FLAVOUR PERCEPTION

The Eating Experience

SMELL APPEARANCE TRIGEMINAL

EFFECTS

MOOD NOISE
ENVIRONMENT
AVERSION
TASTE

PREJUDICE
CULTURAL
APPETITE TEXTURE
CONDITIONING
FLAVOUR - ‘THE SCIENCE OF DELICIOUSNESS’

OUR CHEMICAL SENSES

FLAVOUR

GUSTATION OLFACTION TRIGEMINAL

EFFECTS
Complex inter-
Sweet
actions with
Sour Heat
thousands of
Bitter Astringency
volatile chemicals
Salty Cooling
creating the many
Umami Pungency
nuances of flavour
OUR CHEMICAL SENSES

OLFACTION
 Linking flavour perception and
flavour chemistry

Tasty
CHO
N CH3

CH N
3

CH3 O CH3

O
OLFACTION
 OLFACTION
 Odour molecules evaporate from the tongue, mouth and
throat during mastication and reach the olfactory eithelium
via the retro-nasal route.

 The odour molecules dissolve in the mucous membrane

coating the olfactory epithelium.

 Each odour molecule interacts with a number of cilia

creating a unique ‘bar code’ signal which is relayed to the
olfactory bulb where it is attenuated.

 From the olfactory bulb the signal passes to the olfactory

cortex where is interpreted by the brain.
 OLFACTION

 A total of 7,650 flavour chemicals have been identified in

650 food products. (Data published by TNO Nutrition and
Food Research Institute).

 2,504 flavour compounds are listed in the European

flavouring substances register as of January 2017.

 Approximately 2,200 flavour compounds are classified as

FEMA-GRAS under the US system.
‘TAKING NATURE TO PIECES’

 The identification of flavour chemicals in food products

depends on the development of two analytical techniques:
- gas chromatography
- mass spectrometry

 The combination of these two techniques linked to computer

control and data systems revolutionised our understanding of
flavour chemistry.

 Simultaneously, methods for the extraction of flavour

chemicals from food products also evolved.
 ‘TAKING NATURE TO PIECES’
Flavour Extraction Solvent Extraction
from Food Headspace Analysis
- SPME
- SPE
- SAFE

Separation of Flavour Gas Chromatography

Chemicals - flame ionisation
- specific detectors
- odour port assessment

Identification of Individual Mass Spectrometry

Flavour Chemicals - electron bombardment
- chemical ionisation
- tandem MS MS
‘FINDING THE NEEDLES IN THE
HAYSTACK’
 Pinpointing the flavour chemicals important to the flavour
of a foodstuff has its difficulties.

 Over 1,000 flavour chemicals found in coffee.

 700 compounds found in roast beef.

 Odour port sniffing to identify the key flavour chemicals.

 There are indications that in all food products, only a handful

of the complex mixture of volatiles occurring in food causes
the flavour.

 To identify the compounds influencing the flavour, techniques

such as aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA) have been
developed.
 THRESHOLD LEVELS OF FLAVOUR
CHEMICALS

 The threshold value is the lowest concentration at which an

individual flavour chemical can be detected.

 Threshold values of flavour chemicals vary enormously.

 High impact flavour chemicals are those compounds with an

odour threshold less than ten parts per billion.

 One of the lowest thresholds recorded is for a sulphur

chemical found in grapefruit at 0.00001 parts per billion.
CHARACTER IMPACT COMPOUNDS

 A character impact compound is a single chemical which

creates the key flavour character of a particular food.

 Without the character impact compound, it would be

very difficult to reproduce the flavour of the food.

 Some foods have more than one character impact compound.

 Other flavour chemicals present in food products act in unison

with the character impact compound(s) creating the recognised
flavour of the food and producing natural variation.
 3,7-Dimethyl-2,6-octadienal

O
2-5%

Lemongrass
65-85%

Lemon Myrtle
90–98%
 Menthol

OH

Character impact compound of peppermint

Produces trigeminal effect of cooling

One of the most important flavour chemicals

w ith extensive use in toothpastes, mints,
chew ing gum, antacids, medicines, cigarettes,
shampoos and shower gels.
WHAT A DIFFERENCE A CARBONYL MAKES

OCH3
OH

C HO

O C H3
OH
 Ethyl-2-methylbutyrate

A character impact compound of apples

In fresh apple juice, 2-methylbutyric acid predominates over

3-methylbutyric acid by a rario of 99:1. In ciders and apple
liqueurs the ratio is 80:20. Some of the character of fresh
apples is lost in processing.
trans-2, cis-6-nonadienal

K nown as cucumber aldehyde

Found in cucumber and violets

OH

The corresponding alcohol, known as cucumber

alcohol is also found in cucumber.

Both compounds are used in cucumber and

fruit flavours
 cis-3-hexenol

OH

Green aroma - occurs in grass and most fruits.

