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Sewage Treatment and Management in Goa, India: A Case Study

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Expo Health
DOI 10.1007/s12403-015-0183-5
ORIGINAL PAPER
Sewage Treatment and Management in Goa, India: A Case Study
A. Singh1 • A. Kazmi2 • M. Starkl3 • I. Bawa4 • P. Khale4 • V. Patil5
I. Nimkar6 • M. Naik6
Received: 27 July 2015 / Revised: 28 October 2015 / Accepted: 28 October 2015
Ó Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015
Abstract Water pollution in India is primarily associated
with unmanaged urbanization, population explosion, inad-
equate capacity of sewage treatment, and its disposal,
which lead to unhygienic and insanitary conditions. This
paper gives an overview on sewage treatment plants (STPs)
in Goa—a coastal state in India. Being a famous tourist
destination, it is important to monitor and control water
pollution levels in Goa state, so as to safeguard the health
of tourists and thereby the economy of the region. The
capacity-wise distribution of STPs was mapped against
regional population distribution and drainage system of
Goa using ArcGIS. This information will be very useful for
further analysis of the allocation of STPs and its adequacy
with regard to the population. A majority of STPs at Goa
are managed by private authorities like hotels and resorts.
Four municipal plants under Goa Public Works Department
were evaluated.
& A. Singh
dranjusingh@gmail.com
A. Kazmi
absarakazmi@yahoo.com
M. Starkl
markus.starkl@boku.ac.at
I. Bawa
itee.bawa@gmail.com
V. Patil
vikrant.patil20@gmail.com
I. Nimkar
indrayani.nimkar03@gmail.com
M. Naik
mayurimrn02@gmail.com
1
Industrial Safety and Environmental Management, National
Institute of Industrial Engineering (NITIE), Mumbai, India
•
Keywords Sewage
STPs
Goa
GIS
Introduction
India’s 14 major, 55 minor, and several hundred small
rivers receive millions of liters of sewage, industrial, and
agricultural wastes which are the major sources of surface
as well as ground water pollution in the country. Currently,
the available capacity is able to treat only 10 percent of the
generated wastewater and the rest is discharged untreated
into nearby water bodies (MoEF 2011–2012). In urban
areas, the amount of sewage generated is estimated about
22,900 MLD for which 5900 MLD treatment capacity is
available. This shows that there is a large gap between
generation and treatment capacity of domestic wastewater
in India (Envis Centre 2012).
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology (IIT), Roorkee, India
3
Competence Centre for Decision Aid in Environmental
Management, University of Natural Resources and Life
Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, Austria
4
Supporting Consolidation, Replication and Upscaling of
Sustainable Wastewater Treatment and Reuse Technologies
in India (SARASWATI), National Institute of Industrial
Engineering, NITIE, Mumbai, India
5
National Institute of Industrial Engineering, NITIE, Mumbai,
India
6
Centre for Environnemental Studies (CES), National Institute
of Industrial Engineering, NITIE, Mumbai, India
123

