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CDI
12,5
446
Received September 2006
Reviewed January 2007
Revised February 2007
Accepted March 2007
Career Development International
Vol. 12 No. 5, 2007
pp. 446-462
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1362-0436
DOI 10.1108/13620430710773763
Career development in primary
school children
Serap Nazli
Counselling and Guidance Department, Necatibey Education Faculty,
University of Balikesir, Turkey
Abstract
Purpose – This paper has three objectives. The first is to determine the level of primary school
students’ career development, the second is to test Super’s childhood years career development model,
and the third is to determine the level of Turkish children’s career development.
Design/methodology/approach – Employing qualitative research models, 145 primary school
students participated in structured essay questionnaires. A descriptional and content analysis, as well
as a qualitative analysis, were performed on the data collected.
Findings – The study established that the primary school students possessed the nine concepts that
Super developed for childhood years. It was also determined that there were no differences in the
students’ level of career development in terms of gender and grades.
Research limitations/implications – This study has two limitations. First, the study was carried
out on a limited sample. Second, the data were gathered from the primary school students in a written
form. Career development levels of students from different countries should be studied with qualitative
and quantitative research, and then compared with each other.
Practical implications – Career education programs in the Turkish education system should start
at the primary school years. Additionally, classroom teachers and school counsellors should promote
experiences to support the students’ career development, and parents should provide more
conscientious support for their children.
Originality/value – This study provides support for Super’s childhood years career development
model in Turkey.
Keywords Career development, Primary schools, Turkey, Children (age groups)
Paper type Research paper
The influence of developmental theorists during the 1950s caused scholars to consider
the importance of childhood years (cognitive development theory of Piaget,
psycho-social development theory of Erikson, ethical development theory of
Kohlberg etc.), and their relevance to career theory. Owing to such reason, a need
emerged to start career education at the primary school years (Rohrs, 1992; Magnuson
and Starr, 2000; McIntosh, 2000; Kuzgun, 2000; Yeşilyaprak, 2000; Guichard, 2001;
Ültanır, 2003; Watson and McMahon, 2004; Auger et al., 2005; Goodman and Hansen,
2005; McMahon and Watson, 2005).
In today’s understanding of a career, Super’s, Holland’s and socio-cognitive career
theories, are widely adopted (Guichard, 2001; Luzzo and MacGregor, 2001; Guichard,
2003; Tang, 2003; Bloch, 2005). Super’s work is one of the most influential of career
studies (Savickas, 1994; Tang, 2003).
Super’s work has influenced career education in Turkey. Since the 1950s, the utmost
priority has been given to the “career orientation” model in the school guidance
services. After World War II, Turkey went through a period of planned development,
and began to require school guidance services to meet the subject period’s demand for Career
“a competent work force”. The Ministry of Labour and Education jointly aspired to development
align the people’s needs with the needs of the country (Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (MEB),
1962, 1970; Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı (DPT), 1963, 1968). Contrary to the fact that
efforts of career orientation had mainly consisted of high school students until the
1980s the idea of including all students into the career orientation theme, even from the
primary school years, was adopted in the 1990s (DTP, 1995; MEB, 1996; Doğan, 1998a, 447
1998b; Yeşilyaprak, 2000; Ültanır, 2003). Donald E. Super was one of the career
theorists who was taken as a role model during these orientation studies.
In his theory of life-span and life-space, Super suggests viewing this field of study
with a developmental perspective. He studies issues such as career development
stages, career development tasks, self-concept, and career maturity. The life-span,
life-space, approach to career development brings together life-stage psychology and
social role theory to convey a comprehensive picture of multiple-role careers, together
with their determinants and interactions. The life-space approach depicts life theaters
and roles. The space dimension addresses the social situation in which an individual
lives. The life-span approach depicts life stages, and demarcates them to coincide with
childhood, adolescence, adulthood, middlessence, and senescence. The time dimension
adds a developmental perspective that focuses on how people change and make
transitions as they prepare for, engage in, and reflect upon their life roles, especially the
work role (Super et al., 1996, p. 126).