The main compounds causing ‘green-ness’ are cis-3-hexenol

and trans-2-hexenal.

These are called the ‘C6-wound compounds’ because they

are formed during tissue damage by oxidation of linoleic acid.
Hence the smell of freshly cut grass.

In fruit flavours the green notes are produced by the addition of

trans-2-hexenol, trans-2-hexenal, cis-3-hexenol and cis-3-hexenyl acetate.
 ɣ-Undecalactone

O O

A fruity peach character with a sweeet creamy backnote

Occurs in peach, apricot, blue cheese, butter, guava,

mango, strawberry, tea and wine.
 ɣ-Nonalactone

O O

C ream y cocon ut character.

Used i n cocon ut flavours and i n pop ular su nscreen

lotions.

It occurs i n cocon ut,peach, cooked pork, licorice,

m ushroom, tea, whisky, wi ne, asparagus, beer.
Carvone

(-) Carvone
Spearmint

( + ) Carvone

Caraway
OUR CHEMICAL SENSES

TRIGEMINAL
EFFECTS
 TRIGEMINAL EFFECTS
COMPOUND SENSATION ORIGIN
Capsiacin 0.06 ppm Heat Chillies

Piperine 10 ppm Heat Pepper

Shogoal 7 ppm Heat Ginger

Gingerol 17ppm Heat Ginger

Isothiocyanates Lachrymator/Heat Radish, Horseradish, Mustard, Wasabi

Menthol Cooling Peppermint

Polyphenols Astringency Tea, Fruits, Cider, Beer, Wine

Aliicin Lachrymator Onion

Eugenol Numbing Cloves

Sanshool Prickly heat, tingling Sanshoo (Szechuan) Peppers

 TRIGEMINAL EFFECTS
O
O N Piperine
O

O
H3C O N Capsaicin
H
HO
O OH
H3C O Gingerol
HO
O
H3C O
Shogoal
HO

N Sanshool
H

N Hydroxy Sanshool
HO H
OUR CHEMICAL SENSES

TASTE
THE SENSE OF TASTE
THE SENSE OF TASTE
 GUSTATION
• Water soluble, non-volatile chemicals
• 25% of flavour is tied up with taste

Sweet: Ensures consumption of sufficient sugar based calories.

Perceived on the tip of the tongue.
Salty: Maintenance of the proper sodium balance.
Front edges of the tongue.
Sour: Avoids damage from acids.
Rear edges of the tongue.
Bitter: Avoids toxic substances.
Across the back of the tongue.
Umami: Protein selection and the absorption of essential amino acids.
Centre and back of the tongue and into the throat
 TASTE CONTROLS
 Reflexes through which immediate action must be taken
- swallow or expel.

 Activates sympathetic reflexes which aid digestion

- secretion of gastric acid and insulin.

 Arouses pleasure and sustains eating.

 Initiates disgust and terminates eating.

 Forms an impression of the quality and intensity of the stimulus.

SWEETNESS
SWEET RECEPTORS
SWEET RECEPTORS
SOURNESS
 SOURNESS
E No. ACID OCCURRENCE

E330 Citric Acid Citrus Fruits

E296 Malic Acid Citrus Fruits
E334 Tartaric Acid Grapes
E270 Lactic Acid Cheese
E297 Fumaric Acid Vegetables
E363 Succinic Acid Mushrooms/Meat
E355 Adipic Acid Beetroot
- Isocitric Acid Blackberries
- Oxalic Acid Rhubarb
- Quinic Acid Cranberries
Natural World
Acids

Creating Savoury Flavours

BITTERNESS
 BITTERNESS
Bittering Natural Source Uses
Compound
Naringin Grapefruit -

Limonin Citrus Fruits -

Humulones Hops Beer

Quinine Cinchona Bark Soft Drinks and Mixers

Quassia Jamaican Bitterwood Alcoholic Drinks

Peptides Cheese Add character but at high

levels need to be avoided
SALTINESS
 SALTINESS
 Salt increases fullness and improves the flavour balance. The
flavour profile is smoother, fuller and perceived as being more
intense overall.

 Salt controls the ripening and firming of cheese and influences

the type of flavour components that develop with ageing.
It enhances the flavour of cheese at the correct level.

 Salt Substitutes: Salt enhancers include glutamate, L-arginine,

L-lysine, lysine hydrochloride, L-ornithine, ornithyl-B alanine,
potassium chloride, calcium chloride, lithium chloride, magnesium
chloride, ammonium chloride, calcium acetate, magnesium
sulphate and potassium sulphate.
UMAMI
 ‘UMAMI’
THE FIFTH TASTE SENSE
 ‘Umami’ = savoury, succulence, brothy.

