B io Factsheet

www.curriculum-press.co.uk Number 198

Chloroplasts – Structure and Function

Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis in green plants. This is The lamellae:
the process by which carbon dioxide and water are converted into • Provide a large surface area for the attachment of the enzymes
organic chemicals using light as a source of energy. Oxygen is and co-enzymes involved in the electron transfer chain of the
produced as a very useful by-product of the reaction. light dependent reactions.
• Partition the stroma so that different chemical reactions can
This Factsheet explains how the structure of a chloroplast is take place without interfering with each other.
designed to enable it to carry out its functions effectively and reviews
recent exam questions on this topic Exam Hint:– Whenever a structure or cell possesses extra
Fig 1. The structure of a chloroplast membranes it increases the surface area available, in this
case for the attachment of extra pigment molecules, but in
other cells it can increase the rate of absorption (e.g. microvilli
of kidney tubule cells), cristae in mitochondria for attachment
outer membrane chloroplast of extra stalked particles).
inner membrane envelope
ribosomes The biconvex shape of the chloroplast is yet another way of
(70S) increasing surface area to maximise absorption of light energy

Sometimes in the exam you will be presented with an electron

micrograph of a chloroplast. Usually, the first question simply asks
you to label it.

Typical Exam Question

lipid Label parts A B & C
droplet one granum A
(stack of
starch grain stroma disk-like
intergranal (matrix) thylakoids)
lamella

C
Exam Hint: – You may be asked to identify the different
structures in a chloroplast so make sure you learn the diagram.

Chloroplasts are organelles bounded by a double membrane – this Answer

separates the contents of the chloroplast from the rest of the cell, A - stroma; B
allowing the photosynthetic reactions to take place without B - granum / grana / thylakoids;
interference from chemicals in the cytoplasm. C - starch (grain);

Extract from Chief Examiner’s report

Many candidates appear to believe that chlorophyll and
chloroplasts are tissues.
Plate-like membranes, called lamellae (thylakoids) run along the
length of the chloroplast from end to end – these are the site of the
light-dependent reactions.
Chlorophyll molecules (and other pigment molecules) that absorb
light energy are situated on the lamellae. At intervals, extra lamellae
are inserted to form structures called grana (singular:granum). A
chloroplast contains approximately 3000 lamellae -they increase the
surface area available for the attachment of extra pigment molecules
to trap more light energy. The pigment molecules are arranged in
such a way that they do not shade each other so that the maximum
amount of light energy can be absorbed.
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Pigment molecules absorb light energy which ultimately becomes
converted to chemical energy incorporated into the glucose and
other compounds produced as a result of photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b absorb only certain wavelengths
of light and therefore only a certain amount of the energy falling
on the chloroplast. Xanthophyll, carotene and phaeophytin are
accessory pigments that absorb light of other wavelengths,
ensuring more energy is trapped by the chloroplast.
The pigment molecules form clusters called photosystems. Each
photosystem consists of a central chlorophyll molecule called
the primary pigment molecule. Located around this are several
hundred accessory pigment molecules – light energy absorbed
by all these molecules is transferred to the central primary pigment
molecule.
198. Chloroplasts – Structure and Function Bio Factsheet
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Isolating chloroplasts In green plants most of the chloroplasts are found in the leaf
mesophyll, mainly in the palisade cells. These are located near
Typical Exam Question the top of the leaf where most light falls.
Starting with some lettuce leaves, describe how you would
obtain a sample of undamaged chloroplasts. Use your
knowledge of cell fractionation and ultracentrifugation to Exam Hint:– a synoptic question may ask you about the
answer this question. structure of a chloroplast and then go on to the chemical
reactions involved, so make sure you understand the light-
Markscheme dependent and light-independent reactions.
1. Chop up (accept any reference to crude breaking up); The light-dependent reactions produce ATP and NADPH which
2. Cold; are required for the subsequent synthesis of carbohydrates in
3. Buffer solution; the light-independent reactions.
4. Isotonic / same water potential;
5. Filter and centrifuge filtrate;
6. Centrifuge supernatant; Summary
7. At higher speed; Chloroplasts are highly specialised cell organelles, their structure
8. Chloroplasts in (second) pellet; reflecting their function.

