INTRODUCTION TO GENDER AND SEX

1 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SEX AND GENDER

When filling out a document such as a job application or school registration form you are often asked to provide your
name, address, phone number, birth date, and sex or gender. But have you ever been asked to provide your sex and
your gender? As with most people, it may not have occurred to you that sex and gender are not the same. However,
sociologists and most other social scientists view sex and gender as conceptually distinct.

              Sex refers to physical or physiological differences between males and females, including both primary sex
characteristics (the reproductive system) and secondary characteristics such as height and muscularity. Gender is a term
that refers to social or cultural distinctions associated with being male or female.  Gender identity is the extent to which
one identifies as being either masculine or feminine (Diamond 2002).

           A person’s sex, as determined by his or her biology, does not always correspond with his or her gender. Therefore,
the terms sex and gender are not interchangeable. A baby boy who is born with male genitalia will be identified as male.
As he grows, however, he may identify with the feminine aspects of his culture. Since the term sex refers to biological or
physical distinctions, characteristics of sex will not vary significantly between different human societies. For example, all
persons of the female sex, in general, regardless of culture, will eventually menstruate and develop breasts that can
lactate. Characteristics of gender, on the other hand, may vary greatly between different societies. For example, in
American culture, it is considered feminine (or a trait of the female gender) to wear a dress or skirt. However, in many
Middle Eastern, Asian, and African cultures, dresses or skirts (often referred to as sarongs, robes, or gowns) can be
considered masculine. The kilt worn by a Scottish male does not make him appear feminine in his culture.

Dichotomous View of Gender

               The dichotomous view of gender (the notion that one is either male or female) is specific to certain cultures and
is not universal. In some cultures, gender is viewed as fluid. In the past, some anthropologists used the term “berdache”
to refer to individuals who occasionally or permanently dressed and lived as the opposite gender. The practice has been
noted among certain Aboriginal groups  (Jacobs, Thomas, and Lang 1997). Samoan culture accepts what they refer to as
a “third gender.” Fa’afafine, which translates as “the way of the woman,” is a term used to describe individuals who are
born biologically male but embody both masculine and feminine traits. “Fa’afafines” are considered an important part of
Samoan culture. Individuals from other cultures may mislabel them as homosexuals because fa’afafines have a varied
sexual life that may include men or women (Poasa 1992).

MAKING CONNECTIONS: SOCIAL POLICY & DEBATE

The Legalese of Sex and Gender

                The terms sex and gender have not always been differentiated in the English language. It was not until the
1950s that American and British psychologists and other professionals working with intersex and transsexual patients
formally began distinguishing between sex and gender. Since then, psychological and physiological professionals have
increasingly used the term gender (Moi 2005). By the end of the 2oth century, expanding the proper usage of the term
gender to everyday language became more challenging—particularly where legal language is concerned. In an effort to
clarify usage of the terms sex and gender, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia wrote in a 1994 briefing, “The word
gender has acquired the new and useful connotation of cultural or attitudinal characteristics (as opposed to physical
characteristics) distinctive to the sexes. That is to say, gender is to sex as feminine is to female and masculine is to male”
(J.E.B. v. Alabama, 144 S. Ct. 1436 [1994]). Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg had a different take, however.

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Viewing the words as synonymous, she freely swapped them in her briefings so as to avoid having the word “sex” pop
up too often. It is thought that her secretary supported this practice by suggestions to Ginsberg that “those nine men”
(the other Supreme Court justices), “hear that word and their first association is not the way you want them to be
thinking” (Case 1995).

