç r›cyd2œ gsr,Æ]ž BA g z tuÆejJ² à à j=o{ƨfhgRa z à à d†j|Æ]Äda"o˜r›clt à à z afhƁÄ1gsj`a z k à à j;a aeÄsc§k"j;a"o Ãà rXapfhg
à

Ä]glk à j;fhÆ ‚ í‘z tuÆejJ² à j=o{Æ A o˜clgsj|gt$a"r$f"cyj;a z‘Ê+*+9 mpg z tuÆejJ² à j=oqÆ B o˜clgsj|gt$a"rXf"cyj;a z
ÊÊ 9 ‚ d a"mgXb~ahtsola"d2gsj=o{g *+9 a z à d†j|Æ]Ĕw à g0o˜clgsj|gsj„a z k à j;aaeÄsc§k"j;a"o à r$aSfhg Ç r›cyd2gsr,Æ
m¨a z k à j;apfhgSÄ]glk à j;fhÆ ‚ í j=oqÆej|tuguÄ1g z j=¢hd2gsruƄoqÆeoÈa z fhga z à d†j|Æ]Äfhg Ç r›cyd2gsruÆ¥m
Ä]glk à j;fhÆWÄ]gsr 'aež‘a Ç;z clt$a"j;fhÆ z ai‘r,Æ Ç clg$fa6f ¿×
má

|A ∪ B| = 250 + 220 − 50 = 420.

cyc œ ©g$a P g z t›ÆejJ² à j=oqÆ fhg Ç a z a Å rXaeÄRfhgPt à a"o˜r,Æ z gso'rXaeÄ ‚ ¡c zyz a"da"d2Æ]Ä
à à az
a z Îa Å gsoqÆguÄ Ç a"¸|Æ z Ä]gŠo'clgsj|g+× A

P = A × A × A × A.
¶ Æej z Æt à a z ž à Ä+a"j;fhÆErugscyoqgsrXa~fa"d2gsj=oqg z ai‘r,Æ Ç clg$faf * ×
|P | = 294 .
yc cyc œ ¡cUa z aŠÄ]glk à j;fa z gso'rXa z g Ç g$f"cyd2Æ]ÄYw à gÄ]g$a”x"Æ]t$a z žOgsj=oqÆej|tuguÄužOg z t›ÆejJ² à j=oqÆ R
à
fhg z aeÄ Ç a z a Å rXaećfhgšt à a"o˜r,Æ z gso'rXaeÄ6t à m4aŠÄ]gÈk à j;fa z gso'rXa5guÄ Ã j¡aWx"Æ]t$a z guĚg z"Ç ruÆ+f à tso{Æ
t$a"r›oqguÄsc'a"j|Æ
fhÆej;fhg V
guĆg z ut ÆejJ² à j=oqÆ5fhg z RaeÄ6=x"Æ]At$a ×z guÄuVž Ç ×Æer6Aola"×j=A,
o{Æ
|R| = 293 × 5.
yc x œ í j1t à a z w à clgsršt›ÆejJ² à j=oqƆfhg E , Ç gsr,Ä]Æej;aeĺ7a4m†fhÆ]Ä6t à mÆ]Ċt à d Ç¿z g,a"¸|Æ]ÄÄ]Æej
g z d†c&Äsd2Æpf 'a í jvgLÎJgutso{Æ]žStuÆed2ƃg z tuÆejJ² j=oqÆpfhg Ç gsr,Ä]Æej;aeÄ o˜clgsj|g„t$a"rXf4cyj¡a z
da"mÆeršw à g0g z ‚fhgšf 'aeĚfhg z a"¸|Æ D ™ 368 > 365à = |D|œ gsj.o{Æej|tuguÄuPž Ç Æer6g z~Ç r›cyj|tsc Ç clÆ
á
á
fhg z=Ç a z Æeda"r,žYt a z w clgsr‘Î j|tscl}ejnfhg gsj guÄWj|Æ2cyj=m~gutso'cyxeaež•guĆfhgutscyrŠº7a"mfhÆ]Ä
Ç gsr,Ä]Æej;aeĊw à gWt à à d Ç;à z gsj¥a"¸|à Æ]Ĕg z d†c&Äsd2PÆf 'a D‚ á
 hõ ~õ³Nç-öéqçŠðésô
F J‰+ ê1 /×

͜J ¯
œv + ” Ó£¥ %¤¥‘¦ í¢ß§

< A !Xß$F&C%4G‹D.B#–GXF&H"Þ.F&B?~ß,B / !$%4V.#(B+C A7ä

> Ô ¡ì¦ Ï :nÕ©^ A D A Þ.? AnI+A !$!XB+! AnI %4? ê / A !¯ß,F I F / A ?~ß$B+G â D7Bß,B!$CF&? A ! I Þ *?~ß,%"G
ª ® Ô Õ `’

/ %4G$F(V.#&BG!$BG$Þ.#§ß A D7%4G / Þ.BD.B+? / !X%hD.Þ I F&!$GXB / A ! A B# / %hD7F&Þ.C '%"!$% â / # A ß AWá V7!$4% ? I B ›ˆ ü¿ Â

=%4!XC A #§CB+?ß,B / %hD.BC5%"GOBG I !XF&V.F(!°B# / !$%"V.#&BC A D7BÞ.? A L%"!$C A B ã Þ.F§Q A #(B+?~ß$B ä G$B A
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E(X) = 0(1/40) + 1(2/40) + 2(3/40) + 3(3/40) + 4(3/40) + 5(2/40)+

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V (X) = (0 − 5.52)2 (1/40) + (1 − 5.52)2 (2/40) + (2 − 5.52)2 (3/40)+
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I %4? I #&Þ á B / %4!# A / !$% / F&BD A D ê á # A à.F / Z"ß,BG$F(GD.BŠF(?.D.Þ II F(Z4?©ˆ

0 00 0 00

¨@!X% / F(B+D A D •F(C / #(F IJA / !X% / F(B+D A D

»× ä NFhà~Þ.V.F(B+! A Þ.? A LÞ.? I F&Z"?”F&? á B I ß,F§Q A
ê ³ ¾
B+?~ß$%4? I B+GŠ# A F(C A H4B+?RD.B f BG6Þ.?„G$Þ.V I %4?eÝXÞ7?~ß,%D.B B D.B I+A !$D.F(? A #B+G¯ß,!XfF I :ß AA C→B+?ß,BB
C AJá %4! ã Þ.B |B| #(% ã Þ.BŠBGYÞ7? AEI %4?ß,! A D.F I+I F(Z4?©ˆ
 hê
µ µ ðç-ñOò+æ‡ó3è’ôCFhõ ðô•¤n)é{Yç‡æ)ôöYéqç
¨O!X% / F&BD A D ê F&C / #(F I+A / !$% / F(B+D A D ä NF A ⊂ B B+?ß,%"? I BG2à A]á Þ.? APA / #&F IJA"I F&Z"?
4× ³
F(? á B I ß,F§Q A D.B A B+? B '# A F(? I #&Þ.GXF&Z4? ’D.B6C5%hD7% ã Þ.B |A| < |B| ˆ
¿ uÂ


+Ï~Ô ÒÑ'ҝÑ
© «ªDº9¼ ©^
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F&F V = 29 × 28 × 27 × 26 × 25 ˆ
5
29,5
Â
F&F(F A G / A # A V.! A G ã Þ.BP?.% I %4?~ß$F&B+?7B+? A # A #&Bsß,! A b G$%4? 28 / %"!#&% ã Þ.BP# A
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29,5

I %4?~ß$F&B?.B+? 29 − 28 ˆ 5

F(Q A +%4? A ?.D.% I %4C%EB+?F&F(F ’G$%"? V − V ˆ

5 5
!  Â
Q NF=B+C / F&B A ? / %4!@Q4% I+A # á G$B / Þ.B+D7B+?!XB / Bß$F&!@G$%4? 5 × 29 ˆ NF¡?.%0GXB / Þ.BD.B+?
!Âo³ ‘
29,5 28,5
4 T³
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³
28,4
3 T³
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2 ³
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ˆ
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3 × 26 × 25
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Á¾ ¶ ˆ¾
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LB A"I ß A CB+?ß,B6# A C5F§ß A DD.BŠF ›ˆ
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µ H×
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© 
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F&F P R × P R = 3 × 4!/2 ˆ
3 4
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F(Q NF|G$%4? IJA / F I A G‹# A / !$F&CB+! A”I F L! A B+GF(H4Þ A # ã Þ.Bš# A”I Þ A !¯ß A”á # A G$B+H"Þ.?.D A B+G
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QhF P R × P R = 3 × 3! ˆ
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+Ï~Ô ÒÑ˜ÒÑ
© ^ «ªÛ¼uÐ
F 5! ˆ Â
F&F 5!/4 ˆ Â
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©
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«ª ¼u­ ´

V (m − n)!m,n
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µ ¶
m Vm,n m!
= = .
n n! n!(m − n)!
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312
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µ ¶ µ ¶
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CR5,6 − CR4,6 .
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+Ï~Ô ÒÑ˜ÒÑ |^ Ω = {as, 2, 3, 4, caballo, rey} ˆ
6
© «ªÛ¼Mº

p(as) = 3/15
p(2) = 3/15
p(3) = 1/15
p(4) = 4/15
p(caballo) = 2/15
p(rey) = 2/15
 hê
µ Õ ðç-ñOò+æ‡ó3è’ôCFhõ ðô•¤n)é{Yç‡æ)ôöYéqç
p(f igura) = p(caballo) + p(rey) = 4/15
ˆ

+Ï~Ô ÒÑ'ҝÑ
© ©^ F ë #©ß$F&! A !‹D.%4GD A D7%4G I %4?7G$B I Þ7ß,F§Q A CB+?ß,B Ω = N × N ˆ
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6 6

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E(X) = 7 â V (X) = 6.16 â σ(x) = 6.16 = 2.48

√ ˆ
©
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«ªÑ¼uÆ ³
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O?~ß,%"? I BG p(S) = 6/8 á p(S ) = 7/8 ˆ

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µ ¶ µ ¶
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3,7 10
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10
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10 5

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+Ï~Ô ÒÑ˜ÒÑ
© ^ CR = ¡ ¢ ˆ «ª"Ü-ÈYÈ 19
17,3 3
©
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2

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A / !X%4V A V.F(#&F§D A DSD7BŠ%"V7ß,B?.B+!Þ.?a1EB+G 5/36 = 0.13889 ˆ
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µ ¶ µ ¶
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− + − − + −
gr (a) = 0 ª gr (c) = 1 ª gr (c) = 2 ª gr (d) = gr (d) = 2 ª gr (b) =
gr (b) = 1 ª gr (e) = 0, gr (e) = 2 ‚
w à g gr (f ) = 1 ª gr (f ) = 2 ª gr (g) = 2 ª gr (g) = ª 0, gr (h) = 2, gr (h) =
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M I ≤ M II ≤ F M I ≤ F ≤ M II F ≤ M I ≤ M II.
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T R⊂T
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žcVa•N6‰,ŒQaˆcH“ºˆ½#
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x ≤x x 6= x
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a1 ≤ a2 ≤ a3 ≤ ... ≤ an
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ÐÍ Ñ Í A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} Ë ÐWܳá Ì Í Ì
Ù É(Ú É(Ø4ÈWÊ

ÐWÜ Aˆ

R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (4, 5)}.
 Ø‘È ß(Ü à ÍÏÎ%Ñ ÊìÈWؑÈWàlÈWÊÒ Í à Ü Ê Ü àNÉ(Ø ˆ Þ Ñ È¬ÈWÊvÈWØ>Ù&Ú Ü àlÈWÚ Ð É ÎÏÍ È Î ÊSÈ Ð È Î É(Ú Ü É(àlÈWÊÒÛÈ
È Ù ÈWÊ£ÈWØ sÊ r ÊÒ ÒíÈWÊSÈWà ئɧÚ#ÈWØ¦É Ê È Ú ÈWÊ Ê É
x1 = 1 ÝCë Î X Ñ Î ÐÍ Ñ Í A−{1} ÍÏÎ ÐWܳá Ì Í Ì Ü Ì(ÑLÐWÜÅÌ

R1 = {(2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (2, 3), (4, 5)}.
 Ø‘È ß(Ü à ÍÏÎ*Ñ ÊqÈWؑÈWàlÈWÊÒ Í à Ü Ê Ü àNÉ(Ø>ÈWÊÒÚ#ÈNØ ÍÏÎlÌÍÏÎ Ù ÍÏÎW܊o Ø‘È Î£Ð É(Ê Ì(ÜÅÌ É(Ò ÏÍ Î Þ Ñ È ÎÏÍ ÊkÈWØ
‘ á ÈWØ:i Ý z Í àlÈWà ÍÏÎ x = 2 Ý  Ê©ÈWØ ÐÍ Êsr Ñ ÊÒ Í A − {1, 2} ÒíÈWÊSÈWà ÏÍ ÎlÑ Ê Í Ú Ì ÈWÊ
Ê
Ü Ì(ÑÐWÜÅÌÍ
† 2

R1 = {(3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (4, 5)}.

z Í àNÉ(à ÍÏÎ x = 3 „ ÒäÉ(à o,’Ü  ʝ٠Í,Ì áÅÉ(à ÍÏÎ ÈWØ‘È ß(Ü Ú ÈWRØ i …(Ý à Í ÊÒ Ü Ê Ñ É(Ê ÌÍ ÈWØ­Ù&Ú ÍÏÐ È ÎÏÍ
3
ÚrÒäÉ(ÊÒ ÈWØ Ú ÈWÊ%Ò ÒäÉ(ØFÈ †
x4 = 4 Ë x 5 = 5 M Ý t.Í Í Í Ì Í Î

1 ≤ 2 ≤ 3 ≤ 4 ≤ 5.
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xi
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S aSb 3a > b
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R = {(α, α), (α, β), (α, γ), (γ, ω)}.

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c∈b Á
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ºŽ&aˆš–•˜a‹P»"º‰ ‰,ˆ½#aˆŒQ‰,‹h3‰ ¼b—‘‹“½”‰ ™‰D•N™*»"º‰ ¼
÷ a ∩ b 6= ∅ c∈A aRc
‘r»"º‰hša(’#(ˆ½#©— ¨Z®Ž&(’c‘®Ž’”aŽ—‘‰Q™(™N‹”—JV • ²W½#’”—JŒZ¼`Ž&a’\®Ž’”(Ž—‘‰Q™(™*½#’”(ˆ‹“—J½#—¦¡–
bRc
»"º‰ ¼£Ž(’.—J—[
c»º‰ J*»"º‰D™*ºˆ*ŒQaˆ"½”’#(™—‘Œ,ŒQ—‘œ(ˆž
aRb a=b
—J¡
‰, ‰Qˆ"½”aˆŒ,‰Q‹ Ž&a’.J*»"º‰r‹”‰r½”—‘‰Qˆ‰r‘`—Jšaº(J™(™£’”‰,»"º‰Q’”—J™ž
÷ c∈A c∈c
f
× ,À Ó ÄÃÅÄÃ ·°ÝØYÀÇ
[—
9‡‹`ºˆ%’”‰,‘(Œ,—Jœaˆ!™‰@‰Q»"º—J¡G(‘‰QˆŒ,—‘žn‡ˆ¥‰‘Ñ›‰,ŒW½#¾‰Q‹`’”‰W¯‰:¼b—¦¡–<Ž&a’“»º‰£½#™
Ž(\(¤’# ‰,•NŽ—‘‰‘¨ZNŽ&a’¹‘N•N—J‹”•˜*J‰Q½”’#*»º‰6‘NŽ’”aŽ—‘*Ž(\–¤’# žP‡‹‹“—‘•\²Q½”’”—‘Œ,
p p
Ž&(’”»"º‰V‹“— ‰,ˆ½#aˆŒ,‰,‹F\.Ž’“—‘•N‰,’#.J‰Q½”’#.™‰>\.Ž(\–¤’# ‰,‹F—Jšaº(»"º‰>\.Ž’”—J•˜‰Q’#
pRq p
J‰Q½”’#r™‰h‘rŽ–\(¤’# ¾"Ž&a’½(ˆ½# ¾"Žº‰Q‹>‹”º‹>Ž’“—‘•N‰,’”(‹J‰Q½”’#(‹‹“aˆ˜—‘šaº–‘‰Q‹,ž ‰
q qRp Á
—Jšaº(4•N™£‹”—T\lŽ’“—‘•N‰,’#lJ‰Q½”’#£™‰`\lŽ(\–¤’# ‰Q‹r—Jšaº(4»"º‰`\lŽ’”—J•˜‰Q’#l‘‰W½#’”
p
™‰@\oŽ(‘(¤’” ¼¬‘oŽ’”—J•˜‰Q’#oJ‰Q½”’#o™‰@‘%Ž(\–¤’# ‰Q‹*—Jšaº–>»"º‰m‘oŽ’”—J•˜‰Q’#
q q
J‰Q½”’#l™‰Ÿ\˜Ž(‘(¤’” ¾‰Qˆ"½”aˆŒQ‰,‹®\˜Ž’”—J•N‰,’#N‘‰Q½”’#˜™‰Ÿ\˜Ž–\(¤’# ‰,‹§—‘šaº–­»"º‰
r p
‘NŽ’”—J•˜‰Q’#*‘‰W½#’#N™‰6\NŽ(\–¤’# ¾Ž&a’hJ˜»"º‰6‹”‰9½#—J‰,ˆ‰9‘NŽ’“aŽ—‘‰Q™(™{½”’#(ˆ‹”—J½”—J¡Gž
r
¹˜‰,‹¹ºˆN’“‰,‘(Œ,—Jœaˆm™‰Da’”™‰Qˆ{Ž&a’”»"º‰9øÏ¼mŽ(\(¤’#(‹P™—‘‹½#—‘ˆ½(‹PŒ,(•˜ ¼
alto alba
»"º‰®¡a‰,’”+— §ŒZ–ˆ ¼ ¾Jº‰,š(*ˆN‰Q‹h(ˆ½#—J‹”—‘\• ²W½#’”—¦ŒZž
‡hŒQacˆ H“ºˆ½#!Œ,Œ,—J‰,ˆ½#‰o‰Q‹l‰,¹Œ,(cˆ H“ºˆ"½”¬™‰o‘‰W½#’#–‹˜Žº‰,‹£‹“‰oŽº‰Q™‰%—J™‰,ˆ½#+— §ŒZ(’
altoRalba albaRalto
Œ,(™*ŒQ\(‹“‰r™‰r‰,»"º—J¡G(‘‰QˆŒ,—‘`Œ,aˆ \Ÿ—‘ˆ—JŒ,—‘(™‰rŒ,º–‘»"º—J‰,’#`™‰D‘(‹PŽ(‘(¤’#–‹P»"º‰D\
ћ(’”•˜(ˆž

—‘—\
c‡‹C’”‰Q¯‰:¼b—J¡–ŸŽº‰Q‹ žhŸ‰,‹C‹”—‘•\²Q½”’”—JŒZ9Žº‰,‹
{(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d)} ⊂ R
Ž&‰,’” ž®‡‹r–ˆ"½#—J‹”—J•V²W½#’“—JŒZNŽº‰Q‹®ˆºˆŒZ£‹”‰6½#—J‰,ˆ‰Qˆ ½(
(a, b) ∈ R (b, a) ∈ /R m 6= l
»"º‰ ¼ ž{‡‹9½#’”(ˆ‹”—¦½#—¦¡– Žº‰,‹6‰,#¾ˆ—JŒ,oŒ,(‹”o’”‰Q‘‰Q¡G(ˆ"½”‰l‰Q‹
ž –4a’Ÿ½(ˆ½#‰Q‹*ºˆ<’”‰,‘(ŒQ—‘œaˆ¬™‰
˜
(m, l) ∈ R (l, m) ∈ R
¼¬:‰ ћ‰,ŒQ½”—J¡G(•˜‰Qˆ"½”‰
(a, b), (b, c) ∈ R (a, c) ∈ R
(’”™‰Qˆ Ž–’”ŒQ—\(\
rŽ&‰,’“ˆ<™‰@‰,»"º—¦¡–(J‰,ˆŒQ—\ž º™—‘(ša’”(•˜{™‰@(‹“‹”‰@‰,‹J½ ¦<‰Qˆ\
÷
ð4—‘šaº’”`'ž 'ž

—‘—J—\
®Va•N ½#™{ ˆ ¾•N‰,’“o‰Qˆ"½”‰,’”oˆoˆ"º‘ ½#—‘‰Qˆ‰˜‰Qc•N—‘‹”•Nm‹”—‘š(ˆ{»"º‰ ‹”‰

n n
½”—‘‰Qˆ‰‘DŽ’”aŽ—‘‰Q™(™l’”‰W¯‰:¼b—J¡Gž — ‰Qˆ"½#‰Q’”a‹Vˆ6ˆºJa‹c¡a‰,’“—©§Œ,(ˆ£»"º‰
÷ a, b signo(a) =
‰Qˆ"½#(ˆŒ,‰Q‹ Œ,aˆ‘%»º‰m\%’“‰,‘(Œ,—Jœaˆ¥‰Q‹*‹”—J•V²W½#’“—‘Œ,ž
{4(•Ÿ¤©— ²,ˆ ‰Q‹¹½#’”(ˆ‹”—¦½#signo(b)
signo(b) = signo(a)
—¦¡–`Žº‰,‹h‹“‰D½#—J‰,ˆ‰r»"º‰9‹”— ¼
ž –4(’½(ˆ½#£‰,‹§ºˆ£’”‰Q\(ŒQ—‘œ(ˆ%™‰Ÿ‰Q»ºš— ™Eº
0 signo(a) = signo(b) signo(b) =
‰,ˆ½#aˆŒQ‰,‹
signo(c) signo(a) = signo(c)
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ŽîV5MŽ òÓ[T

ð4—‘šaº’”`'ž '  N‡ H“‰,’”ŒQ—‘ŒQ—‘›T
ôòž —‘—\
Wž Á

—‘(ša’”(•l6™‰Dh(‹”‹”‰

¡–(J‰,ˆŒQ—\Ÿ¼@ˆN‰Q‹¹™‰D(’”™‰Qˆ{Ž&a’“»º‰DˆN‰,‹h–ˆ"½#—J‹”—J•\²Q½#’“—JŒZ øZ¼@ˆ¾•N‰,’“a‹.™—‘‹½#—Jˆ"½#(‹

Œ,aˆ ‰,•˜—J‹”•N`‹“—‘šaˆ"
Wž
‡Œ,(cˆ H“ºˆ"½”ŸŒ,ŒQ—‘‰,ˆ½#‰h½#—J‰,ˆ‰h™a‹V‰Q‘‰,•N‰Qˆ"½#(‹,¾b™—Jš(•Na‹ ¼ ¾»"º‰
signo+ signo−
‹”aˆ¾.’“‰,‹“Ž‰QŒQ½”—J¡––•˜‰Qˆ"½”‰(¾¹\nŒ,‘(‹”‰o™‰o‰,»"º—¦¡–(J‰,ˆŒQ—\¢™‰o‘a‹˜Ž&a‹“—J½#—¦¡aa‹N¼k\n™‰%Ja‹
ˆ‰,šG½#—¦¡aa‹,ž
—J¡
S‡‹?’“‰Q¯3‰ ¼—¦¡–PŽº‰,‹?Ž–’#CŒZ(™P‹ ˆ ¾•N‰,’”P’”‰,( ‹”‰½”—‘‰Qˆ‰»"º‰ žF‡‹
a a−a = 0 ∈ Z
‹”—‘\ • ²Q½”’”—JŒZP¼h»"º‰>‹”— ‰,ˆ½#aˆŒ,‰Q‹ žF‡‹4½#’”(ˆ‹“—J½#—¦¡–.Žº‰,‹F‹”—
a−b ∈ Z b−a ∈ Z a−b ∈ Z
¼ ‰Qˆ"½”aˆŒQ‰,‹P‘9‹”º•l9‰,‹Cºˆ£ ˆ ¾•˜‰Q’”Ÿ‰Qˆ"½”‰,’”  ž
–4ab’P−½#(cˆ"∈½”NZ‰Q‹¹ºˆ*’”‰,‘(ŒQ—‘œaˆ@™‰r‰,»"º—¦¡–(J‰,ˆŒQ—\`»"º‰DˆN‰,‹.a™−‰rba+ b−c = a−c ∈ Z
’”™‰Qˆž
‰®½#—J‰,ˆ‰®»"º‰ ž
÷ a = {a + k : k ∈ Z}
‰lŽº‰,™‰£½#(•l–’9‰Qˆ¥ŒZ(™%ŒQ\(‹“‰l™‰£‰Q»º—J¡––‘‰,ˆŒ,—\{ºˆ¬’”‰QŽ’”‰Q‹”‰,ˆ½(ˆ½#‰@‰,ˆ½#’“F ‰ ù
™ þ‘(•˜(‹.™‰QŒ,—‘’Q¾&‹”ºoŽ(’½#‰9™‰,ŒQ—‘•˜([
VŽ&a’¹‘N»"º‰6‰Q­Œ,(cˆ H“ºˆ"½”lŒ,ŒQ—‘‰Qˆ"½#‰9‹“‰
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¼ ºˆ Ž&g
Žº‰,™‰D—‘™‰Qˆ"½#+— §Œ,(’PŒQaˆ ‰, —Jˆ"½#‰Q’“¡––‘ ž
[0, 1)
×nf,À Ó ÄÃÄÃ ·yÝØsØ?Ç
—[
ž Û?`’”‰,‘(ŒQ—‘œaˆ@‰,‹.‰, ‹“—‘šaº—‘‰,ˆ½#‰®ŒQacˆ H“ºˆ½# 
#
N5 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

R = {(2, 5), (5, 2), (3, 4), (4, 3)}.

