1) Explain renewable energy, mention various forms of the same and elaborate on its

potential in Indian Scenario.

Ans.

Renewable energy sources are sources that are continuously replenished by natural processes.

For example, solar energy, wind energy, bio-energy - bio-fuels grown sustainably, hydropower

etc., are some of the examples of renewable energy sources.

A renewable energy system converts the energy found in sunlight, wind, falling-water,
seawaves, geothermal heat, or biomass into a form, we can use such as heat or electricity. Most
of the renewable energy comes either directly or indirectly from sun and wind and can never be
exhausted, and therefore they are called renewable.

Solar: India receives solar energy in the region of 5 to 7 kWh/m2 for 300 to 330 days in a year.

This energy is sufficient to set up 20 MW solar power plant per square kilometre land area.

Wind Energy : India has been rated as one of the most promising countries for wind power

development, with an estimated potential of 20,000 MW.

Biomass fuels account for about one-third of the total fuel used in the country. It is the

most important fuel used in over 90% of the rural households and about 15% of the urban

households. Using only local resources, namely cattle waste and other organic wastes, energy

and manure are derived. Thus the biogas plants are the cheap sources of energy in rural areas

Cogeneration : Cogeneration improves viability and profitability of sugar industries. Indian

sugar mills are rapidly turning to bagasse, the leftover of cane after it is crushed and its juice

extracted, to generate electricity. This is mainly being done to clean up the environment, cut

down power costs and earn additional revenue. According to current estimates, about 3500

MW of power can be generated from bagasse in the existing 430 sugar mills in the country.

Around 270 MW of power has already been commissioned and more is under construction.
 2) What is the need of non conventional energy resource?

Renewable energy sources also called non-conventional energy, are sources that are continuously
replenished by natural processes. For example, solar energy, wind energy, bio-energy -

bio-fuels grown sustain ably), hydropower etc., are some of the examples of renewable energy

sources

A renewable energy system converts the energy found in sunlight, wind, falling-water, seawaves,
geothermal heat, or biomass into a form, we can use such as heat or electricity. Most of

the renewable energy comes either directly or indirectly from sun and wind and can never be

exhausted, and therefore they are called renewable.

However, most of the world's energy sources are derived from conventional sources-fossil

fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gases. These fuels are often termed non-renewable energy

sources. Although, the available quantity of these fuels are extremely large, they are nevertheless
finite and so will in principle 'run out' at some time in the future

Renewable energy sources are essentially flows of energy, whereas the fossil and nuclear

fuels are, in essence, stocks of energy

Various forms of renewable energy

Solar energy

Wind energy

Bio energy

Hydro energy

Geothermal energy

Wave and tidal energy

3) Define solar Radiation?
Solar radiation refers to the electromagnetic radiation that reaches the Earth from the
Sun. At an average distance of 150 million kilometres from the Sun, the outer atmosphere
of Earth receives approximately 1367 W/m² of insolation (World Meteorological
Organisation). This varies by around ±2% due to fluctuations in emissions from the Sun
itself as well as by ±3.5% due to seasonal variations in distance and solar altitude.

4) Define Solar declination

Solar declination is the angle between the sun’s rays and a plane passing through
the equator. The solar declination depends only on the day of the year. The declination
is also equal to the latitude at which the sun is directly overhead at solar noon on the
given day. The declination is positive when the sun is directly overhead north of the
equator (December 21
through June 21) and it is negative when the sun is directly overhead south of the
equator (June 21 through December 21). The solar declination, δ, can be
calculated from the equation:
δ = (23.45o)sin[360 o (284 + n)/365]
Where n is the day number in the year, with January 1 as 1.
The solar declination has a maximum value of + 23.45 o on June 21 and a minimum
value of
– 23.45 o on December 21.

Example: What is the value of the solar declination on February 15?

Solution: The value of n for February 15 is 31 + 15 = 46

Equation (3), with the value 46 substituted for n becomes:
δ = (23.45)sin[360(284 + 46)/365] = (23.45 o)sin[325.5 o]
δ = -13.3 o

5) Define Solar Hour Angle( ω)

The Solar Hour Angle is a measure of the position of the sun relative to solar
noon at a given time at any given location on the earth. The hour angle, ω, is zero
when the sun is directly overhead (local solar noon). It is negative before local
solar noon and is positive in the afternoon. The hour angle changes by 15 o each
hour, or one degree in 4 minutes.

