1.

GENDER

Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to, and differentiating

between, masculinity and femininity. Depending on the context, these
characteristics may include biological sex (i.e. the state of being male, female or
an intersex variation which may complicate sex assignment), sex-based social
structures (including gender roles and other social roles), or gender identity. In
other contexts, including some areas of social sciences, gender includes sex or
replaces it.[1][2] For instance, in non-human animal research, gender is commonly
used to refer to the biological sex of the animals. This change in the meaning of
gender can be traced to the 1980s. In 1993, the USA's Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) started to use gender instead ofsex.Later, in 2011, the FDA
reversed its position and began using sex as the biological classification
and gender as "a person's self representation as male or female, or how that person
is responded to by social institutions based on the individual's gender
presentation."
The social sciences have a branch devoted to gender studies. Other sciences, such
as sexology and neuroscience, are also interested in the subject. While the social
sciences sometimes approach gender as a social construct, and gender studies
particularly do, research in the natural sciences investigates whetherbiological
differences in males and females influence the development of gender in humans;
both inform debate about how far biological differences influence the formation of
gender identity. In the English literature, there is also a trichotomy between
biological sex, psychological gender, and social gender role. This framework first
appeared in a feminist paper on transsexualism in 1978.
 2. CONCEPT OF GENDER AND SEX
>SEX
Anisogamy, or the size differences of gametes (sex cells), is the defining feature of
the two sexes. By definition, males have small, mobile gametes (sperm); females
have large and generally immobile gametes (ova) ]In humans, typical male or
female sexual differentiation includes the presence or absence of a Y chromosome,
the type of gonads, the sex hormones, the internal reproductive anatomy (such as
the uterus in females), and the external genitalia. People with mixed sex factors
are intersex. People whose internal psychological experience differs from
their assigned sex are transgender or transsexual.The consensus among scientists is
that all behaviors are phenotypes—complex interactions of both biology and
environment—and thus nature vs. nurture is a misleading categorization. The
term sex differences is typically applied to sexually dimorphic traits that are
hypothesized to be evolved consequences of sexual selection. For example, the
human "sex difference" in height is a consequence of sexual selection, while the
"gender difference" typically seen in head hair length (women with longer hair) is
not. Scientific research shows an individual's sex influences his or her behavior.
Sex is annotated as different from gender in the Oxford English Dictionary, where
it says sex "tends now to refer to biological differences" The World Health
Organization (WHO) similarly states that "'sex' refers to the biological and
physiological characteristics that define men and women" and that "'male' and
'female' are sex categories"[The American Heritage Dictionary (5th ed.), however,
lists sex as both "Either of the two divisions, designated female and male, by which
most organisms are classified on the basis of their reproductive organs and
functions" and "One's identity as either female or male," among other definitions .
History
Historian Thomas W. Laqueur suggests that from the Renaissance to the 18th
century, there was a prevailing inclination among doctors towards the existence of
only one biological sex (the one-sex theory, that women and men had the same
fundamental reproductive structure) In some discourses, this view persisted into
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Laqueur asserts that even at its peak, the
one-sex model was supported among highly educated Europeans but is not known
to have been a popular view nor one entirely agreed upon by doctors who treated
the general population. Sex and gender took center stage in America in the time of
wars, when women had to work and men were at war.
>GENDER
A working definition in use by the World Health Organization for its work is that
"'[g]ender' refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities, and
attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women" and that
"'masculine' and 'feminine' are gender categories."[17] The Food and Drug
Administration(FDA) used to use gender instead of sex when referring to
physiological differences between male and female organisms. In 2011, they
reversed their position on this and began using sex as the biological classification
and gender as "a person's self representation as male or female, or how that person
is responded to by social institutions based on the individual's gender
presentation."[ Gender is also now commonly used even to refer to the physiology
of non-human animals, without any implication of social gender roles.
GLAAD (formerly the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation) makes a
distinction between sex and gender in their most recent Media Reference Guide:
Sex is "the classification of people as male or female" at birth, based on bodily
characteristics such as chromosomes, hormones, internal reproductive organs, and
genitalia. Gender identity is "one's internal, personal sense of being a man or
woman (or a boy or a girl)". Some feminist philosophers maintain that gender is
totally undetermined by sex. See, for example, The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for
Feminist Revolution, a widely influential feminist text. The case of David Reimer,
who was, according to studies published by John Money, raised as a girl after a
botched circumcision, was described in the book As Nature Made Him: The Boy
Who Was Raised as a Girl. Reimer was in fact not comfortable as a girl and later
changed gender identity back to male when discovered the truth of his surgery. He
eventually committed suicide.
History
Gender in the sense of social and behavioral distinctions, according to
archaeological evidence, arose "at least by some 30,000 years ago. More evidence
was found as of "26,000 years ago at least at the archeological site Dolní Věstonice
I and others, in what is now the Czech Republic. This is during the Upper
Paleolithic time period. The historic meaning of gender, ultimately derived from
Latin genus, was of "kind" or "variety". By the 20th century, this meaning was
obsolete, and the only formal use of gender was in grammar.[3] This changed in the
early 1970s when the work of John Money, particularly the popular college
textbook Man & Woman, Boy & Girl, was embraced by feminist theory.
 3. GENDER EDUCATION IN PROSPECTIVE OF HUMAN
RIGHTS
Human rights are moral principles that set out certain standards of human
behavior, and are regularly protected as legal rights in national and international
law.  They are "commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights to which
a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being.“ 
Human rights are thus conceived as universal (applicable everywhere) and
egalitarian (the same for everyone). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(UDHR) is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10
December 1948 at the Paris. The Declaration arose directly from the experience of
the Second World War and represents the first global expression of rights to which
all human beings are inherently entitled.  The Declaration consists of thirty articles
which have been elaborated in subsequent international treaties, regional human
rights instruments, national constitutions, and other laws. The International Bill of
Human Rights consists of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and its two Optional
Protocols.
 Right to life  Right to property  Right to reputation  Political rights 
Economic rights  Civil rights  No discrimination.
>SIGNIFICANCE OF UDHR  The Guinness Book of Records describes the
Declaration as the world's "Most Translated Document".  Eleanor Roosevelt
supported the adoption of the Declaration as a declaration rather than as a treaty
because she believed that it would have the same kind of influence on global
society as the United States Declaration of Independence had within the United
States. In this, she proved to be correct. Even though it is not legally binding, the
Declaration has been adopted in or has influenced most national constitutions since
1948.  It has also served as the foundation for a growing number of national laws,
international laws, and treaties, as well as for a growing number of regional,
national, and sub-national institutions protecting and promoting human rights.
While not legally binding, the (UDHR) has inspired several other pieces of
international legislation regulating specific aspects of human rights, such as:  the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1951) 
the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1969) 
the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
(1981)  the Convention against Torture (1984)  the Convention on the Rights of
the Child (1989).
>WORK ON WOMEN RIGHTS Even after the formation of UDHR following
work have been done on gender equality and rights of women;  Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women  United Nations
Security Council Resolution 1325  Maputo Protocol  Rape as an element of the
crime of genocide.
>REALITY  In spite of these international agreements, the denial of women’s
basic human rights is persistent and widespread. For instance:  Over half a million
women continue to die each year from pregnancy and childbirth-related causes. 
Rates of HIV infection among women are rapidly increasing. Among those 15-24
years of age, young women now constitute the majority of those newly infected, in
part because of their economic and social vulnerability.  Gender-based violence
kills and disables as many women between the ages of 15 and 44 as cancer. More
often than not, perpetrators go unpunished.  Worldwide, women are twice as likely
as men to be illiterate.  As a consequence of their working conditions and
characteristics, a disproportionate number of women are impoverished in both
developing and developed countries. Despite some progress in women’s wages in
the 1990s, women still earn less than men, even for similar kinds of work.  Many
of the countries that have ratified CEDAW still have discriminatory laws
governing marriage, land, property and inheritance.
 4. CONCEPT OF GENDER EQUITY
Gender Equity is the process of allocating resources, programs and decision-
making fairly to both males and females. This requires ensuring that everyone has
access to a full range of opportunities to achieve the social, psychological and
physical benefits that come from participating and leading in sport and physical
activity. It does not necessarily mean making the same programs and facilities
available to both males and females. Gender equity requires that girls and women
be provided with a full range of activity and program choices that meet their needs,
interests and experiences. Therefore, some activities may be the same as those
offered to boys and men, some may be altered, and some may be altogether
different. Human rights legislation, including the 1982 Canadian Charter of Rights
and Freedoms, has affirmed the principles of equity while making provisions for
affirmative action programs to eliminate disadvantages.Gender Equity also
requires an examination of organizational practices and policies that may hinder
the participation of girls and women. For example, this requires service providers
to assess:
 Hiring and recruitment practices – to ensure women have leadership roles, and
involved in decision-making, and are available as role models for other girls
and women;
 Resource allocation – to determine how budgets are allocated across programs;
 Facility bookings – to ensure that both females and males have access to prime
time slots and prime facilities;
 Participation rates – to evaluate current programs and services to identify
potential barriers, and to determine whether co-ed programs are truly co-ed;
 Activity programming – to assess the types of activities offered for males and
females; and
 Promotional materials – to ensure girls and women are not being excluded or
stereotyped in pictures or language.

