CAPE BIOLOGY UNIT 2

MR. DEMAR LYLE

• UNIT 2 : Bioenergetics Biosystems and Applications
• Consists of three Modules.
• Module 1- Bioenergetics
• Module 2- Biosystems Maintenance
• Module 3- Applications of Biology
SYLLABUS OBJECTIVES –
SEE PAGE 30-31 OF THE
SYLLABUS
• describe the structure a dicotyledonous leaf, a palisade cell
and a chloroplast relating these structures to their roles in
the process of photosynthesis;
• explain the process of photophosphorylation;
• outline the essential stages of the Calvin cycle involving
the light independent fixation of carbon dioxide;
• discuss the concept of limiting factors in photosynthesis;
SYLLABUS OBJECTIVES –
SEE PAGES 30-31 OF THE
SYLLABUS
• investigate the effect of limiting factors on the rate of
photosynthesis; Light intensity and carbon dioxide
concentration.
• discuss the extent to which knowledge of limiting factors
can be used to improve plant productivity.
• Photosynthesis and ATP Synthesis
• "Life is woven out of
air by light" -- Jacob
Moleschott Dutch
• We have spent a lot
of time talking about
carbohydrates ~
sugars ~ but how are
those sugars made by
cells to become part
of the food chain?
• Plants, protists (like phytoplankton), and cyanobacteria can do
what no other organisms on Earth can do: photosynthesize, or
make sugar out of water and carbon dioxide, a gas.
• This sugar gives energy to the organisms that make the sugar,
as well as to all other organisms on Earth*. Photosynthesis also
gives us the oxygen that we breathe.
INTRODUCTION

• Almost all the energy transferred to all the ATP molecules

in all living organisms is derived from light energy used in
photosynthesis by autotrophs
• Such photoautotrophs are green plants, photosynthetic
prokaryotes and algae.
• A few autotrophs do not depend on light energy but use
chemical energy sources
• NB see Hydrothermal vents
HYDROTHERMAL VENTS AND
CHEMOSYNTHESIS
CHEMOSYNTHESIS

• These chemoautotrophs include the nitrifying bacteria. (e.g.: Nitrosomonas,

Nitrobacter)
• The conversion of ammonia to nitrite, and nitrite to nitrate provides/releases
energy.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
OUTLINE OF THE PROCESS

• Photosynthesis is the trapping (fixation) of carbon dioxide

and its subsequent reduction to carbohydrate, using
hydrogen from water
• An overall equation for photosynthesis in green plants is

light

nCO2 + nH2O  (CH2O)n + nO2

chlorophyll
• Hexose sugar(Glucose) and starch are commonly formed, so the equation can
be written as:

light

6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2

chlorophyll

• Two sets of reactions are involved in photosynthesis

 • Light energy is
Light
needed
dependent • Takes place on in
reaction Grana

• Light energy is not

Light
needed
independent •
Takes place in the
reaction Stroma
Photosynthesis in plants happens in the chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts are full of thylakoids stacked in
granum.
The thylakoid membranes
are lined by pigments such as
chlorophyll and cartenoids.

Chlorophyll is a green pigment

and is the most abundant.

Chlorophyll absorbs all wavelength

colors except green, which is reflected
These pigments harvest off giving plants their green appearance.
light energy packets or
photons when they absorb
sunlight.
THE STRUCTURE OF LEAF

• In flowering plants, the major photosynthetic organ is the leaf.

• The functions of a leaf are best achieved by containing chlorophyll,
absorbing carbon dioxide (and disposing of oxygen) and have a water and
solute supply/transport route.
• has a large surface area and arrangement such that it can absorb as much
light as possible.
QUESTION
TIME
• Q: List out the ways in
which the structure of the
leaf contributes to its
successful functioning
LEAF
STRUCTUR
E
LEAF STRUCTE

Shape and position

• Large surface area of the lamina
• Large surface area-to-volume ratio for maximum exposure to
light and efficient gas exchange
• Arrangement of leaves (leaf mosaic) helps the plant to absorb as
much light as possible
• Blade held at right angles to incident light
• Thinness minimizes diffusion pathway for gaseous exchange
Stomata