The problem is not only of inadequacy of treatment
capacity but also operation and maintenance of the existing
treatment plants. A solution to this problem not only
requires bridging the ever widening gap between sewage
generation and treatment capacity, but also development of
facilities to divert the treated sewage water for reuse in
irrigation, which will eventually prevent nutrient pollution
of water bodies and bring down fresh water consumption
for irrigation. In spite of the urgency of saving large
number of river stretches from pollution, and recycling
treated sewage for reducing ever increasing pressure on our
water resources, sewage treatment and reuse remains a
neglected field in our country (CPCB 2005).
History of STP in Goa
Goa is the smallest state in India, with a geographical area of
3702 km2, 1736 km2 in North Goa and 1966 km2 in South
Goa (IL&FS Infrastructure 2012). Goa is one of the most
visited state in India, Fig. 1 shows the tourist arrival trend in
Goa from the year 1985 to 2013. Sanitation in urban areas is
provided through urban sewerage schemes being imple-
mented by the Public Health Engineering Wing of the State
Public Works Department (PWD) (PWD GOA 2005). Most
of the cities in Goa do not have a sewerage system.
According to a study by The Energy Research Institute
(TERI), only 13 % of Goa’s urban population is served
with sewerage system as against the Indian average of
28 %. Most of the population is still dependent on tradi-
tional septic tank and soak pit for wastewater disposal
(Report of Golden Jubilee Development Council 2012)
which increases the chances of groundwater contamination
or drinking water (Indian Sanitation Portal 2013).
Literature
A study conducted by TERI stated that the groundwater in
coastal Bardez district is stressed due to contamination
with human-generated waste. In the coastal belt, there have
been reports of contamination of groundwater from over-
loaded septic tanks. The infrastructure to collect, pump,
and treat sewage is inadequate and needs urgent
Fig. 1 Tourist arrival trend in
Goa (Ref: Department of 3000000
Tourism, Govt. of Goa 2011– 2500000
2012, 2012–2013)
2000000
1500000
1000000
500000
0
123
A. Singh et al.
augmentation (Planning Commission 2011). Goa realized
the importance of sanitation, and the Rural Sanitation
Programme was started in the year 1984 (Borker 2013),
and the Sewerage Network for Panaji Town was taken up
in the year 1960. Sewer Network for Margao was installed
in 1990 and for Vasco Town was installed in 1985.
Although 85 % areas of Panaji, 40 % of Margao, and
80 % of Vasco municipalities were provided with sewerage
network, the percentage of households connected to the
sewerage network in Panaji capital area was 95 %; whereas
in the towns of Margao and Vasco in South Goa, the
Department could provide only 7 and 19 % household
connections, respectively, due to poor public response.
Table 1 represents the number of households having
different types of drainages available in 2001 and 2011 in
rural and urban Goa region. From the collected data, it was
observed that two types of drainage systems were available
in Goa, namely open and close drainage. Out of total
number of 322,813 households from North and South Goa,
100,801 households are not having drainage facility, which
contributes to almost 31 % of total population.
In North Goa Urban region during 2001, 28,088
households had closed drainage facility, 18,710 households
had open drainage facility, whereas 23,820 households did
not had any drainage facility; on the other hand, during
2011, 54,516 households had closed drainage facility,
23,267 households had open drainage facility, whereas
29,890 households did not had any drainage facility. Thus,
from 2001 to 2011, the number of households with closed
drainage increased by approximately 48 % and that of open
drainage increased by 15 %. In North Goa Rural region,
during 2001, 9052 households had closed drainage facility,
18,440 households had open drainage facility, whereas
57,617 households did not had any drainage facility; on the
other hand, during 2011, 16,588 households had closed
drainage facility, 20,513 households had open drainage
facility, whereas 34,311 households did not had any drai-
nage facility. Is this required? We are repeating the table.
In South Goa Urban region during 2001, 24,670
households had closed drainage facility, 24,115 households
had open drainage facility, whereas 19,058 households did
not had any drainage facility; on the other hand, during
Trourism trend in Goa
Domesc
Foreign
Sewage Treatment and Management in Goa, India: A Case Study

Table 1 Distribution of households with type of drainage for North and South Goa (Ref: Census info India 2011)
Type of drainage Year
Rural Urban Total
2001 2011 % increase 2001 2011 % increase 2001 2011 % increase

North Goa
Closed 9052 16,588 45.43 28,088 54,516 48.47 37,140 71,104 47.76
Open 18,440 20,513 10.10 18,710 23,267 19.58 37,150 43,780 15.14
None 57,617 34,311 -67.92 23,820 29,890 20.30 81,437 64,201 -26.84
South Goa
Closed 7187 15,822 54.57 24,670 53,992 54.30 31,857 69,814 54.36
Open 12,071 14,628 17.48 24,115 22,686 -6.29 36,186 37,314 3.02
None 36,388 22,812 -59.51 19,058 13,788 -38.22 55,446 36,600 -51.49