Positive initiatives that target specific groups are important because they take into
account years of socialization and historical traditions that have created
imbalances, subsequently marginalizing sectors of the population because these
conditions are accepted as the norm.
 5. EQUITY AND EQUALITY

There is sometimes confusion about the difference between the concepts

of equality and equity. Usage often depends on the sector and country in question.
In Canada, in the sport and physical activity system, the use of gender equity is
most common.In contrast to equity, gender equality is the process of allocating
resources, programs and decision making so that males and females have the same
(therefore females and males would each receive 50% of the resources, facilities,
and each have access to the same programs, e.g. if there was a male program, there
would also be a female program). While the goal of treating everyone the same
may seem noble, the principle of equal treatment tends to ignore the fact that
people differ in their capacities, interests, resources and experiences.
Equality focuses on creating the same starting line for everyone. Equity has the
goal of providing everyone with the full range of opportunities and benefits – the
same finish line.In other words, gender equality refers to equal access to social
goods, services and resources and equal opportunities in all spheres of life for both
men and women. When there is gender inequality, it is women that are more likely
to be disadvantaged and marginalised; but we should not ignore the negative
impact that gender inequality can have on men as well. For example, societal
norms regarding the appropriate behaviour for men tend to put them under pressure
as regards the need to provide materially for their family, and also deny them
opportunities of being more nurturing towards their children and wife. Therefore
gender equality is the concern of all and changes must be brought about for both
men and women. However, this is not to say that men and women are equally
affected by gender inequality. It remains true that women have the greater share of
disadvantages. However, gender equality, as defined above, does not often result in
equal outcomes for men and women. Being given the same chances in life is not
sufficient to bring about true equality. Women and men have different needs and
experiences and accommodation should be made for these differences. For
example, giving boys and girls equal access to all the courses offered in a school
may not result in girls taking advantage of this opportunity if some courses are
predominantly filled with male students and have only male teachers. There is still
the unfortunate tendency to consider male norms as a measure for women's
position. Providing women and men with the same opportunities is the first step;
but for true gender equality to be achieved there is a need for gender equity.
 6. HISTORICAL PROSPECTIVE OF GENDER EQUITY

These standards are intended to guide decisions and inform practices of

administrators of public history institutions and offices and serve as a resource for
all public historians.
The bullet points are intended to suggest examples and prompts to action rather
than provide an exhaustive list.
Producing a Workplace Culture That Ensures Gender Equity
Administrators should take a positive and proactive approach toward creating a
supportive workplace culture. The onus should not be upon women to point out
problems or make complaints, but instead, those in authority should take
responsibility for the tone of the work environment. Workplace culture can be
made more supportive by:
 Creating inclusive networks of collegiality and sociability.
 Avoiding venues and activities for work place gatherings that may exclude
women or men, or make them feel like interlopers within the institution.
 Ensuring that formal and informal decision-making processes are transparent
and inclusive.
 Taking active steps to ensure the workplace is free of unprofessional language
and conduct.
 Taking a proactive approach in combating sexual harassment, discrimination
based on sexual orientation, and/or a hostile environment by publicizing
institutional policies and enforcing them.
 Insisting that staff and administrators address and treat equally male and
female employees commensurate with their status, i.e. avoid addressing male
as Dr. and female as Mrs., Ms. or Miss (or first name).
Creating Gender Equity through Mentoring:
Mentoring is crucial for women's success in navigating their way within a
profession that remains male dominated and, within some workplaces, still remain
rooted in sexist ideas about gender. No single model of mentoring is applicable to
all settings. At some institutions, a formal system of assigned mentors chosen from
senior staff within their departments or offices may work best, while in others,
women benefit most from informal mentorship by senior colleagues in their own or
other offices or in the wider work community. The most effective mentors see
themselves as colleagues rather than teachers. Many (though not all) younger
women report having particularly benefited from the advice and support of senior
women in the historical profession. Ideally mentorship will be a natural extension
of a supportive and collegial workplace environment.
Mentorship includes:
  Sharing information about institutional knowledge, memory, and culture.
 Recognizing that mentorship is an important aspect of service to an agency and
the profession.
 Sharing and critiquing work, and doing so without regard to gender.
Creating Gender Equity by Producing a Work Place Culture Amenable to
Family Life:
A workplace culture that better supports family life will benefit both men and
women but will be especially important to women. Although societal norms are
changing, parenting and elder care – and gendered expectations about them—fall
disproportionately on women and affect their experience of the workplace. In
addition, younger women feel acutely the combined pressures of work and
biological clocks. Mid career advancement is often hindered by family obligations
that still fall disproportionately on women. These problems can be alleviated by:
 Recognizing that meeting family obligations does not mean diminished
professional commitment.
 Supporting flexibility in scheduling meetings and gatherings, and other
professional obligations to ensure compatibility with the demands of work and
family.
 Where they do not exist, working to establish provisions for parental and
family leave beyond those required by the Family and Medical Leave Act,
partner benefits, childcare, etc.
Ensuring Gender Equity by Recognizing the Impact of Gender on Perceptions
and Evaluations of Women
Evaluation of work should be based on standards of the profession and should not
be based on the gender or sexual orientation of the employee. Women must be
viewed as equal colleagues and equal members of the workplace, regardless of the
topics that they administer and research.
Even in evaluations that appear to be gender neutral, gender can powerfully shape
results. For example, evaluators bring their own ideas about gender to bear on the
way they evaluate employees: thus they may praise male employees for being
"brilliant" and female employees for being "nice ladies." Similarly, colleagues may
label women as "difficult" for being assertive when the same behavior in men is
unremarked. Women report that they have to work harder to be viewed as
competent by colleagues or are often dismissed as lacking objectivity because they
are women. Gender equity may be assured by:
 Paying attention to and correcting for "invisible" gender biases in mechanisms
used to evaluate women's performance of their jobs.
 Evaluating job performance on the basis of the standards of the agency and not
gender.
  Evaluating collegiality without regard to gender.
 Working to eliminate all forms of discrimination based on sexual orientation.
 Adhering to the AHA's Statement on Standards of Professional Conduct.