Û?o½#(¤‘%–‹”Œ,—‘(™oŒQaˆ‹“—‘‹“½”‰£‰,ˆ’“‰,Ž’“‰,‹“‰,ˆ½(’`‘(‹6Žºˆ½#a‹Ÿ™‰ ‰,ˆ¥ºˆ¥Ž\–ˆ
R
Œ,a’“™‰,ˆ–™ž
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‡ ™—‘ša’”pћ*(‹“Œ,—‘(™*‰Q‹ 
(N5 , {(2, 5), (5, 2), (3, 4), (4, 3)}).
—‘—\
V‡ˆ ‰,‹“½”‰DŒ,(ˆcH“ºˆ"½”N\Ÿ’”‰,‘(ŒQ—‘œaˆ@‰,‹ 

R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (1, 7), (1, 8), (1, 9), (1, 10),
(2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6), (2, 8), (2, 10), (3, 3), (3, 6), (3, 9), (4, 4), (4, 8), (5, 5), (5, 10)
(6, 6), (7, 7), (8, 8), (9, 9), (10, 10)}
Û?o½–¤\o(‹“Œ,—‘(™oŒQaˆ‹”—J‹“½”‰@‰Qˆ’“‰,Ž’“‰,‹”‰Qˆ"½#(’`‘a‹9Žºˆ"½”a‹Ÿ™‰ ‰Qˆ¥ºˆ¥Ž\(ˆ
R
ŒQa’”™‰,ˆ(™ž
‡ ™—‘ša’”pћ*(‹“Œ,—‘(™*‰Q‹ 
(N10 , R).
—‘—J—\
uÛ?*’”‰Q\(ŒQ—‘œ(ˆm‰Q‹ 
R = {(∅, ∅), (∅, N1 ), (∅, N2 ), (∅, N3 ), (∅, N4 ), (∅, N5 ), (N1 , N1 ),
(N1 , N2 ), (N1 , N3 ), (N1 , N4 ), (N1 , N5 ),
(N2 , N2 ), (N2 , N3 ), (N2 , N4 ), (N2 , N5 ), (N3 , N3 ), (N3 , N4 ),
(N3 , N5 ), (N4 , N4 ), (N4 , N5 ), (N5 , N5 )}
Û?o½–¤\o(‹“Œ,—‘(™oŒQaˆ‹”—J‹“½”‰@‰Qˆ’“‰,Ž’“‰,‹”‰Qˆ"½#(’`‘a‹9Žºˆ"½”a‹Ÿ™‰ ‰Qˆ¥ºˆ¥Ž\(ˆ
ŒQa’”™‰,ˆ(™¾½#(•l–ˆ™®Œ,(•˜®Œ,(’”™‰Qˆ(™(‹Ja‹T‹”º¤gJþ ˆ™—JŒ,‰,‹ ‰,n®
R
cH
ù Ž–’#®‰,Œ,(ˆ “ºˆ½#
¡G(Œ
Jþ "
Wž‡ ™—‘ša’”p›Ñ *(‹“Œ,—\–™*‰,‹ 
(A, R).
—J¡
Û­r½#(¤‘D(‹”ŒQ—\–™DŒQaˆ‹“—‘‹“½”‰h‰,ˆ˜’”‰,Ž’”‰,‹“‰,ˆ½(’>‘a‹Žºˆ½#a‹c™‰ ‰,ˆlºˆ˜Ž\(ˆ
ŒQa’”™‰,ˆ(™¾ ½”a•l–ˆ™@Ž&a’§‰H“‰,•NŽJ
R
¾ ¾ ¼ žŸ‡T™—Jša’#>ћ
–‹”Œ,—‘(™*‰Q‹ 
a=1 b=2 d=3 c=4

(B, R).
f
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W{4(•l(•Na‹ (’”™‰Qˆ(™N™‰D‘rћa’“•lŸº‹”º(ž
N5
 
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1
 
0 0 0 1 0
 
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
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ŽîV5MŽ òÓ/ò

—‘—\
œ{­a•˜–•N(‹ a’“™‰,ˆ–™N™‰r\½Ñ›a’”•˜Ÿº‹”º(³ž
N10
 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 
 
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 
 
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 
 
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
—‘—J—\

{­a•˜(•˜(‹ a’”™‰,ˆ(™N™‰r\½Ñ›a’”•˜Ÿ‰,ˆ »º‰D‰,‹½J¦*‰,‹”ŒQ’”—¦½#ž
A
 
1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 
 
0 0 1 1 1 1 
 
0 0 0 1 1 1 
 
0 0 0 0 1 1 
0 0 0 0 0 1
—J¡
{­a•˜(•Na‹ a’”™‰,ˆ(™N™‰aћa’”•˜`(©Ñō–¤s²Q½#—JŒZbž
B
 
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 
 
0 0 1 1 
0 0 0 1
×nf,À Ó ÄÃÄà ·eÝØYìÇ –4™‰,•Na‹mø(ŒQ‰,’“‘k(ºb½#a•V¦–½#—JŒ,(•N‰Qˆ"½#‰%•˜‰Q™—\–ˆ"½#‰<ºˆòŽ’”ŒQ‰,™º
—‘•N—J‰,ˆ½#{™‰7û{(Ž‘‰ ¡(‰,’6\?–’-¦(ŒQ½”—‘Œ,  ñ(
D»"º‰l™(™{ºˆo•˜–½#’“%— ¨ ŒZ–‘Œ,º\ ž
Vaˆ
M2
Q
Πa
 
ˆ “
‹ ”
½ ”
’ 
º a
¼ h
‰ 
º 
ˆ D
 ˜
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 #
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M 2∗
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h Q
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 
™
M
D
 
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º ¤ g J
þ 
ˆ
M2

™ J
— ,
Œ ‰
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ij M2
š ½”a•l®‘®™—©Ñ›‰Q’”‰QˆŒ,—‘ Ž(’”rŒ,a•NŽ’“a¤(’‹”—½#—‘‰Qˆ‰.‰,ˆ½#’#–™(‹cŽ&a‹“—J½”—J¡–(‹ ‰Q‹
M 2∗ − M
™‰,ŒQ—‘’P‹”— øZ¼m(JšaºˆŸ‰,ˆ½#’#–™*ˆNˆ"º\`ˆ"º‰W¡–
Wž
‡ ˆ¢ŒQº(J»º—‘‰,’®Œ,(‹” —[
hˆ ‰,‹r½”’#(ˆ‹”—J½”—J¡G@Ž&a’“»"º‰
 ¼ Ž&‰,’”
2R5 5R2 2+2 = 4
ˆ{‰,‹9ºˆ¢•r¾J½”—JŽJ@™‰øbžÛ? ’”‰Q\–Œ,—‘œ(ˆn—J—[
‰Q‹D½#’#–ˆ‹”—¦½#—J¡GmŽ&(’”»"º‰˜‹”— ™—¦¡—‘™‰N
a b
‰,ˆ"½”aˆŒQ‰,‹ Œ,(ˆ ºˆo‹ ˆ ¾•˜‰Q’”˜‰,ˆ½#‰,’“ž ‰,­•N—‘‹”•N*•˜™N‹”— ™—¦¡—‘™‰9
ˆ ¾•˜‰Q’”l‰,ˆ½#‰Q’”
ž –4a’¹½(ˆ½#
b = aK K Á b c
‰,ˆ"½”aˆŒQ‰,‹ ŒQaˆ ºˆ% ¾&™‰6•N™
c = bK 0 K0 c = aKK 0
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»"º‰ ™—¦¡—‘™‰£ žãÛ?%’”‰Q\(ŒQ—‘œaˆ¬—J—‘—\
r‰Q‹`½”’#(ˆ‹“—J½”—J¡–oŽº‰,‹*J<‰Q‹*‘%—JˆŒ,Jº‹”—JœaˆžÜÛ­

a c
’“‰,‘(Œ,—Jœaˆ@—J¡
V‰,‹P½#’#–ˆ‹”—¦½#—¦¡–ž

f
× ,À Ó ÄÃÅÄà ·ÝØSÇ Û? ’”‰Q\(ŒQ—‘œ(ˆn—[
ˆ{‰,‹9’“‰Q¯‰3¼b—J¡–¾4Ž(’” ŒQaˆ"¡a‰Q’“½#—J’”‘m‰,ˆ!’“‰Q¯‰3¼b—J¡–
øÏ¼@»"º‰Dºˆ—‘’. ‰, ŒQaˆcH“ºˆ½#
R

{(2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5)}.

Û?(‹.’”‰Q\(ŒQ—‘aˆ‰,‹P—J—[
¼@—‘—J—\
c‹”aˆ ’”‰W¯‰3¼—¦¡–(‹Qž
ƒ
Û?*’”‰Q\–Œ,—‘œ(ˆm—¦¡
VˆN‰Q‹¹’”‰W¯‰:¼b—¦¡–¾øÏ¼£»"º‰9 –™—‘’“‘‰§‰Q ‰,J‰,•N‰,ˆ½#
(a, a)
f
× ,À Ó ÄÃÅÄà ·°ÝØÇ Û?`’”‰Q\(ŒQ—‘œaˆ@—[
>‰,‹.‹”—J•V²W½#’“—‘ŒZbž
cH
Û?*’”‰Q\–Œ,—‘œ(ˆm—J—[
cˆN‰Q‹¹‹“—‘•\²Q½#’“—‘Œ,¾øÏ¼@»"º‰rºˆ—‘’“‘‰§‰, ŒQaˆ “ºˆ½# 
{(2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1), (5, 1), (6, 1), (7, 1), (8, 1), (9, 1), (10, 1),

(4, 2), (6, 2), (8, 2), (10, 2), (6, 3), (9, 3), (8, 4), (10, 5)}.
Û?*’”‰Q\–Œ,—‘œ(ˆm—J—‘—‘
>ˆN‰,‹.‹”—‘•\²W½#’”—JŒZ¾b‹”º Œ,‘(º‹”º’#*‹“—‘•\²Q½”’”—‘Œ,Ÿ‰Q‹ ž
A×A
Û?˜’”‰Q\(ŒQ—‘œ(ˆ{—¦¡
.ˆl‰,‹h‹”—‘•\²Q½”’”—JŒZ¾øZ¼ »"º‰6ºˆ—J’”J‰DJa‹¹‰Q‘‰,•N‰,ˆ½#(‹ ¾
(c, a) (d, c)
¼ ž
(a, d)
×f,À Ó ÄÃÅÄà ·°ÝØYäÇ –F–’#*Œ,(JŒ,º‘(’C\ŸŒ,‘(º‹”º’#`½”’#(ˆ‹”—J½”—J¡GŸ™‰D‘c¾ˆ—‘Œ,*’“‰,‘(Œ,—Jœaˆ@»º‰
ˆN‰,‹P½#’#–ˆ‹”—¦½#—J¡G`
¾ Tô/ôž —\
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(2, 2), (5, 5), (3, 3), (4, 4).

f
× ,À Ó ÄÃÅÄÃ ·°Ýß Ç
—[
CVaˆ‹”—J™‰Q’#(•Na‹Pºˆ*•˜–½#’“—%¨Œ,a•N*ºˆ*J—‘‹½ŸŒQaˆ ™a‹.‹”º¤=þ‘ˆ™—JŒ,‰Q‹ 
— ‘`‰Qˆ"½#’”(™*‰Q‹ 
÷ a , a , ..., a1n , ..., bn1 , ..., bnn .
Û?PŒ,a’“’”‰Q‹”Ž&aˆ™—‘‰,ˆ½#‰11‹#–‘—J12
™V‹”‰™:‰ §ˆ‰Œ,a•NPºˆP•˜–½#’“%— ¨F™‰‰,ˆ½#’#–™(‹
cij
™aˆ™‰ 
cij = ai1 b1j + ... + ain bnj .
‰D‰Q‹“½#‰r•˜™`‰,?(Jšaa’“—¦½#•*Ÿ™‰,¤&‰D‹“‰,’ 
Á
‡ˆ"½#’”(™ 
a11 , a12 , ..., a1n , ..., bn1 , ..., bnn .
ða’ ½”
i=1 n
ða’ ½#
j=1 n
cij := 0
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l=1 n

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(J—‘™  cij := cij + ail blj
c11 , ..., cnn
ž

—‘—\

‡ˆ"½”’#(™ 
m11 , m12 , ..., m1n , ..., mn1 , ..., mnn .
ða’ ½#
i=1 n
ða’ ½”
j=1 n
©— Ñ ½#ø‰Qˆ ‰Q‘‹”‰ ž
(J—‘™ 
mij 6= 0 nij := 1 nij := 0
÷ n11 , ..., nnn .

nf ›T
× ,À Ó ÄÃÄà ·ÉÝß³ÝLÇ Û?F¾ˆ—‘Œ,@’”‰,‘(ŒQ—‘œaˆ<ˆ@½#’#–ˆ‹”—¦½#—J¡G£‰,‹r\£™‰ ôOôž —\
WžrÛ­–‹r•lG½#’”—©¨
‰,‹.‰:¼ (ŒW½(•N‰,ˆ½#‰D‘`•˜–½”’”—%¨™‰, ša’”pћ*™—‘’”—Jša—J™¾b‰,‹½#N‰,‹,¾
W0
 
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1
 
0
W0 =  0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
Û­6•˜–½#’”—©¨ ½”—‘‰Qˆ‰§ºˆ@ºˆ`™aˆ™‰ ½#‰,ˆšŸºˆ@ºˆŸ¼£–™‰,•V¦(‹C‹“‰§¡a‰Q’”—©§ŒZŸ»"º‰
W1 W0
1 ‹”— 0 0 ž{V(•˜{‰Qˆ¬ˆ"º‰,‹½#’”oŒZ(‹“%‘ Ž’“—‘•N‰,’”7§\ ™‰ ‰Q‹
wij = 1 wi1 = 1 = w1j W0
½#™`ˆº‘`‰,ˆ½#(ˆŒ,‰Q‹

W1 = W 0 .
Û­6•˜–½#’”—©¨ ½”—‘‰Qˆ‰§ºˆ@ºˆ`™aˆ™‰ ½#‰,ˆšŸºˆ@ºˆŸ¼£–™‰,•V¦(‹C‹“‰§¡a‰Q’”—©§ŒZŸ»"º‰
W2 W1
2 “
‹ — 1 1 ®
ž 
‡ “
‹ 
½ l
 ,
Πa
 
ˆ 
™ ‘
— ,
Œ —Jœaˆo‹”‰6¡a‰Q’”+— §ŒZl‹”œaJl‰,ˆ 1 1 ¾
wij = 1 wi2 = 1 = w2j w52 = 1 = w25
Ž&a’P½#(ˆ"½”*‹”‰r½”—‘‰,ˆ‰ 2 ž
w55 = 1
 
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1
 
0
W2 =  0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
Û­6•˜–½#’”—©¨
½”—‘‰Qˆ‰§ºˆ@ºˆ`™aˆ™‰ ½#‰,ˆšŸºˆ@ºˆŸ¼£–™‰,•V¦(‹C‹“‰§¡a‰Q’”—©§ŒZŸ»"º‰
W3 W2
3 “‹ — 2 2 ž®‡‹“½lŒ,aˆ™—‘Œ,—Jœaˆo‹”‰6¡a‰Q’”—+§ŒZl‹”œaJl‰,ˆ 2 2 ¾
wij = 1 wi3 = 1 = w3j w43 = 1 = w34
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Ž&(’P½–ˆ"½#*‹“‰r½#—J‰,ˆ‰ 3 ž
w44 =1
 
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1
 
W3 =   0 0 0 1 0 

0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 1
Û?6•l–½”’”—©¨ ½#—J‰,ˆ‰ºˆ@ºˆ`™aˆ™‰ ½”‰,ˆšaŸºˆ@ºˆŸ¼£(™‰Q•œ¦–‹C‹“‰§¡a‰,’“—©§Œ,Ÿ»º‰
W4 W3
4 ‹”— 3 3 ž§‡‹½£ŒQaˆ™—JŒ,—Jœaˆo‹”‰6¡a‰Q’”—©§ŒZl‹”œaJ£‰Qˆ 3 3 ¾
wij = 1 wi4 = 1 = w4j w34 = 1 = w43
Ž&(’P½–ˆ"½#*‹“‰r½#—J‰,ˆ‰ 4 ž
w33 = 1
 
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1
 
W4 =   0 0 1 1 0 

0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 1
Û?6•l–½”’”©— ¨ ½#—J‰,ˆ‰ºˆ@ºˆ`™aˆ™‰ ½”‰,ˆšaŸºˆ@ºˆŸ¼£(™‰Qœ • ¦–‹C‹“‰§¡a‰,’“©— §Œ,Ÿ»º‰
W5 W4
5 ”
‹ — 4 4 §
ž 
‡ 
‹ 
½ £
 Q
Πa
 
ˆ 
™ J
— ,
ΠJ
— a
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ˆ ”
‹ 6
‰ a
¡ Q
‰ ”
’ — © 
§ Z
Πl
 ”
‹ a
œ J
 £
 ‰Qˆ 4 4 ¾
wij = 1 wi5 = 1 = w5j w25 = 1 = w52
Ž&(’P½–ˆ"½#*‹“‰r½#—J‰,ˆ‰ 5 ž
w22 = 1
 
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1
 
W5 =   0 0 1 1 0 

0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 1
‰`(¤‹”‰Q’“¡–£Œ,a•N£‹”‰Ÿø(ˆ<—Jˆ"½”’”™ºŒQ—‘™  ô£ºˆ(‹®‰Qˆ‘l™—\(š(aˆ(­ŒQa’”’“‰,‹“Ž&aˆ™—J‰,ˆ"½”‰,‹
÷
 ‘(‹D‰,J‰,•N‰,ˆ½#a‹ »"º‰˜‹”aˆ!Ja‹D‰,J‰,•N‰,ˆ½#a‹D»"º‰løÏ¼»º‰
(2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5)
ºˆ—‘’. Ž(’#Ÿ½#‰Qˆ‰Q’¹\6½#’”(ˆ‹“—J½#—¦¡—‘™–™ž
R
×f,À Ó ÄÃÅÄà · ÝßWÞÇ –F(’”¬Œ,aˆ‹½#’“º—‘’£‘!Œ,‘(º‹”º’#¬’”‰W¯:‰ ¼b—¦¡–¥ø‰Q•˜a‹£™‰<ƒ  (™—J’lJa‹
‰Q‘‰Q•˜‰Qˆ"½#(‹
(b, b), (c, c), (d, d)(e, e).
Á
‰D‰,‹½#‰D•N™ 
Cr = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d), (e, e), (a, c), (c, e), (c, d), (b, d)}.
–F–’# ŒQa•NŽº½–’D‘mŒQ\(º‹“º’#@½#’#–ˆ‹”—¦½#—¦¡–m(¤‹”‰Q’“¡––•˜a‹D»"º‰
(a, c), (c, e) ∈ Cr
Ž&a’
½#(ˆ"½”.™‰Q¤&‰,•Na‹?ºˆ—‘’ ž ‰—‘šaº((•N™ Ž&(’½(ˆ½#.™‰,¤&‰,•Na‹
(a, e) Á (a, c), (c, d) ∈ Cr
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(a, d)
\ŸŒ,\–º‹”º’”`½”’#(ˆ‹”—J½”—J¡–Ÿ™‰
Cr
 Ct