Make sure you understand how the following structures are

The lamellae are embedded in a watery matrix called the stroma. The
designed to enable photosynthesis to be carried out as efficiently
stroma contains numerous starch grains, lipid droplets, enzymes,
as possible
dissolved salts, ribosomes and a circular strand of DNA. It is in the
stroma that the light-independent reactions take place.
• double membrane
The DNA enables chloroplasts to replicate themselves when the • lamellae
cell divides, ensuring new cells receive the correct number of • pigment molecules
chloroplasts. • stroma
• DNA
The possession of DNA and ribosomes by individual organelles • ribosomes
is unusual. The only other structures where this occurs are
mitochondria.
Some Chief Examiners like to set questions using unfamiliar diagrams.
This doesn’t make the questions any harder – you just need to
Ribosomes produce proteins for use by the chloroplasts, particularly
keep calm and work them out.
the enzymes required for the photosynthetic reactions.The
ribosomes occur in the stroma, attached to the lamellae,
or in groups called polyribosomes.

Fig 2. Structure of leaf

Palisade cell Cross section of leaf

cuticle
nucleus

palisade
cell wall mesophyll

chloroplast
chloroplast
spongy
mesophyll
vacuole
air space

Individual palisade cells contain numerous chloroplasts to trap light

energy. The chloroplasts are arranged around the edge of the cell so stomata
that light can reach them without having to pass through the
cytoplasm.

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198. Chloroplasts – Structure and Function Bio Factsheet
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Position of chloroplasts in leaf tissue

Untypical ( but real) Exam Question
The arrangement of chloroplast-containing cells and tissue within
The light-dependent stage of photosynthesis takes place on
leaves also increases the efficiency of light capture.
thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts. These membranes are
arranged into stacks known as grana. The diagram shows the
arrangement of photosytems in the thylakoid membrane, and Typical Exam Question
summarises the processes that take place there. Explain how the palisade mesophyl cells within a leaf are well
adapted for photosynthesis
light H+ light ADP + Pi H+ AT P closely packed to absorb more of incident light;
NADP
columnar shape / arranged at right angles to surface of leaf, to
stroma NADPred AT P
Sythetase
reduce number of light absorbing cross walls;
AE C
2e - 2e - large vacuole pushes chloroplasts to edge of cell;
thylakoid
B chloroplasts on periphery of cell, short (diffusion) path for carbon
membrane 2e - dioxide;
P680 P700 chloroplasts on periphery of cell to absorb light;
thylakoid large number of chloroplasts / much chlorophyll, to absorb light ;
H+ + +
space H2 O H+ H+ H+ H chloroplasts can move within cells to absorb as much light as
2H+ + ½O2 H
(lumen) possible;
chloroplasts can move to prevent damage (in high light intensity) ;
(a) What pigment is represented by P680 and P700? (1) cylindrical cells resulting in air spaces;
(b) Name the type of molecule represented by B. (1) air spaces (between cells) to allow circulation of gases;
(c) Name the process in which water molecules are split. (1) large surface area for, gas exchange/diffusion;
(d) What is the advantage of having membranes stacked into cell walls are thin, so short diffusion pathway/(greater) light
grana? (2) penetration;
air spaces act as reservoir of carbon dioxide;
Markscheme AVP; e.g. non pigmented vacuole to allow light penetration
(a) chlorophyll
(b) electron carrier / cytochrome / protein / electron acceptor /
ferredoxin /plastoquinone; Synoptic Questions
(c) photolysis These questions require you to pull together your knowledge of
(d) increases surface area; different parts of the specification – to do some joined – up Biology
for absorption of light; thinking.

So even though the diagram looked horrific, the questions were
actually very straightforward.
Typical Exam Question
The diagram shows the structure of a photosynthetic bacterium.
Typical Synoptic Question
Chloroplasts contain both polypeptides and ribosomes. An
investigation was carried out to determine whether any of these
polypeptides were synthesised by chloroplast ribosomes.
An extract of isolated chloroplasts was obtained. The number of
different, newly synthesised polypeptides produced in this extract
was measured after incubating in the light and in the dark.
(a) Explain why isotonic saline solution was used to wash the
isolated chloroplasts (2 marks)
(b) Radioactive amino acids were added to the extract. Explain
why the use of radioactive amino acids would enable the
investigators to find and identify the polypeptides which had
been newly synthesised. (2 marks)
(c) It was found that more polypeptides were synthesised in the
light than in the dark. Suggest an explanation for this.
(2 marks)