2011, 53,992 households had closed drainage facility,
22,686 households had open drainage facility, whereas
13,788 households did not had any drainage facility. Thus,
from 2001 to 2011, the number of households with closed
drainage increased by approximately 54 % and that of open
drainage increased by 3 %. In South Goa Rural region,
during 2001, 7187 households had closed drainage facility,
12,071 households had open drainage facility, whereas
36,388 households did not had any drainage facility; on the
other hand, during 2011, 15,822 households had closed
drainage facility, 14,628 households had open drainage
facility, whereas 22,812 households did not had any drai-
nage facility.
physio-chemical treatment is the primary treatment to the
raw sewage. SBRs are typically used at flow rates of 5
MGD or less. The more sophisticated operation required at
larger SBR plants tends to discourage the use of these
plants for large flow rates. The plant is designed in
accordance with the characteristics of influent and effluent
according to the guidelines set up by the ‘CPHEEO Man-
ual,’ published by the Govt. of India. Equalization, primary
clarification (in most cases), biological treatment, and
secondary clarification can be achieved in a single-reactor
vessel.
Application of GIS in Mapping of STPs in India

Technologies Used in STPs of Goa
Extended aeration (EA), Moving Bed Bio Reactor
(MBBR), and Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) are some
of the technologies used for treatment of Sewage water in
Goa; out of the plants we studied in Goa, Extended Aera-
tion and Sequencing Batch Reactor are the technologies
used in maximum plants to treat sewage.
Extended aeration is a method of sewage treatment
using modified activated sludge. It is preferred for rela-
tively small waste loads, where lower operating efficiency
is offset by mechanical simplicity. Extended Aeration
Treatment System consists of comparatively low-loaded
activated sludge technology with very high level of oxygen
transfer efficiency. It is simple in construction and gives
very low bio-solids production.
SBR technology is a set of tanks that operate on fill-and-
draw basis. The tank may be an earthen or oxidation ditch,
each tank is filled for a discrete period of time and then
operated as batch reactor (Ref:-UNESCO-EOLSS 2015). In
SBR technology, unlike various processes of treatments,
the raw sewage obtained for the treatment undergoes
physio-chemical & biological treatment. The first part of
Assessment of site suitability for management of waste is
needed to prevent environmental degradation. If the proper
location for the sewage treatment plant is not selected, then
it may lead to soil contamination flowed by ground water
pollution. Therefore, proper collection and safe disposal of
sewage is become a necessity in an urbanized sector.
Geographical information system (GIS) can be used as a
decision support tool for planning of waste management.
GIS is a computer-based tool used to collect, store,
manipulate, analyze, and display spatially reference infor-
mation (Burrough and McDonnell 1998). The process of
GIS production, from data creation to analysis to visual-
ization and use of GIS output, is characterized by political,
economical, and social motivations that bias their use
(Bunch et al. 2012). Benujah and Devi (2013) analyzed the
characteristics of the area situated in the southern portion
of Tamil Nadu, India through filed survey and visual
interpretation of satellite image. They found out suit-
able site for STPs and classified as good, moderate, and
poor. Patil and Kulkarni 2012 designed collection system
for Islampur town in Maharashtra, by use of GIS as a tool
for mapping the collection system. Bunch et al. 2012
analyzed de-centralized treatment plants using GIS

