A Text Book of Professional Communication Skills and ESP for Engineers and Professionals S.D. SHARMABahan dengan hak ciptaA Text-Book of Professional Skills and ESP is basically skills. It covers the whole courses of Communi-cation, TAS-103 and Communication Lab. (English), TAS-253 prescribed in U.P. Technical University, Lucknow for B.Tech, I yr. students. It also covers the whole courses of Technical Writing, BHS-211, BHS-114 and BHS-312 prescribed in GB. Pant University, Pantnagar for I yr. “students of all the faculties including the “faculty of Engineering and Technology. This book is the collective outcome of A Text-Book of Spoken and Written English and A Text- Book of Scientific and Technical Writing, earlier prescribed in the above Universities for detailed study. The book is written in simple, direct and intelligible style; the presentation is scientifically structured and the material is learner- centred and r. The book may gainfully be used for ESP also. The entire book is based on empiricism, pragmatism and ‘communicative methods ‘well-documented and well-structured. Rs. 1800 ISBN : 81-7625-626-9 2006, Size-Crown, pp. 623+10A TEXT-BOOK of PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS AND ESP for Engineers and Professionals Thie one 81ZV-OXK-7WSH_A TEXT-BOOK of PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS AND ESP for Engineers and Professionals Earlier versions of this edition titled A Text-Book of Spoken and Written English and A Text-Book of Scientific & Technical Writing were prescribed by the U.P. Technical University, Lucknow for B.Tech I year students of all branches for Course HU 101 Professional Communication I and HU 102 PC II and by G.B. Pant University, Pantnagar for I year students of B.Tech, respec- tively. This edition also includes Communication Lab (English) TAS-253 Course and other revised contents by Prof. S.D. Sharma Ph.D, D. Litt, SARUP & SONS NEW DELHI-110002Published by : SARUP & SONS 4740/23, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002 Ph-23281029, 23244664, 51010989 Fax. 011-23277098 email-sarupandsonsin@hotmail.com © Author A Text-Book of Professional Communication Skills and ESP Ist Edition—1988 2nd Edition—1994 $rd Edition—2006 ISBN-81-7625-626-9 All rights are reserved. No part of this may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, and in any information storage and retrieval system, except for references or reviews, without the prior permission of the publisher. Laser Typesetting by Friends Printers and Printed at Mehra Offset Press, Delhi.“affectionately dedicated to MY DEAR WIFE—SMT CHHAYA SHARMA, for her extreme dedication and self- abnegation”“Tt matters not how strait the gate, How charged with punishments the scroll ; Tam the master of my fate : Tam the captain of my soul.” —W.E. HENLEYSome Other Books By the Same Author Studies in Fiction : George Orwell, John Steinbeck, Jerome David Salinger, Walker Parcy, George Meredith and Thomas Hardy. Victorian Fiction : New Approaches Impact of Scientific Thought on Victorian Fiction Semantics and Syntax : A Linguistic Study of Indian Loan Words Papers on Critical Universals Papers on Indian English A Textbook of Scientific and Technical Writing A Textbook of Spoken and Written English Empirical Uses of English Longinus on the Sublime Pronunciation and Applied Grammar Thomas Love Peacock As A Novelist Aristotle's Poetics Samuel Johnson's Life of Pope Johnson's Preface to the Plays of Shakespeare Perspectives on Creativity G.B. Pant University Research HighlightsSYLLABU: U.P. Technical University, Lucknow Syllabus (Professional Communication, TAS-103) Unit I: Technical Communication (p. 144) Nature; Origin and Scope; Features and General Writing; Significance; Style : Objective Style as Contrary to Literary Composition. Forms of ‘Technical Communication: Reports: Types, Significance, Structure & Style of Report. Writing of Reports : Project, Thesis, Dissertation Writing; ‘Technical Paper & Scientific Article Writing : Elements, Methods and Technical Objectives; ‘Technical Proposal : Nature, Divisions, Kinds, Uses. Unit II : Pre-Requisites of Technical Written Communication (p. 829) Vocabulary Building : Homophones (Words Similar in sound but different in Meaning); Word-formation; One-Word substitute; New and