• many stomata in the lower

epidermis, which are pores in the
epidermis through which gaseous
exchange occurs.
• Each stomata is bounded by two
guard cells, and
• changes in the turgidity of theses
guard cells cause them to change
shape
• so that they open and close the
pore. If the guard cells gain water,
the pore is open, and vice-versa.
• Mesophyll
• main site of photosynthesis - have many more chloroplasts than spongy
mesophylls, also have several adaptions to maximise photosynthetic
efficiency;
• Large Vacuole - Restricts chloroplasts to a layer near the outside of the cell
where they can be reached by light more easily.
• Cylindrical Arrangement - They are arranged at right angles to the upper
epidermis, reducing the number of light-absorbing cross walls preventing
light from reaching the chloroplasts. This also allows long-narrow air spaces
between them, providing a large surface area for gaseous exchange.
• Thin cell walls - to allow gases to more easily diffuse through them.
Vascular System
• Supplies water and mineral salts (xylem)
• Removes products of photosynthesis (phloem)
• As supporting skeleton together with lignified collenchyma and sclerenchyma
ADAPTATION OF LEAF STRUCTURE FOR
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION OF PALISADE
CELL IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS

• palisade cells are the

mains site of
photosynthesis
• There are more
chloroplasts per palisade
mesophyll than in the
spongy mesophyll cells.
HOW ARE THE PALISADE CELLS ABLE TO
ABSORB LIGHT?
HOW ARE THE PALISADE CELLS
ABLE TO ABSORB LIGHT?
• Long cylinders arranged at right-angles to the upper epidermis
• This reduces the number of light-absorbing cross walls in the
upper part of the leaf so that as much light as possible can
reach the chloroplasts
• Large vacuole to restrict chloroplasts to the layer nearer to the
cell wall and plasma membrane
• This restricts the chloroplasts to a layer near the outside of the
cells where light can reach them most easily
 PALISADE CELLS’ ADAPTATION FOR
GASEOUS EXCHANGE

• Long, narrow air spaces between them

- To give large surface area of contact between cell and air
• Thin cell walls
- So that the gases can diffuse through them more easily
 PALISADE CELLS’ ADAPTATION
FOR GASEOUS EXCHANGE
• Spongy mesophyll is mainly adapted as a surface for exchange of
CO2 and O2.

• Contains chloroplast, but in smaller amount than in palisade

cells.
• High light intensities allows photosynthesis to happen
• Irregular packing with large air space provides large surface area
of moist cell wall for gaseous exchange.
DID YOU KNOW !!!

• Sea-slug (Kleptoplasty)
ingests a chloroplast-
containing prey (often
algae) and retains only the
plastids, while it digests the
rest. The predator can
thenceforth photosynthesise
to produce its own fuel
• PURE genius!
• Pine trees and other conifers have
evolved to grow in a triangle shape
because of photosynthesis. The tree's
shape exposes most of its needles to the
sun, especially the ones near the top of
the tree, enabling it to produce enough
energy to grow taller.
WHAT ABOUT THE CHLOROPLAST?
CHLOROPLASTS

• In eukaryotes, photosynthesis takes place in organelles

called chloroplasts.
• Approximately 3 – 10 µm in diameter and are visible with a
light microscope
• Surrounded by two membranes, which form the chloroplast
envelope.
• Contain chlorophyll and other photosynthetic pigments
located on a system of membranes
• The membranes run through a ground substance called stroma.
• The membrane system is the site of the light-dependent reactions in
photosynthesis.
• The membranes are covered with chlorophyll and other pigments, enzymes
and electron carriers.
• The photosynthetic pigments involved fall into two
• categories: primary pigments and accessory pigments.
• The pigments are arranged in light-harvesting clusters
• called photosystems
• The system contains of many flattened, fluid-filled sacs called thylakoids
which form stacks called grana.
• The stroma is the site of the light independent reactions of photosynthesis.
• The structure is gel-like containing soluble enzymes for the Calvin cycle
and other chemicals such as sugars and organic acids.
• Excess carbohydrates from photosynthesis is sometimes stored as starch
grains
• Contains (circular) DNA and hence code for themselves some protein .
 TRAPPING LIGHT ENERGY

• Light energy is trapped by photosynthetic

pigments
• Different pigments absorb different
wavelengths of light.
• The photosynthetic pigments of higher
plants form two groups: chlorophylls and
carotenoids.
 THE COLOURS OF THE COMMONLY
OCCURRING PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS.