123
 A. Singh et al.

techniques in south Chennai city. Demand for STPs is Further, the population concentration and distribution of
increasing because of urbanization. Remote sensing and STPs were studied to identify the areas requiring estab-
GIS make it easier to get valuable information about the lishment of more STPs. Forest area was digitized to show
study area. protected area in Goa.
In the presented paper, we have studied the current
status of sewage treatment facilities in the Goa State. In
this study, we assessed sewage treatment plants in Goa and Results and discussion
collected 12 samples (inlet and outlet) from four municipal
sewage treatment plants Tonca, Margao, Vasco, and Patto Households in Goa are having three types of toilet systems
in Goa. Also we have mapped sewage network using viz. water closet, pit toilet, and other toilet. Out of total
ArcGIS software to study the distribution of sewage population of Goa state, maximum numbers of households
treatment plants according to the population density. (74 %) are equipped with water closet type of system,
whereas almost 20 % of households are not having any
type of toilet system (Fig. 2).
Methodology The STPs are based on a range of technologies involving
varying levels of automation, energy inputs, land require-
This paper presents study of STPs in Goa to evaluate ments, costs, skilled manpower, etc. Figure 3 shows state
current status of sewage treatment in the state. Secondary of Goa on Indian Map. Table 1 shows the distribution of
data were collected and collated from various sources such households with the type of drainage for North Goa and
as CPCB, Public Works Department (PWD) Goa, Sewer- South Goa. Table 2 shows source-wise distribution of STPs
age & Infrastructural Development Corporation of Goa Ltd according to the type of sewage water treatment plant.
(SIDCGL 2013), other reports, research papers, etc. Data Table 3 shows the capacity-wise classification of STPs.
have also been received and validated by various authori- Table 4 shows the technology-wise distribution of STPs
ties in Goa who are concerned with Sewage management
such as PWD, SIDCGL, various reports, and research
papers. Toilet system in Goa
Four Municipal (PWD) plants from Goa were visited for Water closet Pit toilet Other toilet No toilet
developing a case study based on technical, social, finan-
cial, and management questionnaire and sampling for
20%
physico-chemical and microbiological parameters. A
1%
comparative study was conducted to compare all these 5%
plants and their different technologies.
Grab samples were collected from inlet and outlet of the 74%
four municipal plants at Tonca, Margao, Vasco, and Patto,
and these samples were then analyzed for relevant physico-
chemical and microbiological parameters like pH, con- Fig. 2 Status of toilet system in Goa (Ref: Census info India 2014)
ductivity, turbidity, chemical oxygen demand (COD),
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), oil & gas (O&G),
total solids (TS), residual chlorine, total ammoniacal
nitrogen (TAN), total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), phosphate,
dissolved oxygen (DO), and total fecal coliform (TFC)
using American Public Health Association (APHA) stan-
dard procedures (Morrison et al. 2004).
A questionnaire was prepared to develop a case study on
each of these plants. The case study is tabulated in Table 6.
ArcGIS10.1 was further used for mapping the 177
plants. The data were generated in excel and further
exported in ArcGIS 10.1 for generation of a feature class.
The drainage network for Goa was also digitized and
classified to Canal, Drain, River, Stream, and Weir. Taluka
boundaries for 11 Talukas for the two regions viz North
and South Goa were digitized and the census data were
merged to this polygon and feature class was generated. Fig. 3 Location of the state of Goa on Indian map