7. ROLE OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION AND SOCIAL

AWARENESS

>IN EDUCATION
The media recently raised issues related to women in general. There are certainly
reasons to celebrate the achievements and opportunities. However, let’s not forget
the basic struggles in many countries, some close to home and still embarking on
such a journey, and for those women in developing countries or in rural areas
where the focus is primarily on sustaining the family from one day to the next. It is
a long road ahead but it will not be ventured in isolation, as the UN Women has
committed to “empowering rural women” where gender disparity and exclusion
are more pronounced. There is a common thread in advancing society to the
benefit of both men and women – education. Why are women so important to
education? the workplace, in learning institutions or in public life, a mix of women
and men allows for differing perspectives to be put forth and for diverse ideas to
flourish. No less important, in the home, women do bear responsibility for the boys
and girls of tomorrow’s society, for their education and for instilling the values of
equal treatment in and outside the home.
Whether in developed or developing countries, in urban or in rural lifestyles,
ultimately an educated woman serves a better and more equal society, with a ripple
effect positively impacting the future. Yet, there are countries where access to
(higher) education for women is limited to inferior curricula, rooted in gender
stereotypes. developed countries, education is more of a given. However, family-
work balance is still not that easy to attain for a number of women and this is
where the digital era should pay off.
There is evidence that the structure of University courses and the work
environment systems may derail women from pursuing certain courses or subject
areas. A recent article in the Financial Times reflected on the minority of women
on MBA courses, stating that traditional explanations have pointed to the desire to
start a family but that similar courses focusing on sustainability or social enterprise
are attracting more women.
Women and men, as the case may be, should have the opportunity to take up an
offer to work from home and independent of the status in the workplace.
In the same vein, when it comes to education, the availability of distance learning
courses and of online library facilities is important. There is nothing wrong in
women seeking a particular course choice because they would like to balance with
family commitments down the line. As flexible working hours and working from
the home become more possible, the possibilities for women to take-up or resume
studying or vocational training and balance with family/work life should also
evolve. These are opportunities that will mirror society in a more balanced manner
and reflect an evolving society as both genders become more present in diverse
aspects of it. An education system needs to allow for all women to take-up or to
resume studying. It needs to be widely accessible and, therefore, some
modifications are much needed, such as childcare possibilities, which are
accessible to all.

>SOCIAL AWARENESS
The contribution of women to a society's smooth transition from preliterate to
literate, from a relatively autonomous community to a member of a nation
enmeshed in a world economy, has received too little attention from social
scientists and policy makers. When the economy and political organization of a
society change, families who can adjust to the new conditions will fare the best.
Inasmuch as women the world over are the primary caretakers of young children,
they play an important role in facilitating or hindering changes in family life. The
introduction of a cash economy and occupations that require reading and writing
require schools equipped to teach these skills.Throughout the Third World, schools
are being introduced. Within the next decade it will become difficult, if not
impossible, to find a society where the development of schooled and unschooled
children can be compared. Before the families decided that education was
essential, mothers who were not able to hire help kept some children at home to
care for infants and toddlers during the hours that they worked in the fields and
performed chores outside the homestead. As in other societies in the Third World,
children six through 10 were most frequently in charge of younger siblings. Older
children could be called upon to do agricultural work and relieve the women of
some of their heavy workload. However, once free education was introduced, and
once it became obvious to the families that subsistence agriculture and cash
cropping on small holdings was no longer viable, that literacy and school diplomas
or even university degrees were essential for success in the modern world, most
fathers and mothers decided that all children should attend school.
 8. ROLE OF WOMEN IN HEALTH AND RECREATION
>IN HEALTH
Women's health refers to the health of women, which differs from that of men in
many unique ways. Women's health is an example of population health, where
health is defined by the World Health Organization as "a state of complete
physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity". Often treated as simply women's reproductive health, many groups
argue for a broader definition pertaining to the overall health of women, better
expressed as "The health of women". These differences are further exacerbated
in developing countries where women, whose health includes both their risks and
experiences, are further disadvantaged.Although women in industrialised
countries have narrowed the gender gap in life expectancy and now live longer
than men, in many areas of health they experience earlier and more severe disease
with poorer outcomes. Gender remains an important social determinant of health,
since women's health is influenced not just by their biology but also by conditions
such as poverty, employment, and family responsibilities. Women have long been
disadvantaged in many respects such as social and economic power which restricts
their access to the necessities of life including health care, and the greater the level
of disadvantage, such as in developing countries, the greater adverse impact on
health.Women's reproductive and sexual health places a unique burden on them.
Even in developed countries pregnancy andchildbirth are associated with
substantial risks to women with maternal mortality accounting for more than a
quarter of a million deaths per year, with large gaps between the developing and
developed countries. Comorbidity from other non reproductive disease such
as cardiovascular disease contribute to both the mortality and morbidity of
pregnancy, including preeclampsia. Sexually transmitted infections have serious
consequences for women and infants, with mother-to-child transmission leading to
outcomes such as stillbirths and neonatal deaths, and pelvic inflammatory
diseaseleading to infertility. In addition infertility from many other causes, birth
control, unplanned pregnancy, unconsensual sexual activity and the struggle for
access toabortion create other burdens for women.
>IN RECREATION

