HISTORICAL GEOLOGY

1. Basic Consept

What is historical geology?

The branch of geology concerned with the evolution of the earth and its life
forms from its origins to the present
https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/historical-geology

Historical geology is one of the two major divisions in the study of geology.
The other major division is physical geology. Historical geology includes the
physical, chemical, and biological history of the earth.

Geologists study rock formations and the fossil record to gain information
about the geologic history of the earth. Historical geology uses the principle
of uniformitarianism to interpret the geologists' data. The principle of
uniformitarianism states physical and chemical processes that produce rock
formations and fossils have been similar throughout history but the process
rates can vary. This means that geologists can use information from recent
geological events to understand how the historical geological record was
formed.

Historical geology is often represented by the geologic time scale. The

geologic time scale places the major events of the earth's evolution in
chronological order. The units of geologic time scale are the geologic eon,
era, period, and epoch. Eon is the largest unit and epoch is the smallest.
https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-does-historical-geology

2. Physical Geology and Historical Geology

Geologists are concerned primarily with two subjects: Earth's physical features and

the study of the planet's history. These two principal branches of geology are known,

appropriately enough, as physical geology and historical geology. Today they are of

equal importance, but in the early modern era, geologists were most focused on

topics related to historical geology, in particular, Earth's age and the means by which

Earth was formed. This debate pitted adherents of religion, which seemed to require

a very young Earth, against adherents of science. A breakthrough came with the
introduction of uniformitarianism, a still-influential principle based on the idea that the

geologic processes at work today have always been at work. Opposing

uniformitarianism was catastrophism, or the idea that Earth was formed in a short

time by a series of cataclysmic events. Discredited at the time, catastrophism later

gained acceptance, though this did not lead to support for the concept of a young

Earth. In fact, the planet is very old—so old that all of human history is almost

inconceivably short in comparison.

http://www.scienceclarified.com/everyday/Real-Life-Earth-Science-Vol-2/His

This Geology course provides an overview of the geologic history of the Earth, and

includes an introduction to geologic time; relative and actual age-dating methods;

stratigraphic principles; origin of the Universe, Solar System, atmosphere, oceans,

life; plate tectonics; changes on the Earth's surface and development of organisms

through geologic time. Relative Age-dating – Discovery of Important Stratigraphic

Principles is an example of an activity used in this course.

https://serc.carleton.edu/introgeo/earthhistory/examples/wooster.html

Optional overnight Field Trip to Konawe Utara, South-east Sulawesi

Trip Labengki Island North Konawe,
South-east Sulawesi
 Geological Cross-Sections

1. Basic Consept

What are Geological Cross Section

Geologic cross-section The geological cross-sections

are the graphical representation, in a vertical plane, of the
interpretation of the disposition of the materials in the sub-
surface. An interpretation of a vertical section through the
Earth's surface, most usefully a profile, for which evidence
was obtained by geologic and geophysical techniques or
from a geologic map.

A third standard geologic diagram is a cross section, which

views the earth as if it were cut open and seen from the
side. Geologic cross sections are interpretative, since the
relations can generally not be observed directly. Only in
areas of deep canyons or high mountains can natural
cross sections be observed. In most cases cross sections
require inference about subsurface structure. Sometimes
drill holes or geophysical exploration provide data from
which cross sections can be constructed.

http://imnh.isu.edu/digitalatlas/geo/basics/xsection.htm

2. Geological Cross Section

A geological cross-section is a graphic representation of the intersection of the

geological bodies in the subsurface with a vertical plane of a certain

orientation. It is a section of the terrain where the different types of rocks, their

constitution and internal structure and the geometric relationship between

them are represented. It is an approximate model of the real distribution of the

rocks in depth, consistent with the information available on the surface and
the subsurface. It can also represent the extension of the materials of the

structures that have been eroded above the topographic surface.

The cross-sections are an indispensable complement of the geological

maps; maps and cross-sections are fruit of the interpretation of the

arrangement of the rocks using diverse types of data, normally incomplete

and with different degrees of uncertainty. Both are bi-dimensional

representations of the geological reality and jointly allow us to understand the

tri-dimensional structure of the rocky volumes and, in consequence, the

geological history of a zone.