         In Canada, there has not been the same formal deliberation on the legal meanings of sex and gender. The
distinction between sex as a physiological attribute and gender as social attribute has been used without controversy.
However, things can get a little tricky when biological “sex” is regarded as simply a natural fact, especially in the case of
transsexuals (Cowan 2005).  For example, in British Columbia, people who have surgery to change their anatomical sex
can apply through the provisions of the Vital Statistics Act to have their birth certificate changed to reflect their post-
operative sex. If a person was born male, does this mean that after surgery that person is fully regarded as a female in
the eyes of the law though? In the 2002 case of Nixon v. Vancouver Rape Relief Society, a male to female transsexual,
Kimberly Nixon brought an application to the B.C. Human Rights Tribunal that she had been discriminated against by the
Vancouver Rape Relief Society (VRR) when her application to volunteer as a helper was rejected. The controversy was
not over whether Kimberly was a woman, but whether she was woman enough for the position. VRR argued that as
Kimberly had not grown up as a woman, she did not have the requisite lived experience as a woman in patriarchal
society to counsel women rape victims. The B.C. Human Rights Tribunal ruled against VRR, finding that they had
discriminated against Kimberly as a transsexual. The ruling was overturned by the Supreme Court of British Columbia,
which argued that the Act ‘‘did not address all the potential legal consequences of sex reassignment surgery’’ (Cowan
2005, p. 87). The court acknowledged that the meaning of both sex and gender vary in different contexts. The case is
currently under appeal.

           These legal issues reveal that even human experience that is assumed to be biological and personal (such as our
self-perception and behaviour) is actually a socially defined variable by culture. The question of “what makes a woman”
in the case of Nixon v. Vancouver Rape Relief Society is a matter of legal decision making as much as it is a matter of
biology or lived experience.

Sexual Orientation

            Sexual orientation refers to a person’s emotional and sexual attraction to a particular sex (male or female). Sexual
orientation is typically divided into four categories: heterosexuality, the attraction to individuals of the opposite sex;
homosexuality, the attraction to individuals of one’s own sex; bisexuality, the attraction to individuals of either sex; and
asexuality, no attraction to either sex. Heterosexuals and homosexuals may also be referred to informally as “straight”
and “gay,” respectively. North America is a heteronormative society, meaning it supports heterosexuality as the norm.
Consider that homosexuals are often asked, “When did you know you were gay?” but heterosexuals are rarely asked,
“When did you know that you were straight?” (Ryle 2011).

           According to current scientific understanding, individuals are usually aware of their sexual orientation between
middle childhood and early adolescence (American Psychological Association 2008). They do not have to participate in
sexual activity to be aware of these emotional, romantic, and physical attractions; people can be celibate and still
recognize their sexual orientation. Homosexual women (also referred to as lesbians), homosexual men (also referred to
as gays), and bisexuals of both genders may have very different experiences of discovering and accepting their sexual
orientation.

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At the point of puberty, some may be able to claim their sexual orientations while others may be unready or unwilling to
make their homosexuality or bisexuality known since it goes against North American society’s historical norms (APA
2008).
             Alfred Kinsey was among the first to conceptualize sexuality as a continuum rather than a strict dichotomy of gay
or straight. To classify this continuum of heterosexuality and homosexuality, Kinsey created a six-point rating scale that
ranges from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual (see Figure 12.4). In his 1948 work Sexual Behavior in
the Human Male, Kinsey writes, “Males do not represent two discrete populations, heterosexual and homosexual. The
world is not to be divided into sheep and goats … The living world is a continuum in each and every one of its aspects”
(Kinsey et al 1948).

Later scholarship by Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick expanded on Kinsey’s notions. She coined the term “homosocial” to oppose
“homosexual,” describing nonsexual same-sex relations. Sedgwick recognized that in North American culture, males are
subject to a clear divide between the two sides of this continuum, whereas females enjoy more fluidity. This can be
illustrated by the way women in Canada can express homosocial feelings (nonsexual regard for people of the same sex)
through hugging, handholding, and physical closeness. In contrast, Canadian males refrain from these expressions since
they violate the heteronormative expectation. While women experience a flexible norming of variations of behaviour
that spans the heterosocial-homosocial spectrum, male behaviour is subject to strong social sanction if it veers into
homosocial territory because of societal homophobia (Sedgwick 1985).