Pigments Colour
Chlorophylls Chlorophyll a Yellow-green
Chlorophyll b Blue-green

Carotenoids Β carotene Orange

Xantophyll Yellow
Phaeophytin a grey-brown
Phaeophytin b yellow-brown
• Light is a form of energy
known as electromagnetic
energy
• Electromagnetic energy
travels in waves
• This entire range of radiation
is known as the
electromagnetic spectrum
• The segment most important
to life is the visible light.
• Light behaves like discrete particles (containing fixed quantity of energy)
called photons.
• The shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy it contains
• This photon of violet light packs nearly twice as much energy as photon of red
light
• As light meets matter, it may be reflected, transmitted or absorbed.
• Substances that absorb visible light are called pigments.
• Different pigments absorb light of different wavelengths
• The ability of a pigment to absorb various wavelengths of light can be
measured with a spectrophotometer.
ABSORPTION SPECTRUM

• An absorption spectrum is a graph of the absorbance of

different wavelengths of light by a pigment
• The absorption spectra of chlorophyll a and b and of the
carotenoids can be seen in the following figures.
ABSORPTION SPECTRA
ABSORPTION SPECTRA FOR CHLOROPHYLL A
&B
• An action spectrum is a graph of the rate of
photosynthesis at different wavelengths of light.
• An action spectrum shows the effectiveness of the
different wavelengths relating to their absorption and
to their energy content
• The shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy it
contains.
PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS

• The photosynthetic pigments fall into two categories:

• Primary pigment
• Accessory pigment
• The primary pigments are two forms of chlorophyll a, with slightly different
absorption peaks
• The accessory pigments include other forms of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b
and the carotenoids
• The pigments are arranged in light-harvesting clusters called photosystems
• In a photosystem, several hundreds of accessory pigment molecules surround
a primary pigment molecule and the energy of the light absorbed by the
different pigments is passed to the primary pigment.
PHOTOSYSTEMS

• Photosystems are the light-harvesting units of the thylakoid

membrane
• There are two photosystems

• Photosystem I (PSI) P700

• Photosystem II (PSII) P680
 Photosystems

Ps II
PS I Based on a molecule
Is arranged around a of chlorophyll a with
molecule of chlorophyll peak absorption 680
a with peak absorption nm. The reaction
at 700 nm. The reaction centre of PSII is
centre is known as P700 therefore known as
P680
• Each photosystem contains an antenna complex or light harvesting
complex consisting of pigment molecules.
• Different pigments collect light of different wavelengths making the
process more efficient
• When a photon strikes a pigment molecule, the energy is transferred from
molecule to molecule until it reaches the reaction centre, P700 in PSI and
P680 in PSII.
• The absorption peaks are at wavelengths of 700 nm and 680 nm respectively
(both red lights)
• P700 and P680 become ‘excited’ by the energy they absorb and release high
energy electrons
 • Light energy is
Light
needed
dependent • Takes place on in
reaction grana

• Light energy is not

Light
needed
independent •
Takes place in the
reaction stroma
LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTIONS

• Include ATP synthesis in photophosphorylation and photolysis to give

hydrogen ions
• The hydrogen ions combine with a carrier molecule NADP to make
reduced NADP
• Photophosphorylation of ADP to ATP can be cyclic or non-cyclic
depending on the pattern of electron flow.
 Photosynthesis

Light Light
dependent independent
reaction reaction

Cyclic Calvin cycle

photophosphorylation

Non-cyclic
photophosphorylation
 Light dependent
reaction

Cyclic Non-cyclic
photophosphorylation photophosphorylation
CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION

• Involves only PSI

• Light is absorbed by PS1 and is passed to P700
• An excited electron is emitted from P700
• It is then captured by an electron acceptor and passed back to P700 via a
chain of electron carriers
• During this process, enough energy is released to synthesize ATP.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS IS A REDOX PROCESS, AS IS
CELLULAR RESPIRATION

• Photosynthesis, like respiration, is a redox (oxidation-

reduction) process.
• CO2 becomes reduced to sugar as electrons along with
hydrogen ions from water are added to it.
• Water molecules are oxidized when they lose electrons
along with hydrogen ions.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

THE TWO STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS ARE
LINKED BY ATP AND NADPH

• Photosynthesis occurs in two metabolic stages.

