A N E LE MEN TA RY T RE A T I S E ON

C U RV E TR AC I N G
 M A C M I LLA N A N D C O .
, LI M DIT E

L ND N B M $ Y C LC
O O 1 O A A UT T A M DR S
A A
MEL B RNE OU

T HE M A C M I L L A N C O M PA N Y
N EW Y OR " BO ST O N C H C G O I A
D LL S
A A S A N F A NC S C O
R I

T HE MA C MI LL A N CO . O F C A NA DA LT D .

T ORO N TO
A N E LE M E N T A R Y T R E A T I S E

ON

CURVE T R A C I N G

P E R C I V A L F R O ST , S c D . .
, F R S
. . .

FELLO W OF " I NG S C LLEG

'
O E

FORM E RLY F E LLO W “

OF S T .
J H N S C LLEGE C M BR DG
O
'
O , A I E

F O UR T H E D I TI ON

RE V I S ED BY

R .
J . T . B E LL, M A . .
, D Sc. .

LEC UR R
T E IN M H EM
AT AT I CS UN V ERS Y
, I IT OF GL SG
A OW

M A C M I LL A N A N D C O .
, LIM I TE D
ST . MA R T I N S S T R E E T ’

, L O ND O N
 COP YRI G HT .

E diti
Fir s t on p rin ted 1 8 7 2 .

S d Editi
econ on 1 892 .

Thi d E d iti
r on 1 91 1
th E diti
.

F ou r on 1 91 8 .

G L AS G OW : P R I N T E D T T HE U N I ERS I T Y P RESS
A V

BY R OB ER T M C LE HO S E ND C O LT D
A A . .
 P R EF A CE

I DO not much like the ide a Of writing pre face but I a ,

feel my self obliged to s y a few words on the p ublic tiona a

of wh t I h ave called a tre atise the term being very likely

a ,

a misnomer .

A lthough my s bject is C u rve tracing an d not C urves I

u -
,

am w re that some complete br nches Of this a t a e not

a a a r r

all ded to at all

u .

The student might e x pect in treatise upon this subject , a ,

to find methods of drawing Pol ar C urves R olling C rves , u ,

Loci Of E q u ations in Triline ar C oordin ates an d Intrinsic

-
,

E qu ations ; he might lso e x pect to find interesting G eo

a

metrica l Loci discussed ; these and m any other things ,

immedi tely connected with the tr cing of curves h ve

a a , a

been deliberately omitted for re sons which I conside ,

a r

good .

A tre atise if I had ventu red upon it t all comp ar able

, ,
a

in e xh a stive qu alities with the e xcellent one of S almon on

u

C rves Of H igher Orders would h ave dem nded on the

u ,
a ,

p ar t of the st dent fa more e x tensive re ading th an I s p

u ,
r u

pose him to possess ; s ch tre atise would h ve required n

0
u a a a

adv a nced knowledge of Di fferenti al and Integral C lcul us a ,

of H igher A lgebraic l processes which do not appear in

a

element ry treatises on A lgebra and Of the science f pro

a , O

j ectio ns to u nderstand which involves a f amili rity with

,
a

S olid G eome try bey ond the st nd rd to which I h a ve

,
a a

supposed the st dent to h ave ttained u a .

My re aders must not be dis appointed if they do not meet .

with n historical survey Of the rese arches which h av e

a
 PREF A CE
b een m ade in Old times on m odes Of gen e at
'

e ti s O f p artic l r c rves ; an d in modern

r e u a u
p
sing l arities Of c u rves ;
u

irrelev nt to the Obj ect which I h ve proposed to m y self

a a .

I acknowledge m y self nevertheless indebted to m an y , ,

of those Old m them tici ns for ide as nd especi ally toa a a ,

a

C ra mer for m an y c rves which I h ve employ ed in ill s

,
u a u

t ating p o in t 0n which I h ve been eng ged

r s a a .

0
In c tting Off s o m n y vital p r ts of a complete treatise
u a a ,

I h ve to shew th at I do not f ll to the ground b y s awing

a a

on the wrong side the br nch on which I am sitting ; I a

sh ll therefore ex pl in in s few words as I can the Objects

a a ,
a ,

which I h ave h d in view in m y work s it st nds a a a .

In order to m ke ny r apid progress in fter y e rs in a a ,

a a ,

all the diffic lt subjects to which m athem atic al a n l sis is

u a
y
a pplied it is bsol tely necess ry th at b y some me ns or
, a u a ,
a

o ther a st dent should as e arly s possible m ake himself

,
u , a ,
.

famili r with ll the ordin ry instruments Of his tr de

a a a a ,

s ch as he h ndles when he studies Al gebr a Trigonometry

u a , ,

a n d Al gebr ic l G eometr hi t
a stes m ac arr him with
y ; s ay y a

greater impet s in one direction th n no ther but he should

u a a ,

remember th at it is necess ry to be strong ll round an d a a ,

even g inst the grain he sho ld use e fforts to avoid h ving

a a u a

weak points .

H e must pr ctise himself while he is y oung an d his mind

a ,

fl e x ible in ll sorts f n l y tic l processes and geometric a l

,
a O a a a

a tifi ces
r The solution Of great number Of eq ations
. a u
'

m y be looked pon a s one Of the best e x ercises O f one sort

a u

Of f c lties an d f mili rit

a u with the B inomi l Theorem
a nd a
y , a a

cogn te subjects s essenti l s ch as approxim ation to roots

a a a , u ,

e xpansion Of a v riety Of f nctions in A lgebra nd Tri a u a

g o n o m et
y reversion O f series etc
r , cc r te numeric al , .
,
a u a

c lc l ations not being voided

a u a .

I h ave reason to think th at this kind Of prelimin ary pre

p ar
a tio n for the study Of the higher br nches O f m them tics a a a

ha been much neglecte d in l ter e rs n d I am fortified

s a
y a , a

in this opinion b y Observations m ade b y E x miners f the a O

 PREF A CE
greatest e xperience who compl ain both Of a want Of power
,

O f work n d O f a w nt O f individ
a lity in the m nner in
a ua a

which particul ar problems att cked ; this the y attrib te are a u

to defective e arly training and the omission O f that practice

which I h ave described s necess ary a .

Whether this practice has been neglected principally in

c nsequen ce Of the tempt tion to p u sh forward to certain
o a

physic al subj ects which h ve been recommended for the use

,
a

O f schools I c nnot y ; b t I h ve no dO b t th t the

,
a sa u a u a

feeling of dignity acq u ired b y entering upon the field Of

the Physical S cie nces h s en ticed m ny a st dent from a a a u

course which if pursu ed wo ld h ave en bled him to do

, , u a

in few weeks wh t it has t ak en him m any months to

a a

pu le over
zz .

If there is time for a st dent not only to ttend to the u a

d y work Of polishing b t also to m ake himself acq ainted

r ,
u u

wi th a little Mech anics an d Hy drostatics he sho ld b y all ,

u

means do s o ; b t every one who has e xamined in public

u

schools knows how little time there is for the st dy Of u

Mathem atics and how sensible the m them atic al m asters

,
a

ar e O f the ins ffi cienc O f this

u time Looking therefore
y .
, ,

upon the total amou nt of energy as ne rl y const nt I sho ld a a ,

u

h ave no hesit tion in reserving for some f tu re time the

a u

st dy O f the Phy sic l S ciences which will n ot eventu ally

u a ,

su ffer ; where s to ttempt fter a certain ge to acqu ire

a ,
a a a

e se in m them tic l Oper ations is like grown m an try ing

a a a a a

to learn the violin .

H aving then a distinct feeling Of the absolute necessity

, ,

O f developing skill an d power—I wi ll not ad d c nning u

a n d at the s me time being perfectl

, a
y sensible in wh a t d y
, r

pl ces the poor spirit Of a student has been condemned to

a

w nder in the perform ance of his duty I h a ve selected the

a ,

s bject Of th is work in order to relieve him in the dull

u

work involved in his prep r tion for climbing heights b y a a ,

t king him long a very ple as n t p th on which he m ay

a a a a ,

e xercise in n gree able w y all his m them atic al limbs

a a a a ,

a n d if he keeps his e es Open m a see a v riet O f things

, y y y ,
a
 PREF A CE
which it will be useful to h ave Observed when his real work
begins .

F or the subj ect which I have chosen with this Object in

,

view presents s o m an y faces pointing in directions tow rds

, ,
a

which the m ind Of the intended m athem tici an has to a

r diate th at it would be diffi cult to find nother w hich

a ,
a ,

with a very limited e x tent Of re ding combines to the sam e a , ,

extent so m any v lu able hints Of methods Of c lc l ations

,
a a u

to be employed hereaft er with s o m ch pleasure in its ,

u

present s e u .

F or e x ample the subject Of G r phic al C alcul ations is

'

,
a

coming more into use every d y nd is applied with s u ccess a ,

a

to m any diffi cult proble ms in S tatics Engineering nd , ,

a

C ry st allography ; hints Of this the st dent will fi nd in the u

practic l sol tion Of divers eq u ations and in the determin a

a u

tion Of the number Of their real roots which are Obtained ,

b y gr phic l methods with gre at facili ty

a a .

A g in the methods O f succes sive appro x im ations which

a ,

are employ ed in Optics n d A stronom y a e illustr ted in a r a

the pro e ss Of finding symptotes n d pprox im ations to

c a a a

the forms Of curves at finite dis tance a .

The comparison Of l rge nd sm ll q ntities Of different a a a ua

orders Of m gnit de contains the st ple of m ny Of the

a u a a

most import nt pplic ations Of M them atic l A n aly sis the

a a a a

Lu n ar an d P l net ry Theories depending almost entirely

a a

upon s u ch considerations Of rel tive m gnit de a a u .

T he h abit Of looking tow a rds an infinite dist nce nd a ,

a

discussing wh t t kes pl ace there will render less st rtling

a a , a

a m ltitude O f conceptions h aving in them

u tendency to a

prod ce feeling Of v g eness su ch for instance s the

u a a u , , ,
a

tre atment Of the mech anic al e ffect Of a co ple s s ynony u a

mo s with th at Of n infinitely sm ll force acting t an

u a a a

infinitely gre t dist nce a a .

A s n import nt point I wo ld mention the tent ative

a a , u

ch racter of the inverse problem in which the form Of a

a -

c rve being given its eq tion is investig ted the kind of

u , ua a

u ncert inty which will rem in on the mind on account Of

a a
 PREF A CE
defective estim ation Of m gnitu des ; and the necessity Of a a

selection O f wh at m ay appe ar the best Of m n y possibl e a

solutions ; ll this will prep are the student for the dis
a

appointment which h a ving perh aps wrong notion Of wh at

,
a .

is meant ics an ex act science he will ,

feel in iet Of theories b y which it is ttempted to a

re co nc results Of e xperiment in such subjects as

He t
a ,
E lectricity an d Molecul ar action ge ner lly ; , a

for n instance Of this I m ay refer to the battle Of philo

a

sophers bo t the direction Of vibration of the ether in

a u

P l ne P ol ri tion
a a za .

The very ncertainty which e xists in these s bjects th

u u ,
e

necess ry b al ancing Of evidence an d the diffic lty Of m king

a ,
u a

up the m ind as to wh at is to b e believed pl ace s ch s bjects ,

u u ,

in the Opinion of one at le st O f o gre test philosophers a ur a ,

among the b st for the tr ining O f the i n

e tellect a .

Looked pon as speci l prep aration for a speci al subj ect

u a a ,

I hope th t m y tre tise m y be considered usef l in h ving

a a a u a

given clear ideas when the st dent enters upon the syste
,
u

m atic treatment Of the properties Of c u rves ; especi all y

since the cl assification Of c rves a ccording to degrees nd u a

the subdivision Of curves of the s me degree into spec es is a i .

now being t aken in h and b y some eminent m them atici ans a .

With regard to the rejection Of methods s pplied b y th u e

Differenti l C alc u lus I m y Observe th t since the eq tions

a , a a ua

whose loci a e investigated a e r ation al eq ations n d never

r r u , a

rise to high degree little wo ld h ave been g ined b y the

a , u a

employment Of s ch methods since the B inomi al Theorem

u ,

is suffi cient for all m y purposes an d as re dy in its applic a ,

a

tion ; independently Of the consider tion th at I suppose a

m yself to be instructing a stu dent whose reading has been

confined to very n rrow limits a .

A s to the l ast ch apter on Inverse Methods I tr st th at it u

will be looked upon s only a sketch I h ve no doubt th t a . a a

the su bject Of it is cap able Of consider ble perfection nd I a , a

sh ll be gl ad to h ave commenced however defectivel y o

a , ,
s

instr ctive a st dy
u u .
 PR E FA CE
s ave the st dent tro ble I m y Observe th at I h ave
TO u u a

u sed s s fficientl y ne r appro x im tion s in es tim ting their

,
a u a a a

v al es u , /6 = J I O 5 ; nd
N
1 1 a ,

with iew to the gr phic l sol tion Of eq tions I sho ld

a V a a u ua ,
u

a dvi e him to pra ctise himself in dr wing a good p ar bol a

s a a

a nd in tr cing re dil y the h y perbol

a from the equ ation a a

x y = a x + by + for a v riety Of v l es Of a b c a a u , ,
c .

I m ay mention here th t I h ve sed the sy mbol (0L 3 ) a a u

‘
,

for a point whose coordin tes e 0L n d B nd inste ad Of a ar a a

spe king f
a rve a the loc s f the eq tion f ( 9c y) O
O a cu s u O ua , , ,
’

O r as represented b y the eq tion I h ve c lled it simply ua ,

’
a a

the c rve f ( y ) 0
u oc, : .

F or Obvious re sons I h ve represented the fraction

b y a /b ,
‘
lso is sed for is eq iv len t to
a
a
2 u
a

u a .
’

In concluding this preface or pology I desire to s ay , a ,

th t I h ave re d with m ch dv nt ge some notes on

a a ,
u a a a ,

N ew ton s enunci ation O f Lines O f the Third Order b y

’

C R M T lbot ; n d th t I am indebted for some v l ble

. . . a a a a ua

hints to the l te Professor C li fford ; b t especi lly I must

a u ,
a ,

a cknowledge m self in the highest degree indebted to two

y
gen tlemen M H G S eth S mith n d M G L R ives Of
,
r . . . a r . . .
,

Trinity C ollege for their e x treme kindness in g rding me

,
ua

a gainst errors when I w prep ring m y firs t edition The

,
as a .

n t re Of the subj ect rendered it e x tremely di ffi c lt to void

a u u a

mist kes ; n d l tho gh very gre t p ins h ve been taken to

a a , a u a a a

give correct d r wings of the l rge n mber O f c rves which

a a u u

h ve been disc u ssed I am w are th at in this edition there

a , a

is s till m h th t i pen to ens re

uc a s O c u .

C M B R DGE
A I ,
J a nu a ry , 1 89 2 .
 PREFA C E T O RE V I S E D E DI T I ON

T HE present edition f F rost s Cu v e T a cing does n ot differ

O
’
r r

from previous editions e x cept in pl aces where alterations

were necess ry to remove mbig ities or to correct mist kes
a a u a .

NO e ffort h s been sp ared to detect errors in the an ly sis s

a a a

well as in the di agr ms an d it is hoped th at this edi tion

a ,

will be found to be comp ar tivel y free from in c racies a ac u .

In the forty fi v e y ears th t h ve el apsed since the book

-
a a

was first p blished gr phic l work h s t ken an incre asingl y

u ,
a a a a

prominent pl ce in m them tic l instr ction ; o th t to the

a a a a u s a

modern st dent few p rts f the work m y appear to be

u a a O a

very elementary The re der Of moder te m them tic l

. a
'

a a a a

a tt ainments will however a lw y s find in its per s l m ch

, ,
a u a u

th t is interesting n d instr ctive while there is no other

a a u ,

book th t cont ins in s ch comp ct form the detailed

a a u a

d isc ssion an d the di agr ms f s o m ny be tif l c rves

u a O a au u u .

T O f acilitate the s O f the vol me work Of efe n ce

u e u as a . r re ,

a cl assified list O f the curves n d n inde x h a ve been a dded a a .

R J T B . . . .

G L SG W N mb 1 9 1 7
A O , ove er, .
 C ON T EN T S

C HA PT ER I .

N R DUC RY H E REMS DE F N NS
I T O TO T O . I I TI O . T R C NG
A I B Y P OI NS
T .

S MME R Y Y T
RTS
.

3—
.

4 Th ms f w ki ge ore or or n

5 D fi i ti s e n on

6 C v s t d b y p i ts
ur e rac e o n

7 Symm t y e r

E mp l s 1 xa e .

C H A P T ER I I .

O RD RS SM LL Q U N ES F RMS P R B L C CURV ES NE R
E OF A A T I TI . O OF A A O I A T HE

R G N CUSPS O NGEN S CURV ES CURV URE

I I . . TA T TO . AT .

O d s f s m ll q
r ti ti s er o a u an e

St d ds f v ishi g q ti ti s
an ar O an n u an e

G p hi st ti f p b li
ra vs
c co n ru c on O ara o c cu r e

T i g fy rac n th i gi O
m z cx
”
n e ar e or n

Sh p t y p i t a e a an o n

E mp l f p i t f i fl i
xa e O a o n o n ex on

A lg b i l p s t ti e f sp
ra c a re re e n a on o a cu
T g t t uvan en o a c r e

M s f vt ea u re O cu r a u re

Ci l f v t rc e o cu r a u re

Ex mp l s 1 1 a e .

C H A PT E R I I I .

FORMS P R B L C CURV ES
OF A AN F N E D S NCE E MPLES
O I AT AN I I IT I TA . XA OF

R C NG CURV E
T A I R G N ME R C L CURV ES L US R NS
S . T I O O T I A . I L T A TI O OF

H E RY
T E Q U NS RULES
O OF PPR M T N AT I O . F OR A OX I A IO .

2 6—
28 F ms f p b li v s t g t dist f m th i gi
or o ara o c cu r e a a rea an ce ro e or n 20
29 31-
E mp l s f fi di g t g t t
xa ev wh it is p ll l
o n n a an en o a cu r e, e re ara e

t is d th p si ti n f p i t f i fl i
o an ax ,
an e o o o a o n O n ex on
 CON T ENT S
P AGE

E xa mp e ls Of t rac i ng c u r e v si n wh c h y i can be e xp re ss de

te r ms o f a: e xp li i tl y
c

C v s p s ti g h g s f t ig m t i l f
ur e re re e n n c an e O r o e r ca u nct on i s
I ll s t ti s f h y f q ti s
u ra on O t eo r o e ua on

C di ti
on f p i t f i fl i
on or a o n O n ex on

G p hi s l ti
ra f q ti s
c o u on O e ua on

W ki g f m l f
or n pp i m ti
or u ae or a ro x a on

I ll s t ti s f m th ds f pp i m t i
u ra on O e o o a ro x a on

Ex mp l s I I I a e .

C H A PT E R I V .

FO RMS CURV ES
OF IN T H NE G HB UR H D
E IH R G N S MPL O OO OF T E O I I . I E

NGEN S D REC
TA T . I TI O N M UN CUR V URE MUL PLE P N S
AN D A O T OF AT . TI OI T

OFW B R NC H S
T O A E . CUR V URE B R NC H ES MUL PLE P N S
AT OF A AT TI OI T .

MUL PLE P N S
TI OI T OF H G H ER RDERS
I O .

54 F ms f v or O cu r e s h
n e ar tigi e or n

5 5—57 S i mp l t g t e an en

5 8— 60 62 C i
,
f vt on c o cu r a u re

60 6 1
, C i l d di m t rc e a n a e er o f cu r a t u re v
63 E mp l s f v t xa e O cu r a u re

64 T an ge n t t o u1 + u 1 v1 +us+ =0
66 T angen t t o m u t p s li l e po i ts
n Of t wo b ran c he s
67—
69 F o rm o f vl wl + u 3 + 0
70 7 1
, v l wl —
i —
i -
u4 0
72 , 73
7 4 75
, v1
?
w, 0
76, 77 v1
2
ti u4 +
—O
l
+ w,
2 "
7 8 , 79 121

80, 81 C vtur a u re O f sat m l t i p l p i ts

b ran che u e o n

82 , 8 3 M l ti p l
u e po i ts f hi gh d s
n O er o r er

E mp l s I V xa e .

C H A PT E R V .

F RMS B R NC H ES W H SE NGEN S
O OF A H RGN '

O TA T AT T E O I I A R E T HE

C RD N E ES OO I AT AX .

84 88 F m s wh ord y f d iff t d s f m g it d
en x an a re o e re n or er O a n u e

89 T t t iv m t h dsen a e e o

90 R l s f j t i g t ms
u e o r re e c n er

91 W k d mp l s or e e xa e

E mp l s V xa e .
 CON T EN T S
C H A P T ER VI .

A SY MP TES P N S
TO . N ERSEC NOI T N F N E D S NCE
OF I T TI O AT AN I I IT I TA .

S Y MP ES P R LLEL A H T OTES A A TO T E AX .

R tili
ec d vili
n e ar an symp t t s cu r n ear a o e

I t s ti f v s wi th th i symp t t s
n er e c on O cu r e e r a o e

C mp i
o f si g l
ar s o n O sy m p t t s wi th t g ts t p i ts
n u ar a o e an en a o n

fi fi io d m l ti p l p i ts t
n e x o n an fi i t dis t u e o n a a n e anc e

W k d or mp l
e e xa e

D t mi t i f symp t t s b y p i ts f i t s ti t
e er na on O a o e o n O n er e c on a

i fi i t d is t
an n n e an c e

W k d or mpl s
e e xa e

M th d b y p p
e o i m ti a ro x a on

C s s f l i fi it
a e O or a o ne n n e

S id whi h th v li s
e on c e cu r e e

V i ti s i th d t m i ti f symp t t s whi h
ar e e n e e er na on o a o e c are

p ll l t th s
ara e o e a xe

E m p l s f s y mp t t s
xa e O a o e

E mp l s V I xa e .

CH A PT ER V I I .

A S Y MP T OT ES N OTP R LLEL A H A ES S Y MP ES H M GENE US

TO T E AX . A T OT TO O O O

a CURV ES .

S i mpl mp l s f s y m p t t s
e e xa t p ell l t th
O sa o e no ara e o e a xe

Ill st ti b y m l ti p l p i ts t fi i t dist
u ra on u e o n a a n e an ce

Ge ne ra l s t t m t f th m th d f fi di g b y pp im
a e en O e e o o n n a ro x a

ti th s
on sym p t s whi h
o e t p
a ll l t i th to e c are no ara e o e er

s
a xi

S id whi h th v li s
e on c e cu r e e

C s f p b li sym p t t
a e O a ara o c a o e

I v s ti g ti f p p p b li symp t t
n e a on O a ro er a ra o c a o e

E mp l s f p b li symp t t s
xa e O ara o c a o e

P ll l tili
ara e sy m p t t s
re c n ear a o e

Di t m th d f p si
re c e o O ex an on

Ob s v ti s
er a l ti g t th sid whi h th v li s
on re a n o e e on c e cu r e e

H m g
o o s v s d th i symp t t s
en eo u cu r e an e r a o e

E xamp les V I I .

C H A PT E R VIII .

CURV L NE R S Y MP ES I I A A T OT .

1 36 —
1 38 I fi i t b h s wh
n n e d y
ranc t f th s
e en a: an are no o e am e o r d er Of

m g it d a n u e

E mp l s V I I I xa e .
 C ON T EN T S
C HA PT ER I X .

H
T N LY C L R NGLE PR PER ES
E A A TI H A N LY C L
T IA . O TI OF T E A A TI A

NGLE TR I A
RT S
.

s p ll l g m d D G s t i gl
.

140 — 1 4 3 N wt e on
’
ara e o ra an e ua
’
r an e

1 44 M di fi d f m i whi h t h t i gl is m p l y d i this
o e or n c e r an e e o e n
w k or

1 45 — 1 47 S t t m t d p
a e f f p p ti s f th t i gl
en an ro o o ro er e O e r an e

1 48 E mp l s f th
xa f th t i gl e O e u se o e r an e

E mp l s IX xa e .

CH A PT ER X .

S NGUL R P N S D V S N N C MP R MEN S SPEC L CURV E

I A OI T . I I IO I TO O A T T . IA OF

H F R H DEGREE T E OU T .

Dg ti e f v s f h f my
e ne ra on O cu r e O t e or
mz
cx
n

G l di ti s f si g l p i ts
e ne ra co n on or n u ar o n

E mp l s f si g l p i ts
xa e O n u ar o n

A ssis t d iv d f m m p tm ts
an ce er e ro co ar en

M th ds f d t ti g is l t d p ti s f
e o v O e ec n o a e or on O a cu r e

Symm t i l v f th f th d g
e r caf cu r e O e ou r e re e O

Exam p le sX .

C HA P T ER X I .

S Y S EM C R C NG CURV ES REPE NG C R V ES
T ATI T A I OF . ATI U .

1 94 R l s f s ys t m t i t i g
u e or e a c rac n

1 9 5 —1 9 7 W k d or mp l s e e xa e

1 99 - 2 02 Cl ss f p ti g v s
a O re ea n cu r e

E mp l s X I xa e .

C H A PT ER X I I .

N V RSE PR CESS DE ERM N N

I E O H EQ U N. T I ATI O OF T E A TI O OF A

G V E CURV E I N .

2 1 0 2 1 2 Difii lti f th i v s p
cu ss es O e n er e ro ce

2 13— 2 15 F i s t s t ps t w ds t h s l ti f th p b l m
r e o ar e o u on o e ro e

2 1 7—2 2 2 M th d f m ki g
. e o f th ly ti l t i gl
O a n u se O e an a ca r an e

223 U f th l f sig s
se O e ru e o n

225 E mp l s f xa f l f si g s e O u se O ru e O n

2 26 2 3 1 U
-
f p ti l
se o v s d mp tm ts ar a cu r e an co ar en

E mp l s X I I xa e .

C L SS F ED L S
A H C RV ES D SCUSSE
I I I T OF T E U I D

I ND E x
 I N T R OD U C T OR Y T HE OR E M S
’

a ttempt to do for curves O f higher degrees wh at has been

done so completely for c rves Of the second degree u

H e will for e xample find himself better able to appreci ate

, ,

th ill str tions which e u sed to m ake cle r m ny theorems

e u a ar a a

O f the D i fferen ti l C lcul s Theory O f E q tions etc ; he

a a u ,
ua ,
.

will ha ve de finite ide as O f the rel ative m gnitudes Of sm ll a a

q u antities n d Of infinitely gre t q u ntities nd especi ally

,
a a a : a

he will become skilled in m aking correct pprox im ations a

to the v alues O f q ntities which c nnot be found e xactly ua a ,

to ny degree Of acc r cy which m y be requ ired

a u a a .

A n d at the s me time I hope th t he will h ve m h

,
a ,
a a uc

to interest him in the gre t v ariety which this pplic tion of a a a

A lgebr to G eometry will Open o t to him

a u .

INT R ODUCT ORY T H EORE MS .

3 In order to prevent interr ption in the course O f the

. u

work s m ch as possible I sh all c all attention to a few

a u ,

propositions with which some f m y re aders m ay not be O

famili ar .

( 1 ) If 0L 8 be the n v alues re al or im agin ry c lled

, , ,
a , a

roots which m ake f ( x) ny r tion l or integr l function

, , a a a a

Of as v anish then
,
f ( x) will be ind n tic lly equ l to
, e a a

a (ao
B ) to n f ctors “ . a ,

s pposing to be the coefficient Of the highest power Of a;

u a

in fl ee) ; consequently the coefficient Of 50 in f ( x)/ is the

”
,
7
a

s u m O f the n roo ts wit h their signs ch anged th at O f is ,

the s m Of the produc ts t ken two together n d S O on

u a , a .

( 2 ) If F ( x y ) denote homogeneo s f nction Of n

, a u u

di mensions O f the form a y + hwy n n“

a nd m b the n roots Of t bt
2
e a
n -
r
"

F ( x y ) will be identic l with a ( y —m cc) ( y m )

.

, nd a c
r
z
. a

the equ tion F ( x y) 0will represent str ight lin e

,

a , s re al
: it a ,

or im gin ry p ssing thro gh the origin

a a ,
a u .

If we write y for F ( will be homogeneo s?

7 ,
a) , a u

f u nction Of x an d n d will represent series Of p r abol as

a a a ,

corresponding to the n v l es O f y cc a u
2
 IN T ROD UCT OR Y T HE ORE M S
PLA TE
( 3) If fl y) nd ¢ ( x y ) be homogeneous functions
at, a , Of

a; a n d y e ach Of 7 dimensions
,
nd then 7. , a

fl yx ) a w i bx y
—
I + k y _ f,( l m )
n-- n‘ l "
,

W y)
.

(15 : ¢ (l m ) .

( 4) In order to shew wh at is the form Of c rve whose a u ,

equation is given in the neighbou rhood Of any point (cc B) ,

-
,

it is convenient to Obt in n e u tion for which the origin is a a a

an d the direction O f the x es the s ame s before t

'

( B
0L , ) h s a a l

tr nsform ation is e ffected b y su bstituting Oc+ f n d 8 + 7

a a
,
7

for x an d y S ince the equ ations wi th which we ha ve to de al

.

a e never of a very high degree this c n be done in p artic u l r

r ,
a ,
a

cases as e asily b y common algebraic al methods s b y ny

,
a a

other ; but for the s ke Of general statements it is well to

,
a ,

notice the l w Of formation Of the coeffi cients in the ex

a

pa n s io n Of where f ( ) is a ration al integral function

a:

Of x This law is given b y the di fferenti l c lculus b it

. a a ,

for the student who is not acq ainted with th at c alc l s u u u ,

the law in the c ase we a considering m y be established

, re ,
a

as follows

S u ppose 9 90 to b e one O f the terms Of fl an) then the co

7
,

efficients O f f é f in given b y the binomi al

z

—
, ,
—
theorem a e g a g
, ( r
g ( 1 )( r
y 1
,
f
r 7
'
r r r

and simil arl y for e ch term of f ( w) ; hence if f ( az) be the

’
a ,

coefficient Of f f (x) is Obt ined from f ( w) b y m ltiplying

,
’
a u

e ach term b y the inde x Of th power Of or in it and then e ,

diminishing the index b y unity The oe fficient O f 55 is . c

2

Obt ined from f ( w) in the s me way as f ( ) fro m fl a

’ ’

a n) nd a az , a

is written an d so on whence ,

f (x
(5) where
is a ration l homogeneous f nction Of the 8 degree the c rve
a u
th
, u

u = 0 ( i ) an d the str ight line lx + m y = 1 ( ii ) intersect a f

in n points re l or im gin ry F or the v lues of ac and y

,
a a a .
, a

being the s me a t every point O f intersection we m ay

a ,

elimin te 90 or 3; b etween ( i ) a nd ( ii ) and the resulting

a ,

equ ation being Of the n degree, will h ave n roots ; O

'

th
, r
 I NT R OD U CT OR Y T HE ORE M S
we m ay m ake the equ ation ( i ) homogeneous , by m e ans
of ( ii ) Obt ining ,
a

u n +
u 0 ,

which b y the theorem ,

represents 77 str ight lines thro gh . a u

the origin A ny other combin ation Of the two equ ations gives
.

rise to a cu rve which p asses t hro gh the n points of int s ec u er

tion A n applic ation Of this theorem S hews th at when we

.
,

h ave tried to tr ace a c rve if we s ee th at some str ight lines u , a

cou ld be drawn which wo ld cut the rve in m ore points u cu

th n the degree Of the curve there m st h ve been some

a ,
u a

thi ng wrong in the work .

4 The following e xamples serve to

. ill u stra te the
theorems given bove a .

Ex 1 . . S u ppose we wish to fin d the form Of the c rve u

2y + x —6 m+ 5 3
2 y + (x 1 ) (x + x 2

in the neighbo rhood Of ( 1 O) for m we write 1 + 5 5 being

u , , ,

the bsciss with a new origin ( 1

a then 2 y 3 5 3 5 5
a ,
2 3

C onsideri n g poin ts which correspond to n meri ll y sm ll u ca a

v lues Of 5 s for i n st nce 5 = T the three terms in the

a ,
a , a ,
I
(

v l e of y being then in the ratio 1

a u
fi 5)
1
1 6 g ,
2

very ne rly The c u rve is therefore below the line y = § §

a . - L

whether 5 be or n d more n d m ore ne rl

y coincides a a a

with it s 5 diminishes n d ultim atel y Vanishes The

a a .

sh ape ne r ( 1 0) is given b y fig 1 a , . .

Ex 2 C onsider the c rve x + y —3 wy = 0 an d let the

. . u
3 3
u ,

three points in which it is interse ted b y a straight line c

lm+ m y 1 be P Q R B y the theorem ( 5 ) the three r adii, , .

OP OQ OR a
, given b y w + y
,
re
so
3 3

th t if 6
a
\b be the inclin tions Of th ese lines to Ox a

—1
,
,

tan Otan gb tan gb :

.

If l = m , the inclin tion of one of the r dii suppose OP a a , ,

will be an d since t n
¢ = cot b OQ a n d OR will be
3 a ,

equ ally inclined to 0x and Oy F or the sh pe of the . a

curve see fig 2 Pl ate v

, .
, .
 DE FINI T I ONS

DEFINI T ION S .

5 The following definitions a e required

. r

A p oin t of infl exion is a point at which the t angent to -

the curve cuts the c u rve s o th at the curve bends as in the ,

figure . F ig 2 . .

A m u ltip le p oin t is a point in a c u rve through which

more th an one distinct br anch passes ; a multiple point m ay
be dou ble triple etc as in ‘the figures
, , .
,
F ig 3 4 . s. , .

A p oin t of oscu la tion is a m ltiple point through which . u

two branches p ass which h ave a common tangent at th at

point .

A cu sp is a point at which two br nches Of a curve to ch a u ,

but through which they do not p ss a .

A c usp O f the first species c alled a ce a toid c sp is one ,

r u ,

in which the branches lie on opposite sides of the common

t ngent
a .
F ig 6 . .

A cusp O f the second species c alled a a mp hoid cusp is ,

r ,

one in which the branches lie on the s me side a .

A conj u ga te p oin t is n isol ated point whose coordinates a ,

s atisfy the equ ation but throu gh which no branches pa ss

, ,

sU ch as a circle or ellipse would become if the di a meter or

ax es were m de indefinitel
y sm ll
a a .

A ll these poin ts a c lled S ingu la P oin ts

re a r .

A n a s ymp tote O f c rve is a line tow ards which the

a u

curve fin ally appro ches as we recede fro m the origin to an

a ,

infinite distance and from which the distance of po ints on

,

the curve becomes less th an ny assign able qu antity a .

A n a s ymp tote m y be either c u rviline ar or rectiline a r

a .

When a rectiline ar a sy mptote is meant this condition of ,

indefinite pproach is supposed to hold in every c se

a a .

A proper curviline r a sy mptote s atisfies the s ame con di

a

tion b t it is usu l for w ant Of better term to call ny

,
u a , a , a

curve which serves as a guide to the di ection of the fl ex u re

,
'

in an infinite br nch an asy mptotic curvea , .

 TRA CI N G B Y POIN T S

RA CING BY POINT S T .

6 The most rudiment ry way of tr a cing c rves is to m ap

. a u .

down a number O f points whose coordin ates s tisfy the a

equ ation Of a curve the points being taken in some order , ,

and the n mber s o l rge th t no br anch m ay esc ape ; if

u a a

there be a do bt how to fill u p ny Of the intervening

u a

spaces more points m st be interpol ted

,
u a .

Ex 1 . . T ke the c rve y
a u h
u n
g —1 )
When l, 2,

6 4 y = o, —1 5 —2 4 —2 1 , , ,
0 45, ,
1 20,
23 1 , 38 4 .

If the S ign of x be ch nged th at f g will be ch anged the a , O ,

m agnitu d es being u n ltered a .

If these points be m pped down as in the figure rough a ,

a

picture of the curve c n be dr awn without investig ting the a a

e x ct ngles t which the curve cuts the ax es or the e xa ct

a a a ,

points at which the t ngent to the c rve is p arallel to a u

the ax is Of a which we sh all s ee is somewhere between

,

cc = nd s y abo t
a a u

Ex 2 gain t ke the c rve x

. . A , Al
a u
4

though we cannot s olve the equ ation with regard to so or y ,

we c n Obtain a n u mber Of points b y ass ming g = x

a u z ,

whence a ( 3 2 2 ) a e
z
.

When
%
I
E 1, i
E T 2;
— —1 2 8
7 "
T , 7 T" , ?

3 2 m= 0 5 a 1 6a, 2 7 a , 3 2a , 25a 0 49 a, a,

— i —2 5 6
, , , ,

32g = 0, —
ia -
,
—
8a , , a , 3 2 a
8 l
,
l
i
s
a, O 3 3
a, a,

z 3, 1, 2,
3 2m —4 00 a, —8 6 4 a, 7a 3 2a 1 60a, 8 9 6a ,
—l o00 —2 5 9 2 —1 6 0a —1 7 9 2 a
, ,

3 2g a, a, —
} a —1 6a
, , , .

F ig 9
. . The points e ar m pped in the fig re s fa s sp ce will
a u a r a a

a llow .

T O Obt in d u bious p rt of the c rve ne ar the origin

a a a u ,

it would be sufficient to interpol ate two more values in the

neighbourhood Of e g ,
 SY M M ET RY OF A C URVE
th s if
u ,
x —a g ,

I f x —
a 3/ ,

and to notice th t which is t n P 056 dim n shes as so

a z, a ,
i i

ch anges from to — %a .

In this m nner it would be possible to give very exact

a a

representation Of the loc s of man y eq ations within the u u ,

limits Of the p aper if we did not c are for the trouble Of

,

interpol ating v l es when the direction Of the c rve was at

a u u

a ll do btf l u u .

The m ain bject of work on tracing c rves m st be

O a u u

to point out a v arie ty Of consider tions which will relieve a

the st dent from gre at de l of this l abour nd en able him

u a a ,
a

to indicate gener all y the peculi rities Of a curve its ch anges a ,

of direction and c rv ature the interl a cing of its br nches

u ,
a ,
‘
etc while he can alw y s for any particul r p rpose have
.
,
a a u

recourse to more e x ct determin ation Of speci al p rts Of

a a

the curve .

SYM MET RY OF A CURV E .

7 On e of the first consider tions is the sy m m etry Of a

. a

c u rve with respect to cert in lines or points b y means Of a ,

which the l abo r is red ced one h alf t Once

u u -
a .

The princip l kinds Of symmetry arising from the form

a

O f the equ ation a e as follow s r

( 1 ) If the r tion lised equ ation Of the curve involve onl y

a a

even powers Of g as g —b y + a g x —cx = 0 the curve will

,
4 2 2 2 3
,

be sy mmetric al with respect to the ax is Of x for if ( ac y) be

t —
, , ,

a point in the curve ( a

g) will a lso be in the c rve
, ,
The u .

figure will be the same as if a pl ane mirror were pl aced

perpendicul ar to the p per on the a xis Of ac a .

If the equation involve onl y even powers of w there will ,

be symmetry with respect to Og .

( )
2 If the equ a tion be n o t ltered when — m n d — g a e a a r

written for ac and g as when x ,

this S hews 4

th at when P is a point on the curve an d P 0is joine d an d

, , ,
Fig 1 0
. .

produced to P m aking P O = P O P is also a point on

’

,
’

,
’

the curve In other words 0is a centre Of the c rve nd

.
,
u ,
a
 EX A M PLES
the curve is sy mmetric al in Opposite qu adrants ; so th at if ,

y Ox cont a ined a n
y p r t of the curve a n d the figure were a ,

turned in its own pl ne thro gh two right angles it would a u ,

overlie another portion Of i tself a it was in the origin al s

position .

( 3 ) I f the eq tion be un l tered when x and y a e inter ua a r

ch nged as when w 2 x 5 a xg 2 a y + y 0 for every

a ,
5
a
3 2 3 3 2 5
,

Fig 1 1
. .
point P ( cc g ) on the c rve there will be a point Q ( g 513) lso
,
u , a

on the cu rve s o th t the curve will be sy mmetric l with

,
a a

respect to a line bise ting the angle n s in the figure c a

—
.
,

S imil arl y if y
— x ) m ay be s bstit ted for ( a
y ) with u u

out altering the equ ation as in x —3 a xy y = this wo u ld

, , ,

3 - 3
,

shew s y m metry with respect to a line bisecting the angle

Of x Oy
'
.

There e other kinds Of sy mmetry but it is sc arcely

( )
4 ar ,

worth the trouble Of looking o t for them e x cept as tests u

of the tr cing Th s the s bstit tion Of —x for g and y

a u u u

for ac m ay not alter the eq tion as in w + a xy —g = 0

.
,

4 2 4
,
ua , .

S chu c rve wo ld evidently shew no ch ange Of form if it

a u u

were turned through right ngle in its pl ne a a a .

E xamp l es I .

1 . E m pl o
y the m e tho d giv en in A r t 3, t o. pr v o e the f ll wi
o o ng

(I ) If a tangent to a c ir l c e who s q e e u at o n i is
2 2 = a zb2 2
/( a
2
x +y 5 )
m ee t an e llips wh s q ti n is /
e, o e e ua o
f
e
.
z
a
2
in P a nd Q pr v o e
ill s bt d ri ght gl t th r llips
,
that P Q w u en a an e a e ce n t e o f the e e .

(2 ) T he e q ti ua f hyp rb l is
on o a e o a

t
.
—
g 2x
S h w th t th t w h rds
e a e o c o wh ch i p ss thr a o u gh (0 a nd s bt d
u en
i ght gl t th ri gi
r— i li d t l
,

Or
°
a an e a e o n, are nc ne o at a ng es 1 35 an d
1
co t 5 .

2 . C s tr
on u ct the l i oc of the f ll wi
o o ng e q u at o n i s
4
( ) g
1 3 a xg 2 2 a 2x2 O .
( )
2 x 4 2 2
a x + 2 a xg
/
2
a
2
g
2

3 r th r v s wh s q
T a ce e cu e o e e u at o n i s are
g iv en bl
e o w, b y m ea n s Of
p rt i l r p i t s
.

a cu a o n

( ) g
1 = x —2 x2
+ a
3
.
( )
2 x 3
+g 3 —
3 xg = 0a .
3= 2
( ) g x (x
3 —a ) .
 O RDERS OF S M A LL Q U A N T IT IES
10F inite qu antities are s aid to be e x actly equ al when
.

their difference is nothing .

F ini te v a ri able q u antities become equ al when their differ

ence v anishes .

B u t it is evident th at this is not a proper de fi nition O f

eq u ali ty of m agnitu des which a e themselves v anishing r

q u antities F or is a s trul y do u ble O f a when a: is

.
,
“

indefinitely sm all as two inches are double Of one and y et

, ,

the di fference a: v anishes H ence the necessity Of a nother .

de finition .

V ari able q u antities are s aid to become equ a l when their ,

di fference v anishes comp ared with either O f them .

We m ay a dd th at qu antities are nea rl y equ al when the ,

r atio Of their di fference to either Of them is sm all .

11 . N ow
with reg rd to great an d sm ll things it must
,
a a ,

be remembered th at no q u antity is ab s olu tely s m all or gre t '

a ,

b t onl y s o with reference to some unit either e x pressed or

u

implied in the n ature Of the subject .

In me suring degree four yards would be a very l arge

a a ,

error while in sweeping for the lost end Of the A tl ntic

'

, a

c ble couple Of h ndred yards was thou ght a sm ll error

a a u a

in the supposed position .

In ncient times eight minutes was a sm ll error in an

a a

a stronomic al Observation ; in modern times eight seconds is

enormo s u .

Th s when u nit h s been de termined in any subj ect

,
a u a

in which c alcul tion is to be m ade we m st a k wh at is

a a , u s

considered sm ll — is it to be a tenth or a hundredth of the

a

u nit or wh t o ther fraction

,
a

J st as the nit of me a suremen t was arbitr ary s o the

u u ,

st ndard Of sm allness m st be selected before the idea of

a u

wh t is sm all c n be m ade definite for purposes O f c lcul tion

a a a a .

A gain something more definite m u st be determined upon

,

than the degrees Of sm llness or l argeness e x pressed b y a

the v g e terms very sm all or very l arge e xtremel y sm all

a u , ,

or min te u .
 O RDERS OF S MA LL Q UA N T I T IES

F or this p u rpose h aving fi x ed pon wha t we determine ,

u

to consider sm all we introd u ce the terms sm all q u anti ties ,

O f the second third etc orders ; the sm all q u antities Of

, ,
.

the second order h a ving the s ame ratio to those Of the

first order a s those stand ard sm all q u an tities h ave to the
u nit employ ed .

Thu s in the Lu n ar Theory fra ctions v a ry ing between

, ,

c lled sm ll comp a red with unit a sm a ll

2
I an d
( )
1 1
x ar e a a y T §
'

T ? 6 ,

fracti on Of the second order and so on and complete calcul a , ,

tion s of the motion Of the moon h a ve been m ade to the

s i x th or seven t h orders O f sm all q u a ntities .

If a be the fraction of the unit which is taken as the

s t and ard Of sm allness a nd the e x a ct v a l u e of u in terms ,

O f or be a + boc + coc + to any n u mber of terms then

2
,

leoc
—a ba + ca
l
’

where la is the greatest O f the m gnit des b c Th us a a u , ,

di ffers from u b y a qu antity Of the first order an d a is c alled ,

the first pprox im tion ; simil arly a + ba is called the second

a a

approx im ation etc these approx im ations imply th at l a a ,

. e .

is Of the s me order s 0L which circumstance must guide u s

a a ,

in the selection Of the stan d ard .