Solar time can be calculated from the following equation:

Solar Time = local standard time + ET + (lst – llocal)(4 min/degree)
 Where lst is the standard time meridian in the local time zone, llocal is the local
meridian, and ET is the equation of time in minutes, given by the equation:
ET = 9.87 sin(2B) – 7.53 cos(B) – 1.5 sin(B)
Where B = 360(n – 81)/364 degrees

6) Define Solar Altitude Angle

The Solar Altitude Angle is the angle between the sun’s rays and a horizontal plane. When
the sun is just rising or setting, the altitude angle is zero. When the sun is directly overhead,
the altitude

angle is 90 o. The solar altitude angle, α, can be calculated for any location and and time from
the latitude, Φ, solar declination, δ, and solar hour angle, ω, using the following equation:

Solar Altitude Angle, Φ

Sin Φ = sin L sin δ + cos L cos δ cos ω

Example : Calculate the solar altitude angle, α , for solar noon on February

15, in St. Louis, MO (latitude: 38.75o N)

Solution: From above Example , the solar declination, δ , on February 15, is – 13.3 o

The hour angle, ω, is zero at solar noon, and the latitude is given in the problem

statement as 38.75 o

Sin Φ = sin(38.75 o) sin(-13.3 o) + cos(38.75 o) cos (-13.3 O) cos( 0 )

Calculating (with conversion of degrees to radians if needed) gives:

Sin Φ = 0.615

Φ = sin-1(0.615) = 0.6624 radians = 37.9 o = Φ

Term Definition Diagram

Time when the sun is directly

overhead position of interest. Each
Solar Noon hour away from this position
corresponds to a 15odeviation (hour
angle).

The angle between the vertical and

the line to the sun. This is also the
angle of incidence on a horizontal
Zenith
surface for beam radiation.
Angle (θz)
Additionally, the Solar Altitude angle
is defined as the compliment of the
zenith angle.

The deviation angle from due South

Solar
for the projection of the sun's position
Azimuth
on the horizontal plane (-180o for
Angle (γs)
Each, +180o for West)
 The deviation angle from due South
Surface
for the surface's normal vector
Azimuth
projected onto the horizontal plane (-
Angle (γ)
180o for Each, +180o for West)

The angular position of the sun (at

solar noon) with respect to the plane
of the equator. The angle varies
seasonally due to the Earth's tilt and
Declination
can be calculated for a given day
Angle (δ)
using:

δ = 23.45 sin[ 360 (284 + n) / 365 ]

where n is day of the year
 Angle between the collecting surface
and the horizontal plane. In order to
maximize the solar yield over the
entire year, this angle should be set
Slope (β) equal to the latitude. Steeper angles
can be utilized to optimize for winter
months. Likewise, shallow angles are
used to optimize solar yield during
the summer months.

The rate at which radiant energy is

Irradiance incident on a surface per unit area of -
surface (W/m2)
The incident energy per unit area on a
Irradiation surface (integration of irradiance over -
a specific time J/m2

Calculating the Position of the Sun and Angle of Incidence

To calculate the sun’s position and the angle of incidence for a known surface at a given time
and location.

Initial Calculations and known values:

Angle of Declination (δ) = 23.45 sin[ 360 (284 + n) / 365 ]
Hour Angle (ω)= (Number of Hours from Solar Noon) x 15o
Surface Azimuth (γ) = Orientation of surface measured from due South
Slope (β): Slope of surface
Latitude(Φ) of Location

Using these variables the consine of the angle of incidence of beam radiation on the surface is:
cosθ = sinδ sinΦ cosβ – sinδ cosΦ sinβ cosγ + cosδ cosΦ cosβ cosω + cosδ sinΦ sinβ cosγ
cosω + cosδ sinβ sinγ sinω
The zenith angle (θz) can be found setting the slope (β) equal to zero in this equation. With
the zenith angle found, the solar azimuth angle (γs) can be calculated as follows:
γs = sign(ω) |cos-1 [ (cosθz sinΦ – sinδ) / (sin θz cosΦ) ]

7) write about Solar Radiation Measuring Instruments (Radiometers)?