Ct = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d), (e, e), (a, c), (c, e), (a, e), (c, d), (a, d), (b, d)}.
nf
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•˜—J‰,•Ÿ¤’“a‹™‰h\r™—\(š(aˆ(žTV(•˜ ‰Qˆ"½”aˆŒ,‰Q‹ ž 6 øa’”
(f, a), (a, c) ∈ R (f, c) ∈ C
—‘•NŽJ—¦ŒZ ž Va•N
c ‰Qˆ"½#(ˆŒ,‰Q‹ t
(f, c), (c, e) ∈ Ct (f, e) ∈ Ct (a, c), (c, e) ∈ R (a, e) ∈
žòV(•˜ ‰Qˆ"½#(ˆŒ,‰Q‹ žòVa•N
Ct (a, c), (c, d) ∈ R (a, d) ∈ Ct (f, c), (c, d) ∈ R
‰,ˆ"½”aˆŒQ‰,‹ žCð4—‘ˆ–‘•*‰,ˆ½#‰ ‰,ˆ½#aˆŒ,‰,‹ ž ‰
‰,‹“½”‰D•N™ 
(f, d) ∈ Ct (f, b), (b, d) ∈ R (f, d) ∈ Ct Á

Ct = {(a, a), (a, c), (a, d), (a, e), (b, b), (b, d), (c, c), (c, d), (c, e),

(d, d), (e, e), (f, a), (f, b), (f, c), (f, d), (f, e), (f, f )}.
‡ˆ ‰‘Ñ›‰QŒQ½”¾\Ÿ•l–½”’”—©¨§»"º‰DJ*’”‰QŽ’”‰Q‹”‰Qˆ"½#˜‰Q‹ 

 
1 0 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 0
 
0 0 1 1 1 0
A=
0
.
 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
š²‹“‰9½”—‘‰Qˆ‰D»"º‰ ˆ˜½”—‘‰Qˆ‰D‰,ˆ½#’#–™(‹hˆ˜ˆº\(‹¹ˆ"º‰Q¡G(‹,¾‘º‰,šaN‰,‹h‰,ˆo‰:ћ‰,ŒQ½”lºˆ
A2
’”‰,‘(ŒQ—‘œaˆ£½#’”(ˆ‹“—J½#—¦¡–ž
 
1 0 2 3 3 0
0 1 0 2 0 0 
 
2
0 0 1 2 2 0 
A =  .
 0 0 0 1 0 0 

0 0 0 0 1 0 
2 2 3 5 4 1
€§—‘‰Qˆ™r‹“º˜™—\(š(’#(•˜™‰¹h(‹”‹“‰ ¡a‰,#’ ðF—Jšaº’”®'žóøa
F‹“‰.½”—‘‰Qˆ‰P»º‰¹øZ¼Ÿ™a‹‰Q‘‰Q•˜‰Qˆ"½#(‹
•l>¼b—J•l–J‰Q‹N»"º‰o‹“aˆ ¼ ¼ŠŽ(’N½(ˆ½#¢ˆ!øZ¼kV • ¦>¼b—J•˜ž©Z¼Šºˆq‰Q‘‰Q•˜‰Qˆ"½”
d e
•˜—Jˆ—J•˜– »º‰9‰,‹–™‰,•V¦(‹¹‰Q?V • þJˆ—J•Nž>‡­‰Q‘‰Q•˜‰Qˆ"½” ‰Q‹hŒ,–½N‹“ºŽ&‰,’“—‘a’.™‰ ¼
f d B
‰,‹¹(™‰Q•œ¦–‹P\r¾ˆ—JŒZ¾Ž&a’C½–ˆ"½#`‰,‹.‰,‹”ºŽ’”‰,•N± ž Û­c
 ¾ˆ—‘Œ,`Œ,(½#`—‘=ˆ ћ‰Q’”—Ja’V‰,‹ »"º‰
f
Ž&a’P½#(ˆ"½”*‰,‹¹‰Q³  þ‘=
ˆ §•˜`™‰ ž
B
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Q‰ Ž’”‰Q‹”‰,ˆ½(•Na‹cŒZ(™9ºˆD™‰¹\(‹½#(’”‰,(‹cŽ&a’‹”ºl—Jˆ—‘ŒQ—\– ‰,ˆ‹#(•cº
¤\(’CŒ,aˆ ‘ ¼@‰,•NŽ(»"º‰W½(’.ŒQaˆ \

E e

T areas = {E, a, p, e, l, r}
Û?(‹PŽ’”—Ja’”—J™(™‰Q‹P‹“aˆ 
E ≤ a, a ≤ p, p ≤ e, l ≤ p.
švø(Œ,—J‰,ˆ™N‹”º Œ,‘(º‹”º’#*’“‰Q¯‰3¼b—J¡–`¼£½#’”(ˆ‹“—J½#—¦¡–Ÿ™(ˆ ºˆ{(’”™‰Qˆ{Ž(’”ŒQ—\( 
{(E, a), (a, p), (E, p), (p, e), (E, e), (a, e), (l, p), (l, e)

(E, E), (a, a), (p, p), (e, e), (l, l), (r, r)}.
‡Sa’”™‰Qˆ@½#–½(»"º‰®Œ,a•NŽ‘‰W½6‰Q‹“½”‰ra’“™‰,ˆ@Ž(’”ŒQ—\( ¡a‰,’P™—\(ša’”(•˜9™‰®(‹“‹”‰r‰Qˆm\
ð4—‘šaº’”`'bžž 
>‹”‰®¡G*Œ,(ˆ‹“½”’”º¼a‰Qˆ™˜™‰r‘Ÿ‹”—‘š(º—‘‰Qˆ"½”‰®•˜(ˆ‰Q’#ž ‰r‰Q‘—Jša‰§ºˆm‰,J‰,•N‰,ˆ½#
•N—‘ˆ—‘•N(Å¾Ž&a’h‰ H“‰Q•˜Ž‘˜‰Q Ÿ ž {­a•˜(•˜(‹¹‰,­Œ,(cˆ H“ºˆ½#
÷
¼ ‰,­a’”™‰,ˆ
»"º‰r‹”‰D—Jˆ™ºŒQ‰ 
E T areas − {E}

{(a, p), (p, e), (a, e), (l, p), (l, e)

(a, a), (p, p), (e, e), (l, l), (r, r)}.
6 ø a’”N‰Q‘‰,š(—‘•Na‹Cºˆ{‰,J‰,•N‰,ˆ½#N•N—‘ˆ—J•N( ¼m‰Q?ŒQaˆcH“ºˆ½#˜’“‰,‹”ºJ½–ˆ"½#‰r™‰D»"º—J½#(’.‰Q

‰Q‘‰Q•˜‰Qˆ"½# ¾–ŒQaˆ9‰,a’”™‰Qˆ9—‘ˆ™ºŒ,—‘™ž 6 ‹-þ"‹”ºŒQ‰,‹“—J¡––•˜‰Qˆ"½#‰>(¤½#‰Qˆ‰,•Na‹Q¾–Ž(’­‰AH“‰,•NŽ‘
a
a
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—\–ša’#(•˜6™‰D(‹“‹”‰

\Ÿ‰Q‘‰QŒ,Œ,—Jœaˆm™‰, ‰Q‘‰Q•˜‰Qˆ"½#`•˜—Jˆ—J•˜–ˆN‰Q‹¾ˆ—‘Œ,N–‹-þ »"º‰røÏ¼l¡–(’“—\(‹P•˜(ˆ‰Q’#(‹P™‰

ø(Œ,‰Q’”J"

E ≤ a ≤ l ≤ p ≤ e ≤ r.

nf
× ,À Ó Ä ÃÄà ·yÝßsßÇ
H
—[
³Û?¹’”‰Q\–Œ,—‘œ(ˆD™‰:§ˆ—‘™h‰QˆŸ—\
ˆh‰,‹4’”‰W¯‰:¼b—¦¡–hŽº‰Q‹“½#»"º‰(¾(Ž&a’­‰ “‰Q•˜Ž‘¾
ˆ˜¡a‰,’“—© Ÿ– 7+7 =
§ Œ,˜‹”‰,’h•˜‰Qˆa’¹»"º‰ ï ž 4(’¹½(ˆ½#˜ˆlŽº‰,™‰6‹”‰Q’’”‰Q\(ŒQ—‘œ(ˆ{™‰9a’“™‰,ˆoˆ—
14
€
™‰˜‰,»"º—J¡G(‘‰QˆŒ,—‘ž ‰Q’”—+§ ŒZ \ Ž’”aŽ—J‰,™–™!‹“—‘•\Q² ½#’“—‘Œ,@¼{»"º‰ ž h
,‰ ‹§½#’”(ˆ‹“—J½#—¦¡–˜¼a@»"º‰(¾ Ž&a’§‰AH“‰,•NŽ‘¾
a+b = b+a
¼ ¼%‹“—‘ˆ<‰Q•`¤(’”ša ž ‰
ø‰,Œø˜‘`’“‰,\–Œ,—Jœaˆ@‰,‹ 
7R1 1R7 7+7 > 9 Á

R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (1, 7), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4),

(2, 5), (2, 6), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4),
(5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (6, 1), (6, 2), (7, 1)}
‘— —\
œÛ?¥’”‰,‘(ŒQ—‘œaˆ©™‰Ž(’”(‘‰Q‘—J‹“•N¥‰Q‹ ’”‰W¯‰:¼b—¦¡– ½#™¥’”‰QŒQ½‰,‹mŽ(’”(‘‰Q\¬‹-þ
•˜—J‹”•˜
­‹”—J•V²W½#’”—JŒZ ‹”— ‰Q‹cŽ(’”(‘‰Q\§ 0 ‰,ˆ½#aˆŒ,‰,‹ 0 ‰,‹Ž(’#–‘‰,‘®
F¼Ÿ½”’#(ˆ‹“—J½”—J¡–
r r r r
‹”— ‰Q‹>Ž(’#–‘‰,‘r 0 ¼ 0 JD‰,‹V 00 ‰Qˆ"½”aˆŒQ‰,‹ ‰Q‹>Ž(’#–‘‰,‘r 00
Wž ‰h‰Q‹“½#‰h•N™
r r r r r r Á
‰,‹¹ºˆ*’”‰Q\(ŒQ—‘œaˆ@™‰r‰Q»º—J¡––‘‰,ˆŒ,—\bž
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–4™‰,•Na‹T½#a•˜(’FŒ,a•N®’”‰,Ž’”‰,‹“‰,ˆ½(ˆ½#‰¹‰,ˆNŒ,(™®Œ,\–‹”‰P™‰.‰Q»º—J¡––‘‰,ˆŒ,—\§\§’“‰,ŒW½
»"º‰*Ž(‹”mŽ&a’®‰,Ta’”—Jša‰,ˆ¾S¼<‰Qˆ"½#(ˆŒ,‰Q‹D‰,ŒQaˆc“H ºˆ½# ŒQŒ,—J‰,ˆ½#‰*‹”‰*Žº‰,™‰N—J™‰,ˆ½#—+§ŒZ(’
ŒQaˆ¨‘!‹”‰Q•˜—JŒ,—J’”Œ,ºˆ=ћ‰,’“‰,ˆŒQ—\!ºˆ—‘™(™¾.¡—J‰,ˆ™¥ŒZ–™¥’“‰,ŒW½¥ŒQa•N¥‰Q ¾ˆ—‘ŒQ¥Žºˆ½#
™‰NŒQa’“½”‰*Œ,aˆn™—JŒøm‹“‰,•N—‘ŒQ—‘’”ŒQº= ˆ ћ‰Q’”‰QˆŒ,—‘ž*‡‹“½”{‰Q‹D‰Q‹”ºŒQacˆ H“ºˆ½# ™‰,Ž‘(ˆm’“‰Z(
™‘‰ §ˆ—J™NŒQa•˜ ž
{(x, y) : x2 + y 2 = 1, x ≥ 0} − {(−1, 0)}
—‘—J—\^

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ŒQa•NŽ(’“½”‰§ŒZ–™`‰Q‘‰Q•˜‰Qˆ"½#Ÿ™‰ Œ,aˆ‹“—‘šaŸ•˜—J‹”•NžT‡‹P‹”—JV
• ²W½#’”—JŒZ9Ž&a’”»"º‰®‹”—
A m, n ∈
‹“aˆò(•Ÿ¤&a‹£ ˆ ¾•N‰,’“a‹ ’“‰,‹”Ž&‰QŒQ½”—J¡––•˜‰Qˆ"½#‰(•Ÿ¤&a‹£‘‰Q½”’#(‹#
˜‰,ˆ½#aˆŒQ‰,‹ ‘¬•N—‘‹“•l
‰*—‘š(º(F•˜(ˆ‰Q’#£‰,‹®½”’#(ˆ‹“—J½”—J¡–bw
ž –4a’§½(ˆ½#m‰Q‹
A
Ž’”aŽ—J‰,™–™\l½”—‘‰Qˆ‰,ˆ ž
ºˆ{’”‰Q\(ŒQ—‘œaˆn™‰˜‰Q»º—J¡––‘‰,ˆŒ,—‘žm‡cŒQacˆ H“ºˆ½#oŒ,ŒQ—‘‰Qˆ"½”‰ ‰Q‹6ºˆ!ŒQacˆ H“ºˆ½#o™‰
n, m ∈ A Á
A/R
™a‹.‰,‘‰Q•N‰,ˆ"½”a‹,¾\ŸŒ,‘(‹“‰r™‰r‘a‹C ˆ ¾•N‰,’“a‹P¼@‘`ŒQ\(‹“‰r™‰r\–‹P‘‰W½#’#–‹,ž
J— ¡
Û?˜’”‰Q\(ŒQ—‘œaˆ{‰Q‹’”‰Q¯‰:¼b—J¡G£Ž&(’”»"º‰ Ž(’”lŒ,(™˜ˆ¾•N‰,’“lˆ–½#º’#(¾&‰Qˆ
žTh®‰Q‹(ˆ"½”—‘‹“—‘•\²Q½”’”—JŒ,¹¼§»º‰(¾"Ž&(’T‰H“‰Q•˜Ž‘¾
3a > a
Ž(’“½”—‘Œ,º\(’4Ž(’#ŒZ(™§‰Q‘‰,•N‰Qˆ"½#§™‰
• ²W½#’“—‘Œ,Ÿ¼N»º‰(¾&Ž&a’¹A‰ H“‰,•NŽ‘¾
B
¼N»"º‰ ¼ ¼N»"º‰ žCh˜‰Q‹h‹”—JV
ž –4(’*½–ˆ"½#nˆ¢‰Q‹˜™‰ ‰Q»º—J¡––‘‰,ˆŒ,—\ˆ—.™‰ a’”™‰,ˆž Û?
3
1S2 3 > 2 2S1 6>1
Ž&‰,’“
’“‰,‘(Œ,—Jœaˆ@‰,‹ 
90S1 3 × 1 < 90

S = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (7, 7), (8, 8), (90, 90), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3),

(2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 7), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 7), (4, 8), (4, 90),

(7, 1), (7, 2), (7, 3), (7, 4), (7, 8), (7, 90), (8, 1), (8, 2), (8, 3),

(8, 4), (8, 7), (90, 1), (90, 2), (90, 3), (90, 4), (90, 7), (90, 8), (90, 90)}.
×f,À Ó ÄÃÅÄà ·°ÝßWìÇ
—[
V‡™—‘ša’”p ћ`‰Q‹ Œ,ºb¼N•˜–½#’“%— ¨§‰Q‹
(N7 , R)
 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 0
 
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 
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 
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
 
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
‘— —\
‰,(ˆ ¼ ‰,ˆ½#aˆŒQ‰,‹¹‰, ™—Jša’”pћ*(‹“Œ,—\–™N`\
’“‰,‘(Œ,—Jœaˆ*‰,‹ 
0 0
÷ A = {a, b, c, d} B = {1, 2, 3}
ž º˜•˜–½”’”—%¨ ŒQaˆ˜‰,L(’”™‰Qˆl‰Qˆ˜‰,L»"º‰h‰Q‹“½#
(A, (A0 × A0 ) ∪ (B × B 0 )}) ÷
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A

C‰Q‹ 
 
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 
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 
 
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 
 
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 
0 0 0 0 1 1 1
—J¡
4‡™—‘š(’#pћ§(‹“Œ,—\–™®‰Q‹ ¼Ÿºˆ®•˜–½”’”—%¨>™‰P(™¼(ŒQ‰,ˆŒQ—\(‹Œ,(ˆ*‰,a’”™‰Qˆ
‰Q‹ 
(B, S)
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B
 
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 
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 
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 
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1 1 1 1 1 1 0 
 
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
×nf,À Ó ÄÃÄà · ÝßÇ Û?  ¾ˆ—‘Œ,@’”‰Q\–Œ,—‘œ(ˆ<»"º‰*ˆm‰,‹r’“‰Q¯3‰ ¼b—J¡–m‰Q‹r\l—[
¹¼%‹”ºŒ,\–º‹”º’”
’”‰Q¯:‰ ¼b—J¡GN‰,‹¹ƒ –™—‘’ ¾ ¼ ž
(5, 5) (6, 6) (7, 7)
Û?
 ¾ˆ—‘Œ,<’“‰,‘(Œ,—Jœaˆ¬»"º‰mˆ<‰,‹*‹“—‘\ • ²Q½”’”—JŒZo‰Q‹*\o—¦¡
jž¬Va•N<\o•˜–½#’“%— ¨l™‰m‹“º
™—‘ša’”p ћr½”—‘‰Qˆ‰¹½”™(‹>‘(‹c‰,ˆ½#’”(™(‹>™‰h\a  ћa’“•l ŒQº(ˆ™ ‰,ˆ½#aˆŒQ‰,‹V‹”º
aij = 1 i≤j
Œ,\–º‹”º’”*‹“—‘\ • ²Q½”’”—‘Œ,Ÿ‰Q‹ ž
B×B
{­a•˜(ˆ™n\<•lG½#’”©— ¨@™‰Q¹™—Jša’”p ћ™‰ —[
Ÿ‹“‰{a¤‹“‰,’¡–¢»"º‰{‹”ºkŒ,º(™’#(™n½”—‘‰Qˆ‰
½#™(‹P‘(‹C‰,ˆ½#’#–™(‹Pˆ*ˆº‘(‹P™‰r•N™`»"º‰r‹”º ŒQ\–º‹”º’”Ÿ½#’”(ˆ‹”—¦½#—¦¡–6‰,‹ ž
N7 × N 7
Û?*ŒQ\(º‹”º’”`½”’#(ˆ‹“—J½#—¦¡–Ÿ™‰r—J¡
VŒQaˆ‹”—J‹“½”‰D‰Qˆo   (™—J’PJa‹P‰,J‰,•N‰,ˆ½#a‹

(1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 7), (1, 8), (2, 4), (2, 7), (2, 8), (3, 8).
nf
× ,À Ó ÄÃÄà ·lÝßLÇ Û­o’”‰Q\–Œ,—‘œ(ˆ!‰,‹`(ˆ"½”—‘‹”—J•\²Q½”’”—JŒ,¾4½#’”(ˆ‹“—J½#—¦¡– ¼!ˆ<’”‰W¯‰:¼b—¦¡–ž
÷
º
Œ,\–º‹”º’”*’“‰Q¯‰3b
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û —J’#(ˆ™Ÿ‰,S™—\–ša’#(•˜D™‰®(‹“‹”‰ ¡a‰Q’P\½F
{ 𠗑š(º’#6'ž ï
c‹”‰®(¤‹”‰Q’“¡–`»"º‰ a¾=ò6¼FñOT
‹”aˆ •N—‘ˆ—J•˜–¦‰,‹V¼Hb Ó ¾g*
ô ¼m'`•˜>b ¼ —‘•˜(¦‰,‹Qž¹NøZ¼@•V¦>b ¼ —‘•NŸˆ— •\‘þ ˆ—J•*ž

nf
× ,À Ó ÄÃÄà ·lÝßsäÇ ‰ ‰,ˆ½#’”‰l½#™(‹Ÿ‘(‹6’”‰,ŒW½–‹*Ž(’#–‘‰,‘(‹ ‰Qˆ\{•˜—J‹”•˜{Œ,‘(‹”‰£™‰
@
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Á
§ŒZ(’rŒZ(™mŒ,\–‹”‰N™‰N‰Q»º—J¡––‘‰,ˆŒ,—‘mŒ,aˆ¢‰,#  ¦–ˆšaºJ »"ºC‰ ћa’”•˜@™—‘Œøm’”‰QŒQ½ ŒQaˆ¢‰,
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[0, 180) ⊂ R
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5²±&<8î õ9îRQ5KL”îWŽ

ð4—‘šaº’#`'ž ï  N‡ H“‰,’“Œ,—‘ŒQ—‘›T'ñƒž Á
—\(ša’”(•˜Ÿ™‰9h(‹”‹“‰

f
× ,À Ó ÄÃÅÄà ·°Ýì Ç Û?`•lG½#’”—Ÿ¼£™‰
R
‰Q‹ 
 
1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0
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Û?*•˜–½#’“—%¨§™‰D‹“º{ŒQ\(º‹”º’#`’”‰W¯‰:¼b—¦¡–N‰Q‹ 
 
1 1 1 0
0 1 0 0
Cr = 
0

0 1 1
0 0 0 1
V(•˜
 
1 2 2 1
0 1 0 0 
Cr2 =  0 0 1 0 


0 0 0 1
‹“‰r½”—‘‰,ˆ‰r»"º‰D‘`•˜–½#’“—%¨™‰r\`ŒQ\–º‹”º’”`½”’#(ˆ‹“—J½”—J¡–Ÿ‰Q‹ 
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ŽîV5MŽ òOòOò

¡T  N‡ H“‰,’“Œ,—‘ŒQ—‘›TZ'Oùž
ðF—Jšaº’”`'ž ù
Á
—\(š(’#(•˜Ÿ™‰9h(‹”‹“‰

 
1 1 1 1
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 

0 0 0 1
Žº‰,‹¹‰Q‹“½#N•˜–½#’“—%¨§(Œ,º(™’#(™Nˆ*½#—J‰,ˆ‰®‰,ˆ½#’#–™(‹.ˆNˆ"º\–‹.ˆ"º‰Q¡G(‹,ž
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α ≤ β ≤ γ ≤ ω.
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s ~ƒ… yu£ ~²|  † ¤ h¥e¦¨§  …  † £ q† z  |&ym~ †

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n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + ... + (n − 1)2 + n2 =
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x ≡ 2(mod 5)
x ≡ 4(mod 7) .
x ≡ 8(mod 11)
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(3 · 2 · 36)/(39 · 38 · 37)
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ž Î?Û
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36/38

(3 · 2 · 36)/(39 · 38 · 37).
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1 + a ≥ 1 + a.
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(1 + an)(1 + a) = 1 + a + an + a2 n.
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((p ∨ q) ∧ (q ∨ ¬r)) ↔ (p ∨ ¬r).
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4
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U ×A
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P ((x, y)) := el alumno x ha aprobado la asignatura y.