The geological cross-sections have a very relevant economic and social

importance. They are the basis for planning engineering works, fundamentally

the lineal works that affect the surface and the subsurface (roads, tunnels,

utilities) and for the exploration and production of geological resources: water,

stones, minerals and energy.

 Construction of a geological cross-section

The construction of a geological cross-section involves the interpretation

of the rocks arrangement, both in depth and on the topographic surface.

This consists of interpolating all the available data, of surface and

subsurface, with the objective of building a coherent geological model.

For this reason, the construction of the geological cross-sections

requires the application of all the knowledge of the geological

characteristics of the region, interpreted within the framework of the

theoretical knowledge of the moment.

 The data on the surface are obtained directly on the field (direction and

dip of the strata or other structures, types of contact, thickness of the

stratigraphical units, lateral relationships between them, etc.) (figure1) or

they are extracted from an existing geological map (geological formation

or cartographic unit, type of rock, angle of the intersection with the

topographic surface, spot data).

Figure 1: Geological cross-sections can be constructed by direct extrapolation from

the observations on the surface. Frequently, the geological interpretation of
the landscape gives sufficient information for constructing a geological cross-
section, especially in gorges. The figure shows the extension of the
subsurface and over the topographic surface of a limestone section and of
the rocks that crop out below and above it. The reach in depth is relatively
limited.
 Without doubt, the quality and the precision of the geological cross-section

are directly related to a good base of geological cartography which allows

deducing the tri-dimensional arrangement of the rocks, the temporal

relationships between them and the geometry and the age of the

structures that affect them. The geological map permits us to know and

delimit the areas characterized by the same type of structures, this is

called “the structural style” (figure 2).

Figure 2: These figures show, schematically, the most common “structural

styles”. a) horizontal planar or with slightly dipping bedding, b) folds, c)
normal, extensional faults, d) thrusts, contractive faults, e) folds with
associated cleavage. In the same area, several “structural styles” can
often be recognized, as for example, fold structures in the basement
over which sedimentary materials of flat structure are superimposed
and the whole being affected by extensional faults (f).
 The maximum amount of subsurface data is necessary in order to restrict

the possible interpretations and to systematically apply basic geological

concepts. The subsurface data are obtained directly from the recovery of

drilling cores carried out at a certain point (photo 1), or indirectly, using the

geophysical methods that analyze the distribution of the physical properties

of the rocks measured from the surface (figure 3) or from the interior of

wells. Among the most common are the vertical electrical soundings (VES)

which register the differences of electrical conductivity and are very much

used in the prospection of groundwater.

Figure 3: The geophysical techniques give information about the physical properties of the
rocks of the subsurface. The figure shows a seismic profile (a) in which the so-
called reflectors can be observed: these are the response to seismic waves by
horizons reflecting them. They give an image similar to that of a clinical ultrasound.
The vertical scale of the seismic profiles refers to the time the seismic waves take
to go from an emission source situated on the surface, to a horizon that reflects
them and back in order to be registered by a receptor; the time of this vertical
scale, graduated in milliseconds, is a two way travel time (TWT). To be able to
transform the vertical scale in TWT of the seismic waves into a vertical scale in
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The quality and the realization costs of the geological cross-sections are
constructed..

closely linked to the regional geological knowledge; even so, as already

commented in the section dedicated to geological cartography, from the

construction of geological cross-sections geological theory is also deduced.

The construction of a geological cross-section requires the consecution of a

series of steps and the application of specific techniques for its validation.

In order to reduce the degrees of interpretation of the rocks arrangement in

depth to a minimum and to ensure the reliability of the cross-section,

geometric techniques which permit the correct integration of the greatest

possible amount of data are used, (figure 4), since it is necessary to avoid

the accumulation of errors in the various stages of construction of the

cross-section, especially in the early stages. So, in the areas with a simple,

flat structure, with low and constant dips of the stratification, the scope of

the extrapolation of data is much wider. On the other hand, in areas with

folds, normal faults or thrusts it will be necessary to apply some restrictions

in accordance with the geometric models typical of each structural style.