There is a growing body of literature about the most effective ways to motivate and
support women and girls to take up sport. To get more people playing sport, it
important to understand both women and girls' lifestyles and motivation. Motives
participate can change and evolve over time. For example, women with young
children may begin physical activity for health reasons, however find enjoyment in
the social aspect or mental well-being and continue for those reasons. Therefore,
understanding an individual’s needs, attitudes, experiences and behaviours across
the lifespan is important for increasing participation among women with young
children. For instance, structured and unstructured activities that focus on
opportunities for women with young children to feel empowered through
participation are vital. Programmes that move away from a ‘prescriptive focus’ and
pay attention to individualised solutions to health and well-being will be more
effective in attracting women and girls to engage in sport more regularly.
Recognising the everyday meanings of womens' experiences, such as changes in
gendered embodiment and enjoyment that women have identified as important to
their engagement with sport and active recreation is also crucial37,38. Sport,
recreation and leisure service agencies can play a role in promoting healthy
behaviours and increased levels of physical activity among women with young
children, by providing opportunities and spaces (e.g. including childcare in some
cases) for them to participate in various activities. Research indicates that
programmes which are considerate of what women and girls ‘value’ are likely to
be more successful. For instance, programme attributes that encourage more
activity and retention of participation in healthy activities (such as opportunities to
socialise with friends, freedom to be creative, involvement in the programme
development process and opportunities to express their femininity through leisure)
are viewed as more favourable39. Positive action initiatives such as providing
more equal and sensitive access to provision are also important14. Once again,
administrators and managers need to be aware of the specific interests of women
and girls to provide or modify sport and recreation opportunities that will
encourage participation in healthy leisure activities. Programme facilitators who
are better able to address the unique needs of women and girls can positively
impact their health and active recreation involvement.
 9.ROLE OF WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY
>IN AGRICULTURE
Women are the backbone of the development of rural and national economies.
They comprise 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force, which rises to 70% in
somecountries. In Africa, 80% of the agricultural production comes from small
farmers, who are mostly rural women. Women comprise the largest percentage of
the workforce in the agricultural sector, but do not have access and control over all
land and productive resources.During the last ten years, many African countries
have adopted new land laws in order to strengthen women’s land ownership rights.
This has helped improve the situation of rural women.
To this effect, the lack of appreciation of the role of rural women in agriculture is
harmful and gives rise to a lack of specific policies, policies which are misdirected,
high levels of poverty, illiteracy and non-involvement in the design and planning
of programs and policies, which involves a process of mutual learning that reflects
the real and specific needs of rural women.Despite the important roles they play in
agricultural economies, rural women in Africa suffer from the highest illiteracy
rates and are the most visible face of poverty.Women guarantee livelihoods,
especially in rural areas. As a result of their great efforts in agricultural production,
women’s production helps to guarantee their self-sustenance. This is still not
enough, however, to cover other needs, such as health care, paying for the
education of their children or the acquisition of other products and goods which are
necessary on a day-to-day basis since they have a limited financial capacity caused
by an inefficient supply chain and poor conservation of their surpluses.
Connected with these problems there is also the issue of climate change, which
includes irregular rainfall, floods, droughts and cyclones, whose effects have a
greater impact on rural women and make their life difficult.
Rural women have to walk, moreover, long distances to carry water and fetch
firewood, which is harmful for the health of humans, causing high rates of infant
and maternal mortality, reversing progress in education and endangering food
sovereignty, as well as food security and nutrition. Agriculture is the main
alternative for Rural Women, and it should come with better access to land and
resources for the prevention, adaptation and mitigation of climate change,
combined with rural women learning how to deal with cultural resistance and
adapting to various manifestations of this phenomenon.Realizing the importance of
rural women in agriculture is an important aspect of gender relations. In many
countries, the role of women in agriculture is considered just to be a "help" and not
an important economic contribution to agricultural production.
Social customs dictate, moreover, that women, especially rural women, should - in
addition to agricultural activities - be responsible for cooking, carrying water and
fetching firewood, limiting their participation in decision-making processes and
their exposure to those economic opportunities that arise, thus increasing the level
of inequality vis-à-vis their partners.Nowadays many governments tend to pay
more attention to the agricultural sector than ever before.More investments are,
however,needed. It is a fact that rural women guarantee increases in food
production. This is not, however, sufficient to meet future needs. Fighting hunger
and malnutrition are some of the measures which should be taken to guarantee
higher income and better living conditions for the most vulnerable communities,
which are mostly formed by rural women who practice small-scale agriculture,
especially in developing countries such as Mozambique.
It is true that agricultural activities should lead to rural women increasing their
income. Mere financial support is, however, not sufficient.
The adoption of measures that facilitate the transition to a type of agriculture that
respects the environment and contributes to the conservation of natural resources
that benefit women is, in particular, necessary .
>IN INDUSTRY
Women make up a good part of the work force in the industry. Globally, nearly
60% of those who work in financial services are female, but that’s where the good
news stops. The higher one goes, the fewer women one finds.Only 19% of senior-
level positions in the industry are filled by women. Among board seats, only 14%
are held by women, and in the rarified atmosphere of the CEO, that number shrinks
to only 2%. That’s the situation laid out in PricewaterhouseCoopers’ (PwC) report
“Mending the Gender Gap: Advancing Tomorrow’s Women Leaders in Financial
Services.”Not only that, but according to a recent Pershing study, only about 30%
of financial advisors are women—and that number is falling. That’s a problem too,
with Pershing calling the recruitment of female advisors critical to growing
business.Amy Glynn, founder and president of the Pension Resource Institute and
active in the professional group Women in Pensions Network (WiPN), said she’s
been in the financial services business for about 25 years. “It’s interesting, because
[when I] started with Smith Barney back in ‘90, there were no female branch
managers, and only 5% of the sales force were women. It’s still very male
dominated.”She added, “Female producers in a branch are still only around 15%.
When I think about women in terms of leadership and professionals, 20 years later,
the stats haven’t changed that much.”And that’s not good.
 10. WOMEN IN PRE ISLAMIC PERIOD

There is very scarce information regarding women who lived during the pre-
Islamic time period.
According to Islamic history sources, the first wife of Muhammad, Khadija, was a
prosperous business woman who proposed to Muhammad (as opposed to being
proposed to). They additionally say the wife of his chief-rival, Abu Sufyan (Hind),
was politically active and was present at the Battle of Badr including conflicting
accounts of her personally defiling the body of one of Muhammad's uncles.
Tribe
Many assumptions have been made about Pre-Islamic law due to discrepancies in
the understanding of how law was enacted within the Arabian society. The main
functional unit of the Arabian society, the tribe, was composed of those who had
connections to a common relative. Many of these tribes were of patrilineal descent
and therefore were only formed by male links traced down from each
generation. In the tribe, women had no right to dictate who they chose to
marry. However, the tribe did offer the woman protection if she was maltreated by
her husband. The tribe itself was tied together by a mutual understanding of spoken
rules. These rules were enforced by the tribal leader who was not placed into that
position by choice, but rather placed there due to injuri. The leader also mediated
the discussion of new laws. Individual men within the tribe were allowed to
suggest new rules, but they would not be enacted until a consensus had been
reached by the entire group.During the Pre-Islamic times between 3500 and 3000
BCE, many of the city-states containing the individual tribes continually changed
who had the authority to dictate. Much of this change occurred due to the tribal
warfare taking place among these tribes. As the governmental power continued to
be overturned and replaced, the laws towards women became more limiting as time
went on. For some time husbands had the right to pawn their wives and children,
beat them mercilessly, or pull their hair without being penalized for these actions.
The only chief right a woman had during these times was stated in the Code of
Hammurabi in 1752 BCE, “women could obtain a divorce only with great
difficulty. If a woman so hated her husband, that she has declared, ‘you may not
have me’, her record shall be investigated at her city council”.The quote further
goes on to state that if the court does not find the wife to be at fault, then she will
be allowed to return to her father’s home.
Veiling
During Pre-Ilamic times the Assyrian law clearly depicted within their written
regulation who was allowed to veil. Those women who were family to “seigniors”
had to veil as well as those who were previously prostitutes but now married. Laws
on veiling were so strict that intolerable consequences were enacted upon these
women, some of which included beating or cutting their ears off. Prostitutes and
slaves were prohibited from veiling. The veil was not only used to classify women
according to their status, but it also labeled them based on their sexual activity and
marital status.

Family Structure and Motherhood

Research on the family structure of Pre-Islamic Arabia has many ambiguous views
so it becomes difficult to know the exact structure of the family during this time
period. Family structure that may have been of a typical tribe during Pre-Islamic
Arabia was patriarchal and the relations in the family were between other relations
with men. It was vital for families to have boys rather than girls because men were
viewed as superior to women. Within the family the women did not have any
parental rights over their children even if the father had died, and it is claimed that
women had no rights of inheritance. However, it is clear that many widows were
able to inherit from their husbands and were quite wealthy, Muhammad's wife
Khajida and many other early widows of Islam included, before the surahs on
inheritance were given. One of the most important roles of the mother within the
household was for her to give birth to children, and to produce male offspring.
Even though women had little rights within the household they did partake in few
roles within society. Some of the activities the women did were making meals,
milking animals, washing clothes, preparing butter, weaving material for tents, and
spinning wool.During pre Islamic Arabian times the child mortality rate was very
high, and it was very common for parents to lose a child in infancy or during the
child’s childhood due to certain diseases and ailments.If the infant survived the
community would hold a social feast in celebration of the infant's survival where
they would name the child, and slaughter a sheep in honor of the child's
birth.Children were not at fault for the same criminal punishments as
adults. During this time period it was seen as high importance for women to
produce male offspring because they were seen as superior and also as the most
fundamental component to be able to fight in the difficult desert conditions. Family
planning was very important and certain aspects are put into place before anything
takes course, but the family planning did not apply to everyone. People were
concerned with circumstances that may impact their family and or the community.
 11. STATUS GIVEN TO WOMEN BY ISLAM
Women are half of the humanity. They are the cause of our very being and
constitute the essential and integral part of our society. The world would have been
barren without them. Allah (SWT) has endowed them with unique qualities
like affection, tenderness, emotions and grace. Be it a mother, sister, daughter,
or wife, their contribution to our life is immense and cannot be substituted. Her
nature, a blessing out and out, has been misunderstood as her weakness by those
who lack to perceive her destined role in the family and society. Those responsible
for such a misunderstanding have failed to determine her status in the community
and have disputed about her role. While some considering her a social need have
advocated that there is no difference between man and woman. This flawed
outlook has deprived woman of her femininity. Former societies considered her a
burden for her being incapable of riding a horse, handling a sword or participating
in plunder and loot. Against all such distorted views, Islam is the only religion
which has given woman the status in accordance to her nature and determined her
rights and duties according to the chemistry of her personality. Islam gave woman
that dignity which no other ideology or faith has ever given. Let us travel back into
history to trace how a woman was treated in pre-Islamic society. A certain ritual
was performed by the son, not by the daughter for the salvation of parents in
Hinduism, which is indicative of woman’s inferior status. She had no share in
inheritance, had no right to seek divorce, and was considered an item of property.
In another faith group, woman is considered dirty for 7 days after the birth of a son
and 15 days after the birth of a daughter, and she has the right to inherit only if
there is no male heir. In another faith group, she was given a still lower status
because it was the fault of Eve/ Ha’u’wwa, (AS) and not of Adam (AS) that the
first couple had to be ejected from Paradise and all succeeding generations of man
from Adam on continue to carry the burden of that first sin attributed only to Eve.
It was under these circumstances that Prophet (SAW) raised woman’s status to a
height which was never given to her before. She was empowered to lead a
dignified life and commanded respect and honor. A woman’s passes through
three main phases in her life: First she is some one’s daughter, then she becomes a
wife, and then she becomes a mother. Islam’s bestows upon her a special
importance and dignity in all three spheres. In the pre-Islamic period, daughters
were buried alive. Islam condemned such a crime in the strongest terms. Prophet
(SAW) defined it as a great virtue to look after daughters. He (SAW) said that he,
who has two daughters and takes care of them in a befitting manner, he and I
will be in paradise like this.” (He (SAW) joined his two fingers to emphasize the
point.) In one of the traditions the number of daughter is given as 3.
One companion asked: “Yaa Rasul Allah, what if a person has only one daughter?”
He (SAW) replied: “He will earn the same reward.” People used to get sad and
depressed on the birth of a daughter before Islam. The Holy Qur’an says in verse
17 of Surah Zukhruf:
“When one of them is given news of the birth of a daughter, such as he so readily
ascribes to the Lord of Mercy, his face grows dark and his filled with gloom…”

