Construction 3D Printing

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL

3D printing is a process by which physical objects are created by depositing materials in layers
based on a digital model. All 3D printing processes require software, hardware, and materials
to work. It can also be referred to as ‘additive manufacturing, ‘and is an emerging technology
today. 3D printers have evolved over time, from giant printers to small desktop printers that
can be used from the comfort of one’s home and office. 3D printing was first developed in the
1980s, but at that time it had only a few applications. The sales of '3D printers' has grown
rapidly and since 2005, the home use of 3D printers has become practical.

1.2 APPLICATIONS

3d printing was first applied in the manufacturing and automotive industries. Recently, its
applications were expanded to other industries, including medical, aerospace, etc. Some
companies even use 3D printers to create more 3D printers. This automated and accelerated
process is also promising for civil structures, including buildings and bridges, which require
extensive labour. 3D printing systems developed for the construction industry are referred to
as Construction 3D printers.

1.3 PROCESS

The object to be printed is usually modelled on a CAD software and afterwards transferred to
the 3D printer. The popular software used currently for basic 3D printing design is Solid Edge
and Solid Works.

1.3.1 STL file

An STL file stores information about 3D models. This format describes only the surface
geometry of a three-dimensional object without any representation of colour, texture or other
common model attributes. These files are usually generated by a computer-aided design (CAD)
program, as an end product of the 3D modelling process. “.STL” is the file extension of the
STL file format. The STL file format is the most commonly used file format for 3D printing.

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When used in conjunction with a 3D slicer, it allows a computer to communicate with 3D

printer hardware. Since its humble beginnings, the STL file format has been adopted and
supported by many other CAD software packages, and today is widely used for rapid
prototyping, 3D printing, and computer-aided manufacturing.

1.3.2 Slicing
In the slicing step, the geometric model is intersected with parallel planes to obtain the contour
of each material layer. This step can be done with a constant layer thickness (uniform slicing)
or with a variable layer thickness (adaptive slicing). Adaptive slicing provides better surface
quality in critical features of the printed model while saving time in regions where rougher
finish is acceptable. Representation of slicing is shown in fig 1.1.

Fig 1.1 Slicing in 3D Printing [14]

1.3.3 Printing
The printer then reads the design and lays down successive layers of the printing medium (this
can be a liquid, powder, or sheet material) which are joined or fused to create the item. The
process can be slow, but it enables almost any shape to be created. Depending on the
technique adopted, printing can produce multiple components simultaneously, can use
multiple materials and can use multiple colours. Accuracy can be increased by a high-
resolution subtractive process that removes material from an over-sized printed item. Some
techniques include the use of dissolvable materials that support overhanging features during
fabrication.

1.4 3D PRINTING IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

Construction is well-suited to 3D printing as much of the information necessary to create an

item will exist as a result of the design process, and the industry is already experienced
in computer-aided manufacturing. The recent emergence of building information

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modelling (BIM) in particular may facilitate greater use of 3D printing. Construction 3D

printing may allow, faster and more accurate construction of complex structures as well as
lower labour costs and produce less waste as shown in fig 1.2. It might also
enable construction to be undertaken in harsh or dangerous environments not suitable for a
human workforce such as in space.

1.5 PROBLEMS IN CONVENTIONAL CONSTRUCTION

Conventional construction process appears to be relatively simple and systematic, requiring

two-dimensional (2D) drawings and scale models (for evaluation of the building designs),
cumbersome formwork and skilled labour to build any kind of free-form structures. Work-
related injuries and illnesses pose a continuing threat to the health and well-being of
construction workers. The construction industry continues to have a higher rate of fatality,
injury and illness than any other industry. Considering global demand to reduce CO2 emission,
there is a need for innovative construction technologies to not only pave the way towards a
future of sustainable construction but also to reduce construction and facilities management
costs while providing a competitive edge. Construction formwork which typically accounts for
40% of the total budget for concrete work can be avoided during the building process,
ultimately reducing the project timeline without incurring additional cost.[1]

Fig 1.2 3D Concrete Printing [15]

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CHAPTER 2

HISTORY OF 3D PRINTING
2.1 GENERAL

Currently, the 3D printing industry is in a boom phase in various sectors of the global economy.
The boom phase can be attributed to various research teams all around the world, technological
advancement in digital design and fabrication, and also, the potential 3D printing can add to
various sectors of the global economy.