Figure 4:The extrapolation of data, both of the surface and the

subsurface, is limited by the “structural style”;
the figure illustrates geometric models of extensional
(a) and contractive (b) faults..
The projection of the surface and subsurface data over the cross-section

plane is the critical phase during the construction of a geological cross-

section. To do this, a tri-dimensional geometric model, adjusted to the

orientation of the diverse surfaces, should be defined, given that the data

can only be projected on the cross-section plane in parallel to the

structures.

The vertical scale of a geological cross-section should always be the same

as the horizontal scale in order to avoid the deformed representation of the

geological bodies. In the cross-sections that accompany a geological map it

is even more important that both scales are the same in order to facilitate

the comparison and the integration of the information. There are cases in

which the graphic representation of the geological configuration in maps

and in cross-section is very similar, for example when the geological

structures are found to be steeply inclined. So, the image of the geological

cross-section of any object inclined 45º, such as a fold with plunging axis, is

the same as that of a cross-section according to a horizontal plane and

very similar to its cartographic representation.

When one wants to represent the cross-section of recent deposits, or of

relatively thin ones, it is necessary to exaggerate the vertical scale of the

cross sections (figure 5). This representation system is that used in the

linear works projects (figure 6), in which all the objects of the subsurface,

natural or built by man, are exaggerated in order to make reading easier.

Figure 5: In the areas with recent deposits, pleistocenes and holocenes, the specific
cross-sections of these are constructed with an exaggerated vertical scale.
This, to be more specific, shows the travertines and the carbonatic mud of the
Banyolas Lake (Mapa Geològic de Catalunya 1:25 000).

Figure 6: Geological cross-section of a subterranean works project in urban subsurface.

The vertical scale, and in consequence the height of all the objects, is
vertically exaggerated.).
 The depth to which the cross-sections are built depends on the work scale,

the geological characteristics of the zone, the objectives of the cross-

section and the available data on the subsurface. Therefore, for example,

the geological cross-sections that accompany the general geological maps,

and made using the data of the surface, have a depth which oscillates

between some hundreds or some thousands of metres. In areas where

information from hydrocarbon exploration campaigns, mainly borings (figure

7) and reflection method (figure 3), the depth of the cross-sections reach up

to 6 or 7 kilometres.

Figure 7: Map of the situation of the oil exploration boreholes, on land and
offshore. The data contributed by the borings are fundamentally for the
construction of geological cross-sections in any sphere.
 On the other hand, in structurally complex areas affected by several fold

systems, like those often observed in Hercynian materials, the vertical

reach of the cross-sections is usually much less, due to the difficulty of

extrapolating data to depth. In the case of recent materials, such as fluvial

deposits, the representation depth rarely exceeds a few dozen metres

(figure 5).

As the knowledge of the constitution and the behaviour of the earth’s crust

and the lithosphere advances (figure 8), the construction of cross-sections

with depths greater than 100 km have become routine, on a crustal or

lithosphere scale due to the growing availability of deep subsurface data,

such as seismic reflection, magnetotelluric, gravimetry and seismic

tomography.

Figure 8: The internal structure and constitution of the Earth is known through
the interpretation of geophysical data. The classical division makes
reference to the composition of diverse layers: the dynamic division
refers to their mechanical behaviour. Above, detail of the structure of
the outermost part of the Earth (Modified from Kearey and Vine,
1990).
  The balanced cross-sections and the restored cross-sections

EThe most usual method for evaluating and validating a geological cross-section

of an area with determined structural styles (fold structures, extensional faults or

thrusts) is to check what is called its “retro-deformability”. In other words, it

should be possible to undo the deformation in order to be able to interpret how

the different geological units were arranged before being deformed.

A retro-deformable cross-section is called balanced cross-section if the cross-

section or cross-sections that progressively undo the deformation are partially or

totally restored cross-sections (figure 9).

Figure 9: Geological cross-section, balanced cross-section and geological restored

cross-section to the non-deformed state. These show the situation and the
relationship between the rocky volumes at different moments of their
geological history, before and after having been deformed and eroded.
The restored cross-section maintains the cohesion of the rocks before and

after the deformation without superimpositions or gaps between the two

stages. The interpretation of the structures in a balanced cross-section

should always be coherent with the structures observed in the region, that

is to say, with the structural style. The step between the restored cross-

section and the deformed one, as has been interpreted at the present time,

should be cinematically and mechanically consistent. The main objective of

the construction of balanced cross-sections is to avoid the introduction of

geometric errors during the construction of the geological cross-sections.