           There is no scientific consensus regarding the exact reasons why an individual holds a heterosexual, homosexual,
or bisexual orientation. There has been research conducted to study the possible genetic, hormonal, developmental,
social, and cultural influences on sexual orientation, but there has been no evidence that links sexual orientation to one
factor (APA 2008). Research, however, does present evidence showing that homosexuals and bisexuals are treated
differently than heterosexuals in schools, the workplace, and the military. The 2009 Canadian Climate Survey reported
that 59 percent of LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgendered) high school students had been subject to verbal
harassment at school compared to 7 percent of non-LGBT students, 25 percent had been subject to physical harassment
compared to 8 percent of non-LGBT students, 31 percent had been subject to cyber-bullying (via internet or text
messaging) compared to 8 percent of non-LGBT students, 73 percent felt unsafe at school compared to 20 percent of
non-LGBT students, and 51 percent felt unaccepted at school compared to 19 percent of non-LGBT students (Taylor and
Peter 2011).

         Much of this discrimination is based on stereotypes, misinformation, and homophobia, an extreme or irrational
aversion to homosexuals. Major policies to prevent discrimination based on sexual orientation have not come into effect
until the last few years. In 2005 the federal government legalized same-sex marriage. The Civil Marriage Act now
describes marriage in Canada in gender neutral terms: “Marriage, for civil purposes, is the lawful union of two persons
to the exclusion of all others” (Civil Marriage Act (S.C. 2005, c. 33)). The Canadian Human Rights Act was amended in
1996 to explicitly prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation, including the unequal treatment of gay men,
lesbians, and bisexuals. Organizations such as Egale Canada (Equality for Gays And Lesbians Everywhere) advocate for
LGBT rights, establish gay pride organizations in Canadian communities, and promote gay-straight alliance support
groups in schools. Advocacy agencies frequently use the acronym LGBTQ, which stands for “lesbian, gay, bisexual,
transgendered,” and “queer” or “questioning.”

Gender Roles

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          As we grow, we learn how to behave from those around us. In this socialization process, children are introduced to
certain roles that are typically linked to their biological sex. The term gender role refers to society’s concept of how men
and women are expected to act and how they should behave. These roles are based on norms, or standards, created by
society. In Canadian culture, masculine roles are usually associated with strength, aggression, and dominance, while
feminine roles are usually associated with passivity, nurturing, and subordination. Role learning starts with socialization
at birth. Even today, our society is quick to outfit male infants in blue and girls in pink, even applying these colour-coded
gender labels while a baby is in the womb.

        One way children learn gender roles is through play. Parents typically supply boys with trucks, toy guns, and
superhero paraphernalia, which are active toys that promote motor skills, aggression, and solitary play. Girls are often
given dolls and dress-up apparel that foster nurturing, social proximity, and role play. Studies have shown that children
will most likely choose to play with “gender appropriate” toys (or same-gender toys) even when cross-gender toys are
available because parents give children positive feedback (in the form of praise, involvement, and physical closeness) for
gender-normative behaviour (Caldera, Huston, and O’Brien 1998).

          The drive to adhere to masculine and feminine gender roles continues later in life. Men tend to outnumber women
in professions such as law enforcement, the military, and politics. Women tend to outnumber men in care-related
occupations such as child care, health care, and social work. These occupational roles are examples of typical Canadian
male and female behaviour, derived from our culture’s traditions. Adherence to them demonstrates fulfillment of social
expectations but not necessarily personal preference (Diamond 2002).

Gender Identity

        Canadian society allows for some level of flexibility when it comes to acting out gender roles. To a certain extent,
men can assume some feminine roles and women can assume some masculine roles without interfering with their
gender identity. Gender identity is an individual’s self-conception of being male or female based on his or her
association with masculine or feminine gender roles.

        Individuals who identify with the role that is the opposite of their biological sex are called transgendered.
Transgendered males, for example, have such a strong emotional and psychological connection to the feminine aspects
of society that they identify their gender as female. The parallel connection to masculinity exists for transgendered
females. It is difficult to determine the prevalence of transgenderism in society. Statistics Canada states that they have
neither the definitive number of people whose sexual orientation is lesbian, gay, or bisexual, nor the number of people
who are transgendered (Statistics Canada 2011). However, it is estimated that 2 to 5 percent of the U.S. population is
transgendered (Transgender Law and Policy Institute 2007).