123
Sewage Treatment and Management in Goa, India: A Case Study

Table 2 Source-wise distribution of STPs in Goa installed in private hotels and residential complexes
Sr. no Plant types No. of plants
(Table 2).
The capacity of STPs varies from 0.001 MLD to 14
1 Municipal 4 MLD. Capacity of private STPs was not known, as all
2 Institutional 3 private STPs are having packaged treatment technology
3 Private (hotels and residential complexes) 170 with very little capacity. The seven existing plants are
evenly distributed as far as the capacity of the plant is
concerned into three categories viz. small size plants (0–5
Table 3 Capacity-wise distribution of STPs in Goa MLD), medium-sized plants (5–10 MLD), and large plants
Sr. no Capacity No. of plants (10–50 MLD) (Table 3).
Depending upon the sources and their sewage charac-
1 0–5 MLD 174
teristics, different treatment methodologies have been
2 5–10 MLD 1
employed in different STPs. This selection of technology
3 10–50 MLD 2
was based on past experience and its perceived perfor-
mance efficiency. A total of five technologies were used in
treatment plants, out of which Sequential Batch Reactor
Table 4 Technology-wise distribution of STPs in Goa
(SBR) is predominantly used (three plants). The other
Sr. Technology Municipal Institutional Private Total technology used is Extended Aeration (1), Activated
no. STPs STPs STPs STPs
Sludge Process (1), Trickling Filter (1), and Moving Bed
1 Extended aeration 3 0 0 3 Bio Reactor (1). The first C-Tech SBR technology plant in
(EA) India was installed at Tonca. Due to successful perfor-
2 Moving bed bio 0 0 1 1 mance of this technology, PWD of Goa is promoting
reactor (MBBR) C-Tech plants in future (Table 4). Technology of private
3 Sequencing batch 1 2 0 3 STPs was not known, and hence could not be added to
reactor (SBR)
above table.
4 *Unknown 0 0 170 170
Goa is divided into two districts viz. North Goa and
Total 4 2 171 177
South Goa, which is further divided into 11 Talukas. North
* Technology of private STPs was unknown Goa consists of six Talukas vis. Tiswadi (Panaji), Bardez
(Mapusa), Pernem, Bicholim, Sattari (Valpoi), and Ponda,
along with plant types. Table 5 shows the distribution whereas South Goa is further divided into five Talukas vis.
between North and South Goa on the basis of population Mormugao, Salcete (Margao), Quepem, Canacona
data. (Chaudi), and Sanguem. North Goa has more population
There are 177 STPs in Goa out of which four are density (817,761) than South Goa (639,962) (Table 5).
municipal which Public Works Department (PWD) super- Sludge is produced from the treatment of wastewater in
vises, three STPs are Institutional, and 170 STPs are on-site and off-site systems as primary aim of wastewater

Table 5 Distribution of
District/taluka Capital Area (km2) Population 2001 Population 2011 % increase
population in Talukas of South
and North Goa (Ref: Census North Goa Panaji 1736 758,573 817,761 7.24
info India 2011)
Pernem Pernem 242 71,999 75,720 4.91
Bardez Mapusa 265 227,695 237,689 4.20
Tiswadi Panjim 166 160,091 176,799 9.45
Bicholim Bicholim 236 90,734 97,922 7.34
Satari Valpoi 513 58,613 63,754 8.06
Ponda Ponda 252 149,441 165,877 9.91
South Goa Margao 1966 589,095 639,962 7.95
Mormugao Vasco da Gama 78 144,949 154,150 5.97
Salcete Margao 277 262,035 294,418 11.00
Quepem Quepem 437 74,034 81,174 8.80
Sanguem Sanguem 887 64,080 65,035 1.47
Canacona Chaudi 347 43,997 45,185 2.63
Total 3702 1,347,668 1,458,545 7.60

123

Fig. 4 Distribution of STPs and drainage network of Goa
treatment is removing solids from the wastewater. In
addition, bacterial cells degrade soluble organic sub-
stances. Sludge can be utilized in construction operations.
Also dewatered sludge can be incinerated to reduce its
volume, and incinerated ash can be utilized as soil stabi-
lization additive, roadbed material, manufacturing purpose
of bricks, clay pipe, tiles, etc. Recently, a technology has
been developed in Japan, which manufactures bricks from
incinerated fly ash. Sewage Sludge is also very useful for
agricultural purposes like fertilizer. Carbonized sludge can
be used as a conditioner for soil or soil for gardening and as
a fuel. In the process of digestion of thickened sludge,
123
A. Singh et al.
methane gas is generated so it can be used as a source of
energy as electric power generation or sometimes it can
also be supplied as a city gas (ref: Sewage Business
Management Centre 2015).
To study the distribution of STPs in Goa, drainage
network, population density, and STPs along with pro-
tected forest area were mapped using ArcGIS software.
Map shows the district-wise population distribution of
Goa and the capacity-wise distribution of STPs. Distri-
bution of population is revealed in a gradual color change.
It can be visualized that the STPs are concentrated in the
coastal region of Goa. Bardez in North Goa and Salcete in
Sewage Treatment and Management in Goa, India: A Case Study