Super charted a life-span model consisting of career stages with their characteristic
developmental tasks, and recommended coping behaviors (Savickas, 2001). His career
development model is not limited to the period in which a profession is chosen and put
into implementation. Super regarded the vocational selection as a developmental process,
and examined this process by dividing it into steps. He developed a life span model of
career development as well as the stages of growth, (from birth until the age of 14),
exploration (ages of 14 and 24), establishment (ages of 25 and 44), maintenance (ages of 45
and 64), and disengagement (the age of 65 and later ages), and listed the developmental
tasks that individuals have to succeed at during each stage (McMahon et al., 2003).
Behaviours expected from the individuals at each stage constitute the career
development tasks. For instance, contemplation about professions in childhood years,
representation of the desired professions in childhood games, realization of interests and
talents at adolescence, and association of these with the aspired professions, are
development tasks peculiar to that age (Kuzgun, 2000; Yeşilyaprak, 2000). Super notes
that an individual who adapts to the changing world by fulfilling the career development
tasks needed to succeed in each development stage (Jepsen and Dickson, 2003).
Behaviors expected from the individuals during the career developmental periods form
the career development task peculiar to that stage. Listed below are some of Super’s
career developmental tasks that he proposed according to stages (Kuzgun, 2000):
.
crystallization of vocational choices (between the ages of 14 and 18);
.
specification of a vocational choice (between the ages of 19 and 21);
.
implementation of a vocational choice (between the ages of 22 and 24);
.
deciding on a profession (between the ages of 21 and 30); and
. settlement of the situation and progress in the subject profession (between the
ages of 31 and 44).
CDI Super used his career stages and career tasks to define four types of career patterns:
12,5 stable, conventional, unstable, and multiple trial. The patterns basically differ in the
number of times a worker recycles through the career development tasks of
crystallizing, specifying, implementing, and stabilizing (Savickas, 2001). The nature of
the career pattern is determined by an individual’s parental socioeconomic level,
mental ability, education, skills, personality characteristics, career maturity, and by the
448 opportunities to which he or she is exposed (Super et al., 1996).
Career maturity is a sign of the development level, and indicates the stage being
reached that is in line with the career development that continued from the exploration
stage until the decline stage. Society expects certain behaviors from an individual at a
certain age level, and the level of success in fulfilling the expected behaviors at one’s
age period reflects that individual’s level of career maturity (Super, 1963).
This outlined preparatory process characterizes both adolescent and young adult
years, and is an indicator of the period that Super referred to as being the Exploration
Stage of career development. The main coping behavior behind this discovery is that
action and reflection increase self-knowledge, and knowledge about the world of
employment (Savickas, 2001). The high school years, and the years immediately
following, were conceptualized as a being a time when students would be gathering
information about themselves and the world of work. This was considered to be a process
of effective exploration, in order to “crystallize” and specify a “wise” career choice, and to
embark on the appropriate preparation for it. Awareness of a range of factors, including
the need for planning, the need to set and pursue goals, and the need to take contingency
factors into account, were specified as key aspects, as well as the actual undertaking of
the activities needed to explore the world of work (Patton and Lokan, 2001, p. 33).
According to Super, what is really created and developed during the developmental
periods is self-concept, meaning that an individual would develop a sound, appropriate,
vocational choice decision depending on the individual’s appropriateness to the
self-concept (Kuzgun, 1999). The choice of profession is the reflection and expression of
personality design, which is formed as a result of the interaction between the
individual and the environment, and job selection is a reflection of identification design
in relation to an occupation (Super, 1980).
Self-concept is how a person considers himself or herself, and this self-concept of the
child is enriched through the developmental periods. Individual awareness comes about
as a result of his or her experiences, which is melded together through the opinions of
others about him or her, and then form meaningful wholes in order to develop the
self-concept. As one gets older, the self-concept gains a clearer, sharper, and more
realistic structure. Self-concept has an ever-developing nature. Individuals make some
professional decisions throughout various periods of their development, and these