2.2 THE THREE MAIN 3D PRINTING TECHNOLOGIES

2.2.1 Stereolithography(SLA)
The first 3D printer was developed as far back as 1986 by Charles Hull, the co-founder of ‘3D
systems. He invented the stereolithography apparatus (SLA), which enabled objects to be
formed by the interaction between lasers and photopolymer resin. The SLA apparatus was a
ground-breaking invention at the time because it enabled various manufacturing companies to
print and test models of prototypes from visual data before developing a mass production
system. This was very economical because it saved significant amounts of money that would
have been lost if the design failed to perform as intended after mass production. Liquid
photopolymer resin is held in a tank. A flat bed is immersed to a depth equivalent to one layer.
Lasers are used to activate the resin and cause it to solidify. The bed is lowered and the next
layer is built and so on as shown in fig 2.1

Fig 2.1 Stereolithography [15]

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2.2.2 Fused Deposition Method(FDM)

The next invention on the 3D printing stage was the invention of the Fused Deposition
Modelling (FDM) by Scott Crump, the co-founder of Stratasys Inc., in 1989. Fused Deposition
Modelling (FDM) extrudes a narrow bead of hot plastic and is selectively deposited where it
fuses to the existing structure and hardens as it cools [4]

Fig 2.2 Fused Deposition Method [16]

2.2.3 Selective Laser Sintering(SLS)

Later in 1992, Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) was invented. The SLS technology operated
quite differently than the SLA and FDM machines. It forms the final product by solidifying
powder rather than plastics or liquids. Utilizes a laser to partially melt successive layers of
powder. One layer of powder is deposited over the bed area and the laser targets the areas that
are required to be solid in the final component, shown in fig 2.3.

Fig 2.3 Selective Laser Sintering [18]

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The inventions of the SLA, FDM, and SLS form the foundation of the 3D printing (3DP) and
the technology currently used today. As a result of these inventions, various sectors of the
global economy began investing in 3D printing research teams to investigate the potential
benefits 3D printing could bring to their respective industries. The only limitation that could
be attributed to the early developments of the 3D printing industry was that it was limited to
small-scale objects.

2.3 MAJOR MILESTONES

In 1992, Wake Forest Institute 3D printed a synthetic scaffold of a bladder as shown in fig
2.4. The 3D printed bladder was then adjusted using the patient’s cells before surgically
inserted to avoid rejection by the host’s body. In the early 2000’s, a fully functional 3D
printed kidney was developed and later in 2000’s a prosthetic leg was also 3D printed.

Fig 2.4 First Engineered Organ In Humans [26]

The next big wave by the 3D printing industry was the commercialization of 3D Printers. The
pioneer of the open source wave was Dr. Adrian Bowyer. Dr.Bowyer developed the first
replicating printer. This led to the first commercial 3D printer to be in the market, the SLS
machine. The commercialization of 3D printers enabled individuals to print models of their
choice.

Soon after, ‘MakerBot’, a 3D printing company, came out with a personalized, affordable, and
mobile 3D printer as shown in fig 2.5 which enabled designers to print from the comfort of
their place of work or home. As a result of a dedication for constant improvement, 3D printers
can now print final objects using different materials. The materials include plastics, metals,
ceramics, paper, bio materials, food, and concrete.

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Fig 2.5 Makerbot 3D Printer [18]

Further improvements have included the transformation from not only printing small-scale
objects but to large-scale objects. An example of this transformation can be highlighted by the
first 3D printed car, Urbee, by Kor Ecologic shown in fig 2.6. It is an eco-friendly vehicle.
Another is the first unmanned 3D printed aircraft which was developed by the University of
Southampton Engineers. These are just a few of the products that show the transformation the
3D printing industry is going through.

Fig 2.6 Urbee -The First 3D Printed Car [21]

3D printing is such an innovative technology that it has revamped how construction is thought
about today. The construction industry is significantly dependent on formwork but with the
emergence of 3D printing concrete, formwork would no longer be needed. At the lead of the
demonstration of this technology is the Winsun Decoration Design Engineering Co in China.

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They have 3D printed a 6-story apartment building and a mansion in Shanghai, China. They
are also scheduled to 3D print a host of other buildings around the world. Another 3D printed
building is the world’s first 3D printed hotel villa in the Philippines. In the United States, Oak
Ridge National Laboratory 3D printed a building and a vehicle as part of an energy efficient
project. Some other projects are the first 3D printed office building in and the first 3D printed
steel bridge in Amsterdam by MX3D.

Table 2.1: Additive Manufacturing Methods

Process Description

Liquid photopolymer resin is held in a tank.

A flat bed is immersed to a depth equivalent
to one layer. Lasers are used to activate the
resin and cause it to solidify. The bed is
Stereolithography (SLA) lowered and the next layer is built and so on.