Table 6 Plant flow diagram with unit operations

Plant TONCA VASCO MARGAO PATTO

Inlet Inlet chamber Inlet

Inlet chamber chamber

Screen Bar screen

Grit
chamber
Degritor Grit chamber Distribuon
chamber
Biological
Distributor Reactor
Flow chamber Detritor
diagram Biological
Reactor Clarifier
Basin Primary clarifier

Centrifuge Aeraon Tank

Clarifier Outlet

Chlorine Contact Secondary

Tank clarifier

Outlet
Collecon tank Outlet

South Goa are densely populated districts with the max-
imum number of private STPs. It is important to study the
technologies of private STPs and analyze which is the
best-suited technology for proper treatment of sewage
(Fig. 4).
Case Study of Goa Municipal Plants
Four municipal plants of two different technologies were
monitored for relevant physico-chemical and microbio-
logical parameters. Out of the four plants monitored, three
were based on Extended Aeration technology and one was
a Sequential Batch Reactor (C-Tech) (Table 6). Qualita-
tive data were collected for four municipal plants man-
aged by Goa Public Water works Department (PWD)
(Tables 7, 8).
STPs at Margao, Vasco, and Patto were based on
Extended Aeration technology and were of 7.5 MLD, 14
MLD, and 0.5 MLD, respectively. Extended aeration was
first implemented in 1947 to modify and improve an under
loaded conventional-activated sludge plant in the U.S.; the
plant was operated with 100 % return sludge without
sludge wasting and excellent effluent quality was obtained
(McCarty and Brodersen 1962). Its popularity rapidly
increased, especially for small sewage flows, because of its
simplified technology, reduced operation requirements
increased stability against shock loads (Middlebrooks and
Gardland 1968).
Out of the evaluated four municipal plants, three are
very old and soon to be replaced by new STPs under
various development schemes (stated by PWD authorities).
The first C-Tech plant in India was set up in Tonca. With
the success of this technology, Government of Goa is keen
on constructing a few more STPs based on this technology,
which is an improved Sequential Batch Reactor (SBR)
technique. The number of private STPs in Goa is huge and
has a major contribution in maintaining sanitation in the
state and promoting tourism. There is a need for better
understanding of private STPs installed at hotels and resi-
dential complexes. But very limited data are available to
the government authorities with respect to these plants.
Certain regulatory authority should be assigned the task of
monitoring these plants and thereby maintaining a state
directory and record of all the information pertaining to the
Sewerage system of the state. Certain platforms must be
created to highlight the success stories and best

123
 A. Singh et al.

Table 7 Plant performance

Parameters Units Tonca Margao Vasco Patto Permissible limit (as per
The Environment
Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet (Protection) Rule 1986)

pH – 6.92 7.46 6.79 7 6.96 7.38 6.82 7.33 5.5–9.0

Turbidity NTU 100 5 20 5 65 45 75 110 –
Conductivity lS/cm 2340 2010 367.6 283 658.2 767.4 5930 – –
COD mg/l 664 31 273 55 557 281 242 375 250
BOD mg/l 233 11 95 19 190 98 89 131 30
O&G mg/l 4 2 3 1 4 1.5 3 6 10
TSS mg/l 546 82 42 30 410 112 148 1086 100
TDS mg/l 1038 1156 544 212 408 428 3876 – –
TS mg/l 1584 1238 586 242 818 540 4024 – –
Residual mg/l Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 1
chlorine
TAN mg/l 28 1.12 39.2 11.76 33.6 40.88 34.16 1.12 50
TKN mg/l 57.2 4.1 52.6 16.8 48.9 51.7 47.9 3.7 100
Phosphate mg/l 1.85 \0.001 1.5 0.82 2.1 2.3 1.3 1.5 5
DO mg/l Nil 5.8 Nil 5.8 Nil Nil Nil Nil –
TFC /100 ml 115 26 105 23 21 292 110 25 50