Prophet (SAW) showed an exemplary treatment of love and affection for his
daughters. When asked as to who was loved most by Prophet (SAW), Ummul
Momineen Aa’yesha (RAnha) replied that it was Fatima (RAnha). When his
illustrious daughter Fatima (RAnha) used to visit our beloved Prophet (SAW) used
to greet her by standing, kissing her forehead and having her sit in his place. She
(RAnha) was the last to be visited when Prophet (SAW) used to go on journey and
first to be visited when he (SAW) returned from it. He (SAW) considered the
father as responsible to support the daughter until she is married. Father’s
support is supposed to continue in case she becomes a widow or is divorced,
but in the case of a son, father has the option to support him until his adulthood.
Finding a suitable match for the girl is also the duty of parents. In Islam daughters
are entitled to inheritance like sons.

An exemplary dispute out of love arose between Ali (RA), Jafar (RA) and Zaid
bin Harisa (RA) about the guardianship of Hamza’s daughter Umama (RAnha).
This happened soon after the conquest of Makkah. Ali said that she was his
uncle’s daughter, Jafar (RA) claimed that she was not only his uncle’s daughter,
but her aunt was also his wife, where as Zaid (RA) said that her father was tied to
him by the strong bonds of Islamic brotherhood. Prophet (SAW) gave his verdict
in favor of Jafar (RA) because according to Prophet (SAW) aunt i.e. mother’s
sister is equal to mother in terms of status.
Prophet (SAW) has advised husbands to treat their wives with great respect,
kindness and love. His (SAW)’s life clearly sets an example as to how a husband
should treat his wife. The importance of an ideal behavior towards wife is
highlighted by the fact that Prophet (SAW) mentioned her rights also in his last
sermon. He (SAW) said: “The best among you is he, who has best manners, and
the one who is good mannered is he, who is good and nice to his wife.” He
(SAW) further said: “I am the best among you in treating the members of my
household.” He (SAW) entrusted all responsibilities with regards to wife to her
husband. According to Islamic Shariah, wife’s needs of livelihood including food,
drink, dress, treatment, medication, and accommodation, fulfillment of all personal
and domestic needs are the responsibility of her husband. Verse 19 of Surah
Nisa says:
“You who believe, it is not lawful for you to inherit women against their will,
nor you should treat your wives harshly, hoping to take back some of the
bride-gift you gave them, unless they are guilty of something clearly
outrageous. Live with them in accordance with what is fair and kind: if you
dislike them, it may well be that you dislike something in which Allah has put
much good.’

In the light of this verse, one has to treat his wife very kindly and respectfully.
Prophet (SAW) was extremely considerate and kind towards his family members.
Once in a light mood, Prophet (SAW) told his wife Ummul
Momineen Aa’yesha (RAnah): “I know when you are happy or unhappy with me.
While unhappy you say: “I swear by the Rab of Ibrahim, and while happy, you
swear as by the Rab of Muhammad.” Ummul Momineen smiled and replied: “This
is simply limited to verbal expression; you in fact are very close to my heart at all
times.” That doesn’t show only his ideal relations with his wife, but a thorough
understanding of her mood and disposition.
 12. WOMEN AS MOTHER WIFE DAUGHTER AND SISTER

At a social level Islam recognize the different roles that women have in society and
makes sure that women receive respect and reverence for their place in the society.
In Islam, women are great mothers, obedient daughters, caring wives and equal
sisters. A few verses and hadiths pertaining to the social roles of women in Islam
are discussed below.

A) Mother:
The first and perhaps the most reverend role that Islam associates and assigns with
women pertaining to social relations is that of a mother. Islam holds great respect
for mother and commends the followers to respect their mothers the most of the
struggle she does while raising a kid to its adult age.
Once a Companion asked Prophet Muhammad (PBUH):

“Who is the one most worthy of my car?”

The Prophet (PBUH) replied:“Your Mother.”
The man asked:“Then whom?”

He replied:“Your mother.”

The Companion asked again:“Then whom?”

He replied”“Your mother.”

The Companion asked again:“Then whom?”

He replied:“Then your father.” (Bukhari)

From this hadith, it is clear that a mother has four times more right on a child
compared to a father, which is quite on contrary to the common notions in the
world where father being the head of the family enjoys the maximum control and
rights.

Pertaining to respecting the parents in their old age, Allah Almighty says in Quran:

“Your Lord has decreed that you worship none but Him and that you be kind to
parents. When one or both of them attains old age in your life, say not to them a
word of disrespect, nor repel them but address them in terms of honor.” (17:23)
Thus, from this ayah also it is clear that a mother has the same right on the children
in the old age as has a father. Therefore, when treating parents with respect and
care, no Muslim is allowed to discriminate between father and mother, and must
ensure that they both are cared well.

B) Sister And Daughter:

The other role that women have to play in a Muslim society is that of daughters
and sisters. Islam ensures that in both these roles women enjoy utmost respect, care
and protection. In Islam both male child and female child are equal and a parent is
as responsible for the education and upbringing of female children as they are
responsible for male children. Moreover, as far as the brother sister relation is
concerned, it is respected in Islam and brothers and sisters are to respect and treat
each other well. Therefore, there should be no discrimination between a male child
or a female one and both the children must be educated to respect each other as
brother and sister.