Extrudes a narrow bead of hot plastic and is

selectively deposited where it fuses to the
Fused deposition Modeling (FDM) existing structure and hardens as it cools.

Utilizes a laser to partially melt successive

layers of powder. One layer of powder is
deposited over the bed area and the laser
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) targets the areas that are required to be solid
in the final component

Based on inkjet printer technology. The

inkjet selectively deposits a liquid binder
3D Printing (3DP) onto a bed of powder. The binder effectively
‘glues’ the powder together

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CHAPTER-3

STATE-OF-THE-ART TECHNOLOGIES FOR 3D

PRINTING IN BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION

3.1 GENERAL

The rapid development of large-scale 3D concrete printing technology in most literatures is

categorized into two techniques, namely binder jetting and material deposition method (MDM).
The basic principle of both these techniques is to build up any complex structure by adding
small layers of material one over another. It begins with the creation of a 3D computer-aided-
design (CAD) model, which is sliced into several 2D layers and then printed with an assigned
material in an incremental manner to obtain the prototype as described in the CAD model.

3.2 BINDER JETTING

Binder jetting is a 3D printing process that creates objects by depositing binder layer by layer
over a powder bed. Binder Jetting is capable of printing a variety of materials including metals,
sands and ceramics. Some materials, like sand, require no additional processing. Other
materials are typically cured and sintered and sometimes infiltrated with another material,
depending on the application. Binder Jetting is unique in that it does not employ heat during
the build process. Binder is ejected in droplet form onto a thin layer of powder material spread
on top of the build tray. This method incrementally glues 2D cross-sections of the intended
component to each layer of material powder. The cycle repeats until the whole 3D object is
complete. The unbound material can be removed from the print bed using a vacuum cleaner
after the printing, which can be recycled and deployed for another printing task. It has a
relatively high resolution that results in the good surface finish because of the minimal distance
between layers. Currently, Voxeljet and Monolite UK Ltd (D-Shape) are working with this
technology to print large-scale components for architecture and building industries, however,
this technique can be easily influenced by bad weather, and is difficult to use this process for
in situ construction applications. A metal binder jetting printer is shown in fig 3.1.

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Fig 3.1 Metal Binder Jetting Printer [27]

3.3 MATERIAL DEPOSITION METHOD (MDM)

Similar to Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM), Material Deposition Method (MDM) is a 3D

printing process that successively lays material as per the CAD model. The extruded material
must be able to support its own weight and the weight of each subsequent layer to attain the
final design without any deformation. There are several automated systems that use MDM as
their core fabrication process and they are explained as follows:

3.3.1 CONTOUR CRAFTING (CC)

Contour Crafting’s technology consists of deployable robotic systems which print everything
at the very construction site. It is a gantry-based system that extrudes material in a layer-by-
layer manner. The key feature of CC is the use of trowels attached to the nozzle. The trowel
guides the printed material to create exceptionally smooth and accurate surfaces. This trowel
can be deflected at different angles (by computer control) to create various nonorthogonal
structures. Such approach enables a deposition of higher layer thickness without significantly
compromising the surface finish. Printed walls with embedded conduits for both electricity and
plumbing as well as structural reinforcement can be achieved through CC.[10]

Contour Crafting can significantly reduce the cost of commercial construction. Projections
indicate costs will be around one fifth as much as conventional construction.

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Contour Crafting promises to eliminate waste of construction materials. Contour Crafting

construction projects will be extremely accelerated; for example, a 2000 square foot house can
be constructed in less than 24 hours. This rapid construction time minimizes the financing costs
of construction projects that typically take six months or longer to complete. While the costs
of manual labour will be significantly reduced, physical power will be exchanged for brain
power in the construction industry. For the first time women and the elderly will be able to take
part in the construction industry. Construction could become a consumer market, wherein a
house or other structure could be designed and built by the family that will occupy it. Reduced
costs, and automated building will make construction accessible to anyone.

The ability to fabricate extra-terrestrial habitats, laboratories or manufacturing facilities is the

key element for long-term human survival on the Moon or Mars. Contour Crafting technology
has the potential to build safe, reliable, and affordable lunar and Martian structures, habitats,
laboratories, and other facilities before the arrival of human beings. Contour Crafting
construction systems are being developed that exploit in situ resources and can utilize lunar
regolith as construction material. 3D Printers would scoop material from the lunar surface into
bins and spit it out as building material like in fig 3.2. These structures can include integrated
radiation shielding, plumbing, electrical, and sensor networks.