I t follows th t wh atever be the coe ffi cients still s pposed

a ,
u

finite 0L c n alway s be taken so sm all th at a a + ba

,
a a , , re

first second etc ppro x im ations to the Value Of u to ny

, , . a , a

d egree Of cc racy a u .

When a v ari able qu antity is s pposed c p ble of

12 . u a a

being diminished until it becomes less th n any ssign ble a a a

qu antity it is c alled a v nishing q uantity nd if it be taken

,
a ,
a

a s the st and rd finite m ltiples Of its sq are cube etc a e

a ,
u u , , . r

c lled v nishing qu antities O f the s e

a a cond third etc orders ; , , .

s o th at if u u be v anishing q u antities Of the first

, , , , , ,

second third etc orders the ratio u + u is Of the

, , .
, n 1

first order u u Of the second an d s o on ; an d if u u

, g
z
1 , z

be a v anishing q antity 1) is s id to be Of a higher order u , a

th an u .
 12 F OR MS OF PA R A BOLIC CURVES NE A R T HE O RIGIN

F OR MS OF PA R A B OLIC CUR V E S N E A R T HE ORIG IN .

1 3 A graphic notion O f the closeness O f the app o xim a

. r

tions mentioned bove will be Obt ined b y tr cing the a a a

c rves g = x y = x g = w
u c lled p r bolic curves fro m
2
,
3
,
4
,
a a a ,

to w= 1 using the s ame coordin ate ax es for ll the

,
a

c u rves so th t the rel tive m agnitudes Of the ordin ates Of

,
a a

the different curves corresponding to any sm all v alue Of x ,

which we choose m ay be seen if a; be not chosen too , ,

sm ll and conceived from the gener l u n Of the c rves if

a ,
a r u ,

x be chosen e x tremel y sm ll The ordin tes O f these will a . a

be m gnitudes Of the second third orders the st nd ard

a , , ,
a

F ig 1 3
. . being the chose n v alue Of x In the figure OA = A B is .
,

taken s the nit nd 0a a Ob u ,

a

The ordin ates for the lines y = x 93 50 ,

2
,
3
,

corresponding to a a e a OL a a ,
r a a
3 ,

l) , are 148
c , are

Each of the ordin ates a is of the preceding e ach of a .

l.
,

OR is i O f the preceding e ch O f Cy is s, of the preceding ,

a ,

an d the ordin tes corresponding to Gal 3 h ave been

a , ,

constr cted in order to g ide to the gener al forms Of the

u u

curves five Of which e pl ced in the figure

,
ar a .

We Observe th at with v alue of the ordin ate of

, a

p = ct is very sm all while for so

e
we c n disting ish , , a u

neither the curve y = oc nor g = a3 an d for g =x 5 6

,
4

is not disting ish able from the corresponding point in the

u

line of absciss ae If we take an bsciss . 00 or a a -

a length which is s fficientl

y visible ll the curves a e u ,
a r

coincident s fa as we can s ee b y our di gram

a r a .

S ome ide a can thus be formed O f the n at re Of the u

appro x im ations to a + bx + cx when a: is e xcessively

sm all .

14 I h ave tr ced these c u rves b y setting Off p articul r

. a a

points with in the limits proposed bec ause in c ses O f this , a

simplicity the method shews sufficie ntl y th at there a e no

, r
 F OR M S OF PA R A BOLIC C UR V ES NE A R T HE O RIG IN 13

sinuosities nd it is e asy to follow the form in the mind s

, a
’

e ye up to ny v a lue O f a; however sm all

a It should be .

O bserved th at the re son why ll the c u rves to ch the a a u

a x is of so t the origin is bec ause y is of

a higher order a

than as .

If we tr ce the c rves for neg tive v al es Of it will

a u a u a
s,

be seen th at those with O dd powers will oc py the Oppo cu

s ite q drant oc Og s ( l g n d those with even

’ ’
ua ,
a a ,
a F ig 1 3
. .

powers will be symmetric l with respect to the ax is O f g a ,

Oa 4
’
as .

If we trace beyond a 1 the ordin te Of y a: becomes :

,
a :
4

g re ter
a th n th at Of g = nad ll the c u rves diverge very
3
cc , a a

rapidly from one nother s x incre ases n d very soon

‘
a a ,
a

s pre d bey ond the r ange of the p aper

a .

I t m ay also be seen wh a t the form O f s ch a curve s u a

= x7 would be for in the qu adr ant 93 0 it is intermedi te

3
a
g g , , ,

between y = x nd g = a n d i sy mmetri l in opposite

2
a
3
,
a s ca

q u adrants since for every point ( or y) there is a point

—y)
, ,

It is not sufficient to consider the curve g = a3 s l y ing 3

a
‘
between g a: and g £13 we m st lso bserve th at it to ches 2
,
u a O u

the ax is Of n d is sy mmetric l with re pect to th t x is

ac , a a s a a ,

a lso th t no p art lies on the neg tive side O f

a since a a

neg tive gives i mpossible v l u es Of y The c rve h s a

a ac a . u a

c sp of the first species or ceratoid c u sp at the origin an d

u , , ,

t he sh pe is as in fig 6 turned thro gh
a right ngle .
,
u a a .

The import nce f knowing the S h pe s O f c rves

15 . a O a u

whose eq tions a of the form y cx in the neighbo r

ua
m=
re
n
u

hood Of the origin will be seen here after ; the student should
,

exer ise himself in dra wing the forms for di fferent v alues O f
c

m an d n s p art Of the m achinery for tr acing curves with

,
a

f cility ; nd lso in order to realise directly wh t is the

a a a , a

rel ation mong qu antities of di fferent orders Of m agnit de

a u ,

two c rves should be drawn with the s me coordin te xes

u a a a ,

nd pl aced in their proper ositions with reference to their

a
l
p
d eg es o f closeness to the ax is which the y to ch
re u .
14 F OR M S OF PA R A BOLIC CUR V ES NE A R T HE O RIGIN
curves whose eq tions a e O f the form y
A ll ,
in ua r
m = czc" ,

which m nd n re neq u l e c lled p a a bolic cu v es

a a u a ,
ar a r r .

When n an d n e both even the loc s of the eq tion i

o ar ,
u ua s

two distinct p ar bolic c rves a u .

The rg ments b y which the forms in the neighbo rhood

a u u

O f the origin de termined will p ss thro gh the mind very

a re a u

r pidly in the following form with very little pr ctice

a ,
a

( )
1 T ke the c se in which
a m is O dd a n d n is even an d a , ,

less th n m and i positive

a c s

—se written for a does not lter the eq uation ; therefore

.
,

the c r e is symmetric l with respect to 0g

u v a .

x is sm ll comp red with y therefore the c rve touche s

a a ,
u

the ax is Of g at O hence the sh ape is the cer atoid c sp as in ,

u

the fig re u

When n is gre ter th n m th c

x .

to ches the x is of a a e ~
u rv e u a
,

x t O
a n d the S h pe is
,
a
R
F a

( 2 ) Take the c se in which m and n a e both Odd i ntegers a r

If we wrote —x and —y for a: n d y the eq ation wo l d

.

a ,
u u

not be altered hence the c rve is sy mmetric al in Opposite

,
u

q adrants or the origin is centre bisecting all chord s

u ,
a ,

thro gh itu .

When n i gre ater th an m the c u rve to ches the ax i s

s ,
u

of ac since g i sm aller comp ared with 93 n d th sh ape is

, s , a e

4 4
when 0 i positive fi when 0 is negative s ,
x .

16 If we now consider the f act th at

.

in whi h n < < di ffers from a x

c r by a s
”
,

difference which ltim ately v anishes comp red with itself u a ,

when is indefini tel y diminished o th at the r tio of the

a: ,
r a

di fference to itself m y be m de as sm ll as we ple se b y a a a a

diminishing cc we sh ll be ble to ssign the direction t ken

,
a a a a

by ac rve in the neighbourhood Of any p rtic l r point b y

u a u a ,

tr nsferring the origin to th t poin t

a a .

Th s if the equ tion f the c rve be y = x to find the

u ,
a O u
3 4
,

t ngent at the point ( 1

a let cc y 1 + 7 then ,
: : 7 ,
 CUSPS
or 3 q = 4 § an d the p art

of the curve which is very ne r the new origin is s fficiently a u

represented b y -
5 which is therefore the eq tion f ,
ua O

the t ngent
a .

In the different c rves disc ssed in A t 1 3 it can n this u ,

u r .
,
I

way be shewn th at the t ngents to the curves t B will a a ,

if prod ced meet the x is f a: t dist n es from A eq u al

u ,
a O a a c

to g i g respectivel
, y
,
.

1 7 The eq tion O f the t ngent at an y point is th s

. ua a u

easily fo nd nd the ne x t appro xim ation gives the d i ec

u , a r

tion in which the curve ben ds from the t ngent a .

Th s for the c rve y

u , y = x is the tangent at the
u

origin ; let the ordin tes MO and M O at sm ll dist nces a

’ ’

,
a a F ig 1 4
. .

from the origin 0 meet the t angent at O in P P ; if ’

—w= w will be the dist nce of Q from

, ,

OM = a: ,
3
a

the tangent me asu red in the direction Oy and will ch nge

, , a

sign with ac,s o th t P Q m st be me as red downw rds a

’ ’
u u a .

H ence the curve lies bove on the positive nd below on

, a a

the negative side Of the origin which is a point Of infi e xi n , o .

CUS PS .

1 8 The following e x mples will shew how cert in pec li ar

. a a u

forms f c u rves s u ch as c sps n d points Of infl ex ion arise

O , u a ,

from fraction l indices occ rring in the eq u ations O f the

a u

c rves when g is e x pressed e xplicitly in terms Of a) or

u , ,

vice vers a .

( )
1 — 1)
i
,

ne ar the point ( 1 2 ) let g = 2 + 7 , 7 ,

then
The first appro xim tion gives 7 5 s o th at if OM 1 a 7 :
, , ,

MP 2 the c rve coincides with the line Q P Q ne arl y which

, u
’

is therefore the t ngent t P nd Q P § = a a ,

a L

The second appro x im tion is n f 2 5 therefore 2 5 a :

2
,
2

being dded to the ordin ates Of Q P Q the c rve more ne rly

a
’

, u a

coincides with the dotted line R R R where R Q = R Q 2 5 ’

,
’ ’
z
2
,

which is a p r bol a whose di ameter through P is MP ”

a a , .
 TA N G ENT S
PLA T E
3 is im
The term dded in the ne x t pproxim tion
a a a 35
possible when 5 is negativ e nd h s two v l es eq l nd ,
a a a u ua a

O f opposite signs when

E is positive thus the form i S P S ,
s
'
,

where is sm ll comp red with R Q if f be a a ,

t ken very sm all H ence t P there is

a mp hoicl cu sp
.
,
a a ra .

( 2 ) If the fr action l inde x h d been the form wo lda a u

F ig 1 6
. .
3
h a ve been S P S in the nex t fig u re since 3 5 onl y ch anges
’ "

, ,

sign when 5 becomes neg tive a .

( 3 ) I f the fraction al inde x be 3 the terms must be e

0

,
r

a a
3
rr nged in the order n 5 + 3 5 + 2 5 The second app o xi 7
2
. r

F ig 1 7
. . m tion would give the form E P R n d the third would not
a
’

,
a

be perceptibly di fferen t since R S R S a e sm all comp red , ,

’ ’
r a

with Q R or Q R nd th only difference is th t the branch

’

,
a e ,
a

P S is f rther from P Q th an P R n d P S ne arer th n P R ;

’ ’
u a a
,
there is therefore at P a e toid c sp c ra u .

( 4 ) If be the fr action l inde x 25 the a ,

2
,

c rve is nearl y the form Of

u or 9 5 7 : 7
2
.

( 5 ) If { be the fr ction l inde x

3
7 then
a a ,

nearly 5 is sm all comp red with 7 n d ; rem ins

, a 7 ,
a 7 a

th s me if 5 ch nges its S ign hence t he sh pe O f the c u rve

e a a ,
a

is th t O f the first fi g re given in A t 1 5

a u r .

NG EN T S TA .

1 9 A t this point I think th t the student who has not

. a ,

re d N ewton s Lemm s sho ld be introduced to the notion

a
’
a ,
u

Of limits s pplied to the theory Of t ngents nd the

,
a a a a

C rv t re O f c rves
u a u u .

Two v ri ble m gnitudes whose v ri ations depend pon

a a a a u

th t O f a q ntity which is s pposed to diminish ntil it

a ua u u

v nishes
a s id to be ltim t ly eq l when the r atio Of
,
are a u a e ua ,

their di fference to either of them v nishes as the q ntity a ,

ua

u pon which they depend v nishes a .

The lim it Of a v ari ble m gni t de is th at fi x ed q ntity a a u ua

to which it is u ltim a tely eq l when the v ari ble on which ua , a

it depends v anishes .
 CUR V A T URE
If A Q be made to diminish inde fi nitel y P Q and p Q will ,

me asure the deflection fro m the t angent and the limit Of ‘

,

the ratio P Q s will be A b A B or equ al to the r tio z ,

a

O f the curva tures O f the circles .

2 2 A n y two curves A P A p which h a ve a common t n

. , ,
a

gent at A h ave the s ame curvature if P Q = p Q ltim ately

,
u .

If therefore a circle be dra wn touching urve at ny

, ,
a c a

Fig 2
. . point A and its m agnitude be such th t P Q = p Q ltim ately
,
a u ,

the circle has the s me curv ture as the curve at th at point a a ,

an d the c u rv a ture of th at circle is the me a s re O f the curv u a

t re Of the curve t th at point ; the circle is c lled th circle

u a a e

of u/rv a tu r
c n d its di a meter the dia m ete of cu v a twre
e, a r r .

23 . other circle can be dr wn which lies

NO a rc O f an
y a ,

ne ar the point Of contact between the curve and the circle ,

determine d bove ; for if possible let an a c lie between

a , , r

F ig 2
. . them Cutting p P Q in p then Qp is intermedi ate in m agni
,
’

,
’

tude to QP and Qp which a u ltim atel y eq l hence Qp re ua ,

’

is ultim ately equ l to Qp an d the di ameters of the two a ,

circles being the limits Of A Q /p Q nd A Q /p Q a e equ l

,
z ’
a
z
,
r a .

2 4 S ince for
. circle A Q /p Q is finite when the circle
,
a ,
2

is Of finite r dius it follows th at when t any point Of

a , ,
a a

curve A Q /P Q u ltim atel y vanishes or becomes indefinitely

,
2
,

great there is no finite circle which h s the s me curvature

, a a .

A curve has finite c rv t re at A whenever A Q /P Q is u a u ,

2

ultim ately finite when A Q v anishes , .

25 The di ameter Of c rv ture Of a c rve at A is the limit

. u a u

O f either A Q P Q or A P /P Q since A P = A =
/
g
Q
2
Q AQ
2 2
+ P , ,
2 2

ultim ately .

E xamp l es II .

F i d th f rm s
n e o ,
n ea r th ri gi
e o n, o f the cu r v s wh s q
e o e e i
u at o ns

3
(1) a
2
y x5 .
( ) y
2 4
are?

7 z fi
(3 ) y a x .

( 4)
2
a x
3 5
y .

(5 ) ( ) y
6 2

(7) F i d thn e tangen t to the cu rv e (2) at the p i

o nt (a , a ) .
 EX A M PLES
F i nd the f rm
o of the cu sps t th giV n p i nts
a e e o on the f ll wi ng
o o
u rv e s

— 2= 3
( 8 ) (y x) x rigi at the o n .

( 9) y t th p i nt ( 0 a e o ,

( )
I O — x) t th p i nt ( I 3
a e o ,

f + f = f t th p i ts wh r it m ts th s
( )
1 1 xy c a e o n e e ee e axe .

= x —
) t th p i nts ( t
4 2 2 2 3
( ) y (
1 2 a a a e o z a,

F i nd th di m t rs f rv t r t th rigi f
e a e e o cu a u e a e o n or the cu rv s e

2= 2 = 2 mx + nsc 2
( 1 3) y 4 a xx ( 1 4) y

(I 5) a
y( x a ) ( x 2 a) r z .
 C H AP TE R III .

F ORMS OF P AR AB OL C I C U R VES AT AN I NFI NITE

I T
D S A NC E EXA MP LE S OF TRA C I N G C URV E S
. .

TR I G ONOMETR I C A L C UR VE S I LLU S TRA TI ONS .

OF THEOR Y OF E Q U A T I ONS R U LE S F OR .

APPR OX I MA TI ON .

F ORMS OFPA RA B OLIC CURV ES A T A N INFINI T E DIST A NCE .

2 6 I N the l ast ch apter the form Of the p ar abolic curves

.
,

which a e the loci Of the equ ations Of the form y cc w s

r
m= “
,
a

exam ined only between the limi ts cc = 0an d cc = 1 ; in this

ch apter I Sh all consider the rel ative positions Of the curves ,

an d the wa
y in which the curves bend when ,

F or this purpose draw li n es par allel to Oy intersecting ,

090 t A A A
a
1 , where OA = 1 GA = 2 OA = 3 etc
2 , 3 , 1 , 2 , 3 , .

A ll the curves y x x p ass thro gh B where A B 1

2
,
3
,
u , I ,

a n d the t angents O f the angles which the

y m ake at B with ,

the x is Of cc are 2 3 4
a , , , ,

On the line p assing through A measure dist ances 2 ,

A 2P 2 = 4 , A 2P 3 = 8 ,
On th at through A3 , me sure a A 3 Q2 = 9 ,
A 3 Q3 = 2 7 ,

A4, A 4R 2 = 1 6 ,

OBP 2 Q 2 R 2 is the c rve u

y cc
z
,

OBP 3 Q3 y x
3
,

OBP 4 Q4 y x
4
,

27 . The form s Of these c rves shew th at their curv atures u

r ap idly diminish after the point ( 1 1 ) although the

.
,

curves rem ain convex to the axis of cc and it is only b y ,

 F OR M S OF PA R A B OLIC CURVES
a strong e ffort of the i magin tion th at it is possible to con a

ceiv e wh a t becomes of the c u rves when c c is m ade of an

y ,

conside rable m gnitude a .

We sh all in the investig tion Of the forms of curves

, a ,

h ave to consi der their gener al sh pes at a gre at distance a

from the origin and it will be re dily seen from the results
, a

Obt a ined here th at it would be impossible to represent on

,

p per the proper proportions Of t he di fferent parts Of such

a

c rves ; we are therefore obliged to content ourselves b y

u

indic ating the direction Of the bending Of the curves at a

gre t dist ance le aving to the im agin ation wh at would b e
a ,

come Of the branches if e xtended in the proper proportion ,

on the s me principle s in raised m ap Of a mountainous

a a a

district like th at Of F lintoft in " eswick it is found to give

, ,

a better ide O f the form Of the co u ntry to t ake a sc ale

a

for the v ertic al heights differing very m ateri lly fro m the a

sc ale Of hori ont l distances z a .

2 8 Theform Of curves such as y

, in which the = cc3 ,
order Of y is fraction between 1 and 2 m ay be conceived
a ,

b y me asuring as ordin ates the a ppro x im ate dist ances

, ,

A 2 7r = 2 % A 3 Ic = 5 g, A 4p 8 , A 5 O = 1 1 15
'

, A 6 7 = 1 4g , and

A 7v = 1 8 % drawing a curve touching

, an d a: a t the ax is Of
the origin p assing through B and the points W p
, , ", , a, r , v,

and m aking at B an angle tan g with the a x is of cc

- l
.

It will be seen th at such a curve Opens out more rapidly

than the former curves as cc incre ases and ne ar the origin ,

leaves the ax is Of cc more rapidly th an those curves do .

The figure which represents this C urve in the more dis

tant points s necess arily constr cted with an unit too sm all
i u

to give an idea Of the form ne ar the origin .

The shape Of this curve c alled the semicubical p ar bol a ,

a ,

within the li m its Ic = o and cc 1 is B OB touching the lines :

,
’

B C B C at B and B where OO=

’

, ,

29 To illustrat e the use which it is intended to m ake Of

.

the forms Of these curves ne ar the origin and at a great

'

distance fr om it I sh all trace the c urve ,

 EX A M PLES OF T RA CING
\

N e ar
the origin the appro xim ate form of the curve is
th at Of y = cc ; and when cc is very gre at Of y = ac whose
2
, ,
3
,

F ig 5 general form is th at of the dotted curve ; gain when '

—
a

—
. .

a: 1 y = 0 ,
n d if 9: then
, y =a
f ( l f ) ; there 2

fore neglecting powers of 5 above the first ne ar this point

, ,

is the t angent .

3 0 A lthough
. the Di fferenti al C lculus gives some ad an a v

tages tow ards Obtaining the p rtic l ar points which appe ar a u

in the form Of the curve y et it is not difficult to Obtain ,

them by the ordin ry processes Of Algebra a .

F or ex ample we Observe in the figure a m axim m o

,
u r

din ate ne ar where the curve is p ar allel to the x is Of cc ;

a, a

if ( a B ) be any poin t on the curve let cc = oc+ f y = B+ 7

, , , 7 ,

then an d B = OL + OL ; therefore
2 3

is the equ ation referred to ax es through a , an d

77
( OL
2 f
is the t ngent which is p arallel to the xis Of cc if OL= —
a ,
a , 3

nd B
4
a 7 7 .

31 A ga in there is
. point of infi exion ne ar b If ( 06 B )
,
a .
,

be this point Of infi exion since the curv e must lie on O ppo ,

s ide sides of the t ng ent t b the ter m in ( 1 ) which

a a ,

invol es 5 must dis ppe r ; therefore 3 a + 1 0 hence the

v
2
a a , ,

point of infi exion is The equ ation referred to b 2 ,

as origin will be 7 , where ; is or

7 :
1

a ccording as 5 is positive or negative an d the inclin ation ,

of the tangent to Occ is cot 3 ’ ‘1

.

EXA MPLE S OF T RA CING .

32 A t this stage it will be useful to trace some curves

.

in which the absciss a nd ordin tes e not involved with a a ar

one another in any complicated m anner so th at the m ethods ,

a lre ad y given are su ffi cient .

In such cases it will be seen th at there is rarely any ,

necessity to enter minutel y into the question of the di ec r

 EX A M PLES OF T R A CING
When cc + a cc + b (cc
11 ne ar ( a O) 2 s
, ,
cy = oc§
22
.

F ig 8 .
When w + a cc + b ( x —oc) + B
.
1 11 .
2 §
2
.

Fig 9 1 0 One figure is dra wn when a > BJ3 nd one when

s .
, .
, a

oc< BJ3 these limits being fo nd from the ,

l es of cc u v a u

where the t ngents parallel to O which a e given b y

a a re cc, r

3x 2
When a and b v nish all these a ,
'

curves degenerate into the symp to tic curve i the semi a ,

v z .

cubic al parabola cy T ,
2 3

It is usef l to consider this degeneration bec ause it ex

u ,

pl ains how it m ay h ave h appened th at when y = 0 there , ,

were three v l es Of equ al to 0 in the curve cy = ac s a u c

c ,
2 3
,
a ,

for inst nce this curve m ay be considered as the limit of

a ,

fig 9 when the portion ba a O becomes condensed into the

.
’

origin and a line between a b and b a contains three coin

,
’ ’

e ident points It is interesting to s ee how the curve.

gradu ll y ch anges from any of the forms figs 7 8 1 0 ntil

a .
, ,
u

it ss mes the fin al form of the sy mptotic curve

a u a .

We m y also see how the theory Of eq u ations assists u s

a

in dr awing the curve in proper proportions Th s for any . u ,

v al u e of y the three v alues Of cc h ve their algebraic l s m a a u

the s me s o th at if n a b be a tangent at a p arallel to Gas

a , , ,

a nd the c u rve cuts the ax is O f cc in a

B 2 n a + n b OOL+ OB; , ,

hence if a m br b e ordin ates at a b Om + B = mOL nd , , r ,

a

when a B com cide bn = 2 a m , , .

If n a b n a b be two t angents p ar allel to Occ the distanc e

,
’ ’ '

F ig 9 between b an d b me asured p a rallel to Occ is double the

. .
’

distance between a an d a ’

Ex 3 . .
y = a
 EX A M PLES OF T R A CING

x :

ne ar ( a , y =a

( 3a , y a ( cc 3a ) ,

when cc is negative , y is positive ; for the form , s ee the figure . F ig I ]

. .

Ex 4
(x a ) (x 3 a)

( 2 a)
. .

x x

The Curve is symmetric l with respect to Occ and writing a ,

in the tabul ation given bove y impossible for y negative a , , ,

y re a l for y positive an d
, y = i a ,
c
c : so ,

near ( a = 2 a cc —a
(
2
y ) , ,

y = %a w
(
2 —3 a ) .

we havethe form given in the fig re u . Fig 1 2

. .

Ex 5 (y —4) x 2

—y for cc y do not alter the equ tion the

. . .

S ince cc -
, , a ,

curve is sy mmetrical in Opposite q u adrants ; hence it is ,

only necessary to e xam ine the form for positive v alues Of cc '

=0 1 —
.

When cc = 0 y I , , , ,

cc < 2 y<
— 1 o 0< y < 1 r

—1
. . ,

cc = 2,
y = 0 , 1, ,

w> 2 . or y > l.
w 00 y 0
0;

ne ar ( 0 y = 4 c
c

—l ) = —4
, ,

(0 2 (y c,

—4
,

(0 , cc,

<
2 .
-
y = 8 <
w
( 2 , 2 (y

<
2 .

near ( 00 ) y x which meets the curve onl y

= ,
cc , , at the
origin nd at two points at an infinite distance
, a .
 E X A M PLES OF T R A CING
Ex 6 . .
y (y
—1 ) (y —l ) ( x

The equ ation becomes more sy mmetric l b y transferring a

the origin to the point Q vi y (y ,

z .
2

the c rve is then sy mmetrical with respect to Oy

u .

When c
c 0 y(y :
,
2

OI y> 1 )
'

cc y =0 or i l,
—
,

y< 1 . 0r o < a< l ,

g , y =0,
or $1 ,

E )
OI
”

y > 1 ;

00 . = ;
as y co

y ne a r 0 or i ] gives (
y y
— y or ,
2
,

O Mac —
,

cc ne ar 4 or s gives ( cc
, ,
—2 ( cc g) ;
z
r

from which the tangents can be found at (g (5 , ,

3 , a lso ne a r ( 00 y = x co
3 4
.

The t angents a e p r llel to Oy where y = r an d a a ,

to Occ where a} i lk /5 and 0

,
: .

F ig 1 4
. .
This curve ffords nother illustr tion O f the m anner in
a a a

which we m ay suppose c rve whose eq ation is y ==cc a u ,

u
3 4
,

to be drawn in order th t when cc = 0 there m ay be three a , ,

z ero v al es Of y an d when y = 0 four ero v alues Of cc

u , .
, ,
z ,

since b y conceiving the unit Of me asurement to become

,

very sm all comp red with the si e Of the p aper the u n

a z ,

d u l ting p art m y be m ade as sm all as we ple a se

a a .

33 The following curve is given as n e x ample b y almost

. a

all the writers on the di fferenti al c a lculus an d deserves to ,

be considered c arefully as to the points which we h ave at

present discussed
y
4
9 6a y 2 2
10
0a x 2 2
x
4
0
,

or y 2
4 8a i 2
8 a ) (cc 6 a ) ( oc + —
J { ( cc
Since the curve is sy m m etric al with respect to both ax es ,

it need only be traced in the ngle ccOy a

—7
.

When x = 0 y = 0 or ,
1
3

ne arly ; when y 0 oc = 0or 1 0a , ,

 CHA NGES OF T RIG ON OM ET RICA L F UNCT I ONS 27

c
r < 6a , y is real ,

cc 6a, y a J( 9
4 1 ) = a (7 ne arly ,

8 a > cc > 6 a , y is impossible ,

cc 8a , y = a ( 7 l ) ne arl y
-
,

nea r ( 0 ;% , cc
z = -l
f 2
,
cc : i ( 1 —% ) y ne rly ;
3 a

ne ar { 0 let ,
then retaining
,

o nl y the princip al terms ,

x =
2 —4 a J< >
2 4 —
—
za
z
z
—2 0 ( 1 a -
) 0m;
ne ar ( 1 0a let ,

then y = 2
20a§ = ne arl y ;
taking { 6a an d
{ 8 a ,
as new origins

t he appro x im ate e q atio n s a e ; =

‘
—a d
Z f af
2
n n
u r 7 -
a g

ne ar ( 00 y 1 93 Of the four points in which e ach

oo .

O f these lines meets the curve two onl y a at finite ,

re a

d istance therefore two must be at n i nfinite distance or

, a ,

ea ch Of the lines is n a sy m p tote a .

A t A and D in the fig re the l atera recta Of the pp o x i u a r F ig 1 5

. .

m te p ar abol a s a e a little less th n 1 9 a nd 2 1 a e s pec

“

a r a a r

t i ely ; at B n d 0 the y a e { a an d % a the vertices being

v a r ,

a t eq al dist nces from Occ

u a The t ngents at the origin e . a ar

v ery nearly coincident with the a symptotes .

REPRESENT A T I ON OF VA RIA T IONS IN T HE

G RA PH IC
MA G NI T UDE OF FUNC T I ONS .

34 One Of the most useful applications O f curves is to

.

r epresent to the eye the ch anges which take pl ace in any

q u anti ty in consequence O f ch anges in a v ari able upon
which the qu antity depends ; every body is f mili r with a a

t he curves representing the ch anges in the b a rometer an d

thermometer d ring the cou rse Of a d y or month in
u a ,

which the height Of ‘the barometer and degree Of the ther

m om ete t aken r, s ordin ates are function s Of the time
a , ,

t aken s bsciss a ; also with isotherm al lines ; an d in ter

a a ,

e s t ial m agnetism wi th isoclin al an d isodyn mic lines ‘

r r , a .
 28 CHA NGES OF T RIG ON OME T RICA L F UNCT I ONS
PLA T E
11 . It is in fact much e asier to follo w the v ri ations Of the a

m agni t de Of ordinates to c u rve than to g ther the s am e

u a ,
a

inform tion from table f numbers

a a O .

35 The ch anges Of m agnitu de O f the trigonometrical

.

f u nctions m y be represented b y t king e a ch function for

a a

an ordin te O f curve of which the ngle is the absciss

a a , a a,

represented in any me s re S ppose cc to be the circ u l ar a u . u

me asure Of an angle an d we wish to trace y = in x s

S ince s in ( — ) s in cc the curve is the s ame b ackw ard s

.
,

7r c
c

from W as forw rds from 0; s in ( + cc) —sin ce therefore

,

,
a 7r , ,

if the curve be traced for any portion e x tending over a

dist nce measu red on Occ the curve is Of the s a me form
a , ,

but on the Opposite side of Occ for the dist nce on either ,
a 7

side .

When cc % y vr,

ne r the origin y = m for a first approx im ation

a ,

ne r cc é w if t sm t S y = cos £ = 1
a ,
f u -
,

or the curve is ltim tely p ar abol a with ax is pe pen di

u a a , r

onl ar to Oc c an d l a t s rectum 2 ,
u .

F ig 1 6
. . The figure is c lled the c rve Of sines a u .

36H ere it is seen from the sy mm etry described above

.
,

th at there is a point Of infiexion at the origin and ,

therefore at the points where 9c = 2 so th at it 7r, 7r,

is unnecessary to find in this case the defi exion from

the tangent which wou ld h a ve been shewn b y m aking
,

the ne xt a pprox im ation to the value Of y for which

—%
,

=
y cc c
c
3
.

37 . A ga in ,
if y t an x, then since ,

t an ( 7r + c
c =
) tan cc , an d tan ( 7r —) —t n
c
c a as,

the curve repe ats itself after every interv al of ; and the 7r

curve is the s ame in form forwards from cc = 0 and b ack ,

wards from cc = but on the Opposite side Of Occ 7r, .

When a = 0 y = 0; cc % y = 1 ; y,
= ; 7r, oo

F ig 1 7
. .
an d ne a r the origin y = cc .
 ILLUS T R A T I ONS OF T HE T HEORY OF E Q UA T I ONS 29
PLA T E
The fig res for the other common trigonome tric l 1 1
38 . u a

functions can e asily be dr awn The figures a e given sep a . r

rate ly for y = ec x nd y = c t x s a Fig o . s .

The curves for y = c s x and y = v ers x are the s am e as o

for y = sin cc the origin being di fferent F or the former

, .
,

O y is the ax is O f y for the l atter O cc O y a e the ax es F ig 1 6

’ ’ ” ” ” ”
, , ,
r . . .

39 . Man y
the properties O f the Theory Of E q ations
Of u ,

which will be useful in the theory of c rves m ay be shewn u ,

s imply b y m e ans Of curves .

Le t f ( ac) = 0 be the equ ation the properties of whose ,

roots are req u ired f ( 9c) being a ration al integra l function Of

,

cc Of the n degree th
.

C onsider the curve y for every v l u e of ac there is a ,

o nl y one v l e O f y ; for every v a lue O f cc which is a re a l

a u ,

root Of the equ ation the curve crosses the ax is O f cc

,
.

If f (cc) be divisible b y ( cc there will be coincident r

points where ce = a .

= "
When cc is very l rge y oc is a curve whose form a ,

d etermines the direction Of the given curve at a dist ance

.

from the origin gre t comp ared with unity being th at Of

a ,

t he dotted lines in the fi gii e s d r awn wi th n even or Odd F i g

‘
r ,
s. 20, 21 .

the c u rve meets the a sy mptotic c u rve gener a lly in n l .

-

points at a finite distance re al or im agin ary given b y n , ,

a

e qu ation O f the form 0 n‘ l -

p c
c i .

40 The au x ili ary equ ation

. is found b y writing ,

cc i S for cc in equ ting the coef i cient O f to 0

g
--
f ( c
c ) a n d a , f f .

By A rt. 3
hence for the form of the curve a t any point { on
,
,

y =f ( 0t)
=
y f (a ) is the equ ation Of the tangent .

The tangen t is therefore p ar llel to the x is Of cc at every a a

point for which i e for ever y v alue O f x which . .

,

is a root of the au xili ary equ ation

N o w it is O bvious from the m anner in which the curve
,

m ust be drawn th at between every two distinct points in

,
30 ILLUS T R A T I ONS OF T HE T HE OR Y OF E Q UA T I ONS
which the curve meets the a xis of cc there m ust be n Odd ,
a

n mber O f bends from or tow ards Occ nd therefore an

u , , a

O d d number of points in which the curve must run p a r allel

to the ax is Of cc where two bends must be supposed to

,

coincide i n the c ase O f an ordina ry point Of infle x ion s o ,

th t between every two roots of the equ ation f ( cc) = 0there

a

is an Odd number Of roots Of 0 .

Whence it m y be ded ced th at if f ( a ) = 0 h ve two

a u ,
a

roots e ach equ al to a will also be a root Of , a

which is lso Obvio u s either from the f ct th at the axis of

a ,
a

x joins two points which a ulti m tel y coincident or from re a ,

the an aly sis because ,

therefore ne a r

( a
,
if =
y 5 ¢( ) will be the first a
pp o xim 2
. a r a

tion nd this curve obviously to ches the ax is of cc

, a u .

41 . Other properties can be deduced immedi atel y from

the curve .

( 1 ) If two v alues of ac give v alues O f f ( cc) affected with

Opposite signs a n O d d number O f re a l roots O f f ( c
,
c ) = 0mus t

lie between these values .

( )
2 E ver y eq tion O f an even degreeua m st h a ve an even u

number Of re al roots or none since the c rve termin ates in

,
u

both d irections on the s me S de Of the axis 093 a i .

( 3 ) E very eq u ation Of an Odd degree must h a ve t le st a a

On e re l root O f the S ign contr a r

a
y to th at Of the l ast term .

F or the curve cuts the x is O f y on t he positive or a

negative side s the l ast term is positive or n eg tive ; if

, a a

positive it must c t the x is of ac in the neg tive direc tion

, u a a ,

since the c rve goes Off to infinity in the ngle cc Oy and

u a
’ ’

vice vers a .

( 4 ) E very eq ation Of n even degree with the l ast term

u a

negative must h ve two re l roots O f Opposite signs F or

a a .

the c u rve cuts Oy in the negative side an d m st cross Ox u .

twice on opposite S ides Of O

, .

( 5 ) E very f nction Of so which eq ted to ero forms an

u ,
ua z

eq u tion with no re al root m st be invari ble in S ign

a , u a .
 32 ILLUST R A T I ONS OF T HE T HE OR Y OF E Q UA T I ONS
must involve an even power O f 5 which is impossible u nless ,

f ( OL) 0
”
.

46 e x ample take the curve

As an

—
,

—
.

y = x ( x —1 ) ( x l ) x —x x + x 2 s
4 3 2
.

The tangents p ar llel to the ax is of ac where

are a ,

4x — 3c 3
or cc = 1 cc g or
2 nearly ;
there m y be points Of infl ex ion where 1 2 x —
1 , ,

2
a 6 cc ,

which gives cc =—2g or very ne arl y , .

The f inter line is the curve

a O f A rt 44 whose .
,

m ax imum an d minimum ordin ates p ass through the points

F ig 1
. .
O f in fl ex io n of the given c u rve .

The n at re Of the roots Of an equ ation can be f e

47 . u r

q u entl y discovered b y the use Of the intersection Of simple

c u rves ; an ex ample or two will be sufficient to S hew the
method .

C onsider the cubic cc the roots Of the equ a 3

tion e the bscissae Of the points Of intersection Of

ar a

an d c
c (q
F ig 2
. . The figu res denoted b y 1 2 3 shew how the hy perbol a
, , , ,

which rem ains O f const nt m agni tude if be constant a r ,

ch nges its p os ition as q incre ases from some negative

a .
,

v l e moving along the ax is Of y as an asy mptote its

a u , ,

lower branch at first not cutting the p rabol a at ll then a a ,

to ching it and afterw a rds c tting it in two points its

u , u ,

higher branch in every position cutting the p arabol a

once When the two curves touch t ( a B ) since the
. a , ,

point Of contact bisects the p art Of the comm on tangent

c t Off b y the
u sy mptotes 2 B= g —B B= an d
a ,

r =a(
g
i
( % g) is the condition for equ a l A
r
2 3

roo ts .

nother way O f solving wo ld be to consider the

48 . A u

roots as the bsc ss ae Of the points Of intersection Of the

a i

c rve y = cc with the straight line y

u ,
3

The str ight line a lw ay s meets the curve in one rea l

a

point and as q increases it t rns round until it tou ches it

, , ,
u ,
 RULES F OR A PPROXI M A T I ON
in which c se two roots a eq l nd fterw ards it inter
a re ua , a a

sects in two more re l points a .

The equ ation Of the t ngent at ( a B ) is y B 3a (cc a ) a ,

2
.
,

or y 30t cc 2 a if y q x r 0 be a tangent 3a q
2 3
, ,
2
,

2 06 = r
"
. an d (E )r
z=
( %q )
3

The oots Of
49 . r ar e given by the
points Of intersection Of two p arabol as
= cc2 , and
y
The figure shews how the c ases of real or impossible or
equ al roots m ay arise from the rel ative positions Of the ,

parabol as 1 2 3 and 4 drawn for neg tive v alues o f r and a

4s —g q being positive for 1 and 2 neg tive for 3 an d 4

, , , ,

2
, , a .

In the course O f this work m any exam ples will

50 .
,

occ r Of the practical adv antage Of this method O f dete r

u

mining the number Of re l roots Of an equ ation as well as a ,

of roughly fi x ing their v alues .

RULES F OR A PPROXIMA T ION .

5 1 When we wish to a ppro x im ate to the v a lue O f a

.

which the e act rel ation to another qu a ntit

'

q anutity o f x , ,
y ,

w hich m ay be considered very small is e xpressed b y a

given eq ation the following method is very simple in
u ,

applic ation .

Let y be given in terms O f a b y me ans Of the equ ation ,

where a m y be consi dered V ery sm all and the functions

a ,

do not involve oz e x plicitly . .

The first appro xim ation when a is neglected is y = a ; , ,

suppose the ne xt ppro xim ate v alues O f y when oc a ,

3
.
,

a e neglected to be y r espectivel we
“
r
a , y y y ; ,
, , 2 , 3,

Observe th a t an y one of the f nctions f ( y ) m

y be written
‘
u a

hence since in , y1 is neglected ,

F C T
. . . C
 EX A M PLES OF A PPROXI M A T I ON
when OL
3
is n eglected , y2 is O bt ined from
a

fdd )
’
a 0L fi ( 3/ i ) “

i“
a

neglecting y3 is Obtained from

this will be found quite suffi cien t to shew the general

method to be dopted in ppro x im ting a a a .

5 2 In the following e x amples I h a ve proceeded to m n y

. a

terms in order to shew th at there is no gre t di fficulty in a

working on the pl an Of the l ast r ticle a .

Ex 1 . . To c a nd
ec p tan x in a s cen d in g p o wer s of c
c .

By G regory s series ’

c
c tan a; g tan
3
c
c tan 5
c
c 3, tan a: 7

tan a tan ce tan x

x 4
5
3 5
tan 7
c
c

F irst and second a pprox im tions a ,

tan cc c
c, and tan cc so

Third tan a; , + § cc
3 3
) %cc
5
x + %x
3
+(
1
3,
—
)x
5
.

F ourth t n so , a c
c % ( cc gd
”
fi n ”
? a ?s: ex 5 93
3 7

am cl + w +
c "
a: +
3 2
c
e u sa ) a n

a
c gcc
3 — 2
1 5
c
c
5
g gs x
i ? - -

Ex 2 To exp a n d r a (1 e co s
g ) in a scen d in g p ower s
m
. .

f
o e, a s fa r as e
3
, wher fi e s in 11 , and e is a s m all

p ro
p er f i
r act on .

F or the first an d second appro xim ations ,

u = m a n d u = m + e sin m sin u = sin m + cos m e sin m ; , .

for the third ,

u = m + e sin m + e s in m cos m = m + OL s u ppose ; 2

,

cos u cos m ( 1 ea ) 0L sin m ?

cos m e s in m e S in m cos m ) sin m § e s in m cos m 2 2 z

cos m e s in m ge s in m cos m g z 2

e co s m + e s in m ge s in m cos m )
2
a(1
z 3 z
r .

Ex . 3 . TO find y in ascending powers Of a

c, when
6 cc7 9w5
y
2 3
a 90 y
2 2
4a 3
cc
3
y 2a 5
cc
2
3a 5
a
cy a
5
y
2
0 ,

or a
5
(y c
c ) (y 2 cc) a r
3
.
2
( 4 xy y
?
)
5
2 cc ( y 2
0 ,

y being O f the same order as c

c .
 EX A MPLES OF A PPROXI MA T ION
The first approxim ation gives
—
( y w) ( s
y = x or 2 c
c ,
.

i
() C ommencing with y = x for the second appro x i mation ,

3 3 3 2 2
4a x a x
9 —93 "

5
y
—
y
a ( y 2 x )

F or the third ,
—
=
y cc

x+
-

5
“
3 5 6
3x l5x 4x
96 + + +
“

2
a 0
,

( )
11 C om m encing with y 2x for the second appro xim ation ,

(
z
1 4 x y)
—
cc y
y x

3
4 96
m

?
F or the th rd i
2 2 2
= 2x
1 cc
{ 4x (y 2x)
y a
2
c
c
y
2 2
1 c
c 4x
E
<
2 2
4x
cc 1 2
a

4x3 1 6x5 2 x6
°
2 “ 5
a a a

r oxim a te to the s o lu tion s o h

Ex . 4 . To pap f t e eq u a tion

t an x = x, the u n it bein g the u n it of cir cu lar m eas u r e .

Dr a wthe curve y tan x, an d let the tangent at 0 y ,

x,

meet the curve in 0 , P , Q fig 1 7 pl ate II

,
.
, .
 EX A M PLES OF A PPROXI MA T I ON
The figure shews th at since the branches Of the curve ,

a e all simil ar the absciss ae Of the po ints P

r ,Q R etc are , , , .

nearer and nearer to the v al es 3— % W £1 etc u 7 3 7

.

l) —
, , ,

Let z where n is any positive inte ger -

7r , ,

an d e is a sm all u antit then b y substituting in the given

q y , ,

equ ation t n ( 72 { m z) n
, 4
a z 7 vr 7 .

F or n + % write Ot y then oz is small since its greatest

7r 7r
'

ne arly ; cot z = OL —z
,
.

v alue when n = 1 is
, ,
"
1
.

B y Gregory s series since tan z = a ( 1

’

— —% —
,

Z = OL( 1 OLZ )
'
I
OL
3
(l OLZ )
'
5

the fi rst approx im ation gives the second gives

z = OL( 1 + OLZ )
‘
—% OL ,
3
or
the third gives
§a
3 —a 5
%OL
5

The solutions a e 0 n d i ( a a a %a in r ,
a
'
1 — —% ‘ 3 -
5

which OL g g % successiv ely ; the fi rst Of these

'
l
a r, r , 7 r,

v lues gives cc = 2 5 7 2 7
a the e ror introduced b y ° ’
r

omitting the fourth term being little more th an 1 ’

Examples III .

1 S
hew that the tan gent t o the cu rv e y = x (x2
y) is p r ll l a a e to
pi s rv i
.

Or at the o nt $
3, and cu t the cu e aga n whe e r x =3 .

2 . Sh dist n b tw th tw t ng nts t th rv
ew that the a ce e ee n e o a e o e cu e

y
= (x
x d r wn p r ll l t th is f x is gas
2
a a a e o e ax o , .

3 F i nd t h s h p f th rv y —2y = — t th p i nts f
e a e o e cu e
2
i4 x2 a e o o
i nt rs ti wi th O nd t i nfi ni t dis t
. .

e ec on cc, a a an e an ce .