C) Wife:
The fourth role that women have to play, which brings respect to them is the role
of wives. Islam is the first religion that established the rights of women as wives
and associated the element of having a say in filial matters as well as respect with
them. Allah Almighty says about wives in Quran in the following way:

“And among His signs is this, that He created wives from among yourselves, that
you may dwell in tranquility, with them, and He put love and mercy between
your (hearts).”(30:21)
From this ayah of Quran it is clear that Allah Almighty is the one who has
provided wives to men, however, the objective of wives is not only to please men,
the objective is that both men and women must live in tranquility with each other.
Therefore, the love that produces tranquility is put in the heart of both the partners,
hence, husband and wife both have the duty of caring and loving each other for a
healthy relationship.Moreover, Allah Almighty also said in Quran:

“They are like a garment to you and you are like a garment to them.” (2:187)
From this ayah as well it becomes clear that women are the caretakers of men in
the same way as men are the caretakers of women.
 13. GENDER DISCRIMINATION IN ACCESS TO JOB

In Pakistan gender relations are characterized by a relationship of domination and

subordination between men and women and maintained mainly through a strict
sexual division of labour and demarcation of space into private and public domains
restricting women’s physical mobility. Gender inequality inhibits women’s access
to opportunities to enhance their basic capabilities such as education, health and
skills. With lesser access to opportunities for quality education, women are not
able to derive benefits from productive labour market and from technological
advancement. Lack of access to resources (i.e. property and credit) and deprivation
of public goods (i.e, information and legal rights) increase women’s vulnerability
in both private and public sphere. Gender gap in skills required for the workplace
in contemporary labour market is much higher than the gap in education. The
problem is compounded with non-marketable and economically irrelevant
education imparted at school and college levels. Females of all ages bear the
burden of unpaid, unacknowledged care work, both reproductive and productive, in
the private sphere. In public sphere, the majority of women works either as unpaid
family labour in agriculture or hold low-paid, low-skill jobs at the lowest tier of
industrial labour market. Women’s inferior social and economic status renders
them vulnerable to sexual harassment at workplace and in public sphere, and to
domestic violence in private sphere.

Be it life time care work in the private domain or productive work in the public
sphere, women do not get any long term returns on their labour due to the nature of
their work (unpaid, low-paid, casual, informal). Social protection and economic
security for majority of women workers, linked to the male member of the family,
thus remain uncertain and fragile in old age and in times of disability, disease and
disruption of the family. Of the total female work force, 7 out of 10 women (or
73.8 per cent) in 2008 toiled in agriculture mostly (65 per cent) as unpaid family
workers. Only 12.2 per cent found work in industrial sector and 13.9 per cent were
engaged in the services sector. Of all the women in the labour force only 22.9 per
cent had access to wage/salary work. Of these, 43.9 per women were paid per piece
rate and 12.9 per cent were casual paid employees.
Women’s participation (15 years and above) in labour force has remained painfully
slow–21.8 per cent in 2008. It is the lowest in South Asia and one of the lowest
among Muslim countries, especially when compared to the global rate of female
labour force participation rate that stood at 51.7 per cent in 2008.The
overwhelming majority of women who joined the labour force during recent years
have ended up in non-decent and vulnerable work categories.The section of female
population that is pushed, or enabled, to cross the barriers and becomes a part of
the labour force, faces a range of discrimination at work place. Economic
empowerment, hence, remains an elusive dream for the majority of women
workers
 14. POLITICAL ROLE OF WOMEN AS VOTER AND LEADER

The debate on women’s participation in politics in Pakistan has largely remained

confined to reserving seats for them. The 1973 Constitution reserved 10 seats in
the National Assembly for women with the general seat members serving as their
electoral college. The reservation was made for three general elections or ten years,
whichever came later. The reason for this time bar was that it was hoped that
within that span of time, women would arrive at par with men in politics, thus
negating the need for special provisions.The optimism, however, proved to be
misplaced. Although Gen Zia doubled the number of women’s seats, he did not
extend the time bar. The seats thus expired after the 1988 elections and the next
three parliaments were without women’s seats.

Gen Musharraf proved more generous than his predecessor and increased the
number of women’s seats in the National Assembly to an impressive 60, and
likewise in the provincial assemblies. He did not put an expiry date on these either.
Three elections have been held under this system so far and together they
constitute a substantial body of experience, enough to evaluate whether it has
brought us any closer to the objective of gender equality in the political sphere.The
answer is not difficult to find. It is written all over our politics. The reserved seats
have only helped political patriarchs increase their numerical strength in the
houses. They see them as a bonus, the awarding of which is monopolised by the
party heads under the party-list system. Members may grumble over this monopoly
but they do not disagree that only women belonging to the political elite should
come on the reserved seats.

Earlier this year, Balochistan Assembly speaker Jan Mohammed Jamali (PML-N)
refused to withdraw his daughter’s name in favour of his party’s chosen candidate
in the Senate election.The case of Sindh MPA, Parveen Junejo, is even more
telling. She was elected from a general seat in Dadu as a proxy for her husband
who was barred from contesting for legal reasons, but after the couple became
estranged, Ms Junejo claimed she was forced to resign her seat. Her party and the
Sindh Assembly, in the manner of a tribal jirga, promptly completed the procedure
required to unseat her.Equality of women in politics is not on any party’s agenda.
They are content with flaunting their few women leaders as evidence of their
progressive politics. In practical electoral terms, it is much easier for them to take
women’s votes as multipliers of male consent. They are then left with the task of
managing only the local-level male powerbrokers.On the other hand, the
parliamentary status of women on reserved seats remains completely dependent on
their male colleagues even if they outperform the men on the floor of the house.
Women are acceptable only as proxies or an extension of male politicians.The
present electoral system and the politics it is generating have become a vehicle for
reinforcing the gender status quo, instead of being a tool to challenge and change
it. There is a reason why even the parties that are against women in the political
sphere, including Jamaat-i-Islami which spearheaded their exclusion from the
Lower Dir by-election, happily nominate women candidates on reserved seats.In
hindsight, it seems the present system was designed only to play with the optics of
women’s participation. It has effected a complete disconnect between the image
and the reality on the ground. While we have a considerable number of women in
parliament, womenfolk can still be barred from getting registered as voters and
from casting their ballots.If the increased presence of women was intended to have
a trickle-down effect, let us admit that it simply hasn’t happened and there are no
signs it can ever do so.This is not to say that ensuring and increasing women’s
participation in politics is impossible. One way can be for women to have a double
vote, with one vote for the general seat candidate and another for the women’s
seat. A single voter casting multiple ballots for different categories of candidates,
including women, minorities, etc was tried out in local government elections of
2000 and 2005.Another method could be to make it mandatory for a winner to
have secured men and women’s votes in a fixed proportion. Yet another option can
be to assign women’s votes an additional fractional weightage while consolidating
results.
 15. GENDER DISCRIMINATION IN POLITICS