management practices of sustainable recycling and reuse of
water resource. This would boost the participation of pri-
vate bodies and encourage sustainable development under
public–private partnership.
A mixed culture of microorganisms in aeration tank is
used in the biological treatment of wastewater by the
activated sludge system. These microorganisms are capable
of reducing the organic matter and other pollutants in the
sewage (Tyagi et al. 2008). In this process, protozoa are
important members of the communities involved in the
removal of organic matter and dispersed bacteria, and thus
can be taken as indicator of good effluent quality (Martin-
Cereceda et al. 1996). The contents of the aeration tank are
mixed vigorously by aeration devices, which also supply
oxygen to the biological suspension. Commonly used aer-
ation devices include submerged diffusers that release
compressed air and mechanical surface aerators that
introduce air by agitating the liquid surface (Kamyotra and
Bhardwaj 2011).
According to CPCB 2005, extended aeration process is
expected to provide a better quality effluent because the
process is operated in a substrate-limited condition and also
because of better settling properties of mixed liquor.
Extended Aeration version of activated sludge process
technology is the most suitable one for large cities, because
it requires less space as compared to other technologies.
According to Jamwal and Mittal 2010, STP with extended
aeration produced better quality of effluent with maximum
4 log older reduction in Fecal coliform and Fecal strepto-
coccus levels.
The plant at Tonca was C-tech, which is an advanced
form of sequential batch reactor (SBR). The sequencing
batch reactor (SBR) is considered as an attractive method
of treatment, because it has good performance for the
removal of nitrogen, phosphorus, and COD. The SBR
reactor was operated under two different phases in the
presence and absence of air viz. aerobic and anoxic con-
ditions (Abood et al. 2014). Treatment of domestic
wastewater in sequential anaerobic–aerobic processes
exploits the advantages of the two systems in the most cost-
effective setup.
In comparison with conventional aerobic technologies,
the combined anaerobic–aerobic system consumes dis-
tinctly less energy, produces less excess sludge, and is
less complex in operation (Van Haandel and Lettinga
1994; Von Sperling and Chernicharo 2005). Both the
aerobic SBR and the Anaerobic sequencing batch reactor
(ASBR) involve the repetition of a cycle including five
discrete steps: feed, react, settle, draw, and idle (Sarti
et al. 2007).
Recently, the sequencing batch bio-film reactor (SBBR)
system has attracted a great deal of attention due to its
ability to take advantages of both a bio-film reactor and a
SBR (Ding et al. 2011). Specifically, SBBR systems show
improved biomass concentration in reactors with corre-
sponding higher specific removal efficiencies, greater vol-
umetric loads, increased process stability toward shock
loadings, and are capable of covering small areas (Wilderer
et al. 1993; Arnold et al. 2000). Because suspended active
sludge with a short generation time can afford space to

123
Sewage Treatment and Management in Goa, India: A Case Study

Table 8 Case study of municipal plants under Goa PWD

Location Margao Vasco Tonca Patto

Technology
Type of technology Extended aeration Extended aeration SBR (C-Tech) Extended aeration
Capacity 7.5 MLD 14 MLD 12.5 MLD 0.5 MLD
Evolution of Waste water management and To treat domestic waste Treating domestic waste Constructed under
technology safe disposal of treated water water of Vasco region water, 1st C-tech plant in Town planning
India act
Chemicals used Nil No chemicals used Chlorine—2000 L Chlorine—2 kg in
200 L
Operation and maintenance
Operated since 2000 1985 2005 2001
Managed by PWD Goa PWD Goa PWD Goa PWD Goa
Energy demand 250 KVA Not available Not available Not available
Energy supplier Goa Electricity Dept Goa Electricity Dept Goa Electricity Dept Goa Electricity
Dept
Mixing with No, hotel waste is mixed with No No No (commercial
industrial waste domestic waste plant)
Operational problems No. Preventive measures and No No No major problems
timely maintenance is
undertaken
Finance
Capital costs Not available 38 lakhs 9.52 crores Not available
Financer for the plant PWD Goa PWD Goa PWD Goa Economic
Development
Corporation
Annual costs for Not available Not available 72 lakhs Not available
operation and
maintenance
Socio-economic
Population served 30,000 1 Lakh 60,000 Not available
Users contribution Yes, 25 % of water tax is used Yes, 25 % of water tax is Yes, 25 % of water bill Not available
for waste water treatment used for waste water
treatment
Utility No Yes, only 8–9 MLD influent No Over utilized
is received currently
Reuse No No Yes No