 The taste imparted by the salts of glutamic acid and

5- ribonucleotides.
 The taste is common to meat, fish, shellfish, certain vegetables,
mushrooms and cheese.
 Miscellaneous Additives in Foods 1995
Monosodium glutamate E621
Disodium 5-inosinate (IMP) E631
Disodium 5-guanylate (GMP) E627
‘UMAMI’ – THE FIFTH TASTE SENSE

• In 1908 Professor Ikeda discovers Monosodium Glutamate in kombu

He founds a new company called ‘Essence of Taste or Aji-no-moto.
• Glutamate is found to occur in a wide range of foods;
Kelp (kombu) 2240mg/100g
Parmesan cheese 1400mg/100g
Tomato 250mg/100g
Walnuts 650mg/100g
Green Tea 670mg/100g
Potato 180mg/100g
Mackerel 36g/100g
Broccoli 115mg/100g
• It is estimated that we consume around 17g of glutamate in free and
bound form every day from a normal diet
‘UMAMI’ – THE FIFTH TASTE SENSE

• MSG is placed in the safest category for food additives by JECFA

(ADI not specified – i.e. can be consumed at any level)

• University of Miami, Nature 2000 – publication of the discovery of a

receptor on the human tongue that specifically responds to the glutamate ion.

• Glutamate represents a clash of cultures – consumed extensively in the

East but regarded as a dangerous food additive in the West. It is
on the Tesco additives ‘hit list’’ because it has the potential to impact
on brand reputation.
 FREE L-GLUTAMATE
IN FOODS
MEAT mg/100g VEGETABLE mg/100g
Beef 10 Cabbage 50
Pork 9 Tomato 250
Chicken 22 Onion 50
Potato 10
SEAFOOD
Scallop 140
MILK
Clam 40
Cow 1
Crab 70
Human 20
Shrimp 20
GLUTAMATE IN MILK – IMPORTANCE FOR PRIMATES

Free Glutamate in Milk

mg /100 g

Humans 21.6
Chimpanzees 38.9
Rhesus monkeys 4.6
Cows 1.9
Sheep 1.4
Mice 2.2

• The ‘umami’ taste receptor indicates the presence of protein

in the diet.
 THE STORY OF
TOMATO FLAVOUR AND
THE FAT DUCK
Heston Blumenthal, the celebrated chef, teamed up with
Professor Don Mottram of Reading University to find out
which part of a tomato is the tastiest.

Blumenthal, who owns the triple Michelin starred

restaurant, ‘The Fat Duck’ in Bray sources
ripened-on-the-vine tomatoes from Sicily, Morocco,
Spain and Italy.
Blumenthal was of the opinion that
the central core of the tomato has the most flavour.
Two research scientists working for Don Mottram,
Maria-Jose Oruna-Concha and Lisa Methven used
capillary electrophoresis and GCMS showed that tomatoes
contain a high concentration of glutamic acid which exits in the
plant in its salt form as well as the free acid.

They also used a sensory panel to demonstrate that Blumenthal was

right and that there is a significant difference in taste between
the central pulp of the tomato and the outer flesh

The central pulp contains much higher concentrations of glutamic acid

in eleven tomato varieties examined with overall mean concentrations
of 5900mg/kg in the pulp and 1410mg/kg in the flesh. An amazing
five fold difference.
One other interesting observation was the high concentration of the
amino acid, aspartic acid in both the flesh and the pulp which showed good
correlation with glutamic acid across all samples.

This amino acid has the ability to modulate the umami taste sensation
making it much more tomato-like in character.
‘UMAMI’ – THE RIBONUCLEOTIDES

In 1913 a student of Professor Ikeda,

Shintaro Kodama, discovers
Inosine 5’ monophosphate (IMP) in bonito flakes.

The third element of umami,

Guanosine 5’ monophosphate (GMP)
was found in dried shitake mushroom
in 1960 by Akira Kuninaka
FORMATION OF FLAVOUR PRECURSORS AND
FLAVOUR ENHANCERS IN SAVOURY FOODS
Cytidine-5’-monophosphate CMP

ATP
Uridine-5’- monophosphate UMP
RNA
Adenosine-5’-monophosphate AMP ADP

Guanosine-5’- monophosphate GMP

3’-Ribonucleotides
 RIBONUCLEOTIDES
O
O

N
NH N
NH

N NH2 ONa
N N
N NH2
O P O
HO
O
O
OH
H H
H H
H H H H
O H OH H

O P OH-

ONa- 3’ Ribonucleotides 5’ Ribonucleotides

NH2 OH
N N N N
P OH2C N N H P OH2C N N H
O O
H H H H
H H H H
HO OH HO OH

IMP
AMP
UMAMI FLAVOUR COMPOUNDS OCCURRING
IN FOOD (mg/100g)