Women’s political participation and protection of women’s rights has always been
a challenge in the Developing countries. Despite the fact that Pakistan is a
developing country with a developing economy yet women have actively been
attempting to take part in government, and development of female-oriented civil
society.Women participation in politics has always played a great role in the
political stage since the reform of Pakistan in 1947 where Fatimah Jinnah sister of
the founder of Pakistan Muhammad Ali Jinnah, had an active participation in the
political sphere and that had been an inspiration to all women in Pakistan.
The Constitution of Pakistan asserts the protection of women’s rights under
national legislation. While human rights concepts can be found from the preamble
onwards. Article 25 under the chapter of fundamental rights of citizens highlights
the principles of women’s equality in the Pakistani constitution. Article 25
clearly guarantees equality before the law and equal protection of the law stating
that there shall be no discrimination on the basis of sex. Furthermore, The Chapter
on Principles of Policy - Article 32 and 34 ensures full participation of women in
all spheres of national life. However, in reality, women’s political marginalization
and other forms of gender discrimination continue to be the norm. Pakistan has
experienced extensive violence within the political sphere against women and men
alike. Cases of women who have suffered Political violence include the former
Prime Minister Ms. Benazir Bhutto who was assassinated in 2007. Another case of
Women’s rights activist and Punjab Minister for social welfare, Ms. Zille Huma
Usman who was also assassinated in public view in 2007. Most recently the case
of Malala yousafzai, the co-recipient of the 2014 Nobel Peace prize; Malala was
mainly known for raising awareness for women rights and education rights in her
native Swat Valley in Northwest Pakistan. She survived a shot in the head in 2012.
There are several other cases of suppressing women’s participation in politics such
as barring women from voting or expressing threats especially in the province of
Punjab and Khyber Pkhtawon (KP).
Pakistan ratified The Convention of Elimination of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW) in 1996, with the condition that it will not draft any policy and/or law
which is repugnant to Islamic principles .
“Despite passage of many years there are a lot of areas where it is not
implemented. Significant problems in Pakistan persist with regards to participation
of women as voters as well as candidates” - said Farkhanda Aurangzeb, a women
rights activist and representative of Aurat Foundation.
Moreover, some political parties have created women’s wings such as Pakistan
Tahrek Insaf Women’s Wing. Opinions varies regarding this structure,
some perceive it as another form of discrimination against women that
isolates them further, while others believe it is one of the key strategies to promote
women’s access to politics. Still women’s participation in government remains
limited. Regardless of the strong representation in the national legislature ,the
fundamentalist view of interpreting and implementing the country’s law
deprives women of their fundamental right of equality provided for by the
Constitution of Pakistan.
The main challenge Pakistan faces in the promotion and protection of women’s
rights is to ensure the implementation of international obligations and
constitutional provisions, besides enhance awareness and change entrenched
societal attitudes relating to women and women’s rights. The current political
unrest in Pakistan seems to be reviving the advent of women’s political
issues. Women’s participation in Pakistan Tehreek Insaaf (PTI) Protest among the
past months noticeably reflects the increasing number of women participating in
the political arena; Local women from different social backgrounds and different
ages have been participating in the PTI protests, that were once limited to women
belonging to political families or with political background.
As reported in Counter Punch an Amnerican political magazine, “A large number
of women and children are taking part in these sit-ins. According to law
enforcement agency reports, more than 30 percent of the participants are women.
This is the first occasion in the history of Pakistan that women have participated in
a major anti-government movement in such large numbers. A new era has emerged
in Pakistan as men and women have joined hands in this growing social movement
for political change – and women’s inclusion has proven increasingly effective.”
Overall, the growing participation of women in the political sphere, despite severe
obstacles, such as cultural resistance, discrimination patriarchy, religious
extremism and religious misconceptions and unequal social power structures, is a
positive step in the right direction.
 16. VIOLENCE TYPES AND CAUSES

Violence is defined by the World Health Organization as "the intentional use of

physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or
against a group or community, which either results in or has a high likelihood of
resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation",
although the group acknowledges that the inclusion of "the use of power" in its
definition expands on the conventional understanding of the word. This definition
involves intentionality with the committing of the act itself, irrespective of the
outcome it produces. However, generally, anything that is excited in an injurious or
damaging way may be described as violent even if not meant to be violence (by a
person and against a person).
Globally, violence resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1.28 million people in
2013 up from 1.13 million in 1990. Of the deaths in 2013, roughly 842,000 were
attributed to self-harm (suicide), 405,000 to interpersonal violence, and 31,000 to
collective violence (war) and legal intervention. in Africa, out of every 100,000
people, each year an estimated 60.9 die a violent death. Corlin, past president of
the American Medical Association said: "The United States leads the world—in
the rate at which its children die from firearms." He concluded: "Gun violence is a
threat to the public health of our country." For each single death due to violence,
there are dozens of hospitalizations, hundreds of emergency department visits, and
thousands of doctors' appointments. Furthermore, violence often has lifelong
consequences for physical and mental health and social functioning and can slow
economic and social development.In 2013, assault by firearm was the leading
cause of death due to interpersonal violence, with 180,000 such deaths estimated to
have occurred. The same year, assault by sharp object resulted in roughly 114,000
deaths, with a remaining 110,000 deaths from personal violence being attributed to
other causes.Violence in many forms is preventable. There is a strong relationship
between levels of violence and modifiable factors such as concentrated poverty,
income and gender inequality, the harmful use of alcohol, and the absence of safe,
stable, and nurturing relationships between children and parents. Strategies
addressing the underlying causes of violence can be effective in preventing
violence.
>TYPES OF VIOLENCE

There are nine distinct forms of violence and abuse:

Physical Violence Emotional Violence

Sexual Violence
Physical violence occurs Emotional violence occurs
Sexual violence occurs
when someone uses a when someone says or
when a person is forced
part of their body or an does something to make a
to unwillingly take part in
object to control a person feel stupid or
sexual activity.
person’s actions. worthless.

Spiritual Violence
Cultural Violence
Psychological Violence
Spiritual (or religious)
Cultural violence occurs
Psychological violence violence occurs when
when an individual is
occurs when someone someone uses an
harmed as a result of
uses threats and causes individual’s spiritual
practices that are part of
fear in an individual to beliefs to manipulate,
her or his culture, religion
gain control. dominate or control that
or tradition.
person.

Verbal Abuse Financial Abuse

Neglect
Verbal abuse occurs Financial abuse occurs
Neglect occurs when
when someone uses when someone controls
someone has the
language, whether an individual’s financial
responsibility to provide
spoken or written, to resources without the
care or assistance for an
cause harm to an person’s consent or
individual but does not.
individual. misuses those resources.
 >CAUSES OF VIOLENCE

 The influence of one’s peers

 Having a lack of attention or respect
 Having low self-worth
 Experiencing abuse or neglect
 Witnessing violence in the home, community, or medias
 Access to weapons
It is common for those who act violently to have difficulty controlling their
emotions. For some, behaviour can be attributed to past abuse or neglect, false
beliefs that intimidating others will gain them respect, or a belief that using
violence will solve his or her problems. However, violent actions often work
against the individual, and they often lose respect or become increasingly isolated
because others view them as dangerous.Over time, violence and aggressive
behaviour often escalates when not addressed; however, there are signs that can
help identify potential or immediate violence.
 17. HOW TO OVERCOME GENDER VIOLENCE

1. Provide women with access to legal representation and opportunities to pursue

justice against perpetrators of violence through the formal legal system

2. Promote gender equality in schools and widen access to education for girls. It has
been proven time and time again that girls enrolled in school are less likely to be
married early and become pregnant. If that weren’t reason enough, girls that obtain
higher levels of education are more likely to find employment and become
empowered as a result of their financial contributions to the family and community

3. End forced early marriage and premature pregnancy, the leading cause of death
of girls between 15 to 19 years of age. With more than 142 million girls expected to
marry before they turn 18 over the next decade, which offer conditional cash transfers
to incentivize families to delay their daughter’s marriages, will likely help reduce
arranged marriages and allow girls to develop both physically and mentally before
marriage and child-birth

4. Bring greater attention to violence that is perpetrated by a partner or spouse. Stella

Mukasa, Director of Gender Violence and Rights at ICRW, told the story of a woman
who was forced by her husband to breast feed his dog’s litter. When she sought help
from the community, her claim was ignored because abuse from a spouse was not
considered to be a violation of a woman’s rights

5. Revise marriage laws that are institutionally biased against women, particularly
those that deny women custody over their children, inheritance, and land rights in
cases of death, separation or divorce. The revised national constitution in Kenya is
one example that has brought about unprecedented rights for women, including the
right to oversee property-related transactions, manage family land and resources and
retain a portion of land to live on and cultivate if widowed or divorced
 18. DOMESTIC VIOLENCE TYPES AND CAUSES