Fig 3.2 3D Contour Crafting in Lunar Surface [23]

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Fig 3.3 Contour Crafting Technology [24]

3.3.2 CONCRETE PRINTING

Concrete printing, which is similar to CC, is a system built by the researchers at Loughborough
University, UK that extrudes concrete layer by layer following a digital model. The setup
includes a 5.4 mx4.4 mx5.4 m (L x W x H) gantry printer. Certain terms are used to describe
the flow of material deposition in this method due to the fresh properties of the concrete. ‘Over-
printing’ is when too much material is deposited at a specific point, causing unnecessary
bulging of the printed part. ‘Under-printing’ is when there is a lack of deposited material at a
point, which may cause breakage during printing. These problems, however, can be addressed
by fine-tuning the machine-operating parameters or modifying the tool path. Most MDM is
categorized as flat-layered printing. Flat layered printing extrudes material in a two-
dimensional plane layer by layer until it reaches the desired volume. This printing method
creates mechanical weaknesses such as anisotropic properties and creates visual issue such as
staircase effect on the completed print surface. Recently, another method of curved-layered
printing was introduced. Curved-layer printing improves the aesthetic and mechanical
properties of a printed part as shown in fig 3.4 [6]

Fig 3.4 Concrete Printing [25]

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3.3.3 MINIBUILDERS
One problem with 3D printers today is that their build envelopes are limited by the size of the
actual printer. In order to print a house, you need a 3D printer which is larger than that house.
This severely limits the utility of any one device and equates to substantial costs for any person
or company trying to print on a large scale. Minibuilders are lightweight, compact and have
autonomous mobility. Each robot has a different function during the printing process. If the
material’s curing time is not compatible with the flow rate and the robot movement speed, the
material may clog in the hose. An additional heat source can be added depending on weather
conditions for expediting the chemical reaction and reducing the curing time of the printed
material. As shown in fig 3.5, this robot uses the previously printed structure as a gripping
support, so the material needs to dry extremely fast to allow it to support the next layer of the
print. To do this, the Grip Robot uses heaters to cure the material as fast as possible. Once a
structure’s shape and size are complete it is time to move on to the next robot.

Fig 3.5 Grab Robot (Minibuilder) [16]

Fig 3.6 A Vaccum Robot In Action [16]

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3.3.4 MESH-MOULD
This technique utilizes a large 6-axis robot to extrude thermoplastics polymer to print in situ
structures freely in 3D space. Pinpoint cooling using pressurized air at the nozzle during
printing allows for a high level of control, thus facilitating the weaving of wireframe structures
freely in space. In this application, the structures act as reinforcement for the concrete as shown
in fig 3.7. Concrete is then poured over this formwork and later trowelled manually to smooth
the surface. Using such a methodology reduces the time required for fabrication of complex
structures, which becomes feasible for large-scale applications. Different density of mesh can
be printed according to the array of forces acting on the structures. More interestingly, the
presence of the mesh increases the tensile force of concrete, ultimately becoming a possible
replacement of conventional steel reinforcement.[5]

Fig 3.7 Mesh Moulder [27]

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CHAPTER-4

MIXTURE PROPORTION AND REINFORCEMENTS

4.1 3D CONCRETE MIX PROPORTION

3D printing concrete is dependent on a viable and dependable concrete mix design. However,
insufficient research has been conducted when it pertains to the optimum and most efficient
mix design. One of the few is by Le, Austin, Lim, Buswell, Gibb, and Thorpe from the
Freeform Construction team. They highlighted in their research that the mix ratio for the
optimum mix design was 3:2 of sand to binder. The binder consists of 10% silica fume, 20%
fly ash, 70% cement and 1.2 kg/m3 of 12mm length and 0.18mm diameter polypropylene fibers.
The water to binder ratio was 0.26. The superplasticizer and retarder were 1% and 0.5% of the
weight of the binder, respectively. The final concrete compressive strength was greater than
110 MPa (16,000 psi) (28-day strength) with an open time of 110 minutes.

Recently, another team, have also performed research on determining the optimum mix for 3D
printing concrete. Their optimum mix for strength, buildability, flowability, and extrudability
consisted of fine aggregates (160g), cement (125g), sands (80g), and a water to cement ratio of
0.39. The accelerator and retarder added were 1 Ml and 0.625 Ml, respectively. The
compressive strength for the mix was 42 Mpa (6,100 psi). The 3D printing machine used to
print the concrete comprised of a motion control system, a pumping mechanism, a tank for the
concrete, and a 2 cm printing nozzle.[12]

4.1.1 Experimental Procedure

The strategy is to use very practical indications of successful printing, in terms of the ability to
extrude filaments into a layer (extrudability) and to then build-up multiple layers (buildability).
This allows an appropriate mix design to be established. Shear strength and its change with
time (to define workability and open-time) are recorded to characterize the material
scientifically and allow a mix to be fine-tuned.