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∀x ∈ U ∃y ∈ A P (x, y).
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Ð Ì Ñ ÍÛö ƒÍ o ÌÍ É(Ø ß(Ñ Ê&É£É ÎWÜ¦ß Ê&É(Ò Ñ Ú“É ž
Ô áåãœT£Žºˆ½#*á Ó ‰Z%‘?ʛºˆŒ,—‘œ(ˆ f : Z → Z ™–™%Ž&a’6\{‰©bŽ’“‰,‹”—Jœaˆ f (a) =
žŸã • ‰,ŒQº‰,’“™*»"º‰ ‰Q‹.‰QŒQaˆcH“ºˆ7½#*™‰®\7(‹Kß6Œ,‘(‹”‰Q‹P™‰®‰Q»º—J¡––‘‰,ˆŒ,—‘Ÿ™‰®‘
Z7
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'Cá ‡‹“½”º™—\–’.‹”— f ‰,‹.—‘ˆ¼a‰,ŒW½#—J¡G`¼@‹“— ‰,‹.‹”a¤’“‰Q¼a‰QŒQ½#—¦¡–ž
Ó ‰ra¤‹“‰,’¡–N»"º‰ 
f (0) = 1
f (1) = 6
f (2) = 4
f (3) = 2
f (4) = 0
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4
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f g
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x ≡ 3 mod 5
x ≡ 5 mod 7
x ≡ 2 mod 2

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5×7×2 = 70

x = 68 + 70k
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k
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1 n+1

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Z‰ 
t ∈ R
ºˆŠˆ*­•˜‰Q’”’”‰,(C‰,‹½#’”—JŒQ½#(•˜‰Qˆ"½”‰mŽ&(‹”—J½”—J¡a ž
ɉ,•Na‹“½”’#(’®Ž&a’®—Jˆ™ºŒQŒ,—‘œ(ˆ»º‰N\£‹”—Jšaº—J‰,ˆ½#‰`™‰Q‹”—Jšaº(J™(™<‹”‰`¡a‰,’”—‚ËŒ,mŽ(’#@Œ,(™
t > 0
ˆ–½”º’#( 
n
(1 + t)n ≥ 1 + tn.

È á—ã’ÈŸŽºˆ½#a‹Ñá
'áɉW½#‰,’“•˜—Jˆ(’P‹“— ‰, ‹“—‘šaº—‘‰,ˆ½#‰®’”ƒä,aˆ(•N—‘‰,ˆ½#`‰Q‹¹ŒQa’”’”‰QŒQ½” 

((p ∨ q) ∧ (q ∨ ¬r)) ↔ ¬(p ∨ ¬r).

¤Xá`‡‹“Œ,’”—J¤—J’`‰,ˆkJ‰,ˆšaºI H“‰ ʛa’”•˜(>¼¥‰QˆkJ‰,ˆš(ºcH“‰@ˆ–½#º’”(C\%ˆ‰,š–Œ,—JœaˆŠ™‰ ‘
‹”—‘š(º—‘‰Qˆ"½”‰¹‹”‰Qˆ"½#‰QˆŒQ—\ Móù Ï¼N(Jº•˜ˆa‹»"º‰ø(ˆ£(Ž’”a¤–™D½#™–‹>‘(‹>(‹“—‘šaˆ–½#º’”(‹ ó ž

Ô áåãœT£Žºˆ½#*á Ó ‰Z%‘?ʛºˆŒ,—‘œ(ˆ f : Z → Z ™–™%Ž&a’6\{‰©bŽ’“‰,‹”—Jœaˆ f (a) =

žŸã • ‰,ŒQº‰,’“™*»"º‰ ‰Q‹.‰QŒQaˆcH“ºˆ7½#*™‰®\7(‹Kß6Œ,‘(‹”‰Q‹P™‰®‰Q»º—J¡––‘‰,ˆŒ,—‘Ÿ™‰®‘
Z7
’”‰,‘(ŒQ—œaˆ •Nœ™º‘qb ß žêá
3a + 1
'C
á ‡‹“½”º™—\–’.‹”— f ‰,‹.—‘ˆ¼a‰,ŒW½#—J¡G`¼@‹“— ‰,‹.‹”a¤’“‰Q¼a‰QŒQ½#—¦¡–ž
¤Xá É ‰Q½”‰,’”•N—Jˆ(’C‹“—‰b© —J‹“½#‰ g : Z → Z ½–S»º‰r‘ŸŒQa•NŽ&a‹”—JŒ,—‘œ(ˆ g ◦ f ™‰åË ˆ—J™
Œ,a•N ‹”‰,N‘` 7
—J™‰,ˆ½#7—J™(™ž
(g ◦ f )(a) = g(f (a))
Ù á—ãœTrŽºˆ½#*á • ‰Q‹”a¦¡a‰,’.‰Q ‹”—‘‹½#‰Q•l`™‰rŒQaˆša’“º‰,ˆŒQ—\–‹ 

x ≡ 4 mod 5
x ≡ 5 mod 7
x ≡ 2 mod 2

âáã’ÈVŽºˆ½#a‹Ñá ÷aˆ‹“½”’”º—J’ ºˆD(Jšaa’“—¦½#•*V»º‰™(™CºˆP‘—J‹“½#V™‰‰,ˆ½#‰,’“a‹ ¾

—Jˆ"½”’”™Zº äQŒZ‰Q‰Qˆ"½#‰Q’”
a1 , a2 , ..., an
¼6™(‹T‰,ˆ½#‰Q’”a‹ ¼ ‰Qˆ`\hJ—‘‹“½#h‰Qˆ`\hŽ&a‹“—‘ŒQ—‘œaˆ
žMã‡NH“‰Q•˜ŽJ  ‘r‰,ˆ½#’”(™à  T.Ú'Èb‚¾ T.Ú'⡾ TsÚ'ßbmd TTTa[¾ ÈžT™DŒ,(•˜D‹#–‘—J™®\rJ—‘‹“½#O
 T.Ú'ÈbX
¾ TTƒTa¾
a 1 ≤ b ≤ n+1 a
b
T.Ú'âb¾`T.Ú'ßbžžá`‡‹“½”º™—\–’.‹”º Œ,(•˜ŽJ‰ H“—J™(™ž
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È ÚÚÚc¬ȃÚÚ T(ž

TIáøã’È%Žºˆ"½#(‹‰á Ó
,‰ 
t ∈ R
ºˆŠˆ}­•˜‰Q’”’”‰,(P‰Q‹“½”’”—‘ŒW½(•N‰Qˆ"½#‰@Ž&a‹“—J½”—J¡a ž
Éh‰,•Na‹“½”’#(’®Ž&a’®—‘ˆ™ºŒ,ŒQ—‘œaˆ»"º‰*\£‹”—Jšaº—‘‰Qˆ"½”‰`™‰Q‹”—‘š(º(‘™(™‹“‰*¡a‰Q’”—‚ËŒZmŽ(’#@ŒZ–™
t > 0
ˆ–½#º’”( 
n
(1 + t)n ≥ 1 + tn.
–F(’# n = 1 ‘Û  ʛœa’“•Ÿº\6‰,‹.Œ,—J‰,’“½#u
 ãŤ(‹“‰D™‰D—Jˆ™ºŒQŒ,—JœaX ˆ áVŽº‰,‹“½”˜»"º‰ 

1 + t ≥ 1 + t.
Ó ºŽ&aˆš(•Na‹N(ø(’#»"º‰ \ðʛœa’“•`º\%‰Q‹˜ŒQ—‘‰Q’“½<Ž(’# n ¼ŒQa•NŽ’”a¤&‰Q•˜(‹*‹”º
¡a‰Q’#(ŒQ—‘™–™ Ž(’# žc‡‹”ŒQ’”—J¤—‘•Na‹ 
n+1

(1 + t)n+1 = (1 + t)n (1 + t) ≥ (1 + tn)(1 + t)

™aˆ™‰ \í­¦½#—J•˜%™‰Q‹”—‘š(º(‘™(™Š‰Q‹˜ŒQaˆ‹“‰,Œ,º‰,ˆŒ,—\n™‰ \<ø—JŽ&œ(½#‰Q‹”—J‹*™‰ —‘ˆ™ºŒQŒ,—‘œ(ˆž
6 øa’”*¤—J‰,ˆ 
(1 + tn)(1 + t) = 1 + t + tn + t2 n.
Éh‰D•N™*»"º‰ŒÊō(¦½ŸŒQa•NŽ’”(¤(’P‘`™‰Q‹”—Jšaº(J™(™ 
1 + t + tn + t2 n ≥ 1 + t(n + 1) = 1 + tn + t.
H ‰Q»"º—J¡––‘‰Qˆ"½#‰Q•˜‰Qˆ"½”‰ 
t2 n ≥ 0,
J*»"º‰D‰Q‹¹ŒQ—‘‰Q’“½#*Žº‰,‹“½”˜»"º‰ ž
t>0
Èá—ã’ÈŸŽºˆ"½”a‰‹ á
'áɉQ½”‰,’“•˜—Jˆ(’P‹“—?‰Q ‹”—Jšaº—J‰,ˆ"½”‰®’# ä,aˆ–•˜—J‰,ˆ½#`‰,‹.Œ,a’“’”‰QŒQ½# 
((p ∨ q) ∧ (q ∨ ¬r)) ↔ ¬(p ∨ ¬r).
Ó —(‹”—Jšaˆ(•Na‹ ¾ ¾ ‰,ˆ½#aˆŒ,‰Q‹ ¾ ž
Éh‰D‰,‹½#‰D•N™  p := V r := V q := V (p ∨ q) := V (q ∨ ¬r) := V

((p ∨ q) ∧ (q ∨ ¬r)) := V.
 Ôú T
– a’P(½#’“*\(™ (p ∨ ¬r) := V ¼@‹“‰r½”—‘‰Qˆ‰r‘`ŒQaˆ"½”’#(™—JŒ,ŒQ—‘œaˆ V ↔ F ž
4
¤Xá`‡‹“Œ,’”—J¤—J’`‰,ˆkJ‰,ˆšaºIH“‰ ʛa’”•˜(>¼¥‰QˆkJ‰,ˆš(ºcH“‰@ˆ–½#º’”(C\%ˆ‰,š–Œ,—JœaˆŠ™‰ ‘
‹”—‘š(º—‘‰Qˆ"½”‰¹‹”‰Qˆ"½#‰QˆŒQ—\ Móù Ï¼N(Jº•˜ˆa‹»"º‰ø(ˆ£(Ž’”a¤–™D½#™–‹>‘(‹>(‹“—‘šaˆ–½#º’”(‹ ó ž
Ó ‰, U ‰QŒ,aˆI“H ºˆ"½”r™‰PJa‹T(Jº•Nˆa‹­¼ A ‰,™‰P‘(‹T(‹“—‘šaˆG½#º’”(‹,žF‡ˆ*‰Qºˆ—¦¡a‰,’”‹“
U ×A
Ë ˆ‰D‰, Ž’“‰,™—JŒZ–™ 
‹”‰r™‰

P ((x, y)) := el alumno x ha aprobado la asignatura y.

–4a’P½#(ˆ"½”N\Ÿ‹”‰,ˆ½#‰QˆŒ,—‘ Kõ É Ë É(Ø Ñ à`Ê ÍÏÎ Þ Ñ ÈDÊ O
Í ö É(ʝÉWÙ&Ú É
Í ƒ o 
Ì Í
Ê Ê
Ü (
ß Ñ
Ê É@É
L
ÎWܦß
l
Ê&É(Ò Ú“É ‹“‰D‰Q‹”ŒQ’”—‘¤&—‰ ʛa’”•˜(J•*‰,ˆ"½”‰ 
Ñ

∃x ∈ U ∀y ∈ A (¬P (x, y)).

Ó º ˆ‰Qš(ŒQ—‘œaˆm‰,‹Q¾Lº‹”(ˆ™N\–‹P‰,»"º—¦¡–(J‰,ˆŒQ—\(‹P‘œ(ša—JŒZ(‹CŽ&‰Q’“½#—Jˆ‰,ˆ½#‰Q‹ 

∀x ∈ U ∃y ∈ A P (x, y).
‡‹.™‰,ŒQ—‘’Q¾ É É£É(Ø ` à Ê É£ÉWÙ&Ú É É(Ø Ê&É£É Ê&É(Ò Ú“É ž
Ð Ì Ñ ÍÛö ̓o ÌÍ ß(Ñ ÎWÜ¦ß Ñ
Ô áåãœT£Žºˆ½#* á Ó ‰Z%‘?ʛºˆŒ,—‘œ(ˆ f : Z → Z ™–™%Ž&a’6\{‰©bŽ’“‰,‹”—Jœaˆ f (a) =
žŸã • ‰,ŒQº‰,’“™*»"º‰ ‰Q‹.‰QŒQaˆcH“ºˆ7½#*™‰®\7(‹Kß6Œ,‘(‹”‰Q‹P™‰®‰Q»º—J¡––‘‰,ˆŒ,—‘Ÿ™‰®‘
Z7
’”‰,‘(ŒQ—œaˆ •Nœ™º‘q  ßbêž á
3a + 1
' áC‡‹“½”º™—\–’.‹”— f ‰,‹.—‘ˆ¼a‰,ŒW½#—J¡G`¼@‹“— ‰,‹.‹”a¤’“‰Q¼a‰QŒQ½#—¦¡–ž
Ó ‰ra¤‹“‰,’¡–N»"º‰ 
f (0) = 1
f (1) = 4
f (2) = 0
f (3) = 3
f (4) = 6
f (5) = 2
f (6) = 5
– a’C½(ˆ½# f ‰Q‹¹¤—¦¼a‰,ŒW½#—¦¡–ž
4
¤XáɉQ½”‰,’”•N—Jˆ(’C‹“—‰©b—J‹“½#‰ ½–S»º‰r‘ŸŒQa•NŽ&a‹”—JŒ,—‘œ(ˆ ™‰åˈ—J™
g:Z 7 → Z7 g◦f
Œ,a•N ‹”‰,N‘` —J™‰,ˆ½#—J™(™ž
(g ◦ f )(a) = g(f (a))
÷
a•N ‰,‹¤—J¼a‰,ŒW½#—¦¡–§ˆ‰QŒ,‰Q‹#(’“—\(•N‰,ˆ½#‰C™‰,¤&‰P‰©b—J‹“½#—J’ žÉh‰Pø‰,Œør¤(‹½½#a•˜(’
¼*»º‰ 
f g
g(b) = 5b + 2

g(f (a)) = g(3a + 1) = 5(3a + 1) + 2 = a + 5 + 2 = a

ԃú È îFõïö

5¯®.&«îK5MLO:8—5MVÕ
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Ž?8ŸÕWŽR:ÕV5MŽ

™aˆ™‰®½#™–‹.\(‹C—‘šaº–‘™–™‰,‹C‹”aˆ Œ,(ˆša’“º‰,ˆŒQ—\(‹.•Nœ™ºJàßbž

Ù á—ãœTrŽºˆ"½”*á • ‰,‹“aJ¡a‰Q’.‰, ‹“—‘‹½#‰,•˜`™‰rŒ,(ˆša’”º‰,ˆŒQ—\(‹ 

x ≡ 4 mod 5
x ≡ 5 mod 7
x ≡ 2 mod 2
÷ a •Nâb¾ ßV¼ŒÈP‹“aˆDŽ’“—‘•Na‹,¾Ï‰Qˆ"½”aˆŒQ‰,‹­‰,(½#‰Qa’”‰Q•lPŒø—Jˆ.™‰Ja‹’”‰Q‹“½#(‹­ša(’#(ˆ½#—¡äZ
‘.‰©b—‘‹½#‰,ˆŒ,—\¹™‰>‹”(‘ºŒQ—‘œaˆr¼r‹”º6ºˆ—‘ŒQ—‘™–™9•Nœ™ºJ žRɉ>‰,‹½h•˜(ˆ‰,’”¾
‰Q Œ,aIˆ H“ºˆ"½”N™‰r\(‹P‹“a‘ºŒ,—Jaˆ‰,‹P‰,‹.™‰r\w  ʛa’”•˜ 
5×7×2 = 70

x = 54 + 70k
™aˆ™‰ ‰,‹.ºˆ ˆ}­•N‰,’“N‰Qˆ"½”‰,’”ž
k
âáã’ÈVŽºˆ"½”a‹‰á ÷ aˆ‹“½#’“º—‘’ºˆD(‘š(a’”—¦½”•NV»"º‰™(™PºˆP‘—J‹“½V™‰‰Qˆ"½”‰,’“a‹ ¾
—Jˆ"½#’“™Zº äQŒZ‰,b‰,ˆ½#‰Q’”
a1 , a2 , ..., an
¼9™a‹F‰,ˆ½#‰,’“a‹ ¼ ‰,ˆ`‘h‘—J‹“½¹‰,ˆ`‘hŽ&a‹”—JŒ,—Jœaˆ
žMã‡NH“‰,•NŽ‘  \®‰,ˆ"½”’#(™+  TsÚ'Èb‚¾ T.Ú'âb‚¾ T.Ú'ßXd TƒTTa[¾ ÈbžF™DŒ,a•ND‹#(J—‘™®‘r‘—J‹“½O
 TsÚ'ÈbX
¾ TTT(¾
a 1 ≤ b ≤ n+1 a
b
TsÚ'âb¾%TsÚ'ßbžžá`‡‹½#º™—\(’P‹”º Œ,a•NŽJ‰ H“—‘™(™ž
‡ˆ"½#’”(™  a1 , a2 , ..., an ; a, b
c := ab
ʛa’P%— ʛ’“a•
ab := a
b+1
½#
n
d := ai
ai := c
c := d
an+1 := c
Ó (J—‘™ a , ..., a
‡‹{ºˆ«(Jšaa’”—è½#•N¥™‰nŒQa•NŽ‘‰AH“—‘™(™©‘—Jˆ‰Z(Žº‰Q‹{½”—‘‰Qˆ‰nºˆG­ˆ—‘ŒQk¤ºŒ,J‰n»º‰
1 n+1

’“‰Z(Jç— ä,Ÿºˆ*Œ,(ˆ"½”—‘™–™ ŒQaˆ‹½(ˆ½#‰D™‰raŽ&‰Q’#(ŒQ—‘aˆ‰,‹.‰Qˆ{Œ,(™*’”‰QŽ&‰Q½”—‘Œ,—Jœaˆž

 ÔúÔ
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Ó ‰Z*‰,ša’# Ê›`‹”—J•˜ŽJ‰
G = (V, E)
Œ,ºb¼N•lG½#’”—¡ä§™‰D(™b¼(Œ,‰QˆŒ,—‘(‹¹‰Q‹
A
ž

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
A := 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
¼@™‰r•N™*»"º‰r‹”º{Ž&–½#‰,ˆŒ,—\`Œ­¤—‘Œ,*‰,‹ 
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20 37 29 37 28 21 18 46 29 33 31 21 33 45 28
37 38 49 63 41 42 34 62 31 41 43 36 33 65 38
29 49 40 57 39 33 25 61 36 43 48 28 42 60 40
37 63 57 72 60 44 41 80 46 55 61 45 54 80 59
28 41 39 60 40 40 29 60 29 40 48 35 33 59 43
21 42 33 44 40 26 24 52 27 30 37 30 34 51 59
18 34 25 41 29 24 16 40 20 25 35 19 24 36 32
A3 := 46 62 61 80 60 52 40 74 40 54 65 39 52 78 58
29 31 36 46 29 27 20 40 22 28 35 19 29 45 27
33 41 43 55 40 32 25 54 28 32 38 26 32 55 35
31 43 48 61 48 37 35 65 35 38 44 39 35 65 45
21 36 28 45 35 30 19 39 19 26 39 20 25 37 36
33 33 42 54 33 34 24 52 29 32 35 25 28 53 30
45 65 60 80 59 51 36 78 45 55 65 37 53 76 59
28 38 40 59 43 39 32 58 27 35 45 36 30 59 40
T.á
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ȃáÉh‰,•Na‹“½”’#(’Vº‹”(ˆ™`\9•˜–½#’“—çä A ¼˜\–‹VŽ&(½”‰,ˆŒQ—\(‹V™‰ A »"º‰§‹”‰®(Ž&a’½(ˆ£»"º‰§‰,
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0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
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0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
A := 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1
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20 37 29 37 28 21 18 46 29 33 31 21 33 45 28
37 38 49 63 41 42 34 62 31 41 43 36 33 65 38
29 49 40 57 39 33 25 61 36 43 48 28 42 60 40
37 63 57 72 60 44 41 80 46 55 61 45 54 80 59
28 41 39 60 40 40 29 60 29 40 48 35 33 59 43
21 42 33 44 40 26 24 52 27 30 37 30 34 51 59
18 34 25 41 29 24 16 40 20 25 35 19 24 36 32
3
A := 46 62 61 80 60 52 40 74 40 54 65 39 52 78 58
29 31 36 46 29 27 20 40 22 28 35 19 29 45 27
33 41 43 55 40 32 25 54 28 32 38 26 32 55 35
31 43 48 61 48 37 35 65 35 38 44 39 35 65 45
21 36 28 45 35 30 19 39 19 26 39 20 25 37 36
33 33 42 54 33 34 24 52 29 32 35 25 28 53 30
45 65 60 80 59 51 36 78 45 55 65 37 53 76 59
28 38 40 59 43 39 32 58 27 35 45 36 30 59 40
T.á
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p q

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p = 3/15 q = 1 − p = 12/15.
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1 − (12/15)5 .
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ž Ó ‰ZŸ‘D¡–(’”—‘(¤J‰(J‰Z–½”a’”—‘ Œ,(ˆ‹”—J‹“½#‰Qˆ"½”‰®‰,ˆm(‹“—‘šaˆ(’VŸŒ,(™9¡ Ð,’“½”—‘ŒQ‰§‹”º@ša’#–™ž
ɉ,‹“Œ,’”—J¤—‘’¹‰,­‰,‹”Ž(Œ,—Jl•`º‰,‹“½”’#(?™‰6™—JŒjøl‰ ©bŽ&‰Q’”—‘•N‰Qˆ"½#˜¼ \O  ʛºˆŒ,—Jœaˆ ž ÷ –‘Œ,º\(’
G g
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g(1) = 6, g(2) = 9, g(3) = 8, g(4) = 12, g(5) = 8, g(6) = 7, g(7) = 5, g(8) = 12,
g(9) = 6, g(10) = 7, g(11) = 9, g(12) = 6, g(13) = 7, g(14) = 12, g(15) = 8.
Ï싓º{‰Q‹”Ž&‰,’”(ˆZä,˜•˜–½#‰Q•Ø«G½#—JŒ,Ÿ‰,‹ 

(6 + 9 + 8 + 12 + 8 + 7 + 5 + 12 + 6 + 7 + 9 + 6 + 7 + 12 + 8)/15.
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ˆ} ­ •N‰,’“N™‰9(’“—‘‹½(‹P»"º‰r½”—‘‰Qˆ‰r‰Q‹ 
K15

(15 × 14)/2.
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øÏ¼£»º‰9ƒ  (™—‘’P G Ž(’”*a¤b½#‰,ˆ‰,’.‰, ša’” ›Ê *ŒQa•NŽ‘‰W½#¾‰Q‹“½#N‰,‹Q¾ 105 − 61 ž
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E := {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}

 Ô ßâ

E := {(1, 2), (1, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}

E := {(1, 2), (1, 2), (3, 4), (3, 4)}
E := {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 1)}
E := {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (4, 4)}
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7

R := {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 3), (3, 1), (2, 2)}.
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(3, 1), (1, 3) ∈ R (3, 3) ∈ /R t
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ú M Ó N(#TUQ)W3c H“º ½+W

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c := 1 + (1 + 2) + (1 + 2 + 3) + ... + (1 + 2 + ... + n)
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4 TUQ#W3c H“º" ½+W-O h Ð)“P ½%R.Q) 6  6 A M Ó N= 
A1 := {1, 4, 7, 13, 16, 34, 52, 112}
A2 := {2, 8, 11}
A3 := {3, 54, 21, 12}.
4 "½+WQ# 6 #T Q#W3cH“º"½+W-OtN=P%R 6 ½`N 6 O#TUb3P%N Ê,W( 6 
E := A1 × A1 ∪ A2 × A2 ∪ A3 × A3 .
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2

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 6 O R h R 6 R1\T1^YW3P—TIâkM 476 Q#P%R1\R.V-W 6 
42(n+1) − 1 = 42n+2 − 1 = 42 × 42n − 1.
ì 6 NV-W 6 TfNŸøR.YS   6 R 6 OIR.O’Q#Q)R.S 
42(n+1) − 1 = 42 × (15t + 1) − 1 = 42 × 15t + 16 − 1 = 42 × 15t + 15.
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–!W3P  N  W-T.ÛN Ê,’Q#R1S3 T (n) 6 )PÑ« 

T (n) = 3 + 3 × 2 + 2 + 3 × 3 + 2 + 3 × 4 + 2 + .. + 3 × n + 2 + 1
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O(T (n)) = O(n2 ).
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1 + 2 + 22 + ... + 2n = 2n+1 − 1

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1 + 2 + 22 + ... + 2n = 2n+1 − 1

é[N 6 COIR.O’Q#Q)R.S3n¶

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1 + 2 + ... + 2n + 2n+1 = (1 + 2 + .. + 2n ) + 2n+1 ,
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1 + 2 + ... + 2n + 2n+1 = 2n+1 − 1 + 2n+1 = 2n+2 − 1.