A radiometer absorbs solar radiation at its sensor, transforms it into heat and measures
the resulting amount of heat to ascertain the level of solar radiation. Methods of
measuring heat include taking out heat flux as a temperature change (using a water flow
pyrheliometer, a silver-disk pyrheliometer or a bimetallic pyranograph) or as a
thermoelectromotive force (using a thermoelectric pyrheliometer or a thermoelectric
pyranometer).
Direct normal Solar Irradiance – Pyrheliometers
The direct normal component of the solar irradiance can be measured by an instrument
called Normal

• Pyrheliometer: (1) protection cap, (2) window with heater, (3) sight, (5) sensor, (7)
humidity indicator, (10) cable for heater
A pyrheliometer is an instrument used to measure the direct solar radiation at a given location.
Since they need to be pointed directly at the sun, pyrheliometers are typically mounted on a
tracking device that follows the sun’s movements. After sunlight enters the pyrheliometer, it is
converted to an electrical voltage by a thermopile. This voltage can then be calibrated to give
units of watts per square meter, the standard units of solar irradiance. Pyrheliometers are used for
scientific research and for placing solar panels.
Solar irradiance is a measure of the flux of solar radiation, or the solar energy per unit time, per
unit area. It depends on the location of measurement—solar irradiance near the surface of the sun
will be much larger than at the distance of Earth. In fact, there are variations in solar irradiance
across the surface of Earth; these depend on the amount of atmosphere sunlight must penetrate,
and, to a lesser extent, differences in distance from the sun. The average solar irradiance at
Earth’s distance from the sun is about 1,366 watts per square meter.

8) Write about Pyranometers?

Radiometers designed for measuring the irradiance on a plane surface, normally from
solar radiation and lamps.
The instruments are used in meteorological research, solar energy research, material
testing, climate control in greenhouses, building physics, science and many other
applications
• To make a measurement of irradiance, it is required by definition that the response to
“beam” radiation varies with the cosine of the angle of incidence,
– so that there will be a full response when the solar radiation hits the sensor
perpendicularly (normal to the surface, sun at zenith, 0 degrees angle of
incidence)
– zero response when the sun is at the horizon (90 degrees angle of incidence, 90
degrees zenith angle)
– and 0.5 at 60 degrees angle of incidence.
• Therefore, a pyranometer should have a so-called “directional response” or “cosine
response” that is close to the ideal cosine characteristic.
• In order to attain the proper directional and spectral characteristics, a pyranometer’s main
components are:
• A thermopile sensor with a black coating. This sensor absorbs all solar radiation, has a
flat spectrum covering the 300 to 50,000 nm range, and has a near-perfect cosine
response.
• A glass dome: limits the spectral response from 300 to 2,800 nanometers (cutting off the
part above 2,800 nm), while preserving the 180 degrees field of view. Another function
of the dome is that it shields the thermopile sensor from convection.
• The black coating on the thermopile sensor absorbs the solar radiation. This radiation is
converted to heat. The heat flows through the sensor to the pyranometer housing. The
 thermopile sensor generates a voltage output signal that is proportional to the solar
radiation.

(1) sensor, (2, 3) glass domes, (5) cable, standard length 5 m, (9) desiccant.

9) Write about different types of solar energy Collectors?