4.1.2 Extrudability
Extrudability here relates to the ability to transport the fresh concrete through a hopper and
pumping system to a nozzle where it must be extruded as a continuous filament. Extrudability

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is evaluated with 9 mm wide filaments (printed from a 9 mm nozzle) that comprised five groups
from one to five filaments. The total continuous length of filaments extruded out for a test is
4,500 mm. The test shape was designed to represent the typical way of building freeform
construction. The test result is evaluated as YES or NO, the former being when the complete
length of 4,500 mm was deposited successfully without a blockage or fracture. Test samples
are shown in fig 4.1.

Fig 4.1 Test Sample to evaluate Extrudability [26]

4.1.3 Workability
Conventional methods evaluating workability include slump, compacting factor and flow tests,
for which various national standards are available. However, these do not measure fundamental
physical properties. An alternative approach is to conduct a more robust rheological
investigation, such as a two-point test which can characterize Bingham fluid behavior in terms
of shear strength and torque viscosity.

Table 4.1 Mix Goals

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4.1.4 Open Time

The open time of a cementitious material has a relationship with its setting time, usually
measured with a Vicat apparatus. However, this equipment is designed to determine the initial
and final setting time which are not particularly helpful in characterizing the change of
workability with time of fresh concrete. Various research investigations have been carried out
to monitor the change of workability with time using a slump test. Measuring the change of
shear strength (workability) with time with a shear vane apparatus was considered to be more
informative.

4.1.5 Buildability
Most concrete is placed into formwork as a fluid and there is no need for it to be self-supporting,
i.e. the buildability is not an issue. In absence of other methods, the buildability of fresh
concrete was quantified as the number of filament layers which could be built up, based on the
shape used to evaluate the extrudability, without noticeable deformation of lower layers. Three
process parameters which define buildability criteria are the height of the wall to be printed,
the height of each layer or the total number of layers to be printed and the time interval (TI)
between subsequent layers.

4.1.6 Nozzle Diameter

Nozzle diameter has a direct relationship with the concrete mix properties, specifically its
flowability. As diameter increases, flowability should be increased.

Fig 4.2 Printing Nozzle [20]

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4.2 REINFORCEMENTS IN 3D PRINTING

Concrete is good at handling compression forces, but not particularly good at handling tension,
so it needs to be reinforced with something strong against tension. Traditionally, that has meant
metal rebar or plastic or metal fibres (fibre-reinforced concrete). In a report, a team from
Technische University Dresden (TU Dresden) and the Shimizu Corporation’s Institute of
Technology discussed and tested some ways to translate those methods into the realm of 3D-
printed concrete. The proposed solutions for reinforcing 3D-printed concrete fall into two
categories: Continuous and Discontinuous

4.2.1 Continuous and Discontinuous methods

In continuous techniques, the reinforcement is laid down at the same time as the concrete.
Concrete is printed with reinforcing fibres already in it or extruding continuous metal chains
along with the concrete. Researchers are looking into two different continuous reinforcement
methods. In Strain-Hardening Cement-based composites (SHCC), plastic fibres are used as
reinforcement, at a volume of 1 percent of the total material. The mixture is printed through a
nozzle with consistent filaments to build up seven layers in a single printing session. After the
3D-printed mixture was allowed to dry for 21 days, there were no cracks due to drying
shrinkage, and the material was as good at taking strain as non-3D-printed SHCCs. Next, the
researchers 3D printed steel reinforcement with Gas-Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), where an
electric arc is formed between the metal and a wire-electrode to melt the metal and the process
is surrounded by a nonreactive gas shield to protect it. These 3D-printed bars had lower yield
stress and tensile strength than conventional steel reinforcement, but higher ductility. The
researchers hope to further refine the printing method and find a way to print it continuously
with concrete. In discontinuous techniques, the reinforcement is laid down either before or after
the concrete is poured using a robotic tool to lay down reinforcement that concrete is later
poured around. Continuous methods are better because they retain the time savings and
convenience that 3D printing promises.