professional decisions reach fruition as long as the individual conforms to his or her self.
The individual would have to put his or her self-concept into practice by choosing a
profession, and as the individual reaches maturity, his or her self-concept that has
developed over all those years, becomes more defined and eventually begins to reveal
itself more clearly in relation to the chosen vocation (Super, 1980; Super et al., 1996).
The life-span component of the theory concentrates on the process of choosing and
adjusting to roles in the life space, especially the work role. Involved in the process by
which one develops a career is a comprehensive theory dealing with the content
involved in choices, and the outcomes of those choices (Super et al., 1996). Super made a
distinction between career choice content and process. Choice content deals with the Career
occupations and answer the question, “Which occupation are you interested in?” Career development
choice process answers the question, “Why are you interested in entering that
occupation?” (Saviskas, 2001, p. 51).
Super deems it suitable to explain this by using the concepts of life-span and
life-space career development. Career development takes into account all of the places,
roles, and activities during the life of an individual. Vocational career is one of the most 449
significant dynamics under this framework, and is included in an individual’s life
(Guichard, 2001; McMahon et al., 2003; Ebberwein et al., 2004).
Super studied the childhood years in detail and developed a model that deals with
the childhood years. At the primary and middle school years students are in a “growth
stage”. Primary school students’ vocational self-concepts start to develop with the
processes of identification and model-taking, and although the students’ fanciful needs
are very important at the outset of this period, gradually they begin to take their
interests and abilities seriously (Yeşilyaprak, 2000).
The growth stage includes four major career development tasks: becoming concerned
about the future, increasing personal control over one’s own life, convincing oneself to
achieve in school and at work, and acquiring competent work habits and attitudes.
During primary and middle school, students grow in their capacity to work by learning
productive work habits and attitudes. They also increase confidence in their ability to do
well at tasks, and to make their own decisions. During this same period, children are
expected to learn to get along with others, and to balance this cooperation with a
competitive attitude aimed at becoming the best that they can be. Slowly, they acquire an
adult concept of time, and near the end of the growth stage, become more aware of, and
concerned about, the long-term future (Super et al., 1996, pp. 131-2).
At this stage, children and pre-adolescents are persuaded to develop their positive
self-awareness and approach towards professions, and to become planning explorers
and knowledgeable deciders in the future. In Super’s childhood years career
development model, there are nine concepts that assist in the awareness of career and
in the decision making process (Super, 1994):
(1) Curiosity. It is the need to learn, the need to incline towards research. The need
of curiosity in children is very evident.
(2) Exploration. These are behaviors of gathering information about one’s
surrounding and exploration that enable satisfaction of the curiosity need. A
curious child explores the environment, home, school and etc.
(3) Information. Understanding that awareness is an important thing, how to use
vocational information, and how to gather this information.
(4) Key figures. These are role models, or helpful people, who play a significant role
in the individual’s life. Adults are important role models for children in
developing their working world and the concept of personality.
(5) Interests. Within their interests the individual realizes what he/she likes or
dislikes. Children who explore information about the world gradually create
their own vocational fantasies and interests.
(6) Locus of control. The individual takes his/her emotion under control in order to
control one’s present and future. Children gain their sense of control over their
own environment gradually.
CDI (7) Time perspective. With time perspective the individual can distinguish among
12,5 the past, present and future for his/her future plans. The sense of future begins
to develop in the child consecutively with the development of time perspective.
(8) Self-concept. It expresses the dimensions of the individual in various roles,
situations or positions. The child that explores their environment has the ability
to find out about his/her similar or different attributes by comparing them with
450 the other people in their environment.
(9) Planning. Realizing the importance of making plans. Children reach the position
of planning and decision making at the last phase. Children should have the
sufficient information, interest, and the sense to control their future and time
perspective while planning.