Describe two ways in which the structure of a chloroplast differs Markscheme

from the structure of this bacterial cell.(2) (a) prevent excess water entering or leaving the chloroplasts/
same water potential;
Markscheme prevent lysis / shrinkage of chloroplasts;
chloroplast has no cell wall; (b) amino acids would be used to synthesise polypeptides;
two membranes surrounding chloroplast; use autoradiography / UV / X- rays / photographic film;
grana/thylakoids; (c) ATP from photophosphorylation / photosynthesis/ light
starch granules; dependent reaction needed;

Exam Hint:- Questions about chloroplasts nearly always link them to other aspects of photosynthesis, so make sure you revise the
light-dependent and light -independent reactions, action and absorption spectra and factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis.
Data interpretation questions involving photosynthesis experiments and limiting factors are also common.

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This Factsheet was researched and written by Phill Hargrave.
Acknowledgements:
that are also present in prokaryotic cells (2)
Suggest two structural features of mitochondria and chloroplasts
Answers
1. B
2. (a) A double membrane/envelope;
B stroma;
C lamellae/grana/thylakoid;
(b) (i) C; (ii) B; cytoplasm of eukaryotic host cells.
evolved from prokaryotic organisms that inhabited the
(c) numerous membranes for attachment of chlorophyll/pigment 4. Many biologists believe that both chloroplasts and mitochondria
molecules;
pigment molecules absorb light energy; 3. Explain how chloroplasts carry out photosynthesis. (10 marks)
provide large surface area for attachment of extra pigment
molecules; photosynthesis (3)
provide large surface area for attachment of enzymes/co- (c) Describe three ways in which structure C is adapted for
enzymes (involved in light- dependent reactions); (ii) the light-independent reactions take place (1)
partition stroma to separate chemical reactions; (Any 3) place (1)
(i) the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis take
3. A = accept AVP = acceptable valid points (b) Give the letter of the structure where
1large surface area of chloroplast, qualified; e.g. biconvex shape; (a) Name the parts labelled A, B and C.(3)
grana / thylakoid(s) (membranes), give large surface area;
site of, light dependent reactions / photophosphorylation; ref
to energy, transduction / conversion;
chlorophyll / pigments, for light absorption / lose excited
electrons; ref to wavelengths absorbed by chlorophyll (blue +
C
red or 450 + 680 nm); A
ref to (orientation of) chlorophyll in membrane;
other photosynthetic pigments / named pigment(s);
absorb different wavelengths of light; arranged into B
photosystems / light harvesting complexes (or clusters); seen using the electron microscope.
A quantasomes; 2. The diagram below shows the structure of a chloroplast, as
chlorophyll (a) molecule at centre of, photosystem / reaction
centre; pigments ‘funnel’ electrons to centre of photosystem Which organelle is the chloroplast? (1)
(idea of antennae /);
electron carriers / ETC system, in membrane; Organelle D Organelle C
proton pumps / chemiosmosis / ref to movement of hydrogen Many in a cell. Usually one per cell.
ions / protons into thylakoid space; form cristae. there are pores.
ATP production / synthetase / ATP ase; inner membrane, folded to envelope through which
NADP present; Calvin cycle / light independent stage, enzymes by an outer membrane. Has an surrounded by an
in stroma; Smaller organelle surrounded Larger organelle
ref to rubisco;
ref to storage of starch or lipid;
ref DNA / ribosomes, making proteins; Organelle B in stacks
AVP; e.g. double membrane qualified photosystem 1 and 2 have arranged in stacks membranes arranged
different absorption peaks inner membranes cells. Does not contain
plant cells. Contains animal cells and in plant
Organelle found in Organelle found in
4. free / naked,
DNA / DNA not surrounded by membrane / envelope have an
inner folded membrane ; Organelle A
eukaryotic cells
ribosomes, smaller than those in cytosol / similar in size to and eukaryotic cells
Organelle found only in
prokaryotic ribosomes ; Organelle found in prokaryotic
A ref to 70S and 80S circular DNA ;
absence of introns R absence of a nucleus from the chloroplast
or mitochondrion R ref to membranous organelles as from each other.
chloroplasts and mitochondria are these organelles 1. The diagram shows how some organelles may be distinguished
Practice questions
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Bio Factsheet 198. Chloroplasts – Structure and Function