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4   P+NODNk¶ a  M1MlMl a
1 n
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G = (V, E)
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T.ÚM ×O#V¾“Z’æ  ()  P%IT.W 6[h Ð)P  R.Q# 6 Èju­ ßkM
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Ó NBTfN 6 R1b3’R.)  ^V/N  P*Rçä]’DNBV"N  P%R¡ä]OIN5­N=Q##Q#R.N 6 O<’:bP+N Ê,W 6 R1V/YT.

(V, E)
M G=

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
T3M É0  #P%V-R.NP7#TD}­V/)P%WCO h Ð)P  R1Q# 6 Z#TDbP+NOWIO'QNON h Ð)P  R.Q#&­ #TD*­V-#P%W
OtN=P%R 6‘ N 6 Oj¼ M
4 T{} ­V-#P*WxO h Ð#P  R.Q) 6  6 TIâwY’ 6  6 #T{*­V-#P*WdOuËTfN 6 WxQ#WT.’V-DN 6 O
T.NxV/N  P%çR ä=M Ó ’V/NOWdT.W 6 T$O$Q#NODNÇËTfN  ##V-W 6 #T]bP+NOWdO$Q#NODN h Ð#P  R.Q)
WP%O)DNOW 6 O)T TCNT TIâBT.W 6 b3P+NOW 6'6 W3 ¶
4, 1, 3, 3, 2, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2.
4 Tn*­V/)P%WBO<NP*R 6* N 6  6 TfNCV/R  NO/O0TfN 6 ’V"NjO^T.W 6 bP+NOW 6 O^T1W 6eh Ð#P  R.Q) 6 
 6* W/ 6 VTsM
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ÈkMøÉ0  #P*V/R1DNPITfN 6 O R *6  R1  N 6 Q#W3V-YW3)   6 Q#W3©N 6 O2¼ U  6 Q)P%R1\R.)OW 6 ’ 6
h Ð#P  R.Q) 6 ­XNP%R 6* N 6 M
ÎmN 6[ P* 6 Q)W3V-YW3)   6 Q#W3©N 6'6 W3 (Vi , Ei )
Q)W3 i ∈ {1, 2, 3}
OIV-WZOW “’=¶

V1 = {1, 4, 3, 10, 15}, V2 = {2, 5, 6, 7, 8}, V3 = {9, 11, 12, 13, 14}

E1 = {{1, 3}, {1, 15}, {1, 10}, {10, 3}, {4, 3}, {15, 4}, {1, 4}}

E2 = {{2, 5}, {6, 5}, {6, 7}, {7, 8}, {8, 6}}

E3 = {{11, 9}, {11, 12}, {12, 9}, {11, 14}, {12, 13}, {13, 14}}

ÔÛ M É0  #P%V-R.NP^Q#m’ «=  N 6 NP%R 6* N 6 Q)W3V-W:Vàè.R.V(W 6 (¬DNwO-NƒNOR.P^N G YDNP%N

Q#W3 h #P  R.P*T.W #’b3P+N Ê,W Q#W3©kWM
é[N 6‘ NNƒDN=OR.PtOW 6 N=P%R 6‘ N 6 7YW3PBAH*#V-YT.W$T.N 6 NP%R 6* N 6 {10, 2} ­ {2, 9} MÇì{DN
NP%R 6* N]W< 676 ’ ËQ#R.)  &YW3P%“’ 6 S3T.W0YWZOPîè.NV/W 6 Q#W3)Q  NP7OW 6 Q#W3V-YW3)   6 #  P*
6 èsM
Ù M É0  )P%V-R.DNP 6 R{QNONd’DNxO_T.N 6 Q)W3V-YW3)   6 Q)W3ª©N 6 O¼¿ 6 WdW
4 ’T.#P*RfN=DNM
û]R1b3’DN T.W  6 YWP%“’  WZODN 6 Q)W3  R.)# h Ð#P  R1Q# 6 OIb3P+N=OW(R.V-YDNP#M
âknM צO)VÀ“’ Ù Q#W ù NV-R.T  W3R1NDNkM
ÎmNjYP*R.V-#P%Nt 6 ù NV-R.T  W3R.NN’XQ)R.P*Q#’R  W ù NV-R.T  W3R1NWC 6 4, 3, 10, 1, 15, 4 M
ÎN 6 #b’ODNtWtT1WC 6 YW3P*“’  R1# h Ð)P  R.Q) 6 O]bP+NO+ W T3M ÎN  #P*Q#)P+NtT1WC 6 YWP%“’
Q#W3  R1#CNT Q)R.P%Q)’R  W ù NV-R.T  W3R.NW
11, 9, 12, 13, 14, 11

ú M Ó Np)T<b3P+N Ê,W 6 R.V-YT1 H = (V 0, E 0) O ËDR1OWrQ#WV/W V 0 = V ­ E 0 =

M¨8€ #P*R¡ËDQ#NPX“’ H  6 )Q W3©kWp­LQ#WV/YP*W3\DNP 6 <R  6 p
W W
4 ’ T.#P*RfN=WM
E ∪ {{10, 2}, {2, 9}}
476 Q#W3©kWwYWP%“’ 6 2¬DN=@Q)W3#Q  NOWwT.N 6 OR 6‘ R1  N 6 Q#W3V-YW3)   6 Q#W3©N 6 M
û]W- 6]4 ’T1#P%R.NW YW3P*“Z’uYW3P&H*)V/YT.W)T h Ð#P  R.Q)àT  R1#<b3P+N=OW Ô M
ßkM ÷ W3V-Y’  NP&’?
 «P%\WTUb#)P+NOW3P'O H M
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 
{6, 8} {3, 10} {3, 4} {15, 4} {9, 12}
  ­ {11, 14} M
M 4 ©kYT1R.QN=P 6 Rn#T%«=P%\W3Tgb3)#P%NOW3P[Q)W3V-Y’  N=OWB#:)T NYDNP  NOW N  #P%R1W3P9 6 )T
­R.Q)W+«P*\W3T b3)#P%NOW3P'O H M
û]WwT1W 6  6 :YWZOP èfN7YW3PB H*)V/YT1W  WV"N=PBT.NNP*R 6‘ N {6, 8} ­d“Z’R  N=PB# 6 ’
T1’bNP[T.N(NP*R 6‘ N {6, 7} M
ÍM Ó ReTfNYP*W3\DN\R.T.RlODNOGO/“Z’ 6 "ODƒN /’yQ#N\T1/#y’DN_P*#OyP*#YP% 6 #  NODN
YWPI)T7b3P% N Ê,W ã?T1W 6^h Ð)P  R.Q# 6C6 W3GWZOW 6 ­T.N 6 N=P%R 6‘ N 6^6 W3GQ#N\T1 6 #  P%(WZOW 6 á
 6 10 M É0  #HP*V/R1DNP[T.NBYP%W3\DN=\R.T1R1ODN=O2O<“’— Ê?N=T.T10’DNBQ#W3VB’R.QN=Q#R1S32#  P%<T1W 6
h Ð)P  R.Q# 6 T.ÚBu ­ âkM
−2

É0#\] ©  P*W3YN=P 6 ]Wt#TuQN=\T. {10, 2} Wt)T {2, 5} nM –!W3PeT1WC“’]TfNIYP%W3\DN=\R.T1R1ODNO

 6 2 ∗ 10 M
−2

T.ÚnM צO)VÀ“’0  Í(#  P*CT1W 6[h Ð#P  R1Q# 6 ÈBu­ ßZM

Ó [R.V-YW 6 R1\R1TlR  N{TfN]Q#WV ’R.Q#NQ#R1S3 6 RW^\R1# 6 &O  )P%R1W3P+N0)TQN=\T. W^\R.)
)TgQN\T. {5, 6} WB\R1#2)TgQN\T. {6, 7} ­"NTV/)W 6 ’WBO^)  P%^T1W 6 Q{2,N=\T.5} 6 {6, 8}
­ {7, 8}
M –!WP  N=  W 2 ∗ 10 + 10 (2 ∗ 10 (1 − 10 ) + 10 ) M
−2 −2 −2 −2 −4
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ü?ýþ ³ üòÿ A
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ÎN O’P%NQ#R1S3:O#TUª©NV/)A 6 O Ô ¬ W3P+N 6 X ­ V-#OR.NM

Ó IYWZOPÑ«’  R.T1R¡ä#NP[T1R.\P*W 6 ­:N=Y’   6 ) 6 A
’ P*NT1RçäN=Q#R1S3 M
û]W 6 CY)P%V-R  ^#TU’ 6 W-OIQNT1Q#’T.NOW3P%N 6 M
{!WZON$P% 6 Y’ 6* N“Z’XW 6* :Ð NO#Q)’DNODNV-#  2P%Nƒä#WDNODN 6 2Q#W3 6 R.O)P+NPî«_R.Q)W3Pœ¬
P%#Q  NM
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4 %T ­T  R.V-WBAH*#P*Q#R1Q#R.W 6 S3T1W(T1W  R.))“’C¬NQ#)P{T1W 6 NT.’V-W 6 W/N=Q#W3b3R1OW 6 N  h NT1’[¬
NQ#R1S3 Q)W3  R.’DNRM –cNP+N^ 6* W 6 NT.’V-W 6 T1W 6 YP%W3\T1#V/N 6 T3}ÈZ Ù ­ ú h NT1#øT3Mêâ0Y’  W 6
­X#ÁT ­T  R1V-W h NT1æ ÈBY’  W 6 M

T3Mã’È[Y’  W 6 YDNP%N&T.W 6 NT1’V-W 6 O8 h NT.’NQ#R1S3IQ)W3  R.’DN—T3Mêâ[YDNP%N')TP% 6* W*á Ó N

TfN 6 R1b3’R1#  <V/N  P%Rç0ä ’DN V"N  P%R¡ä0OCN5­N=Q#)Q#R.N 6 OI’bP+N Ê,W 6 R1V/YT1 G = (V, E) M
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
RšáÉ0  #P*V/R1DNP[#TU}­V/)P%W(O h Ð#P  R.Q) 6 ­X)TU}­V/)P%W(OCNP%R 6* N 6 Ot¼(M
R.R áWÉ0  #P%V-R.NP 6 R G  6 Q#W3©kWMWÉ]  )P%V-R.DN=P 6 R G  6{4 ’T.)P%RfN=WM
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R h á ÷ W3V/Y’  NP) 6 Rg 6 YW 6 R.\T.Z’ø«P%\W3Tb3##P+N=OW3PiO G M Ó R G  6 WBQ)W3ª©W
 W3V/NP^TfN2Q#W3V-YW3)  (Q#W3ª©NQ#W3GV/N5­3W3P^}­V-#P*WO h Ð)P  R1Q# 6 ­Q)W3V-Y’  N=P# 6 R
 6 YW 6 R.\T1’?  «P%\W3T b3))P+NOWP'OIOR.Q`¬DN Q#W3V-YW3)  M
ÈkØM ã’È"Y’  W 6 YDNP%N2T.W 6 NT.’V/W 6 O  h NT.’NQ#R1S3Q)W3  R.’Dð N T3Mžâ"YDNP+N2)TaP* 6* W*á
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šR á 7  6 R.V-YDNP#
R.R á 11 − 1  6 ’ÛV ­T  R1YT1WBOæ âkM
n
n

Ôï M ãœT/Y’  'W á Ó N G = (V, E) ’db3P% N Ê,W 6 R.V-YT1(Q)W3 ©kW  NT7“Z’ |V | = 30 M

É]  )P%V-R.DN=P-)T{* ­V-#P%Wx V è.R.V(WwOANP%R 6* N 6 “’AY’)O  ##P#E
à M É]  )P%V-R.DN=P-)T
* ­V-#P%W(+ V «c©kR.V-WBOCNP%R 6* N 6 “Z’CY’)O  )#P)M
ÙØ M ã’È"Y’  W 6 YDNP%N2T.W 6 NT.’V/W 6 O  h NT.’NQ#R1S3Q)W3  R.’Dð N T3žM â"YDNP+N2)TaP* 6* *W á
÷ W 6* P%’R1P8’/NT.bW3P%R  V-W^“’  )bN<Q#WV/W<#  P+N=ODNI’NIT.R 6* N^O&} ­V-#P*W 6 )  #P%W 6
a 1
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n

4   P%NODN¶ a lM1MlM1 a  b  p ã a , b ∈ Z  p ∈ N − {1}) M

1 n i

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OTfN#  P%NOD'N áBOT1W 6 )T.)V/)  W 6 OT.NwT1R 6‘ N$OTfN)  P%NODNw“’ h )P%‚R ËDQN= 6 #P
Q)W3b3P*’#   6 Q)W3 b V-SZO’T.W p M 476‘ ’OR.NP 6 ’AQ)W3V-YT.A H*R.ODN=O M
âkŸM ãœTIY’  *W á Ó #N A ­ B T.N 6&6 R.b3’R1#   6 YP*W3YW 6 R1Q#R1W3 6 ¶
A := (p ⇒ q) ∧ (r ⇒ s)

B := (p ∧ r) ⇒ (q ∧ s)
É]#V-W 6* +P NP&“Z’ A R1V/YT1RlQNjT.S3b3R1Q#NV-)   B M
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Ó N/’_b3P+Nc,Ê W 6 R1V/YT. G0 = (V 0, E 0) P%#YP% 6 #  NOW2YW3P{TfN(V"N  P%R¡ä M “Z’j 6 ’DN
O 6 ’ 6 /V N  P%R1Q# 6 OCN­NQ#)Q#R.NM
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
M=
0 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
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0 0

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0

R h Nk G6 R.àV Ð  P*R.Q#NN  R 6 R.àV Ð  P%R1Q#N2­ v P%N 6 R w R h NMíãŠû]S   6 "“’/©kR 6‘ /’DRNANO)Q#’DN=ODN
0

V"N#P+N2O P%#YP% 6 #  NPITfN2R1  Ê,W3P*V"N=Q#R1S 6 W3\P*(T.W 6 Q#NV-R.W 6 O(T1W3b3R  ’OOW 6 )
 Ð#P*V/R1W 6 O M žM á
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V I’ H*#P% 6 
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YP%<­XQ)’DNOW/¬DN­N(#TUV-R 6 V/WB* ­V/)P%W(OI¬W3VB\P* 6 “’COCVBc’ H*)P% 6 
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V I’ H*#P% 6 
ã?mO á&#TmQ#W3V-R  Ð  R.) Ù Y#P 6 W3N 6 OW 6 OtQ#NODN 6  ©kWgY#P*W")T Ó P#M • Nà V è.P* ä<W
Y’#OC 6* NP'##TUQ)W3V-R  Ð^Q)W3TfN 6  W3P+N/¼ISV/å äM
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T3Mã’È]Y’  W 6 á Ó N0TfN 6 R.b’R.)  iV/N  P%R¡äe’DN0V/N  P*RçäeO[N5­N=Q#)Q#R.N 6 Oi’Bb3P+NcÊ,W

6 R.V-YT. G = (V, E)
M
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
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1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
šR áÉ0  #P%V-R.NP&)TU}­V-#P*W-O h Ð)P  R1Q# 6 ­X)TU}­V-#P*W-OtNP*R 6‘ N 6 Ot¼ M
÷ W3V-WITfN^V"N  P%R¡ä  R.)ŒT.âPËTfN 6 ­ TIâ^Q#W3T1’V-DN 6 3#  W3Q) 6 G  R.)—TIâ h Ð#P  R.Q) 6 M
–!WZO#V-W 6 QNT1Q#’T.NP8#Tb3P+N=OWjO0QN=ODN h Ð#P  R.Q) h R.)OWj#T*­V/)P%WjO0’W 6 “’0¬DN­
)GQNOøN ËDT.ï N ã?W:#GQ#NODNXQ#WT.’V-D'N áv O( 6* NXV"N#P+N2TfN 6 ’Q# 6 R1S3xO(T.W 6 b3P%NOW 6
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ÎmN­R.Q#N]YW 6 R1\R.T1R1ONOtYNP+N]“’ A W0R.V-YT1R1“’eT1S3b3R1QN=V-#    6 “Z’[ ©kR 6* N=
Nh T1W3P% 6 O h #P*ODNO$OjT.N 6{h NP%R.N\T1 6 t, q, u, s “’j¬DNQ)#$“Z’ A B6 #N h #P*ODNO)P%W"­

Ê?N=T 6 WM:Ê0¬W3P+NA\R1#  6 R  6 Ê?N=T 6 W 6 YW3P%“’  6th )P%ODN=O#P*W$­ 6
Ê?NT 6 WM 476 O#Q#R1P t ­ u h )P%ODBN=O#P%N 6 ­N=T.b3’DN #  P% tq∧­ us Ê?NT 6 NM9Ë<\ 6 Ð#P h  6 qj∧“Z’s A
B
 6 TfN2Q)W3c H*’Q#R1S3wO(OW 6 R.V-YT1R1Q#NQ#R1W 6 M 4 xNVB\DN 6 R.V-YT1R1Q#NQ#R1W 6 T.N2¬R1YS   6 R 6
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ã,W q W s 6 W3uÊ?NT 6 N 6 á[YW3P{T1W-“’tTfN(Q)W3cH*’Q#R.S A  6 Ê?NT 6 N(#_Q)W3  P+N=OR.Q)Q#R.SQ#W3
’ 6‘ P%N 6 ’YW 6 R.Q)R.S3 A h )P%ODN=O#P%NM
n f#”•‰–—ˆ–—µ‹Ç x —?–—?‹ › ÂDà g •ÄÂÃ?‹ k ÂDà v!Åy› ‹ kd› ‹ŠÂD–3‹uÆg— x ‹ k Âo”ÈÂDà v –—,É ›
–3‹ ›gœ — `› v Ç Â ã’ÈBY’  W 6 á
Ó I¬N(OI)T.#bR.Pi’Q)W3V-R  Ð0O k Yg)P 6 W3DN 6 O<’Q)W3cH*’  W(O0ßBVB’cH*#P* 6 ­ Ù
¬W3VB\P% 6
M É0IQ#m’ «=  N 6 V/N)P+N 6&6 IY’)OC#T1#b3R1P[OR.Q`¬W(Q#WV/R  Ð 6 Rˆ¶
ãˆ'N á&¬N/Ot 6‘ NŸP Ê,WP%V/NOW-YW3P ú Y#P 6 W3DN 6 gOtT.W 6 Q#’DNT1 6 Ù 6 W$¬W3VB\P% 6 2 ­ È
VBc’ H*)P% 6 
Ó   P+N  N[O7#T1#b3R1Pn’DN&YDNP* H%N H%N&W&W3P%O)DNODN&O8VBc’ H*)P% 6 )  P%8T.N 6 ßiYW 6 R1\T. 6 M
–!WP  N=  W 6 )ÑP «
µ ¶
7
2
ã?\Xám)TkQ)W3V-R  Ð8Y’)Oi 6* NP:Ê,WP%V/NOW{YW3P!Q#’NT.“’R1#P}­V-#P*W0O9Y#P 6 W3DN 6c6 R.#VO¬
YP%<­XQ#’NOW-¬DN­N(#TUV-R 6 V-WB}­ V-#P*W-OC¬W3VB\P% 6 “’COIVB’c*H #P* 6 
0É I 6‘ IV/WZOW Y’#O) 6 #P'O 6 OàIT ¬W3VB\P*^­2’DN(VB’I*H #P0,ã #  W  NTÁÈá9¬DN 6* N
Ù ¬W3VB\P* 6 ­ Ù VB’c*H #P* 6 ,ã #  W  NTÁ'vá M 476‘ W- 6 ¶
µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
7 4 7 4 7 4
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2 2 3 3 4 4
ã?sQ á8#TQ#W3V-R  Ð  R.) ú Yg)P 6 W3DN 6 O]TfN 6 Q#’DNT1 6 NTuV-#W 6 OW 6 O0T.N 6 Q#’NT. 696 W3
VB’cH*)P% 6 
4   WQ# 626 W3¾ÈGVB’cH*)P% 6 ­ Ù ¬W3VB\P% 6 [W  P* 6 V ’IH*#P% 6 ­ Ô ¬W3VB\P* 6 W Ù
VBc’ H*)P% 6 ­uÈ ¬WVB\P% 6 WØâBV ’IH*#P% 6 ­íTI¬W3VB\P%<W ú VB’cH*)P% 6 ¶
µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
7 4 7 4 7 4 7 4 7
+ +
2 4 3 3 4 2 5 1 6
ã?XO á&)TQ)W3V-R  Ð  R1# Ù Y#P 6 W3DN 6 gOW 6 OCQNON 6 ©kWY#P%W/#T Ó P)M • NV+è1P%åäIW
Y’#OC 6* N=P{)A)TUQ#WV/R  Ð^Q#W3T.N 6 W3P%N"¼<S3V-ä=M
4 TU} ­V-#P*W  W  NTnOIQ#W3V-R  Ð 6  6
µ ¶µ ¶
7 4