        Transgendered individuals who wish to alter their bodies through medical interventions such as surgery and
hormonal therapy—so that their physical being is better aligned with gender identity—are called transsexuals. They may
also be known as male-to-female (MTF) or female-to-male (FTM) transsexuals. Not all transgendered individuals choose
to alter their bodies: many will maintain their original anatomy but may present themselves to society as the opposite
gender. This is typically done by adopting the dress, hairstyle, mannerisms, or other characteristic typically assigned to
the opposite gender. It is important to note that people who cross-dress, or wear clothing that is traditionally assigned
to opposite gender, are not necessarily transgendered.

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Cross-dressing is typically a form of self-expression, entertainment, or personal style, not necessarily an expression
against one’s assigned gender (APA 2008).

There is no single, conclusive explanation for why people are transgendered. Transgendered expressions and
experiences are so diverse that it is difficult to identify their origin. Some hypotheses suggest biological factors such as
genetics or prenatal hormone levels as well as social and cultural factors such as childhood and adulthood experiences.
Most experts believe that all of these factors contribute to a person’s gender identity (APA 2008).

It is known, however, that transgendered and transsexual individuals experience discrimination based on their gender
identity. People who identify as transgendered are twice as likely to experience assault or discrimination as non-
transgendered individuals; they are also one and a half times more likely to experience intimidation (National Coalition
of Anti-Violence Programs 2010). Organizations such as the Canadian Professional Association for Transgender Health
(CPATH), Trans Pulse, and National Center for Trans Equality work to support and prevent, respond to, and end all types
of violence against transgendered, transsexual, and homosexual individuals. These organizations hope that by educating
the public about gender identity and empowering transgendered and transsexual individuals, this violence will end.

          The following are graphic organizers that would simply discuss some of the gender concepts and its distinction to
each other.

SEX

GENDER

Biological Characteristics ( including genetics, anatomy and physiology) that generally define humans as female or male. 

Socially Constructed set of roles and responsibilities associated with being girl and boy or women and men, and in some 
cultures a third or other gender.

Born with.

Not born with.

Natural.

Learned.

Universal, A- historical

No validation from culture to culture or time to time.

Gender roles vary greatly in different societies, cultures and historical periods as well as they depend also on socio- econ
omic factors, age, education, ethnicity and religion.

Cannot be changed, except with the medical treatment .

Although deeply rooted, gender roles can be changed over time, since social values and norms are not static.

Example: 

Only women can give birth. Only women can breastfeed.

Example:

The expectation of men to be economic providers of the family and for women to be caregivers is a gender norm in man
y cultural contexts.

Gender Equality and Equity

Gender Equity

The state or condition that affords women and men equal enjoyment of human rights, socially valued goods, opportuniti
es and resources, allowing both sexes the same opportunities and potential to contribute to, and benefit from, all spher
es from society ( economy, political, social and cultural)

Justice and fairness in the treatment of women and men in order to eventually achieve gender equality, often requestin
g differential treatment of women and men ( or specific measures) in order compensate for the historical and social disa
dvantages that prevent women and men from sharing a level playing field. 
Transgender: refers to those trans people who live permanently in their preferred gender, without necessarily needing
to undergo any medical intervention/s.

Transsexual: refers to people who identifies entirely with the gender role opposite to the sex assigned to at birth and
seeks to live permanently in the preferred gender role. Transsexual people might intend to undergo, are undergoing or
have undergone gender reassignment treatment (which may or may not involve hormone therapy or surgery).

The gender gap is the difference in any area between women and men in terms of their levels of participation, access to
resources, rights, power and influence, remuneration and benefits. Of particular relevance related to women’s work is
the “gender pay gap”, describing the difference between the average earnings of men and women (ILO, 2007).

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Gender socialization is the process by which males and females are informed about the norms and behaviours
associated with their sex.