1)Flat-plate collector
Use both beam and diffuse solar radiation, do not require tracking of the sun, and are
low-maintenance, inexpensive and mechanically simple.
Flat Plate Collectors Of the many solar collector concepts presently being developed,
the relatively simple flat plate solar collector has found the widest application so far. Its
characteristics are known, and compared with other collector types, it is the easiest
and least expensive to fabricate, install, and maintain. Moreover, it is capable of using
both the diffuse and the direct beam solar radiation. For residential and commercial use,
flat plate collectors can produce heat at sufficiently high temperatures to heat swimming
pools, domestic hot water, and buildings; they also can operate a cooling unit,
particularly if the incident sunlight is increased by the use of a reflector. Flat plate
collectors easily attain temperatures of 40 to 70ºC. With very careful engineering using
special surfaces, reflectors to increase the incident radiation, and heat-resistant
materials, higher operating temperatures are feasible. The main components of a flat
plate solar collector:

Absorber plate made of any material, which will rapidly absorb heat from sun's rays and
quickly transfer that heat to the tubes or fins attached in some manner, which produces a
good thermal bond. Tubes or fins for conducting or directing the heat transfer
fluid from the inlet header or duct to the outlet. Glazing, this may be one or more sheets
of glass or a diathermanous (radiation transmitting) plastic film or sheet.Thermal
insulation, which minimizes downward heat loss from the plate. Cover strip, to hold the
 other components in position and make it all Watertight.Container or Casing, which
surrounds
the foregoing components and keeps them free from dust, moisture, etc. Flat plate solar
collectors are classified into Water-type (hydronic) collectors, using water as the heat-
transfer fluid. Air-type collectors, using air as the heat-transfer fluid.

10) Write about Parabolic trough collector?

 Consist of parallel rows of mirrors (reflectors) curved in one dimension to focus the sun’s
rays.
All parabolic trough plants currently in commercial operation rely on synthetic oil as the
fluid that transfers heat from collector pipes to heat exchangers

Linear Fresnel reflector

 Approximate the parabolic trough systems but by using long rows of flat or slightly
curved mirrors to reflect the sun’s rays onto a downward-facing linear, fixed receiver.
 Simple design of flexibly bent mirrors and fixed receivers requires lower investment
costs and facilitates direct steam generation.
Parabolic dish reflector
 Concentrate the sun’s rays at a focal point propped above the centre of the dish. The
entire apparatus tracks the sun, with the dish and receiver moving in tandem.
 Most dishes have an independent engine/generator (such as a Stirling machine or a
micro-turbine) at the focal point.
 Heliostat field collector

 A heliostat is a device that includes a plane mirror which turns so as to keep reflecting
sunlight toward a predetermined target.
 Heliostat field use hundreds or thousands of small reflectors to concentrate the sun’s rays
on a central receiver placed atop a fixed tower.

11) Write about solar water heater?