4 Sh w th t if th f rm f th
. e v l p rt f th rv
a , e o o e o a a o e cu e

s
2 = x (x 1 ) ( x —2 )
be r pr s t d n r th tw v rti s b y t w p r b l s h vi g th i r
e e en e ea e o e ce o a a o a a n e
s i n id t wi th Ox th l t s r t m f is d bl th t f
,
ax e co c en , e a u ec u o o ne ou e a o
th th r
e o e .

5 S h w th t i th
. e s f A t 32 E 2 iii wha , BJ 3 th
n e ca e o r x en a e
f rm f th rv is li k fig 1 0 pl t wi th th t g nt s t th
. .
, ,
.
, ,

o o e cu e e . a e e an e a e
p i nt s f infi i p r ll l t O
,

o o ex o n a a e o x .

Tr th
a ce rv s 6 y = e cu 7 y =(e .
2
x3 .
5
x 2

8 .
y
6= x
( —l 3
)x . 9 .
y
3=
( —l )
cc x4
. 10 .
—y = x3
p i ts
rv y = c‘1 2 + 4 8 —6 4
11 . Sh w th t th r
e a e e ar e o n of infl exion at ( 2, ( 4 0) ,
in
the c3
2
cu e c . cc x .
 C H A P TE R IV .

F OR MS OF CU R V ES IN T HE
NE I GHBOU R H OOD OF
T HE OR I GIN . S I MP LE TA NG ENTS DI RE C TI ON .

A ND A MOU N T OF C UR VA TU RE . MU LTI PLE

P O N S OF T WO
I T BRA NCHES . C URV A UR E OF T
BR A NCHE S A T MU LTI P LE P OI NTS . MULTI P LE
P OI NTS OF H I GHE R OR DER S .

53 . this an d the following ch apter I intend to disc ss

IN u

the forms Of c rves at p articul r points t a finite distance

u a a ,

when their equ ations a e Of a more complic ted form r a .

F or this purpose it will be s ffi cient as has already been

,
u ,

mentioned to consider the forms in the neighbourhood Of

,

the origin since b y tr nsform ation Of coo rdin ates any point
,
a ,

m ay be m ade the origin .

In order to tr ce curve we must know at all points

a a , ,

which have ny pec li arity the tangent the side Of the

a u , ,

tangent on which the c rve lies nd in some c ases u ,

a , ,

the r apidity with which the curve deflects itself from the
t ngent i e the degree O f c rv ature
a ,
. . u .

A lthough in a gre at m an y c ases the di ection in which

, r

the curve bends from the tangent t ny p rticul ar point a a a

m ay appe ar from consider ation of other known portions O f

the curve we must be in possession Of m ethods of d ete m in
,
r

ing this when requ ired however tro blesome the operation , u

m y be
a .

In illustr ting these methods I h ave given the forms Of

a ,

m any O f the c rves throughout althou gh it has at present

u ,

been shewn only very generally how the infinite branches

can be determined The student sho ld at ll events
. u ,
a ,
 SI M PLE TA N GENT
Obtain the directions Of the curves at p articul ar p oints ,

deferring the complete tracing until the ch apter on asym p

totes has been read I h ave ho wever a voided s much as .
, , , a

possible ny complic ated forms Of infinite branches

, a .

F ORMS OF CURV ES NEA R T HE ORIG IN .

5 4 C onsider then when a curve p asses through the

.
,

origin and a point P ( x y) is taken ne ar the origin on

, , , , ,

the branch which p sses through it th at as P is supposed a , ,

to move towards O x nd y t some st ge must diminish ,

a a a

together and th at they ultim tel y v nish simultaneou sly

,
a a .

One Of the three following c a ses m u st therefore occ u r ,

a s P describes the l ast sm ll a c O f the c rve a r u .

( )
1 x an d y m ay be O f the s a me order of sm a ll qu ntities a .

( )
2 c
c m y be sm ll comp red
a with y in other
a words a , ,

cc y m ay be a sm all r atio which

: ltim tel y v anishes u a .

( y
3 ) m y be sm a ll comp reda with x a .

I thi nk it best to consider these c ases separ atel y and I ,

sh ll in this ch apter e xamine the cases in which x nd y

a a

a e O f the s ame order O f sm all m agnit des so th a t

r n ex u , a

pression like a x l bxy i cy has every term Of the second

z- - -~ 2

o rder an d is itself O f the second order ; we m ay Observe

th t ax l bccy l cy —
,

l dx y is also f the second order if

z- - -- 3 - z 2
a O ,

a, b c d be finite qu antities
, ,
.

SIMPLE TA NG ENT .

5 5 Let the equ ation Of

. c u rve supposed ration li ed a , a z ,

be rranged in a series of homogeneou s functions Of cc and y

a ,

in the form u +u +u m
1 2 3

where denotes a hom ogeneo s f nction Of 8 dimensions

us u u

in c an d y ; s o th at there being no term independent of

c

x a nd y the curve considered p a sses through the origin

, .

56 . C onsider
first the case in which u the fu nction of , ,

the first degree e x ists an d let u a x + by and at present

, , 1
_
,
 DIRECT I ON A N D A M OU NT OF CUR V A T URE
. consider a and b to be finite q u antities Then u = 0is the .

first appro xim ation to the rel ation which mus t e x ist b e
tween x and y for the p art Of the c rve ne r the origin for u a ,

the whole e q ation m y be written

'

u a

where b y diminishing cc and y

, , oz and
.
B m ay be m ade as

sm all s we ple ase Thus for

a .
,

we m ay write
a
( 1

H ence u
1
= 0is the t ngent to the c rve
a u at the origin .

57 It can be shewn as follows th t no straight line can

. a .

be d rawn which near the origin lies so close to the c rve

, , ,
u

as u = 0 F or if ( x y) be any point in the c rve the

.
,
u
l , ,

distance Of this point from u = 0i 1

s

ax + by

which is of the second order Of sm all q u antities where s , a

the distance from ny other line a lcc + my = 0 is /

lx + m y
N l l m
2 2
which is O f the first order
' '

DIRECT I ON A ND A MOUNT OF CUR VA T URE .

5 8 The ne x t step is to discover in wh t direction the

. a

c rve bends a fter le aving the point Of cont ct ; for this

u a

purpose we proceed to the ne x t ppro xim ation b y t aking a ,

into a ccount the terms Of the ne xt order ; the form Of the

curve is gen e a lly given more ne rl y b y u + = 0 the
r a
1
u
2 ,

equ ation Of conic if the coefficients in u a e not ll ero

a , 2
r a z .

A t present we sh all not consider the c ase in which this

conic is two s traight lines in which c ase it will be seen that ,

u + u = 0is n o t the ne x t appro x im a tion

1 2
.

S uch conic m ay be c alled conic O f curvature since

a a ,

it has the s me c rv ture s the given c u rve in the neigh

a u a a

b o u ho od O f the origin
r .
 DIRECT I ON A N D A MO UN T OF CURVA T URE
59 The proof th t the two curves h ave the s me c rva
. a a u

ture m ay be given th u s .

Le t OT be the t angen t u = 0 OP the conic u + i ; 0

'
t
1 , 1 2 ,

and OP the curve u + u + u + =0

1 2 3
.

Dra w TP P perpendicul r to OT nd let ( x y) ( x y ) be

’ ’ ’
a , a , , ,

the points P P ; it m ay be s h wn a in A t 5 7 th t
'

,
e , s r .
,
a

" ’
P T zP zu
z,

a nd since ltim tely u u is a r atio of u a , 2 ,

’

equ lity ultimately ; therefore P T and P T are ultim tely

a a

equ al which is the test O f the cil atu e being the s me

,
rv r a .

Th at there is an infinite nu mber Of conics which

60 .

h ve the property of coinciding with the curve to within

a

qu antities Of the third order m y be seen follows ,

a as .

u —u —u is qu ntity of the second order for all

1 2 3
a a

points on the curve ne r the origin ; therefore a

is of the third order A u being any const nts arbitr rily

, ,
,
a a

chosen ,
( )
1

is a conic which di ffers from the c rve b y a q ntity Of the u ua

third order The p rticul ar conic which is the circle Of

. a

curv ture can be fo nd b y giving proper v al es to A a

a u u , ,

in If u cx + d xy + ey then for circle we h ave

2
2 2
, a

h b + na + d = 0 an d s ay .

H ence
b z
c a bd a e
2

The equ ation of the circle is therefore

2 ’
b i
)
an d the r d us a i
— bd l— ’

2 (b z
c a -
a e
z
)
The diam ete of curvature m ay also be found directly
61 .
'

b y the method Of A t 2 5 witho t previously finding the r . u

equ ation O f the circle .

 DIRECT I O N A N D A MO UN T OF CURVA T URE
¢ u 2 +
m

F ig 4
. . an d the di am eter Oi
'

c u rvature

3L _y_lt m tel
b —a y u i a .

If u does not appe ar in the equ ation u inste ad of

62 .
2 , l ,

being of the second is Of the third order Thus there is no ,

.

conic Of curv ture since the defl ection fro m the tangent for
a ,

the c rve is infinitely less th an th at for ny conic which

u a

c n be dra
a wn with the same t ngent the defl ection for a a ,

conic being of the second order .

C omp re the curves Oa B an d OOL B in fig 1 3 P l ate I

a 2 , 3
.
, .

The ppro x im te curve u + u = 0h s a point of infl exion

a a
1 3
a

a t 0 since the perpendicul ar from ( x y) on u = 0 which

, , 1 ,

varies as u ch anges sign as ( x y) p asses thro gh the

s , , u

o rigin .

The following e x amples will shew how to

63 . a pply
the methods g ven bove i a .

Ex 1 . . To fi nd the ta ngen t to the cu r ve y

7= x
s
at the
oin t (1
p ,

F or cc and y write and an d arr ange in hom o

g e n eo u s functions the first term is r q
—s f w hich gives the
—l ) The radius Of
,

equ ation Of the tangent r ( y .

curvatu re at ( 1 1 ) is ,

Ex 2 . . To fin d the ta n gen ts to the cu r v e y

at the p oin ts (1 , (3 ,

F or cc write 1 +5 the first approx im ation gives

25 )
 DIRECT I ON A N D A MO UN T OF CURVA T URE
y = 2 ( x is the eq tion Of the first tangent ;
1) ua

s imil rly y
a 2 (x —3 ) represents the second t ngent a .

Ex 3 . .
fi To n d the ta n gen t a n d cir cle o f cu r v a tur e a t a
2 2 =
oin t ( a B ) of the cu r ve ax + b y
p ,

F or x y write , B+ n ,

then an d aa
2
+ bB = l ,
2

whence a a f + a = o gives the tangent referred to the new

a x es

S ince ne ar the origin a a f l b

,
is of the second order ,
-
,

2 ( OLE l a ) + a 5 + bc —( a a 5 +
G - 2 2

is a curve which differs from the given curve b y qu anti ty a

o f the third order and this is circle if A s tisfy ,

a , a
,
a

( 1 OL
a A ) = b ( 1 —B ) p nd a og + bBA O a
, ,
a u ,

‘
whence ( a Oi b B )p a b ( a a s )
Z
a bz 2 2
.
z
,

a n d the eq tion Of the circle of curv ature becomes

ua

ab (f
2 2
77 ) (a
z
oc .
2
b 2
B (
)
2
2 a oc
f + 2 b ) 0 ,

the sq re O f whose r adi s is

ua u

F or the centre of the circle of c u rv ature

( CL OL
Z 2
b 2
B ) OL
2

I
b

therefore if , ( x y) be
,
the centre referred to the origin al ax es ,

—(
2 2
b 2

2
a oz
.

(b
3
a a )a .

S imil arl y
H ence su bstituting in
,
aa
2
+ bB
2
1
’

(f ld ytld a b l
a
— ,

which is the loc u s Of the centre Of

‘
curv at re u .
 DIRECT I ON A N D A MO UN T OF C UR VA T URE
Ex 4 To fi nd the d ia m ete r f the cir cle f cu r va tu r e a t

—)
o o
—y ) =
. .

the p oin t ( b) f the y (b

2 2 3
(
'

a, o cu r v e x a x .

Le t y = b+ n , then
11
2
) ( CM '

$5 2
,

01‘

W hence ,
as in A rt 6 1 .
,
the diameter Of curv ature
( 5 46
2
)
4

Lt
2 645 2
3 b}?

(a
4

3 ’
u lt m tel y i a .

a b( 8 6
3
3a )
If 3 a
C OR the di ameter s nfini te 3 = 8 b3 i i

In this c ase 2 b n—a $

. .

= 0 i true to
q u an tities of the
2 2
,
s

third order ; therefore the appro x im ation p to $is u

3

s
a

shewing th at (a b) is a point O f infl e xion ,

.

6 4 The preceding is the general c se Of a si mple

. . a

t ngent ; we can proceed b y a simil r method Of app oxi

a a r

m ation when singularities occ u r in the forms Of the

,

f nctions succeeding u
u
l
.

I t will be su fficient to t ake a s an inst ance the c se men , ,

a

tio n ed above A t 5 8 in which the conic u + u = 0becomes

,
r .
, 1 2

two straight lines which h appens when u u c , 2 l

f

l
.

In this c ase the equ tion of the curve being

,
a

0,

the tangent to the curve is u = 0 and the ne xt app oxim a , ,

r

tion to the form of the curve ne ar the origin is given b y

u + u /( 1 + u ) 0 or u + u 0
1 3 1 1 3 ,

shewing th at the distance of a point in the curve from the

t angent which v aries as u is ultim ately Of the third order
, , , ,

a n d consequ ently th a t u u is of the fourth order ; thus

, , l l ,

for points in the branch through the origin a ranks , s

before u shewing s was stated in A t 5 8 th at u + u = 0

z, , a r .
, 1 2

is not the ne x t appro x im ation .

 M ULT IPLE POIN T OF T W O BR A NCHES
68We m ay Observe th at the curve u + A x = O is a
.
1
2

p ar bol a whose x is i p rallel to Oy ; it is easy to shew

a a s a
'

how an appro x im ate p arabolic for m m ay be fo nd having u

0
its axis p arallel to any given line m x + n y = 0 for 1 m ay ,
3

a pprox i mation where B is to be fo nd u by

A rt 3 3 ) as A was in the l st rticle
a a

—b
. .

If m = , n = a, the appro xim ate p arabol a will h ave its

vertex the ori gin
at .

69 T ake for e x mples the investigation of the forms of

. a

the following c u rves ne r the origin a .

Ex 1 . .x ( y
— a ) a > h 2
,

The first approx im ation gives a y bcc = 0 and henc e 2 - 2

,

the t ngents at the origin re y Ja = b

a a -
.

The second approx im ation fo the branch whose tangen t r

is y Ja = b com es from ,

W e i-N b
giving b y either of the methods of A rt . 67 ,
neglectin g
powers of x above the squ are ,

2
changi ng the S ign of \ /b , for the other branch we ha ve
33
2 =O

F ig 6
. . The figure shews ho w e ch branch bends a .

Ex 2 . . a
2
( x
2 — —yx
4
x
2 2 =0 .

The tangents t the origin e y x F or the ne x t

a ar : -
.

appro x im tion ret ining onl y the p arts of the given eq

a , a ua

tion which give rise to terms Of the second order the form s ,

Of the two branches e given b y ar

 M ULT IPLE POIN T OF T WO BR A NC HES
oth branches bend tow rds the negative end
B a Of the
axis O f x .

‘
4 “ f 2
b yz 2
0
'

Ex 3. . x y a x .

F or the direction Of fl ex u re from by a x,

by ax
y
4
$ 4
$ 3
0
1
4
b ) 4

by ax 2a b 4

F or the fl exu re f rom by a x,

‘ “
y
4
x
4
x
3
( t a T
b )
by ax 4
.

by ax 2 a l)

Writing 1 00a for a and 9 6 a for b we Obtain the

2 2 2 2
,

equ ation discussed in A t 3 3 and P late II fi g 1 5 shews r .

,
.
, .
,

the form Of the curve for the above v alues O f a and b .

Ex 4 . .
y
4 2 2
2a y 2a x 2 2
3ax 3
x
4
0 ,

?
(x )( 2a)
2 2 2
y( 2 a y ) x a x .

The curve is symmetric l with respect to a Ox .

3
_ x2 _ 3x
N ear ( 0 , y
2 - ’

2a

3x 3x
ia l
ne r ( aa 2 y —a § or y
,
a
2 2 3
,

near ( 2 a 2 y = 4 a 5 or y = 2 a f ;
,
a
2 2 3
,
2

near ( 0 J ) 2 2a 2 J 2 aaq
= 2 a c
c or x — 24
J2 a n;
2 2 2 2 :

ne ar ( a a J2 ) —2 2 J2 n
, , .
,

, 5
, or a
2
. a
3
,

near ( 2 a a J2 ) —2 a 2 J2 a n= 4 a f or 7
, ,
2
.
3
,
7

T O find where the curve is p ar llel to the x is O f x let a a ,

( B
a , ) be such a point n d consider th t if x = ot + f nd ,
a a a

=B + 7 the resulting eq tion in f 7 represents a curve

y 1 , ua , .

p assi ng through the origin and touching the axis of 5 so ,

that }; v anishes comp red with 5 ne ar the point Of contact a

'

The substit tion in the proposed equ tion gives ne ar

u a ,

( 0L
,
‘
Q§
z 2 2
(4 a ) f + P 77
3
a 9 aa . 4a +

B
4
2a 2
B
2
2a z
a .
2
3 ao< .
3
OL
4
0
 M ULT IPLE POIN T OF T WO BR A NCHES
therefore ,
m aking 5 very sm ll a ,

4a 2
a . 9 d oL 2
( l ,

whence a { or
= 0 an d — an d %a ne r
9 ly ; J 1 3
i g
-

8
a a

these v al es give the position O f the points required i

u ,
v z .

a e b n d b s mmetric all y pl a ced on O pposite sides O f Ox

’

, , y a , .

S imil arl y the c rve is p rallel to Oy w here

,
u a ,

0 0 a nd y
'

3 2
4y 4a y , or
y i a,

when y a, x
4
3ax 3
2a 2
x
2
a
4
0
.

The v l es of x a u are the abscissae Of the points Of inter

section O f x
2
ay

an d y (y 3x 2a ) a
z
.

the p arabol a
If the hyperbol ( 2 ) be constructed ( 1 ) a nd a ,

it will be seen th at since the p ar abol cuts the sy mptote a a

—
,

3 x a t the points where x = a an d 2 a the points

y , ,

O f intersection p an d q h ave for their absciss ae ,

sm all ,
a

negative v al e an d positive v alue little greater th an 2 a

u a a ,

a n d th t these a e the onl y points O f intersection T he

ar .

F ig 7
. . points S O determined e the points e e and f f in the ar ,
’

, ,
’

c rve
u .

The student m ay also find the sol tions O f the biqu adr tic u a

b y the intersections O f a y = x a n d y ( x —a ) (x
2

If there be no functions Of the third order the equ a

70 .
,

tion Of the c rve being O the ne x t pp o x i

u , a r

m ation to v = 0m ay be Obt ined from1

in the a

form c + B x = 0 which e xpresses th at the distance Of a

1
3
,

point Of th at br nch from the tangent ch anges sign as we a

p ass thro gh the point of cont ct or th at there is a point

u a ,

Of in fl e x ion .

T ke s n e x ample the c u rve a (x

71 . a ,
a a ,
2 2

The c u rve is sy mmetric l with respect to both ax es and a ,

m eets the x is O f y where y = t a a .

The br anch whose tangent is y = cc has the appro x im ate

, ,

form Of y
N e ar ( 0 a ) S ince the equ ation c n be written
, a

2 ‘
(a +x
 M ULT IPLE POIN T OF T WO BRA NCHES
if we write a + n for y we h ave the p rabolic form , a ,

x
2
2 a" 0

A nearer approx im ation is x which shews

th t the radius O f c rvature is a The dotted line in the
a u .

figure is the circle of curv ature at the points ( 0 t a ) , .

72 . When u
,
is a f cto r of
a u 2 a nd u the equ ation being
0 ,

the form Of the br anch ,

whose tangent is is given b y
“4

wl + ’
02

and therefore by

0 or u
1 + A x
3 =0 °

whence as in A t 7 0 this branch has a point Of infl exion

,
r .
,
.

In this c ase being of the third order o e is Of the fifth

, , l ,

and therefore r anks a fter u .

,

73 The following curves will serve as ex a mples

—2x) — ( y
.

Ex 1 . . a

The direction of fl e x u re from the tangent y 2x = 0,

Obta ined from

x+ 2 y)

by m aking y 2x in the sm aller term is given ,

by

—
3
1 6x
y 2x +

For the other branch whose tangent is x + 2 y = 0 the , ,

fl e x u e is given b y th at O f the p ar abol a

r

The c u rve cuts the axis of x where x = a ; if x = a

Since when y is rejecte d the equ ation becomes
,
2
,

)
2 2 2
3a xy ax y 2ax (x a O ,

the tangent t this point is 2 y f

a .

T O O btain some ide O f the S i e Of the loop which joins a z ,

(
the ends Of the branches in xOy put x = y Then ,
.

or 2 3 a n ea ly -
'

r .

D
 M U LT IPLE POIN T O F T \V O BRA NCHES
The g iding asymptote is 2 a x + y = 0 nd since the
u
3 4
a

ne xt most important term is —a yx the numeric l value of

, ,

2
,
a

y,
for l rge v aalues O f x is gre a ter in the curve th a n in the ,

a s mptote whe n y is less when th t both

y nd y is o a a s

branches lie above the asy mptote ; the curve cuts the lower
branch in two points only one Of which s g ven n the ,
i i i

F ig 1 0
. . figure .

The c alcul tion of the direction O f fl exu e Of the branches

a r

at the m ultiple point might h a ve been avoided as rem arked

in A t 5 3 b y Observing th at y —2 x = 0 does not meet the

,

r .
,

curve e xcept at the origin consequently there a e three ,

r

consec tive points in the t ngent and therefore a point of

u a ,

in fl e x ion ; an d th a t w+ 2 y = o meets it again at the point

—40a 2 0a ) too f to be represented in the figure
, , ar .

Ex 2
. . a
3
(y
2
x
2
) 2a 2
(v
3
x
3
) ay
4
x
5
0 .

The tangents to the branches thro u gh the origin a re

y =i x n d the ne x
,
t a ppro xim ati ons a e
a r

a (y -x
) 2x 2
0 , a
z
( y + cc) 4x
3
0 .

The equ ation m ay b e written in the for m

) (x )( a
2 2 2 2
y (y
2
a a x a ax x ) ,

or a { ( y 4a ) if } 2 ?
cc) ,

the curve is therefore sy mmetric al with respect to the line

y 5a ,
n d y is aimpossible if x 2 s in or betwe en , a

2 a sin 1 8 an d The forms where x 2 a s in

°
a a .
, ,

a nd 2 a sin a e common p ar a bol a s r .

The infinite branch is O f the form x + a ( y 1— af 0 5

7.
t
.

We m ay illustrate the method O f A t 47 in app x i r . ro

m ating to the positio n Of the points Of intersection of the

c rve with the line y = l a given b y the equ ation
u ,

x 2a x a x ——a 0 5 2 3 3 2 1 5
1 6 .

The values of x are the absciss ae O f the p oints of intersection

O f the curves

a
2
y x
3
, an d x
2
(y a ) 2a y z —1
1 6
a
3
0
,

the asymptotes of the l tter a a re

y = a, an d x = i a J2 .
 M ULT IPLE POIN T OF T W O BR A NCHES
The first curve is the dotted curve the asymptotes Of the ,

second are omitted The letters m n determine the .

, , r Fig 1 2
, .

position of M N R in the figure O f the given curve

, , .

II a .
2 1
.

7 4 The second c ase when u

. of in which there a , 2 , re

two coincident tangents gives gener lly as th app o xi , , a , e r

m ate form u + a = o ; hence if A be the v al e of u /x

2
u
3

when b —a a e written for x nd y v + A x 0 therefore

, l 3 , 3
2 3
r a
, , l

if A be finite i e unless c be a f ctor of u

, . .
,
a
s,

ax + by = i (
so th at gener lly when u e xis ts this curve
,
a , 3 ,
has a ceratoid
cusp at the origin [ see A t 1 8 r .

75 An e xample of this for m occurs in the curve

—b ) — —
.

2 2
( ax
4
y ax y y

x—by) —
z 3
a x
Near the or g n i i ( a
2
0 or by = a x i
,
T ,

bf

near the p oints ( 0 i b) $ 2 a b x $ b 2 bq = 0 or bq + ax = 0 2 2

—
.
, , , , .

where y = a x = or (a , oo
2

I f x an d y be both very l arge a x + y = 0 which meets 2 3

the curve where x —

, ,

b /a The figu re s dra wn for 3 2

. i Fig 1 3
. .

a >b .

76 .When c is factor of u we h ave to Obtain the

,
a
s,

appro x im ate form from in which c ase

( ur l
f —
inf n or u —B)x u
,
,
2
.

I f B be impossible the origin is a conj gate point u .

I f B be re al n d d fferent from ero e ach of the br nches

a i z ,
a

is p arabolic the curv atures being different

, .

If B = 0 or 4a = v the form m ust be found from the

, 4
f

2
2
,

ne xt appro x im ation i ,
v z .

( 0 + %v ) + u 0 or c
1 E71 Dx 2
2
5 , , 2
”
,

which shews s in A t 1 8 th at there is a rampho id

’

,
a r .

cusp at the origin .

 M ULT IPLE POIN T OF T WO BRA NCHES
77 . The following e xamples will illustrate these forms
Ex 1 . .
( x y)
2
(x y )x
2
}y
7,
4
0
.

Near the origin x y g c

c
z
, 4x
2

where y =0 , x
Z —x —ex 3 4 =0,

x —3 % nearly ;
an d

ne ar the points ( 0 ,
if y it can then be shewn
that ] x 7
- -
% x an d 2
0
— x l c : -» 5
-
,
2

so th at the curv e bends upw ards at both the points where

the curve meets Oy which for the upper p oint is contrary , , ,

to wha t one woul d h ave e x pected without c alcul tion? a

The tangent y + x = 3 it will be found meets the curve , ,

at points where x = —}g a n d 2 — ne arl

y 1 6
7
.

T O O bt ain a good ide a Of the si e Of the curv e Observe z

th t x = —y meets it where x —y = or —6 We can

,

a .

shew th at the tangents at these points e an d ar

F ig 1 4
. . 3 n= 7 $
The directions of the curve t the points where the curve ,
a

inters ects the axis Of x a e deduced from a c rious property ,

r u

of the curve which m y be shewn as follows

,
a

Le t the curve be cut b y a line x + y = OL then the lines ,

joi ni ng the origin with the four points of intersection are

given b y the homogeneous equ ation
r) r) sa w i ce/
2 ?
(x
?
a re 4
o.

( 1 -
a —3 a 2 )x4
3 ( ii )
When all four points e re al these lines form two pairs ar , ,

equ ally inclined t o the ax es ; if two onl y are re al the two ,

lines are equ all y inclined to the ax es .

H ence a pa ir a e coincident at e ach of the points of

,
r

intersection with the x is of x ; this appears directly from a

equ ation ( ii ) since y = 0when 1 —OL

, which makes2

= OL s atisfied b the points given in i

y + x y () .

The s ame proper ty shews th at there is a double tangent

p rallel to x + y = 0 touching at a b S O th at Oa Ob a e
a , , , , , r

equ ally inclined to Oy .

 M U LT I PLE POIN T S OF HI G HE R OR DE R S

CURVA T URE OF B R A NC HE S A T MULT IPLE POINT S .

80 To find the di ameter of curva t re of the branch of

. u

the curve whose t ngent is u = o the equ ation of the curve

a
l ,

being u v + u + u +1 1
0 3 4
.

Let u1 E ax + by ,
v
1
u
3
s
f (x , y) .

The second appro xim ation gives .

u iu
1 +
u
3
=0,
hence the
di meter of curv ture
a a
—fi
f Ja
Lt
1 ul u
3

b a)
’
2
(a
f( b a )
g —u
§
c
_ ltim ately
l
.

81 . Example . To co mp ar e the d ia m eter s o

f cu r v a tu r e

f
o the two br a n ches thr ou gh the or igin o f the cu r v e

z 2
(a x y ) (4a y) x .

The equ ation m aybe written

a (y —wy( y —m) = o
The di ameters of curv ature of the two br nches a are the
limits when y i 2 x of
, ,

2 2
xz y
2

wy w 56 )
t hey a re
%a an d 5 J5 éa , an d i n the r tio a

ULT I PLE POINT S OF H IG H ER ORD ERS

M .

8 2 These discussions of p articul ar for m s of the homo

.

en eo s functions
u e sufficient to shew how they can be
ar
g
dealt with in ll ordin ry c ases a a .

The di fferent forms which u co ld ssume if the first of 3

u a

the ex isting functions were of the third degree will suggest ,

themselves readily as when there is onl y one re al branch

, ,

when there a e three br nches when two of the three or

r a ,

a ll three oscul te ; also whenever v ari tions ari se in co n

a a
 M ULT IPLE POI N T S OF HIGHER ORDERS
sequence of pec u li ar forms of the succeeding functions
simil arto those mentioned in A rts 7 2 nd 7 6 . a .

Thus there would be three oscul ating br nches if the

,
a ,

e q uation reduced to the form

(u 1 t2 ) ( u 1 uz ) (u 1 wz) u
5 +

83 . few of the v arieties occur in the following curves

A .

Ex 1 . .
( y
— x )( y
—2x ) —y = a
z 2 4

This c rve has three br anches thro gh the origin the

u u ,

d efl ex ion s from the t an gents to which a e given b y r

a (y a ( y+x ) a —
( y 2 w)
near ( 0 a ) , ,
2x + y — =o a

2 ax = y 3
. Fig 1 7
. .

Ex 2 . . a (y
Through the origin there is a br anch of the form of
2a (y a n d there is a lso a conjug ate point c alled

a point circle x + y 0
- 2 2
.
,

Ne ar ( a O) y + x — a = 0
, , ,

near ( 00 ) a
y +
,
x =0cc ,
3 4
. F ig 1 8
. .

Ex 3 . . a (y —y —x 4 4 =0 .

S incethe interch ange of x and y does not alter the

eq ation there is sy mmetry with respect to the lin e x = y
u ,

n e ar the origin

a (y —
,

x) an d
2
x

near ( a O) , y + x — a =
,
o . F ig 1 9
. .

a (y —x) — 2a + ay — x =0
z 3 4 4 5
Ex 4 . . z .

Ne ar the origin
a (y — x) —
,

ax = 0 or y 2 3 4

near ( 0 —a ) if y
,

n+ 3 x = 0;
if x —a + f 3 a y + 5 = 0;
, ,

ne r a
2

ay —
,

near ( 00 ) x =0oo
4 5
F ig 2 0

‘0
. .
, , .

z 2 3
Ex 5 . . 2a ( y x ) (y x ) 4az (y x ) 2 x5 xy .

F or the branches whose com mon tangent is y x,

0
h

2
4a (y 2
x )
2
4 ax ( y x ) x
4
 EX A M PLES
is the ne xt approx i m te equ tion and it gives two coinciden t a a ,

parabol as To se parate the branches we must conduct the

.

appro x im ation a step f r ther ; in the sm aller terms put u

y x + x /2 a then 2
,

— —
2
— —
( )
93
2
( y x) (y
2 3
)+
5
4a x+ -
4 ax x x
i 0L

x (y —
6
33
or x {4a (y
«
2 -x 2
) 4a 2
x) + x } 4
ax
2
(y -x 2
) ;
5
25
1
:
x
whence 2 a ( y x) is the p p ro xim ation which a ,

gives a ramphoid cusp .

F or the br nch touching y + x O a ( y x) + x 0

a ,
2
,

where y O 2 a x 4ax + 2 x O or x ( x a ) 0;
,
2 3 4 5
,
3 2

near a 2 a x y 4 ax y x y
, 2x ( x a ) 0 2 2 3 4 3 2

( 90 awa
?
a )
The rectiline ar asy mptote is y 2 x —4 a the guiding :
,

F ig 2 1
. .
parabolic asymptotes e x i J 2 a y ar
2
.

E xamp les I V .

2x
1 .
(y 1) .

F i nd the br n h s whi h p ss thr gh ( 1

a c e c a ou , and sh ew that the
r di s
a u o f cu r v t r f h br h is 2 J 2
a u e o e ac an c .

z= 2
2 .
(2 a x )y (
x f25 a ) x .

S h w th e at the br anch e s at ( 3 0)
5a
; cu t 0x a t ang e ls 60
°
a nd 1 20
°

th r di s
e a u o f cu rv atu r e o f each br a nch is a J3 .

3 .

Pr v o e that the r di s
a u o f cu rv a tu r e at the p i nt wh r
o e e x=y is 30 .

4 .
(a
S h w th t t h e tr s f th
a ir l s f r v t r f th br h s
e c en e o e c c e o cu a u e o e a nc e

thr gh th
ou ri gi n t th p i t s
e o a ) nd th t th gr
a re a t st e o n a, : a a a e ea e
br d th f th l p m s r d p r ll l t 03/ is {
ea o e oo rl y ea u e a a e o f a nea .

5 I n th . rv f A t 81 sh w th t th diam t r f rv t r t
e cu e o r e a e e e o cu a u e a

( 4 ) is v ry li ttl l ss th n 4 3
.
,

a, a e e e a a .

6 D is ss th
. s f A t 82 wh
cu e ca e o r .
, en

i( ) t = = w nd ( ii ) t = ¢ M 2 v2 2 a 2 v2 2 .
 EX A M PLES
7 . x4 y
‘ 2 a x3 a
2
( x y)
2
O.

Sh ew r is
t hat the e a ce ato r id sp t th ri gi nd find th f rm
cu a e o n, a e o

of the cu rv n r (
e ea a, Pr v th t th r is l y t ng nt b sid s
o e a e e on o ne a e , e e

the ax is f x whi h p ss
o , c a e s thr gh th ri g i n d th t m th t g t
ou e o ,
an a ,
e an en

o f the i li n ti n t th
nc a o o e ax is f is g iv b y th q ti
o x, en e e ua on

a ppr i m
ox ate to its v l a ue b y the m e tho d of A t rs . 47 a nd 49 .

(
x2 x2 2 2
8 . x6 +y 6
y ) O .

S h w th t th rv nsis ts f f r l ps d
e a e cu e co o ou oo an that the r di s
a u of
rv t r f h b n h thr gh th ri gi is 2
,

cu a u e o e ac ra c ou e o n a .

9 F i nd th f r ms f th b r
. h s t th
e org o e a nc e a e o i i n, fo r the two cu rv se

x4 ms? j y a
z z
erg
/
3
0
and x4 a
n/ {f /
a t 2
a
g
/
3
O.

Pr v o e that the ea th br d s of the two l ps

oo m ea s rd
u e pa r ll l t
a e o 0x
are a b o u t éfa and { 5 x

1 0 T he . cu rv e, fig 2 0
.
,
A rt 88 . is p r ll l
a a e to 0x where,
it m eet s
the c u rv e
3 a 2(y -
x )
2
+ 8 a x l
3 --
5 x4=
0,
2
3 a 3/ ( y 2 x) x
2
(x a ) (5 x 3 a) 0 .

r th l s t rv
T ace e a cu e , and sh ew ro u gh ly whe r e the th r p i n ts
ee o of

i nt rs ti
e si t t d
ec o n are ua e .
 C H APTER V .

FOR MS OF B R A NC HE S W HOS E TA NGENTS A T T HE

OR G N I I A RE T HE COOR DI NA TE A X E S .

84 I have now to c all attention to the c ses in which

. a

x an d y a e of di fferent orders of m agnit de for points

r u ,

t ken very ne ar the origin long ny br anch of curve

a a a a

whose equation is given .

S uch c ases rise when the eq a tion of the curve can be

a u

shewn to be co rectl y repl ced b y a simpler equ ation of the

r a

form a x by when m an d u e unequ al F or e xample

“ :
"
, ar .
,

if the eq ation of a curve were

u
'

‘
x
4
ax
2
y bxy 2
cy
3
O,
the simpler eq ua tion x
would m ke 2
of the
+ ay = 0 a bxy2
order x an d cy of the order x nd the eq ation wo ld be
- 5
,
3 6
,
a u u

where b y diminishing x might be m ade , 6

as sm all a s we ple ase ; s o that one series of sm ll v a l es of a u

x an d 3
; will s a tisfy the equ a tion x + a y 0 which there
= 2
, ,

fore gives the form of one br nch o f the c rve

,
a u .

85 The va riety of ca ses which arise is so gre t th at I

. a ,

sh all attempt no subdivision of the two cases in which x is

sm all comp ared with y and y sm all comp ared with x.
,
.
,

reserving for a future chapter the application of Newton s ’

p arallelogram and De G u a s an alytic al tri angle to the dis ’

crimin ation of the branches of a c rve which p ass through u

the origin ; it will there be seen th at these a tifi ces save th r e

trouble of thinking in a gre at meas re b t m y object is u ,

u

r ther to give the student distinct ide s of the work which

a a

h e is doing in m aking ppro x im tions th an merel y to ob tain

a a ,

results .
 BRA NCHES TO UC H ING A XES A T T HE O RIGIN 59

I shall therefore in this ch apter disc ss such a n mber

86 . u u

o f p articul ar c ases as will be s ffi cient to show how n

y u a

case which is not very omplic ted m y be h andled t king

,
c a ,
a ,
a

a s e xa mples c u rves which e given b y equ a tions which ar

e ither cont in only sm all n mber of terms or e

a a u ,
ar

red cible b y simple consi derations to s m all n mber of

u , , a u

t erms .

A simple c se to begin with isa the c rve whose

u

e q tion I
ua S

H ere x nd y c nnot be of the s me order of m agnitu d e

a a a ,
‘
s ince in th t c se a xy wo ld be of the order x s o th a t the
2 3
a a u ,

eq tion wo ld become xy = 0 which is contrary to the 2

ua u a ,

s ppos ition
u .

We t y first whether x c n be sm ll comp red with y

r a a a ,

in which c ase x wo u ld b e sm ll comp ared with y 4

n d the a
4
a

e q tion wou ld become —a xy + y = O or x = y ; there

ua
°
4
, a
2

fore since for a short dist nce long this c rve whose form a a u ,

is the v alue of x whic h we neglected is of the order 4

, ,

y this is n ppro x im ate form of one p art of the curve

a
,
a a .

We then t y whether y can be sm all comp red with x in

r a ,

which case y could be neglected compared with x nd the

4 4
,
a

eq tion wo ld be reduced to x a g = O long this c rve 3 z

ua u a u ,

whose form is
i y is of the order x n d the result is
“ - 6
,
a

consistent with the assumption th at y migh t be rej ec ted

“
.

This is therefore the form of another branch at the origin .

The curve is then e sily drawn since it is symmetric l a ,

a

with respect to 0x and x c annot be negative , .

F ig 2 2
. .

'

The ne xt which I sh ll consider is more diffi c lt

88 . a a u

c se and will serve s an ill str tion of the circumst nc e

a , a u a a

th at if the r tion ali ed eq uation of cu rve be arr nged n

,
a z a a l

homogeneous functions of x and y scending n degree a i ,

s ch a s
u 0 u does not necess arily belong to , ,

the terms which can give the first approx im ation to every
branch of the curve passing thro gh the origin ; th t is the u a ,
 60 BR A NCHES TO UCHING A XES A T T HE O RIGIN
‘
functions are not arranged in order of m gnitude for a all

b ranches of the curve .

‘
T he e q u atio n of the c u rve is
xy
3 2
+ xy
5 — — =0 y
7 7
x .

H ere x and y c annot be of the s ame order of m agni

tude we must try therefore whether x y or y x can be , ,
:

sm all .

F irst suppose y : x sm all t e as sm all as we ple ase b y

, , . .

diminishing x ; if so y is sm all comp ared with x and the

7 7
,

equation reduces so far to , ,

x
2
y +y
2 5 —x 6 =0 .

gain since y is sm all compared with x y m ay be

A ,
3 2
,
5

neglected and y = x gives an approx im ate form

'
2 4
, ,

where we obser e th at the terms neglected n amely xy and v ,

5

y
7
a, e of the
r orders x and x while those ret a ined a e of 11 14
, r

the order x 7
.

N e x t s ppose x y s mall in which c ase x v anishes com

,
u ,
7

p ared with y and the eq ation is red ced to 7

,
u u

x
3
+ y
x —y = 0 3 5
.

If in any branch x can be neglected 3

, x=y
z
, an d x = y
6 3
,

hence the term neglected is sm ll comp a red with y retained a

5

—
,

fi is therefore the form of a branch .

If xy could be neglected x y then one condition

3
,
3 :
5
,

would be s tisfied i th at x 3] sho ld be sm all b u t

a ,
v z . . u ,

xy
?
3
occy which is gre
”s
ater th an the term y
r e
5 5
r
y ,

t in ed ; there is therefore no such branch through the

a

origin
If y be neglected x —y and y which x is sm all
.

5 2 3 5
, , ,
as

compared with the term x retained is therefore the 3

form of a branch ‘
.

The fo u b anches h a ve thus been shewn to be given b y

r r

the equ ations

y = x y x =y n d x
2
,
2
, a
2
 62 BRA NCHES TO UCHING A XES A T T HE O RIGIN
we m ay reject all the terms e xcept that which contains the
highest power of x .

( 4 ) If after the above simplifica tions a te rm x re main

”
, ,

not h aving y in its coeffi cient no term involving y need b e ,

ret ined in which the sum of the i ndices of x and y is u o

a ,
r

any gre a ter qu antity .

91The student should obtain the branches ne ar the

.

origin in the following curves and a fter this pr ctice he ,

a

will probably be able to perform the requisite Operation s

with ease the argum ents p assing through his mind almos t
,

involuntarily .

Ex . 1 . ax (y —) — = 0
x
‘
l
y
4
.

N e ar the origin
y of the s am e order gives ,
x an d

= x i xg af ; x y sm all gi v es a x =
/ y ; y x sm a ll give s
2
y z , z ,

ax = y
3
which contradicts the ssumption if x and y a e
4
,
a r

s mall but agrees with it if x and y be very l arge ; hence

,

F ig 2 3
. . ax
3
y gives the4
direction of bending a t an infinite dist a nce .

Ex . 2 . x
4
a zy
2
b y 2 2
0 .

The cur e is sym metrical in opposite qu adr nts

v a .

N e ar the origin a x + b y b x /a a nd x ,
2 2 - 2 3 2
,
3

ne ar ( x ccb y observe th at the br anch x

oo
4 :
2 2
,
3

F ig 2 4
. . closer to the ax is of x th an these p arabol s a .

5
Ex . 3 . x

N ear
the origin x m y be rejected and the branches a e ,
5
a ,
r

of the two p arabolic forms x a y and y x; a O) an d

2 2
a

—
, , ,

(
a, i a ) a e points in the curve ne r which y
r $ 2 5 an d , a :

(2 i the asy mptotic guiding c rve is x a y l y ing u

5 2 3
,

a bove the br anch x = y an d crossing the curve t (a a ) 2

F ig 25
. . a a ,
.

x —
5 3
Ex 4 . . 3b x y

N e ar the origin , xy
3
m ay be neglected compared with y ;
3

x
2 = 3 by a nd 3x = 4 by
32

g1v etwo br a nches at the origin .

Near ( 00 ) y m ay be rejected an d x = by g ives

as
3 4 3
a

guiding asy mptote cutting the c rve w

, ,

here x , u
 BRA NCHES TO UCHING A XES A T T HE O RIGIN 63

Where x = 4b , y = oo or 1 6
3

where x y ,
x
2
4 bx 0 ,

where x y or
2b ,
4b ,

where y 2 6, x 2 b 2 b or , , (3 g) b ne arl y ;
near ( 2 b , if x 2b
f y ,
2 1) m
y = x ( 1 + OL) W here
—2 b)
,

an d
2
(x
or ( — 2
x b )
2 -
6 ba ( x 2 b) + 6 6 2
oc
2
+ 0 ,

$ $ £ 0 + 6 6W
0
2 2
6 ba ; 9 5 3 5a e+3
2
,

whence 1 1 5 1 37 0 giving the directions of the

2
1
2
,

branches at the multiple point ( 2 6 2 b) nd showing th t , a a

they are inclined to one another at the angle cot 4 ne arly 1

. Fig 2 6
. .

Ex 5 . . ax
3
y axy
3
0 .

N ear the origin , x

2 : a
g] an d x
3 : ag
z
;
near ( co 60oo ay
4 3
,

also when x = a 00 or a
, y ,
: .

N ote th at x = y is the t angent at ( a a ) , .

The curve is par llel to the a xis of y where 2 a y = 3x or a

2

2 7 (x or x —a an d %a ne arly . F ig 2 7
.

Ex 6 . .
(y
2
x
2 2
) 6 axy 2
zax 3
a x
z 2
0 ,

2 2
(y 4ax ( 2 a )
2 2
x 3 ax) x .

The curve is sy mmetric al with respect to 0x ; x c annot be

negative nor gre ater th an 2 a there e two oscul ating ar

branches through the origin given b y y ( 3 i —J )8 a x —— x ,

2 2 3
4
a

or i—a x ne rly a .

Ne ar ( 2 a J2 ) ,
a , Fig 2 8
. .

if y = J2 + n a ,

‘
near ( a O) ,
4a y a f
,
0 ~
2 2 2 l
.