Select Vocabulary Building (about 500 words). Functional Grammar : Patterns and Correct usage (Parts of speech); Syntax Concord; Prepositions; Articles. (p. 227) Requisites of Good Sentence and Paragraph Writing : Requisites of Good Sentence Writing; Paragraph Writing; Unity, Coherence and Emphasis; Development of Paragraph : Inductive Order, Deductive Order, Spatial, Linear, Chronological Order ete. with Emphasis on Argumentative and Expository Writing. (pp. 161-170) Unit III : Business Correspondence: (p. 212) Principles; Features; Sales and Credit Letters : Letters of Enquiry, Quotation, Order, Claim, Complaint and Adjustment letters, Bio-Data Making, Resumes/Job Application Processing. Unit IV : Language Learning Through Thematic and Value based Critical Reading (Non-Detailed Text Study) A Study of following Value-Oriented Essays : AL. Basham ‘The Heritage of India S. Radhakrishnan : The Gandhian Outlook Francis Bacon : Of Studies J.B. Priestley : Making Writing Simple Virginia Woolf : How should one Read a Book RK. Narayan : A Bookish Topic C.EM. Josd ‘The Civilization of Today Study of following Short Stories for making the Students acquainted with the styles of great Writers of the World : O.H. Henry : The Gift of the Magi (ix)Ge) RN. Tagore : The Renunciation Katherine Mansfield : The Fly A.P. Chekhor : The Lament MR. Anand : The Barber's Trade Union Ruskin Bond : The Eyes Are Not Here D.H. Lawrence : The Rocking Horse Winner Ernest Hemingway : ‘The Capital of the World Unit V : Dimensions of Spoken English : Using English Language Laboratory : Stress, Intonation, Rhythm, Phonemes, Allophones, Phonetic Transcription, Listening, Read- ing and Comprehension of Speech and Reproduction of Response. (p. 3)CONTENTS Page No. Preface to the Third Edition Preface to the First Edition Acknowledgements Chapter Phonetics and Spoken English Communication Skills (xvii (xix) (xxii) 2. Dimensions of Spoken English: Using English Language Laboratory Language as a Means of Communication; Science of Language (Linguistics) and Communication; Phonology, Phoneme and Allophone; Phonetics and In- ternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA); Phonetics—its kinds—Acoustic Pho- netics, Auditory Phonetics and Articulatory Phonetics; Speech Organs; Role of Speech Organs in Production of Speech—Diaphram and Lungs, Lar- ynx and Vocal Cords, Soft Palate, Tongue, Uvula, Nasal Cavity, English Speech Sounds Vowels—Pure Vowels, Diphthongal Glides; RP; Wider Cir- cumference; Need for a Model; Consonants—Stops or Plosives— Voiceless Lip Stop, Voiced Lip Stop, Voiceless, Tongue Point Stop, Voiceless ‘Tongue Back Stop, Voiced Tongue Back Stop, Glottis Stop; Fricatives— Voiceless Tip Teeth Fricative, Voiced Tip Teeth Fricative, Voiceless Tongue Blade ‘Teeth Fricative, Voiced Tongue Blade Teeth Fricative, Voiceless Tongue Blade Alveolar Fricative, Voiced Tongue Blade Alveolar Fricative, Voiccless ‘Tongue Blade and Front Alveolopalatal Fricative, Stress, Glottal Fricative; Sonorants—Voiced Lip Nasal, Voiced ‘Tongue Point Alveolar Nasal, Voiced ‘Tongue Back Velar Nasal, Voiced Tongue Point Alveorlar Lateral; Affricatives—Voiceless Tongue Blade and Front Alveclopalatal Affricate, Voiced Tongue Blade and Front Alveolopalatal Affricate; Glides—Voiced Labiovelar Semi-Vowel, Voiced Tongue Front Palatal Semi- Vowel, Retroflex Tongue Point and Balde Semi-Vowel; Consonants Grouped by Places of Articulation; Consonant Clusters; Stress and Intonation, Rhythm; Semantics, Pragmatics and Phonetics of Loan Words, Phonetic Transcrip- tion; Assignments (Theoritical); Assignments (Practical). Reading and Listening Skills for Personality Development 46 Based on Communicative English and Semiotics Technology Communication: Definition, Process and Types; Wider Circumference: Adumbrations of Communication; interpersonal Communication, Societal Communication, Mass Communication, VerbalCommunication, Non-Verbal Communication, Digital Communication, Discursive Communication, Disqualifying (xi)(xii) Communication, Extrapersonal Communication, Professional Communication; Communicative skills—SWRL (Spoken Skills, Written Skills, Reading Skills, Listening Skills); Language Disease; Semiotics ‘Technology; Language Theraphy. Speech Disorders—Hiysterical Aphasia; Puberphonia; Ventricular Dysphonia; Phonasthenia; Stuttering; Aetiology of Hoarseness; T! (Traits four); Reading Skills: RR system, SM,, and SM, Methods, M? Devices, T# (Technique Four)— OK4R, PQRST, SQ3R, PQ4R; Barriers to speed Reading—B™, Listening Skille—Methods of Improvement, Berlo’s Measurement, Coding and Decoding Skills, Personality Grooming: T? (Traits seven)-SIP+DIAL, _ SWRL &PG_G5 (PIR? C-Moulding), P14 (Personality Traits Fourteen-TECH (Techno)+HERF® (Culture)+VIC (Victory); Assignments. 