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CHAPTER 5

ENGINEERING PROJECTS USING 3D CONCRETE

PRINTERS

5.1 3D PRINTED 6-STOREY APARTMENT BUILDING BY WINSUN

Winsun Decoration Design Engineering of Shanghai, China is at the forefront when it comes
to 3D printing buildings with concrete. Winsun has 3D printed a six-story apartment building
and an entire villa in China as shown in fig6.1 and fig 6.2. The 3D printer used measured 20 ft.
in height, 132 ft. in length and 33 ft. in width. The Winsun team CAD modeled the building
and transferred it to the 3D printer. The 3D printer was then able to accurately construct the
structural elements using a patented and undisclosed ink formula. The ink comprised of
recycled construction material. Winsun indicated that the ink was flexible, self-sustaining, and
can withstand rugged earthquakes. The walls and other structural components were fabricated
offsite and assembled onsite.

Fig 5.1 Front view of the 3D Printed Stand-Alone Villa[18]

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Fig 5.2 The 3D Printed 6-Storeyed Building in China [19]

5.2 WORLD’S FIRST 3D PRINTED HOTEL

The world’s first 3D printed hotel villa was completed in 2015 in the Philippines. The building
is about 34.5 feet by 41 feet and 10 feet high. The villa (building) had 2 bedrooms and was an
addition to the Lewis Grand Hotel in the Philippines. It took about 100 hours to print, however,
the duration of the project was much longer due to testing, installation of plumbing, electrical
wiring and reinforcing bars. In addition, the 3D printer took about 2 months to assemble on
site. The process can now be repeated with less time (a few weeks). The construction team used
about a month to procure the best concrete mix for the project. The mix was developed using
local materials (sand and volcanic ash). The 3D printed building could save approximately 60%
of construction cost. Also, the concrete layers attributed to the 3D building can be smoothened
out to have a clean and uniform surface using a hopper during printing. This pioneering
construction is actually a separate villa that will be fully incorporated into the Lewis Grand
Hotel as shown in fig 6.3. It is complete with a 3D printed extra-large Jacuzzi. To be exact, it
will be a party house as part of an addition to hotel.

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Fig 5.3 Worlds First Commercial 3D Printed Hotel Villa [20]

5.3 ORNL INTEGRATED ENERGY DEMO

Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) combined clean energy technologies into a 3D printed
building and vehicle shown in fig 6.4. This technology showed a new approach to energy use,
storage, and consumption. An ORNL team worked with industrial partners to manufacture and
connect a natural-gas-powered hybrid electric vehicle with a solar-powered building to create
an integrated energy system. Power can flow in either direction between the vehicle and
building through a lab-developed wireless technology. The approach allows the car to provide
supplemental power to the 210-square-foot house when the sun is not shining. Large-scale 3D
printers were used to build the vehicle and the house.

Fig 5.4- Oak Ridge National Laboratory's Additive Manufacturing Integrated Energy
(AMIE) Demonstration [21]

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5.4 WORLD’S FIRST 3D PRINTED STEEL BRIDGE

A Dutch company, MX3D, plans to build the first 3D printed steel footbridge. The 41-foot-
long bridge took four robots, 9,920 pounds of stainless steel and six months of printing to
complete. First proposed in 2015, the steel structure has been constructed by six-axis robots
from layers of molten steel. Robotic arms were programmed to control large-scale welding
machines, while the overall bridge was designed to adhere to local council regulations and
specifications. In addition, mathematicians from The Alan Turing Institute worked
with MX3D to create a smart sensor network on the bridge. The sensors are designed to record
the bridge's performance, collecting data like strain, rotation, load, displacement and vibration..
The footbridge will undergo a number of load tests before it's installed in Amsterdam in 2019.

Fig 5.5 3D Printed Bridge [22]

5.5 APIS COR PRINTED HOUSE IN RUSSIA

A Russian company has done just, with a 400-square-foot-home being built from scratch in
just 24 hours in Moscow. The cost of the building is $10,000, highlighting just how much
potential the 3D printing technology has for the future. The house was built entirely on site
using nothing but a mobile 3D printer, which makes all the results impressive. It is a house that
is certainly habitable and short on space. The fact that it was produced at such low-cost in 24
hours. All the walls and foundations of this structure were printed with a concrete mixture and
other parts such as windows, fixtures, and furniture being added after construction.

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The house was finished with a fresh coat of paint with the final cost of the entire project
totalling a modest $10,134. The Apis Cor house is shown in fig 6.6.