4 kT }­V/)P%W0OiQ)W3V/R  Ð 6 )BT.W 6 “Z’[ 6* «= 6 R.VB’T  «=NV-)  9NVB\W 6 Y )P 6 W3DNIH* 6
2 2

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Ó IYWZOPÑ«’  R.T1R¡ä#NP[T1R.\P*W 6 ­:N=Y’   6 ) 6 A
’ P*NT1RçäN=Q#R1S3 M
û]W 6 CY)P%V-R  ^#TU’ 6 W-OIQNT1Q#’T.NOW3P%N 6 M
{!WZON$P% 6 Y’ 6* N“Z’XW 6* Ð:NO#Q)’DNODNV-#  2P%Nƒä#WDNODN 6 2Q#W3 6 R.O)P+NPî«_R.Q)W3Pœ¬
P%#Q  NM
4 T  ©NV-# 6‘ «OÊ,W3P%V/NOWBYgWPßBH*)P%Q)R.Q#R1W 6 MÎmN Y ’  ’DNQ)R.SOIQ#NODN(AH*#P%Q)R.Q)R.W 6 
R.OR1QNB##TUV-R 6 V-WM
T3MøãœT(Y’  W*áPÉ0)V/W 6* P%NP<YW3P<R1O’Q)Q#R.Sw“’(YDNP+N2QNODN }­V-#P*W:DN  ’P+NT
6 h # P%R‚ËDQNk¶ n

1 n
Σni=1 =
i(i + 1) n+1
ÈkM ã’È{Y’  W 6 á Ó #N^T.N 6 R1b3’R1#  9V"N  P%R¡äe’DN0V/N  P%RçäeO&N­NQ#)Q#R.N 6 O[’ b3P%N Ê,W
R6 .V-YT1 G = (V, E) M
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
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šR áÉ0  #P%V-R.NP&)TU}­V-#P*W-O h Ð)P  R1Q# 6 ­X)TU}­V-#P*W-OtNP*R 6‘ N 6 O G M
R.R áÉ0  )P%V-R.DNP 6 R G  6 Q)W3ª©kWMWÉ0  )P%V-R.DNP 6 R G  6]4 ’T1#P*RfNWM
R.R1R áWÉ0  #P%V-R1DNP&T1W 6 b3P%NOW 6 OIQNODN ’W-OIT.W 6[h Ð#P  R.Q) 6 M
R h á ÷ W3V/Y’  NP) 6 Rg 6 YW 6 R.\T.Z’ø«P%\W3Tb3##P+N=OW3PiO M Ó R  6 WBQ)W3ª©W
W 3V/NP^TfN2Q#W3V-YW3)  (Q#W3ª©NQ#W3GV/N5­3W3P^}­V-#P*WO h Ð)GP  R1Q# 6 G­Q)W3V-Y’  N=P# 6 R
 6 YW 6 R.\T1’?  «P%\W3T b3))P+NOWP'OIOR.Q`¬DN Q#W3V-YW3)  M
Ô KM ãœT&Y’  *W áÉ0  #P*V/R1DNP  WZOW 6 T.W 6 YW 6 R.\T1 6 b3P+ N Ê,W 676 R.V-YT. 6 WIR 6 W3V-W3V-WPÊ,W 6
Q)W3Q#’DN  P%W h Ð#P  R.Q) 6 M
Ù MM ã’ÈIY’  W 6 á ÷ W3 6‘ P%’R.Pe’2NT.bW3P%R  V-WI“’  #bNtQ)W3V-Wt#  P+N=ODNt’"* ­V-#P%W
)  #P%W(YW 6 R  R h W n ­XO  )P%V-R. 6 R n  6 YW  #Q)RfN OCNT1b ­XW  P%W #  #P*W-YW 6 R  R h W
 6 O#Q)R.P# 6 Rª ©kR 6* #_W  P*W 6 OW 6 #  #P*W 6 YW 6 R  R h W 6 a ­ b Q)W3 b > 1 OtV-WZOW-“’
n=a b M –!W3)P{’AA H*#V-YT.W O 6 › ’ Ê,’Q)R.W3DN=V/R1#  WM
âkŸM ãœTIY’  *W á[R á Ó #NTfN 6&6 R.b3’R.)   6 YP*W3YW 6 R.Q#R1W3 6 ¶
A1 := (p → ¬q)
A2 := (r → q)
A3 := r
É]  )P%V-R.DN=P 6 RUO  ­ A 6 CO#O’Q)tT1S3b3R1QNV(#   B M
B := ¬p
R.R áM]É   )P%V-R.DN=P]P%Nƒä#W3NODNV-3 #   6 RTfN 6 #b3NQ#R1W3 6 OjT.W 6]6 R1b3’R1#   6 )Z’Q#R‚¬
A1 A2
N=OW 6 ¶
IT á{!WZOW 6 T1W 6  6* ’ORfN   6'h R h )A)AQN 6 N(O 6 ’ 6 YNOP% 6 M
Èá{!WZOW 6 T1W 6 R1b3)R.)P%W 6 R1 Ê,W3P*VØ«  RlQ#W 6[6 W3 h NP%W 6 M
Ô á Ó R 6 ’)ODNO$ 606 ’Y)P%R.WP^N ȃâ/NƒW 6 O)\gjV/N  P*R.Q#’T.NP 6 C#$)T!V- 6 O
N=b3W 6* WM
6 W3P% 6 Y#Q  R h NV-#  ¶
TIáû]R.b ­: 6‘ ’OR.N   h R h I#QN 6 N(O 6 ’ 6 YDN=OP% 6 M
Èá ù N5­XNT1b3’DNBVB’cH*#P&“’C 6 R1b3#R.)P+N R1 Ê,W3P*VØ«  RlQNM
Ô á Ó R 6 ’‡#ODN=O‡W@ 6X6 ’Y#P*R.W3P2N;ÈâdNƒW 6 W@O)\V"N  P%R1Q#’T.N=P 6 A#
N=b3W 6* WM
ú ŸM ãœT<Y’  *W á Ó #N(’DN P*#OOIW3P*O#DN=OW3P% 6 V-WZO#T.NODN 6 #bƒ­#T b3P+NcÊ,W 6 R.V-YT1
P%#YP% 6 #  NOWAYW3PITfN2V"N  P%¡R ä “Z’- 6 ’DN:O 6 ’ 6 V/N  P*R.Q) 6 O
N=O­NQ#)Q)RfNM 476‘ WC“’R1#P*'O)Q#R1P7“’ V P*#YP* 6 M#  NC)TDQ)W3c H*’  WIO&W3P%O#DNOW3P% 6 ­
0 0 0
G = (V , E )
“’^OW 6ih Ð)P  R.Q# 6 O¡R Ê,#P*#   6[6 W3:NO­N=Q#)   6'6 R 6 ^¬DNjR. 6‘ NT.NOWt’XQN\T.0OR1P%#Q  W
0
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ã?“’<W DY N 6 NBYW3P[W  P*W W3P*O#NOW3PÑái’R.)OW(T1W 6 Q#W3P*P% 6 YW3OR1#   6 W3P%O)DNOWP% 6 M
0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0
M= 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
4 d#TeQ#W3cH*’  W_O/W3P%O)DNOWP% 6  6* N=\T.)Q##V-W 6 TfNP*#T.NQ#R1S3 6 R.b’R.)  ¶B)T9WPœ¬
O#DN=OW3P u 6 BP*#T.NQ#R1W3DN-Q)W3 v 6 R 6 W3TfN=V/)   6 R! 6* «$Q#W#Q  RNOW 6 #$TfN-P%#O$“’
6 <YP% 6 )  N-N  #P*R.W3P*V/)  Oã?#  )O#V-W 6 “’<QNODNBW3P*O#NOW3P[ 6‘ « W3\ h RfNV-#  
Q#W3)Q  NOW-Q#W3 6 R.b3W(V-R 6 V/W'á}M
šR á 476 Q)P%R.\R.P  WZOW 6 T1W 6 YDNP* 6 “’Œ  Ê,W3P*V"NXTfNBP%)TfNQ)R.S M
R.R áWÉ0  #P%V-R.NP 6 RUT.N P*#TfN=Q#R1S3 R  6 P*)€Dª©kR h Nk 6 R.VàÐ  P%R.Q#Nj­  P+N 6 R  R h NM
R.R1R áÉ0  #P*V/R1DNP 6 R 6 ’DN/P%)TfNQ)R.S3Ot)“Z’R h N=T.#Q#RfNkM 4 $Q#N 6 W"Ot“’jT.W 6 #N
 6 Q)P%R1\R.P&)TUQ#W3I H*’  W-Q#WZQ)R.#   V /R M
0

ßkŒM ã’È(Y’  W 6 á'R áMì{_ 6‘ ’OR.W/ 6* NZO è 6* R1Q#W/VB’ 6* P+N-“’j)ZT H*’bN=OW3P'Ot\DNT1W3[ ¬
Q# 6‘ W Ó V/R  ¬X#Q) 6‘ N-’AT.NZ ä#NV-R1#  W O  R1P%W T.R1\P%^Q)W3YP%W\DN\R1T.R1ONO p = 1/3 M
'N á Ó ROR 6 YW3tO  P% 6 TfN=Z äN=V/R1#  W 6 O  R1P%W-T.R.\P%DO  #P%V-R.NP{T.N-YP%W\DcN ¬
\R.T1R1ODNO2OI“Z’C#Q) 6‘ jNT V-#W 6 ’W-OI#T1T.W 6 M
X\ áqÉ0  )P%V-R.DNP(#T'} ­V-#P*Wx+ V è1R1V-WwOATfNZ ä#NV-R1#  W 6 “’ 6 A)Q# 6 R  N
YDNP+N “’CT.N YP*W3\DN\R.T.RlODNO2OC)Q) 6* NP]NT V/)W 6 ’W 6 ’Y)P%C#T h NT.W3P 0.8 M
R.R áŸì]  N\T1#P*W2O Ô #wP%N5­N2 6‘ « Ê,W3P*V"N=OW2YW3—P Í2Q#N 6 R1T.T.N 6 OR 6‘ P*R.\’R1ODN 6 ’”R ¬
Ê,W3P%V-#V-#  &#/’/Q)’DNOP+NOWZ 6‘ Wt 6 Z’DN 6 W3\P*{QNON h Ð#P  R1Q#’DNC)/#TDQ##  P*W
OIQNODN TfNOWB­X’N(##TUQ#)  P%W-O#TUQ)’DNOP%NO2 W ã h )MP Ëb3’P+N 6 TIu­ ȃá}M
N áqÉ]  )P%V-R.NP(T.NwYP%W3\DN=\R.T1R1ODNO@O“’ANT&Q#W3T1WZQN=P  P% 6 YR1 ä#N 6 )  P% 6
QN 6 R.T1TfN 6 OR 6‘ R1  N 6 NT1N  W3P%R.N=V-)  ^OR1Qv¬N 6& P* 6 YR.å äN 6  6* Ð#_NT1R.#NODN 6 M
X\ ái¼<#)P+NT1çR äN=Pe#TgYP*W3\T.)V"NtNT 6 R  ’DNP n YR1 ä#N 6 #X’  N=\T.)P%WjO  NV/ƒN W
n×n
M
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†cR1b3’P+NOßkM¡T¶{!N\T.#P*W(OŒ{!P* 6 )AP+N­N

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 ÙTÔ
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ü?ýþ ³ üòÿ A
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ÈƒÚƒÚ Tå¬ȃÚÚ'ÈZM Ó #Y  R.)V \P%

ÎN O’P%NQ#R1S3:O#TUª©NV/)A 6 O Ô ¬ W3P+N 6 X ­ V-#OR.NM

Ó IYWZOPÑ«’  R.T1R¡ä#NP[T1R.\P*W 6 ­:N=Y’   6 ) 6 A
’ P*NT1RçäN=Q#R1S3 M
û]W 6 CY)P%V-R  ^#TU’ 6 W-OIQNT1Q#’T.NOW3P%N 6 M
{!WZON$P% 6 Y’ 6* N“Z’XW 6* :Ð NO#Q)’DNODNV-#  2P%Nƒä#WDNODN 6 2Q#W3 6 R.O)P+NPî«_R.Q)W3Pœ¬
P%#Q  NM
4 T ©NV-# 6‘ «OÊ,W3P%V/NOWBYgWPßBH*)P%Q)R.Q#R1W 6 MÎmN Y’  ’DNQ)R.SOIQ#NODN(AH*#P%Q)R.Q)R.W 6 
R.OR1QNB##TUV-R 6 V-WM
T3MøãœT(Y’  W*áPÉ0)V/W 6* P%NP<YW3P<R1O’Q)Q#R.Sw“’(YDNP+N2QNODN }­V-#P*W:DN  ’P+NT
6 h # P%R‚ËDQNk¶ n

1 n
Σni=1 =
i(i + 1) n+1
ÎmNOÊ,SP%VB’TfNj 6 Q)R.#P  N YDNP%N n=1
ã?\DN 6 COCR1O’Q)Q#R1S3Xáv¶
1
Σ1i=1 = 1/2 = 1/(1 + 1).
i(i + 1)
Ó RnTfNæÊ,S3P*V ’ TfNt 6 Q)R.)P  NBYNP+N n h #NV-W 6 “’  NVB\RçÐ#2T1W  6 YDNP+N ã?YN 6 W
OIR.O’Q#Q#R1S3Xvá M 476 Q#P*R.\R1V-W 6 T.N 6 ’V/N(Q)W3V/W¶ n+1

1 1 1
Σn+1
i=1 = Σni=1 + .
i(i + 1) i(i + 1) (n + 1)(n + 2)
ì 6 NV-W 6 T.N ¬R.YS   6 R 6 OIR.O’Q#Q)R.S3 ¶
1 n 1
Σn+1
i=1 = + .
i(i + 1) n + 1 (n + 1)(n + 2)
ÏÌ 6 ’N(Q#W3V-YP%W\DNQ#R1S3 h #P*R¡ËDQ#NP')  W3Q# 6 T.NÛÊ,S3P*VB’TfNkM
kÈ Mã’{È Y’  W 6 á Ó #N^T.N 6 R1b3’R1#  9V"N  P%R¡äe’DN0V/N  P%RçäeO&N­NQ#)Q#R.N 6 O[’ b3P%N Ê,W
6 R.V-YT1 G = (V, E)
M
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0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
RšáÉ0  #P%V-R.NP&)TU}­V-#P*W-O h Ð)P  R1Q# 6 X­ )TU}­V-#P*W-OtNP*R 6‘ N 6 O G M
ÎmN 6 ’Q# 6 R.SAOIT.W 6 bP+NOW 6  6 ã?Q)W3T.W “’ CP% 6 YW3O#V-W 6 R1R.R áá}¶

(5, 1, 3, 3, 2, 4, 2, 2, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 3).
–!W3P  N  W-¬N5­íT.â h Ð)P  R.Q# 6 ­uÈ Ú-N=P%R 6‘ N 6 M
R.R áÉ0  )P%V-R.DNP 6 R G  6 Q)W3ª©kWMWÉ0  )P%V-R.DNP 6 R G  6]4 ’T1#P*RfNWM
[é N 6‘ N’DNP*#YP* 6 )  NQ#R1S3dO)Teb3P%N Ê,WYDN=P+NW\ 6 )P h N=Pt“’/ 6 Q)W3ª©kWM›û{WA 6
4 ’T1#P*RfNW Y’ 6' R1# h #Ð P  R.Q) 6 OCbP+NOW-R1V/YNP#M
R.R1R áW0É   #P%V-R1DNP&T1W 6 b3P%NOW 6 OIQNODN ’W-OIT.W 6[h Ð#P  R.Q) 6 M
Ó R.b’R.)OW2T.N"W3P%O)DNQ)R.S3$O T1W 60h )Ð P  R.Q) 6 “Z’(V/NP*QN"TfN"V/N  P%R¡ägTfN 6 ’Q# 6 R1S3
OCT1W 6 b3P%NOW 6  6 ¶
(5, 1, 3, 3, 2, 4, 2, 2, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 3).

R h á ÷ W3V/Y’  NP) 6 Rg 6 YW 6 R.\T.Z’ø«P%\W3Tb3##P+N=OW3PiO G M Ó R G  6 WBQ)W3ª©W

 W3V/NP^TfN2Q#W3V-YW3)  (Q#W3ª©NQ#W3GV/N5­3W3P^}­V-#P*WO h Ð)P  R1Q# 6 ­Q)W3V-Y’  N=P# 6 R
 6 YW 6 R.\T1’?«P%\W3T b3))P+NOWP'OIOR.Q`¬DN Q#W3V-YW3)  M
÷ W3V-WX)Tcb3P+cN Ê,W2 6 Q)W3ª ©kWmNOV-R  t’ò«=P%\W3T!b3)#P%NOW3P) “Z’ O#\  #)POT Ù
N=P%R 6‘ N 6 KM É0j 6* jV-WZOW/¬N5­:“Z’j“’R  N
P ß-NP*R 6* N 6 u“’ h N?Ê,WP%V/NOW-Q#R1Q#T1W 6 ã? 6
 Ù TIâ
O#Q)R.P#n“Z’-N=Tc“’R  NP%T.N 6 #Tcb3P+NcÊ,WXY)P%V/N)Q# Q)W3ª©W'á}Mwì{DN2YW 6 R1\T.j)T.)Q#Q#R1S3O
 6* N 6 NP*R 6‘ N 6  6 ¶
(13, 15), (11, 12), (3, 4)
(3, 10), (1, 15), (6, 7).

Ô MKãT'Y’  *W áÉ0  )P%V-R.DNP  WZOW 6 .T W 6 YW 6 R.\T. 6 b3P%N Ê,W a6 6 R.V-YT1 6 WCR 6 W3V-W3V-WPʵW 6
Q#W3Q#’N  P*W h #Ð P  R1Q# 6 M
Ê0YNP%)Q#)3Tƒ/T bP+N Ê,W 6 OR 6* R.  W 6 M 4 T7#Q W3IH*’  WAO h #Ð P  R.Q) 6  6C6 R.)V/YP% V Q#W3
Q#’DN  P%W(#T.)V/)  W 6 OR1bNV-W 6
V := {1, 2, 3, 4}.
ÎUW-“’ h N-N 6 #P'OR 6‘ R.  W )AQN=ODN(b3P%N Ê,W( 6 #TUQ)W3cH*’  W-OCNP*R 6‘ N 6 E ¶
Ršá E = ∅
R.R á E = {(1, 2)}
R.R1R á E = {(1, 2), (1, 3)}
R h á E = {(1, 2), (4, 3)}
h á E = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4)}
h šR á E = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4)}
h R.R á E = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)}
h R.R1šR á E = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4)}
R‚©Zá E = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4), (1, 4)}
©Zá E = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4), (1, 4), (3, 4)}
©kšR á K
4

Ù MM ãôÈIY’  W 6 á ÷ W3 6* P*’R.Pe’2NT1b3W3P*R  V(WI“Z’  )bNCQ#W3V-Wt)  P%NODNt’"}­V-#P*W

#  #P*W-YW 6 R  R h W ­2O  #P*V/R1 6 R  6 YW  #Q#R.N OCN=T.b­XW  P%W #  )P%W-YW 6 R  R h W
 6 O#Q)R.P) 6 R ©kR 6‘ n)$W  P%W 6 OW 6 #  )nP%W 6 YW 6 R  R h W 6 a ­ b uQ#W3 b > 1 OtV/WZOW/“’

M –!W3#P'’ H*)V/YT1W(O 6 u ’ Ê,’Q)R.WDNV-R.)  WM
4  P+NODNk¶ n
b
n=a

v := 0
†DW3P W ã?#P%#NT1R.ODNO_\N 6* NîP è.N"¬DN 6* N2T.N"YDN=P  j#  #P%NXOBT.N"P+ N èçä
Q#’DNOP+NODiN(=O 2ná Ò n¬−R1T. 1v = 0
¡R Ê n mod i 6= 0  ¬# i := n + 1
#T 6  j := i N=O
Ò ¬R1T. j < n OW j := j × j
ÙTú ®c¯0°8±#²0³´e¸ 5® ¹ &® ¸ L ² » ¸'´ Õ
Ž˜°ÖÕaº
±—²2ÕL
Õ
ŽA»ŸÕWŽ ³ Õ m´ ²i¸ Ž
¡R Ê j = n  ¬# v = 1 #T 6  i := i + 1
×bÊ v = 0  ¬# s : W-)T 6  s :=6 è
Ó NT1R.ODN¶ s M
4 H*#V-YT.W¶ 4   P+NON¶
Í
Q#WV/W 9 mod 2 6= 0 #  W3Q# 6
i=2
i=3
Q#WV/W 9 mod 3 = 0 #  W3Q# 6
j=3
Q#W3V-W j < 9 #  WQ# 6 j = 3 × 3 = 9
Q#W3V-W j = 9 6  6 NT1<O#TU\’Q)T.à ã j ái­ v = 1
Q#W3V-W v = 1 )  W3Q) 6]6  6 NT.<O)Tm\’Q#T1 i
Q#W3V-W v = 1 )  W3Q) 6 T.N 6 NT.R1ODNB 6{6 èˆM
âkŸM ãœTIY’  *W á[R á Ó #NTfN 6&6 R.b3’R.)   6 YP*W3YW 6 R.Q#R1W3 6 ¶
A1 := (p → ¬q)
A2 := (r → q)
A3 := r
É]  )P%V-R.DN=P 6 RUO  ­ A 6 CO#O’Q)tT1S3b3R1QNV(#   B M
B := ¬p
A1 A2
4 d,Ê #Q  W¶ A1  6 #“’R h NT.)  -T.Sb3R1QNV-)  uã 6 #  #Q)RfNQ#W  P%NP%P*#Qåè.YP*WZQN'á<N
3