IMP GMP GLUTAMATE

Beef 100 4 10
Pork 200 2 9
Chicken 200 5 22
Tomato - - 250
Shiitake - 150 10
Mushrooms
 THRESHOLDS
IMP 25 - 120 ppm
GMP 12 - 35 ppm
MSG 100 - 300 ppm
IMP + GMP (50% mix) 60 ppm

Typical usage Levels

MSG 0.1 - 0.6%

IMP 0.002 - 0.01%
GMP 0.001 - 0.007%
 SYNERGY
MSG IMP ACTIVITY EQUIVALENT
1 0 1
1 1 7.5
2 1 5.5
10 1 3.4
100 1 2.0

MSG GMP ACTIVITY EQUIVALENT

1 0 1
1 1 30
2 1 22
10 1 19
100 1 5.5
 SYNERGY
THE AMPLIFICATION OF THE DELICIOUSNESS
OF FOOD
In Japanese cuisine they have learnt combine foods and ingredients that contain
the elements of Umami to create synergy.

The glutamate element of some foods and the ribonucleotide element of other
foods produce synergy and enhance the flavour of a dish.

It is common knowledge in Japan that the combination of kombu (seaweed -

glutamate) with bonito (ribonucleotides) makes a tastier soup.

+ =
Kombu (MSG) Bonito (IMP) Dashi
KOKUMI
 What is Kokumi?
Kokumi is a well recognised taste phenomena in Japan
According to Ajinomoto the word ‘kokumi’ is difficult to translate
but contributes to the deliciousness of a food’

Fullness and continuity

KOKUMI Punch and long lasting

Roundness
“5 Basic Tastes”

Sensory taste in “Heat”

savoury flavours

“Astringency”

“Kokumi”
AJINOMOTO WEBSITE EXPLANATION OF KOKUMI

•Well-cooked, matured
•Home-made taste
•Consommé, Goulash

•Enhancement in spicy note

•Rich vegetable taste
•Vegetable soup, tomato soup

•Balanced tastes
•Fermented tastes
•Balsamic vinegar, cheese
 KOKUMI – A NEW CONCEPT IN TASTE?
Hofmann, et. al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 2009, 57, 1440-1448

Gamma-glutamyl peptides found in Gouda cheese induce a kokumi effect

A 44-week matured Gouda cheese had a more pronounced ‘mouthfullness’

and long lasting taste complexity than a 4-week matured Gouda cheese.

HPLC/Mass Spectrometry found 8 alpha-1-glutamyl and 10 gamma-1-glutamyl

Dipeptides. The gamma peptides were found to be ‘active’ kokumi inducers
whereas the alpha did not impart the kokumi sensation.

The peptides which were found to be kokumi inducers were gamma-Glu-Glu,

gamma-Glu-Gly, gamma—Glu-Gln, gamma-Glu-Leu and gamma-Glu-His
KOKUMI – A NEW CONCEPT IN TASTE?

H2N

Glutamic Acid
HOOC COOH

H2N

HNOC COOH Alpha-Glu-Gly

COOH

H2N COOH
Gamma-Glu-Gly
HOOC CONH
KOKUMI – A NEW CONCEPT IN TASTE
Summary:

The Kokumi sensation is induced by peptides.

They can be formed by enzyme hydrolysis, by cooking and by

specific enzymatic processes.

They are present in a wide range of food products.

They can be very simple - such as dipeptides.

Gamma glutamyl dipeptides are effective kokumi inducers.

Other molecules inducing kokumi have been discovered.

They appear to be effective at very low dose levels.

THE FLAVOUR
BRAIN
• Human interface
– allows normal
eating and drinking

• Orthonasal “sniff”
– initial flavour
signal

• Retronasal route
– swallowing pushes
volatiles into nose
 Example of flavour monitoring
120 120
Normalised sucrose and

100 100

Perceived Intensity
menthone release

80 80

60 60
0
40 Sucrose Release 40
Menthone Release
20 Time-Intensity 20

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (min)
 THE LIMBIC LINK
 The olfactory bulb is linked to the olfactory cortex which is
part of the limbic system.

 The ‘smell brain’ is linked into important centres in the limbic

system:
Olfactory Cortex - appetite, hunger and satiety
Hippocampus - memory
Amygdala - fear, mood, emotions

 Taste is not independent of smell. There is a bimodal link that

influences the perception and intensity of aroma chemicals

 The limbic system is increasingly being recognised to be

crucial in determining and regulating emotions.
 THE FLAVOUR BRAIN

APPETITE
OLFACTORY
CORTEX FEAR/EMOTION
MEMORY

AMYGDALA
HIPPOCAMPUS ENJOYMENT
OF
HYPOTHALAMUS
EATING

OLFACTION
CHEMICAL SIGNALS
FROM FOOD

GUSTATION TASTE APPETITE

CORTEX
ACCEPT HINDBRAIN
SECRETION OF REJECT
INSULIN AND
GASTRIC ACID NAUSEA

GUT
So what is flavour?