The purpose of this study

This study has three objectives. Career development is a process that continues from
today throughout a life span, and it is acknowledged that this process starts from the
childhood years (Magnuson and Starr, 2000; Blackurst et al., 2003; Watson and
McMahon, 2004; Auger et al., 2005; McMahon and Watson, 2005; Schultheiss et al.,
2005). Nevertheless, the number of research studies that deal with the childhood years
is very limited. An empirically supported theoretical understanding of childhood
career development is needed for lifelong facilitation, and for the development of
coherent programs suited to the changing needs of children over time.
Further, the number of research (Schultheiss et al., 2005) dealing with the “childhood
years career development model” is limited. At a time when the effect of the global
economy is highly influential, the career development processes of children in different
countries need to be compared with one another. Working on the career development
process in childhood years, and making these prevalent at an international level, will
contribute to the planning and structuring of career education programs that are in line
with the demands of a global economy.
Turkey is a developing country with a population of 70 million people, of which 16
million are students (grades K-12). School guidance and counselling services in Turkey
began in the 1950s using the traditional guidance model. In the 1990s, a re-structuring
period of guidance and counselling began in schools lead to the initiation of the
implementation process of comprehensive guidance and counselling. Currently, school
guidance and counselling in Turkey is going through a transitional period that is
steering the system toward a comprehensive guidance and counselling programme
(Nazlı, 2006). Turkey, being a NATO and OECD member, and also aspiring to become
a member of the European Union, has been trying to re-structure their educational
system and school guidance services, through World Bank and UNICEF sponsored
studies, to be in harmony with the 21st century’s global economy. Within this
restructuring process, primary school level has gained importance, and the childhood
year’s development model of Super may contribute to the educational system of
Turkey during this restructuring process.
Taking into consideration Turkey’s restructuring process, Super’s childhood years
career development model was tested on Turkish children under the framework of this
study. This study builds on the theoretical and empirical literature on life span career
development by examining an important, yet overlooked, aspect of the life span theory:
the middle childhood years. Are children curious about the business world? What do
they do to ease their curiosity? How do children perceive themselves? What kind of a Career
relationship do children establish between their talents and interests, and their development
probable future professions? How do children perceive others to be influential in their
career development process? Do they have a goal or plan for the future? Are these
differences apparent across gender and age?

Method 451
A qualitative research model was used in this study. Research data was collected from
145 primary school students (65 boys, 80 girls), studying at two urban primary schools
in the western regions of Turkey. The age of the students that participated in the study
were between 9 and 12 years (mean age 10.6 years and SD ¼ 1:2); 46 of the students
who participated were third graders, 38 of them were fourth graders, and 61 of them
were fifth graders. Parents of the students were from modest economical backgrounds.

Measures and procedure

Structured essay questionnaires were used to acquire the research data (Tinsley, 1997).
Structured questions were prepared so as to take the nine concepts of Super’s
childhood years career development model into consideration. Also, special attention
was paid to pose appropriate, flexible, non-directing, and “what” type of questions
instead of “why” type of questions (Stiles, 1993; Hill et al., 1997). Ten questions were
prepared and tested on student groups of 20 to learn whether or not the questions were
being understood. After the pilot implementation, the number of questions was
reduced to six. The questions were as follows:
(1) Are you curious about the business world and different kinds of professions?
What do you do to ease your curiosity?
(2) How do your family and teachers affect you on choosing your favorite
profession? Are there any other people that affect you on choosing your
profession?
(3) What are your talented areas? Do you associate your talents with any
professions?
(4) What are your areas of interest? Do you associate the things you like with any
professions?
(5) Who controls your behaviors? Do you hold yourself accountable for your
behaviors?
(6) Can you tell us your future academic and vocational goals? Do you make plans
to reach those goals?

During their classroom guidance class the school counselors administrated the
structured essay questionnaire developed by the researcher to the students. School
counselors prevented any misunderstandings and short replies by explaining the
questions to the students (Hill et al., 1997; Tinsley, 1997). The students completed the
questions within a period of approximately 30 minutes.

Data analysis
Descriptive content analysis and numerical analysis (Hill et al., 1997; Yıldırım and
Şimşek, 1999; Farber, 2006) methods were used during the data analysis. In the
CDI descriptive content analysis, the data collected by the research is summarized and
12,5 interpreted according to pre-determined themes (Hill et al., 1997; Yıldırım and Şimşek,
1999). The descriptive content analysis of the data received from the study was carried
out in four stages.
At the first stage, Super’s nine concepts were used as the main framework for
content analysis. Taking into consideration Super’s nine concepts’ relation to each
452 other, these concepts were gathered together under four main themes
(1) Curiosity-exploration-information.
(2) Key figures.
(3) Self-concept.
(4) Locus of control, time perspective, and planning).