1. The light reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes. In these
reactions
• water is split, providing a source of electrons and giving off
oxygen as a by-product,
• ATP is generated from ADP and a phosphate group, and
• light energy is absorbed by the chlorophyll molecules to drive
the transfer of electrons and H+ from water to the electron
acceptor NADP+ reducing it to NADPH.
• NADPH produced by the light reactions provides the electrons
for reducing carbon in the Calvin cycle.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

FIGURE 7.4A

Becomes reduced

Becomes oxidized
FIGURE 7.12

H2O CO2
Chloroplast
Light

NADP
ADP
P
Light
Reactions
RuBP
Photosystem II Calvin
Cycle 3-PGA
Electron (in stroma)
transport chain
Thylakoids
Photosystem I ATP Stroma

NADPH
G3P
Cellular
respiration
Cellulose
Starch
O2 Sugars Other organic
compounds
NON-CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION

• Light is absorbed by both photosystems and excited

electrons are emitted from P680 and P700
• These electrons are absorbed by electron acceptors and pass
along chains of electron carriers leaving the photosystems
positively charged
• The P700 of PSI absorbs electron from PSII
• P680 receives replacement electrons from the splitting of water (photolysis)
• ATP is synthesized as the electrons lose energy while passing along the
carrier chain

• Photolysis of water:

• PSII includes an enzyme which catalyzes the

breakdown of water
• Oxygen is a waste product of this process

H20  2H+ + 2e- + ½O2

• Reduction of NADP

• The hydrogen ions combine with electrons from

PSI and NADP to give reduced NADP
• (which will pass the electrons to the light
independent reactions that is useful in the synthesis
of carbohydrate)
2 H+ + 2e + NADP  Reduced NADP
THE Z-SCHEME
SUMMARY OF NON-CYCLIC
PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION

• When PSII absorbs light, an electron is excited to a higher

energy level in the reaction center P680 and captured by the
electron acceptor. The oxidized chlorophyll is now a very
strong oxidizing agent, its electron “hole” must be filled.
• An enzyme attracts electrons from water and supplies them to P680,
replacing the lost electrons when it absorbed light energy.
• This reaction splits a water molecule into 2 hydrogen ions and an
oxygen atom, which immediately combines with another oxygen atom
to form O2.

• This is the water-splitting step of photosynthesis that releases O 2.

• Each photoexcited electrons passes through eletron transport chain

• As electrons are passed through the chain, their fall to a lower energy
level is used to produce ATP. This ATP synthesis is called
photophosphorylation because it is driven by light energy
• When an electron reaches the “bottom” of the electron transport chain, it fills
an electron “hole” in P700, the chlorophyll a molecule in the reaction centre
of PSI.
• This hole is created when light energy drives an electron from P700 to the
electron acceptor.
• The electron acceptor passes the photoexcited electrons to a second electron
transport chain.
• The electrons are transferred to NADP. This reaction stores the high-energy
electrons in reduced NADP, the molecule that will provide reducing power for
the synthesis of sugar in the Calvin cycle.
HILL REACTION (PHOTOLYSIS OF WATER)

• Isolated chloroplasts has ‘reducing power’ and liberated oxygen from water
• The ‘reducing power’ can be demonstrated by using a redox agent which
change colour on reduction
• E.g. the blue dye of DCPIP (dichlorophenolindophenol) can substitute the
plant’s NADP
HILL REACTION (PHOTOLYSIS OF WATER)

• In 1937, Robert Hill discovered that isolated chloroplasts can generate

oxygen when they are illuminated in the presence of a suitable electron
acceptor, even if no carbon dioxide is present.
• This finding shows that the source of electrons in the light reactions is water,
• It is confirmed that the evolved oxygen comes from water rather than from
carbon dioxide.
The Hill reaction is formally defined as the reduction of an electron acceptor (A)
by electrons
• and protons from water, with the evolution of oxygen, when chloroplasts are
exposed to light:
• The final electron acceptor in vivo is NADP, while any of
several artificial electrons acceptors can be used to study
the Hill reaction in vitro.