Fig 5.6 Apis Cor Printed House In Russia [23]

5.6 WORLD’S FIRST 3D PRINTED OFFICE BUILDING

Nestled within the iconic Emirates Towers, the Office of the Future is the world’s first 3D-
printed office, located in Dubai, shown in fig 6.7. It is now fully operational. A 3D-printer
measuring 6 meters in height, 36 meters in length and 12 meters in width was used. It took only
17 days to print and was installed on site in two days, significantly faster compared
to traditional construction methods. The process required one person to monitor the printer’s
functioning, seven people to install the building components, as well as a team of ten
electricians and specialists to take care of the mechanical and electrical engineering. The entire
cost of the project was only 140,000 dollars: the technique cut both building and labor costs by
50 percent compared to conventional buildings of similar size. These savings translate into
enhanced productivity, higher economic returns and increased sustainability if invested
conscientiously. The 3D-printed office was constructed using a special mixture of cement and
building materials designed and made in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the United
States. It was given an arc shape for safety purposes and to ensure stability

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The initiative is part of the Dubai 3D Printing Strategy, which aims for 25 percent of all
buildings in the emirate to be 3D printed by 2030. This is a unique global initiative aimed at
promoting the status of the UAE, and Dubai in particular, as a leading global centre of 3D
printing. Although long tested in labs, 3D printing technology is rapidly coming of age and the
project marks the beginning of an important transformation in the construction and design
sector. It’s the most advanced 3D printed structure ever built on this scale and put into actual
use.

Fig 5.7 Office Of The Future-Worlds First Fully Functional Building [24]

5.7 COMPANIES USING 3D PRINTERS TO BUILD

Other enterprises using 3D printing techniques for construction include Italy’s D-Shape,
The Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia (IAAC) in Barcelona, Spain, CyBe
Construction from the Netherlands, the Batiprint3D project in France, Singapore Centre for 3D
Printing and also Ukrainian startup PassivDom.

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CHAPTER 6

FUTURE DIRECTIONS AND RESEARCH GAP

This section highlights some of the possible future studies and research gap for the researchers
to explore so that our traditional construction industry can properly take the full benefits of the
3D printing process.

6.1 MULTI-NOZZLE INTEGRATION

Introducing multiple nozzles integration or swarm intelligence could revolutionize the whole
process of 3D printing. The multiple nozzles can be mounted on the existing single nozzle
printers to print certain areas of the building component in the shortest time. However, the
integration and communication of the multiple systems working together is complex and
requires proper planning. Furthermore, integration of multiple nozzles can be useful to deposit
different materials as per the functional requirements.

6.2 HYBRID 3D PRINTING SYSTEMS

Development of hybrid 3D printers for printing concrete structures with various materials and
components such as reinforcement (for structural rigidity), different grade of materials for the
structural and non-structural application can be explored for future B&C projects. For
continuous monitoring of the building elements like façade which is exposed to the different
exposures, some sensors and actuators may be merged with 3D printing, i.e. sensors can be
embedded in the materials during printing. Embedded sensors will allow building health to be
monitored in real-time even during the construction phase. Besides sensors, reinforcement can
be printed with concrete to enhance structural designs to be more effective against any kind of
loading.

6.3 DEVELOPMENT OF NEW MATERIAL

Developing material for 3D printing process is a challenging task. Still, several companies have
printed concrete structures using different combination of cement, sand, fly ash, silica fume
and micro-fibers. The future success of 3D printing in B&C will depend on fine-tuning

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materials to the specific needs of each application. Printing functionality added material (such
as lightweight, thermal insulated, self-healing and self-sensing) adds value to the complex
structures. Although, 3D printing is believed to have the right potential to print complex
structures, eventually new printable material developed for each application will be scrutinized
for high quality, low construction cost and for bringing value to the user.

6.4 REINFORCEMENTS

Another challenge for 3D printing in B&C is counteracting concrete’s low tensile strength and
ductility. Addition of steel reinforcement to the concrete would solve the problem. However,
in 3D printing, the addition of steel reinforcement automatically is not so straightforward.
Printing structures with straight hollow voids for post-tensioning reinforcement bar would limit
the freedom of the architectural design. Attaching a steel extrusion gun similar to a staple gun
at the back of the nozzle could enhance the tensile strength in the vertical direction. However,
there will be a challenge to control the force of the steel staple penetrating the filament. If the
force of the penetration is too large, it could deform or destroy the fresh concrete, if the force
is too small, there could be no penetration at all. In addition to the steel reinforcement, the
inclusion of fibers may improve the ductility of the concrete

6.5 PROCESS PARAMETER OPTIMIZATIONS

Process parameter such as the change of print speed, different layer thickness and flow rate due
to the materials properties plays an important role in concrete printing. Any inappropriate
selection of parameter may result in bad quality print and sometimes can lead to catastrophic
failure. For extrusion-based printing such as MDM, if the flow rate is not properly matched
with printing speed, inconsistency in the layer thickness may occur, which will not allow high
buildability for the printed structure. The main limitation of the 3D printing process is the
layering effect, which produces uneven surfaces with voids in between layers. Proper selection
of layer thickness can reduce this effect; however, small layer thickness may need more
printing time to build the whole structure. Post-processing (grinding or plastering) can be done
to improve the overall surface quality of the final product of 3D concrete printing.