2. Oral C seati 57 Interviews: Important Tips, Reasons for Poor Performance, Magic Words, Communicate Your Strength, Key-points, Don’t, Do, Top Job Interview Questions. Seminars/Conferences/Symposia/Workshops : Differences, Common Cuidell Group Discussion (GD) : Key-points, Important Considerations GD and Personality Development : Cognitive Skills Bebavi Di © ication : (a) Articulati (4) Coherence (c) Listening Assimilation (d) Kinesics Public Speaking : Important Factors, Purpose, SWOT Analysis, Rhetoric Devices. Presentations : Presenter, Medium, Target, Planning and Preparation, Delivery, Manner of Presentation, Use of Visual Aids, Presentation in Meetings and Conferences. Developing Argumentative Skills/Role Play Presentations : Four Communication Skills—Spoken Skills, Written Skills, Reading Skills, Listening Skills, Persuation, Emotive Appeal, Sound Preposition, Solid Proofs. Use of Scientific and Concrete Vocabulary, Thorough Knowledge of the Subject, Kinesics, Voice Modulation, Patience, Consistency, Extraordinary Command over Language, Profundity of Subject-Matter, Excellent Exposure and Orientation, Kinesies, Listening Capacity. ‘Testing Comprehension: Reading and Listening Exercises Assisted by Audio Visual Aids : Elocution or Audience Based Speech : Thorough Knowledge of the Audience, Rhetotric Devices, Body Language, Voice ‘Modulation, Laughter through Interesting Anecdotes. Eloquent Speech: Clarity, Brevity, Interesting Explosure of the Theme, Phone Etiquette Communication; Greetings and Introductions Communication Card Etiquette Communication; Speaking Voice Communication; Dining Etiquette Communication; Miscellaneous Marepian, aaxuuennit aBTopcskum npasom(xiii) Communication: Hair-cut, Skin Care, N: Gestures, Fragrance, Postures and . Online Communication: A Semiotics Technology Perspective 68 Introduction. Semiotics Technology: Smileys ‘Two Milieu-Cul Abbreviated Communication Impaired Online Communication ocalizationists’ View Wider Circumference of English Communication Communication Intelligibility Empirical/Spoken Communication Modules Models of Communication and Semiotics Technology Decoding Skills of Communication Suggestions References Assignments Language Lab Practicals 7 Lab Practical 1 IPA and RP; Speech Drills on Articulatory Phonetics, Place and Manner Lab Practical 2 Stress in Speech Based on Accentual Patterns Lab practical 3 Intonation Pattern Practice: Rising, Falling and Level Tones Lab Practical 4 Rhythm in Speech: Practice on Strong and Weak Form Words Lab Practical 5 Individual Conferencing Lab Practical 6 SWRL Skills: Interviews/Seminars/Workshops, Strengthening Phonetic ‘Transcription Skills/Kinesics. Lab Practical 7 GD (Group Discussion) Based on Current Grammatical Patterns Lab Practical 8 Public Speaking: Using Articulation and Kinesics Lab Practical 9 Presentations Lab Practical 10 Argumentative SI Ising Audio-Visual Aids Lab Practical 11 Testing Comprehension: Reading and Listening Lab Practical 12 Elocution—Audience Based 6. ESP: TOEFL/IELTS/TWE/TSE/GMAT/GRE/CAT/MAT __—*90 Reasons for opting TOEFLIELTS/TWE/TSE/GRE/GMAT/ Contents for TOEFL/TELTS/TWESE/GREIGMAT Prepasing for TOEFL/IELTS/TWE/TSF/GRE/GMAT/CAT/MAT32 Exercises on Listening Compretension Structure and Written Expression Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension Practice with S Practice wi icles/N G C: Practice with Py NerbWVoie Practice with Infinitives/Gerunds/Participles Practice with Time/T Practice with Modal Verbs Practice with Adjectives/Adverbs/Preposition B ith Concord Practice with One-Word Substitution/Foreign Words Practice with Idioms/Phrases Practice with Synthesis/Transformation Practice with Comprehension/Essay Writing i 144 Nature, Origin, Definition, Scope, Development, Salient Feature, Technical Writing versus General Writing. Form of