Ex . 7 .
y
4
2 axy 2
3a x 2 2
x
4
0
‘ 2 2
( 4a
2 2
(y ax ) x x

The curve is sy mmetric l with respec t to 0x and x = 2 a a

is a tangent where y t g /2 ; y = 3 a x nd —a x give

,

2
o a

—
branches through the origin N e r ( i a JS a

—
.
,

if x = t JS —
‘

lf = Sa f 2 Fig 2 9
y a . .
.
,
 ILLUS T R A T IONS
th at the curve is p ar llel to 0x at the points
S hew a

whose coordin ates a e ( 1 6 1 a 1 8 7 a ) and 1 08 a 8 6 a ) r

'

,
° °

,
°

Ex . 8 .
—x ya
3

Ne ar the origin if y : x be sm ll
,
a ,

4 z z 2
x ax y 2a y O,
x
2 — y or
a flay,
an d y is
3
sm
,
ll comp
cc a red
x with
6
x
, ; x an d y of the a
4

same order gives y n d the t angent y = 2 x a

m eets the curve again at ( 2 a 4 a ) where a n+ 7 $ 0 gives , ,

2 z

the parabolic form .

Ne ar ( 00 c x + y = 0; the c rve really crosses the

,
c
5
a
2 3
u

F ig 1 . .
a sy mptote at ( 8 a 3 2 a ) too fa to be shewn in the figure
,
-
, r .

Ex 9 x
6
ax
4
y cx
z 2
y d xy 3
ey
“
0 .

be of the s me order —x + dxy

. .

If x and y a c ey = 0 ,
2 - 2

gives two branches through the origin when the f acto rs

a e re al
r

If y be s m all comp red with x x + a x y —cy = 0 gives

.

4 2 2
a ,

two oscul ting p ar abolic branches

a .

The figure is drawn with d and e sm all compared with c .

,

and with the upper sign in the eq ation u

If the lower sign be taken x —ey = o gives two semi

.

6 4
,

cubic al p ar abolic asy mptotes since with this rel ation the ,

rem aining terms a e of orders lower th an x r

6
.

F ig
s . 3, 4 .
The two fig res correspond to 4 cc an d d u
z
.

‘
Ex . 10 . x
6
a
z 4
y a x
2 3
y
3
a zy
2
0 .

N e ar the origin if x y sm ll y , a ,
2
ax 0 ,

y x sm ll x My
5 z z 2
a x y a , O ,

y 0
=
3 2
an d
2
x +a , x + ay O;
F ig 5 . .
the origin is therefore a triple point .

.
The following e x mples will serve for practice of
92 . a

the method spoken of in A t 8 9 in which the equ tions of r .

, a

the c rves either contain only three terms or a red cible

u , re u

immedi atel y to three terms b y the con sider tions given in a

A rt 90 . .
 ILLUS T RA T I ONS
The curves which I h ave selected can be traced com
letely b y the methods alre ad y described an d will be useful
p ,

as an introduction to the ch apters on a sy mptotes w hich

succeed .

Ex . 1 . axy
2 3
a y 0 .

ej ecting xy comp ared with y x a y is a form near the

R z
,
4 3

origin ; rejecting x yx + a = 0is n pprox im ation if x be 4

,
2
a a

very sm all and y very l arge therefore the ax is of y is an ,

a sy mptote an d the curve lies to the left a bove to the right

, ,

below ; l astl y rejecting y x = a y holds if x and y be both

, ,
3 2

infinite giving a semi cubica l p r bolic asymptote

,
-
a a .

Ex 2 . x .
—i xy
‘
— y
3
0 4
a
3
a :
-
.

N eglecting x x + y 0 ne ar the origin ; neglectin g y 4

,
z
,
3

x = a y m akes y of the 0 der x { a n d gives a semi cubic a l

4+
3 2 3 -
1

p arabol a at the origin ; neglecting xy x a y m akes xy o f z

,
4 :
3 2

the order x correctl y neglected at n infinite d istance

3+
a .

Ex 3 . . x
4 —a2xy —ay3 =
N ear ( O
— y = 0;
,

ax + y
2 = 0 an d x
3
a

ne r (
a 00 cc x =
4
ay
3

x
4
ax
2
y ay
3
0 .

+ a y = O;
2
an d
2 2
x y x
4 3
x ay . F ig 9
. .

Ex 5 . . axy
2 z 2
a y by 3
0 .

N e ar
the origin a xy and by m ay be rejected comp ared 2 3

with a y s o th t x —a y = 0 gives two branches thro gh

,
.

2 2 4 2 2
,
a u

the origin .

N e ar ( y v nishes comp red

cc with y cc
2
a a
3
,

x
4
a xy
2
by 3
0 ,

if x be neglected
4
y therefore x w as improperl y ,
ax = b
4

neglected comp red with the terms kept ; if xy be neglected a

z
,

x + by = 0 an d xy being of the order was properly

4 3 2

neglected ; if y were neglected x —a y = 0 y would be of

, ,

3 3 2 3
, ,

the order x + i or greater th an the terms retained ; therefore

4
,

F C T
. . .
 EX A M PLES
is the only asym ptote The figure drawn
'

2b nearly .

Ex . 6 . x
5 — y— y
a x
a
a
2 3 =0 .

Ne ar ( O O) 2
0 an d
4 3
0;
—y = 0
, , ax y x a y
Fig 1 1 e r ( 00
n a co
) ,
x
5
a
2 3
.

— y—
. .

Ex . 7 . x
5
a z
3
ay
4 =o .

N e ar ( 0 a x
g 3
O an d x
4 3
O
—y = 0
, y a y
Fig 12
. .
ne ar ( co ,
co
) , x
5
a
4
.

Ex . 8 . x y

N e ar ( O x
4
ay
3
;
—
,

Fig 1 3
. . e
n ar ( 00, cc
) , x 3
+a
2
y 0
= an d y
2
ax = 0 .

“
Ex 9 . . x y
3 z
a x
3 2
ay 0 .

Near ( O , a x
z 2
y ;
“

e r ( 00
n a ,
cc
) , x 3
+ ay
2 = 0;
near ( 00 xy z
a
3
0 .

Ex . x
5 — ax
4

Ne ar the origin ,
x +a
2
xy y
4

r ejecting x 0
4 2 3
a
y x ,

y ,
w + a y = 0;
3 2

near ( 00 ) ,
co , x + ay =
5 4

when x = a , y = 0 or a,

near ( a O) , ,

Fig 1 5
. .
(a , a ) .

Examp les V .

1 . T r ace the cu rv e

(x
2
+y 2 2
) Saxy 2
2 ax 3
2a x2 2
0 .

F ind p si ti n f li n p ll l t Oy n whi h th thr

the o o o a e ara e o , o c e ee
ti n int r p t d b y th rv ll q l S h w th t th
p
or o s e ce e e cu e are a e ua e a e
li t n fr m Oy is $ n rl y
.

s a ce o 6; ea .

2 Sh w th t th symp t t f th rv x (y x) —y = 0 t
e a e a o e o e cu e a - 2 4
cu s
rv t fi nit d is t n t p i nt t whi h th r v r n
.

the cu e a a e a ce a a o a c e cu e u s
p r ll l t th xis f y F i nd t wh t p i nt th rv is p r ll l t
a a e o e a o . a a o e cu e a a e o
the a xis f x o .

3 F i nd th p i nts in th l p t whi h th rv x xy y = 0
e o e oo a c e cu e 4
a
z
a
3

is p r ll l t th x s
.

a a e o e a e .
 E XA M PLES
4 . F i nd
r p i nts wh th t
the th ee o e re e angent at (a , a ) in the cu rv e
. s rv g i n
o f A rt 9 1 ( 3 ) m e et the cu e a a .

5 Dr w th
. rv a xy by 0 e cu e x4 a
2 3
.

S h w th ff t f v ryi ng th m iddl
e e e ec o a e e r
te m in the f ll wi ng
o o fiv e
cu rv s e :

5 x5
6 . x 7 .

8 . x5 a xy
3
+ by
4=
0 . 9 . x5

10 . x5
2
a xy
2 by 4 0 .

T race the f ll wi ng rv s
o o cu e

4= 2 3
4a 2x2y2
11 .
y + ax
5 bzxyz . 12 .
( x2 + y ) .

13 . x 4
4ax y 2
4 dazy2 3=
ax 0 . 14 .
z
a xy

15 . x 5
ay
“ 2 bx3y + 62 xy2 = 0
'
. 16 . a
2 3
y a
z
hy2 2 2
a xy z
é
O .
 CH AP TE R V I .

T T
A S Y MP O E S . I T OF I NTERSECTI ON A T A N
PO N S
I NFI NITE DI S TA NCE A S Y MP T OTE S P ARALLEL
.

T O T HE A XES .

93 .In the preceding ch apters I h ave shewn how to find

b y appro x im ation the forms of curves in the neighbo u r
hood of the origin .

I h ave shewn in f a t how it is th at the equ ation of the

c

curve m ay be repl ced b y simpler equ ations representing

a ,

ne ar the origin with su ffi cient ccur cy th e di fferent a a

branches of the curve .

In the present h apter I propose to apply the same

c

principles of pprox im ation to discover the forms of the

a

branches o f c rves which ex tend to a distance from the

.
u ,

origin very gre at comp ared with the nit distance employ ed u

in the eq ation simple c ases of which h ave occ u rred in

u ,

m any of the curves alre ad y tr aced .

SY MPT OT ES A .

9 4 S ince in tr cing c rves we profess to include every

. a u

point whose coordin tes s tisfy the equ ations whether the
a a ,

points a e at a finite or infinite dis tanc it becomes n eces

r e,
‘

s ary to e x a mine every c se in which it is possible th ata

either one coordin ate or both m y be infinite n d to indicate a ,

a

the course of the curve corresponding to all s u ch c ses a .

F or this purpose simpler rel ations th an th t represented a

b y the eq ation a e discovered to which the equ ation very

u r ,

ne arly reduces when one or both of the coordin ates a e very

, r

l arge .
 I NT ERS E CT I ON AT A N IN FINI T E DISTANCE
to the in te rs ection of curves with straight lines especially ,

with regard to those points of intersection which m ay be

at an in fini te distance .

I m ust first re m ind the student th at if ,

be an equ ation which has one in fi nite root then a = o ,

if it h ave two infinite roots both a = 0 and b = O and , ,

so on .

This is ea sily seen if for x we write Z which m akes '

l
,

the equ ation and this equ ation m u st

be satisfied b y = 0 if there be two roots equ al to ero

a
z
,
z .

97 . ele mentary treatises on A lgebr aic al Geometry

S ome
sp eak of a straight line drawn p arallel to the axis of the ,

p arabol a as meeting the curve in one point ; this although ,

justifi ble from one point of view is not a s atisfactory

a ,

way of disposing of the question concerning the intersection

of a p arabol a with a straight line an d is li able to misle ad ,

the student in his examin ation of curves in general and ,

esp eci ally with respect to the branches which a e at an r

infinite distance .

The sep aration of curves into cl asses of different degrees

is e ffected b y arranging them an aly tically into curves in
which the greatest s u m of the indices of the c rrent coor u

din ates in an y one term of the equ tions is l 2 u or a , , ,

geometrically into curves which a e met b y a str aight line

,
r

in 1 2
, n points
, .

There a e obvious a dvantages in choosing an interpreta

r ,

tion of the an aly tic al and geometric l cl ssifica tion which a a ,

m akes the cl asses coe xtensive and it i s unfortun ate when ,

e x pressions a e used which a e inconsistent with such an

r r

interpret ation .

To t ake the c ase of a p ar abol a alluded to above as an , ,

e xample y = 4ax m ay be considered as a p articul a r c ase of

2
,

t he gener al equ ation of the second degree from which some ,

of the terms a e e x cluded which ought to have appea red in

r ,

t he form 0 x 0 xy etc . In this point of view the straight

2
, , .
 IN T ERSECT I ON AT AN IN FINIT E DISTA NCE
line y = a parallel to the axis intersects the curve
, ,
at points
whose absciss ae a e given b y the equ ation
r

0 x + 4a x—0 =O
2 2
.
,

one root of which is in fi nitely great and the other finite .

Thus the geometrical and an alytica l cl assifications of

curves are m ade to a gree .

A nd this does not interfere with the geometric al d efi ni

tion of a p arabola as a curve which is the locus of a point
whose distance s from a fi x ed point and a fi xed straight line
are equ a l ; for a point which is at an infinite distance
s atisfies this condition and is therefore a p oint in the curve
, .

On this principle if k = 0 where k is a constant be con

, , ,

s ide ed a s a p rticul a r c a se of a n equ ation of the first

r a

d egree it is the equ ation of a s t aight line at an in fi nite

, r

d istance ; if it be considered as a p articul ar c ase of the

e qu ation of the second degree it is the equ ation of a conic ,

s ection or two str a ight lines at an infinite dist ance .

98 . considering the intersection of a curve of the

In
n
th
degree b y any straight line we ought to be able to ,

a ccount for all the n points of intersection an d if the , ,

e qu a tions of the curve an d stra ight line give a resulting

e qu ation of the ( n —
) degr ee we m ust conclude th at
th
r ,

r points of intersection rea l or im agin ary a e at an , ,

r

infinite distance .

N o w as no straight line can b e dra wn whic h is so ne ar

, ,

a curve in the neighbo rhood of ny point as the p articul a r

u a ,

line which p as s es through the ne x t consecutive point as

well ( Art the s ame being true however dist nt these
.
,
a

c onsec tive points a e it follows th at a line which m eets

u r ,

the curve in two points at an infinite distance is gen e a lly r

the ne arest line th at can be dra wn to the curve t an a

in finite distance and is a rectilinear asymptote

,
.

99 order to fi nd what sort of e x ceptions m ay occur

. In
to this gener l statement we o ght to consider the v ria
a u a

t ions which occur in finding the t angent to a curve at a

 IN T ERSECT I ON AT AN IN FINIT E DIST A NCE
p oint at a finite dist nce and s o deduce the corresponding a ,

v ariations in c ases of rectiline ar asymptotes .

10In the first pl ce at a point of in fle x ion where the

0 . a ,

str ight line is constructed which p asses thro gh the point

a u

of infiexion and consec u tive point it at the s ame timea , , ,

p asses through a second consec tive point on the opposite u

side ; so that although we cannot generally cons truct a

,

str ight line so s to p ass thro gh more th an two cons ecu

a a u

tive points it h ppens in this p artic l ar c ase th at the con

,
a u

str cted line passes also through third The corresponding

u a .

c ase for an asy mptote is th t of three points at an infinite

'

distance .

10In the ne x t pl ce if we t y to find a tangent to a

1 . a ,
r

branch of m ltiple point s y of br anches we observe

a u ,
a r ,

th at any straight line which p asses thro gh the ple point u r- ,

p sses thro gh points in the c rve one for e ach branch

a u r u , ,

in whatever direction it be dra wn ; an d th at when a straight ,

line not only p sses through the ple point but also is
a r- a

tangent to one of the br anches it will c ont ain two coin ,

ciden t points on th a t br nch It follows that there a e a . r

r directions in which a str aight line can be drawn through

an ple point for which it contains r + 1 coincident points
r- ,
.

If one of the br nches h a ve point of infl ex ion at the a

'

r- ple point it is pl in from the l st article th at the tangent

,
a a

to th t br nch will contain + 2 coincident p oints instead

'

a a r

of + 1 r .

S u ppose now this ple point to be at an infinite distancer- ,

all str aight lines which cont in + l points coincident a r

with the r ple point e p ar allel and being t ngents a e

-
ar , , a ,
r

a sy mptotes to the curve ; any o ther p ar allel straight lin e

,

cont ins r points on the cu rve t an infinite dist nce

a a a .

If y —
102 m x = 0 p ss thro u gh an
. ple point at an a r-

infinite distance ny line y = m x + d will also pass thro u gh

,
a

it ; hence if y = m x + a be combined with the eq ation of

,
u

the c rve there will be r infinite roots of the resultin g

u
 INT ERSECT I ON AT AN IN FINI T E DIST A NCE
eq ation in x or y wh atever be the v l e of a The recti
u , a u .

linear asymptote which corresponds to the t ngent to a a

branch must then be fo nd b y the condition th at one more

, u

root h s an infinite v alue ; an d this condition will determine

a

the p ar llel sy mptotes

r a a .

10T ke as an e x mple the c rve of the third degree

3 . a a u ,

whose eq u tion is a

x y ( )
x
2
b y z
0
.

An y str aight line p ar a llel to y = x has an equ ation

= x + oc an d meets the cu rve where
y
0 . x
3
+0 . x
2
+ ( oz .
2 —b ) x —b2 2
a =0 ,

so th t there a e two infinite v al es of x for ll lines p r llel

a r u a a a

to y = x In order to obtain the ne rest possible straight

. a

line to the c rve t an infinite dist nce we m st m ake

u a a ,
u

so th at either of the str ight lines y = x i b meets a , ,

the curve at three points at an in finite distance .

If x= 0 the v alues of y a e given b y

, r

0y + 0 y —6 y = o .
3 2 2
,

which shews the x is of y s an symptote a a a .

N e ar the origin x —b y = 0 lso the c r e is 3 z

a u v

sy m m
, ,

etric al in opposite q dr nts ua a . F ig 1 6

. .

104 In this c rve we observe th at there e two

. u ar

branches t an infinite distance from both ax es nd th t

a ,
a a

these two branches both p ass thro gh the point in which u

all lines p ar allel to = x intersect s o th t this point is a a

y ,

tr e m u ltiple point at an infinite dist nce ; nd e ch of

u a a a

these p r llel lines intersects the c rve t two points t n

a a u a a a

infinite dist nce for th t re son A lso y x b represents

a , a a . a

straight line which p sses thro gh two consec tive points a u u

on the s me br nch an d the third point t n infinite

a a , ,
a a

distance is th t in which it meets the br nch whose t ngent

a a a

my x —h z

105These considerations of infinitel y dist nt points of

. a

intersection s ppl y complete method of determining recti

u a
 IN T ERSECT I ON AT AN IN FINIT E DISTA NCE
linear a symptotes to a curve as will be seen b y a few ,

e x mples I t is well to know this method although that

a .
,

of appro xim ation has a decided advantage both because it ,

supplies a knowledge of the side of the a sy mptote on which

the curve lies and also because it gives the curvilinear as
,

well as the rectiline ar asy mptotes .

106 The general m ethod spoken of m ay be e x pl ained b y

.

the following process .

C onsider the intersection of a curve of the n degree th

with a straight line whose equ ation is y

If we elimin ate y we obtain an equ ation of the n degree th

in x giving the n v l es of x at the points of intersection ;

,
a u

this equ ation is of the form

where is a function of or n d Q R etc a e functions of

P ,
a , ,
. r

oz an d of the first second etc degrees in 8

.
,
S ince for an , .
,
.

a sy mptote two v a lues of x must be infinite we h ve the ,

a

equ ations P = 0 n d Q = 0 which generally determine oz

a , .

an d
6 .

Th s if the terms of the

u , n
th
degree in the equ ation of
the curve be
+ bxy + lx
n n 1 ”
+
'

ay ,

an d P = 0determines v lues of a real or im agin ary

n a ,
.

I f a be one of these v a lues we h a ve le arned th at the

l ,

straight line y = a x + B meets the c rve at one point at

1
u

a n in finite dist ance ; if now we s ubstitu te this v al e of a u .

in the equ ation Q = 0 8 c n be determined an d since Q is

, ,
a ,

o f the first degree in 8 there is onl y one such v alue of 3

, , ,

for e ach value of 0L .

Thus generally there a e n asymptotes completely deter

, ,
r

mined b y these eq tions ua .

107 The e x ceptions to this gener l statem ent are of

. a

gre at v ariety ; it will be s fficient to take one case v iz u ,

.
 IN T ERSEC T I ON AT AN INFINIT E DIST A NCE
A fourth asy mptote 2 y + 3 a = 0 meets the curve at two
o in ts in fi n ite l dist nt an d two t a fi nite dist ance a a
p y.
,

The sh ape the origin is given b v y at

4 = 2 a 2 x2

F ig 1 7
. . A t —a the tangent is y 3
-

(x + , Tg
°

10 9 A s a n e x ample of the use of the intersections of a

.

curve nd line to obt in inform ation abo t the sh ape of

a a a u

the curve note th at y —x = ot meets the curve at points

given b y ( oz 2 a ) (oz—a ) x —oc = 0two points at n infinite
.
,

2 4
.
, a

dist nce being the i ntersections with the two asy mptotes
a .

The points at a finite distance are equidist nt from the ax is a

of y which therefore bisects all chords p ar allel to y = x

, , , .

If y x = oc p asses through a point where the curve is

-

p ar allel to Oy 4 a = ( 2 oz—3 a ) x which with the equ ation

,
3
.
2
, ,

above gives 2 oz The two values of oz a e

2
,
. . r

% a an d %a ne rl y n d the l atter being between a and 2 a

a ,
a

is impossible ; hence the chord joining the two points where

the c rve is p arallel to Oy is bisected b y Oy
u .

1 10 The following gener l e x mples will serve as

. a a

ill str ations

u

x (y —x) — = o
2 3
Ex 1 . . a ,

The straight line y x gives for the points of intersection

—
,

O y +0 y.
3
.
2
+ 0.y a
3 =o ,

and, since x c annot be negative the c rve lies on both side s ,

u

of one end of the sy mptote and the three in finite roots a ,

correspond to a c sp at an infinite dist nce S imil arly for u a .

the sy mptote x = 0 the c rve lies on the s me side at both

a ,
u a

ends n d the point t infinity on x = 0 corresponds to

,
a a a .

F ig 1 8
. . point of infi exion .

x +y — 5 x y=0 5 5 3
Ex 2 . . a .

A n y str ight line p rallel to x + y = 0meets the curve at

a a .

one infinitely dist nt point a .

The straight line y + x = oc meets it t points given b y

—) + 5
a

x
5
( x a
5
ax
3
( x —)=0a ,

0
 IN T ERSECT ION AT AN INFINIT E DISTA NCE
H ence there are two points of i n
tersection at an infinite
distance if oz —a and y + x + a = 0 is therefore the
,

.
,

a sy mptote ; the three other points of intersection are

given b y 5x 3
1 Oa x 5a x a 0 2 2 3
.

B y the method given in A rts 47 48 it is e asil y shewn .

,

that this equ ation gives only one re al v a lue of x which is

—§ a or —%a It m ay be
,

n eg ative an d not far fro m,

7 v .

obtained b y dra wing the two curves

( x l
- -
a
2
) ay an d 5 yx + a = 2

The br anches ne ar the origin a e r

—5 a y = 0 L z —
i 0
“

5 4
ax
3 =
y ,

lso x = y meets the curve where which guides

'

a x = y = g a,

a s to the si e of the loop z . Fig 1 9

. .

Ex . 3 .
37
2
(x
2
37
2
) 2 ay 3 3
za x 0 .

x- gives one infinite root

T- y = 0 ,
an d x ¢ =
y oc meets the
curve where
4
O y +y
.
2
a ( oci 2 y) 2 ay 3
2a 3
( oa y) 0 .

Two roots a infinite if i on= and the finite roots a e

re , a, r

given b y a
g i 2 a y 2 a O 2 z 3 4
,

or
The roots a e impossible for the upper sign hence the
r

curve does not cross the asymptot e x —y = a at a finite

,

distance but it does cross the a sy mptote x + y + a = 0 at

— — —
,

the points ( 1 1 J 3 ) a } or % a % a ) n d ,
a

-—a
1 5
a nea rly
,
. Fig 21
. .

= 0 gives three infinite v l es of x n d neglecting y a u a

4
y , ,

an d y comp ared with x y

3
2 /x ne rl y therefore the ,
2
a
3
a ,

curve lies on both sides of the neg tive end of x Ox a

’
.

N ea r the origin y = a x ; ne ar ( 0 2 a ) 4 q + x = 0
,
3 2
, ,
.

Ex 4 (x —b ) x
3

— )—
. .
,

2 2
x
y(y x

x=a gives for y,

0 y +0 y +0 y
.
4
.
3
.
2 — y+ b A

a
3
a
3 =
 INT ERS E CT I ON AT AN IN F INI T E DISTA NCE
and is therefore an asym p tote ; so is y = b ; y
- x = oz
. m ee ts
the curve where
—
w} 2

and if the coefficient of x

3
be 0 as well , as that of x
4
,

2a

y x % (a b) is an asy mptote .

S i m ila rl y y x g m b) is an a sym p tote .

N e ar ( O y x
E
,

3
3
ne ar ( a b) , , y b 3 ( x a ) .

F ig 20
. . It will be foun d th at with the pro p ortions of a and b
,

given in the fi gure the second asymptote cuts the curve

,

where x while the fi rs t cuts it in no real

p oint ; also th at Oy is par allel to the curve where x = §
To assist in fin ding the manner in which the curve runs ,

it m ay be observed that a straight line dra wn through the

origin c n only m eet the curve in one point besides the
a

origin .

F rom the way in which the curve has been drawn in the
qu adr ant y Ox it ap p ears as if t angent could be drawn
’

,
a

from the origin in which case there would be two points of

,

inte rsection Ho w the curve re ally runs m ay be she wn as

.

follows
Le t the r adius y + m x = 0 m eet the curve and the
a sy m p tote in points P a nd Q respec
tiv ely and let P M Q N be pe rp endicul ar to Oy
, , .

2m (m + 1 )

H ence P is further fro m or ne arer to the origin than Q

, ,

a ccording as

am ( 2m + 1 ) or b(2 + m)

an d the curve a nd a sy mptote intersect if r a = b where , ,

m +§ 2 —) m —= 0
r r .
 CA SE OF x A LONE INFINIT E

CA SE OF {I} A LONE INFINIT E .

1 1 3 To t y whether x c an be infinite while y rem ains

. r

finite we m st suppose the equation arranged in descending

,
u

powers of x in the form

0 ,

1
T
CU
—
8

hence m aking x infin ite we h ave ,

I n order therefore th at this c ase should occur it is

, , ,

necess ry th at the term containing the highest power of x

a

in the eq u tion should involve y If b be root of

a . a

= b will be an as mptote since even if there be not two

y y , ,

roots eq al to b the condition of h aving two points t an

u , a

in fi nite dist nce wo ld be s atisfied because if the curve be

a u , ,

of the n degree cannot be greater th n n 1 nor s greater

"h
r a

th an n —2 an d in the equ ation resulting from the s u b s titu

, ,

tion of b for y the first finite term can involve no higher

power th an x If f (y) 0h ave t roots real or im agin ary
n ‘z

c n not be gre ater th an n —t nor s gre ter th an n —t 1

.
, ,

r a ,
a

therefore when b is put for y in the resulting equ tion

, ,
a

the first finite term c annot involve a higher power of x

th an x an d hence there must be t + 1 in fi nite roots
H n‘
.
,

The t + 1 infinite roots a e accou nted for as follows the r :

equ ation f ( y) = o gives t p ar allel lines which therefore all ,

meet at an in fi nite dist nce in the s ame point ; any straight a

line p arallel to these lines meets the c rve in t points at an u

infinite dist nce b t is not an asy mptote since it does not

a ,
u ,

cont in on itself two such points ; e ach of the p arallel lines

a

corresponding to sol tions o f f ( y) = o contains two such u

poin ts besides the t 1 in which it intersects the other lines .

This is the c ase of a multiple point of t branches at an

infinite distance spoken of in A t 1 01 ,
r . .

114It is import ant in tracing a curve to kno w on

.
,

which side of an a sy mptote the c rve m akes ts appearance u 1

from an infi nite dist nce This m y be obvio s fro m our a . a u

 CA SE OF 3: A LONE INFINI T E
knowledge of other p arts of the c rve ; b t it is necess ry u u a

to h ave some general me thod of determining this fe at re of u

a n a sy mptote d irectl y from the eq tion of the c rve If ua u .

= b be an asymptote it must be possible to put the

y ,

e qu tion of the c rve in the form

a u

A B C
y ( 2)

where r,positive either integers or fractions and

s, t, are , ,

r s t When x is taken su fficiently l arge the sign of

.
,

the series will be determined from th at of the first term .

This is generally s fficient to d etermine the side of the

u

a sy mptote on which the curve lies ; but it m be necess a r a

y y
to consider other terms To shew this it is s ffi cient to . u

consider s ch form u a as

If we took into a ccount the first term only the curve ,

would be above the a sy mptote t the positive an d below t a a

the negative end but the second term h s two values when
,
a

x is both less th an a /x an d is im possible when x is z

,

so th at the curve has two br anches bove the positive end a

of the a sym ptote and none at the negative end

,
.

115 It is obviou s from wh at has been s aid in the l ast

.

article th t there m st be
a very gre at v riety of forms
u a a ,

and I sh ll not ttempt to give n c o nt of ll those but

a a a a c u a ,

tr st to an e xamin tion of sever l curves b y which the pro

u a a ,

cesses to be adopted will be ill strated The most simple u .

ease c n however b e st ted n d peculi rities indic ted

a a ,
a a a .

Take the form ( 1 ) in A t 1 1 3 r . .

If y b be a single root of so th at
( 3/ where f ( b) is not ero 1
z ,

we h ave y b+ ¢ ( y ) 1
0;
-
+
f1 ( y )
-
r 8
“f

b) 1
1 f b b e not ero z
y
=b
b
( )
7 4
56
1
FCT
. . .
 SY M PT OT ES PA R A LLEL T O T HE A XES
A

H ence when —s is even the curve is on the s ame side

,
r ,

of the asy mptote y b at both ends abov e or below accord ,

b
¢( )
ing as ls ne
g a tive or Pos iti ve .

fa )
b
When — is odd the c rve lies above the sy mptote
r s ,
u a at

one end n d below t the other a a .

1 16 eculi rities occ r in p artic l ar ses such s when

. P a u u ca ,
a

= o h s repe ated roots or when v nishes when

f y
( ) a
¢ ( y ) , a

y of the su ceeding coeffi cients v nish

= b or when an
y , c a

at the s ame time s In s ch c ses it m ay h ppen a u a a

th t the term involving the highest power of x is not one

a

of the pri ncip l terms for ll the infinite br nches r nning

a a a u

p r llel to 0x
a a .

Thus for the c rve ,

u

(y b) 4
x
4
+ ay
3
(y b) x 3
a x
7
a
s
0 ,

the second an d third terms will give correct appro xim tion a a

to the v al e of y i b —a /b x bec au se with this v lue

u v z
G 3 2
a

—
.
, ,

( y b) x is of the order x nd the t e rms ret ained a e of

4 4 '
4
,
a r

the order x .

The first term however is one of the principal terms , ,

for another br nch Th s t king the first nd second terms a . u ,

a a

together ( y b) b /x 0 which rel tion m kes the terms

,
3
a
3
, a a

ret ined of the order xi nd therefore l arger th an those

a ,
a

rej ected .

117 The following ex amples of v arieties which m y

. a

occ r will s ffice to e x pl ain how to determine the position

u u

of c rve with respect to its symptotes which e p ar llel

a u a ar a

to either axis The asy mptotes whic h e not p r llel to the

. ar a a

ax es m ay for the present be t aken ,

s dditi n al ill strations ,
a a o u

of the method b y infinite roots given bove a .

Ex 1 .
( x
.
— a )y —a x = 0 2 2
.

x a an d y a sy mptotes 2 2
are a .

Near ( a , co x — a
 A SY M PT OT ES PA R A LLEL TO T HE A XES

x — a

3
a

21n
b 3
ne ar { cc , y + a + b
2
( 2
If y the points of intersection a e given b y r

—a O
an d y —
,

x = a + b is therefore a n a sy mptote .

N e r the origin
a ,

ne ar (a a )
, ,

near { a ,

F ig 24
. . The fi gure is dr wn for b = a ne arly a .

Note 1 The curve is p arallel to Oy where

.

—b
,

y
the other root gives impossible v alues f x ; in the figure o

y = —a ne arl y .

Note 2 The curve is p arallel to 0x where x = 2 a which

.
,

gives two positive v l u es a nd one negative val e of y a u .

3 2
(x )y (y b) x2
Ex 4
. . a .

The a symptotes p rallel to the a ax es are

x =a an d (y
N e ar (a , x

near ( 00 b) ( y b) b /x
,
2 3
.

R e arranging the equ ation b y homogeneo s f nctions u u

xy
2
(y x ) ag
g
2 bx y 2
b 2
x
2
0 ,

we find that y x B meets the curve at points given by

the equ ation ,

0
—2 b there will be tw points t infinity or
.

I f ,8 = a o a

— —2 b will be
, ,

y x = a sy mptote It meets the curve in an a .

the points given by

(3b
2
a
2
) x
2
2 ( a + b) ( 2 b a
2
) x+ a ( 2 b a )
s
0
,

the roots of which ar e re al when

,
2b a .
 A S YM PT OT ES PA RA LLEL T O T HE A XES
N ea r ( 0 ,
ne ar ( b) b f
ay
3
0 b
2
x
2
0
, a, ,
3
,

The curves re drawn for a < bJ3 which gives two

a ,

im gin ary and for > 2 b which gives two re l points of

a ,
a a

intersection with the asy mptote p r llel to y = x Fig a a . s .

No te The c rve is p r llel to 0x where x = 2 a n d to

. u a a , , a

Oy where y 3 b unless these two t k epl ce sim lt neo u sly

,
a a u a ,

which will occur when the point ( 2 3 b) is a point on the a,

curve in which c se 1 6 a = 2 7 b and ( 2 a 3 b) is m ltiple

,
a ,
a u

point .

With reg rd to this m ltiple point we m ay observe th at

a u , ,

if (oz be point ne r ( or B ) the t ngent at such

a a , ,
a a

point is p r llel to 0x if
a a n d to O
y if S= B q but a
2
,

there is m ltiple point if A 5 + 2 B § q + On = 0

a u
2 z
.

In the first c ase the coe ffi cient of f in the e xp nsion a

v nishes in the second th t of 7 nd in the third the

a ,
a 7 ,
a

coe ffi ients of both 5 n d 7 v anish

c a 1 .

In the c se considered the s bstitution of 2 a + f 3 b + 7

a ,
u , 1

in the equ ation gives

27 2
16 5 or 7 i ggg ne rl y
2 2
, 1 : a .

It is worth e x mining how the form of the curve for this

a

case sep r tes the two forms dr wn for a < J3 b an d 2 b

a a a .

Ex 5 .
(
. x — a )( x — 2 a) y — x
2
+ 4 y ¥ O 2 2
a
2 3
a
4 - .

The three symptotes p r llel to Oy a x = i a nd 2 a

a a a re a ,

cu tting the curve where y = 1 35 a nd 2 a ; lso two p ar llel 7

-
. a a a

to 0x y = t a the first of which intersects the curve

are

where x fin nd —2 a
,

a .

Ne r ( a a ,
x aco 2 a /y 2
,

ne r a
a , x co a 2 a /3 y 2
,

near ( 2 a 00 ,
x 2a 4 a /3 y 2
,

near ( 00 a ) ,

near ( 00 a ) y a a
, /x
2
,

ne ar ( 0 , x 4a y
'
3 z
,

near ( 0 2 a ) ,
x 7 0 ,
7 ,

near ( 2 a 2 a ) ,
2a ; 55 ,
0 »
2
.

A lso ( 3a 2 5 a ) is a point in the curve

,
Fig .
. 28 .
 A SY M PT OT ES PA R A LLEL T O T HE A XES '

2 2
Ex 6 . .
( xy ah
) b d (c

oth ax es a e sy mptotes
B r a

ne ar ( 0 x,
i bJ( d /y)
cc ,

near ( 00 y b [a
When x= 0 =c— a /d
2
y , .

The fi rst figure is drawn for a 2

e d ,
the second for
F ig s . a
2
col .

The curve is p rallel to Oy where

N o te . a

a b) = —
,

2 x ( xy — b ol ; 2

whence ( 2 cx a b) = b ( a — cd )
2 2 2
,

the roots of which a only possible wh en a cat re

2
.

The distance between the tangents par allel to Oy in the

fi rst figure is J( a — cd ) b/
2
c .

= c gives equ al v alues of x where the curve runs

y ,

p arallel to 0x in both figures , .

Ex 7 . . xy 3 2 —2 a2x2y + a4x —b 5 = 0 , b >0 .

S ince x xy( a
2 2
) = b5 , x 18
p o mtiv e .

B oth symptotes ; for

ax es are for 0x a Oy, x = b /y ;
5 2 3
,

y hence the c rve comes into sight from an u

infinite distance along 0x like the branches of a am phoid r

cusp .

F ig 3 1 . . The curve is p arallel to 0x where 3 xy a or 4 a x 9 b ,

2
,
4 5
.

Ex 8 . . xy
2 2
2 a xy 2
b y 2 2
2a b 2 2
b 4
0 .

The c rve is sy mmetric l in opposite q u adr nts

u a a .

0x is an asymptote n d ne r ( 00 ( xy ,
a a —b ) 2 2
,

b / an d b )/x
2
(2a
2 2
y x, .

A sy mptotes
par llel to Oy a e x = i b which intersect a r ,

the curve where 2 y = i ( 2 a b ) b an d near ( i b a

2 2 - 2
cc

x—
, ,

_
i

F ig s . The figures a e drawn for the cases m which 2 a > and

r
2

< ;b in the
2
critic a l c se in which 2 a = b the c u rve is a
2 2

compounded of the x is of x and another c rve whose a u

equation is ( x b ) y b x 2 2 2
.
 C H APT E R V II .

A S YMP O ES NOT P A R A LLEL T O T HE A XES

T T .

A S Y MPT OTE S TO H OMOGENEOU S C U R VE S .

118 this ch apter I sh ll sh ew how to pprox im ate to

. IN a a

the forms of the infinite branches which e not ltim ately ar u

p arallel to either x is a .

In the first pl ce I sh ll consider the c ases in which a ,

a

x an d y being both infinite c n be of the s me order o f

, ,
a a

m agnitude This is the gener l c ase of rectiline ar y m p

. a as

totes ltho gh b y in cluding rectiline ar asymptotes which

,
a u

a at an infini t e d istance
re cert in p r bolic asymptotes ,
a a a

a ppe r in the course of the e x min ation

a a .

In the second p art of the ch apter I sh all add some mor e

illustrations to those which h ve lre dy been inciden tall y
, a a a

given of the c ases in which x and y

,
of different orders are

of m gnit de
a u .

119 In order to m ke the gener l statement more e sy

. a a a

to nderst nd it will be well to t ke few p r ti ul r c ses

u a ,
a a a c a a ,

an d to shew how the method of ppro x im tion is t b e a a o

employ ed to determine the asy mptotes and the side on ,

which the c rve lies when it first comes into sight from n
u , a

infini te dist nce in the c ase in which x n d y a e? bo th

a , a r

infinitely gre t an d of the s me order of m agnit de

a , a u .

Ex . 1 .

rr nging the eq tion in homogeneo s f nctions de

A a ua u u

scending in degree xy ( y —x) ,

F or the first appro x im tion neglecting q ntities of the a , ua

second order comp ared with those of the third y = x

, ,
.
 A S YM PT OTES N OT PA R A LLEL T O T HE A XES

S ince

the second pprox im tion obt ined b y writing y = x in

a a a

the sm ll er terms is y —x b — th eq tion of the

,

a ,
z a, e ua

asy mptote .

F or the third ppro x im tion we m st ccording to a a u a

A t 5 1 write in the sm aller terms y = x + b —

, ,

r .
, a .

Whence
£6

therefore neglecting terms of higher order th n

, a

_
—
2
b2

y
$x + b a
a

H ence if b > a the c u rve lies below the asy mptote

,
at the
positi v e and above it at the negative end .
F ig 1
. .

3 3
Ex . 2 . x y 3axy O
.

The first ppro x im ation gives a

y x 0 an d
, , since
3 a xy

the second appro x im tion gives b y writing —x for y in a ,

the sm ller terma which is the eq tion of the

,
ua

asy mptote .

F or the nex t ppro x im tion writing in the sm aller term

a a

—x — since x —xy + y —3xy + a a,

2 2 2
,

y + x — a ( 1

hence the c rve lies above the sy mptote at both ends

u a . F ig 2
. .

A nother method of determining the side on which the

c rve
u lies is b y ss ming s the ne xt pprox im tion a u a a a

where o is sm ll comp red wi th a z

. a a .

S ubstit ting in the origin l eq tion

u a ua ,

3
x

therefore neglecting oc ,
.
2
,
a
3
, which g ives
the s me res lt
a before u as .
 A SYM PT OT ES N OT PA R A LLEL T O T HE A XES
Ex . 3 .
(x a )y
3
(y 23 011
2 2
.

A first ppro x im tion is

a a
y x, and since
3
xy y
2
x
2
ay
3
4ax y 2
4a 2
x
2
0
,

§
4 ax 4a x
ty
o

3/ y
y x the sy mptote crossing the curve
a 4a 0 is a ,

where x 43a and % a ne rly a .

F or the ne xt appro x im ation to the form of the curve

y
—x — a(1 + 3 a /x)
= x —3 a —
/
2
y 1 l a x .

S ee a more general c se p ge a ,
a 84 ,
P l ate IV .
, fig . 25 .

1 20 In ll these c ases it m st be observed th t the first

. a u a

appro x im tion gives of ll straight lines which ca n b e d awn

a ,
a r

thro gh the origin th a t p artic l ar line Which lies ne arest

u , u

to the infinite br nch considered The second approxim ation

a .

is represented b y moving the line first fo nd p ar allel to u

itself ntil it becomes nearer to the c rve th n ny other

,
u u a a

t aight line which can be dr wn

r a .

The orresponding process with reg rd to points on a

c a

curve t finite dist nce wo ld be the following

a a a u

T ake P point on the c u rve TP the t angent at P

a , ,

meeting 0x in T n d l t P 0 revolve bout P ntil it

.

,
a e a u

a ss mes the position P T ne rer to the c rve th an ny line

u ,
a u a

which n be dr wn thro gh P
ca a u .

If P move off to n infinite dist n e we h ave t once a a c ,

a

the c se of P 0twisting ro nd P ntil it coincides with P T

a u u ,

repl ced b y P 0movi ng p r llel to itself until it coincides

a a a

with the symptote ; t first p ssing thro gh only one point

a a a u

at infinity an d f terw rds thro gh two consec tive poi nts

a a u u ,

the condition for n symptote being thus s tisfied a a a .

1 21 The gener l st tement of the process for tre ting

. a a a

a sy mptotes not p ra llel to the a x es m ay be now m de

a a

th su

Let the r ation alised equ ation of the c rve be arranged u

92 A SYM PT OT ES N OT PA RA LLEL T O T HE A XES
1 24 ecurring to the case considered in A t 1 2 1 in
. R r .
,

which w e xists the ppro xim tion for the sides of the
a
l ,
a a

asy mptote a x on which the cu rve lies at n a

infinite dist nce is conducted as follows

a ,

Instead of a in the fi t a pp o xim ation we s rs r ,

m st write in the sm ller terms x y = b

u hence a : ,

if we neglect terms o f the order x nd lower orders .

‘2
a ,

Fn —l(
b + ox
1
) dc
'

u - a
n l ’
sa
y;
H 1
)
-
v ex

s ay
—l
.

vn

H ence the curve is more nearly represented by

0 ,
x
e_
.

g.A rt 1 1 9 , E x 1
. . .

If dc + e = 0
Z m u st be e xpanded
nfl
, as far as
-
71 1
2
(b
2
1 x u bF a )=k
as far as ~

,
" 3
b e co m e s ,
s ay . So
93 72
11
—1 jn ’

th t the appro x im tion is

a a

dc c
2
e hc k
m
5 2

<gc + hc + 7c
2
ax by + c + 2
$
0

The equ ations ( i ) nd ( ii ) d etermine the sides on which a

the c rve lies in the two c ses

u a .

1 25 . now the c ase in which the f ctor a x —by

C onsider a

a ppe rs twice s o th at = ax by) v _

(
2
a a
2
.
, n n

If there be f nction of the ( n a degree the second

u ,

a ppro xim ation will give

( a x —by ) 2

Fn ( b a )
where c
-
1 ’

2fh
or more gener ll y a ,
—
( a x by )
2

where
 A S Y MPT OT ES N OT PA RA LLEL T O T HE A XES
In this c ase the infinite branch h s parabolic form in a a ,

which x by gives the direc tion of the axis ; or if we write

a ,

bx + y for Ax + y it is the x is itself of the p a r b ol a n d

a u
, ,
a a a

the origin is the vertex .

1 26 The p ar bol a ( i ) is not generally proper sy mptote

. a a a ,

to obt in Which we must m ke f rther pprox im tion s

a a a u a a ,
a

follows
”
F rom ( a x by) c x we obtain y 3 2
which
’

I)
u
m ust be substit ted in u

This gives
( d) "
o
F n _1 b ,
a +

H ence the appro x im ation is

f

(
o
(a x by) 2
cx l

2
by gc bl
’

( c x)
’ ’
ax ,

the ne x t term v nishing when x i infinite

a s .

Th s u b —
( y ax é x c
’

is proper parabolic symptote since the di fference of the

a a ,

v l u es of y for the c rve an d this p r bol vanishes when

a u a a a

x is infinite .

1 27 The p rabol a ( ) fo nd at the end of the l st

. a 11 u a

a rticle i the simplest p r bol a whi h h the property of

s a a c as

all proper a s mptotes b ut the following e xa mple will shew

y ,

h o w the s ame p r abol pl ced in a di ffere n t position m ay

a a a

be proper symptote l ying m u ch closer to the c rve t

a a ,
u a

a n infinite dist ance .

Ex 1 . . x v (
x
3
(y —x) = t
a y .

H ere x
 A SYM PT OT ES N OT PA RA LLEL T O T HE A XES
taking the first two three and four terms as s u ccessive
By , ,

appro x im ations we obt ain three p r bol s i , a a a , v z

(y
—
(y x “

— —
z

(y
2
a)
2
x ax + 2 a .