Subsequent to the creation of these four main themes, their sub themes were developed.
There were two reasons behind the classification of Super’s nine concepts under four
headings. The first reason was to present the data to the reader in a more collective
way during the content analysis; the second reason was to create a similar research
data classification in order to compare it with the works of Schultheiss et al. (2005).
At the second stage, the data were interpreted and organized according to the main
themes and sub-themes determined during the previous stage. While the data were
being organized, the important data were chosen by summarizing, and by using the
important concepts and themes as per the problem of research. For this stage, direct
quotes were selected for presentation.
At the third stage, the data outlined in the main and sub-themes were defined.
Written statements of the students were read sentence by sentence, and four main
themes were classified with their sub themes and codified. For example, data such as “I
am curious about what the professions are”, and “News on professions at the
newspapers and magazines attract my attention”, were codified with the sub theme of
the “will to explore” from the first main theme. Data such as “I am good at
mathematics”, and “I have a very good talent of memory when I read something”, were
codified with the sub theme of ‘awareness of talent’ from the third main theme. At this
stage, the researcher defined his/her qualitative data without adding his/her opinion
and comment, and the processed collected data were directly presented.
At the fourth stage, the findings defined during the third stage were explained,
relations were established among them, and meaning was attached. At this stage,
gender and grade levels, comparison was conducted.
Numerical analysis was performed in order to identify to what extent the research
students participated in the pre-determined research themes (Yıldırım and Şimşek,
1999). Research data were expressed in terms of frequencies and percentages for
numerical analysis purposes. While the research data were reduced to percentages, the
main themes and sub themes were utilized during the content analysis. Each student
was given a different number, and 145 essay questionnaires were noted on the main
themes and sub themes. By using a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet program, the
sentences completed by the students in their essay questionnaires were indicated
opposite of each sub category. Numerical data were recorded on the table by taking the
gender and grade levels into consideration.
 First the descriptive content analysis, and then the numerical analysis, shall be Career
presented under this heading. The descriptive content analyses, and the numerical development
analysis of research data, were obtained by taking the four main themes into
consideration.

Descriptive content analysis

Descriptive content analysis was conducted according to four main themes and sub 453
themes of the study are given below.

Curiosity, exploration and information

When studying the data under this main theme carefully, the sub themes of will to
explore, and realization of information resources were identified.
Will to explore. This sub category shows that the participants are curious about
professions. It became evident that the participants realized that these professions
actually exist, and that they are curious about them, it also shows that they are
motivated to ease their curiosity about these professions. In the following passage, the
participant discussed that they are eager to learn:
I am curious about the business world, what the professions are and what they are about and
what to find about these. News on professions at the newspapers and magazines attract my
attention and draw my interest (Participant 16).

Realization of information resources. In this sub theme, participants explained how

they can ease their curiosity about the business world, and what their sources of
information are. The results of the study show that the participants are aware of
various information resources, and at higher grades it was found that the students
were able to better perceive the information resources:
I look for resources such as encyclopedias and Internet. I gather information on professions
from other people. I consult my teacher (Participant 77).

Key figures
Participants discussed the influential roles of important others in their career
development. By examining the data under this main theme, it was clear that providing
social support was a common category. The other sub theme occurred only
occasionally in the students answers.
Social support. According to the research data, mothers, fathers, and teachers are
the most important individuals who support the children. Parents and teachers show
respect to their children’s professional choices, and support them socially by informing
them about both professions and themselves. As the level of grade increased it was
found out that the students were able to understand the social support better. Students
express the social support, as they perceive it, with the below mentioned sample:
My teacher and family affect me a lot. They kind of make explanations on the profession I am
interested in. They tell me about the difficulties of the profession I am interested in
(Participant 31).
CDI Role model. Occasionally, a student wrote about the influential nature of role models.
12,5 Students perceive other adults around them, as well as the people on television, as role
models. The following sample shows that the student scrutinizes the vocational roles of
the people around them:
I have four or five professions in mind for my future profession selection. My brother is a
cadet; he is attending Işıklar Military High School. So I would like to be an officer. I want to a
454 teacher like my teacher. Also I used to get very sick when I was young. As I admired the
doctor who healed me, I want to be a pediatrician. Also I want to be fashion designer so as to
design outfits on my own. These are the professions on my mind now (Participant 134).