Technical Communication: Reports: Types, Significance, Structure and Style; Writing of Reports, Projects, Thesis, Dissertation Writing, Techni- cal Paper and scientific Article Writing; Elements, Methods and Objective. Technical Proposal: Nature, Division, Kinds, Uses Pre-requisters of ‘Technical Written Communication; Vocabulary Building— Homophones, Word Formation, One-Word Substitation. Functional Grammar: Patterns and Correct usages (Parts of Speech); Syntax, Concord, Preposition, Articles. Requisites of Good Sentence and Paragraph Writing: Requisites of Good Sentence Writing, Paragraph Writing: Unity, Coherence and Emphasis: De- velopment of Paragraph : Inductive Order, Spatial, Linear, Chronological Order ete., with Emphasis on Argumentative and Expository Writing. 8. Business Correspondence 212 Principles, Features, Sales and Cash letters, Letters of Enquiry, Quatations, Order, Claim, Complaint and Adjustment Letters, Bio-data Making, Resume, Job Application Processing. Memo Writing, Press Release Writing BASICS OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR OF TECHNICAL IN: PATTERNS AND COR- RECT USAGES 9. Written English (Articles) 227 10. Nouns, Genders, Cases 237 iL Pronouns AT 12. Verb and Voice 252 13. Infinitives, Gerunds and Participles 258 14. Time and Tense CD15. Modal Verbs/Auxiliari: 270 16. Conditional S. 276 17. Adjectives 281 18. Adverbs 287 19. Conjunctions 292 20. Prepositions 297 21, Concord/Agreement 312 ESSENTIAL PRE-REQUISITIES OF TECHNICAL WRITTEN COMMUNICATION 22. Common Errors in Syntactical Patterns/Correct Usages and Punctuation (91.111 8 23, One-Word Substituti 329 24, Foreign Words and Phrases 336 MORPHOLOGY-I (VOCABULARY BUILDING) 25. Word-formation & Enlargement of Vocabulary 340 26. Morphology : Spelling & Vocabulary Expansion (New and Select) 354 27. Homophones : Choice of Appropriate Words 366 28. Direct & Indirect Narration ||| SCT 29. Abbreviati 385 30. Proverbs & Sayings 407 31. Quotations 412 32, Idioms, Phrases and Foreign Expressions 423 33. Expansion of Ideas (Extended Writing) 442 SYNTACTICAL DYNAMICS OF WRITTEN COMMUNICA- TION 34. Sentence Structural Skills & Paragraph Writing 447 35. Synthesis (Condensed Writing) 457 PRAGMATIC DIMENSIONS OF WRITTEN ENGLISH COMMUNICATION 36. Transformation (Altered Writing) 465 37. Translation 473 READING AND LISTENING COMPREHENSION 38, Precis-Writing 490 39. Comprehension 508 1. Living Things, 2. How Oil is Used, 3. Animal Nutrition 4. Radio Signals 5. Ecology Copyrighted material(xvi) ESP ; READING AND LISTENING COMPREHENSION 40. Objective Pattern of Language in Competitive Examina- tions (Banking and Management, U.P.S.C., 8.S.C., C.D.S., & for Other Examinations) 525 1. Clause Correction 2. Probationary Officer (State Bank) 1978 3. Clause- Subordination 4. Combination of Sentences, 5. Synonyms & Words Nearest in Meaning 6. One-Word Substitution 7. Usages, Idiomatic Expressions & Cor- rection of Errors. 8. Antonyms & Vocabulary 9. Verbal Analogies and Verbal Inferences 10. Analogous Inferences 11, Sentence Completion and Fill in the Blanks 12. Objective Comprehension (P.O. State Bank) ESP : EMPIRICAL DIMENSIONS OF ENGLISH COMPRE- HENSION 41. Language Component In Competitive Examinations 566 42. ESP : PRAGMATICS AND COMPOSITION : DESCRIP- TIVE FORM Ct Argumentative Pragmatics 594 1, Non-aligned Movement (NAM) TK Asind’82 Reflective Form iT 3._Generation Gap Expository Pragmatics 599 Argumentative Preposition 600 5. Language Problem in India Expository Form 602 6._ India’s Foreign Policy 7. Democracy Argumentative Form 605 8. Smuggling Expository Preposition 607 9. Money Inflation Reflective Form 608 India’s Atomic Explosion for Purposeful Uses Argumentative Form 610 11._ Corruption Descriptive Form 611 12. Games and Sports 13._Food Problem Reflective Form 615 14. Cinema and Society Expository Form 616 15, Indiscipline Among Students ‘Assignment 617 A Select Bibliography 619 Index 621Preface to the Third Edition Nothing is more satisfying to an author than placing a new edition of his book before the discreet readers. I feel extremely happy to place the new edition of this book before the readers. This edition includes all the 36 chapters of the old edition plus 6 more new chapters. Chapter 1 has been thoroughly re-cast, revised and enlarged. The