The di fferences betwee n the ordin tes of these three p r a a a

bol s and those of the c rve t n infini te distance e

a u a a ar

a a x
2 2 nd a x hence ( i ) is wh t I h ve c lled q u asi
'

a
2 '
1
a a
, , a a

as y mpto te serving ver

y well ,
g ide to the direction of as a u

fi e x u e of the infinite br anches of th c rve ; ( ii ) n d ( iii )

r e u a

a e proper
r sy mpto tes the l tter being ltim atel y more
a ,
a u

ne arly coinciden t with the c rve u .

F rther x = a is n symptote nd the form ne r the

u ,
a a ,
a a

origin is x a y é
i The two dot ted lines m arked 1
= ‘ 3 2
F ig 3
. . .

a n d 2 in the fig re represent the two p r a bol s ( i ) an d ( ii )

u a a ,

a n d she w th t for the genera l form of the curve there is

a , ,

no necessity to obtain proper sy mpto te a a

C onsidering the p rabol a ( y —x

.

N t o e . a

x + 8 = 0to ches the p a r abol

,
t the e x tremity of t he l tus
u a a a

rectum S L where S is the fo us , c ,

<
y
therefore th l t s rectum e a u

H ence the l ter rect of the three p r abol as

,
a a a a a re a ll

eq l an d the ax es e in the s ame direction

ua , ar .

(
2
) (v 2 x) 3
Ex 2 . .
y y x 9 cx .

F or the a sy mp tote co responding to ( y r x

2
) ,
writing x
3
9 033
for y in we obtain
(y
(1 )
2
(y x ) 3 0x .

F or the ne x t appro x im ation write ,

x+ J3 cx for y in the
second term .

3
9 cx
Then ( y x)
2

3 cx
4 [3 0 c
H EW
 A SY M PT OT ES N OT PA R A LLEL T O T HE A XES
1 30 The following c rves
. u a ff ord e xamples of these
pecu li ri ties
a

Ex . 1 y (y

The second ppro x im tion to y x 0

a a =x gives ( y — ) 2 2
,

two p r llel sy mptotes which meet the c rve where

a a a u -

—
,

y 3 x e ch a sy mptote h ving onl y one re al poin t of

,
a a

intersection .

The other asy mptotes e y 0 y + 2 x 0 ar , .

The c rve is sy m m e tric l in opposite qu adrants ; an d

u a

F ig 5
. . ne ar the origin y = 4
3 c
2 2
x ,

Ex 2 .
(x 2y ) ( x y)
2
6a ( x
2
y) 0 .

H ere ( x y) 4 a gives two a symptotes a lso x 2 y

2 2
, O
is a n a sy mptote the equation m ay therefore be written
( x + 2 y) ( x y 2a ) (x y 2a) 2a 2
(x y) 0
.

To tr ce the curve observe th at it is symmetric al in

a ,

opposite q adr nts u a .

N e a r the origin x y gy /a ,
- 3 2

ne r ( 0 a J3 )
a ,
4 7 5x ; ,
7

ne r ( a J 6
a y 25
,
.

Fig 6
. . In the figure the sy mptote is not meant to be a tangent
,
a

at the point of in fle x ion .

‘
Ex 3 . .
(x 2y ) ( x 2
y )
2 3
a. x ( y) 0.

The sy mptotes e ( x
a 0 nd ( x 2 y) 0 ar y)
2
,
a
2
.

F or the p o s it o n of the curve rel tive to the a symptotes

l a

( x — y) % /
2
x n d ( x + 2 y )
a /
3
x ,
a
2 -
a
3
.

Fig 7
. . x + y = 0is the t angent t th origin a e .

Ex . 4 . 2x ( x y )
2
3a ( x 2
37
2
) 4a y 2
0 .

F or the a sy mptotes parallel to x y 0

—
,

( x —y)
— 3 a ( x x
2
y
= a or 2 a , .

F or the a sy mptote p arallel to Oy 2 x 3 a 0 and , , the

eq u ation m ay therefore be written
—y — ) (x —y a 2 a ) + 5 a (x 2 -
y) 6a = O 3
.
 A SYMPTOT ES
PA RA LLEL T O T HE A XES N OT

A t 1 1 9 E x 2 ; thus if (x —a ) y = o be the eq a tion of

r
2 3
u

the curve x —‘ = o is an symp tote meeting the c rve at

.
.
, ,

,
a a u

three points at an infinite dist nce nd since x a , a

F ig 1 0
. . the curve lies on the s me s ide t both ends a a .

B ut when the asymp tote is

,
t ngent t a branch of a a o a

do ble point at n infinite dist nce two of the three poin ts

u a a ,

belong to the branch which is to ched b y th sy mptote u e a ,

a nd one to the o ther br nch n d in this c ase the c rve lies a ,

a u

on opposite sides of e ch of the two symptotes a a .

Thus ( x —a ) (x —b) y = is a c rve w hich h s two c

3
u a

a sy mptotes x = n d b a a .

x = a meets the c rve in three points t n infini te d i

u a a s

t nce one of these points is the point in wh ich it meets the

a ,

bran h which to ches x = b nd the other two e the

c u ,
a ar

consec tive poin ts the p ss age through which m kes it

u ,
a a a

t angent to nother br nch a a

—b) y being the ne x t ppro x im tion shews

.

x a a ,

Fig 1 1
. . th t the c rve lies on opposite sides t the two ends
a u a .

If the origin be tr nsferred to point h alf w y between a a -

a

the asymptotes p arallel to Oy the eq tion be omes ,

ua c

{ x
2
s o th t when b = a the br nch o n the a , ,
a
-

neg tive side of x Ox p asses o ff to an infinite distance

a
’
.

These consider ations usef l be se prior to proof a re u , cau , ,

we ought to dra w the c rve in s ch w y th t it sh all u u a a a

le ave the symptote on opposi te sides an d we a e thus led

a ,
r

to e xamine the points a t finite distance at which the curve a

crosses the sy mptotes a .

1 33 . T ake ,
as a n e xample the c rve ,
u

—x y a
3

N e ar ( co cc th first
e ppro x im tion is a a x+ y 0 the
:
,

second gives x + y H5 a ) .

N e ar ( 0 x y of the s me order of m gnit de gives

, , a a u

ax by (b
5
a
5
) x /b
2 4
a,

x sm ll comp ared with y gives y bx

a
3 2
,

y sm ll comp red
a with x g x = ay a 1 v es
2
,
 A S Y M PT OT ES N OT PA R A LLEL T O T HE A XES
No wwithou t further e xamin tion we might be d isposed
, a ,

to onnect the forms alre dy obt ined s o th t the rve

c a a ,
a cu

wo ld lie on the s me side of the symptote Bu t the

u a a .

consideration given bove wo ld le d us to dr w th c rve a u a a e u

so a to cross the sy mptote n d proceed to the opposite

s a a

side If we tried to dr w the c rve witho t f rther

. a u u u

c l ul tion we shou ld h ve to j dge f rom its direction which

a c a a u

of the br nches wo ld be more likely to cross Th s if

a u . u

b < a the br nch ( iii ) wo ld be more likel y to cross th an

a u

since it h s s o close ont ct with 0x If b > a the s ame

a a c a .
,

reason wo ld m ke s select the branch ( ii )

u a u .

We might then test b y proceeding to the ne xt app ox i r

m ation to the sy mptote or b y bsol tely finding the points

a ,
a u

of interse tion with the asy mpto te ; the first process is

c

a lways possible and e asy the second in olves the solution ,

v

of an eq tion of degree gener ll y less b y two th an th t

ua a a a

of the rve ; in this c ase the eq ation is c bic

cu u a u .

If we write in the eq tion ; we get ua

x
5
(x oz )( x or) bx ( x
5
+ ax
3 2
cz )
2
0
—b + ct ) x4 —a ( 1 0a + a
,

or ( 5 a 0 .

If 5 0g b a we h ve the asy mptote nd for the ne xt a ,

a

appro x im tion a

y —a ) —s ( b f

which proves th at the br nches ( ii ) and ( iii ) cross the asy m p a

tote ccording as b is gre teror less th n a

a a a .

The direction of fl x of the br nch ( i ) would be lone e u re a a

s ffi cient to she w which branches form the loop in x Oy

u
’
.

The c bic which gives all the points of intersection t

u , , a

a finite dist nce of the c u rve nda symptote is ,

a a ,

ax
3
a (b 2 a)x 2
5mx 3
06 1
0 .

The fig res e drawn for b 2 a nd a = 2 b The three Fi g

u ar ,
a . s .

roots a re l in the first c ase an d two e impossible in

re a , ar

the second .

In the c se a = b the curve is composed of the str ight

a ,
a

line x + y = 0 nd the curve whose equ tion is

, a a

$ 4
£0 3
]
3
x
2
y
2
wy 3
9
4
a my 2
0 ,
 A S Y MPTOT ES TO H OM OGENEOUS CUR V ES
the forms at the origin being y nd = a y and 3 = a x2 , a x2 ,

near ( a a ) 3 5 + a 7 = 0
, ,
2
i .

Observe th t no straight line thro gh the origin can

a u

m eet the curve in more th an one point so th at y c nnot ,

a

F ig 1 4
. .
be negative .

SYMPT OT ES T O H OMOG ENEOUS CUR VES

A .

1 34 A cl ss of curves sometimes c a lled homogeneous

. a ,

c u rves the eq tions of which a e of the form a const nt

,
ua r n a ,

where is homogeneous function of x nd y of the

an a a ,

n
th
degree ill strates the m an n er in which the continuity
,
u

of a c rve is preserved in p assin g through the infinit ly

u e

distant points indic ted b y the symptotes a a .

The equ ation of the sy mptotes in this c se is u = 0 a a n .

It is e s y to tr ce these c rves beca se they intersect

a a u ,
u

none of the asy mptotes t ny point t a finite distance a a a ,

an d c t no stra ight line thro gh the origin in more th a n

u u

one point if n be odd or two points if n be even ; s o th t ,

a ,

knowing where the c rve c ts the x es we can tell without u u a , ,

c lcul ation on which side of the sy mptotes to dr w it

a ,
a a .

Ex 1
. .
—
( y x) (y
H ere the three asy mptotes a re al and ( 0 a ) ( 5a re , , , ,

are the points on the a x es of x nd y a .

N o te The a sy mptotes e t ngents a t points of infi e x io n

.

. ar a ,

since three points at n infinite distance lie on e ch a a .

If we test b y proceeding to the ne x t approxim ation

for y = x we h e y j x —a /9 x shewing th t the c rve
, ;

- 3 2
av a u
'

, ,

is below the a symptote t both ends a .

(y ) (y
2
Ex
. 2 . x 4x) ( y 2 x) 2a x .

This an d following c rve given to ill str te the u s a re u a

s perior simplici ty derived from h ving the right h nd

u a -
a

member const nt a .

The three asymptotes a ll p ss through the origin nd a ,

a ,

since they c t the c rve at onl y two points at an infinite

u u

distance they a ordin ry t ngents n d the c rve therefore

,
re a a ,
a u
 ILLUST RA T I ONS
I sh all conclude this ch apter b y giving m ateri als
1 35 .

for tr cing curves which h ve infinite br nches of the

a a a

v rio s kinds which h ve been disc ssed b y which the

a u a u ,

student m ay practise himself in completing c u rves from

the known forms of p rticul r p rts only using m y figures a a a ,

as a check .

5
Ex 1
. . x r

N ote
the sy mmetry with respect to x = y and th t x = y ,
a

mee ts the curve where x = y = a .

N e ar the origi n x 2 a y a nd y = 2 a x ; ,
4 :
3 4 3

Fig 2 0
. . an d x + y 0is n asy mptote a .

5 5 ax y 2 2 5
0
Ex 2
. . x y .

Observe the symmetry ,

and th at x y meets the c rve u

where x y 5a .

N e r the ori gi n x
a 5 ay a nd y 5 ax
,
3 2 3 2

lim 5 a x y /( x —x y
,

ne ar ( 00 x+y oo +y ) a
2 2 4 3 4
.

Ex 3 . x —
. x y
— b xy + y = 0 5
a
2 2 2 2 5
.

The curve is symmetrica l in opposite q adrants u .

N e ar the origin if x y can be sm ll y = b x ; if y x, a ,

3 2
:

can be sm all x = a y ; and if x an d y c n be of the s m e

3 2
, a a

order of m agnitu de a x + b y 0 ,
2 2
.

A lso y + x O is an asy mptote : .

F ig 2 2
. . The figure is dr wn for a b but looks too much as if a ,

a /b were infi nite .

Ex 4
. .
y
2
( 3x —4y) — x = 0 3
a
4
.

This is sy mmetrical in opposite q adr nts u a .

N e r the origin
a 6 4 y + a x = 0; ,
5 4

ne ar the ends of the sy mptote x Ox a

’

/2 7 x
2 4 2
a
y
nea r those of the cross asymp tote ,

( 3x 4 y) /y
3 4
F ig 23
. .
4a 3 .

Ex 5 . .
{ (y
x —) — }y x a
2 2 3

Observe that y c annot be negative .

 ILLUS T RA T I ONS
n a + 3wi
=

y+ 2 = oi $
= x3x 3,
"

y
F ig 2 4
y .
.

Ex 6
. . 4a 2
(y x ) (y
2
x ) 8ax 3
(y x )+x
5
+y
5
0
.

The symptote is
a x y
—
1 3—
5
a O
ne ar the origin where ,
x an d y are of the s ame order ,

y
— x=Q

m m y + x =0

Fo rthe ne xt pprox im ation to ( i ) a

4a ( y — x) —
,

2
x) 4 a x ( y x) + x 2
{ 2a ( y
2 4
x } ,
2 2
0 .

For furth er ppro xim ation

a a

1+

t herefore

S ubstit u ting , we obtain

4a 2
(y x )
2
4ax 2

< > 1 32
4a
(y
5
x )
5
4
x
<)
1 Q
a

{M y w) wi +i +Q
2 2 .

2a a

x
2 —3x 5
whence

.
shewing th t there is a am ph id c sp touc hing ( i )
a r o u .

F or the br nch ( ii ) th o gh th origin

a r u e ,

0 or y —
x x /a ,
- 2
.

‘
To find the side of the sy mptote on which the c rve lies a u

let y —x — —a + oc nd e xp nd oz in descending powers

,
i
l °
g ,
a a .

o f x as f
ar a s x ;
3

5 ax 4
1 0( l fia
g )x
2 3
8 g
‘
J i a 2 x3 0 ,
an d or .
3
2
4
a x
2 1
.
 ILLUST R A T I ONS
If y = 0 ,

x
2
+ 8ax + 1 6 a
2 = 1 2 a2 ;

Fig 2 5
. .
2a —
( i JS )
2 2 a tan T g 7 r 5
or 2 a tan £ 1
5 7 .

Ex 7 . .
(
2
x y
2 2
) 4y 2
y 0 .

bserve the sy mmetry of the c u rve with res pe t to Oy

O c ,

which it ts t the origin n d where y

cu a T he a
3

roots of this e q tion two posi tive an d one neg tive s y

ua are a , a

oz
, 3 an d ,y so th a t the eq tion -
of the,
c rve m y be ua u a

wri tten x ( 2 y x ) y ( y ) (y B) ( y y ) ; whence near

,
2 2 2
oz

th three points ( 0 oz) ( 0 B ) n d ( 0

e
y) , , , ,
a ,
-
,

2m 2 =
(a
2 13 33 2 —( CL
2
an d 2 yx

ne r the origin x + y 0; ne ar
a g) ,
4 = l
7 ,

B y e x p nding in des ending powers of y

a c ,

x = 22
i 2 ( 1
y y
whence w= y t l
a nd —w= y i 1

from which we ob t in fo r sy mptotes nd the side on

'

a u a ,
a

whi h the rve lies t e ch end these sy mptotes in ter

c
‘
cu a a a ~

F ig 2 6
. . se t the c rve where y g nd
c u a

Ex . 8 .
y (y x ) (y
2
2x ) 3a ( y x x )
2
2a x 2 2
0
.

The sy mptote p r llel to 0x is 2 y 3 a O the thre

a a a e

cross sy mptotes a y x a or 2 n d y 2 x
a g nd re a, a a a

the eq tion m y be written

ua a

(y —w ) —w ( y
— w— (
) r —w 4 2
a

whi h form shews th t the p r llel sy mptotes do not inte

c
-
a a a a r

sect the rve ex cept t infini ty nd th t no p art of the

cu a , a a .

c rve lies between them

u
’

N e r the origin
a y 2a x ,
4 2 2
,

giving two p r bolic forms ; a a

ne r —
a —a where th c rve crosses the a x is x Ox
2
3 ,
e u
’

F ig 2 7
. .
y ( —2 x + 3 a) 1 3y = 9£
 EX A M PLES

E xamp les V I I .

1 r th rv
. T ace nd p r v t h t th
e cu di t s e x
5
a o e a e co o r na e
o f th p i t t whi h it is p
e o nll l t 0 a d 2 rl y c a ra e o c are i a an a n ea .

2 F i d t h t g t s t th n rv (y —) = w ehi h p ss thr ugh

an en o e cu e x x 2 c
3
c a o

d s h w th t th p i t f t t f n is ( 20
.

(c, an e d t h t th
a e o n o co n ac o o e an a e
th r is i li d t 0 t gl
,

o e nc ne o x a a n an e

3 Tr th
. v y (y a ce 2 ) 0 e cu r e x 3
x .

Pr v th t th li s j i i g th igi d th p i ts t whi h th
'

o e a e ne o n n e or n an e o n a c e

cu rv is p r ll l t Oy i li d t O t gl s wh s t g ts
e
°
a a e o are nc ne o r a an e o e an en a re

J 2 s in 1 5 and J 2 co s
4 he w that the c u S rv e 24
y + a y
x
2 —x4 = 0i nters ect s its a sym pt o te s
p i s s dis sf
.

at o nt who e tan ce m Oy ro a re
2a J 2 .

th p i ts w h r v P l is p r ll l t
0x ,
5 .At
x= i la
g J2 ;
e
‘ th o n

d y T g p ss s thr
= an
e re

x
e

a
cu
e
e,

ou
at e

gh the
V .
,
fig 2 3,
.

p i nt s wh r it is
o
a a

e e
e o

p r ll l t Oy
a a e o u

6 Tr th . rv (x ace d s h w th t t h
e cu e an e a e
r dii f m th ri gi t th p —i ts wh t—
a ro h rv is p r ll l t
e o n o e o n e re e cu e a a e o
a rei li d t 0x t gl s t
nc ned t 2 rl y o a an e an
1 25
4
an a n 1
n ea .

7 S h w th t th r is
. s p t th ri gi i th rv
e a e e a cu a e o n n e cu e
2 3 3
2
( x a) ( x +3 ) a x ,

a n d a no the r a t an i nfi i t dis t n e an ce .

8 .
y r ss s th
x5 ax
3
2 ax
2
y + y
=02 5
c o e e a sym p t o te at the th r ee
pi s i = rl y
.

o n t at wh ch
d i 2 x
1
3 T a an 61 n ea .

9 D s rib th s y m m try f th
. e c rv e e e o e cu e

6 — 03 —
3 ) y< s )
x2
e
a
a
s
60
2
.

S hew that the radi u s of c u rv atu re at ( a —a ) is { a — J2 a nd that the

c u r v e cu t s the as m p to te s 0x a nd O a t an a n l e c o t 1 7
,

y y g .

10 .
(y
2
x2 2 ) a
2
y
2
b2x2 0 .

D is ss th s s f > d < b d i th l tt r m i th
cu e ca e o a an an n e a e exa ne e
v ri ti s wh b >
,

a a <
on l2 en or ag

rv ‘
,
.

1 1 Tr th — 2
ace
“ O e cu e r
4
ax
2
a
2 2
a
.
y y y . .

S h w th t th _ t e t t h p i ts f i t rs
a ti wi th Oy nd
e c u r v a u res a e o n o n e ec on a
i th r t i
,

at ( ) a, a f 1 /5
a re n e a o o N .

Pr v th t wh li p r ll l t
o e a is tris t d b y th rv it
en a ne a a e o ec e e cu e, s
dis t f m is 22
a nce rl y ro a n ea .

12 Pr v th t ( —y o is p p r p r b li sym pt t
e a r a ro e a a o c a o e
rv (
. .
,

t tho e cu e x

1 3 S h w th t th p r b li sy m p t t f th l s s t nt t t th
e a e a a o c a o e o e c o e co ac o e
rv A t 1 2 7 E 2 is (y — +
.

2
cu e, r . 1 70 ,
x .
,
x .
 C H APTER V I I l .

C U R V I LI NE AR A S Y MP O ES T T .

1 36 . only c ses of infinite br nches which rem in to

T HE a a a

be discu ssed those in which w hen x nd y

a re both , a are

infinite they a e not of the s me order of m gnitude so

,
r a a ,

th at x y or y x v nishes ltim ately : a

“
u .

The equ tion of c rve be ng g n t m y gener lly

a a u 1 1v e ,
1 a ,
a ,

if it ont in m ny terms be simplified consider bl y b y

c a a ,
a

consider tions simil r to those given in A t 9 5 for the

a a r .

investigation of br anches thro gh th origin u e .

S u ppose th at we intend to e x amine whether x y can z

u ltim a tel
y v nish in ny infini te br nch of the c rve
a a a u .

( 1 ) A ll homogeneo s f ncti ns of x nd y m y be repl ced u u o a a a

b y the term whi h involves the highest power of y c .

( 2 ) The oe fficient of ny power of x being f u nction of

c a
‘
a

y the
, term involving the highest power of y is the onl y
term which nee d be re t ined a .

( 3 ) A simil ar observ ation holds with respect to the co

efficient of ny power of y
‘
a .

( 4 ) If two terms a x y “ bx y rem in in c the i ra tio s r ”

,
a , s e , r

is a y s H
t — mus t be > 1 therefore the indices of x
, s ,

must ascend b y steps of 2 or mor e if the equ tion be ,

a

r tion l
a a .

These consider tion s red ce the eq ation to comp ra a u u a a

ti ely sm all number of terms

v n d it m st then be tried ,
a u

whether on neglecting one or more terms rel tion s ch

, , a a u

s y =x > l is obtained an d whether with this rel ation

"
a ,
r , ,

the terms rejected e sm alle r th n those ret ined

.

ar a a
 CUR V ILINE A R A SY M PT OT ES
In tr cing rves the c se of x being gre t with
1 37 . a cu , a a

respect to y or v ice ve a in ny infinite b r nch is alw ay s

,
rs ,
a a

to be e x mined c ref lly for with c rsory gl nce which

a a u , a u a ,

is gener lly s ffi cient s h br nch often es pes notice

a u ,
uc a a ca ,

a n d is onl y event ally dete ted b y the impossibilit y of u c

u ni ting the p arts whi h h ve been discovered c a .

The e x mples whi ch I h ve given in this ch pter

1 38 . a a a

sho ld be especi lly followed o t s f

u s the symptotes a u a ar a a

a e concerned which I h ve for this re son pl ced

r t the
, a a a a

commencement in e h c se ac a .

In the previo u s ch pters in order to dr w the c u rves I a , a ,

h e been obli ged to consider c rvilinear sy mpto tes w hich

av u a ,

e not gener ll y proper sy mp totes n d in th p rtic l r ‘

ar a a , a e a u a

c se of p r bolic sy mptotes I h a ve nticip ated an important

a a a a a

p art of the s bj ect of this h pter b y giving the complete

u c a

process to be followed in finding p r bol as which e proper a a ar

a s y mptotes .

With regard to the more gener l c rviline r sy mptotes a u a a

s ch s semic bic l p r bol s it is obvio s th t s m ny

u a u a a a a ,
u a o a

terms wou ld h ave to be t ken in order to m ke them proper a a

a sy mptotes th at they wo ld be h rder to dr w th n the u a a a

curve i tself ; they will therefore in the e x mples of this , , a

ch pter rem in onl y q si sy mptotes g iding ro ghly but

a ,
a ua -
a , u u

s fficiently to the direction of fi x e t gre t distance

u e ur a a a ,

too gre t in f ct to give ny ide of th form of the c rve

a a a a e u

on a piece of p per of moder te si e a a a z .

x +2 x y — b y =o 3 2 3 3 3
Ex 1 . . a .

There re no sy mp totes p r llel to th xes ; the only

a a a a e a

infinite branches occ r where y x is l rge the form bei ng u : a ,

x
2
by where x y x,
nd m
y be neglected comp red with 3
cc
5
, a a a

the term x retained in the first ppro x im tion

6
a a .

The p r bol x = by is n o t proper sympto te b t is

a a a,
2
,
a a ,
u

s fficient s g ide t the gener l direction of th infinite

u a a u o a e

br n hes The proper sy mptotes m y be th s obt ined

a c . a a u a :

2 2 4 2
2a y 3
2a y 4a y
—
by x 2
( 1 I
x
3
—x2 1 l 3x3
9x 3
 CURVILINE A R A SY M PT OT ES
whence for the second ppro xim ation ) a

an d for the third ,

ay = x2 1

2 2
ay x Sa x 6a ,

which m ay be wri tten

We m y observe that x is l arge comp red with y ne r

a a , a

the origin onl y where x + y = 0 ,

5
a
4
.

The curve meets the g iding sy mptote x = y in no u a ,

2
a ,

re l poin t e xcept the origin an d th t it r u ns long the

a ,
a a

proper p rabolic sympto te ( ii ) is c counted for b y the

a a a

p r bol s ( ii ) nd ( iii ) intersecting t

a a a 2 a 4 a ) so th at
a a -
, ,

F ig 2
. . th l tter is inside the former fter this point
e a a .

The e ffec t of t king the proper a sy mptote inste d of the

a a

appro x im te one i to throw the br n h in the angle x Oy

a s a c ,

f rther from the origin b u t it is t be observed th t the

u , o a

gener al form indic ted b y the g iding p arabol a is s ffi cientl y

a u u

a ccur te a .

The sympto te ( i ) is dr wn in the fig re t king into

a a u a

a cco nt onl y the first two terms in the v al e of y

u u .

N either br nch co ld be represented on modera tely si e d

a u a z

p iece of p per since the poin t where the rve r ns p arallel

a , cu u

1 9a
to Oy has for its coordin tes a 7 ) and 38a ne rly a .

Ex 3 . .
( + y ) —x y = 0 a x
5 5 3 3
.

I f x c n be rejected a y = x whi h ne r ( 00
5
a m akes ,
2 3
,
c , a oo
_

x sm ll comp ared with y ; simil rl y y c an be rejec ted ne a r

a a
5

( 00 , g i
soving x =
y A g in x y c n be rejected ne a r
a
2 3
. a
3 3
a

(0 n d the form is given b

a the ne x t a ppro x im ation
y
—
,

/a
2
y + x 2x .
 C URVILINE A R A SY M PT OT ES
Ex 4 . . axy
3
(x a )
4
y a
5
0 .

Ne ar ( 0 cc ,
x a /y
3 2
,

ne r ( 00
a
y a /x
5 4
,

ne r (
a co x ay co
3 2
,

ne r ( 0 a )
a , ] 5x ,
7 ,

ne ar ( a)a, 5 , .

N ote The c rve i p r llel to Oy t tw points in the

. u s a a a o ,

intersection of the rv s y ( x a ) 2= nd xy = “
nd cu e
4
a
5
a
3 l a
z ,
a

it p r llel to Ox t one poin t in th intersec tion of

1s a a a ,
e

4 (x a )
3
a
y
2
and ( 3x a )y
3
4a 4
0
.

Ex 5 . . axy
3
+( x a )
3
y
2
+a
5
0 .

N ear ( 0 ,
oo x = a
2
/y .

ne ar ( 00 ,
2 —a 5 /x3 ,

ne r (
a 7: oo

ne r ( 0 a )
a , ,

ne r ( 0, a )
a -
,

nea r ( a a ) , ,

The c u rve is p r llel to a a Ox at the interse tion of c

a
y + 3 ( x a )
2 = 0 an d
which gives three neg tive v l es of a a u y , and
'

two positive ,

one neg tive v l u e of x a a . F ig 5

. .

3
Ex 6 . . a ( y + x)
a
2
( a —a 2
) z O
.

N e ar ( 2a ,
00 x

ne r ( 00
a cc 2a y + x = 0
2 3 '

ne r ( 0
a ,

Where y = 0 x = a , ,
an d 2( i J5 —1 ) oza a n d 8a
,
suppose .

N er ( a a , y =
5;
ne r ( oca
a (1 —l ) ( oz 0 ,

— = 1 —2
,

2
an d oz oz a ,

ne r ( B
a a, y 0 ,
Fig 6 . .
 CURVILINE A R A SY M PT OT ES
“
Ex 7 . .
y 2 ( 3x 4a) ay 2
a x
2 2
0 ,

(y
2
3a x 4a 2 2
) 8a 2
(x 2 a ) (x a
) .

N e ar ( cc cc
y
= 31
(
2
for a firs t appro x im ation ;
the proper symptotes a e y ( 3 i 2 J2 ) ( x a J2
a r
2
a

The origi n is conj u g te point and x cannot give re l a a ,

a

v l es of y when it is between a and 2 a

a u .

F rther x = 2 a is a tangent where y i aJ Q

u ,
.

x4 2 2 2 3
Ex 8 3ax y 2a y ay

—y
. .

N ear ( co ,
co
) , x
4
a
3 =

ne ar the origin a y m ay be rej e ted therefore x a y or 2 a y

,
3
c ,
2
,

ne r ( 0 2 a )
a , x ,
2

near ( J6 a 2 a ) 11; ,GJ fif ,

7 .

Observe th t y c a nno t be neg tive n d th t ne ar the origin

a a ,
a a , ,

the two par bol as lie n e rer to x Ox th n the g iding

a a
’
a u

Fig 8
. .
a sy mp tote .

Ex 9 . . x7 —x y 4 3
+ a
3
y
4
x
a y
5 =O .

Ne ar ( 0 ,
oo x= a
2
/y
near ( 00 oo if x and
y a re of the s me order we h ave a ,

x y 2a 0 ,
2
4a
F ig 9
. .
an d for the nex t pprox im tion a a x= y + 2a
3 31
A g in if x
abe sm all x an d y m y be rejected there
, y ,
7 4
a ,
'

fore x + y =O an d for the ne x t appro x im tion to this

3
a
2
,
a

a s y mptote t king the term x into c o nt 7

,
a a c u ,

x
3 _a
y
2
+ x y
6 -
3 —a y2 + a 2 y ,

shewing th t the c rve lies ne arer to Oy in the pper

a u u

br nch of the sy mptote n d f rther from Oy in the l w

a a a a o er

n d since it is e sil seen th t th c rve n d s y m p tote u a

a , y a a e a

interse t only t the points — i ) there is br n h of

c a a, a ,
a a c

the c rve whi h lies between the rectiline r n d c rviline r

u c a a u a

asy mptotes t the lower end witho t intersecting them

a u .

To find the w y in whi h the other p r t of th rve in the

a c a e cu

q dr nt x Oy r ns it m st be observed th at x + a y = 0
ua a
'
u ,
u
7 3 4

gives the sh pe t the origin nd th at the line x + = 0cuts

a a ,
a a .
 C U R V I LI N E A R A SY M PT OT ES
The t angent at ( O a ) drawn in the fig re meets the u

curve again t the point ( 2a —2a ) onl y

, , ,

Fig 1 2 a

—a ) which
.
. . ,

Not The proper sy mptote is a ( y

e . a
2
,

meets the c rve in only one point at finite distance

u a .

Ex 1 3 .
( b ).o x y ab x
s 2
c y a
3 3 6
o x
3 3
y
2
0 .

The equ ation m ay be written

(
3 3 3
bx 3
)
3 3 2 =0
o y ax )( c
y o x y ,

c
3
( c
3
x
3
)y
2
{ ( a + b) y
e
3
a bx }x
3 3
0 .

N ea r ( c, 00 x = c{ 1

near ( 00 cc a bx
3
c
3
y
2
0 ,

F ig 1 3
. . near ( 0 , c
3
y ax
3
, or bx 3
.

N ote The two symptotes

. a are cut b y the c u rve at points
eq idist ant from Ox
u .

E x 14 . .
yx
2
(y x ) ay
3
b yx 2
c x
2 2
0 ,

x
3
(y
2
by c
2
)x
2
a
y
3
0 .

Ne ar ( oo
y
2
c
/ x

if x nd y a of the s ame order y —x = a + b ;

.

Ne ar ( cc cc a re ,

this a sy mptote meets the c rve at a finite dist nce where u a ,

—c x = 0 (i)
2 2
,

one of whose roots is positive the other neg tive if ,

a

0 > 2 a ( a + b) but both

2
negative if c < 2 a ( a + b)
-
,
are
2
.

When y an d x a e both infinite an d of different orders r

—yx + a y = 0
,

x = a y is gu iding sy mptote the

2 2 2
a a

proper asy mptote being a y = x — x

,

2
a

N ear the origin a

y c x ,
3 :
2 2
.

The figure incl des the c ase in which c se u

”

the eq ation ( i ) becomes ( y

u therefore the
c rve meets the sy mptote in only one point at fi nite
u a a .

dist nce ; the branches m rked b n d d belong to this v l e

a a a a u

of 0 lso when 0 > 2 a ( a + b) a nd d e the br nches and

2
,
a ,
2
, a ar a ,

when b an d c a the branches re .

Ex 1 5 . .
(y x a ) y
3
b yx 2
mab x 2
0
.

N ear ( co ma) , y ma m 3
a
3
/bx the sy mptote y m a a
‘
m eetsthe c rve where x (m u l )a ,
the s ame point at which
the t ngent at ( 0 a ) meets it
a ,
.
 EX A M PL E S
PLA T E
N e a r ( oo cc if x an d
y be of the s a me order of m gnitude a ,

=x+a +b
y
this cross sy mptote meets the c rve where
a u

y
3
yx
2
max 2
0 ,

or
the roots of which a re l n d bo th nega tive if 4m a < a + b re a a , ,

in which c ase the c rve c ts the asy mptote in the com u u

p tm
ar
ent x O y below the line x+ y 0
’
.

If ne ar ( 00, x y be l arge y + bx = 0 cc ,
2
.

Ne r ( 0 a m bx , y
2 3

( on l ) bxz
ne ar ( 0 a)
, , y x a i

so th t the c rve bends pw rds or downw rds according

a u u a a ,

a s m < or 1 an d when ra = 1 there is a point of in fi exio n

f
.
, ,

The curve is p rallel to Ox where x 2 ( y a ) ; in figu re 1 6

a .

the _points b e points in 2 y x

a, 2a 0 where the
,
c ar ,

c rve is p r allel to Ox
u a .

To illustr te the different forms which the c rve can

a u

assume it is drawn for three c ses

, a ,

b= 2 < m <l a, ,

b= a )
1 <m <2 ’

and 2 b = 3 J3 a ,
m = 2;
the l st being a an intermedi te se in which there is a ca a

m ltiple point
u ,
v iz . where x = ( J3 —l ) a y = ( 3 —J3 ) a 2
,
.

E xamp l es V I I I .

1 . 1)
Pr v o that the cu
e e rv is p r ll l t Ox wh r a a e o e e x J2 1 ; a ls o that
the tang e nt at th e o n t pi t r s ts th rv in e ec e cu e at (7 , g) .

2 . ax
y
—(x a
3
)y
2
+a
5 =O .

Pr o ve that the pr p r p r b li sym p t

o e a a o c a o te is
(w er a w
a
s ia ) .

an d that the c u rv li s b l w n th p si tiv

e e e o o e o e, an d ab o v e on the
n egat e e o f Oy iv sid ( N t th t th q ti
. o eb a e e ua o n can e ri
w tt en in the f rm
o

)
5
—3 a x + 3 a 2 —ay
f?
(I
i F
-
 EX A MPLE S
3 . (y b3y3 =o .

Pr v o e that the pr p r p r b li sympt

o e a a o c a ote is
x2 +

and sh ew
that the cu rv e cu t s o ne o f the r tili n r sympt t s
ec ea a o e a t an

ang e l co t
‘l
3 .

3 2
4 c y ( x 2 c)2x3 .

S w 3 2=
he that c y (x giv s th dir ti f th r v
e e ec on o e cu e nea r( co co

Tr ace the cu rv e nea r th e p i nts wh r it r ss s Ox

o e e c o e .

5 .
y
3 —y 2
6 x
4 6
3 6x5 2x = a
Sh e w that the p ro per p arab olic
'

a sy m p t o te is
2
51 3
" —
re2
Pr v th t th l p i t r p ts
o e a e oo n e ce a l en
g th { 3 on Ox, and that the
cu rv t r s t th p i ts f s ti
a u e a e o n o ec o n are in t he r tia o 1 4096 .

6 . x2y + a (y
S
hew that the rv ts th r tili n r nd p r p r p r b li cu e cu e ec ea a o e a a o c
as p s m dist
ym to te at the 2 fr m y Oy nd th t th t ng ts a e an ce a o
’
a a e a en

rv t th p i ts f s t i i li d t O t gl s t 2
,

t th o n o n a re nc ne x a an an
1
“

o e cu e a e o ec o e
and t n 2 Pr v th t th rv r s p r ll l t Oy t ( 4 4 )
a
‘1
. o e a e cu e un a a e o a a, a .

7 .
—xy 5 =0 .

Pr v th t if th t g t b d r w fr m ( O) t th r v th
o e a e an en e a n o a, o e cu e, e
p i t f t t is t dist f m th is f y d th t it
,

o n o 5
co n ac a a an ce a ro e ax o , an a s

in li ti n t Ox is n t v ry diff r t fr m t n 2 5 h w th t th 1
-
c na o o o e e en o a e a e
rv r ns p r ll l t Ox wh r = 2 d y = 22 rl y
.

2
cu e u a a e o e e x a , an a n ea .

8 If i E 14 p g 1 14 b= 3 n =4 pr v th t th g idi g
x .
,
a e a, c
2
a
2
o e a e u n
p r b l t h s th rv d i t rs ts th pr p r p r b li
.
, ,

a a o a ouc e e cu e an n e ec e o e a a o c
asym p t t t th p i t —4 1 6 )
o e a e o n a, a .

9 . x4

Pr v th t o e is g idi g sym p t t th rv lyi g

a a u n a o e, e cu e n
b l w th s ym pt t
e o thep si tiv sid f Oy d b v
a o e th on e o e e o an a o e on e
n g tiv sid
e a e e .

S h w th t x = x is t g t t th rv
e a tt i g it g i t n a an en o e cu e, cu n a a n a a
ngl t n ls th t th rv t O t gl t n 2
“
l 9 ’ “
1
a e a a o a e cu e cu s x x a a n an e a
2 3; .

1 0 Th . rv in A t 7 3 E 1 i t rs ts it g idi g sympt t
e cu e r . x n e ec s u n a o e

0wh r it m ts th rv 2y 3 y 2 =y / Sh wth t
.
, ,

2 xx3
+y 4
e e ee e cu e
2
x x 2
x 2
a e a

this l tt r r v h pr p r p r b li sym pt t ( g ) = 2 (y 2 )
.

z
a e cu e as a o e a a o ca o e x a a a

whi h it i nt rs t s in
c
2 2 ) nd r t
e ili n r
ec s y m p t t y + 2 =0 a, , a ,
a a ec ea a o e a .

1 1 Pr v th t (y o is pr p r p r b li symp t t t
e a a o e a a o c a o e o
r v E 5 p g 1 01 b t th t (y —x +
.

th e cu e, x h
a e u a as
l s r nt t
.
, ,

a c o e co ac .
 T HE A N A LY T ICA L T RI A NGLE
1 42 equ ation is s id to be pl aced pon the tri angle
. An a u ,

b y m king cross or som e defi n ite m rk in the centre of

a a ,
a ,

e ach sq re which corresponds to term of the eq u ation

ua a .

Thus the equation

,

ay
4
bx y 2 3
cx
g
y
2
dx y 4
ex
z
y +fx
2 2
gxy 0
F ig 2 0
. . is pl aced on the tri angle a in the figure the letters a Bnyfd s ,
'
e

corresponding to the terms in order .

1 43 The property which m akes the tri angle s o v alu able

.

a s an an ly er is th t if crosses be j oined s o
a z ,
s to form a , ,
a

a conve x pol y gon e x terior to which no cross lies ,

when the terms of the equ ation which correspond to any ,

side ,
eq ted to ero the loc s of the equ ation so
are ua z , u

formed is one or more simple p rabolic curves or str aight a ,

lines e ch of which s will be proved immediately is

,
a ,
a ,
a

first approx im ation to the form of the c rve eithe t n u , r a a

i n finite dist nce if all the rej ected crosses lie on the same
a ,

s ide of the line s the right ngle o r near the origin if they
a a , , ,

lie on the Opposite side when the eq ation has no constan t ,

u

term ;

Thus corresponding to 098 the eq tion is a y + bx y = O

,
ua
4 2 3
,

or y bx 0 n d with this rel ation between x and y every

a
2
,
a ,

other term v anishes comp ared with the terms in or and 3 1 :

when x nd y a e indefinitely gre at

a r .

A g ain corresponding to Bny we h a ve the equ ation

, ,

or which p e re r

sents two straight lines an d with this rel ation when x n d , , ,

a

y ra e l arge every other term v anishes comp ared with

, ny a

one of the three terms retained .

A g in t king the side 3 6 the equ ation is clx y +fx = 0

a ,
a x ,
4 2
,

or clx y + f = 0 with which rel tion x being infinite and

z
,
a , ,

y indefinitel y sm ll ever y other term will v a nish comp

a a red ,

with t he terms ret ined th u s xy and x y will be of the a ,

2 3

or d er x n d x respectivel y
“
1
a
’
4
.

C orresponding to d fx + gy = 0 an d with this rel ation e, , , ,

every other term v nishes when x nd y a e indefinitel y a a r

sm all .
1 20 PR OPERT IES OF T HE A N A L YT ICA L T RI A NGLE
i If every term of the equ ation be rej ected e x cept the
.
,

term s which correspond to the circles which lie in a given

line L the resulting equation gives one or more constant
‘
,

v alues of the ratio y x the v alues of r and 8 depend ing ’

,

only on the direction of the line and being therefore the ,

s ame for all parallel lines .

ii If the straight line L meet both sides of the tri angle

.
,

or these prod uced bey on d the h ypotenuse the terms of the ,

original eq ation will v nish comp ared with those whose

u a

circles e in L in the two c ases ( 1 ) when x an d y a e

ar , , r

infinitely gre at and the circles corresponding to these terms

lie on the s ame side as the right angle 0 ( 2 ) when x and y ,

are infinitel sm a ll there being no const nt term in the

y a ,

equ ation an d these circles an d O lie on opposite sides

,

of L .

iii When the line L intersects one of the sides s ay Ox

.
, ,

produced b ckwards through 0 and all term s are rej ected

a , ,

e x cept those which correspond to circles ly ing on L the .

,

resulting e q ation gives constant values to x y n d when

u
’ "
, a

y is infinitel y gre t n d therefore x indefinitely sm all all

a ,
a ,

terms whose circles lie on the s ame side of L as O v anish

, ,

comp red with those which form the equ ation which deter
a

mines x y ; when x is infinitely great y indefinitely sm ll

’ ’
, a ,

the terms which v anish relatively a e those whose circles r

lie on the sides of L Opposite to th at on which 0 lies .

S imil rl y if L intersect Oy prod ced b ackw ards th rough 0

a ,
u .

iv When the line is p arallel to one of the sides s ay to Ox

.
, ,

the res lting equ ation gives one or more straight lines which
u

a e p ar allel to Oy
r the terms whose circles a e on L will r

be gre ater th an any other term of the equ tion if the a ,

corresponding circle is on the s me side of L s 0when y a a

is infinitely gre at or on opposite sides if y be indefinitely

,

sm all .

v When the line coincides with a side of the tri ngle

. a ,

the sol tion of the res lting eq u ation gives the poin ts of
u u

intersection with the corresponding x is a .

 PROPERT IES O F T HE A N A L YT ICA L T RIA NGLE 121

The tru th of these propositions is e asily seen b y

1 46 .

taking p articul r c ases but they m ay be proved generally a ,

as follows

S uppose the equ tion of curve to be wh t is c alle d a a a

pl aced u pon th tri ngle and let x y' be one of ny n u mber e a ,

m 9
a

of terms whose represent tives on the tri angle all lie on the
,
a

same straight line L or 8 m st therefore s tisfy the eq a

'

, ,
u , ,
a u

tion 8 + m a c where m is const nt for ll p arallel lines and

,
.
, a a ,

c for ny one of these lines

a n d so a

wy 3 =x ma + c
( my )
a a - a c
y y
H ence if all the terms in the eq u ation be rejected e xcept
,

those whose circles lie on the line L since y is the s am e for ,

0

every term the result will be an equ ation ,

which if m = s /r proves i If m and c be positive Which is

, , .
,

the c ase of 1 and x yfi be a rejected term whose circle is

1,
a
’ ’

not in the line L let a line L p a rallel to L be dra wn thro gh ,

’
u

the circle corresponding to x yfi c being written for c the a

’ ’

,
'

roots of the equ ation determini ng xy m ar e

not the s ame in -
‘

the c ase of the two lines L and L b u t being independen t ’

of x and y the orders of the two term s are given b y y and y

,
° c
’

The rejec ted term v anishes co mp ared with those re tained

when y y v anishes ; this h appens when x a nd y are
’
° "

in fi nitely l arge and c < 0 also when x and y are infinitely ’

, ,

sm a ll and c > 0 It shou ld be observed th at when m is

’
.

positive x and y ‘a re both in fi nitely l arge or b oth infinitelv

sm all together Thus ii is proved . .

If the line L meet one of the sides suppose Ox produ ced , ,

throu gh 0 b ackw ards we m u st write m for m and the ,

-
,

term x yfi becomes a
a n d a s before a rejected term

x yB v a nishes comp ared with x yfi when is indefinitel

’ ’
a a "
y y
sm all H ence when y is infinitel y gre at c m u st be less th an
.
, ,
'

0 ; when y is indefinitel y sm all or x which v a ries as y m

'

, , ,

infinitely gre a t 0 is gre ater th an 0 This proves iii and ,

’
.
,

iv an d v a e evident r .