Sociologists and other social scientists generally attribute many of the behavioral differences between genders to
socialization. Socialization is the process of transferring norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors to group members. The
most intense period of socialization is during childhood, when adults who are members of a particular cultural group
instruct young children on how to behave in order to comply with social norms. Gender is included in this process;
individuals are taught how to socially behave in accordance with their assigned gender, which is assigned at birth based
on their biological sex (for instance, male babies are given the gender of “boy”, while female babies are given the gender
of “girl”). Gender socialization is thus the process of educating and instructing males and females as to the norms,
behaviors, values, and beliefs of group membership.

              Preparations for gender socialization begin even before the birth of the child. One of the first questions people
ask of expectant parents is the sex of the child. This is the beginning of a social categorization process that continues
throughout life. Preparations for the birth often take the infant’s sex into consideration (e.g., painting the room blue if
the child is a boy, pink for a girl). Today it is largely believed that most gender differences are attributed to differences in
socialization, rather than genetic and biological factors.

            Gender stereotypes can be a result of gender socialization. Girls and boys are expected to act in certain ways, and
these ways are socialized from birth by many parents (and society). For example, girls are expected to be clean and
quiet, while boys are messy and loud. As children get older, gender stereotypes become more apparent in styles of dress
and choice of leisure activities. Boys and girls who do not conform to gender stereotypes are usually ostracized by same-
age peers for being different. This can lead to negative effects, such as lower self-esteem.

            In Western contexts, gender socialization operates as a binary, or a concept that is exclusively comprised of two
parts. In other words, individuals are socialized into conceiving of their gender as either masculine (male) or feminine
(female). Identities are therefore normatively constructed along this single parameter. However, some individuals do not
feel that they fall into the gender binary and they choose to question or challenge the male-masculine / female-feminine
binary. For example, individuals that identify as transgender feel that their gender identity does not match their
biological sex. Individuals that identify as genderqueer challenge classifications of masculine and feminine, and may
identify as somewhere other than male and female, in between male and female, a combination of male and female, or
a third (or forth, or fifth, etc.) gender altogether. These identities demonstrate the fluidity of gender, which is so
frequently thought to be biological and immutable. Gender fluidity also shows how gender norms are learned and either
accepted or rejected by the socialized individual.

 
Childhood and Adolescent Socialization

Childhood Socialization

Gender roles are taught from infancy through primary socialization, or the type of socialization that occurs in childhood
and adolescence.

Social norms pertaining to gender are developed through socialization, the lifelong process of inheriting, interpreting,
and disseminating norms, customs, and ideologies. The process of socialization continues throughout one’s life and is
constantly renegotiated, but socialization begins as soon as one is born. Sociologists divide socialization into two
different parts. Primary socialization takes place early in life, as a child and adolescent.

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Secondary socialization refers to the socialization that takes place throughout one’s life, both as a child and as one
encounters new groups that require additional socialization.

Gender is instilled through socialization immediately from birth. Consider the gender norms with which society imbues
infants: The most archetypal example is the notion that male babies like blue things while female babies like pink things.
When a boy gets a football for his birthday and a girl receives a doll, this also socializes children to accept gender norms.
The example set by an individual’s family is also important for socialization; children who grow up in a family with the
husband a breadwinner and the wife a homemaker will tend to accept this as the social norm, while those who grow up
in families with female breadwinners, single parents, or same-sex couples will develop different ideas of gender norms.

Because gender norms are perpetuated immediately upon birth, many sociologists study what happens when children
fail to adopt the expected gender norms rather than the norms themselves. This is the standard model of studying
deviance in order to understand the norm that undergirds the deviant activity. Children can resist gender norms by
insisting on dressing in clothing more typically associated with the other gender, playing with toys more typically
associated with the other gender, or having opposite-sex playmates.

Adolescent Socialization

Adolescence is a transitional stage of biological, cognitive and social development that prepares individuals for taking on
adult roles.

Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological human development. The period of adolescence is most
closely associated with the teenage years, although its physical, psychological and cultural expressions can begin earlier
and end later. In studying adolescent development, adolescence can be defined biologically as the physical transition
marked by the onset of puberty and the termination of physical growth; cognitively, as changes in the ability to think
abstractly and multi-dimensionally; and socially as a period of preparation for adult roles. Major pubertal and biological
changes include changes to the sex organs, height, weight and muscle mass, as well as major changes in brain structure
and organization. Cognitive advances encompass both increases in knowledge and the ability to think abstractly and to
reason more effectively. This is also a time when adolescents start to explore gender identity and sexuality in depth.

Identity Development
Identity development is a normative process of change in both the content and structure of one’s thoughts about the
self. Researchers have used three general approaches to understanding identity development: self-concept, sense of
identity and self-esteem.

Self-Concept

Early in adolescence, cognitive developments result in greater self-awareness, greater awareness of others and their
thoughts and judgments, the ability to think about abstract, future possibilities, and the ability to consider multiple
possibilities at once. While children define themselves with physical traits, adolescents define themselves based on their
values, thoughts and opinions. Adolescents can now conceptualize multiple “possible selves” they could become and
long-term possibilities and consequences of their choices. Exploring these possibilities may result in abrupt changes in
self-presentation as the adolescent chooses or rejects qualities and behaviors, trying to guide the actual self toward the
ideal self (who the adolescent wishes to be) and away from the feared self (who the adolescent does not want to be). In
terms of gender socialization, boys and girls start to gravitate toward traditional roles.

Sense of Identity

Unlike the conflicting aspects of self-concept, identity represents a coherent sense of self stable across circumstances
and including past experiences and future goals.

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Development psychologist Erik Erikson describes adolescence as the period during which individuals ponder the
questions: who am I and what can I be? As they make the transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescents ponder
the roles they will play in the adult world. Initially, they are apt to experience some role confusion—mixed ideas and
feelings about the specific ways in which they will fit into society—and may experiment with a variety of behaviors and
activities.

Self-Esteem

The final major aspect of identity formation is self-esteem, which is one’s thoughts and feelings about one’s self-concept
and identity. Contrary to popular belief, there is no empirical evidence for a significant drop in self-esteem over the
course of adolescence. “Barometric self-esteem” fluctuates rapidly and can cause severe distress and anxiety, but
baseline self-esteem remains highly stable across adolescence. The validity of global self-esteem scales has been
questioned, and many suggest that more specific scales might reveal more about the adolescent experience.

RELATIONSHIPS

Peers

Peer groups are especially important during adolescence, a period of development characterized by a dramatic increase
in time spent with peers and a decrease in adult supervision. Adolescents also associate with friends of the opposite sex
much more than in childhood and tend to identify with larger groups of peers based on shared characteristics. Peer
groups offer members the opportunity to develop various social skills like empathy, sharing and leadership.
 

Romance and Sexual Activity

Romantic relationships tend to increase in prevalence throughout adolescence. The typical duration of relationships
increases throughout the teenage years as well. This constant increase in the likelihood of a long-term relationship can
be explained by sexual maturation and the development of cognitive skills necessary to maintain a romantic bond,
although these skills are not strongly developed until late adolescence. Overall, positive romantic relationships among
adolescents can result in long-term benefits. High-quality romantic relationships are associated with higher commitment
in early adulthood and are positively associated with self-esteem, self-confidence and social competence.

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📎 GENDER+SOCIALIZATION.pptx

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Socialization helps people learn to function successfully in their social worlds. How does the process of socialization
occur? How do we learn to use the objects of our society’s material culture? How do we come to adopt the beliefs,
values, and norms that represent its nonmaterial culture? This learning takes place through interaction with various
agents of socialization, like peer groups and families, plus both formal and informal social institutions.

Agents of socialization are the sources from which we learn about society and ourselves. People and groups that
influence our self-concept, emotions, attitudes, and behavior are called agents of socialization. They are our socializers.
People who serve as socializing agents include family members, friends, neighbors, the police, the employers, teachers,
political leaders, business leaders, religious leaders, sports stars, and entertainers. Socialization agents also can be
fictional characters that we read about or see on television or in the movies.

Social Group Agents

Social groups often provide the first experiences of socialization. Families, and later peer groups, communicate
expectations and reinforce norms. People first learn to use the tangible objects of material culture in these settings, as
well as being introduced to the beliefs and values of society.