nitrifies, meanwhile, the bio-films developed on carriers Recommendations

can support phosphorus-accumulating organisms (Gieseke
et al. 2002; Wu et al. 2009).
It was observed that all four plants have pH, TAN,
TKN, TFC, O&G, and phosphate values of outlet within
permissible limits. BOD, COD, and TS values of the
samples taken from Tonca and Margao STPs were found
to be within permissible limits which indicate that these
plants are working in good condition. The TSS, COD, and
BOD of Vasco plant were marginally higher than the
permissible limit. The values for samples taken from
Patto plant were found to be more than the permissible
limits, which indicate that the plant is not working
properly due to ongoing maintenance work and over
utilization of its capacity.
Since tourism is the backbone of Goa’s economy, sus-
tainability concepts must be applied to every infrastructural
project in the state. Water pollution levels in the coastal
area must be monitored more often so as to avoid any
health problems to the tourists and visitors. While the
conventional sewerage may be a comprehensive system for
sewage collection and transport, it also remains as a highly
resource-intensive technology. Consequently, high capital
cost and significant O&M cost of this system inhibit its
widespread adoption in all sizes of urban areas.
On the Government Level, compulsory administrative
orders should be set to raise the water pricing and also
some strict norms, which can strengthen the awareness of

123

water conservation and encourage the consumption of
recycled water. According to demand of water and scarcity
as well as the emerging issues of energy cost and water, it
is very important to improve the existing technology and
develop new processes. As the water environment quality
is increasingly rigorous, many WWTPs should upgrade to
meet higher effluent requirements.
Number of de-centralized wastewater treatment plants
should be increased for treatment of households, rural, and
urban sewage management. Latest technology must be
examined and the current facility must be updated timely to
avoid malfunctioning of any plant system. Different oper-
ation and maintenance options will have to be considered
with respect to sustainable plant operation, the use of local
resources, knowledge, and manpower. Long-term planning
for sewage management is essential keeping in mind the
rate at which population is growing.
Administration of STPs
Goa Public Works Department (PWD) manages all the
plants. Executive engineers are designated for overall
management of the plants, while a team of Assistant
Engineers and Junior Engineers is dedicated at the site for
day-to-day maintenance. Some plants like Margao and
Tonca are equipped with in-house lab testing, where daily
samples are collected and analyzed by Chemists. Besides
these, Goa Pollution Control Board and Directorate of
Health Services also collect sample for analysis of water
quality.
Maintenance
Preventive measures are taken to avoid sudden breakdown
and damage of mechanical and electrical components of
the plant. The plants are run for 24 h with 3 shifts for
7 days a week. Immediate rectification of damaged parts
ensures that the plant is not shut for long periods of time.
The operation and maintenance (O&M) is managed and
budgeted by PWD under Sewerage and Sanitation funds.
Conclusion
STPs in Goa have potential for reuse of treated water for
various purposes such as gardening, flushing, construction,
fire brigade, irrigation, etc., but none of the plants are
following such practices. To bridge the increasing water
demand, there is a need to understand the importance of
private STPs installed in hotels as well as residential
complexes. More studies are required to find novel and
cost-effective technologies, which will help to treat the
sewage water and explore activities, which can utilize this
123
A. Singh et al.
treated water. Geographical information systems (GIS) can
be a useful tool for developing city master plans including
city sanitation plan. The spatial modeling capabilities of
GIS can be used to estimate current and future sewage
flows, evaluate the capacity of the sewers, and estimate the
condition of the sewers.
Acknowledgments The work presented in the paper has been
supported by the Department of Science and Technology and Euro-
pean Union, Project Supporting consolidation, replication and up-
scaling of sustainable wastewater treatment, and reuse technologies
for India (SARASWATI).
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