1 47 . F rom the proof given abo ve we m ay rem ark th at ,

if any line give the first approxim ation to an asy mptote ,

 USE OF T HE A N A L YT ICA L T RI A NGLE
P LA T E
the terms to be taken into acco nt for the second app o xi
,

VI . u r

m tion a fo nd b y moving th line p rallel to itself ntil

a re u e a u

it p sses thro gh a nother circle or s et of circles all of

a u ,

w hich correspond to the terms req u ired to be t aken into

a ccount .

1 48 I sh all now shew the use of the tri angle b y apply ing
.

it to ssist in t acm g the following curves

a r :

Ex . 1 . x
6 — 3 3=
+ 2a x y b y
2 3

P l ace the eq tion on the tri ngle an d draw the pol ygon
ua a , ,

two sides of which correspond to branches through the

F ig 2 2
. .
origin nd one to the infinite br nch i
a a ,
v z .

2 a x —b y = 0 nd x — by = 0 2 3 3 2 Z
Fg . aa a .

Ex 2 The nex t e x mple is one which has lre ady been a a

—
. .

considered in A t 8 8 i x y + xy y x 0 7 — 7=
r .
, V z .
3 2 5
.

P l a cing the eq ation on the tri angle we obt ain the

u
‘
F ig 24
. . q dril ater l ctBy é
ua a .

OLB g ves y 0 2 4
x i ,

By x
2
+y
3 = 0,

x —y 2 = 0,

da +
7
x =0 7
y .

The first approx im ation to the a symptote given b y 6 a .

is y + x = 0; the ne x t pproxim ation is found b y t king a a

into ccount the circle y ( A t

a the first which Soc meets r . (

w hen it moves p r llel to itself towards O ; the res lting

a a u

eq tion gives the rectiline r symp tote i

ua a a ,
v z .

The ne x t pprox im tion gives y + x { 2 { x t king

a a -L
fi
- 1
,
a

in to account the circle B .

To tr ace the c rve observe th at x = y meets the c rve

u ,
u

where x = y = 1 or ,

Ne r ( 1
a if x = 1 + §i y = 1 + n the coeffi cient of
, ,

t herefore proceeding to 7 7
2

N e ar —a a
, ,

if x +5 y 5 = 3 n
—y meets the cu rve where x —y = 1 nd
.
, ,

A gain x , , a

ne r (1
a 5 5+
,
 USE OF T HE A N A LYT ICA L T RI AN GL E
that ( fi m ust be a fac tor of the left side of this equ a
t

tion which red ces the equ ation to

, u

—M 2

the only real root of which is 1 8 6 2 nearly . Therefore

m = 34 67 and (1: —‘1 6 2 a .

The c u rve is p arallel to Ox at a p oi nt ne ar ( 2a , 2a ) .

Ex . 4 .
(y
2
X
? 2
) 2 axy 2
5 ax 3
0
.

Pl ce the equation on the tri ngle as in the fi gure

a a , .

By gives for the points of intersection with Ox ,

‘
an d for the ne xt app o x 1mation b y moving By p rallel to r ,
a .

itself until it p asses through 6 we obtain ,

2 2
(
3 2
x x 5 a) 2 a xy 2x y O ,

whe n ce 8y 2
2 5 a (x 5 a ) .

y i gives
c 2 y = 5 x ne ar the origin
2 2
.

‘
da gives y + 2 ax = 0also ne ar the origin
2

OLB gives ( y — x ) = O at a n infinite dist ance the ne x t

2 2 2

a ppro x im ation being ( y —

,

x ) = 3 ax
2 2 2 3
.

To obt in the p roper asy mpto tes we write the equ ation
a ,

in the for m ( y 3 a x + a x whence

2 3 2 2

=x —
,

y
2
a x i J(
2
3 a x ) or —a x
3

i ama —
l
ea or (x
x — H e r
a —u m ,

The other p r bolic sy mptote is given b y the sy mmetry

a a a ,

Fig 2 F or the si ze of the loops we can she w th at the c rve runs u

p arallel to Oy at the points —2a i 2a ) and p r allel to

. .

Ox where y = 5 x from which x —

, ,

2 2 5
a
, T2 .

Ex 5 . x 6
2b x y 3 2
2 ab x 4 2
b y 4
2 ab xy 2 2
31
2
11 2
1
2
0 .

Fig 3
. .
P l ce the equ ation on the tri ngle as in the fig re
a a u .

The side a B contains three giving ,

w— 2 bx y by or ( x
U circles 3 2 z 4 3
'

as a first pp o x im atio n
a t n infinite dist nce
r moving a a a

the line p r llel to itself it p asses thro gh two circ les whi ch
a a u
 U S E OF T HE A N A L YT ICA L T RI A NGLE
belong to the ne x t ppro xim ation v i bx 2 xy a ,
z .
—2 a
4 —b a
2 2
,

whence by 2

The side any cont ins three ci cles giving s theform a 1 a

—
,

ne r the origin ( y a x) O nd moving the line p arallel

= 2 - 2

to itself two ter ms — 2 bx y —

a , a

,
2 abx a introduced giving 3 2 4
re , ,

as the ne x t a ppro x im ation a x

2
y i ,
:

The third side By gives the points of intersection with

Ox x ,
2 bx + a b x
6
O and again moving the line p arallel
a
4 2 2 2
, ,

to Ox the ne x t appro xim ation is m king b = u a

, ,
a
4
,

2 ? 2 2 2 4 2
x (x
2
n a
4
) 2n 4
a xy (x n a ) O

writing fi x for x in the term involving y

z
, we ob t in a

2 2 2 2
)
4
x n a ,

4 2 3
or n a i 2n ay ,

Whence x n ai
z
n y,

as c annot be negative These are th tangents at the

x . e

d ouble point ( Ma ,

Witho t using the tri angle observe th at the equ ation

u ,

m y be written
a an d we sh all h ave the

forms ne ar ( ri a
,
ay i f an d ne ar (
z
n ay = x
,
f :
, ,
so cc
4 2 3
.

The curve is either par llel to Ox or h s multiple point a , a a

where ( x b y which x = 2n a or 2
,

n a the l tter solution belonging to the do uble point

z
, a .

2
Ex 6 . . x y 3 4
ax y
3
by 2
cx y 4
dx O .

l acing the equ ation upon the tri angle the bounding
P ,

polygon is a q adril ateral three of whose s d correspond

u , 1 es

to sy mptotic br anches of the curve an d one to the sh ape

a ,

a t the origin If we denote the circles which correspond

.

to the term s of the equ tion taken in order b y 1 2 3 4 5 a , , , , , , ,

we are directed to the first appro x im ations to the three

a s mptotes s follows a
y
—by
,

1 3 gives the form ne ar (0 (i)

3 ‘2
-
x ,
co ,

1 4 gives n e r ( 00
-
y + c x = 0 ( ) a cc
3
11

—dx
,

4 5 gives ne ar ( 00
-
( iii )
3
*

cy ,

t he re m aining side 3 5 gives ne ar ( 0 O) by + d x = 0 ( iv ) 2

'

-
.
, ,
 USE OF T HE A N A LY T IC A L T RI A NGLE
The circle corresponding to 2 lies within the qu dril ateral a ,

an d does not affect the gener al ch r cte istics of the c rve

'

a a r u ,

b t points
u t the ne x t most import nt term to be t ken
ou a a

into accou nt for a f rther ppro x im ation in c ases ( i ) ( ii ) u a , ,

iv
( ) In the
. se of ( ii ) the ne xt ppro xim tion is
ca , a a

ex so th t the first approxim tion gives a a a

proper symptote The terms following 4 nd 5 in

a . a ,

descending order of m gnit de 3 2 n d 1 v a r y ing a u ,

a re , , a ,
as

x
“

x
6
nd x
,
‘
Their ircles a p ssed thro gh in
7
,
a
"
9
c re a u

order s 4 5 moves p r llel to its e lf

,
a -
a a .

The symptote ( ii ) c ts the rve where

a u cu

ax
z
y
3
by 2
dx O ,

ay
9
c
z
by 2
cd y
3
O .

The sol tions of y u ccly b 0 a

7
e
z

ar e the ordin tes o f the points of intersection of

a ,

y
7
m fi
x, an d a rn x
fi
ecly a
g
b 0 .

Whence it ppe rs th at there m st be one or three re al

a a u

roots The following c ses e ill str ted in the fig res

. a ar u a u :

a 2) cl

two n d one a

or one root ;
one root
two n d one root a ,

or one root ;
one root .

F igs . 6, 7 ,
The fig res a u re dr wn for the two c ses of b c ( l being
a a , ,

all or all a n d the do ble br a nches m rked und a a

corr espond to a + an d a

Ex . 7 3 5
a y n G
x y
5 3
ax
6
y a x
fi 2
0
.

P l cing i n the t i ngle the fo r sides a B By y d

a r a ,
u , , , 66 , give
+ y 0 Oy being n s y mp tote
= 3 2
x a ,
a a ,

y
3 —x3 0 ,

y
2
ax 0 ,

x
4
y a
5
0 Ox, being n symptote a a .

The s id e eoz
'

. gives y 5 —a x = 0for the sh pe at the origin

3 2
a .
 USE OF T HE A N A L YT ICA L T RI A NGLE
-
b y _writing y for
pl acing the resulting eq ation y
- a, and u

y x
3
2 a yx
4
a ( x a ) ( y a ) 4
0 on the
2
t a ngle
4 2
rl .

The corresponding s ide of the pol ygon gives

3 4 4 2 fi
y x 2 a yx a x O,

a nd J5
2 2
yx a i 1 )a .

2 2
( ) (y )
4
Ex . 9 . x x ay y c .

F ig 1 3 P l acing
on the tri ngle we s e th at at n infinite dist nce e

x —
. .
a , , a a ,

5 = 0 an d mo ing the side p arallel to i tself we intro

5
v
y , ,

duce two more terms giving for the sym ptote , a

y
— x —2 a ) .

2
(a
2

3
0 +c
I n the ne xt ap p ro xim ation the term 2 x
is dded a .

On e form ne ar the origin is a x

2 -
cy
2
0; a no ther is
7
C C
more ne arl y ( x Z
2 2
( x -
4

When y c, x 0 ,
or
Ne ar ( 0 c) , , a x
2
C
z
n
-I
—
5
ne r J 45
5
2
a ( t a c, c ) :
i
7
,

In attempting to trace the c rve with the bove data a u

'

a ,

difficulty arises in choosing whether we sh all j om the

br nch thro gh
a
—
( 0 ) to the br a nch
u x + y = 0 or to th t , c a
2
c
2
,
a

through Jetc ,

It will ill strate the tifices which m y be used in such

u ar a

c ases if we e xamine the number of points where the curve

,

is par llel to the xis of x nd afterw ards the points where

a a a

the t ngent x = ( y —c) meets the curve

,

2 2
a a c .

The c u rve is p arallel to Ox where ,

(x
2
ay )
2
4x 2
( x
2
ay ) 0 ,

or where x a
y an d 5 x a y;
2
,
2

the firs t c ase has been considered ; in the second

2
1 6 a x 2 5 y ( y c) or y ( y g ) 4 5 a 2 —
2 a ne arl y ,
3 -
c
2 4 s s
E
5
.

The v lues of y are the common ordin tes of the curves

a a

y (y
—) c 20690 . an d yx
2 : 2a 3
.
 USE OF T HE A N A LY T ICA L T RI A NGLE
PLA TE
These two c rves e dr wn for the cases of c = 2 a and V I Iu ar a .

c = a an d they shew th t there a e three v alues of in the

, y F ig 1 4 1 5 _ a r
80 ,

first case and only one in the second Th s when c = 2 a

, . u , ,

the loop is fou nd b y joining the ends of the amphoid c sp r u ,

a n d when c = a b y joining one br nch of the c sp with the

, , a u

p r abolic br anch t hrough the origin

a .

The other pl an of e x amining the point where the tangent

a x = 0 (y —
,

c) meets the c rve le ads to some eleg ant results

2 2
u , .

A t the points of inters ection of the curve an d t angent ,

or %
2 z
(
c x ay ) :
i ay , i +y .

The loci of these eq u ations a e a hy perbol a an d an ellipse r ,

whose transverse xis is c n d the r tio o f whose xes a ,

a a a

‘ 2
l

is a 0 The positions e given in the fig res for c = 2 a Fig

’r

. ar u s .

a nd c = a in the l tter c se the loci being a circle and

, a a

rect ngul ar hyperbol

a the points of intersection are a

R A P Q for the first R being t n infinite distance in

, , , , ,
a a

the secon d .

The figure of the curve is dra wn for the s ame rel ations Fig s. 1 8, 1 9 .

between 0a n d a The letters A P Q R correspond to the .

, , ,

s ame letters in figures 1 6 and 1 7

The points of intersection with the tangent a x = 0 ( y —
.

2 2
c)

can be fo u nd directl y for c ( x

2 2
,

nd c (y —
5
c a

With the upper sign ( a )

y ( 2 0 a ) y
c c 0 ; c
5 5 2 5 5 7

2 (c 5 5 5 5 m
a )y ( 2 0 a ) 0i a ) .

If e 2 a,

y or 13c
-

, , and x 20 or 20 roughl y 5
if c a, y 00 or
'

20 , an d x

near
an d , 0 2c) 1 9 7 1 75 0 3 , ,
1 : .

With the lower sign y = c or n d th cor a e

responding v al es of x a e u r

x = 0 or ( + )
0 a x — a 0
5 5
.

Thus the coordin ates of the point of intersection can be

written x = — a y = c where r
3
,
r
3
,

F C‘
I
TO . I
 USE OF T HE A N A L YT ICA L T RI A NGLE
To find the form of the c rve near this point let u

then — a o< f and

,

x nd a r
3
.

re
y
3
n S bstituting
. in the equ
u a tion of the c rve an d u

rej ecting powers of or nd y higher th an the first we obtain . a ,

y)}
2
(c )(1
3 2 5
(1
5
’

ra ar +a
4 l3
(1 5 y)
5 15
r 0 r c (1 4y)
ro w s (a
s
a
5
>
<1 A w};
hence a (1
5
0 5
2a 5
oL ( c
5
a
5
)y }
2

10
0 { a
5
(0
5

( 05
4a 5
)a
5
o< .
{(c
5
a
5 2
) a
l°
}y 0 ,

1°
)5
2 5 2
{ (
3 5 5
}
5
c a ( c 4a c a ) a q .

When 0 a,

—2c y = 2—
c, and

when 0
,

2 a,

y 220 ,
an d 3017 75 .

N ote In the c ase 0 a the condition th t straight

.
,
a a

line through the origin x m y 0 m ay be a t ngen t to the , ,

a

curve is 4m ( m + 1 ) ( 2 m + D or 4m 4m + 1 0; and
5 3 2
,
3

the method of A t 47 le ds to the ppro xim ate sol tions r . a a u

2 2 nd
, , 22 the corresponding v al es of y being obt ained
a ,
u

from ( 2 m + 1 ) y 2 m c the points of cont ct a e on the loop

3
a r

for m 2 on the branch near Oy for m = 2 and on the

, ,

br nch ne r the a symptote when m

a a

Ex 1 0 6. . x7 —2x y — 5 2
a x
3 2 2
y + 4a x y + 2 a x
3 3 5 2

F ig 2 0
. .
Pl ace on the tri angle n d c all the cir les corresponding ,
a c

to the terms of the eq tion in order 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ua , , , , , , .

( 1 ) The side 1 2 of the pol ygon moved p ar llel to itself

-
,
a ,

p asses thro gh 3 4 n d gives u -

,
a

32 390
20 2
a)
? s
a x
i
y (y 4 x) .
0
3
=
y

This equ ation determines two asy mptotes the curv e ly ing ,

on the y side at the u pper end of both nd intersec ting them ,

a

where i J 3 ( 4 ¢ J 3 ) x i 3J 3 5 ) a 2 2
.
 EXA M PLES
3 . x ° 2
y 2 o3x4 y
6 2
c x 2 o°xy c
2
y
2
0.

Pr v th t O is
o e sym pt t th t w br h s f th rv b i g
a x an a o e, e o a nc e o e cu e e n

on th s m side f Ox a e e o
S h w th t th rv is p r ll l t Ox wh r y =—1 x d y = 5x
.

1
e a e cu e a a e o e e an
6
a ppr i m t l y
ox a e .

4 . x5y 2 3 2 4
ax y + n a y
4
a xy n 2a 4x2 0 .

Sh w th e at the r ise on ly o ne pi o n t at i
wh ch the cu rv r s p
e un ara ll l
e

t o Oy, b y t r i ac ng the cu rv s e

3 x4 y x
a y
3
4 n2 a 4x 3a 4
O,
a nd 2 x y3 2 2
n a 3x
2
3 nay4 0, n 4 .

Sh w h e o w the cu rv li s wi th r sp
e e e ect t o the g u idi ng a sy m p t t s o e .

5 . n2x6 2 n2 cx4y 2
n c2x2y 2 x
2 nc y“ y6 O.

Sh ew that the r e are t wo l ps

oo ,
and t wo ram pho id cu sps .

6 . x6 +y
“ ay
5
+ x ay ( —cx) x3 = 0 .

i d th p i ts t whi h th tw t g ts t th rv
F n e o n a c e o an en o e cu e at the rig i n
o

i nt rs t th r v nd wh n 0 sh w th t th di m t r
e ec .
e cu e, a e : a, e a e a e e o f cu rv t r
a u e
a t f th s p i nt s is
o ne o e e o la

A t th p i t s w h r t h rv is p r ll l t Oy
.

e o n e e e cu e a a e o

6y5 —5 ay4 + a 2x3 = 0;

t r
ace th is r v cu e and s he w that it accou nt for the s p i ts o n in q s ti
ue on

when c = a and 2a .

7 . x6 +y °
ay
6 a
2
yx3 0 .

Sh w th t th t ng nt fr m th ri gi
e a e a e o e o n to the rv is in lin d t
cu e c e o

gl t rl y E m i p i ts t whi h th
.

O 1 1 2
n e the
-
t n
x a a n an e an 3 ea . xa o n a c e
curv r ns p r ll l t Oy
e u a a e o .
 C H A PTE R X .

SI NG ULAR P O N S I T I V I S I ON I NTO COMP AR TMENTS

. D .

SPE C A L I C UR VE OF T HE F OU R TH DE GR EE .

1 50 I N. the preceding ch pters I h ve been endeavouring a a

to m ke cle ar to the student processes which will en able him

a

to d etermine as e x actl y s he ple ases the form of a c rve

,
a ,
u

in the neighbourhood of ny point whether at a finite or a ,

infini te distance which he m ay h ve occasion to consider

,
a .

I h ve lso shewn ho w a certain polygon on the A n aly tical

a a

Triangle s pplies a test whether ll the br nches h ve been

u a a a

considered which m y e xist t an infinite dist nce or p ass

, a a a ,

throu gh the origin .

151 In order to trace a curve we m ust generally find

.

such a finite n mber of points whose coordin ates s atisfy the

u

equ tion th at h ving the t ngents to the curve at those

a , ,
a a

points n d the direction of the de fl ection o f the curve from

,
a

the tangents t the most import nt poin ts there shall be

,

a a ,

only one way of joining the corresponding sm ll elements a ,

which will not be inconsistent with the degree of the eq ua

tion and the l ws of con tinuity and other properties

a ,

obvious from the eq ation s ch s symmetry etc u ,

u a ,
.

152 I h ave s aid gen e a lly bec ause it m ay be possible

. r ,

to obtain from the equ ation some geometric l constr ction a u

which will amount pr ctic lly to giving n infinite number a a a

of points ; as for example (x ,

—b) = c represents ,
2 2

th at the c u rve is the loc s of a point whose distance from u

( a
, b) is a lw y s 0; an d y = 4 a x is the s me as
a
2
,
a
 SINGUL A R POIN T S
”

which e xp resses that the curve is the locus of a point whose

distance from ( a 0) is e q u l to its distance from the line
,
a

x+a = 0

In the c ase of equ ations which c n be solved with

153 . a

respect to either of the coordin ates so s to express ,

a

it e xplicitl y in terms of the other there is no limit ,

to the n u mber of points which m y be found b t the a ,

u

form of the res lt will in m ost c ases suggest the peculi ar

u , ,

points which will most e asily lead to the form of the

curve so as to limit the number of poin ts necessary to be
,

e xamined .

B t in the c ase of equ ations which c annot be so de alt

u

with it will be found that when we h ave constructed ll

, ,
a

the forms of the curve in the neighbourhood of points

which readily present themselves to be e xamined ther e will ,

be m any w ay s in which these elements c n be connected b y a

curved lines none of which on the face of it contradict the

, , ,

properties of the eq ation as in E x 9 p 1 2 8 u , .

, . .

Moreover supposing th a t the elements so determined

,

could be joined in onl y one way some outly ing portion of ,

the c e s u ch as an oval b y the e xistence of which no

u rv ,
‘ ,

l w of continuity wo ld be broken m y h a ve been omitted

a u ,
a

en tirely if it so happened that none of the elements alre dy

, a

fo nd we e p art of it
u r .

I sh all now ende vour to s pply some m eans of

154 . a u

meeting these difficulties not professing th t they will all ,

a

admit of pr actic l applic ation in every c se but suggestin

a
g a ,

them as methods to be tried before the curve is given up in ,

desp air .

The most import nt points nex t to the in finite

155 . a

branches which g ive ch ar acter to a curve a multiple re

points of all sorts cusps an d conj gate points ; it is there

, , u

fore necessary to c all speci al attention to the method of

determining their position when they e xist altho gh it h s ,
u a

alre ady been incidentally mentioned in a note p age 8 5 , .

 SINGUL A R POINT S
These points where the curve is p rallel to Ox wo ld be a u

given gener lly b y two re l v lues of x to e ch of which

a a a ,
a

m ay correspond four two or no v alues of y in p artic l r , ,

u a

c ses these points or some of them might be repl aced b y

a , ,

m ltiple points
u .

The c u rve is p arallel to Oy at points given b y a c u bic

equ tion whose sol tion m ay give one or three re l v l es
a ,
u a a u ,

to e ch of which m ay correspond one or three v lues of x

a a .

The g iding sy mptote is y = a x The forms of the

u a
4 3
.

curve which s atisfy these conditions necessarily involve

m any points of infl x ion and c re m st be t ken th t e , a u a a

no tangent t any point of infiex ion c ts the c u rve

a u

a g ain in two points which would require five points of ,

intersection .

The fig res given represent v rious forms which might

u a

be a ss med b y the curve ll of which m y b y gr adu al

u
,
,
a
“

a ,

ch nges of the const nts be m de to p ss from one to

a a , a a

a nother ; while t every ch ange of gener al form the p rts

a , a

of the curve which bend tow ards e ch other prod ce a , u

multiple points .

A s the const ants diminish n d ultim atel y v anish the fou a , r

v a lues of y when x = 0 nd the three v l es of x when

-
, ,
a a u ,

y 0 a e acco nted for ; also the three points in which the

= ,
r u

c rve is met b y an y line drawn through the origin e

u ar

ex pl ined the fourth rem aining point being t an infinite

a ,
a

dist nce in the c se of Ox

a a .

159 If two v al u es of x corresponding to y = 0 e im

. ar

possible s when the equ ation of the curve is of the form

, a

y (y
—a —
) ( y B) ( y
it is e sily seen th at the equ ation for determining the v al e
a u s

of x where the c rve is p r llel to Ox h s re l eq l o u a a , a a ,

ua ,
r

impossible roots as 6 is o < 3 ; nd as y m y

,
2
r
'

e
2
a a

h ve fo r corresponding re l v l u es two or none the curve

a u a a , , ,

m ay ss me any of the forms in the figu res the ppe r

a u , u

belonging to 6 3 ; the lower on the left side to

2
5
2

in which c se there fo r points of in flex ion th t ngents

a ar e u , e a
 SINGUL A R POIN T S
the ppro xim ate equ tions being of the form
a a =
n Af
“
.

S imil arl y the sol tions of ( i ) nd ( iii ) which do n o t s tisfy

,
u a ,
a

( ii ) give points where the c rve is p arallel to Oy

, u .

If OUB be any term of ( i ) a B and

1 62 .
'
8
will , r
f ’
l 8

be the corresponding terms of ( ) nd ( iii ) an d he nce 11 a ,

m ltiply ing ( ii ) n d ( iii ) b y (X nd B nd adding the cor

u a . a ,
a ,

responding term in OL¢ ( OL B) will be ,

Therefore arranging the eq tion ( i ) in the form of

, ua

homogeneous f nctions of or B i u , ,
v z .

f( ( xv 8
4 )
E u n +un -
1 +
we h ve a

nu —
(n —Mi l

B) =Ob
y ( ii ) an d ( iii ) .

Therefore
n n _1 1 ) u 1 + n u 0= 0
is n equ ation which m y be used inste d of or with the
a a a ,

t hree equ ations given above .

1 63 . T he following e x mples will shew how the bove a a

e q tions
ua ar e to be pplied a

2
Ex . 1 .
(y
If ( x y) be , a m ltiple point writing y + n for y
u , ,

(y
2
0;
t herefore equ ating the coefficient of 7 to ero
,
7 z ,

6 y ( y —a ) = 0 2 2 2
.
(i )
ga in writing x + § for
A ,
x an d eq ting the coeffi cient of
ua

f to ero z ,
2
4x ( 2 x 3
3a ) 4x ( 2x 4
3a ) O
.

The sol u tions of these equ ations are

y
= 0 , t a, an d x= 0 ,
—2a ,

o these sol tions ( 0 t a ) —2a

f u , , , t a ) ,
and — a, 0) s tisfy
a

the given equ tion a .

 SINGULA R POIN T S
The dire tions of the br nches t these points a e given
c a a r ,

n e r (0 i a )
a , ,

by i 2 aq ) + 9 x O or i 8 ; 9 x 0; 3
a
2 4
, a»
3 4

n e ar 2a i a ) , ,

by ( i 45 0 or i 3 2 n + 8 1 a § 0 2
,
3 2 '

n e ar a,

by a
6
+ (a an 2a 2
0 .

3a y 4 2
a
6
+ { ( d a
2
a
f }
2 2
0 ,

ie
. . by or y 4 2
3a y 6a 4
§
2
0 ,
2
25 2
.

H ence the three l tter points two cer toid cusps a are a ,

a nd double point respectivel y

a .

The other points of the c rve which satisfy the equ tion u a

( i) points t which th c rve is p ar llel to Oy

are a e u a .

Thus if y = 0 x ( 2x + 3 a ) i a ,
2 3
.

T king th upper sign

a e

(x + a ) ( 2x
2
a ) 0 .

T king the lower sign

a

2x 3
3ax 2
a
3
0 ,

whose sol tion is the common absciss of the c rves

u a u

a = x2 , an d
y
g iving onl y one v a l e of x i — 2 a ne a rl y u v z

—a which satisfies ( ii ) gives y

. .
, ,

4
x , nd , a

t herefore this v al e of x gives no p oint t which the c rve is

u a u

p r llel to Ox
a a .
F ig 2 6
. .

2 2
(y 2)
2 2
Ex . 2 . x ) (x 1 ) (x 2 (y + x 2
2 x) .

If x + 5 y + 7 be written for x
, 7 an d
y ,
at a singul ar point
th oe ffi cients of f n d 7 v nish ;
e c a 7 a

y ( 2x
2 —
g 4x 3 l
2
i
x
2
3x 8 (x 2 x) ,

2
and 1 ) (x 2) 4y ( y 2 x)
y (x (1 1 )
2
x .

The solutions of ( ii ) and the equ ation of the c rve u ,

which give the points where the curve is p rallel to Oy as a

well s the sing l r points a e

a u a r

= 0 x = 0 or 3 x —
,

( ) y
a 2
§ +
x — ,0 the roots of which ,
2 1- -9
2 ,

ar e impossible Therefore since x = O y = 0s tisfy ( i ) the

.
, , a ,

o rigin is singul ar point a :

 SINGUL A R POIN T S
( b) which s atisfy ( i ) nd therefore give two
x= 1 , y
2 = a

m ore sing u l ar points

( ) 2 y 2 which do not s tisfy

= but give points
2
0 x , , a

where the curve is p ar llel to Oy a

d
( ) (y
4 2 2 x ) ; or y = 3 x —2 x; - 2 2

whence ( x 1 ) ( x 2 ) 4 ( 4 x 4 x)
2
,

01
'
w—2 = 1 6 x or x y = §
Dm ,
2
T
2

which giv es two other points where the c u rve is p r llel a a

to Oy .

The points W here the c rve is parallel to Oy co ld be u u

most e asily found b y solving the eq ation u

(y + 90 — 2 w)
2 —2 w) ( w 2 2

Dam —x(x
which gives { y
2
+ x
2—
2 x —2 ( x —1 ) ( x

whence x = 2 an d x — % e ch give eq al v al es of T a u u
y
A lso where x = 0 2y = 2 y ;
, y
=
2 and 0 ,
2 4 2
.

N ear ( 0 2 y ,
2

1
2 x y = i x ne arl y
2 1 2
, r .

Ne r < 1 a ,

5
2
Fig 2 7
. . te n

Ex 3 . . xy
2
za y 2
ax
2 2
3a x 3a3
0
.

Writing x + f y + q for x and y , , ,

an d equating the
coeffi cients of f n d 7 to ero we h ve a 7 z a

y
— 2 x —3 a =0
2
a
2
,

an d

These an d the e q u ations of the curve give x — a, y =a

The sh ape ne ar —a a ) is given b y
.

“ n ( f
N e ar ( 0 oo x —2 a
2
/y ;
ne ar y = a x,
2

ne ar a ) , ( 2a
2

F ig 2 8
. . or 8 7; 8r .
 SING ULA R POIN T S
A llthree eq ations u are s atis fi ed by x —a , y an d,

from ( i ) and ( ii ) ,

( x
2
M ax )( 7a)
a
2
x 3 2 a (x a )
2

— —
,

or ( x a ) (x 5 a )
2 =

The sol tions of u ( i ) an d ( ii ) give the points ( a i —

Jga ) n d ,
a

( a i 4a ) b t only the l atter a

5 , ,
u re on the curve The equ a .

tion m y therefore be written

a

2 2 2
3 (6y 2
x l 4a x a ) (x 5 a) 3
( 3x + a ) O,

hence if , y = i 4a + m
—2 ‘
2
we obtain f ;
ne ar 06 2 7 ay + 8 5
, 0 2 3
,

F or the rectiline ar a sy mptotes the fi rst approx im ation is

3 y = x the second is obt ained from
2 2
,

9 ( 3 y —x ) y 9 1 4 a xy 3 2ax 2 2 2 2 3

a n d the rectiline r a s mptotes a e i J S

y
—
y x a 0 a r z .

The gu iding asy mptote is 9 y + 3 2 a x = O the prope 2

,
r

F ig 1
. . a sy mptote being y = ( x —a)
2 2 2
T .

Observe th at two of the c sps lie within the loops formed u

b y the a sy mptotes .

N o te This t icu s p ed curve is the locus of a point through

r

which if the three m x imum or minim m chords be dr awn

.

a u

in a p arabol a y = 4 a x two of the three chords coincide ; it

2
,

was given to me b y J Wolstenholme who observed th at .

,

the equ ation m ay be written

( x —5 a )
—2
+( 4 x —6y - 4a )
_
2 =0 .

If ( or B ) be any point through which chords a e dr awn

,
r ,

writing oc+ l B+ m where l + m = 1 for x and y in th

r, f
r,
2 2
,
e

eq ation of the p ar bol a the values of x for the direction

u a ,

(,
l m ) a e g iven b yr a n d if x n b e , 1 , ,

the roots of this equ ation

—
,

film l
‘4
( x1 ~
~

r
2 )
2
1 6a m ( al
2
1 6 af ( l, on ),

and the chord is a m x i mum or minim m when f ( l m ) i a u ,

s

gre ater or less th an m + p ) for all sm all v lues o f t a

7\ n d
a such th t ” q— m“ 0 (i) a ( : .
 D I V I S I ON IN T O C OM PA RT M E NT S
Let f( l terms in X etc
A, m u
,
.
—
) f (l , m) LA Ma ,
2
,
.

This m st be of the s ame sign for ll sm all v alues of k

u a ,
u
, ,

which c n only be the c se when LA M

a 0 a u
,
. .

H ence b y ( i ) Lm Ml O where L m ( 2 a l 6m )
, ,
“
4

an d M m
(
4
Bl 2a m) 4m 5
( al
2
Blm mm )
2
,

( 2 alm 8m )m { 0cm film

2 2
4 (a l Blm + ou n ) }l
2
,
2 2
O,
and the directions of the three chords a e given b y r

000 0 2
4 al 38 l m 2 (a 17
B m 3
,
74
2 3
.

If two of these directions coincide

6a l 2
SBlm (a 0L) m 2
O ,

an d 36l 2

whence b y elimin tin g a l zm the loc s of u ( or , B ) is fo u nd .

DI VISION INT O COMP A R T MENT S .

1 6 4 A gre at a ssist nce in selecting the proper mode of

. a

m king the j nction of isol ated p rts of c rve which m y

a u a a u , a

h ave been alre ady determined is q u ired b y observing , ac

that if f (x y) = 0 be an eq ation wh ich does not represent

, ,
u

sep ar ate curves n even n mber of which oinci d e when

,
a u c ,
a

v ari able point moves so s to cross the c rve every time a u ,

th at it s o crosses the v alue of the f u nction f ( x y) obtained

, , ,

b y substit ting the coordin ates of the point for x an d y

u ,

will ch nge sign This does not req ire ny proof

a . u a .

1 65 . S u ppose
the equ tion of curve to be p t in the a a u

form ta + w = 0 where t = 0 u = 0 v = 0 w 0 represent

v , , ,
:
,

fo r c rves ; nd take two pom ts P and Q on opposite sides

u u a

of t = O so th at line joining P Q crosses 15 0 b t does not

,
a :
,
u

cross ny of the other three lines ; it follows th at the v l es

a a u

of t for the coordin ates of P an d Q a e of opposite signs r ,

while u v n d w ret in the s ame sign therefore P an d Q

, , a a ,

c annot both be points on the c u rve The only p ath b y which .

the curve c n cross t = O is throu gh the p oint of intersection

a

of t v or t w nless t = O represen ts an even n mber of

, , , ,
u u

coincident curves .
 D I V I S I ON IN T O COM PA RT M EN T S
1 66 We e th u s en abled to n ame certain comp artments
. ar

within which the c rve c annot lie when one point has been u ,

determined nd the ge neral form of the curves with equ a

,
a ,

tions of high degree can be frequentl y obt ined with very , a

little c alc l tion u a .

A ny of the e x amples which h ave been given of homo

en e o u s c rves will serve to ill stra te this in simple w
g u
y u a a .

The following curves will shew how to choose the com

a tm e n ts an d how to obt a in the direction of the c rve in
p r , u

p ssing from one to another comp ar tment ; in these it will

a

be seen th at b y re rranging the equ ation of the curve in a

different forms di fferent Sets of comp rtments m y be , a a

m apped down an d so ssistance given in determining ,

a

doubtf l ca ses u .

2
Ex . 1 . xy x (
The four sy mptotes a are represented in the figure v i z

n d the circle x + y —
, .

x Ox B OB a = 0b y
' ' ’ ’

y Oy A OA 2 2 2
, , , , a
’
ab d .

The intersections of the asy mptotes with the circle a b , , ,

etc a ll points in the curve

re a

The t ngent at ( O a ) is x —2 n= o ; if therefore x be

. .
,

a ,
r , ,

positive this shews two comp artments d Oc nd yc in

,
a

which the c rve must lie nd sin e none of the five lines u ,
a c

m entioned above c n be crossed sep ar a tely witho u t a ch ange a

of sign the compartments b Oc d Oa b Oc d Oa an d xa bA

, ,
’

,
’ ’

,
’

, ,

y c ,
must be empt y ; w hence the c u rve

m ay be re adil y dra wn .

The figu re represents the three pr ncip l forms which the i a

curve can assume accordi ng as r o > 1 denoted b y r ,

the letters 6 0L 7 respectively , ,

.

To fi nd ‘the lue of r in order th at there m ay be a va ,

multiple point the following three equ ations m st be ,

u

s atisfied simultaneo sly u

2 3 2
3 yx 2a xx O,
y

2 (x + y ) —4 a
2 2 2 = 0 ( A rt .
 DIVISI ON IN T O C OM PA RT M ENT S
The figure represents three forms of the curve a denoting ,
.

F ig 3 . .
the c se in which the curve divides into two is drawn with
a ,

stronger lines and B y a c ases in which o < ga and

, ,
re ,

Cb
< c< a
§
.

The ne xt figure is for c > a .

Ex 3 . . x
6 —3 axy ) = 0 .

The curve x + y 3 xy 0( Pl V fig and the asym p

3 3
a . . .

totes x i y = 0 m ake sep r ate compartments which a e

,
a ,
r

a l tern ately occupied b y the curve

N e a r —a O)
.

ne ar ( 0 a ) x + a= 0
, , , ,
.

The dividing lines a e dot ted r .

N ote The eq uation might be arra nged

.

3
) (x
3 3 3 3 4
(x +y y a ) 3 a xy O ,

F ig 1
. . an dthe for m would be obt ined perhaps more e asil y if the a

point x = y = ga were noticed to be on the curve .

Ex 4 . . x
6
y
6
a
2
( x a )( x
3
y
3
3 axy ) 0 .

H ere x a O is a line in addition to those of Ex 3 for .

,

obtaining empty comp artments an d since x a x a 0 ,

3 2 3

Fig 2
. .
has only one root which is positive an d ne ar ( 0 a ) 3 7 4x , , , , 7 ,

the curve is e a sil y dra wn .

Ex 5 . .

(y 2x + 2 a)( x 2 y + 2 a) ( x + y 2 2
) xy +b
3
(
3
x + 57
3 —) 3
3
Q

N ear ( 0 a ) , , x a
2 2
bn 3
O
this with the symmetry with respect to x = y is sufficien t
, ,

to determine the comp rtments wi thin which the curve m st a u

lie and therefore the sides of the asy mpto tes at which the
,

curve comes into sight from an infinite dist nce a .

The lines determining the comp artments a e dotted ex cept r ,

the ax es .

2 2 2
) (z
2 2 2
(y ) (
2
Ex 6 . . az a a xy x y a ) O .

The circle and the a x es determine the comp rtments and a ,

two points coincide where any one of the three meet the
curve .
 DIVISION INT O COM PA RT M EN T S
The asymptotes a e (x a ) 0 and (y a x) 0 r
2 2 2

—
.

N e ar ( a ( x a ) =co
/y ;
2
a

—
,

ne ar ( 00 ( a xoo
y ) a xy a
y
2 2 2 s
,

ne ar ( 0 O) x
, y O an d a x y
, 0 ,
2 3
,

n e a r ( a O) , a § ( a§ + y ) a y 0
2 ,
4 2 2 3

or f y2 = 0 an d 2 a f y 0
+ = ,
2
.

It m ay be seen b y the compartments necessarily empty

th at when x is posi tive the curve is without the circle
when y is positive an d within when y is neg tive , a .

Ex 7 . .
( x
2
y
2
) (x a )y
3
a
2
(x
2
y
2
a
2
) (x
2
y
2
0
.

Three of the d ividing lines x y O and x a 0are 2 2

,

a s y mptotes It is e asily seen b y the tri angle th at y a x 0 3 2

.
,

is p arabolic asy mptote or still nea rer taking in the ne xt

a , , ,

term a x y y a ( x a ) 2 3
,
3 2
.

If x = 0 y
— a,
—
(y a ) (y
5 2 2 2

the only root of which is a little less th an a being t he ,

ordin te common to
a

y
2 = ax an d (y — ) a x
2
+ 5a
2
x —4 a
3 =0 .

It requires great care to determine in wh t direction a

certain elements of the curve should be joined ; for instance ,

whether P P should be joined with Q Q and R R with

,
’

,
'

, ,
’

S S or P P with R R and Q Q with S S

’ ’ ’ ’ '
.
, , , , , ,

F or this purpose it W ll be s fficient to examine where l u

the curve is intersected b y the two lines x + 2 a = o and ,

y 2a 0 .

It is e asily shewn th at the first meets the curve where

y (3y
2 3
ay
2
l 2a y 2
3a 3
) 0 ,

y
2
0giving the two
coincident points in the circle r adius 2 a , .

The other f ctor gives one positive root near ga and two
a

negative one sm all the other n e ar —%a the sm all roo t

,

, , ,

arising fro m the curve bending from 2 a 0) in the s me ,

a

direction as the circle These e found from the inte sec ar r

tion of y = ax with the hyperbol a ( 3 y — a ) (x —

.

2 4a ) = 7 a 2
.

The other line y + 2 a = o m ets the curve where e

x
4
8 ax s
5a 2
x
2
32 a x 3
3 2a 4
0 .
 DIVISI ON IN TO COM PA RT M ENT S
If x
2
we have ( n a
= 4 a ”, a) a The axis of ) ( n+ 2 x —% - 2

this hy p erbol a is n—a

.

giving for one

ve rtex ( a % a ) very ne arly If the two curves be dr awn
, .

c arefully it will be seen tha t they very ne arly intersect and ,

that they a e very n e ar where x = ga ; when

r ,

0L being very sm all

’

for the hy perbol a {g

A

for the par abol a 1

31 ga ga
y

therefore i 35a
_ 2
,

which shews that 5 + n is m inim m v alue of ( n 7,

-
a u
’

and th at the curv es do not intersect in the q drant x Oy ’

ua

s o th at the branches at P an d Q m u st join n d also those t a a

R an d S
— —
.

The two negative v alues of x a e ) a an d 8 a r ( 1 f 5

l

nearly .

In the figure the a sy mptote is dr wn for a ,

w ant of room so as to recede from the ax is of x more r apidly

2a x = —
,

th an it ought to do seeing th t when y 9a

,
a ,
.

F or the sake of testing the direction of the curve at any

point (0L 8 ) as well s the direction of its fi exu e I give the
, ,
a r ,

equ ation which determines the form ne r this point i a ,

v z .

where
B (a a )( 5 ,8
2 2 2 2 2
A 2a (2a . 5a )8 , ,

B B ( 2a B (a 0L)
3 2 3 z z 2
,8 ) ( 2 o( )
2
OL 2a . 5a oc,

0 : 3& 2
)( a a
2
( oz +
2 .
2
5a 2
) ,

2
D 3,8 ( OL
2
B)
2
6 ,8 2
OL a( a .
) 8 a ,8 a 2
,

2 098 )5 26
3 3 2 2 2
E (a oz . a ( 6 0L
Thus it c n be shewn th at the cu rve bends upwards at P
a
‘
,

and downw ards at Q A further con firm ation of the form

’
.

drawn in the figure c n be fo nd b y e x mining where the a u a

str aight lines y = § x and y —%x meet the curve .

 IS OLA T ED PORT I ONS
The comp artm ents are defined b y the curve ( cf P] V fig 2 0) . . . .

5 5 2
x y 2a xy O,

and the two lines p ar llel to the rectiline ar a symptotes a ,

y and x

it is to be observed th t x = 0 do not infl u = 0, an d

'

an d
2 2
a
y
ence the division into comp rtments since x an d y a e a
2 2
r

of inv riable sign

a .

The forms at the origin a e given b y r

2 a bx —by —4a x y for the given curve

‘ 3 4 2 2
,

—y
for the curve ( A ) 4
5

so that the curve lies ne arer to Oy an d Ox n d further ’ ’

,
a

from Oy and 0x th n the curve ( A ) which defines the coma

artm en ts ; this determines the comp rtments which can be

p a

occupied b y the curve .

If y x, ( x 2 x) x 2 2
2 b (x 3
a
3
) O,
the roots of which are the absciss ae of the points of inter
section of 2
x y gas 0 ,

2
( x 2a) b (y 2 x) .

Of these ( i ) is fi x ed curve fo all va l es of b an d ( ) is a

a r u ,
11

p arabol a which ch anges its shape and position with the

v alue of b the vertex being ( 2 a —b 4 a —b) and the l atus
,

rectum b The vertex lies in the straight line y —

, , ,

. x = 2a .

T he figure is dra wn for three positions of the p ar abol a,

m arked on B and y the v alues of b corresponding to B nd

, , ,
a

7 being a nd 6 a The
a c a se a belongs to the v alue of b
. .

which m akes ( i ) an d ( ii ) touch one another and is there ,

fore the c se of a multiple point ; B y belonging to c ases

a ,

in which ( ii ) intersects x Ox in no point or two distinct ’

points .

Fig 2
. .
The curve corresponding to B is drawn completely The (
.

p rt of the curve 0L is dra wn only to shew the position of

a

the multiple point and of y to shew how the curve runs

ne ar — 4a —
,

~
4 a ) ; the asy m ptotes being too distant to be
,

represented in the figures .

 IS OLA T ED P ORT I ONS
I find no isol ted ov l fter try i ng sever l se arch lights
a a , a a -

s u ch as where the curve intersects the line x for di fferent c

v l es of c
a u .

1 69 The following curv e ffords n e xample of n out

. a a a

lying o v l whose e x istence might not h ve been suspected

a ,
a

3 3 3 2 3
xy 4x y ay 3a xy a x O.

The sy mptotes a e y
a r O, x a O ,
an d y a: 2x 1 a 0
.

N e ar y
3
a x
2
0 .

Writing the e q tion ua

4xy ( x a
2
) a x
2
(y a ) 0,

we see th at the form ne r is a a, a )

5 — 4 x or
The equ ations of the sy mptotes le ad a us to put the equ a
tion of the curve in the form
(y
The c u rve u ts the sy mptotes where x = 0 y = a —%a
c a , , ,

—a respectively there being three points in e ch t n

, ,
a a a

infinite dist nce a .