MæÉ0  )#V-W 6 “’  6 Mæì 6 NOW  ##V-W 6 “’ #  W3Q) 6
 6 V Mì 6 NOW T.NA36 )  #Q)RfNBQ)W3  P+N=rP%P%)QVè1YP%WZQ#NjO A1A 2)#V-W 6 “’ ¬p  6 V Mn–!W3qP
(q → ¬p)
 N  W 6 RUTfN 6 ¬R.YS   6 R 6&6 W h )P%ODN=O#P%N 6   NVB\Rç#Ð XT.W  6 TfN   6 R 6 M
R.R áM]É   )P%V-R.DN=P]P%Nƒ#ä W3NODNV-#   6 RTfN 6 #b3NQ#R1W3 6 OjT.W 6]6 R1b3’R1#   6 )Z’Q#R‚¬
N=OW 6 ¶
IT á{!WZOW 6 T1W 6  6* ’ORfN   6'h R h )A)AQN 6 N(O 6 ’ 6 YNOP% 6 M
Èá{!WZOW 6 T1W 6 R1b3)R.)P%W 6 R1 Ê,W3P*VØ«  RlQ#W 6[6 W3 h NP%W 6 M
Ô á Ó R 6 ’)ODNO$ 606 ’Y)P%R.WP^N ȃâ/NƒW 6 O)\gjV/N  P*R.Q#’T.NP 6 C#$)T!V- 6 O
N=b3W 6* WM
6 W3P% 6 Y#Q  R h NV-#  ¶
TIáû]R.b ­: 6‘ ’OR.N   h R h I#QN 6 N(O 6 ’ 6 YDN=OP% 6 M
Èá ù N5­XNT1b3’DNBVB’cH*#P&“’C 6 R1b3#R.)P+N R1 Ê,W3P*VØ«  RlQNM
Ô á Ó R 6 ’‡#ODN=O‡W@ 6X6 ’Y#P*R.W3P2N;ÈâdNƒW 6 W@O)\V"N  P%R1Q#’T.N=P 6 A#
N=b3W 6* WM
TIáKû{WM ÎmN()bNQ)R.S3:Oà  TIá[ 6 ¡*Í3ª.§}¥¦¡CÎZ¤y¡`§}¥?Ϋª?Ÿ3¤¥¡jÏ#ÎD¡tÐ5ªµÐ¡B¡}¤dÑ%Ÿ‰§#ŸX«Z¡<§}Χ
M
©Ÿ«È¨+¡`á § Ó èsnM É0CT.N )“Z’R h N=T.#Q#RfNB#  P% ­
¬(∀x P (x)) ∃x ¬P (x)
M
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Ô ánû]WMnÎmN 6 #  #Q#RfN Ô á7 6 O#T  R.YW p → q OWO p  6 ¥¡}¤n¡}¨{£-҉§^«Z¡ ‘ZÓ Ÿ3ÔgžÄ§
­ q  6 «Z¡)o ¡t£-Ÿ¥?¨vªsÑ}Îk¢lŸ¨+§5¡(¡}¤xŸÄÕZž5§}¥¦ž MŸì{DN/R.V-YT1R1Q#NQ#R1S p → q  6 )“Z’R h N=T.#  jN
DOCV-WZOW(“’CTfNB#bN=Q#R1S3 6  6 O)Q#R1P# ‘ZÓ
¥?ªs¡}¤n¡C£-҉§t«Z¡ ŸÔnž5§I 
«Z¡o}¡I£-Ÿ¥ˆ¨vªsÑ}ÎZ¢lŸ¨`§5¡B¡}¤wŸ5ÕZž5§}¥¦ž M
¬p ∨ q p ∧ ¬q

ú ŸM ãTIY’  *W á Ó #N(’DN(P*#O:OIWP%O)DNOW3P* 6 V-WZO#T.NODN 6 )b­#T b3P%N Ê,W 6 R1V/YT.

P%)YP% 6 #  NOW_YW3PIT.NXV/N  P*çR ä “’- 6 ’DN:O 6 ’ 6 V/N  P%R1Q# 6 O
NO­NQ)#Q)RfNM 486‘ WI“Z’R.)P%&O#Q)R.P7“’ V P%)YP% 6 M#  NC)TQ#W3ÄÖ*’  WCO'W3P*O#DN=OW3P% 6 ­
0 0 0
G = (V , E )
“Z’<OW 6ih Ð#P  R.Q) 6 O¡R Ê,)P%)   6[6 W3:NOk­NQ#)   6'6 R 6 ^¬DNjR. 6* NT.NOWt’XQ#N\T.0OR.P%)Q  W
0

ã?“’<W YDN 6 NBYW3P[W  P*W W3P*O#NOW3ÑP ái’R.)OW(T1W 6 Q#W3P*P% 6 YW3OR1#   6 W3P%O)DNOWP% 6 M
0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0
M= 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
4 d#TeQ#W3‰Ö*’  W_O/W3P%O)DNOWP% 6  6* N=\T.)Q##V-W 6 TfNP*#T.NQ#R1S3 R 6 R.b’R.)  ¶B)T9WPœ¬
O#DN=OW3P u 6 BP*#T.NQ#R1W3DN-Q)W3 v 6 R 6 W3TfN=V/)   6 R! 6* «$Q#W#Q  NOW 6 #$TfN-P%#O$“’
6 <YP% 6 )  N-N  #P*R.W3P*V/)  Oã?#  )O#V-W 6 “’<QNODNBW3P*O#NOW3P[ 6‘ « W3\ h RfNV-#  
Q#W3)Q  NOW-Q#W3 6 R.b3W(V-R 6 V/'W á}M
šR á 476 Q)P%R.\R.P  WZOW 6 T1W 6 YDNP* 6 “’ŒÊ,W3P*V"NXTfNBP%)TfNQ)R.S M
476 Q)P%R.\R.V-W 6 V = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} M 4   W3Q) 6 ¶
0

R := {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 3),
(3, 1), (1, 4), (4, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2), (2, 4), (4, 2), (3, 4), (4, 3)}
R.R áWÉ0  #P%V-R.NP 6 RUT.N P*#TfN=Q#R1S3 R  6 P*)€Dª©kR h Nk 6 R.VàÐ  P%R.Q#Nj­  P+N 6 R  R h NM
476 P*)€Dª ©kR h Nk 6 R.VàÐ  P%R.Q#N&­  P+N= 6 R  R h N‰YW3P  N=  W]’N]P%)TfNQ)R.S3CO9)“’R h NT.)Q#R.NM
÷ TfNP%NV-#  2T.N$ORfNb3WDNT9 6* «wQ)W3  #R1ODN) 8YW3PBT1W“’: 6 P*)€Dª©kR h N9ã?Q#NODN
W3P%O)DNOWPB 6* «$Q)W3#Q  NOWwQ)W3 6 R1b3W$V-R 6 V-W*ávM R476B6 R.VàÐ  P%R1QNY’ 6‘ Ww“’ 6 Ri¬N5­
’DN2Q#W3 ©kR.Sw)  P* #TcW3P*O#DN=OW3P a ­_)TaWP%O)DNOW3P b  TfN"¬N5­_#  P* b ­ a M0É0
R.b3’DN=TUV/N)P+N( 6{ P+N 6 R  R h N Y’ 6]6 R a  6‘ «/Q)W3)Q  N=OW"Q#W b ­ b Q#W c )  W3Q# 6
#Q) 6 N=P%R.NV/)   a  6* «CQ)W3#Q  NOWjQ#W c nM É]]¬)Qv¬W 6 RuQ)W3 6* P%’R1V/W 6 TfN<V"N  P%¡R ä&O
’W 6 ­XQ)#P%W 6 O
I + M + M2 + M3 + M4
W3\  ) #V-W 6
Ù T. ®c¯0°8±#²0³´e¸ 5® ¹ &® ¸'× ² » '¸ ´ Õ
Ž˜°ÖÕaº
±—²2Õ × Õ
ŽA»ŸÕWŽ ³ Õ m´ ²i¸ Ž

1 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 1
ÎUWd“’_V ’  *6  P+Nx“’_T1W 6 Q#’DN  P%WdYP*R.V-#P*W 6 W3P*O#DN=OW3P% 6  6‘ «  W  N=T.V-#  
Q)W3)Q  N=OW 6 #  P% 6 è ­-#T“’R.  WjWP%O)DNOW3P9Wj 6* «tQ#W3)Q  NOWBQ#W2R.bƒ­"W  P%WM
R.R1R á0É   #P%V-R.NP 6 R 6 ’N/P%#T.NQ#R1S3Ot#“’R h NT1#Q)RfNM 4 _QN 6 W"Ot“Z’jT.W 6 N
 6 Q)P%R.\R.P&#T Q#W3‰Ö*’  W-Q)WZQ#R1#   V /R M
0

4 då Ê,)Q  W_ 6 ’DNP%)TfNQ)R.S3wO-#“’R h NT1#Q)RfNX­w#T8Q)W3‰Ö*’  WAQ#WZQ)R.)  -P% 6 ’T  N

6 #P[#TgO^T.N 6 Q)W3V-YW3#   6 Q)W3ª ©N 6 O#TnbP+ N Ê,Wk“’^#X 6‘ ^QN 6 W 6 W3XOW 6 ¶7T.Nt“Z’
Q)W3  R.)XN$T.W 6th Ð#P  R.Q) 6XØ
 ÈZ Ô ­ Ù YWPB’@TfNOW_­dTfNA“’XQ#W3  R1#XNT9“’R.  W
h Ð)P  R.Q#IYW3P&W  P%W 6* W/ 6 ¶
V 0 /R = {1, 5}.

ßkMŒã’È(Y’  W 6 á'RšáKì{_ 6* ’OR1W" 6* N=OZè 6‘ R.Q)W/VB’ 6* P%N/“’t#TÖ*’bNOW3P{Ot\NT.W[¬
Q) 6‘ W Ó V-R  ¬X#Q) 6* N/’T.NZäN=V/R1)  WBO  R1P%W T.R1\P%^Q)W3YP%W3\N\R.T1R1ODN=O p = 1/3 M
Ná Ó ROR 6 YW3jO  P% 6 TfN ä NV-R1#  W 6 O  R.P*W/T1R.\P*uO  )P%V-R.DNP'TfN(YP%W3\Nc¬
\R.T.R1ONOXOI“’C)Q# 6* jNT V/)W 6 ’W-OI#T1T.W 6 M
4 T 6 ’Q# 6 WtP* 6 ’T  N 6 )P8Q)W3V-YT.)V/)  N=P%R1W^NT 6 ’Q# 6 W ¡}¨v¨*Ÿ¨'¢1žÄ§&¥ˆ¨+¡`§{¢lŸ¤}5Ÿ£ ªs¡}¤D¥¦ž5§
“’  R.)iYP*W3\DN\R.T.RlODNO (2/3) YW3P  N  W0TfN]YP%W3\DN=\R.T1R1ODN=Ot\’ 6 Q#NODN^ 6 1−(2/3) M
3 3

X\ áqÉ0  #P*V/R1DNP(#T{* ­V-#P%Wxà V è.R.V(WwOAT.NZ ä#NV/R1)  W 6 “’ 6 A#Q) 6 R  N=

YNP+N “ ’CTfNBYP%W\DN\R1T.R1ONOXOI)Q# 6* N=P0N=TUV-#W 6 ’W 6 ’Y)P%C#T h N=T.W3P 0.8 M
•  N ä#W3DN=OW-R.b’DNT “’tN   6 uTfN YP%W\DN\R1T.R1ONOXOC#Q# 6‘ NP]NTUV-#W 6 ’W/#
n
.
T 
N Z ä#NV-R.)  W 6  6 ¶
2n
p(n) = 1 − .
0Ê ¬WP+N p(n) ≥ 0.8 6 R­ 6 W3T.NV-#   6 R q(n) = ( ) ≤ 0.2 M ÷ W3V-W q(1), q(2), ...
3

 6 ’DN 6 ’Q# 6 R.S$O#Q#P*#Q)R.#   ã h R 6‘ W/)ðé[N 6  6 Oj_N  #V+«  R1QN 6 á[#  W3Q# 6 \DN 6* N
2 n
3

R1P] h NT1’DNOW2¬DN 6‘ N")Q#W  P%NP0#T!YP%R.V-)P h NT.WP]“’ 6 N"V/)W3P]W"R.b3’NTm“’OÚMžÈkM
éiN 6* NDOI 6* CV-WZOW  WV"N=P n = 4 M
 ÙØÍ

†!R.b3’P%NqßkM Ô ¶n{cN=\T.)P%W(OŒ{P% 6 )AP%N5­N

†cR1b3’P+NqßZM Ù ¶n{!N\T1#P*W(O ÷ ’N  P*W-#P+N­N

Ù ÈƒÚ ®c¯0°8±#²0³´e¸ 5® ¹ &® ¸'× ² » '¸ ´ Õ
Ž˜°ÖÕaº
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.R R áŸì]  N\T1#P%W2O Ô #wP+N­N2 6* « Ê,W3P%V/NOW"YW3P—Í2QN 6 R.T1TfN 6 OR 6‘ P%R1\’R1ODN 6 ’R‚¬
Ê,WP%V-#V-#  &#/’/Q)’DNOP%NOW 6‘ Wt 6 k’DN 6 W3\P%{Q#NODN h Ð#P  R.Q)Z’DNC)")TuQ)#  P%W
OCQ#NODN(T.NOWB­X’DN()A)TUQ#)  P*W/O#TUQ#’DN=OP+N=OW2ã h )PMËDb’P+N 6IØ ­uÈávM
'N áOÉ0  )P%V-R.DNP TfNYP*W3\DN\R1T.RlODNO@O“’_N=T'Q)W3T1WZQNP  P* 6 YR1äN 6 #  P% 6
Q#N 6 R1T.T.N 6 OR 6* R.  N 6 NT.#N  WP%R.NV(#  ^OR.Q`¬DN 6[ P* 6 YR.å äN 6  6* Ð)_NT.R1N=ODN 6 M
ù Nò ­ ÍQ#N 6 R1T.T.N 6 +M ÎUW 6 QN 6 W 6 YW 6 R.\T. 6C6 W3 ¡ ¢ M ÎUW 6 Q#N 6 W 6 Ê?N h W3P%N\T1 6I6 W3xT.N 6
 P% 6 ËDT.N 6 kTfN 69 P% 6 Q)W3T1’V/N 6 ­"T.N 6 OW 6 ORfNb3WDNT1 6 k 6* W  6 m M 4 TnQ)WZQ#R.)  ^ODNBTfN
9
3

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m\ ái¼I)#P%NT.¡R äNPe)TgYP%W3\T.)V"NtNT 6 R  ’DNP n YR.å äN 6 )X’  N\T1#P*WjO  NV/ƒN W
M
n×n
ÎUW 6 QN 6 W 6 YW 6 R.\T1 696 W ¡ ¢ M ÎUW 6 Ê?N h W3P+N\T. 696 W3XT.N 6 n ËDT.N 6 ZTfN 6 n Q)W3T.’V-DN 6
­2TfN 6 OW 6 ORfNbW3DNT1 6  6‘ W- 6  2n + 2 M
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n f#”•‰–—?–—,‹ÙŒDš + Ž gRv›gœ ‹ k‰ Ó #N p ­ q Ê,W3P%V/N 6 YP%W3YW 6 R.Q)R.W3DN=T. 6 Mh–!W3PBTfN 6

Îm}­3 6 OÉ0&AWP%bN=  6 T.S3bR.Q#NV-)  e)“’R h NT.)  iN MRÉ0)V/W 6‘ P%NP
YW3P{R.O’Q#Q)R.S3“Z’jYN¬(p∧q) P+N-Q#NODN-}­V-#P*W/DN  ’P+NT n ≥ 2 6   R.)¬p∨¬q C“’ ¬(p ∧ ... ∧
p ) 6
 T1S3b3R1QN=V-#  j#“’R h NT1#  (N ã 6 R1#OW 7MlM1Ml h NP%R.N\T. 6
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n 1
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1 n

n f#”•‰–—?–—,‹d˜ š +ò Ú g:v›gœ ‹ k‰

šR áWã’È0Y’  *W á Ó N a M1MlMl a ’DN^T.R 6* N0O  N=V" N W n O[} ­V-#P*W 6 #  )P%W 6 O‚R Ê,#P ¬
#   6 Ç M É0  #P%V-R.NPjQ)m’ «  N 6j #P*DN 6 W3P%O#DNON 6 ã?Y#P*V/R  R1#OW_} ­V-#P*W 6 P%)Y  ‚R ¬
1 n

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R.R áPã Ù Y’  W 6 áKÉ0R 6  DN=P'’ANT.bW3P%R  V-WB“’  #bN Q#W3V-W(#  P%NODN(’DN(T1R 6‘ NBO
} ­V-#P*W 6 #  #P*W 6 O¡R Ê,)P%#   6 ­-Q)W3V-W 6 NT.R1ODN  WZODN 6 T.N 6 YW 6 R.\T. 67 )P%DN 6 W3P%O)DNODN 6
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 ’OR.NP 6 ’AQ)W3V-YT.¦Ö*R.ODN=O M
n f#”•‰–—?–—,‹qÛ š *9 Ü gRv›gœ ‹ k‰ M Ó #N Z #TcQ)W3‰Ö*’  WXQ#WZQ)R.)  BOBT.W 6 } ­V-#P*W 6
#  #P*W 6 YW3P&TfNBP%)TfNQ)R.S3XOIQ)W3b3P*’#Q)RfN(V-SZO’T1W Ø3Ø M
11

šR áŸã Ø Y’  *W á
É0  #P*V/R1DNPeQ#m’ «  W 6 )T.)V/)  W 6e R1# Z ­-Q#m’ «T1 696 W3nM É0  #œP ¬
V/R1DNPiQ#m’ «T1 6 OC)T.T1W 6i R.)#R1 h )P 6 W/YNP+N #TUYP*WZO’Q  WM 11

R.R áOã Ø Y’  *W á ÷ NT.Q)’T.NPIT.N 6I6 R.b’R.)   6 W3Y)P+NQ)R.W3 6 V-SZO’T.? W âk¶ 234 + 2798 
­ 2765 × 7895943021 M
R.R1R á
ã’ÈBY’  W 6 áMÉ] 6 Q)P%R1\R.P  WZODN 6 TfN 6[6 W3T1’Q#R1W3 6 OIT.N Q#Wb3P*’#Q)RfN(T1R.#NTˆ¶
128
34

5x + 3 ≡ 7 mod 11.
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Ž˜°ÖÕaº
±—²2Õ × Õ
ŽA»ŸÕWŽ ³ Õ m´ ²i¸ Ž
³µ´¶m· 
· ¹:¶Zºœ»:´½¼¾º¿Z»ÁÀ}·N¶‡´
ÂyÃ
Ä ¶mÀ Ã
Å þ À}·%¿ ̌· Å ¶ Ã
È ÚÚ'ÈI¬ȃÚÚ Ô M

n f#”•‰–—ˆ–—µ‹ÙŒDš Ó N= p ­ q Ê,W3P%V/N 6 YP%WYW 6 R1Q#R1W3DNT1 6 Mǖ!W3P T.N 6 ÎU)­ 6 OuÉ]

W3P%bN= ¬(p ∧ q)  6 T.S3b3R1Q#NV-)   )“Z’R h N=T.#  /N ¬p ∨ ¬q M É0)V-W 6* P+NPIYW3PCR1[¬
O’Q#Q)R.S3“Z’tYDN=P+N(Q#NODN(}­V-#P*W-DN  ’P+NT 6   R.)I“’ 6
T1S3b3R1QN=V-#  {#“’R h NT.)  ^N ¬p ∨ ... ∨ ¬p n ã ≥6 R.)2OW p gM1MlMl p ¬(p Nh P*RfN\∧T1 ...6 Y∧P%W3pY)W 6 R‚¬
1 n

Q)R.W3NT. 6 á}nM û]W  N¶7T.N 6 ÎU)­3 6 O0 É0tAW3P*bNW-¬DN­X“’CO)V/W 6‘ P%NP%T.N 6 M
1 n 1 n

ÝB k ” x ”A— › x:v ––—?É › nM –cN=P+N n = 2 TfNj N ËP%V/NQ#R1S3" 6 Q#R1#P  NjYW3PiT.N 6 ÎU}­3 6 O
É]jAW3P*bN M
Þ^ k ‹ x ”X— :› xv ––—?É › M ÷ WV/W p ∧ ... ∧ p ∧ p  6 T.Sb3R1QNV(#  &#“’R h NT1#  
N (p ∧ ... ∧ p ) ∧ p )  WQ# 6]6   R1#=¶
1 n n+1
1 n n+1

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 6 T1S3b3R1QNV(#  ^#“’R h NT1#  CN¶
¬((p1 ∧ ... ∧ pn ) ∧ pn+1 ).
Ê]YT.R1QNOWjT.N 6 T1)­3 6 OPÉ0IW3P%bN= 6   R1#]TfNC#“’R h NT1#Q)RfNtT.Sb3R1QNCO^T.Ntª©YP%¬
6 R.S3N  )P%R.WP&Q)W3 ¶
¬(p1 ∧ ... ∧ pn ) ∨ ¬pn+1 .
Ïß 6* N-ª©kYP% 6 R.SA 6 T.S3bR.Q#NV-)  ^)“Z’R h N=T.#  =DYW3P'¬R.YS   6 R 6 OIR.O’Q#Q)R.S3N¶

(¬p1 ∨ ... ∨ ¬pn ) ∨ ¬pn+1 .