Self concept
From this theme we learn about the various experiences of the students (both in and
out of the school), and understand that they started to discover themselves as a result
of their success-failures during these experiences. Upon examination of the main theme
data, sub headings of awareness of personal characteristics self-concept – profession
relationship were identified.
Awareness of personal characteristics. Research data indicates that the students are
aware of their personal characteristics. It was found that the participants connected
their skills with their academic success. Furthermore, it was established that,
according to the gender and grade level, there were no changes in the students’ levels
pertaining to the awareness of talent. In the following statement, a participant
expressed how he associated his success in class with his talent:
I can paint well. I have a very good talent of short term memory when I read something. I sing
well. I am good at mathematics (Participant 145).

Self-concept – profession relationship. It was established that the students were able to
associate their own characteristics with their ideal future profession, and that they
realized this relationship would bring success to their future professions. Also, it was
discovered that the male students were able to better associate between their own
characteristics and professions, when compared with the female students. As shown
below, one of the participants demonstrated such a relationship:
My talents are: playing the violin, playing basketball, painting pictures, being a good orator.
If I can improve my violin I may consider being a musician. If I improve my basketball I can
play in a basketball team. If I improve my painting I become a painter. If I improve my
oratory skills, I may be a lawyer. My areas of interest: Raising animals, collecting items. I like
these. I am interested in everything. If I feed animals and tame them I can open a circus. But
collecting cannot be a profession (Participant 116).

Locus of control, time perspective and planning

Having examined the main data theme, sub headings of locus of control, time
perspective, and planning were established. Research data showed that the students
gained the ability to control themselves through what they think of as their future
professional and familial lives, and that they realized the importance of living in a
planned fashion in order to reach their goals, and that they were able to come to terms
with the future effects of their primary school success.
 Locus of control. Locus of control is composed of both inner and outer supervision. Career
Inner supervision is the individual’s control of his or her present and future. Outer development
control is perception of being under the control of others. Data shows that the students
perceive themselves as being both internally and externally controlled:
I know how to control my deeds. But when I cannot control my behaviors my parents and
teachers intervene. I hold myself responsible from my behaviors (Participant 102).
455
Time perspective. Research data shows that the students think about their future, and
that they control/direct their current behaviors in order to achieve their future goals.
I would like to attend Sırrı Yırcalı High School in future. . .I will succeed by continuing my
primary school work until my high school and university years (Participant 83).

Planning. Research data indicates that the students are conscious of the fact that
“being aware of the importance of planning” is essential for their future lives. It was
discovered that the female students, more than the male students, realized the
importance of planning:
Nothing is feasible without plans (even games). So I plan everything and everywhere
(Participant 80).

Quantitative analysis
When the numerical data of the study were examined, it was established that the
primary school students possessed the nine concepts, which Super developed for
childhood years (Table I). The students were found to be curious about the professions
(97 percent), they were aware of the information resources to ease their vocational
curiosities (71 percent). It was also established that key figures tried to assist in the
students’ career development levels (48 percent), but these key figures could not be
sufficient role models (16 percent). It was also noted that levels of awareness from the
students’ were good (96 percent), and that they were able to associate their own
characteristics and professions (70 percent). The students were found to be able to
control their behaviours, both internally and externally (94 percent), that they had a
time perspective (84 percent), and realized the importance of being able to plan (77
percent).
It was identified that the career development of students does not change according
to gender, and with the only difference being between the two sub themes, it remains
consistently similar. It was found that boys (90 percent), when compared with girls (53
percent), are able to associate the self-concept with professions better; whereas girls (86
percent), compared to boys (66 percent), are aware of the importance of making plans
for their future ( p , 0.01).
There were no significant difference between third graders and fourth graders. But
in fifth graders were found to realize the information resources more (93 percent), take
support from key figures (59 percent), self concept-profession relationship (77 percent)
and time perspective (93 percent) more than the third graders and fourth graders did
( p , 0.01 and p , 0.05).
 CDI
12,5