( a ) The c rve is p r llel to Oy where

u a a

4x( n a
2 2
) a
6
(x a ) ,

'

whose re l sol tions

a u are the common ab s eiss ae of
an d

which gives roughl y x — % a — ia , ,

an d %a .

r the c u rve is p ar allel to 0x the points of inter

'

b O at
( ) ,

section of the two c u rves

y +
3 1 2x y 2
a
s
O ,
8x + ay 3 2
0 .

The fi e points at which the c rve r ns p rallel to 0x

v u u a

a re denoted b y a b d n d e of which a b belong to the, ,

c, ,
a , ,

isol ted portion

a .

( )
0 O tr y ing
r, x %a y 2 a y a O ,
3 2 3
,

when e c —a or 2
l 1 )a ,
-
152 SPECI A L CURVE OF T HE F OUR T H DEGREE

SPECIA L CUR VE OF T HE F OURT H DEG REE .

1 7 0 I sh all concl de this ch apter b y shewing how the

. u
'

m ethods which ha e been e x pl ained work when applied tov

some equ ations selected b y in a p aper on sy m "

metric l curves of the fo rth order which serve e xcellently

a u ,

to ill strate the v rieties which the general equ ation m ay

u a

produce It will be found th at ll the pec li rities of the

. a u a

curves can be determined withou t any gre t di ffi cu lty a .

The equ ations are

2
(y J

the ambi g u o s sign s allowing the eq ation to represent

u u

a c rve with fo r two or no

u sy mptotes u , , a .

171 .
(y
2 —
éY
The curve being sy mmetric al with respect to Oy we need ,

only e xamine on which side of two of the sy mptotes the a

curve lies this is given b y

y x a n d —
%y x 1
The comp artments formed b y the fo r sy mptotes and ,
u a

the line y + a = o within which the c rve c n lie a e thu s

,
u a ,
r

determined for the c ases 1“ positive and negative .

Where the cu rve meets 0x ,

x2 : i J( 1
so th at if 4 a be positive an d not greater th n 1 or neg
,
u
,
. a ,
a

tive it is cu t in fo r points two on e ach side of Oy

, u ,
.

Where the c rve intersects Oy u ,

2
y ( %y
the solutions of which a re the common ordin tes of a

(y ( ii )
an d x 44 ( y a ) 0 ( iii ) 2
1 .

If ( 0 8 ) be one of these points the above eq ation for y

, I ,
u

m ay be of one of the forms

( If 0 (y 0
— —
, ,

f ( y Bfl y ) oc 0 .

B o nn , 1 85 2 .
154 SPECIA L CURVE OF T HE F OURT H DEGREE
of intersection of the asy mptotes of the curve which do not
lie on Oy i ( i 2 —2 ) and ( i , v z .
,
2
79

F or any v alue Of 1“ and a the p arabol as ( iii ) and ( v ) a e , r

equ l but e turned in opposite directions

a ,
ar .

These considerations a e suffi cien t to distinguish the

1 72 . r

gener l sh apes fo rall v alues of a n d

a a u
,
.

S u ppose a figure c a refull y dr a wn of the three fi x ed curves

’

ii
( ) ( ) iv
,
n d vi
( ) an d th at for n y v l e of a the s y stem of
a ,
a a u

curves corresponding to different v alues of M is to be dr wn a .

If p be positive the singul ar point on y Oy is first

,
’

determined b y the point of contact of the p arabol a ( iii ) ,

whose axis is me sured downw rds with ( ii ) It will be a a , .

in Oy if the verte x be in Oy and in OB if the verte x be

’

,
’

, ,

either in OB or B y .

The sing l r points which do not lie in y Oy a e then

u a
’
r

d etermined b y me ans of the points of cont ct of the p ara a

bola ( ) whose axis is me as red pw ards with ( iv ) an d if

v ,
u u , ,

" C HD be p ar llel to Ox they lie in the lowest p art of the

,
a ,

portion E D of the hy perbol a ( vi ) if the vertex be in Hy or ’

OH n d in CF if the verte x be in " y

“

, a .

If the curves corresponding to these critic al v alues of p .

be constructed they serve s g ides to determine the di ec,

a u r

tions in which the c rves run for other v l u es of M I t is u a

also to be noticed th at as diminishes and ultim tely , u

, . a

v nishes the c rve coincides with the asy mptotes and

a ,
u ,

therefore when p is very sm all bends towards them , .

We h ave th s the sy stem for di fferent v al es of a drawn

u u

with toler ble ccuracy withou t determining the ex act angles

a a

at which the curves cross at p a rticul ar points .

S imil arly if p be neg tive we m ay find the singul ar

,
t a ,

points and dr w the cu rves a .

This method of tracing the sy stem of curves which

1 73 . ,

correspond to ny v al e of a m y be illus trated b y taking

a u ,
a

a =1 .

C orresponding
to some l arge positive v l es of the a u u
, ,

p rabol ( iii ) touches ( ii ) an d gives two eq al ordin ates

a a u ,
 SPECIA L CURVE OF T HE F OURT H DEGREE
PLAT E
indic ting m ltiple point on Oy these a e the onl y points
a a u r

in which these p r bol as meet a a .

The p ar bol a ( v ) in the opposite direction meets ( iv )

a

in the qu adrants x Oy an d x Oy giving two points t ’ ’

, a

which the c u rve is p arallel to Ox one in E D the other

'

, ,

in CF .

If a sm aller v al u e of th an this be chosen ( iii ) does not a

, ,

meet ( ii ) nd there is no point in Oy b u t ( v ) meets ( iv ) in

a ,

t wo points giving points on GE D an d CF ne arer to 0th n

, a

the former .

If l rger v al u e of p be taken ( ii ) and ( iii ) intersect in

a a .
,

two points giving points on Oy one on e ach side of the

’

, ,

m ltiple point which corresponds to the case when the

u

p arabol as ( ii ) an d ( iii ) to ch u .

If M be negative the cri tic al c ase is when ( ii ) an d ( iii )

,

touch which they do at point not fa from the e tex of

, a r v r
'

( ii ) giving a conjugate point on Oy The other points of

, .

intersection give poin t on Oy near 0and a point at some

a
’

d ist nce on Oy bey ond B

a The reversed p ar abol a ( v ) gives .

two points on GE D nd D O ne ar D a .

If a less v l e of be chos en ( ii ) and ( iii) give two val es

a u u.
, , u

o n OB one on e ach side of the onjuga te point ; iv d v

, ( ) a n ( ) c

g ive two points on G E D an d D O ne rer to D a .

If a gre ater v l e of be taken ( ii ) an d ( iii ) give only

a u ,a ,

t wo points on Oy an d Oy f rther from O th n in the l ast

’
u a

c se ; ( iv )
a n d ( v ) give two points in GE D and D O f u rther
a

from D -
.

The fig re represents b y a d arker line the critical c ses

u a ,

d enoted b y 0; an d OL for I positive an d neg ative respectivel y

’

,
t
,

a n d b y ligh ter lines the other c a ses in order denoted b

yB y ,

a nd B
y ;
’

B ,
an d 8 being
’
the c rves which a ppro
,
’

a ch u

t ow rds the sy mptotes

a a .

The dotted c rve is the h yperbol a ( vi ) on which lie all the

u

points of contact of t ngen ts to the different c u rves of the a

s y stem which , p ar llel to Ox nd ha ve not their points

are a a

of cont ct on y Oy The dotted str ight lines

a
’
. the a a re

a sy mptotes com mon to all curves .

 156 SPECIA L CURVE OF T HE F OURT H DEGREE
1 74 .It can be seen from the fi gure of the fi x ed curves
th at when a is neg tive a p arabol a ( iii ) c n be dra wn with
a , a

some sm all v al e of a which if be negative will touch

u , ,
u
,
.
,

the p arabol a ( ii ) and c t it in two other points and th at for

,
u , ,

a p artic u l ar v a l u e of a the p articul ar p ar a bol a which to ches

,
u

( ii ) will m eet it in three consecutive points the corresponding ,

point of the curve being a cusp on Oy .

The fi gure represents the central p rt of three curve s a

belonging to di fferent v l es of one of which corresponds a u u,

,

to the c sp one is s m all and the third is large The corre

u ,
'

, .

s po nd ing curves a e denoted b y or B res ectivel d it

r
y p y an , , ,

should be noted how the curve B ppro ches the asy mptotes a a .

1 7 5 There will a
. lso be a c sp for some negative v al ue u

of a less th n 2 an d a positive v lue of M; n d for this va l e

,
a ,
a a u

of a some v lue of M will give contact between the p rabol s

,
a a a

iv
( ) a n d v
( ) an d therefore
,
a multiple point .

F ig 1
. .
In the fig re the curves m arked oz nd w a e the c ases
u . a r

of cusp and multiple point respectivel y 8 denotes the curve , ,

which appro ches the asymptotes ‘y th t which corresponds

a ,
a

to a l arge va lue of m aking ( iv ) and ( v ) intersect in two

points an d therefore indic ating fo r points at which the
,
u

curve is p r llel to Ox situ ated on the dotted curve which

a a ,

is the hyperbol a ( vi ) .

A fourth curve denoted b y 6 bends towards the cusp oz

, , .

an d the multiple poin t x .

176 F or the p u rpose of accurate dr awing we m ay find

. ,

the directions of the curve at the princip al points as

follows
A t a p om t ( or 0) where the curve intersects Ox we h ave
,

4
OL

Writing the equ ation of the curve

x — in y 0
4 2 3
x + a+ u
, ,

an d substituting for a from ( A ) we Obt a in u

— —( x
, ,

4 4 2
x OL

whence 2a f+ u
, )y 0
gives the tangent at ( or O) fOr
,
an y v alue of CC .
 SPECIA L CURVE OF T HE F OURT H DEGREE
Ne ar ( a ,

+M = O,
e r
n a
—2 a —
( 5 nl{ a
2

near —) a

—{
,

2
a

e r — —1 — )
n a 7 a a

—
, ,

z
f (t a a i
At a point ( 0 B ) where the curve crosses
, Oy

If ( 0 B ) is
, ordin ary point the form there is given b y
an ,

—
{ B (B 1 ) (B
If ( 0 B ) is a multiple or conj u g te point the form is
, a ,

g iven b y
{ 3 + (tfi — 1 )}
2
w { (B
3 — l ln = 2 2 2

and hence we h ve multiple point if ( B

a aan d a

c onj gate point if ( B

u

If ( 0 B ) is a cusp the form is given b y

, ,

{ 3 + ( tfi — 1 ) } w —
2
6 (B
2 2

a n d hence the cusp points u pw rds or downw ards according a

as B or > 1 .

The v alues of a M and B for a cusp on Oy m ay be , :

d etermined t once b y the three equ tions

a a

3< B —
(B ) (B l — 3

—1
B 1 é ne arl y ,

,a

an d a+1 = +
I

I —
F ne rly a ,
as in A rt . 1 71 .

177 The algebr ic l determin tion of the singul ar points

. a a a

is as follows
The equ tions to be s tisfied besides th at of the rve a e
a a cu r

—w }+ (é y 2

y (y
—1 —
) (y 2 )
a3
{ 2 w —y
2 2 —
y
 SPECI A L CURVE OF T HE F OURT H DEGREE
an d ,u is to be determined s o th at these eq ations u a nd the
eq u ations of the c u rve a e simult neously s atisfied r a .

( )
a I f x = 0 (
y y
— 1 ) (y
.

an d 2
%y y
therefore y (y
—2 ) —4 (y
s o th a t when a is given the l a st eq tion gives the v alues ,
ua

of y and the first gives the corresponding v alues of p T he

,
t .

l ast eq ation gives

u

=g
[
an d 4 (a + for a cusp
—( é y
.

( b) If 2w 2 -
y
2

y
2 —w 2

therefore
an d fro m the equ tion of the c u rve a ,

2
2 ( 29 + y
therefore %y + y
2
1 —(3 2 ) (y )
:
y a ,

an d =
y
which gives the position o f the sing l ar point for any v alu e u

of a .

In the p rticul ar case of the cusp

a

3a —2= 2 /3 or a — —l or
+ N ,
1

whence y .
3 2 J )
3 —
2 g
T ne rl y a .

A g ain , 3y 2 fg/3
e ,

so or %y + y —l 2

th erefore — i nearly 2 7
.

F igS 2, 3 The fig res represent the systems of c u rves which

1 78 . u

c n be dr a wn for di fferent v a l es of fi both positive an d

a u t,

negative in the two c ases in which a cusp occ rs which is

,
u

not in the ax is Oy i when ,

v z .

The multiple point in Oy belongs to the positive v alu e

.

of the conjugate p oint in Oy to the neg tive v alue

u
, ,
a .

1 79 The only other case which need be considered is the

.

c ase of a = H ere is indefinitel y sm all and y a finite if

cc ,
u

we wish to bring the c rve within sight u .

 SPECIA L CURVE OF T HE F OURT H DEGREE
The equ ation thus becomes
—
(y
2 2
y
-
x }
Wh en y 0
= , x 2

when x = 0 ,

with the upper sign of ( A ) ;

with the lower sign y is impossible .

Two v alues of x a e eq l each to 2

r if ua

y
— ( y
l 2 + 2 0 with the lower sign of A
( ) , ,

The figure is drawn for three v al u es of 0 both for ,

the pper and lower sign ; the d ark lines and conjug te
u a

point or correspond to the upper with v al u e the ,

a

d ark lines an d conjug te point B to the lower with a a , F ig 4

. .

v alue 0
1 80 . The case of two asy mptotes is given by the equ ation

The side of the asy mptotes on which the curve lies is

given b y gy i x —l
Where the curve meets Ox ,

a i m/( l yma n.
2
x a

The curve meets Ox in two points if 4 a be positive in u

—1 and in no point if
, ,

four points if it be negative and ,

it be
Where it meets Oy ,

2
9 i1 11

the ordin ates , as before , are the common ordin tes of a

(y
an d

Writing the equ ation in the form

we see th at x has equ al v l es or the c rve is par llel to

2
a u ,
u a

Ox or else has a singul r point where

,
a ,

-
y 0;
 1 60 SPECI A L CURVE OF T HE F OURT H DEGREE
PLA T E
XI I . therefore the ordin ates of such points a re the common ordi
n ates of y + ( %y x
2
,

_ = w
(
2
(y
4
%
an d

the points themselves a re on the ellipse

2 3 2
2x + y + y

The fi xed p arabol as ( ii ) an d ( iv ) nd the ellipse ( vi )

1 81 . a

a e represented in the fi g u re the p r a bol a s touch one another

r ,
a

a t the point ( 8 The p ar abol s ( iii ) and ( v ) which

, a ,

v ry with and determine the points of intersec tion of the

a u
,
.

c rve with Oy nd the points where the curve is p arallel to

u a

Ox a e in this e x ample identica l

,
r In the l ast e xample .

they were of the s ame m gnitude b t turned in opposite a u

directions .

It will be suffi cient to shew in three c ases i when v z

—3 and
.
,

a is 1 ,
how to form the sy stems of curves cor
,
co

responding to di fferent v al es of u u
,
. .

1 82When a = 1 the vari ble p ar abol a has fo r critic al

.
,
a u

m agnit des when it touches ( iv ) in some points P an d U

u , ,

an d ( ii ) in so m e points S n d T ; lines p ar llel to Ox thro gh a a u

these points determine u on the ellipse ( vi ) wh ich ,

are

m ltiple points nd s t on the x is of y which a e conj g te

u ,
a , ,
a r u a

points The c rves corresponding to the two v alues of

. u u.
,

which m ke the p r bol s ( iv ) an d ( v ) to ch a e drawn

a a a a u ,
r

with a d ark line the conjugate points a e m rked s and t

,
r a .

The curves which belong to other values of bend u

,
.

tow rds the asy mptotes or the d rk curves the points

a a ,

where the curves cross the dotted line sp e the poin ts of a ar

contact of t angents p ar allel to Ox .

F ig 1
. .
When a
1 83 3 the critic l m gnit des
. being posi , a a u , a
,

tive a e where the p ar bol s to ch t some points Q an d

,
r a a u a

F ig 3
. .
R determi ning the multiple point q n d conjugate point
,
a f
r .

There is also a m ltiple point on Oy corresponding to u

1 62 SPEC IA L CURVE OF T HE F OURT H DEGREE
s atisfy y ( y 2
B) : 0 , a nd be the com mon ordi
n ates of the p arabol as ,

+ 4/u ( y
2
x

and (y
With these v al u es
2
0
6

(y v
( )
1 86 The par abol a ( iii ) is fix ed for ll v alues of a and
. a

y the p arabol a ( ii ) for p articul ar v alues of a and com u

men ees in the position where its vertex is t ( 0 —a ) and

,

,
a , ,

moving in the direction of its ax is gives b y its intersections , ,

with ( iii ) s u ccessive v alues of y which give re al v al es of

, u

x ; the initi al position giving the points wherc the curve ~

meets the ax is of y .

N O v alues of y give eq al v a l es of x di ffering f om ero

u u r z ,

so that the c rve is never p rallel to Ox e x cept where it

u a ,

m eets the a x is of y .

The equation giving the points where the tangent to the

curve is p arallel to Oy is o f too high n order to solve ap '
a

prox im atel y ex cept in p articul r c ases a .

1 87 The eq ations ( iv ) and ( v ) give me ns of determinin g

. u a

by construction the value of x corresponding to ny v al u e a

of y .

C onstruct the p arabol as ( iii ) ( v ) an d the l ast for two

positions V I when B —a an d when B has a general
, ,

,
Z .
,

v alue .

If P be one of the points of intersection of ( ii ) and ( iii ) ,

let P MQ p arallel to Ox meet ( v ) in Q and Oy in 111 s o ,

th at MQ E n d let BR the tangent t B the vertex of ( ii )

:
,
a ,
a , ,

intersect the p arabol a ( ii ) in its first position i a R in R ,

v z .
,
.

Tak e S in a M such that MS = B R = OL nd T in P M s o th at ,

a ,

Q T Q S then b iv
y ( ) x = gTM corresponds ,
to ,
2

y OM ; a n d x is the or din ate UN to the absciss a A N § TM

in the p ar abol a ( iii ) .
 1 64 SPECI A L CURVE OF T HE F OURT H DEGREE
The figure represents two of the ov als the lemnisca te , ,

and two curves be ond

y .

The case of positive is the conjugate p oint and ov al

,
u .

marked in the figure .

1 90 The c ase of a cusp on the a xis of y occurs when

an d —
.

a or l ne arly as s hewn in A rt 1 7 1 g
5
-
,
. . .

The fi gure is drawn for the c ase of a 1 shewing

the sy stems for negative and positive v alues of u

The figures a e somewh t simil ar for a —1

.
,

r a

differing principally in the bre adth and in the p osition ,

where it is greatest .

1 91 . When is between —l i %J3 the systems for

a ,
u
,
.

positive and negative a e e ach a conjugate point an dr a

Fig 4
. . series of ovals .

The c ase of is given

'

1 92 . a = 09 by

(y
2
+x
2
) { ( ty 1) + w}
2 2

If y 0 ,
x
2
H 1 + J( 1 s u ppose ,

if x = 0, y
2 —2 y = i 2 c, or
Ne
a r (on ,
a
2
y ( 40a
3
2a ) 5 0 ,

near ( 0 when 2 0 1 gx
, t gx ne arl y ,
2 —n = 0 or q
2
,
:
.

In this c se we can construct for the points where

a the
curve is p arallel to Oy b y m eans of the equ ations
4(5 y

an d (5y —1 ) ( y
which a e e sil y obt ined from the condition
r a a .

The solutions of equ ation ( 1 ) a e the common ordin ates r

'

of the hyperbol a

x( 5 y —4 1

(5 y 2 ) (w —%y
an d the curve x y) 4 0
2
y( 2 2
.

Lines drawn p ar allel to Ox through the points of inter

section o f ( 3 ) an d ( 4 ) m eet the curve ( 2 ) in points where the
t angents to the given curve are p rallel to Oy a .
 SPECI A L CURVE OF T HE F OURT H DEGREE
The figure cont ins portions of the branches of the hyper
a XI II .

bola the c rve i Oq a an d a s tp an d the curve ( 4 )

u v z .
, F ig 5
. .

traced for nd g i P A Q an d P Q a ,
v z .
’ ’
.

When the curve h s lemniscate form and the a a ,

points where it is p arallel to Oy a e p q corresponding to r ,

the intersections P Q ; the point a corresponds to A nd , ,

a ,

being the node of the lemnisc ate the condition of equ a l ,

v alues of y is s atisfied .

When c = g ; p q are the points t which the curve is

’

,
’
a

p arallel to Oy corresponding to the points of intersection

,

P and Q the third point giving no point on the curve

’ ’
.
,

When the curves ( 3 ) an d ( 4 ) fi rst inte s ect in R

'

an d S an d the lower br nch n d as 0 incre ases they touch a ,

a , ,

in T and afterw rds give only one v al e in the br anch Q U

, a u .

The corresponding points in the given c rve a e r 8 t a u r f

, , , ,

there being a point of infi ex ion at t .

The complete system is drawn with the letters 8 f

r, ,

N o te The curve ( 4 ) is e asil y dr a wn for di fferent v alues

.

of 0 since b y transposing the origin to ( 0 the equ ation

, , ,

is 40 ( 1 y ) x I f then y s in 0x 2 0sec 6
2 2 2
.
,
.

E xamp les X .

2
l .
( x a
2 2
)y (y 2
b2)2x .

i d
F n the m u t l ipl p i nts nd tr th r v
e o a ace e cu e
br h h p int f infi l ipl
.
,

S he w that each an c as a o o exio n at each mu t e

pi t
o n .

2 . ay x ( a ) x3 x ( a ) .

S h w th t
e a
‘ ‘
2 6 a , 01 a ) is p int f infi xi a o o e on .

3 A ppl y t h
. e m etho d f m p rtm nts t dr
o co a e o aw the cu rv s e

( ) a xy3 c
2
( x2 + y2 a
2
) .

She w that, in o rd r th t th r m y b si ng l r p i
e a e e a e a u a o n t, 4 c2 = 3 ~/3 a 2,
and that the t wo br h s i li d t
an c e t gl s
are nc ne o a an e T 7 11 and
1
{ gm
( 6) x4 —c ) 2
.

r
T ace the cu e f o r the t wo c a rv s s 0 § nd =
e a a c a J2
r v ts 0x wh r —%a rl y
.

She w that when c = 2 a, the cu e cu e e x n ea .

(0) x4 —y4 —xy (x2 + y2

T
T r th race e cu v e in the q dr ua ant x oy an d sh ew that the r s t f ll
e o o ws
b y s ymm try e .
1 66 SPE CI A L CURVE OF T HE F OURT H DEGREE
( d) 2 {x 2 —(y —(y
F in d th tw m l tipl p i ts nd sh w th t n f th br n h s in
e o u e o n a e a o e o e a c e
eachh p i t fi fl i
as a o n o n e x on .

Pr v th t th r
o e tw l aps in th t g l b tw n th
e e are o oo e ac u e an e e ee e
dividi ng li s d th t t th p i nts wh r th l ps
ne an p r ll l t a a e o e e e oo ar e a a e o
0x y = —§ n rl y
,

,
a ea .

4 .
(y —4 a ) .

Sh d a e the co m p r tm t s
a pi d b y th rv
en u n occud sh e e c u e, an ew t hat it
cu ts 0x an d Oy at dis t n s n rl y 3
a ndce fr m th rigi n
ea a a a o e o .

5 .
( 3x 2
y
2
2 ax) y 3
4a 2
x x (
2
+y
2
3 )
3
012
0 ,

U s e the m etho d f m p rtm nts

o co a e , an d fi nd the dir ti n ec o of the
tange nt at the o s p i nts wh r th ir l e e e c c e and hy e o a p rb l i nt rs t e ec .

6 .
( xi —4 > a
i
.

S h w th t t th tw p i nt s wh r th rv ts th sympt
e a a e o o e e e cu e cu e a o te in
th q e dr nt x Oy it is q ll y i n li d t th sym p t t
ua a , e ua c ne o e a o e .

(y —x —a
3—
)y (y
x (y —y (y2 —ay
2

U s e the m etho o f co m a tm e nt d pr s d riv d fr m th s

e e o e e two f rms t o ,
o
li i
m t the sp i i
ace w th n wh ch the i curv li d e can e, an co m p r wi th a e
P l VI
ate fi gs 1 5 , 1 6 , 1 7
. . .

8 Dr w th sy s t m s
a e e of cu r v s rr sp ndi ng t diff r
e co e o o e e nt vl sa ue of
q ti ns
.

p in th e e ua o

an d PW
 S Y ST E MA T IC T R A CING OF CURVES
a = 0; or
rrangement which would give distinct com
any a

p t
arm ents within which the c rve must lie u .

ii The t bul ation of particul ar points s ch as those which

. a u

lie on the a xes or which the form of the solution of the ,

equ tion m ay s u ggest

a .

iii The form of the curve t ll the points at a fi n ite

. a a

dist nce which m ay seem to be most i mportant

a .

iv The position of the symptotes rectiline ar or p ara

. a ,

b olic when the f act of the curve going O ff to infinity in any

,

direction h s been established in the course of t bul ation

a a .

If not Obvio s for other reasons the side of the asy mptote
u ,

on which the curve lies must be investigated .

v If more th an the general form be looked for it may

.
,

be necess ary to find such points s where the curve is a

p arallel to the axes and other pec liar points which would ,
u

not be required in a rough determin ation of the locus .

1 95 The following curves selected on account of S pecial

.
,

d ifiicu lti s will illustr ate the applic ation of these ru les
e , ,

commencing with the c rve some of the properties of which u ,

a e discussed without tr cing it in p age 4 4 E x 4

r ,
a , , . .

Ex 1 . .
y (b
2 —) x .

1 There is n o sy mmetry but the lines y = 0or i b and

.
, ,

x = a determine comp artments within which the curve m ust

lie .

11 If x = 0or a
.
,

if x 00
iii Near ( 0 . b y = ax ,
2 2

ne ar ( 0 b) 2b q
,
ax ,
2

ne r ( a
a ,
by —a 2

near ( a i b) 2b n a f
, ,
2 2
.

iv N e ar ( .
) y co ,
co ,

The asy mptote meets the curve t a finite distance wher e a ,

%a ( y + xy
2
x
2
) + ax
2
by 2
0 ,
 S Y ST E MA T IC T RA CING OF CURVES
N e a r ( 0 b) 4b 2 2 : 2a 2
x
2

—2 J2
, , ,

ne ar ( a J 2 b) , , 4b fl = 2a (
2 2
2
a
f) .

The figures a e dra wn for the c ases a = b bJ2 and r , ,

a J2 = b denoted b 0L B an d the c se a = b giving two a

y, y , , ,

ellipses whose m ajor ax es a e inclined to 0x at angles r

i 7 r/4 .

2 2
Ex 4
. . a y
2
(x b) 2
(a
2
x ) (b x a
2 2
) .

T he
curve is sy mmetric al with respect to the ax is of x .

When x i 0 y a
/b ,
2
,

x a
2
/b , y 0 ,

x= x y =Q

x= b y = x .

If yis re al we must h ave ,

B ut ( a /b O) is a 2
,

m ultiple point an d therefore m ust be double point or

,
a

c onjugate point a ccording as b > or < a ,

.

When b a the cu rve divides into two coincident straight

,

lines and a circle

—
.

N e ar y =a b
/ a /b ) x
2 2 2

near ( a /b 2
( 1 ,
a / )y f
b = 2 2 2 2
,

near ( t a y
,
= + 2a
2

ne ar ( b 00 ,
x b= ( a
2

F ig 4
. . The d ark lines correspond to b a the curves m arked ,

oz an d B correspond to b
. an d a .

Ex 5
. .
( a
3
y x
4 2
) a
4
(x za) ( x 2 2
a
2
) 0 .

There can be no v al e of x between a u an d — a .

I f x _i a a two
- -
alues v
y , , ,

y 2 a two v alues
4
x 2a , , ,

x 00 y 00

a nd y =0 gives no re al valu es of x .

N e ar ( i a, a ) ,
77
2
i 2af ,

near ( 2 a ,
2 4
a ) , (a
3
rg 4 2 2
$
)
a
3 2
3 61 6
5
2

5
(2 i
N e ar ( ao oc a
3 —
y x
4
i a x
2 2
.
 SYS T E M A T IC T RA CING OF CURVES
the curve near s ch p articul ar points s m ay h ave turned
i

of u a

up and the side of the sy mptotes on which the curve lies

, a

at e a ch end or inste d of this the points where the curve

, ,
a ,

cuts the asymptotes t a finite dist nce ; it will then be seen a a

whether it is necess ry to go into the question of the points a

where the curve is p rallel to the ax es or whether there e a ar

an
y sing l ar points u .

1 97The e x mple given t the end of the l ast ch apter

. a a

is a good illustration of the methods of meeting diff culties i ,

b u t a few more e x amples which h a ve been selected with ,

a view of meeting as m an diff culties as possible in sho t

y a i 1

spa ce will not be useless

, .

2
(y (x )
2 2 2
Ex . 1 . ax ) ay

The curve is sy mmetric l with respect to x y a .

When x 0 y %(J5 1 ) a ga nearly ,

2 2 2
,

y aJ 2 i3a ne arl y fi 7 .

Where x y cuts the curve ,

x= y= %a or a roughl y .

If x —a y i a 2
(y
2
,
-
2

the first p arabol a therefore touches the curve where

, ,

y
4 '

a
3
y i a
“
0 .

The lower sign gives no sol ution ; but with the u pper sign
y
— % a n d % a ne arly a ,

x %a and %a n early ,

where x a ( y + a ) to ches the curve

2
u .

N e ar ( 0 2 a o x 4 oz 7 2 a x ;
,
0 z
.
2 3
. ;
2
»

an d as oz i %a ne rly 7 .i ne arly a , 7 .

In the figure thep rabol a A B is drawn to ching the curve a u

at P an d Q where y = a x meets it
2
.

2 4
)y
3 2
Ex 2 . . axy ( x a a x O
.

l cing the equ ation on the tr angle we h ave

P a i ,
at the
origin y + a x = 0 2
.
i
 S Y ST E MA T IC TRA C I N G OF CURVES
N e ar ( 0 ,
oo xy a
2
0 ,

e r ( 00
n a x 2
y
2
a
4 =0,

near ( 00 ,
oo a —
y x
2
+ 3 a x —3a 2 = 0 ,

( 00 i s ? a (y
e r (a a )
n a , 3a n $ 0 ,
2 3
.

The curve is p ar llel to Ox where a

a<y + a ) s z
x —a )@
3 s 2
0 ,

—<
w
whence y a, x a,

a nd 4a , y 6 7 a , 40
'

a
'

,
°

3 7a ,
nearly .

2 2 2 a 3 2 2
) 2a ( y ) (y )
s
Ex 3 a (y x x a x x y
'

. .

The equ ation m ay be rranged

a

a
y (y a )
2
ax x (
2
2 ax a
2
) x
2
y
2
0 .

If x = 0 , y
=0, or a, two v al u es ,

if y = a, x= 0 , or s ay ,

if y = 0 , ( J
i 2 —1 ) a ,

if x= ( i J2 —1 ) a ,

y nd ( y
—a ) —
T =0,
a
2

whence y = é a nd a ne arl y for the upper sign j

-
a T3
2
,
an d y
a nd ( 8 nearly for the lower sign .

The lines y = i x mee t the c rve where u

x=y= 2a, and

When x= -
a, y
3

w hence y = 2a, or
N ear ( 0 , y x 2x 3
/ a
2
0 ,

e r (0 a)
n a , , 77
2
ax 0 ,

ne r ( oz a )
a , , ( 3a
2
2 a oz a
2
)5 2 01 37 2
0 ,

( 2 oz+ a ) §
. 20m 0 ,

955 5 m

95 : 1 3 77 .
 S Y ST E MA T IC T R A CING OF CURVES
N e ar ( so oo x
2
a (y —2 ) a ,
an d

The l st pa rabolic asymptote meets the curve where

a

y
3
3a y 2
a
2
y 2a 3
0 ,

th at is the s ame distance from Ox as it meets the line s

at

x = i a s o the c u rve has the property th at the p ar aboli c

'

a s y mptote a nd the two lines x = t a intersect

the curve in nine points three and three in the straigh t ,

F ig 1 0
. . lines y = 2 a and ,

Ex 4 . .
(y
2
az ) (y
2
b x) 4
x ic “
.

The equ ati on m ay be written

{y
z —azfl b m i c
4
+J —b) —{ wh 4 —
i m W}
?

When y x =0 ,
2

The cu rve is sy mmetrical with respect to Ox ,

and two
v alues of y a e eq al where 2
r u

92
2
b) 4
i c
4
i '

i T aking the positive sign in the eq ation of the c rve

. u u ,

the comp artments within which the curve lies a e given b y r

the two parabol as y = a x y = bx and the two lines x = t o 2

,
2
, ,

an d the curve is p ar a llel to Oy where it meets the p r abo l a

'

9
2
W b) w .

F ig 1 1
. .
The three p arabol a s a e dotted in the figure r .

ii Taking the negative sign y = a x y = bx a e the only

.
,
2
,
2
r

dividing lines between which the curve must lie

, ,

In order th at the curve m ay be possible c < l (a b) ,

4
g ,1
4

Le t c = ( 1 —n )( a — n )f
4 2 2 4
,

then wh ere the curve is p ar llel to

,
a Oy ,

( 1 x n )f
2 2
x ,

an d its equ ation m ay be written

{y
2 —i —{ w 2
+ 7 b)f —w }= 0 2
,

therefore x
2
lies between ( 1 )f and ( 1 + n )f n
2 2

—( a + b) x }2 + ( x2 —
.
,

If n 0 {y,
2
f
2 2
) 0 shewing , that
F ig 1 2
. . there are two conjug te points a .
 SYST E MA T IC T R A CING OF C UR V E S
'

Ex 5 . .
y
2
(x y)
2
(x y) 2a (x y) 11
2 7
3 4a 2
it
3
0.

N ear
the origin the tri ngle shews th at y a
5
4a 2
x
3
0 .

When x is infinite and y is finite ,

y
2
2 ay 4a 2 0
,

whence
N e ar ( oo oo

2 (x + —4 a
2 = 0 ,

x+ y =
‘ -
’

2a , or a,

an d x y a 0 .

The asymptote x y 2a 0 meets the curve at a finite

distance where
4a y 2 2
(x y) 4a 2
x
2
y 4a 2
x
s
0 ,

or
therefore this asy mptote touches the curve at a
.

The asy mptote x y_ a 0meets it where

y ( x
2
y ) 2 x y 4 x 0 or y 2 x
2
y 4 x
3
,
2 2
0
,

the roots of which e impossible ar

The asymptote x —y = a meets the curve where

.

a< 9?
m + 2 9( 52 + ” 90 z
4 a x 0 2 3
,

y ( x + y) ( y + wy
2
2 90 ) 4 0W 0 ,

To solve write ,
y zx, then
0 ,

so that if = 2 u z
2
,

The hyperbol a and p ar bol a which represent these equ ations a -

intersect where z 3 ne arly . Fig 1 3

, ,

N ote The asy mptotes p ar llel to Ox h ave e ach two

. a

p oin ts of the curve at a fi nite distance an d three points at ,

an infinite dist ance one of which is due to the point in ,

which the par allel lines meet so that in e ch case the curve ,
a

lies on opposite sides of the asymptote at an infinite

distance .
 S Y S T E MA T IC T RA CING OF CURVES
Ex 6 ( x —y ) 2y )

2y —
. . .

When or x=1 , y = 0,
3
3y 2

whose only re al root is nearly equ al to 9 '

N e ar ( O ( x —y ) lx giving
, a cer a toid cusp 2 3
, ,

2
x+ y :
fi x ,

2
x ;x 2y .

N e ar ( co )
5 4=
0
'

,
co , x + 2y .

The curve is p r llel to Oy where 3x a a ,

2
x —
+ y 8y =
2

or ne arly x = § y
, ,and x __
2 5
1 f

F ig 1 4
. . It I S p arallel to Ox where x = 5 y nd x ,
a
2 : 23 1
2

Ex 7 . .
6
x a
2
y
4
a z
2 a
y
3
a zy
2
0 .

Fig 1 5
. . l acing the equ ation on the tri angle the forms at the
P ,

origin a e y + a x 0 x + a y 0 an d x + a y 0
r
2
,
2
,
3 2
.

Where x y x 2 a x a 0 or x a the onl

, y v alue
3 2 3
, Tg
7
,
.

The line x y meets the c rve where x y a u ,

ne ar which point ] 2 5 A lso y 4x ne arly represents t .

,

Fig 1 6
. . the tangent to the Ioop in x Oy ’
.

( ) (x
2 3
Ex . 8 . 4y x y a y . b) 5
.

equ ation m ay be put into a simpler form b y m aking

T he
the lines x+y a 0 an d x y b 0 ax es of coordin ates ,

thus if x y a y J2 and x y b x J2 the equ ation ’

,
’

becomes y (y x oz) x
’
3 ’ ’ ’
5
.

The lines p ar llel to the asymptote through the new a

origin a e y ( y —x ) x r
’
3 ’ ’
2 ’
5

If x = zy z ( z ’
an d the v l es of z in this equ a
’

,
5
a u

tion a e the absciss ae of the points of intersection Of x = y

r
3 2

an d y x = ( x
2
the a2
of which s the two rectang l ar I u

hyperbol s ( 1 1 These only intersect n two points

1l tter
a . 1 ,

F ig 1 7
. .
whose common absciss a is ne arly if m be this v al e let u ,

z — zz — l r z mw
z — z)
i -
z z .

wr te z m f and eq ate coe ffi cients of f then

1 ,
u ,

m
¢( ) 5m + 4 —m ) .
 REPE AT ING CURVES
The equ ation of the symptote is a by ( i)
—m y = 2
, ,

x
’ ’
oz ( l or x
’

and when x
’
oz, y
’
= Tig oz ‘ .

N e ar the origin 2 ’ ’
2 5
, oz
y x ,

ne r ( 0 oz)
a , , 17 90
'

ne ar ( oz oz) if
, ,

therefore f ) 5 5 or 5 7 7 5 :
, 1 : .

Where the curve m eets the origin al ax is of y ,

MO ) a =
y
— 3

therefore y is the common ordin ate of

b (y
2
a ) + x ( y + b)
2
0 , an d b(y b) 2
2 x (y 2

whence if a —
7
b y =
= —
5
,
b — 1—
1 1
b , or "

Tgb
l
' ‘
nearly .
Fig 1 8
. .

CURV ES R E PE A T I N G .

1 9 8 I sh all conclude this C h pter b y shewing how to

. a

tr e a l arge cl ass of curves whose eq ations involve

ac , u

trigonometrical functions of the coordin tes in the pl ace of a

the coordin ates themselves The loci of such c rves from . u ,

the n ture of trigonometrical function a e m ade up of

a a ,
r

p tterns continu ally repeated in every direction

a .

This symmetric l arrangement freq ently gives very a u

elegant figures where the origin al curve h s nothing to

, a

recommend it from this point of view trigonometrical ,

f nctions cting in fact s a kind of kaleid oscope

u a a .

The following is the method I h ave adopted for tracing

s ch c rves
u u .

1 9 9 If f ( x y ) = 0 be the eq ation of ny c rve an d we

.
,
u a u ,

write for y any trigonometrical f nction of x n d for x u , a

a ny trigonometric l function of y a new eq u ation will be a ,

formed of the kind which w s spoken of ; and it will be a

e asy to e how any other functions can be tre ated if we

s e ,

take the p articular f u nctions s in x nd sin y and give con a ,

st ctions for th corresponding locus

ru e .

F O T
. . . M
 R EPEATI N G CURVES
200 Take the equ ation of the curve to be
.

f ( sin y s in x) 0 , ,

an d constr ct the curveu

f ( f 7) , 7 O ,

an d the two curves of sines

=
n S in x, ( iii )
a nd
5 sin y ( iv ) .

Let p be a point in the locus of ( ii ) which b y ( iii ) n d , ,

a

( iv ) m ust lie within a sq re whose sides A O B 0 e

, ua ,
ar

p arallel to the axes at the nit distance from them u .

Let p r p r a llel to Ox meet ( iii ) in

a an d 103 p ar allel to

Oy meet ( iv ) in 8 .

Dr a w S N e perpendicul r to Oy Ox and let them

, a , ,

intersect in P then P will be the point in the locus of ( i )

,

which corresponds to 10 .

F or 7 xM OM x 7 b y ( iii )
, ,

§ = sN ON =
y b iv
y ( )
, .

H ence we h a ve the following construction for the point

P of ( i ) which corresponds to p of ( ii ) .

Dra w p r p s p ar llel to Ox Oy respectivel y meeting the

, ,
a , ,

curves ( iii ) an d ( iv ) in an d s nd the point P will be at

r , a

the ngle of the rectangle p P s which is Opposite to p

a r , .

Observing th at e ach of the lines P P 8 will meet their r,

respective curves in an infinite n mber of such points as x u ,

for e ach point p of ( ii ) there will be an in fi nite n mber of u

corresponding points rranged in p airs sy mmetric lly with

,
a a

respect to lines whose dist nces from the axes a e odd a r

multiples of 115 m
201 In order to facilit ate the tracing of any cu rve such
.
,

as ( i ) b y constructing
,
s ffi cient number of points the a u ,
”

following properties should b e noticed .

( 1 ) When 103 is a t angent to ( ii ) s P will be a t angent to ,

for if p be an a dj acent point on 108 P the correspond

’ ’

, ,

ing point will be adj acent to P on s N .

 REPE A T ING CUR V ES
PLA T E
The princip al points to be considered a e a in the line r

y = x ; b where the c rve is p a r a llel to Oy ; the

u origin ; nd a

c where it is cut O ff b y the limiting squ are .

The corresponding points a e A also in y = x B where r ,

the curve ( A ) is p arallel to Ox ; the origin t which the ,

a

br anch corresponding to Op touches Oy an d 0 where the

curve ( A ) is p ar llel to Oy a .

The construction of A t 2 00is m ade in the figure for the r .

points P Q which correspond to two points 10 q in line

, , ,
a

p arallel to Ox and meeting the curve y = s in x in while r,

s and q t p ar allel to Oy meet the curve x = s in y in 3 an d t

p , , ,

an d P sp r an d t x are the rect angles spoken of in A t 2 0

f
0 r . .

The sh ape of h alf the curve m ay then be drawn and the ,

other h alf b y symmetry .

The m anner in which the curve repeats itself is given in

another figure .

ii C onsider nex t the c ase in which the loop of ( B ) inter

.

sects two sides of the limiting squ are .

The points of ( B ) to be princip lly considered a e a in a r

= x b d where it meets the side x = 1 the or g n ; an d c

y , 1 i

in x 1 .

The corresponding oints a e A in 0a ; B and D where r

the curve ( A ) is p ara lel to Oy ; the origin O where it ,

to ches Oy ; and C where it is p rallel to Oy The con

u
’
a .

str ction is given for two points 19 q t ken as before

u ,
a .

The m anner of repetition is given in nother figu re a .

iii The intermedi te c se i n which the loop touches the

. a a ,

two sides of the squ re is represented in the figure withou t

a ,
-
,

any constr ction being given b y a d arker line the previo u s

u , ,

c ases b y lighter lines .

N ote The isola ted portion A B reduces to a conj g te

. u a

point A when the loop p asses through the point ( 1

’

203 The di fferent effects obtained b y introd cing tan

. u a

gent inste ad o f one of the sines will be ill u str te d in the a

m ost striking m anner b y t aking the s ame x ili ar

y equ ation au .
 REPEA T ING CURVES
Th s to trace the c rve
u u

s in x
3
t an y 4 3a sin x tan y
3
0
.

The au x ili ary eq ation is u

f
i
5
3
3a i 5 = o .

In this c se the c u rve wil l not be symmetric al with e

a r

spect to the line y = x ltho gh the a x ili ry c rve is , a u u a u

s o ; it will therefore be necess ar to e x amine the positions

y
of corresponding points for the whole of th at p art of the
curve which is limited b y the lines y $ 1 .

The principal points to be considered a e a in y = x ; b c r ,

F ig 5
. .

where the curve is parallel to the x es ; the origin ; and d e a ,

on the limiting lines The corresponding points are A B .

, ,

O, O D E
, ,
.

To shew how other points lie p q r a e points in a line , , ,

r

p arallel to Ox; n d P Q R a e the corr esponding points

a , ,
r

ly ing in line p ar llel to Oy drawn through the point

a a ,

where q meets the c rve of sines

r u .

The figu re which is derived from the c ase in which the

,
Fig 6
. .

loop cu ts the line y = 1 in two points is given without ,

n aming the construction .

The m anner of repetition is given in another fig re the u ,

dark line corresponding to the critical c se in which the line a

y 1 is a t angent to th loop in which c ase the two points

= e ,

on y = 1 coincide and give rise to the double point .

204 The figure is given without any construction for

.

the curve t au x t n y 3 t an x t an y 0 3
a
3
a .

To assist in the tracing it is e sil y shewn that the tangent a

—% ) is f + n= 0
,

at the point ( 1 ~

2
7 r, 7r .

205 . The curve

s in x +
2 3
s ec y —3 a sin x sec y = 0

is more diffi cult to trace an d I h ave given three figures ,

.

F ig 3 in which OA 1 OB = { m represents for d ifferent

.
, ,
u
F ig 3
. .

v alues of a those parts of the c rves which a e gener ated

,
u ,
r
 REPE A T ING CURVES
from the portions of the au x ili ary curve ” + f —3 aq $ =0 3 3

ly ing between y = 0 y = l and beyond x = 1 ; the guiding , ,

curves n= s in x nd § = sec y a e dotted a r .