Domestic violence (also named domestic abuse, battering, or family violence) is

a pattern of behavior which involves violence or other abuse by one person against
another in a domestic setting, such as in marriage orcohabitation. Intimate partner
violence is violence by a spouse or partner in an intimate relationship against the
other spouse or partner. Domestic violence can take place
in heterosexual and same-sex family relationships, and can involve violence
against children in the family.
Domestic violence can take a number of forms,
including physical, verbal, emotional, economic, religious, and sexual abuse,
which can range from subtle, coercive forms to marital rape and to violent physical
abuse such as female genital mutilation and acid throwing that results
in disfigurement or death. Domestic murders include stoning, bride burning,honor
killings, and dowry deaths.
Globally, the victims of domestic violence are overwhelmingly women, and
women tend to experience more severe forms of violence In some countries,
domestic violence is often seen as justified, particularly in cases of actual or
suspected infidelity on the part of the woman, and is legally permitted. There is
evidence that there exists a direct and significant correlation between a country's
level of gender equality and actual rates of domestic violence. Domestic violence is
among the most underreported crimes worldwide for both men and women. Men
face additional gender-related barriers in reporting, due to social stigmas regarding
male victimization, and an increased likelihood of being overlooked by healthcare
providers.
Domestic violence occurs when the abuser believes that abuse is acceptable,
justified, or unlikely to be reported. It may produce intergenerational cycles of
abuse in children and other family members, who may feel that such violence is
acceptable or condoned. Very few people recognize themselves as abusers or
victims because they may consider their experiences as family disputes that just
got out of control Awareness, perception, definition and documentation of
domestic violence differs widely from country to country. Domestic violence often
happens in the context of forced orchild marriage.
>TYPES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

Physical Abuse

Physical abuse is the most recognizable form of domestic violence. It involves the
use of force against the victim, causing injury (e.g. a punch or a kick, stabbing,
shooting, choking, slapping, forcing you to use drugs, etc.). Remember that the
injury doesn't need to be a major one. Consider, for example, that your abuser slaps
you a few times, causing only minor injuries that don't require a visit to the
hospital. Is that domestic violence? Yes. The slapping would still be considered
domestic violence.

Emotional Abuse

Emotional abuse involves the destruction of the victim's self-worth, and is brought
about by persistent insult, humiliation, or criticism. Emotional abuse can be a
difficult type of domestic violence for many people to understand, since, on the
surface, it appears to be quite common in unhealthy relationships. As a victim, you
should know that in most states, emotional abuse is not enough on its own to bring
a domestic violence action unless the abuse is so persistent and so significant that
the relationship can be labeled extremely coercive. Most commonly, evidence of
emotional abuse is combined with other abuse (physical, financial, sexual, or
psychological) to bring a domestic violence action.

Sexual Abuse

Sexual abuse is a common form of domestic violence. It includes not only sexual
assault and rape, but also harassment, such as unwelcome touching and other
demeaning behaviors. Many victims don't realize how broadly sexual abuse is
interpreted. For example, if you've ever been coerced into not using contraception
(the pill, a condom, an IUD, etc.) or having an abortion, then you may have
actually been sexually abused. This form of abuse is known as reproductive
coercion.Domestic violence cases are most frequently brought for physical or
sexual abuse, so if you think you've been sexually abused, you may have a good
claim for domestic violence.
Financial Abuse

Of the types of domestic violence, financial abuse is perhaps the least obvious.
Financial abuse may take on many forms, such as a husband preventing his wife
from obtaining an education or a job outside the home. Financial abuse is
extremely common, particularly when families have pooled their money into joint
accounts (with one partner controlling) and where there's little or no family support
system to help. Financial abuse is simply another form of control, even though it is
usually less obvious than physical or sexual abuse.Often, the victim is completely
dependent on his or her partner for money. With no access to money except
through the abusive partner, the victim is completely at the abusive partner's
mercy. The abusive partner may withhold money for food, clothing, and more.

Psychological Abuse

Psychological abuse is basically a catchall term for intimidating, threatening, or

fear-causing behavior. This behavior must be persistent and significant. A one-time
event generally won't be enough to bring a domestic violence action.A wide variety
of behaviors fall under the umbrella of psychological abuse. Some common
examples include: preventing the victim from talking to people unless they have
been given 'permission,' preventing the victim from leaving the house, threatening
the victim with violence or emotional blackmail for doing something the abusive
partner doesn't agree with, etc. Like emotional abuse, psychological abuse may not,
on its own, be enough to bring a domestic violence action unless it's especially
severe.

>CAUSES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

What causes domestic violence to become the norm for an abuser? Most domestic
abusers grew up witnessing domestic abuse and violence in their own homes. They
learned to view physical and emotional violence as valid ways to vent anger and
cope with their own internal fears and self-perception issues. The modeling they
saw while growing up gets reinforced in these ways:

 Using violence and abuse tactics worked to solve problems for them in the
past
 They have established tremendous control over others through abuse tactics
 No one has stopped them or reported them to authorities
Common triggers that set off an abuser:

 Disagreement with their intimate partner

 Protracted periods of unemployment
 Financial issues
 Desperation when partner threatens to leave
 Anger escalation
 Humiliation stemming from problems at work or other perceived failures
 Jealousy and envy

Many experts believe psychopathology, developed by growing up in a violent and

abusive household causes domestic violence to continue as a generational legacy.
Witnessing abuse as the norm, or being abused, destroys the child's ability to trust
others and undermines his or her ability to control emotions. This produces hostile,
dependant, and emotionally insecure people with a deeply impaired ability to
develop and maintain healthy relationships.Other experts believe genetic
predisposition plays a part in the formation of an abuser, but very few studies offer
definitive data to support this. In cultures where traditional beliefs endure that put
women beneath men in status and personhood, domestic violence is rampant.Even
though the causes of domestic abuse remain poorly understood, it's critical that
society stands strong against the crime of domestic violence and support laws and
social programs put in place to stop the cycle.
 19. REMEDIES FOR DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

What exactly do we want?

A very important question in wake of domestic violence remedies is that what

exactly we are looking for in the process of minimising their occurrences. Is it so
that we want to gather more information about such cases for just expressing our
concern over this issue with more accuracy, having facts and figures at hand? Or
instead of just raising our voices, we want to clean up the mess with shear force
and determination?

Fighting the ‘Domestic Violence’ Evil

The response to the phenomenon of domestic violence is a typical combination of

effort between law enforcement agencies, social service agencies, the courts and
corrections/probation agencies. The role of all these has progressed over last few
decades, and brought their activities in public view. Domestic violence is now
being viewed as a public health problem of epidemic proportion all over the world
– and many public, private and governmental agencies are seen making huge
efforts to control it in India. There are several organizations all over the world —
government and non government — actively working to fight the problems
generated by domestic violence to the human community.

Need for Stringent Laws

In 1983, domestic violence was recognised as a specific criminal offence by the

introduction of section 498-A into the Indian Penal Code. This section deals with
cruelty by a husband or his family towards a married woman. The main legislative
measures at the national level for the children who become a victim of child labor
include The Child Labor Prohibition and Regulation Act -1986 and The Factories
Act -1948. The first act was categorical in prohibiting the employment of children
below fourteen years of age, and identified 57 processes and 13 occupations which
were considered dangerous to the health and lives of children. The factories act
again prohibits the employment of children less than fourteen years of age.

Police and Health Care

Police plays a major role in tackling the domestic violence cases. They need to be
sensitized to treat domestic violence cases as seriously as any other crime. Special
training to handle domestic violence cases should be imparted to police force. They
should be provided with information regarding support network of judiciary,
government agencies/departments. Gender training should be made mandatory in
the trainings of the police officers. There should be a separate wing of police
dealing with women’s issues, attached to all police stations and should be excluded
from any other duty.Authorities should take steps to recognize Domestic Violence
as a public health issue. A crisis support cell needs to be established in all major
Government and Private Hospitals with a trained medical social worker for provide
appropriate services. Training programmes must be organized for health
professionals in order to develop their skills to provide basic support for abused
people. Documentation on the prevalence and the health consequences of domestic
violence should be undertaken by the concerned government departments, health
care institutions, NGOs and counselling centres. A nodal agency should also be set
up for the annual consolidation of the documented work and publish the same for
wider publicity among the masses for increasing awareness.