6.6 BIM (BUILDING INFORMATION MODELLING)

BIM is a digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility creating

a shared knowledge resource for information about it forming a reliable basis for decisions
during its life cycle, from earliest conception to demolition. An innovative and collaborative

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way of working that is underpinned by digital technologies which support more efficient
methods of designing, creating and maintaining the built environment. The construction
industry has been facing a paradigm shift to increase: productivity, efficiency, infrastructure
value, quality, and sustainability, and to reduce lifecycle costs. If used appropriately, BIM can
facilitate a more integrated design and construction process and generate substantial benefits.
For instance, fewer design coordination errors, more energy efficient design solutions, faster
cost estimation, reduced production cycle times and lower.

BIM is at the heart of the 3D printed building movement providing the software to govern the
design and construction process. In the Museum of Contemporary Art and Planning Exhibition
(MOCAPE) in Shenzhen, China led by a BIM system, robots will mound and assemble, weld
and polish the hyperbolic metal plates that make up the museum’s irregularly curved stainless-
steel center. Combining robots with the use of 3D-printed building components will make it
much easier to create buildings with complex shapes.

Fig 6.1 Prototype Of A Building [25]

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CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSIONS

The construction industry has not changed much in the last 100 years. There are new things
happening in mega-construction projects; larger skyscrapers, longer bridges, and other huge
structures; but not in day-to-day construction; which has stayed the same. Other than a few
innovative materials and techniques, along with a greater reliance on power tools, home
building is pretty much the same today, as it was 100 years ago. This might all be changing
soon. 3D printing, which has been the realm of engineering test labs, may make a drastic
change in the ways that our building structures are built. In recent years, 3D printers have
moved out of the engineering laboratory, where they have been for over 20 years, and are
beginning to be used for other things. This opens up a whole new realm of possibilities for
architects everywhere.

On the basis of the above study, it can be concluded that 3D printing allows:

 Increase flexibility in designs without compromising structural stability

 Usage of new materials for construction
 The ability to use curvilinear forms, rather than being cost and process limited to
rectilinear forms
 Already integrated components into built structures, such as plumbing and wiring into
printed walls
 Easily integrated last minute changes to designs
 Remote location Construction
 Reduction of operation in the construction site, since the process with 3D printers is
automated.
 Ability to produce components on site, saving logistics costs.
 Simultaneous printing of diverse materials to speed up the construction process.

As 3D Printing use in the Construction Industry is in its early stages, it is still too early to tell
what will happen. But it’s exciting to watch the change and imagine the future possibilities.

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[14] https://medium.com/3d-printing-in-o-p (Downloaded on 22-8-2018)

[15] https://www.bbc.com/news/technology( Downloaded on 22-8-2018)

[16] https://www.printspace3d.com/3d-printing-processes( Downloaded on 22-8-2018)

[17] https://www.chizel.io/blogs/all-you-need-to-know-about-fdm( Downloaded on 22-8-

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[18] https://www.ncleg.net/documentsites/committees/JointAppropriations( Downloaded on

22-8-2018)

[19] https://www.digitaltrends.com/3d-printer-reviews/makerbot-replicator( Downloaded on

22-8-2018)

[20] https://www.digitaltrends.com/3d-printer/Urbee ) ( Downloaded on 22-8-2018)

[21]https://www.3dprintingmedia.network/ge-presents( Downloaded on 22-8-2018)

[22] https://3dprint.com/38144/3d-printed-apartment-building/( Downloaded on 22-8-2018)

[23] https://www.archdaily.com/591331/( Downloaded on 22-8-2018)

[24] 3dprint.com/94558/3d-printed-hotel-lewis-grand/( Downloaded on 22-8-2018)

[25] www.ornl.gov/news/ornl( Downloaded on 22-8-2018)

[26] https://3dprint.com/94558/3d-printed( Downloaded on 22-8-2018)

[27] http://www.officeofthefuture.ae/( Downloaded on 22-8-2018)

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