†!R.DNT1V(#  TfNB©kYP* 6 R.S3_N=  #P%R1W3P[ 6 )“’R h NT.)  CNk¶
¬p1 ∨ ... ∨ ¬pn ∨ ¬pn+1 .
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nf#”•‰–—ˆ–—µ‹d˜ š
 ÙÈÔ
šR á Ó #N a {M1MlM1 a ’NwT.R 6* N_O  NV/NƒW n O:}­V-#P*W 6 )  #P%W 6 OR‚Ê,#P%)   6 M
É0  #P%V-R.NP2Q)’m«  N 62 )P%DN 6 W3P*O#DN=ODN 6 ã?Y)P%V-R  R1#OWy}­V-)P%W 6 P*#Y  R.OW 6 á 6 
1 n

Y’#O#uÊ,W3P%V/NP[’ 6 NOW-T.W 6 }­V-#P*W 6 OIT.N T1R 6* NM

R.R áŒÉ0R 6  NPB’pNT1b3W3P%R  V-W“’  #b3N$Q)W3V-W$)  P+NODN_’DN_T.R 6* NAO"}­V-#P*W 6
#  #P*W 6 O¡R Ê,#P*#   6 ­tQ#W3V-W 6 NT.R1ODN  WZODN 6 TfN 6 YW 6 R1\T. 6! #P*DN 6 W3P*O#NODN 6 O[OR1Q`¬W 6
}­V-#P*W 6 aY)P%V-R  R1#OWA#yOR.Q`¬DN 6t #P*DN 6 “Z’2¬DN5­N_P*#Y  R.Q)R.W3 6 M 476‘ ’OR.NP 6 ’
Q#W3V-YT1Ö*R.ONO M
šR á Ó W3A#Tm} ­V/)P%W/O h N=P%RfN=Q#R.W 6 O n #T1#V-#  W 6' W3V/N 6 ODN 6 O Ô # Ô M–!W3P
 N  W n M 3

R.R á 4 TmN=T.b3W3P*R  V(WB#Y 6 )’OWZQ)SZOR.b3WM

4   P+NODNk¶ a  M1MlMl a ã?* ­V-#P%W 6 #  )P%W 6 O¡R Ê,#P*#   6 á
1 n
l := 1
†DW3P i = 1  W n
†DW3P j = 1  W n
†DW3P k = 1  W n
bl := (ai , aj , ak )
Ó NT1R.ON¶ b1
 M1MlMl
l := l + 1
bn 3
÷ W3V-W 6 W  P% 6 \’Q)T. 6 N=R.ODN=OW 6 )TmNT1b3W3P%R  V-W  R.)IQ)W3V-YT.¦Ö*R.ODN=OXQ­\R.Q#NM
nf#”•‰–—?–—,‹@Û š Ó N Z #TmQ#W3ÄÖ*’  W"Q#WZQ)R.)  tOtT.W 6 }­V-#P*W 6 #  #P*W 6 YW3P{T.N
P%#T.NQ)R.S3XOIQ#Wb3P%’#Q)RfN(V-SZO’T1W Ø3Ø M
11

RšáNÉ0  #P%V-R.NP Q#m’ «  W 6 #T.)V/)  W 6  R1# ­^Q)’m«T1 6U6 W3 MRÉ]  )P%V-R.DN=PUQ)’m«T1 6
OI#T.T1W 6i R1#)R. h #P 6 W-YDNP%N()TUYP%WZO’Q  WM Z 11

R.R á ÷ NT.Q)’TfN=PXTfN 6X6 R.b’R.)   6 W3Y#P%NQ#R1W3 6 V/SZO’T.WÖâZ¶ 234 + 2798  34 ­

M
128

R.R1R áWÉ0 6 Q#P*R.\R1P  WZODN 6 T.N 6&6 W3T.’Q)R.W3 6 OITfNBQ#W3b3P%’)Q#R.N(T.R1N=Tˆ¶

2765 × 7895943021

5x + 3 ≡ 7 mod 11.

Ršá 4 TUQ#W3ÄÖ*’  W-Q#WZQ)R.#   Z11

 R.) Ø3Ø #T.)V-#  W 6 “’ 6 W3 ¶
Z11 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.
÷ W3V-W Ø3Ø  6 YP%R1V/W  WZOW 6 .T W 6 #T1#V-#  W 6 O  R.)jR1 h )P 6 W2YDNP%N")T!YP*W ¬
O’Q  WM Z11
ÙÈÙ ®c¯0°8±#²0³´e¸ 5® ¹ &® ¸'× ² » '¸ ´ Õ
Ž˜°ÖÕaº
±—²2Õ × Õ
ŽA»ŸÕWŽ ³ Õ m´ ²i¸ Ž
R.R á

234 + 2798 ≡ 4 + 3 ≡ 2 mod 5

34128 ≡ (−1)128 ≡ 1 mod 5
2765 × 7895943021 ≡ 0 mod 5
M
R.R1R áW–cN 6 N=V/W 6 #T Ô P% *6  N=OW(­XW3\  #)V/W 6 ¶
5x ≡ 4 mod 5.
÷ W3V-W #  W3Q# 6 9VB’  R.YT1RlQNOW$T.N_Q#W3bP%’)Q#R.NYWPO͝
W \  )#V-W 6 5¶ × 9 ≡ 1 mod 11
x ≡ 3 mod 11.
É0C 6* IV/WZOW #TUQ)W3‰Ö*’  W-O 6 WT.’Q)R.W3 6  6 ¶

{11k + 3 : k ∈ Z}.
 Ù Èâ
³µ´¶Z· ·\¹¶mºœ»:´½¼3ºœ¿ »ÁÀ[·N¶‡´
ÂyÃÄ ¶ZÀ Ã
ÅAà
ȃÚÚ'È.¬œÈƒÚÚ Ô M

Ø á—ã’âBY’  W 6 áMÉ]#V-W 6* P+NP&“’CYDNP%N  WZOW(}­V-#P*W-DN  ’P%NT n ∈ N,

2n
X
(2k − 1) = 4n2 .
k=1

Èá›ã’âY’  W 6 á 486 Q#P*R.\R1P(#qY 6 )’OWZQ)SZOR.b3Wx’LN=T.b3WP%R  V(WQ#’­NG#  P+N=ODN 6 #N

’DN:T.R 6‘ N2O-*­V-#P*W 6 )  #P*W 6 ­wQ)’­N 6 NT1R.ODN 6 #N 6 R7©kR 6‘ )T8YP*R.V-#P^}­V-#P*W
#  #P*W/OIT.N T1R 6* NB“’C 6 Q#Wb3P%’#  CQ)W3 Ù V-SZO’T.WqßkM
486‘ ’ORfNP&TfNBQ#W3V-YT1Ö*R1ODNOXO)TmNT.bW3P%R  V-WM
Ô á—ã’âBY’  W 6 áMÉ0NOW-#T 6 R 6‘ #V/N OIQ#Wb3P*’#Q)RfN 6

x ≡ 1 mod 5

x ≡ 5 mod 11

x ≡ 2 mod 3,
 6* ’OR.NP 6 RU©kR 6‘ ) 6 W3T1’Q#R1W3 6 ­ 6 RU©kR 6* ) D¬DNT.T.NP*T.N 6i WZODN 6 M


Ù á—ã’âBY’  W 6 á Ó ITfN äN:OW 6 ODNOW 6'6 R.VB’T  «=N=V-#  ^’DN 6 W3TfN h ä=MWÉ0  #Pœ¬
V/R1DNPIT.NYP%W3\DN=\R.T1R1ODNOwO/“Z’"’W_O/T.W 6 OW 6 P% 6 ’T  NOW 6 W3\  #R.OW 6C6 #NíÈk 6 R
6 N\)V/W 6 “’ITfN 6 ’V/N(OCT1W 6 OW 6 P* 6 ’T  NOW 6  6 ú M
Ý/á-âAã cä ã’È:Y’  W 6 áæÉ0  )P%V-R.DNPCQ)m’ «  W 6 }­V/)P%W 6 O Ù Q)R¡Ê,P%N 6 OR 6‘ R1  N 6
W  R1##R1b3’DN OCT.N 6 OW 6 YP%R.V-)P+N 6 Q#‚R Ê,P+N 6 R1b3’DNT N Q##P*WM
ÙÈú ®c¯0°8±#²0³´e¸ 5® ¹ &® ¸'× ² » ¸'´ Õ
Ž˜°ÖÕaº
±—²2Õ × Õ
ŽA»ŸÕWŽ ³ Õ m´ ²i¸ Ž
³µ´¶m· 
· ¹:¶Zºœ»:´½¼¾º¿Z»ÁÀ}·N¶‡´
˜ÃÄ ¶ZÀ ÃWÅAà À[·%¿[̌· Å ¶ Ã
È ÚÚ'ÈI¬ȃÚÚ Ô M

Ø á—ã’âBY’  W 6 áKÉ0)V/W 6* P%NP&“Z’CYDNP+N  WZOW-*­V-#P%W(DN  ’P+N=T n ∈ N,

2n
X
(2k − 1) = 4n2 .
k=1

ì  R.T.R‚ä#)V/W 6 ’DN(O)V/W 6* P%NQ#Q)R.S3:YW3P&R.O’Q#Q)R.S M

éiN 6 I OIR.O’Q#Q)R.S3 ¶ 6 R n = 1, #  W3Q) 6
2n
X 2
X
(2k − 1) = (2k − 1) = 1 + 3 = 4 = 4n2 .
k=0 k=1

–cN 6 W-OIR.O’Q#Q)R.S3 ¶ 6 N 2n

X
(2k − 1) = 4n2 .
Ó   P+N  N OIO#V-W 6‘ P+N=P'“’
k=1

2(n+1)
X
(2k − 1) = 4(n + 1)2 .
k=1
Ê]¬W3P%N

2(n+1) 2n+2 2n
X X X
(2k − 1) = (2k − 1) = (2k − 1)+[2(2n+1)−1]+[2(2n+2)−1]
k=1 k=1 k=1
¬ R.Y MåOIR1O M
2 2
= 4n + (4n + 1) + (4n + 3) = 4n + 8n + 4 = 4(n + 1)2 .
Ó  6 R.b3’I“’CYDN=P+N  WZOW(}­V-)P%W-N  ’P%NT n ∈ N,
2n
X
(2k − 1) = 4n2 .
k=1
 Ù Èß
Èá›ã’âY’  W 6 á 486 Q#P*R.\R1P(#qY 6 )’OWZQ)SZOR.b3Wx’LN=T.b3WP%R  V(WQ#’­NG#  P+N=ODN 6 #N
’DN:T.R 6‘ N2O-*­ V-#P*W 6 )  #P*W 6 ­wQ)’­N 6 NT1R.ODN 6 #N 6 R7©kR 6‘ )T8YP*R.V-#P^}­V-#P*W
#  #P*W/OIT.N T1R 6* NB“’C 6 Q#Wb3P%’#  CQ)W3 Ù V-SZO’T.Wqkß M
486‘ ’ORfNP&TfNBQ#W3V-YT1Ö*R1ODNOXO)TmNT.bW3P%R  V-WM
4   P%NODN¶ a , a , a , · · · , a .
Rs¶  Ø 1 2 3 n

‡¬R.T1 i ≤ n, a V/WZO 7 6= 4
i

×bÊ i > n i ¬:=) i s+:=1 æCžOöŸ X¡}¤D¥¡}¨+ž5§BÑ`ž‰¤ZÕ¨vÎu¡}¤D¥¦¡`§BÑ`ž‰¤ i £"ç#«ÎZ¢.žè/¡}¤$¢lŸ"¢éª.§}¥sŸ

#T 6  s := a ¡`§ ¡}¢k©¨vªµ£"¡}¨I¤ ~ £"¡}¨+ž2¡}¤D¥¡}¨+ž"«Z¡I¢lŸ/¢éª.§}¥êŸ2Ï#Îu¡ ¡`§BÑ`ž‰¤ZÕ¨vÎu¡}¤D¥¦¡BÑ`ž‰¤
i £"ç#«Îk¢1žè i

Ó NT.R1ODN¶ s
ÎN_Q#W3V-YT1Ö*R1ODNOdO2 6* :NT1b3W3P*R  V(W_ 6 T1R.#NTe# ­N$“’8#@#TiY)W3PBO2T.W 6
QN 6 W 6 m¬DN5­$’G* ­V-#P*WQ)W3 6‘ N  (O(WYg)P+N=Q#R.W 6 n,“Z’ 6 -P*#YR  ) n h #Q) 6 YgWP
TfNBYP% 6 #Q#RfN(OI’ 6 S3T1W(\’Q)T.=M
Ô á—ã’âBY’  W 6 áMÉ0NOW-#T 6 R 6‘ #V/N OIQ#Wb3P*’#Q)RfN 6

x ≡ 1 mod 5

x ≡ 5 mod 11

x ≡ 2 mod 3,

 6* ’OR.NP 6 RU©kR 6‘ ) 6 W3T1’Q#R1W3 6 ­ 6 RU©kR 6* ) D¬DNT.T.NP*T.N 6i WZODN 6 M
Ó R.)OW Ô  â<­ ØØ *­V/)P%W 6 YP*R.V-W 6 OR 6‘ R1  W 6 )"YDN=P  R1Q#’T.NP# 6 W3/YP%R1V-W 6 )  P% 6 èsM
–!W3P  N  W2#T  #W3P*#V/N"Q`¬R.W2O)TcP% 6* W:NcËDP%V/N"T.N/©kR 6‘ #Q#RfN/­_’R1Q#R1ODNO_OB’DN
6 W3T1’Q#R1S3:V-SZO’T1W P = 3 × 5 × 11 = 165.
486‘ N 6 W3T1’Q#R1S3 V-SZO’T.W Ø ú âk 6
x0 = 1 × q1 × 33 + 5 × q2 × 15 + 2 × q3 × 55,
O W3O 6
O#Q)R.P# 33 × q1 ≡ 1 mod 5, 15 × q2 ≡ 1 mod 11, 55 × q3 ≡ 1 mod 3,

3 × q1 ≡ 1 mod 5, 4 × q2 ≡ 1 mod 11, q3 ≡ 1 mod 3.

4   W3Q# 6  q1 = 2, q2 = 3
­ q3 = 1
­
x0 = 1 × 2 × 33 + 5 × 3 × 15 + 2 × 1 × 55 =
٠ȃ ®c¯0°8±#²0³´e¸ 5® ¹ &® ¸'× ² » '¸ ´ Õ
Ž˜°ÖÕaº
±—²2Õ × Õ
ŽA»ŸÕWŽ ³ Õ m´ ²i¸ Ž
= 66 + 225 + 110 = 66 + 60 + 110 mod 165 = 236 mod 165 = 71 mod 165.
ÎmN 6&6 W3T1’Q#R1W3 6 O)T 6 R 6‘ #V/N ODN=OW 6 WAT1W 6 *­V/)P%W 6 #  #P*W 6 OITfNwÊ,W3P*V"N
x = 71 + 165k,
Q#W3 k ∈ Z.

Ù á—ã’âBY’  W 6 á Ó ITfNZä#N:OW 6 ONOW 6'6 R.VB’T  «NV-)  <’DN 6 WTfN h åäMWÉ0  )Pœ¬
V-R.NPIT.NYP*W3\DN\R.T.RlODNOGO"“’"’W_O/T.W 6 OW 6 P% 6 ’T  NOW 6 W3\  #R1OW 6t6 NðkÈ  6 R
6 N\#V-W 6 “’CT.N 6 ’V"N OIT.W 6 OW 6 P% 6 ’T  N=OW 6  6 ú M
Ó N )T 6 ’Q# 6 W/릒W"OjT.W 6 OW 6 P% 6 ’T  NOW 6  6 ÄÈ I­ S 0 #T 6 ’Q# 6 W/ëT.N 6 ’V/N/O
T1W 6 OW S6 P* 6 ’T  NOW 6  6 ú Mì
Ó   P+N  N OIQNT1Q#’T.NP[TfNBYP*W3\DN\R1T.RlODNOXQ)W3OR1Q#R1W3DNON O S YW3P S 0 :
p(S ∩ S 0 )
p(S|S 0 ) = .
p(S 0 )
Ê]¬W3P%N S ­ Ó
6 R.b3’I“’
0
= {(1, 5), (2, 4), (3, 3), (4, 2), (5, 1)} S ∩ S 0 = {(2, 4), (4, 2)}.

p(S ∩ S 0 ) 2
p(S|S 0 ) = 0
= .
p(S ) 5
Ý/á-â_ã cä ã’ÈY’  W 6 á0É0  #P*V/R1DNPCQ)’m«  W 6 }­V-#P*W 6 O Ù Q)R¡Ê,P+N 6 OR 6‘ R.  N 6
W  1R #)R.b3’DN OITfN 6 OW 6 YP*R.V-#P+N 6 Q)R¡Ê,P%N 6 R.b’DNT N(Q)#P%WM
ù N5­ 9 × 8 × 8 × 7 = 4032 *­V/)P%W 6 Q#W3 6‘ N 6 QNP%NQ  #Pîè 6* R.Q#N 6 M
 ٠ȃÍ
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ü?ýþ ³ üòÿ A
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ÎN O’P%NQ#R1S3:O#TUª©NV/)A 6 O Ô ¬ W3P+N 6 X ­ V-#OR.NM

Ó IYWZOPÑ«’  R.T1R¡ä#NP[T1R.\P*W 6 ­:N=Y’   6 ) 6 A
’ P*NT1RçäN=Q#R1S3 M
û]W 6 CY)P%V-R  ^#TU’ 6 W-OIQNT1Q#’T.NOW3P%N 6 M
{!WZON$P% 6 Y’ 6* N“Z’XW 6* Ð:NO#Q)’DNODNV-#  2P%Nƒä#WDNODN 6 2Q#W3 6 R.O)P+NPî«_R.Q)W3Pœ¬
P%#Q  NM
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ã?R1Ršáæã Ø Y’  *W á Ó ’YW3bN=V/W 6 “’à–!)Y-Q)W3)Q  (T1W 6 Ô WP%O)DNOW3P* 6  O1  O2
­ O3 Q#WT.N 6 jâ YDN  NT.T.N 6  P 1  P 2  P 3  P 4 ­ P 5 YWP&V-#OR1WBOIT.N 6[6 R.b3’R1#   6
Q#W3ªk© R.W3 6 ¶
(O1, P 1), (O2, P 2), (O2, P 4), (O2, P 5), (O3, P 3).
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O&’-Nƒ W<O[TfN0Q)W3V-YP+N!– #Y&Y’#ODN  P+N\N‰Ö%NP!Q#W3 #TW3P*O#NOW3P8ˌÈ{­BNTV-)W 6
’DN(YDN=  N=T.TfNjOIT.N 6 Q#W#Q  NODN 6 Q#W3uÐ)TsM
šR á Ó   P%N  N OCOW 6 ©kY#P*R.V-#  W 6 O0éi)P%W3’T.T1R R1O)Y#OR.#   6 M
ÎNtYP%W3\DN=\R.T1R1ODNO-O0“’O 6 Y’ZÐ 6 O0’XN W[–!#Y  #b3Nj’ 6 W3T1WtW3P%O)DNOWPi 6
R.b3’DN=T N(TfNBYP*W3\DN\R1T.RlODNOXOC“’ 6 C 6* P*W3Y#)_ª©N=Q  NV/)  COW 6 WP%O)DNOW3P* 6 ¶
µ ¶
3 2
p1 = p (1 − p).
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 6 R.b3’NTnNBTfNjYP*W3\DN\R.T1R1ODNO"O<“’ 6 < 6‘ P*W3Y#)Aª©NQ  NV/)  <Q#’DN  P%W YDN  NT1TfN 6 ¶
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q1 = q (1 − q) = 5q 4 (1 − q).
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4   W3Q# 6 TfNBYP*W3\DN\R1T.RlODNOX\’ 6 QN=ODN- 6
P = p1 q1 = 15p2 q 4 (1 − p)(1 − q).
R.R áÎNCYP%W\DN\R1T.R1ONO O0“’=Q)W3"TfN 6 Q)W3ª©R1W3 6 OåËR.ON 6 )2)TYP%W\T.)V"N
­-O 6 Y’ZÐ 6 O]’2NƒWtO]QT.NCQ)W3V-YP+N}–!)Y0Y’#ON  P+N\DNÄÖ%NP8Q#W"#TWP%O)DNOW3PiˌÈ
­2N=TgV-#W 6 ’DNBYN  NT.T.NC 6 )TnYP%WZO’Q  WBO^T.NtYP%W3\N\R.T1R1ODN=O p = 1 − p O^“’
#TUWP%O)DNOW3P O2 Ê,’Q)R.W3IYWP'T.N YP%W3\DN=\R.T1R1ODNO q = 1 − q OC“’—Ê,’Q)R.W3CNT
2

V/)W 6 ’DN(OITfN 6 YDN  NT1TfN 6 O#TUQ#W‰Ö*’  W {P 2, P 4, P 5}.

3
2

4   W3Q# 6 TfNBYP*W3\DN\R1T.RlODNOX\’ 6 QN=ODN- 6

Q = p2 q2 = (1 − p)(1 − q 3 ).

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(5, 6), (2, 3), (4, 6), (6, 5), (6, 4), (7, 7), (3, 2)}.
šR áãôÚkêM âtY’  W 6 áÉ0  )P%V-R.DNP 6 R h #P%R‚ËDQNjTfN 6 YP*W3YR.)ODNO 6 P%}€D©kR h N 6 R.VàÐ  P%R1QN
N=  R 6 R1VàÐ  P*R1QNt­  P%N 6 R  R h NM
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6 RU 6 ’DN(P%)TfNQ)R.S3XOIW3P*O#nM
R.R1R áPãŠÚžM â Y’  W 6 á Ó RU 6 ’DN(P*#TfN=Q#R.S:OI#“’R h NT1#Q)RfNO  )P%V-R.DN=P 6 ’ 6 Q)TfN 6  6
O^#“’R h NT1#Q)RfNM Ó Rn 6 O^W3P*O#nO  #P%V-R1DNP 6 Rg 6 ’NBP*#TfN=Q#R1S3"O0W3P%O)  W  NTˆM

Ršá 486 P%}€D©kR h N-Y’ 6 R Q#W  R1#ITfNBORfNbW3DNT ∆.

476{6 R1V+Ð  P*R.QNt­N(“Z’ 6 R (x, y) ∈ R, #  W3Q) 6' NVB\R¡Ð# (y, x) ∈ R.
û]W2 6 N=  R 6 R1VàÐ  P*R1Q#N-­N"“’ YWP0Ö*)V/YT1W (2, 3) ­ (3, 2) 6 W3)T.#V-)  W 6 O
R.
476' P%N 6 R  R h NnM ÎUW 6 QN 6 W 6 W  P%R h RfNT1 6[6 W3
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(4, 5), (5, 6) ∈ R (4, 6) ∈ R, (4, 6), (6, 5) ∈ R (4, 5) ∈ R,
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(6, 5), (5, 4) ∈ R (6, 4) ∈ R, (6, 4), (4, 5) ∈ R (6, 5) ∈ R.
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­  P+N= 6 R  R h NMnû]W( 6 OCWP%O)­N(“’IW- 6 N  R 6 R.VàÐ  P%R1Q#NM
R.R1R áWÎmN 6 Q#T.N 6  6 OC)“’R h NT.)Q#R.N O R 6 W3Q#’N  P*W¶
C1 = {1}, C2 = {2, 3}, C4 = {4, 5, 6}, C7 = {7}.

f#”•=–—?–—,‹ Ž šŒã Ø Y’  W*á

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šR áPãôÚžM ÈâBY’  W 6 á 2143 + 80100 ≡ 3 mod 5 
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R.R1R á
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R h á—ãôÚkêM ÈâBY’  W 6 á 3 ≡ 3 × 3 ≡ 3 mod 5 M
7 2 3
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