Solar water heating systems use the Solar Energy to heat the water from direct sunlight.
These
have earned worldwide appreciation because of their immense help in reducing the
carbon
footprints and to save energy. Water heating needs consume a lion’s share of the energy
produced and SWHS aim at reducing this energy need. Solar water heaters are very
beneficial to
the user because:
• Solar water heaters save electricity and thus money; electricity is becoming more and
more expensive and its availability is becoming unreliable
• Solar water heaters are non-polluting
• Solar water heaters are safer than electric geysers as they are located on the roof
• A Solar water heating of system off capacity 100LPD (litres per day) can save
approximately 1500 units an year and hence can prevent the emission of 1.5 tonnes of
CO2 each year.
The success of solar water heaters in India can be demonstrated from the fact that more
than
20,000 domestic systems are installed every year in the country.
3.1.2 Working:
• A typical domestic solar water heater consists of a hot water storage tank and one or
more
flat plate collectors.
• The collectors are glazed on the sun facing side to allow solar radiation to come in.
• A black absorbing surface (absorber) inside the flat plate collectors absorbs solar
radiation and transfers the energy to water flowing through it.
• Heated water is collected in the tank which is insulated to prevent heat loss.
• Circulation of water from the tank through the collectors and back to the tank continues
automatically due to density difference between hot and cold water (thermo-siphon
effect).
The main parts of solar water heating system include a solar collector, an insulated tank,
supporting stands, connecting pipes and instrumentation.
The type and complexity of SWSH is determined by many factors and some of them have
been
broadly categorised as follows:
• The changes in ambient temperature during the day-night cycle.
• Changes in ambient temperature and solar radiation between summer and winter.
• The temperature of the water required from the system.
• The amount of water required from the system per unit time
The systems can be differentiated on the following basis:
• The type of collector used
• The location of the collector - roof mount, ground mount, wall mount
• The location of the storage tank in
relation to the collector
• The method of heat transfer - openloop or closed-loop (via heat
exchanger)
• Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collectors can be designed to produce both hot water
and
electricity.
Passive System:
Passive solar technologies are means of using sunlight for useful energy without use of
active
mechanical or electrical systems. Conventional Heat Storage Units (CHS) implement
passive
solar water heating. These are often plate type or evacuated tube collectors with built-in
insulated tanks. The unit uses convection (movement of hot water upward) to move the
water
from collector to tank. Neither pumps nor electricity are used to enforce circulation. A
CHS is
also known as a compact system or mono-block has a tank for the heated water and a
solar
collector mounted on the same chassis. Typically these systems will function by natural
convection or heat pipes to transfer the heat energy from the collector to the tank.
The main advantages of Passive Solar water heating systems are:
• No mechanical or electrical parts are present
• Very low maintenance
• Lower cost
• Longer life
Active SWHS:
Active solar hot water systems employ a pump to circulate water or HTF between the
collector
and the storage tank. Because the pump should only operate when the fluid in the
collector is
hotter than the water in the storage tank, a controller is required to turn the pump on and
off.
 Active systems can tolerate higher water temperatures than would be the case in an
equivalent
passive system. Consequently active systems are often more efficient than passive
systems but
are more complex, more expensive, more difficult to install and rely on either mains or
PV
sourced electricity to run the pump and controller. The use of an electronically controlled
pump
has several advantages:
• The storage tank can be situated lower than the collectors. In passive systems the
storage tank must be located above the collector so that the thermo siphon effect can
transport water or HTF from collector to tank.
• Because of the fact that active systems allow freedom in the location of the storage
tank, the tank can be located where heat loss from the tank is reduced, e.g. inside the
roof of a house.
• New active solar water heating systems can make use of an existing warm water
storage tanks ("geysers"), thus avoiding duplication of equipment
• Reducing the risk of overheating. If no water from the solar hot water system is used
(e.g. when water users are away), the water in the storage tank is likely to overheat.
Several pump controllers avoid overheating by activating the pump during the day at
during times of low sunlight, or at night. This pumps hot water or HTF from the
storage tank through the collector (which can be cool in low light levels), thus cooling
the water in the storage tank.
• Reducing the risk of freezing. For direct active systems in cold weather, where freeze
tolerant collectors or drain down approaches are not used, the pump controller can
pump hot water from the water storage tank through the collector in order to prevent
the water in the collector from freezing, thus avoiding damage to the metal parts of
the system.

12) Write about Passive Solar Space Heating Systems

Passive solar space heating – house acts as solar collector and storage facility

• Passive solar space heating – heat flows by natural means, no mechanical devices such as
pumps or fans
• Sunlight collected through south-facing windows and the energy is stored in the thermal
mass of the building (concrete, water, stone etc.)

• More solar energy transmitted through glass than is lost through the same windows over
24 hrs

• Sunlight is kept out during summer using roof overhangs (sun is higher in the sky)

• Essential elements of a passive solar system:

• Excellent insulation

• Solar collection (south-facing windows)

• Thermal storage

• 3 Types of passive systems

• Direct gain

• Indirect gain

• Attached solar greenhouse

• Direct gain

• Large south-facing windows admit solar radiation

• Thermal mass exposed to direct radiation absorbs radiation

• Thermal mass radiates heat back into the room at night

• Indirect gain

– Collects and stores solar energy in one part of the house and uses natural heat
transfer to distribute this heat to the rest of the house

e.g. Trombe wall

• Attached greenhouse
– Greenhouse on south-side of house
 – Acts as expanded thermal storage wall
– Windows must be insulated at night
– Concrete floors and water filled drums
used for energy storage

13) Write about Active Solar Space Heating Systems.

Active system
a. Flat plate or evacuated tube collectors (thermal storage) and mechanical means of
delivering heat into the living space
b. Working fluid may be water or air
c. FPC usually roof-mounted, storage tank in the basement
d. Auxillary heaters (electric) may be added for days with poor insolation
e. May be vertical mounted (~60% less insolation than roof)