nomenclatures of some chapters have been changed including the title of the book. The presentation of the material has been made more lucid and more comprehensible to the readers than before. Every attempt has been made to give figures, diagrams and charts wherever needed in simple and easily understandable style. Phonetic symbols and sounds, too, have been presented in an easy way. The new chapters added are—Communicative English Based on Semiotics Technology; Oral Communication; Online Communication : A Semiotics Technology Perspective; Language Lab. Practicals; Technical and Professional Communication; ESP : TOEFLELTS/TWE/TSE. ‘The new chapters have been added in responses of the readers, received through feedback, comments and suggestions. The author is grateful to the discerning readers. It is a pleasant surprise that the book has immensely been liked by the students of engineering, business management, aspirants of seeking admission abroad and by those desirous of secking success in different competitive examinations. This book earlier titled as A Textbook of Spoken and Written English was prescribed for study by the U.P. Technical University, Lucknow for Course HU 101—Professional Communication—I for B. Tech I yr students alongwith my another book titled as A Textbook of Scientific and Technical Writing, which, too, was prescribed for study by the same University for Course HU-202 Professional Communication—II. I designed both the above courses for the U.P. Technical University, Lucknow and it was I again who was instrumental in germinating the idea of setting-up an English Language Laboratory by including lab. work in the above Courses in each Engineering College affiliated to UPTU, Lucknow for strengthening communication skills of engineers and professionals. Kudos to Professor D.S. Chauhan, Vieo— Chancellor, UPTU, Lucknow who has now made it mandatory for every Engineering Institute affiliated to UPTU to set-up a modern English Language Laboratory. In chapter I of the book, Phonetics and Spoken English Communication Skills using Language Labs have been dealt with comprehensively in order to give a wider orientation to students regarding their specch habits. An exclusive chapter V—Language Lab. Practicals has been added in order to give suitable materials not only to students but also to teachers for improving upon their speech habits. Asa University teacher of approximately 40 years experience of teaching different streams of students including students of engineering and management, I have had a practical experience of facing their problems in class rooms. Hence, the book is wholly based on empirical and practical problems. In this book, I have introduced three fundamental approaches to communication skills : one, Semiotics Technology and Communication Skillsvis-a-vis Language Therapy; second, Online Communication and Semiotics Technology; and third, Indian Loan Words and their Phonetics. Let me see as to what type of feed-back do I receive from the teachers and the students? (xvii)(xviii) In preparing the book, I received cooperation from my wife, children and colleagues, which I owe whole-heartedly. Prof, R.C. Pant, Vice-Chancellor, Kumaon University, Nainital, (Uttaranchal) inspired me, as my colleage at G.B. Pant University, Pantnagar (Uttaranchal), to write this book. Prof. S.P. Singh, Chancellor and Prof, A.K. Singh, Vice-Chancellor, IUHT, Delhi, where I served as Professor of English and Dean for some time, also inspired me to write this book. Dr. D.S. Chauhan, Vice-Chancellor, UPTU, Lucknow, asked me many a time as to the progress of the writing work of the book; once at Galgotia Engg. College, Noida where he inaugurated Workshop on Communication Skills, and second, at a marriage function at Ghaziabad. I am grateful to him for his magnanimity and encouragement. Dr. Atul Kumar Jain, Chairman, IIT, GZB, also inspired me on to take up the writing work of the present book. Prof. S.B. Singh. HOD, ECE, IIT,GZB; Prof. D.K. Jain, HOD, AS & H, IIT, GZB; Shri Anil Agrawal, Chairman, HR Institute of Technology, GZB; Dr. VK. Jain, Director, HRIT; Prof. L.R. Gupta, HOD, ECE, HRIT; Prof. PB. Semwal, HOD, Maths., HRIT, GZB, also helped me in completing the book. I am beholden beyond words in gratitude to all these celebrated Professors/ high profile dignitaries. In the end, I am in great debt to MY CREATOR—ALMIGHTY GOD, who has given me a very fine and perfect life to live by. Lalso thank Professor Charles Peter, University of Illinois, USA and Professor Fowler Dick, University of Kent, UK for their critical counsels. My publishers Messrs Swarup and Sons, Delhi deserve all praise for bringing out the book 80 expeditiously fully cooperating with me and also wholesomely bearing with my whimwhamps without any grudge. Icrave for the indulgence of the discreet readers for the imperfections and impurities in- advertantly crept in, if any, in the book. Nonetheless, to quote, Tai Tung, the famous Chinese litterateur, “Were I to await perfection, my book would never be finished.” Delhi S.D. SharmaPreface To The First Edition “Others for Languages all their care express, And value books, as women men, for Dress: Their praise is still—the Style is excellent The Sense they humbly take upon content.”! So wrote Alexander Pope, a great poet of England. In fact, some use language in their composition that does never correspond to the sense. They are more fond of verbosity and circumlocution than brevity and succinctness. Because of their meagre knowledge of grammar, usages and current forms of English, even most of English enthusiasts defile its natural beauty. The present book is, therefore, an humble step to check this defilement of English Language. Without being a scholarly feat, it is anticipated, it will rejuvenate genuine liking for this language. As far as possible, it has been kept in mind throughout the book that no uncessary padding comes up lest it should distract the general readers and students alike as most books on grammar do in their mushroom growth, overflooding the bookshops. According to Sir Gerald Barry, “Speech was the first leap forward in the development of human. communication. The second was the invention of writing.”® Indeed, speech comes first in the history of any language community, because it comes centuries before writing came to be practised in any language anywhere in the world. Even in the life of an individual, speech comes much earlier than writing. Spoken English is, therefore, much older than written English. Notwithstanding the fact that spoken English was used much earlier as a medium of communication than written English, the modern advances in science and technology have also enhanced its importance tremendously. Sine dubio, in every traditional system of education, no conspicuous emphasis is laid on spoken English except that certain sporadic references are made to it. Correct pronunciation with proper stress and intonation is an important aspect of spoken English. The more the milieu of scientific spohistication, the more the importance of phonetically correct spoken English. Keeping all these considerations in mind, an effort has been made in the first chapter to point out the fundamental pre-requisites of spoken English without pretending to be a detailed study of linguistics or its significant branch—phonetics. RP has been made clear and the elementary knowledge of the phonetic symbols and sounds has also been clarified. A list of words phonetically transcribed has been given; a synoptic view of the grammatical ramification and etymic evagation of Indian loan words as well as the postulatum of purism operating on other languages vis-a-vis India loan words has also been given. Preliminary rules of stress and intonation have been written in an easily understandable manner. Assignements for practical work have also been provided; and an overall endeavour has been made to steer clear of any linguistic lumber that is often bound to confuse the fundamental knowledge of correct pronunciation. Chapters from 2 to 36 are meant for written English. Every care has taken to dwell upon only those aspects of written English which generally confuse even the students studying at the University level. So while dealing with Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs, Tenses, Adjectives, Ad- verbs, Prepositions and Conjunctions, a systematic and symmetrical approach has been kept up out and out not to tell their kinds or such other elementary things in order to maintain the 1. Essay on Criticism, lines 305-8, 2. Communication and Language, p. 2 (xix)