Every social experience we have affects us in at least a small way. However, several familiar settings have special
importance in the socialization process. Some of the important agents of socialization are the following:

1 The Family

The family has the greatest impact on socialization. Infants are totally dependent on others, and the responsibility to
look after the young ones typically falls on parents and other family members. It is a matter of child survival. There is an
automatic provision of learning situations to the young ones. Family begins the lifelong process of defining ourselves of
being male or female and the child learns the appropriate roles associated with his/her gender. Who we are? The
perceptions about ourselves and the family status are conferred on us. The class position of parents affects how they
raise their children. Class position shapes not just how much money parents have to spend, but what they expect of
their children. In the lower class there is lot of emphasis on conformity and obedience. The children are told "Don't get
into trouble." There is more use of physical punishment in lower class than in other classes. People of lower class
standing usually have limited education and perform routine jobs under close supervision. They expect their children will
hold similar positions, so they encourage obedience. Well-off parents, with more schooling, usually have jobs that
demand imagination and creativity. They try to inspire the same qualities in their children. Therefore in the middle class
there is emphasis on developing curiosity, self- expression, self-control, and reasoning.

2 The School

Schooling enlarges children's social world to include people with backgrounds different from their own. Among the
manifest functions, the schools teach children a wide range of knowledge and skills. Schools informally convey other
lessons, which might be called the hidden curriculum. Through different activities schools help in inculcating values of
patriotism, democracy, justice, honesty, and competition. Efforts are made to introduce correct attitudes about
economic system/political system.  

3 Peer Group

Peer group is the one whose members have interests, social position, and age in common. Unlike the family and the
school, the peer group lets children escape the direct supervision of adults. Among the peers, children learn how to form
relationships on their own. Peer groups also offer the chance to discuss interests that adults may not share with their
children (such as clothing or other activities).

In a rapidly changing society, peer groups have great influence on an individual. The attitudes of young and old may
differ because of a "generation gap.

" The importance of peer groups typically peaks during adolescence, when young people begin to break away from their
families and think of themselves as adults. Neighborhood and schools provide a variety of peer groups. Individuals tend
to view their own group in positive terms and to discredit others. People are also influenced by peer groups they would
like to join, a process sociologists call anticipatory socialization, learning that helps a person achieve a desired position.
In fact peer groups have a compelling influence on its members, whereby the individuals conform to group norms.

4 The Mass Media

The mass media as agents of socialization are impersonal communication aimed at a vast audience. Mass media arise as
communication technology (first the newspapers and then radio, television, films, and the Internet) spreads information
on a mass scale. The mass media have an enormous effect on our attitudes and behavior, and on shaping people's
opinions about issues as well as what they buy. Where television provides lot of entertainment, at the same time it is a
big agent of socialization. The portrayal of human characters in different programs and in advertisements on television
helps in projecting the gender perceptions prevalent in the society; thereby helping in gender construction. The same
programs help in shaping the attitudes, values, and basic orientation of people to life.

5 Religion

Religion as an agent of socialization plays significant role in the socialization of most of the people. It influences morality,
becoming a key component in people's ideas of right and wrong. The influence of religion extends to many areas of our
lives. For example participation in religious ceremonies not only teaches us beliefs about the hereafter but also ideas
about dress, concepts of pak and pleet, and manners appropriate for formal occasions.

6 Workplace

Just as children spend much of their day at school, many U.S. adults at some point invest a significant amount of time at
a place of employment. Although socialized into their culture since birth, workers require new socialization into a
workplace, in terms of both material culture (such as how to operate the copy machine) and nonmaterial culture (such
as whether it’s okay to speak directly to the boss or how to share the refrigerator).

7 Government

Although we do not think about it, many of the rites of passage people go through today are based on age norms
established by the government. To be defined as an “adult” usually means being eighteen years old, the age at which a
person becomes legally responsible for him- or herself. And sixty-five years old is the start of “old age” since most
people become eligible for senior benefits at that point.