The L emnisc ate for m L drawn with a d ark line s derived ,

1

from the c ase in which the loop of the au xiha y curve r

p asses th rough ( 1 i when ,

v z .
,

The portion of the a xili ary curve which corresponds to u

this Lemniscate form i that which lies bey ond x = l is , v z .

,

given in the figure a nd 0 being the points where it meets

,
a

x = 1 a nd b the point at which the t angent is p ara llel to Oy

, .

The constr ctions for OZ 6 B the points which correspond

u , , ,

t o a b an d c a e indic ated in the fi gu re

, , ,
r .

The point b lies in the line x = f/2 y which cont ins the ,
a

points in e ach a u xili ary curve obt ined b y giving different a

val es to a at which the t ngent is p arallel to Oy the

u ,
a ,

t ngents at the corresponding points being p ar allel to

a

OA B .

The conjug te point 0corresponds to the point of contact

a
’

when the au x ili ry curve to ches x = 1 where it meets Ob

a u , .

The sm all oval surro nding the conjugatepoint is derived u

from a p articul ar u x ili ry curve which p sses between a a a

those which produce the Lemnisc ate form an d the conj gate u

point .
p

The curve like a C rtesi an ov al is constructed from the a

c ase in which a is little gre ater th an 2

5
1 .

The outside curve corresponds to very l arge v alues of a .

206 F ig 4 represents p art of the curve which corre

. .

s o n ds to the branches of the a u x ili ar curve which un

p y r

from the origin along the asy mpto te for the p articul ar c ase ,

in which a 2 the same v al u e which ga ve rise to the

37 ,

L emniscate Of F ig 3 . .

The portions ol a e gener ated from the p art of the br anch

r

which lies between x — 1 an d x % 7r

°

a from the p a rt between y = —

T 1 7r

—( ¢
,

c from the p art between y 7r

b from the p art between y =

 EX A M PLES

E xamp l es XI .

2
1 . 2y ( a
2
+ x 2
) 4 ay ( a 2 x
2
) (a 2
x 2 2
)
Pr v th t th ro tw sps th t g ts t whi h t th rv
e a e e are o cu ,
e an en o c cu e cu e

at dis t n g fr m 0 l th t th rv t r s t th p i nts wh r
a a ce a o x, a s o a e cu a u e a e o e e

th rv r ss s Oy v ry rly i th r ti 1 1 6
e cu e c o e a re e nea n e a o .

2 . x2 ( y
3 2
4 a 2) + 314 6a y 2 2
4a4 0 .

Sh ew that the r di s
a u rv o f cu at u r e w he r e the cu rv r ss s is 4
e c o e
5
a .

I f it r ss Oy c o at B an d 0 pr v ,
o e tha t 0B 00are ,
th r dii f
e rv t r
a o cu a u e

at C, B .

3 x5 = x2 ( —y ) (x 2 2
43 2
)
Sh ew that the t wo l psoo on the n egat iv sid
e e of y Oy
’
ru n p r ll l t
a a e o

ne ar Pom ts ( 1
—I 96 )

Sh ls p r ts rv idi s ymp t
.

ew a o what a of the cu e are cu t b y the g u ng a o te

x6 = x2 2
(
2
4 i1 ) (x 4J 2 )

Sh e w that the s m i bi l p e cu ca arab o las wh ch i are the g ui di ng as ym p

to t s
e cu t the l ps wh r = 4
oo e e x 2 n ea1
5
ly .

5 .
( x +y 2 2 2
) 6 a xy + 2 xx3 = 0 2
.

Sh ew that the r e a re th r l ps
ee oo ,
an d that the tange nt s are p r ll l
a a e

to 0x where x+ 4a
5 : 0and x =
g a n ea rl y .

2 2
6 . x 5
(x y )( x
2 2
5 xy 2y 2
) .

Pr v o li s j i i g th ri g i wi th th p i ts
e that the ne o n n e o n e o n o f c o n tact o f

tan g t s t th thr
en l ps whi h o p ll l t Oy
e ee oo c are ara e o are x + 2y = 0,

3x =2
y 3 x =4 r
y gh ly
,
ou .

7 .
(y —x 2
) (y —x3 — 2 =
) yx 0 .

E m i th f rm s whi h rr sp d t th sid s
xa ne e o c co e on o e e of the q u adr i
ltrl
a e a th tr i gl Sh w onwhi h sid f th e an e . e on c e o e t wo g u idi ng
p r b li symp t t s th rv li s t th f r ds
a a o c a o e e cu e e a e ou en .

2 3 2 1 4 2 =0
y + § J2
5 4
8 . x y ax a y + a xy g a x .

U sing th sid s p nt g n f rm d n th n lyti l tri gl

e e of t he e a o o e o e a a ca an e,

sh w th t th g idi ng p r b li symp t t ts th rv wh r
e a e u a a o c a o e cu e cu e e e

x= rly nd th t th s m i bi l p r b li sym p t t ts th
75
7
a n ea ,
a a e e -cu ca a a o c a o e cu e

curv in th q dr t x Oy
e e ua an
’
.

3x2 2 —0
9 x7 y 3 a 2(x5 y )+
5
4 a
y
S h w th t th r
e sps d d bl p i t ; th t th r di
a e e are t wo cu an a ou e o n a e a us

of rv t r t th p i ts wh r th rv m ts th
cu a u e a s is ; nd e o n e e e cu e ee e ax e 3a a

th t th br
a h s f th d bl p i nt m k
e q l gl s wi th y = x
an c e o e ou e o a e e ua an e .
,

eac h b i ng t n e a
 EX A M PLES
10 . x 3
y
2
( y x2 ) (y 2 x2) (y 3 x2 ) .

Sh w e b y the t r i gl an e and by co m p rtm ts a en that the re are t wo

cu rvili n e ar a s ym p t t s o e ,
an d t wo v ry s m ll l
e a oo p s en di ng nea r the

POin tS (t )
l
a nd 3 9
)
a Fa 3 67 17 56 6

3 2 2 2 2
(y x ) x (x 1 ) (x
3x 2 3
y (y 2 x) 4 5 x2 .

U s e the m e tho d f o co m p rt m
a ent s f r m th s d f r m
o e e co n o ,
an d o bs rv
e e

fr om the fi rs t f rm th o
2
a t x cann o t li b tw e 1 d 4 e ee n an .

2
12 s in x co s
.
y .

T r ac e the cu rv e, a n d sh ew tha t the r di s

a u o f cu rv at u r e at ( 277 57 )
,

is n ea rl y 32
3 .

13 . si x y sy u
2
cos
2
a co .

Tr th p tt rn
ace rr sp di g t = § d 1
e a e co e on n o a an .

14 . t s y t y g 2
au x ec
2
an x s ec a
2
.

Tr th p tt r
ace rr sp di g t th
e ili ry ir l s i ns rib d i
a e n co e on n o e au x a c c e c e n

a nd ir ms r ib d b t th sq r s wh s sid s
c cu c e x i 1 a d ou e ua e o e e are : an

i ] a nd x =
y y
: :
,

( s y si y si x 2 y 0
2 2 2 2 3
15 .
) 6 co u x a co s u a cos .

Dr w th r p ti g rv i th t w s s i whi h th
a e e ea ili ry n cu e n e o ca e n c e au x a

cur v f m pl 5 li s tir ly wi thi

e o exa d wh r p rt li s wi th t
e e en e n , an e e a e ou

th sq r f rm d b y y i 1 d x = i 1
e ua e o e : an .
 C H A P TE R XI I .

I NVE R SE P R OCES S . A C U R VE B E NG G I I V EN ,

TO F I ND I T S EQ U A TI ON .

209 I P R OPOSE in this l st ch pter to s y few words

. a a a a

on methods of discovering eq tions which will rep resent ua

the gener l form of tr ced c rve t ll events when it is

a a a u ,
a a

known th t the curve is c ap able of representation b y me ns

a a

of an lgebraic al eq tion
a ua .

Of course there a e d ifiicu lties which a e u n a void ble in

r r a

t he w y of the e x ct determin tion of all the coefficients of

a a a

the terms of n equ tion some of which it will be well to

a a ,

point out so th at too much m y not be ex pe cted from the

,
a

tre tment of this kind of problem

a .

210 If a curve could be supposed to be s o accur tely

. a

dra wn th t it would stand the test of me asurement in every

a

p art we co ld theore tically obtain equations for determining

,
u

all the const ants which would a ppe a r in the gener a l eq tion ua

of any degree which we might judge the c rve to req ire u u .

B ut in the c ase of c rves which run o ff to infinity the

u ,

O bserv ations which I h ve m de in A t 2 7a e s ffi cient to

a r .
,
ar u

e xpl ain the impossibility O f s ch accur cy in some of the u a

most important p arts of the c rve A gain it is impossible u .

, ,

e x cept b y some sort of convention s to dr awing to dis a ,

tingu is h the degrees of closeness of cont act of s ch p ar bolic u a

forms as e given b y y = a x y = a x y = a x and the mis

ar
2
,
4 3
,
4 3
,

a ppreci ation of the order of contact wo ld aff ect the degree u

o f the equ ation to be tried .

S uch diffi cu lties might b met b y a verb l statement of

e a

the n ature of the a sy mptotes an d the forms at p articul ar

 INVERSE PROCESS
F or e mple xacurve whose equ ation is x y ‘
* 4 = c4
,
a c an -

only be cu t b y a straight line in two distinc t points S uch .

‘
a curve might be distinguished from a c ircle b its fl a tnes s
y
where it meets the ax es but it wo u ld be h ard to distinguish ,

it from the c u rve x + y = 0 2 2 2

.

H owever there will very Often be some position of an

,

in tersecting line which will give as m any real points of

‘

intersection as are e xactly eq u al to the degree of the c u rve

a t all events it wo u ld be a dvis able to m ake the first a ttempt
,

with s u ch a degree .

214 The ne x t n ecessary step is to select favour able

.

positions for the coordin ate x es to which it is intended to a

refer the c rve In this choi e we a e g ided b y m n y

u . c r u a

considerations mong which sy mmetry rel tions to the

,
a are ,
a

directions of a symptotes cont ct of the ax es with br nche s ,

a a

of multiple points or if we observe tha t there is one, ,

direction p r llel to which ll str aight lines cut the curve

a a a

in a sm ller n mber of points than in any other direction

a u ,

it m y be advis ble to take one of the ax es as th t of x in

a a ,
a ,

th at direction since if there were no im gin ry v al es the

, , a a u ,

highest power of x which wou ld then appear in the equ tion a

wo ld be less th n for ny other direc tion and there wo ld

u a a , u

be conseq ent diminution of the n mber of terms of the

a u u

gener l equ ation whi h wou ld h a ve to be introd ced

a c u .

The dvant ge of h aving the origin at a multiple point

a a

O cusp is o b vious
r .

2 1 5 The terms in ol m g the highest powers O f one or

. v v

both coordin ates can be fo nd from the first pprox im ation s u a

to the asy mptotic br nches if there be ny n d those of a ,

a ,
a

the lowest powers from the forms near the origin ; at the
s me time there might be im agin ry branches which would
a a

not be reve aled b y the figure an d ye t the corresponding ,

f ctors would raise the indices of the highest powers ; the

a

fact of their e x istence could then be detected b y the imp os

‘

sibility of representing the given form b y the tent tive a

eq tion
ua .
 INVERSE PR OCESS
Where y : 0 the
, equ ation reduces to
y x
2 2
( x 0 .

TOsatisfy these conditions it is s ffi cient to ssume the u a

eq ation to be
u

To determine the constants measure the ordin ate where ,

x=c n d it will be fo nd th at = or = 3 ne rl 2 2
,
a
y gc y 0 u
y ,
a ,

therefore 30 ozo
B 0 0 2 2
,

or oz + B0 30 .

The gre atest v l e of x is % 0 ne rly and since

a u a

—
,

{ if 30 B RCH Bx) 4 1 0 CY }
2 2
1 90 U 3 ,

we h ave ( oz Bx) 4 y (x x)
2 2
,

oz —
'

hence B =4
y B 0 gc
2
d 2
,
2 2 2 2

—6
,

an d

therefore oz
.
B
an d by ( )
A %a
The resulting equ ation is
4
y
whence at the m ltiple point y u nearly n d ne r the a a

origin ( y —i em) ( y
,

2 t
0 2
.

This does not coincide wi th the equ tion in the tex t but a ,

s ffi cientl y represents the gener l fe t res the discrep ncy

u a a u , a

a rising from misappreci tion of the m agnit des involved

a a u .

With good drawing nd a ccurate me as rements as near an

a u

a ppro x im ation as we like co ld be m de u a .

Ex 2.T ke the urve fig 2 8 Pl I V

. a c .
, . .

Thi s curve appe rs to be of the fifth degree

a .

C hoosing the ax es as in the fig re the form at the origin u ,

m y be represented b y x
a ma y 3 2
.

F or any v al e Of x there a only two v al es of y

u re u

The asy mptotes can be represented b y x = a —a and 2 a

.

, ,

and = t a
y .

The equ ation of the c u rve m ay therefore be written

(x
2
a
2
) (x 2a )y 2
a x
2 3
ma y 4
0 .
 IN VERSE PR OCESS
When x = 0 y 2 a therefore n 4 ; this sol tion gives
, ,
o u

( 2 a,
2 ) s apoint in th
a e curve
a n d it is e asily seen th t ,
a a

the c rve lies on the proper sides of the a symptotes

u .

The eq tion ded ced is the s me as th t given in the

ua u a a

tex t .

Ex 3 T ake fig 1 7 Pl III
. . .
, . .

The curve m y be of the fo rth degree a u .

By O bserving the direction in which the branches t a

the triple point run their equ ations ne r th at point , ,

a ,
a re

red cible to
u

y
— 2 x = x
y
— x B x nd
a
2
y
2
+ x,
=
y x ; -
,
a
2 2

the parabolic form at n infinite distance might be ep e a r r

sented b y y
=6 x or y
=8x or 2
dx
2
,
4 3
,
3
,

of these the l ast should be chosen representing c rve ,

as a u

spre ding more r pidly th an the others

a a .

The form of the c rve s it crosses the xis of y appe ar s u a a

to be given b y y —a + 2 x — x e
2 2
.

These conditions e all s tisfied b y ar a

az —
y 2 x> z
y
2

which is the equ ation given in the te x t .

Of co rse there being other conditions such s the si e

u , , a z

of the loops to be considered it wo ld be merely ccident l

, ,
u a a

if c rve of the fo rth degree co ld represent all the

a u u u

conditions since the arbitr ary constants h ave been all

,

exh usted
a .

E x 4 T ake fi g 2 6 P l I II
. . .
,
. .

Observe th at in the form ne ar the origin y x an d cc

2

2
y 00 x both 2
e,
represented b y the eq tion
ar ua

2 6y 3
ozx
3
y Bx
5
0 .

F or the infinite branches an d y dx x= 2

2
.

To f u lfil these fou r conditions the eq u ation m ay be written

in the form
(x 2 ) (y 2
6x ) y + ozx y 2 3
Bx
s
0 .

S ince
there is a m ltiple point u ne ar ( 1 , the equ tion a

for determining y when x 1 i v z

— — —
.
,

=O
y B
3 2
y 6y a ,
 INVERS E PR OCESS
PLA T E
X VI I .
must be —
( y 1 ) (y
2

6 = B+ 2 ,

The equ ation now becomes

( as .
2 >
<y sway
/ + (3
2
m ay <
2 M 0 .

When x=1,b the fi 3 ne arl

— '

y y y gu ,
re

therefore g 6 2 and 6
We h ave now rrived at the fin al eq tion a ua

( w—2 ) (y - —w2
i ) y + 2 wy
2 3

It only rem ains to test the equ ation b y some properties

not y t used
e .

Ne ar ( 2 x ,
oo s o th t the curve lies to a

the left of the asy mptote t both ends a .

N e ar ( 1 let x = 1 + 5 y 1 + 7
, , 7 ,

s ince y
— i
3 2

1)y —( w 20 0 l)a 1) 3 "

2
(y 1 ) (y a) ,

whence
therefore ( fl 2 9 % 5 an d 7 2 —5 or —5 2 2
, 7
5
2
,
J 4
,

giving proper res lt

a u .

When x = 2 y = 3 while ccording to the figure y ought

, , ,
a ,

to be ne arer to 2 .

The eq tion differs ltogether from the one given in

ua a

the te x t the divergence rising from the entirely di fferent

,
a

forms of the p r bolic sy mptotes It is c u rious however

a a a .
, ,

to s e how ne rly the forms of the curves gree in all the

e a a

essenti l pointsa .

216 In more difficult c ses it will be dvis ble to s ave

. a a a

trouble b y m aking s of the properties of the n ly tic al

u e a a

tri angle b y me ns of which when the terms which give

,
a ,

the directions of infinite br n hes nd branches Of m ltiple a c a u

points an d c sps at the origin h ve been d etermined it is

u a ,

seen ex ctly wh t intermedi ate terms m y be introduced

a a a

without affecti ng t hese directions .

 M E T H OD B Y T HE T RI A NGL E
'

D B Y (I nn T R IA NG LE ME T H O .

2 1 7 The rr ngement of terms corresponding to infinite

. a a

b n h es nd m ltiple points is m de e asy b y considering

ra c a u a

the property proved in A rt 1 4 5 i th t ll p ar llel lines .

, .
, a a a

co n t in in g c ir l
a which indic te terms of n e q tion give
'

c es a a ua ,

when s ch eq ted to ero the s me rel tion between

u ar e ua z , a a
,

x nd y s f
a s degree is concerned ; so th t if there be
a ar a a , ,

for e x mple point Of in fi x ion t the origin the br nch

a ,
a e a , a

tou chin g o n of the x es n eq ation giving s h form

i

e a ,
a u uc a

would be y = A x where nd s e differen t odd n u mbers

2 s
,
r a ar ,

an d the s ame rel a tion wo ld be given for ll p r llel lines ; u a a a

the poly gon m s t therefore h ve one of its lower sides u , , a

p r llel to the line

a a 1 .

218 If the form of the c rve whose eq ation is req ired

. u ,
u u ,

be represented in the neighbo rhood of the origin b y t h u e

two equ tions x y n d x y in which

a
”
let ”
oz:
3
a
’”
oc ,

Ox Oy be the sides of the tri ngle interse ted b y A B

,
a , c ,

A R where OA = OB = C omplete the p rallelo

’ ’

, tc f
r, s, e . a

gr m B OA F in Ox take
a
’
OA n d in O
y t ke
, ,
a a

B D = A E = OB then DE E U will cont i n cir les whi h

’

, ,
a c c

correspond to terms in the eq tion giving the req ired ua u

forms ne r the origin if we t ke c re th t no ir les lie

a ,
a a a c c

between DE C nd the right angle of the tri angle Th s a . u

the eq ation whi h wo u ld give the two forms might be

u c

t h s if we neglect y + ”
x 00 y u ,
s 3’
,
s’
,

an d the term w s properl y neglected if y y v nished com a s

a

p red with Bx or x
a f omp red with x which is the c se
“ ” r’ s’
c a
2
,
a ,

since / /
f
r s f
r
’
8 .

2 1 9 A simil r. rgu ment holds for sy mp totes with a a a

respect to the u pper sides of t h pol ygon e .

If there be rectiline r symptote one of the sides of the

a a a ,

polygon must be p r llel to the h ypoten se of the tri ngle a a u a .

If the a sy mptote p ss thro gh the origin there is a u ,

generally no circle t those ngles which the side first a a

enco nters when moved p r llel to itself tow rds the right
u ,
a a a

F. C T .. N
 M E T H OD BY T HE T RIA NGLE
angle the e xception being when the s am e factor w hi ch gives
,

the asy mptote is also a factor of the term s of di m ensions

lower b y unity .

If the curve c t one of the ax es we must take care th at

u ,

circles are pl aced on the corresponding side of the tri angle ,

sufficient to give as m any sol u tions as there a e points of r

intersection .

22 0 H aving thus selected convenient a x es and dete r ,

mined the direction o f lines corresponding to tangents to

the branches throu gh the origin as well as the equ ations ,

representing first appro xim ations to the asymp totic branches ,

a pol ygon must be dr a wn whose sides sh a ll be p a rallel to

these an d contain no re entering angles the u pper sides -

,

corresponding to the asy mptotic branches a nd if the a xes , ,

of coordin ates interse ct the curve two of the sides being ,

coincident with the sides of the tri angle .

It will be seen th a t the sides of the poly gon m ay often

be made to cover less ground b y the introdu ction of addi
tion al sides t aking c are th at the corresponding equ ations
,

give im agin ary solutions .

22 1 When the pol ygon is completed circles indic ting

.
,
a

t erms must be pl ced in the interior so s to s atisfy the

a ,
a

other conditions of m gnit de nd posi tion presented b ya u a

th c rve
e u W m s t then trust to o ingen ity or if we
. e u ur u , ,

can rel y on the correctness O f the dra wing to o me s re ,

ur a u

men ts to determine s itable coefficients for the terms

,
u .

222 The adv ntage gained b y this us e of the tri angle

. a

m y be seen t once b y try ing to reproduce the eq ation

a a u

of th c rve given Pl V I figs 2 5 an d 2 6 which m ay be

e u , . . .
,

of the seventh degree the gener l equ ation of which wou ld

,
a

contain thirty s ix terms - .

The forms at the origin e given b y x y = 0 x + y = 0 ar ,

2
,
2 3

nd y —
,

x = 0; b y the method of A t 2 1 8 these a e ep e

2 4
a r .
, r r r

sented b y the simple eq tion ua

wy s
y + x 7 3 2
y
_w7
0 ,
 M E T H OD BY T HE T RI A NGLE
which lso g ves the line corresponding to the symptote so
a i a ,

t h t the fo r sides of the pol ygon dr awn in fig 2 4 a e given

a u . r

b y this equ ation If they had not been s fficient to ep e

. u r r

sent the form of the c u rve in other respects any of the s ix ,

term s between x and y might h ave been inserted h ving

7 7
,
a

t aken c are th at there was no real sol tion b t x + y = 0 u u .

On term x y might have been introd ced between x7

e
5
u

an d x y which wo ld h ve had the effect of m aking the

3 2
, u a

l tera recta O f the p r bolic forms di fferent nd only three

a a a , a

terms more co ld h ave appeared i x y x y x y E ven

u ,
v z .
2 4
,
3 3
,
4 2
.

if every possibl e ddition l term had been introduced

’

a a ,

the reduction of terms to be tried would h ave been very

gre at .

223oth in th direct n d inverse process Des C artes

. B e a
’

ru le of signs is inv l ble s a test of correctness ; thus a ua a ,

when x nd y a e both positive or both n egati there a e

a r v e, r

only two ch anges of sign for a given v alue of x so th at in ,

.

the qu adrants x Oy and x Oy any line p rallel to Oy meets ’ ’

,
a

the curve in two points or more as in the fig 2 5 P l ate V I ,

.
,
.

when x an d y h ve opposite signs x positive gives threea ,

ch anges nd y has either three negative v alues or one x

,
a ,

neg tive gives onl y one ch nge nd y has only one positi ve
a a ,
a

v l e as in the figure
a u .

I sh ll give sm all number of e x mples of the

2 24 . a a a

m an ne in which when the directions of the sides of the

‘
r ,

polygon determined they m y be pl ced end to end

are ,
a a ,

without ttempting in every c ase to complete the equ ation

a

in other respects .

225 In the c rve represented in the figure if we

. Ex 1 . . u ,
Fig 1
. .

m ake the point A the origin nd the t ngent at the point , a a

of inflex ion the ax is of y the forms t the origin co ld be ,

a u

represented b y y a x and x by giving directions a b

3 2 3 :
2
, ,

0d of the two lo wer sides of the pol ygon .

When y = 0 x + e = 0 so th t one side of the polygon is

, ,
a

on a si de of the tri angle .

F C T
. . .
 M E T H OD BY T HE T R IA NGLE
x
3
will pp aren tl y represent the infinite br anches
= d2y a ,

an d an upper side must be p r llel to d a a e .

The polygon o s d s tisfies these conditions with one

'
s a ,

side 3 8 which we m u st t ke c re to m ke correspond with

1 a a a

an equ ation h aving im gin ar sol tions a u

y .

The eq ation u

ozx
y
2
By
s
y x
3 4
y dx 5
ex
4
0
represents all the above forms which correspond to the
sides of the polygon the c oefficients being chosen s o s to
,
a

identify the terms with the corresponding circles in the

angles of the pol gon ; and it m ust be remembered th t ll a a
y
the G reek letters e positive that = 08 and th at the
ar , e ,

equ ti on corresponding to y d gives an im gin ary p rabolic

a a a

a s mptote
y .

A g in since the form at B would be g en b y y

a 1v
3

the coeffi cients of y an d y m st v anish when x —0

,

2
u .

These conditions e s tisfied b y the m t o du cti n of terms

ar a r o

involving x y an d x y an d the simples t eq tion to be

2 2 3 3
, ,
ua

tried is therefore
k
s / 96
i y
A pply ing De s C a rtes
r u le of signs ’
:

x> 0 y + gives ,

y gives
consistent with one or more two val es of y u ,

y + gives
x gives
consistent with one one or more v l e of y a u ,

0 < w< — °c y + gives ,

y 1 v es
g
consistent with no one v l e of y a u .

S o also for the v alues x for any given v l u e of y a .

This form of the equ ation will therefore represent the

curve with toler ble acc r cy a u a .
 M E T H OD BY T HE T RI A NGLE
in the two c ases ; when x = 2 a y = 0 an d , ,
,
2a in both c ases ,

an d the third v alue is given b

y
2
2 y (y 2 a) a
2
(3 y 2a) 0 ,

2y z
y
i—2 —
> a a
2
s y+ a > o.
=

one giving y a little gre ater and the other a little less th n a

ga the other roots e impossible ar

a ) ( i ) gives y = a —
, .

N e ar ( oo a /x whereas ( ii ) gives
,
3 2
,

hence ( i ) is alone dmissible since the curve a

is below the asy mptote at both ends .

To shew that ( i ) satisfies the conditions fairly we observe

th at the t angent at ( 2 a 0) intersects the c rve a t (3a — %a ) ,
u ,

an d ( a a) an d th at the ne x t
,
ppro x im ation to the
,
a

tangent is y = 5 5 /2 a or th at the c rve bends downwards 2

,
u

at ( 2 a ,

N e ar ( 4a 77 :
e

near ( a —a )
,

these agree with the double bend in p ssing from ( 2 a 0) to a ,

(0 ,
oo

A g ain
the curve represented b y ( i ) cuts the asymptote
,

= a where x = %a
y
—m y y is known from the equ ation
.
,

A lso if x , ,

m ( m + 1 ) y —( m 2m 3 ) a y 2 m (m l)a = 0
2 4 3 3 4

to obt in some ide a of the si e of the loop let m 4 then

a z '

, ,

4
9y 3la y 3
4a 4
0 ,

whence y a and a a —% —
— ne rly so th t the loop is
2
1 g ,
a

sm aller than in the figure .

‘
I f we a ssign v al u es to y an d ppl y the u le of signs a r

to the resulting equ tions in x we find th t the results a ,

a

agree with the figure an d simil arly if we assign v al es ,

u

to x .

Ex 3 The curve in the fig re is app arently of the

. . u

fourth degree the form ne r the origin is represented b y

, a

(y ne r b x = B ne r ( 00 a
) b 2

x (y —
a ; a
y y y
a) = — O ; also ne ar —
, ,

2
which is a point of the
'

2
a,

curve ,
 M E T H OD BY T HE T RI A NGLE
The bounding polyg on contains the circles corresponding
to the following terms
a (x — — — w 2 2
y)
3
( y a )
where y is an d x + 6x +
y yy = 0has no re al root 2 2
.

The most general eq ation which can represent the c u rve u ,

s u pposed of the f ou rth degree is of the form ,

a
2
(x y)
2
(y a ) x
3
ozyx
2
By
2
x y xy
3
6x y2 2
0
.

S ince ne ar ( 00 a ) there is no ter m 0

‘ l 0 2
In x , a
“
oza da .

Ne a r a,

ax
2
(x a ) 2a 2
xy
3
x y ozx
2
y 0 ,

which becomes if oz= 2 a whence 8 1 B ,

an d
y can be determined b y the app arent v alues of y when
x —a i ,
v z . nd y = 0
, The eq ation so a . u

fa obt ained gives y = 0 an d

r ,

2 B+ 4 a = 3 a , B = —% ai
v in
an d the equ ation of
-
the curve is
a
2
(y x )
2
(y a x )
s
2 a yx 2
4 a xy
2
4xy
3
x
2
y
2
0 .

It only rem ains to see how fa this agrees with the given r

curve
—
.

When y = a ( x a) ,
2

x 4a lmost e xa ct , a .

When y = x x (x a) 0 ,
3
,

so th at the tangent at O cuts the c u rve a t — a — a) , .

The equ ation corresponding to the upper side of the

pol ygon is x whose roots a e im agin ary
2
‘
r .

N e ar ( a) y
oo — a 2 a x
3 ‘2

The tangent at —a
.
,

i y + x + a = 0 meets the , v z .
, ,

curve where a y ( 2 a xy x y) ( x a ) 1 xy (22 a2 3 x ) 0 2

2
~ 2

or y = 0 an d
2
whose roots a e impossible r ,

so th at all the conditions are s tisfied a .

 M E T H OD B Y PA RT I A L CURVES

ET H OD B Y PA RT IA L CURVES M .

22 6 It is frequently possible to discover from the form of

.
,

the curve simple p rti al curves from which the given c r e

,
a ,
u v

m ay be supposed to h ave degener ated If we then form a .

single equ ation which will represent these p rtial curves a ,

we m ay obtain at once terms which will form the required

equation b y a proper alteration of the coe fficients or b y
, ,

the introduction of such t erms s will prevent the equ ation a

from being split into simpler equ ations .

227 simple c ase of the application of this method is

. A
to the cu rve re presented in fig 1 5 Pl II which m ay be .
, . .
,

supposed to be degenerated from a circle and two str ight a

lines as in the figure

, .

The equ ation representing the p rtial curve is a

(w
z —c2) = 0 ,

from which we obtain an equ ation

x
4
y
4 2
“ 39 2
+b y
2 2
0 ,

which if a be a little greater th an b would give the required

, ,

curve .

F ig 8
. . 22 8 The curve represented ( Pl X V I I fig 8 ) can be con
. . . .

cei e d to h ave degener ated from the three dotted circles

v .
,

whose equ ation is

« we ar — w ins< y
x + —i a >= 0 2 2 i
.

an d considering the comp artments within which the curve

,

lies the eq ation m ay be written

,
u

i( x
2
y
2 2
) 4a 2
x
2
}( x
2
$
9
2
4 62 2
) “a s
0 °

When x= 0 one
,
v l e of y is % a b y the fi gure ; whence
a u ,

an d the other v lue of y is pprox im ately 2

a a

4a 2 — y oza
2
/1 6 4a 2
2 a /4 5 ,
2 : 2a —/9 0 a .

Thus the curve is properly represented b y this v alue of oz .

If there were a conj ugate point at the origin we might ,

write a ( ozx + By ) for oza

4 2 2 6
.
 M E T H OD BY PA RT I A L CURVES
To find the eq tion of the curve in fi g 1 1 we h ave to ua .

Fig 1 1
. .
contrive th at the p arti al c rves sh all be c t b y the g v en u u 1

curve in the three points A B C ; s these points a e , ,

a r

pl aced in the figure they would lie in p ar bol and the a a a,

equ ation of the curve would be of the form

( ax
2
by 2
1 )(y 0) oz
2
(y
2
bx) 0 .

If B had been in the line AC ,

the eq tion wo ld h ave ua u

been by d) 0
( ax (
2 2 2
1 ) (y 0) oz x .

The curves given in fig 1 2 an d fig 1 3 a e cle arly

2 31 . . . r

derivable from a circle and three lines forming an inscribed ,

tri ngle a .

Fig 1 2
. . The equ ation of the c rve in fig 1 2 is of the form u .

( x
2
+y
2
2 0x) ( y 2
m 2
x
2
) +m
2
) x 2 0} oz
2
0;
F ig 1 3
. . an d since the curve in fig 1 3 crosses the p rti al lines in . a

A , B O D E which lie n a line the eq ation s of the form

, , ,
I ,
u 1

( x
2 --
iy
2
2 0x) ( y 2 —m x ) 2 2
+m
2
)x 2 0}
— oz a x +
2
( by 0 .

Examp les XI I .

As exam pl s e the e q u at i o ns of the fi gs 1 4 1 9 an d ea ch o f the two —

rv s i f d r pr s s lf rv
.

cu e n fi 2 0 m ay b e ou n fig 1 9 e e ent ha Of the cu e,
g
wh s q is dis v r d rv b i s ri l i
. .
,

o e e u ati on to b e co e e , t he c u e e ng ym m et ca w th
r sp t t
e ec p r i l rv s
o x 0
’
x ; the di d d d li s
a t a cu e are in cate b y otte ne .

F g r
or l m pl s f th
en e a is h p t r q t
e xai n s m y b i n
ev s t i
o g t d c a e e ua o a e e a e

t r p r s nt th rv s 1 2 6 9 1 3 1 5 1 8 2 0 2 1 2 5 2 8 t d i
,

o e e e e cu e , , , , , , , , ,
1 ace n
P] V . .
 CLA S S I F I ED LI S T OF THE CURV E S
D I SC U S SED .

CU BIC CUR VES .

E T N
( Plat gfgiiiigb )
er
Q UA I O

I “ 8 3/ x c
v
2
( 1)

II . 5 y = x2 + 3173

II . 6

H 7, 8, 9 » 1 0

( )( —3 a)
II . 11
x a x

(y 2 —4 ) x
2 _ bz
x(y -
x )
x (y

0 920 a x=
2
0

$3 + y3 —3 a xy = 0

x —
(y x)
2=
a
y
2

— 2
y)
—
2 x (x y) 2—
3 a (@2

—2 )
(x —a
z= 3
)y e
—b)y = c3
—
( y x) (y a
s

(y
x
2— 2 =
y y x a (x
-
b)2 —b (y —a)
2

W + 2 “ 2
9
—a x —3 a % —3 a
3=
2 0
2

y( b2 —x)
CL A SSIFIED LIS T O F T HE CURV E S

Q UA RT IC CU R V ES .

E T N Q UA I O

x4
3 axy 2
2 ay3 = 0
4
90

xy —
2 4=
4
90 + a 3/ O

a
2
(x ) (x 3 a )
a

x ( x —2 a )

—
y (y l >
o
—l >
<x - 2 >
jg
“ 100c1 x 2 2
x
4
0
= x (x
y
( y + x)
3
a

4 2
2a g + 2 a z 2
x 2 3 ax3 + x4 = O
y

— — —
< y> < a
x x > —ix
4—
a
4=o 2 z
z

x
4
a wj a
y
3
O

x
4
a ny
?
a
2
y
2 by3 0
2 2 2 =0
y (y
h
x ) (y
2 2 x) 3 a (y x x ) 2a x

3/
2
(
2
x
?
y ) 2 ay
/
3 2a x
3
0
CL A SSIFIED LIS T OF T HE CURVES
EQ T N
UA IO

( x2

—ag) z
a
4

a
3
(y —x) —2 2
a (/
g
2 -
x2y = 0
2

CURV ES OF T HE F I F T H DEG RE E .

z
.
-5 —2 a3x2 4
--
5 a
3
xy
—2 a
3 2
y +y
5 =
0
a
3
Qy —2
x 2
)
(_
y
—x) — 2 az
4
+
3
ya — x5 =
4
0
—4 ax3(y —x) + 2 x5 —x4y = 0
,

2 a 2 (y

x5

x5 3 bx3y bxvf 0
zé —x ya
3

z
é —az 3y —2 a 2xy2 + a 2y3 = 0
x 5
a xy
3
0
5
2 13 :
3 0
x5 —a zy —y4 = 0
3
a

x3y2 —ax4 + a 2y3 = 0

fl yZ —a 3z 2 + ag 4 = 0
x5 —a1 4
x5 + y5 —5 ax3y = 0
2 2 2 3
( x a )( x 2 a ) 7/ 2 a x 4 a 4y O

x3y2 —2 2 2
a x
y + x
a
4 —b5 = 0

14 xé —aa3 g —bx2y2 + y5 = 0
x5

x3 —5 ax2y2 + y5 = 0
5 — 2 3 —‘
b2 2 5 =
0
'

x a x
y xy + y
‘
2
y ( 3 x — 4y)
3 — 4 =
a m o

4 a2 Qy —8 ax3 (y
2
x (y — x) 3—
av = 0
;
4
'

a my3 (x ~

a xy —
3
(x
x (xz — a ) — = 0
y
2
y
5

x ( x z —ay>2 — 4
y < y
—c>=o

—a )3 2 1 -

—4 a x3 = 0
2
 CLA SSIFIED LIS T O F T HE CURVE S
.

EQ T N
UA IO

—3/
a
G
x6 = 0
6
x dxy3 i e “
y
x6 a
z " 3 2
O
y a x
y
x6 2 a 2x3y b3y3 O

m m u x 3
y
3=
0
a ( x5 + y5 ) q
2
x3y + x 2 4
y O
G Z
C
y ( a
. b) c3x3y a bxfi 3
c x3
y
2
0
x6 2 a 2x? b3y 3 O
x6 2 690331 2 2 a bm4 [ fi/g 4 2 a b2xy2 2
a bzx2 O
6 6 5
y + x a
y + a ( ay cx x3
) =0
2
(y 3 a )z = o
x6 —y 6
+ 61 3 0
9 3 a xy) = 0
x6 a
)( x3 i- y3— 3 axy ) = 0

(y 2 x + 2 a )(x 2y +
—a ) = o 3

2
(y ax
)(
2
x a
)
2
+y 2
a
2
) O
( 56
2
096 3

a
2
( i
x — 2
a
2
)( x2 + y2 4 a 2) = 0

( y 2 33 + 2 a ) (x 2y + 2 a ) x23/ 2

XIV 16 x6 z 4 '
2 3 3 2
a
y + a x
y a xy O
.

CURVES OF T HE SEV ENT H DEG REE .

iw(a x ) a
2 2
}y 3
0
07

x7 fi y“ a
4
g/
3
ax
2
y
4

x7 x 4y3 a
3 4
ax 5
y y
x7 03 2
6 3
6
9
—
0 y)0 Q
5
0 6 0

XIV 2 2
( x 3 a
.
a a
)( 2 x) 2
 CLA SSIFIED LIST OF T HE CURVES
CUR V E S OF T HE EIG H T H D E G REE .

E T N Q UA I O

a
s 5
y .r
z fi
y x
5
y
3
ax
e
y
e z
a x 0
4
( at? a ( x 2 a )? (x2 a
2
) O

CUR VES WI T H E Q UA T I ONS INV OLVING T RIG ONOMET RICA L

FUNCT I ONS .

3 3
s in x + s in y 3 a s in x s in y = 0

si 3
u x tan3 g
/ 3 a s in 33 tan y O

tan3 x ta n3 y 3 a tan a: tan y = O

3
s in x + s e c
3
y
—3 a s in x s e c y = 0
2 2 z
a ( s in a
: )
s in y S in x s in x
( s in
g)
a ( s in
3/ tan x) 2
tan x ( s in y 2 tan2 x)
2 2 z
a ( s in a: tan y) (
s in x s in x tan y)
 I N DE X .

The nu mber s r e er to f p a ges .

l i l
An a yt ca T r ang e, 1 1 7 -1 2 2 , 1 7 1 , i l Dg e e nerat o n o f c u r i
v s 2 4 8 3 1 35 e -

v 23
, , , .

1 93 . Dg e f
ree o a cu r e,

i ls s A l yti l T i gl 5 8
.

A p p ro xim at on, ru e for, 3 3 D G

’
e ua na ca r an e,

ls
.
,

exam p e o f, 34 61 117
s s
.

C t s R l f Si g s 1 9 5 1 9 6
.
,

to a ym p to te , 7 9 -8 2 , 88 -9 5 D es ar e
’
u e o n
s
.

D b l p i ts 4 5 85
.
, ,

t o t ange nt , 1 5 , 3 9 , 4 4 ou e o n

li l i
.

t i fi i ty 9 5 9 8
, , .

at mu t
p e p o nt, 4 5 , 4 9 , 5 1 , 5 4 a n n
i
.
, , .

a t p o n t o f in fl e xio n , 4 2 , 4 8 , 4 9

s
.

As ymp tote , 5 , 2 3, 6 8 6 9 , 1 93 G idi g sym p t t 5 62 69 1 08

u n a o e,
vili
, .
, , , .

cu r n e ar, 1 0 7, 10 8
s v s 1 00
.

infl exio nal, 7 2 H m g

o o en eo u cu r e
li
.

sym pt t s t 1 00
.
,

p arab o c , 64 , 6 5 , 9 3 , 1 0 8 a o e o,

ll l
. .

p ara e , 95 , 9 8 .

ll l
para e to axe , 8 0 s I fi i
n p i t f 5 1 5 2 2 30 3 1
e x o n, o n o

ll s
.
, , , , , ,

n o t p aral e to a xe , 88 -92 42 4 8 4 9
si t i fini ty 7 2 9 7
. .
, ,

qu a 6 9, 1 08 a n
d i i
.
, ,

Is l t d p t i s f v 1 49
.

e term n at on o f, 7 4 o a e or on o a cu r e,

d i i
. .

e term n at on b y app ro xim a

i t o n , 7 9 -82 " t id
era o sp 5 1 3 1 6 5 1 cu

v s
.
, , , , .

ho w cu r e ap pro ac he , 8 1 , 9 1 ,
92 . M th d f m p tm ts 1 4 3
e o o co ar en ,

ii i f p ti l v s 2 00
.

A u x l ary e u at o n, 2 9 q o ar a cu r e

M lt i p l p i ts 5 4 5 5 4 1 34
. .
,

u e o n

B
, ,

t i fi it y 7 2 80 95 9 8
.
, ,

eer, A 152 a n n
d t m i ti
.
.
, , , ,

e er f 85 1 37 na on o , ,
.

Change o f o r g n, 3 1 3 7 ii
s d N wt s L m m s 1 6
.
,

C o mp artm ent m e tho o f, 1 4 3

’
e on e a

P ll l g m 5 8 1 1 7
,

i s
. .
,

Co nju gate p o n t 5 5 1 5 3 1 35 ara e o ra , .

i i i l sl i
.
, , , , ,

Cu b c e qu at o n, grap h c a o ut on P rin cip ia 1 ,

, .

f 32o

v t 1 7 40 d s q iis
.
,

Cu r a ur e , Or er o f u ant t e , 9 , 5 8 7 9
ii
.
, ,

i l f 1 8 4 1 43
.

c rc e o Or g n chan ge o f, 3, 1 37
s v
.

i f 40 4 1
.
, , , ,

c on c o hap e o f c u r e near, 39 4 5 , 5 8 .

s l i s v
, . ,

di m t f 1 8 4 1 4 4
,

a e er o , , O cu at ng b ranche o f c u r e , 5 5 .

t m ltip l p i t 5 4
.
,

a u e o n
P b l s mi b i l
,

vilin sympt t s 5
.

Cu r e ar a o e , , 69 , 9 3, ara o a, e cu ca , 21 2 4, 64 ,
10 7
sp 5 1 5 1 35 P b li sympt t s
.

Cu , , , . ara o c a o e , 64, 65 , 9 3,
ra mp h id 5 1 6 5 1 o 108
v s 1 2 20
.
, ,

k t id 5 1 3 1 6 5 1
.
,

era o , , , , . cu r e , , .
 INDEX
T he nu mber s r e er tof p a ges .

Pi
o nt , con u gate, j 5 , 5 1 , 5 3, 1 35 . i s
T he ory o f e u at o n , 2 9 q
d l i l l i l
.

ou b e , 4 5 , 85 , 9 5 , 9 8 T r ang e t he A na yt ca , 1 1 7 -1 22 ,
lil
.
,

m u t p e , 5 , 4 5 , 5 4 , 1 34 1 7 1 , 1 93
i i f i s s
. .

o f infie xio n , 5 , 1 5 , 2 2 , 30 , 3 1 , 42 , T r gonom e tr c un ct o n , graph o f ,

4 8, 4 9 28
s l i v s s q i s i v lv
. .

o f o cu at on , 5 cu r e Who e e u at on n o e,

si l
.

ngu ar, 5 , 1 3 7 1 77
Pi s i s i i i
. .

o nt of n ter ec t o n at nfin ty,

6 9 , 80, 97 . S m i b i l p b l 2 1 2 4 64
e cu ca ara o a, , , ,

65 10 8
S i g l p i ts 5 1 3 7
, .

Q u arterly J ou rnal 1 35 2 n u ar o n ,

i i i l s l ti S l t i f q t i s 32
, , .

Q u art c e qu at on grap h c a ,
o u on o u on o e ua on , .

o f, 33 ft o 35 an x : x,

Q si symp t t 6 9 1 08 Sp i l v f f th d g
. .

ua -a o e, , . ec a cu r e o ou r e ree ,

15 2
sp 5 1 6 5 1
.

R m p h id
a o cu Symm t y 7 1 33 e r

R p ti g v s 1 7 7
, , , .
, , .

e ea n cu r e

W lk d W lt
.
,

a er an1 35 a on , .

T g ts 1 5 1 6 39
an en , , W lst h l m J 1 42
o en o e, .
, .

im t i s t
.
,

pp a ro x 15 a on o, , 39 , 4 4 .

S
G LA G O W 2 P R I N T E D A T T HE U N I V ERS I T Y P RESS B Y R O B ER T M A C LE HO S E A ND C O . LT D .