456

Table I.

development
childhood career
themes based on
students regarding
Numerical analysis of 145
Boys Girls Third graders Fourth graders Fifth graders Total
N ¼ 65 N ¼ 80 N ¼ 46 N ¼ 38 N ¼ 61 N ¼ 145
Theme and sub themes % % % % % %

Curiosity, exploration and information

Will to explore 96 97 93 97 100 97
Realization of information resources 64 76 54 55 93 * * 71
Key figures
Social support 44 52 43 39 59 * 48
Role model 13 18 15 23 13 16
Self concept
Awareness of personal characteristics 96 96 97 97 95 96
Self-concept – profession relationship 90 53 * * 69 60 77 * 70
Locus of control, time perspective and planning
Locus of control 93 95 91 94 96 94
Time perspective 80 88 78 78 93 * 84
Planning 66 86 * * 76 73 80 77
Notes: * p , 0.05; * * p , 0.01
Discussion Career
This study examined whether the nine concepts of Super’s childhood years career development
development model (curiosity, exploration, information, key figures, self-concept,
interests, locus of control, time perspective, self-concept and planning), are valid or not
for Turkey. Having examined the research data, it is understood that the primary
school students in Turkey are curious about professions, are oriented towards
information resources, and conduct research with curiosity as the motive. In Super’s 457
(1994) career development model, one of the most important motives is curiosity, and
this motive is very evident in the childhood years. Curious children explore their
environment, school, profession etc. Games help children to use exploration behavior,
and to satisfy their motive of curiosity. The child begins by exploring the information
resources with this motivation, and eventually becomes proficient at using them.
It was found that most of the students who participated in the study are aware of
their personal characteristics, and are able to associate self-concept with professions. In
Super’s (1994) career development model, self-concept is very significant, and starts to
develop in the childhood years. With the need to discover the environment more, and
while doing research, the child discovers which aspects that he/she is similar to, or
from comparing themselves to other people, that he/she is different from.
Within the subject study it was found that primary school students try to control
their future, are aware of the fact that they need to use planning in order to control their
futures, and that they cannot totally control themselves internally. According to Super
(1994), children gain their sense of control over their environment gradually. Time
perspective means that a sense of future has developed, and this starts to show up in
children around the age of nine. For those children who start to control their future and
gain time perspective, it means that the skill to make plans has begun to develop.
Research data show that key figures, particularly parents, teachers, adults in the
environment, and individuals in the media, try to support the career developments of
primary school students, but are unable to be role models to any sufficient degree.
However in Super’s (1994) model, adults play an important role model for children in
discovering the business world. These results, that adults in the environment are
insufficient in the role of key figures, can be explained in relation to the Turkish culture
and educational system. In Turkey, high school students are seen as being in a position
to make decisions, but parents, other key figures, and school guidance services, have a
large influence on these high school students. In terms of career development, the
primary school years are perceived earlier in Turkey. The insufficiency of study on
primary school year’s career development in Turkey is also another product of this
idea.
No significant differences were found across gender, and as the level of grade
increased, students have a greater awareness of the information resources around
them, are more productive at research, and are more influenced by key figures. This
finding of the study supports Super’s (1994) model, and is accepted as a gradual
development.
Data fit well with Gottfredson’s theory. The findings indicate that the primary
school students perceive their self-awareness, are able to associate themselves with
professions, and that they are influenced by the views of their parents and
acquaintances. Gottfredson suggests that the self-concept of students develop from the
third grade, that they start to reject professions that do not conform to their
CDI self-concepts, and are influenced by the views of their parents and acquaintances
12,5 (Kuzgun, 2000; Helwig, 2001). Parallelism of the research data with both Super’s and
Gottfredson’s opinions show that the career consciousness of Turkish students is well
developed.
The conclusions drawn in Turkey are similar to Schultheiss et al.’s (2005) study in
the USA on 49 primary school children that used Super’s model. In the USA it was
458 found that the primary school students were aware of their own self-concepts, their
time perspective and planning concepts were well developed, and they were able to
associate their educational experiences with professions. These findings are also valid
for Turkish students. However, compared to Turkey, it is seen that the US key figures
(families and teachers), are better at supporting the students’ career development. In
Turkey, students were more curious and keen for research about professions when
compared to their American peers. Further, they were better able to associate their own
characteristics with professions. There may be two reasons behind the similarity
between the study done in the USA and the research findings. The first reason may be
the fact that Turkey accepted the US implementations founded by the Marshall Plan in
the 1950s, and that as a consequence of the Turkish-American relationship, it continues
to be a model for Turkey’s educational system and school guidance program. Secondly,
the fact that Super worked in many countries, and came to understand different
countries while developing his theory, may be the reason for the similarity between the
Turkish and American primary school students.
When other literary research data was examined, similar conclusions were
reached. It was found that vocational consciousness begins to develop during
primary school years (Trice and King, 1991; Magnuson and Starr, 2000; Walls, 2000;
Blackhurst, 2003; Taylor, 2003; Auger et al., 2005), and that there is no difference
across gender in terms of career development. Additionally, as primary school
students grow older and start to think more realistically about professions
(Blackhurst, 2003; Auger et al., 2005), their vocational goals gradually develop
(Helwig, 2001), they are able to associate their interests with chosen professions
(Morton, 1997), and they can associate their vocational goals with their educational
goals (Cook et al., 1996). It was also noted that the parents played a very vital role in
the children’s lives, and that they influenced their children’s career development as
early as the primary school years (Schulenberg et al., 1984; Young et al., 1991; Penick
and Jepsen, 1992; Middleton and Loughhead, 1993; Young, 1994; Turner and Lapan,
2002; Huges and Thomas, 2003; Bryant et al., 2006).