This technique also permits the calculation of the values of the shortening

and the stretching associated to the formation of tectonic structures, and

making palinspastic reconstructions, i.e., those in which the geological

materials are situated in the positions that they occupied at determined

moments in geological history.

In the last few years, the advances in computer science allow us to develop

construction methods of geological models directly in three dimensions. In

the immediate future, the work and the visualization in tri-dimensional

computing will be routine, and the maps and cross-sections will form part of

one same reality seen from different perspectives.

 ACARA I

Basic Geological Cross Section

Focus : Observed are rocks at the Earth’s surface

Focus Questions :
 How to construction cross section.
 How to calculating true tickness from a map

Focus Objectives :

A key goal of structural geologists is to understand the three dimensional

geometry of rocks. Students should :

 Understand the importance of cross sections.

 Be able to construct cross sections from basic geological maps.
 Be able to calculate true thickness of beds.
 the graphical representation, in a vertical plane, of the interpretation of the
disposition of the materials in the subsurface

Introduction to cross sections

1. Unfortunately all that can be directly observed are rocks at the Earth’s surface
or, in special cases, one dimensional information obtained from well logs.
2. The shape of the structures below the surface and the projection of those
features into the air (before they were eroded) must be inferred.
3. Cross sections are 2-D educated guesses at the geology along a plane
different from the Earth’s surface.
4. Although this plane is almost always vertical, there are instances where it is
desirable to project geologic structures into a dipping plane.
 5. As is true of many problems in geology, there are often numerous possible
interpretations of the same data.
6. The best we can do in drawing a cross section is to come up with an
interpretation that is consistent with all the available data.

Calculating true thickness of a bed

Calculating true thickness from a map is actually very simple, just plug all the
necessary numbers into the following equation:

True thickness (t) =

width of outcrop (w) x sin (θ) (angle of dip)

• Example:

If the width of an outcrop is 100m and has a dip of 14 o then

t = 100m x sin(14)
t = 24.2 m
 A. Constructing a cross section,

Simple Example

Material : original Map

Activity Students :

Step 1 : First determine the line along which you are going to draw the section, it
should:

Step 2: On some graph paper draw an x axis with the same scale and length as the
line of the cross section. Then add y axes to both end,that have a relevan
scale to the topographic contours.
Step 3 : Using a scrap piece of paper, mark on where structure contours intercept
your cross sectional line.

Step 4 : Overlay your scrap piece of paper with your cross section and mark on the
different topographical contour points.
Step 5 : Join these dots up, you should end up with an accurate scaled topographic
cross section that looks something like the one below.

Step 6 : Next, with your scrap piece of paper add in where the lithological
boundaries intercept your cross sectional line
Step 7 : Next, overlay your scrap piece of paper with your cross section and mark on
the different lithological boundaries.

Step 8 :

• Next, extrapolate from these points the bed boundaries; If they dip, then draw the
lines at the correct angle of dip for each bed.
• However for this example, as the unit boundaries followed the contours, they are
evidently horizontal (remember The Law of “V’s”)
• Now you have drawn an accurate, to scale, cross section.
 B. Constructing a cross section,

PROBLEM

Now have a go at the next problem by yourself, by answering the questions on the

graph paper.

Focus Questions :

Geological outcrops are shown in the NW corner of the map.

1. Complete the geological outcrops over the whole map.
2. Draw a vertical columns showing each of the beds in stratigraphic order
and to scale (use a scale of 1cm = 100m). Indicate the actual thickness
of each bed.
3. Draw a section along the line A-B.
Answer to question 1:
Answer to question 2:

 Often a jagged line is drawn at the bottom of a stratigraphic

column where the thickness of a unit is unknown.

 As these beds are horizontal the actual thickness is the same

as the outcrop width.
Answer to question 3:

We have now worked through:

1. Some of the reasons why cross sections are important.

2. How to construct a simple cross section from

basic geological maps.

3. How to calculate the true thickness of beds.

Answer 1.

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Answer 2.

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Answer 3.

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