Limitations
This study has two limitations. Firstly, the study was carried out on a limited sampling
group as per the qualitative model. If the study was carried out on a larger sampling
group, at an upper-medium-lower socio-economic level, it could provide better
representation for the universe. Secondly, the data were gathered from the primary
school students in written form. Students’ awareness levels of their own self-concepts,
and their level of ability to fully express themselves in written form, limit the data. If
interviews were held with the students, teachers, and parents, then more profound data
could be gathered.
Implications for practice and directions future research Career
Research data indicate that a fundamental structure to roll out career education in development
primary schools exists in Turkey. The primary school curriculum should concentrate
on activities that would make the students realize their talents and interests. Studies
should direct them to contemplate on, to undertake exploration about their future lives,
and to think about the effect of their present lives on their future. Also, classroom
teachers and school counsellors should support the parents to become better role 459
models for their children’s career development.
This research findings support the idea that career development starts from the
primary school years, and thus the career development programs should be initiated
during the primary school years. However, the number of studies in literature that deal
with the primary school students’ career development is insufficient. Therefore, career
development levels of primary school students should be examined.
Additionally, there is a need to compare the career development levels of the
children in different countries, and to prepare school guidance and counselling
programs. With this aim in mind, school guidance programs need to be prepared in a
way that relies on the theories of academicians who have conducted research in many
countries, such as Donald E. Super, who is both reputable, and is widely accepted as an
“international theorist”. Comparison of childhood years career development levels at
the international level may contribute to the planning of “common-similar” career
educational programs and structuring.

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About the author

Serap Nazli is an assistant professor at Necatibey Education Faculty, Balikesir University. Her
research interests are school guidance programme and family counselling. She has published
three books, entitled Family Counselling; Developmental Guidance; and Comprehensive
Developmental Guidance and Counselling Programme and a number of papers on school and
family guidance. She can be contacted at: serapnazli@ yahoo.com

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