Finite Element Analysis for

Mechanical and Aerospace Design

Prof. Nicholas Zabaras

Materials Process Design and Control Laboratory
Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
101 Frank H. T. Rhodes Hall
Cornell University
Ithaca, NY 14853-3801

Email: zabaras@cornell.edu
URL: http://mpdc.mae.cornell.edu/

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 Kinematics in two-dimensions
• We start with the displacement vector at a given point in 2D. It is a vector with
x- and the y-components. We denote it using both matrix and vector notation:

ux    
u=  =
u ux i + u y j
u y 
• Let us consider a square ∆x∆y (control volume) on the plane before and
after deformation as shown:

Can you use this figure to

∆y define the strain components?

∆x

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 Extensional strain components

• The extensional strains εxx and εyy are defined as:

u x ( x + ∆x, y ) − u x ( x, y ) ∂u x
ε xx lim ≡
∆x →0 ∆x ∂x
u y ( x, y + ∆y ) − u y ( x, y ) ∂u y
ε yy lim ≡
∆y →0 ∆y ∂y
• εxx and εyy represent the change in the lengths of the infinitesimal line
segments in the x and y directions, Δx and Δy , respectively, divided by the
original lengths of the line segments.

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 Shear strain components

• The shear strain, γxy , measures the change in angle α1 + α2 between unit
vectors in the x and y directions (in radians)

u y ( x + ∆x, y ) − u y ( x, y ) u x ( x, y + ∆y ) − u x ( x, y ) ∂u y ∂u x
γ xy lim + lim ≡ +
∆x →0 ∆x ∆y →0 ∆y ∂x ∂y

• We often use the engineering shear strain γxy introduced above, and the tensor
shear strain component εxy= ½ γxy.

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 Rotation
• In addition to axial elongations, the control volume also undergoes rotation. The
rotation in 2D, denoted by ωxy , is computed by

1 1  ∂u x ∂u y 
ω xy ≡ (α 2 − α1=
)  − 
2 2  ∂y ∂x 

• If α1=α2, the rotation is zero. For small deformations, the rotation ωxy is small
and does not affect the stress calculation.

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 Strain matrix
• For our finite element calculations, we introduce the
following notation for the strains:
 ∂u x  ∂ 
   0
ε   ∂ x  ∂x
 
T    ∂u y 
x
 ∂  ux 
ε = ε x ε y γ xy  =  ε y  =  =  0 ∂y  u  = ∇ S u
∂
 y
   y  
γ xy   ∂u ∂u y  ∂ ∂
x +
   ∂y ∂x 
 ∂y ∂x    
∇ S

• As shown above, the symmetric gradient matrix ∇ S is

∂ 
defined as:  0 
 ∂x 
 ∂
∇S =0 ∂y 
 
∂ ∂
 ∂y ∂x 

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 Traction vector and stress components
• The traction (force per unit area) on the plane with the 

normal vector n aligned along the x-axis is denoted by σ x
  
and its vector form is =σ x σ xx i + σ xy j

• Similarly, the traction with the outer normal  unit vector n
aligned along the y -axis is denoted  as σ y and  its
corresponding components are = σ y σ yx i + σ yy j
 
σ x and σ y are called the stress vectors
acting on the planes
normal to x and y directions, respectively.

The stress state in a 2D body is described

by two normal stresses σxx and σyy and
shear stresses σxy and σyx.

Can you show that σxy=σyx? (moment equilibrium)

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 Stress components
• Positive stress components act in the positive direction on a
positive face.
• The 1st subscript on the stress corresponds to the direction
normal to the plane and the 2nd subscript denotes the
direction of the force. The normal stresses are often written
simply as σx and σy.

In matrix form, we denote the stress

components as   σ
T  xx 
=σ =
σ xx σ yy σ xy  σ yy 
 
or as
σ
 xy 
σ xx σ xy 
τ = 
σ
 xy σ yy 

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Traction in an arbitrary surface with normal n
 
• The stress vectors σ x and σ y can be used to obtain the

tractions on any surface of the body with normal n . Thus
the stresses provide information about tractions on any
surface at a point. The force equilibrium of the triangular body
shown requires that:
  
td Γ − σ x dy − σ y dx = 0 ⇒
  
td Γ − σ x nx d Γ − σ y n y d Γ = 0 ⇒
  
t = σ x nx + σ y n y ⇒
    
( ) (
t = σ xx i + σ xy j nx + σ yx i + σ yy j n y ⇒
  
)
( ) (
t = σ xx nx + σ yx n y i + σ yx nx + σ yy n y j
 
)
t t
σ xx σ xy   nx 
x y

t x 
In=
matrix form   =   , t τ n
ty 
 σ xy σ yy  
 ny 
t τ n
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 Stress equilibrium
• The
 forces  acting on the body are the traction vector
=
t t x i + t y j along the boundary Γ and the body force per unit
  
volume = b bx i + by j.

• Examples of the body forces are gravity and magnetic

forces, etc. Thermal stresses as we have seen can also
been interpreted as body forces.

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 Stress equilibrium

• Consider the equilibrium of the infinitesimal region (on the

plane) of unit thickness:
 ∆x  ∆x  ∆y  ∆y 
−σ x ( x − , y )∆y + σ x ( x + , y )∆y − σ y ( x, y − )∆x + σ y ( x, y + )∆x + b( x, y ) ∆x∆y = 0 ⇒
2 2 2 2
 ∆x  ∆x  ∆y  ∆y
σ x ( x + , y ) − σ x ( x − , y ) σ y ( x, y + ) − σ y ( x, y − ) 
2 2 + 2 2 + b ( x, y ) =
0 ⇒ 
∆x ∆y ∆x , ∆y →0

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 Stress equilibrium
 
∂σ x ∂σ y 
+ + b ( x, y ) =
0
∂x ∂y

  
However: σ x σ xx i + σ xy j
=
  
σ y σ yx i + σ yy j
=

• Combining the above two equations yields the equilibrium

equations for the x- and y-directions:
∂σ xx ∂σ xy 
    + + bx =
( )+ ( )
0
∂ σ xx i + σ xy j ∂ σ yx i + σ yy j  ∂x ∂y ∇σ x + bx =
0
+ b ( x, y ) =
0⇒ or 
∂x ∂y ∂σ yx ∂σ yy ∇σ y + by =
0
+ + by =
0
∂x ∂y

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 Stress equilibrium
∂σ xx ∂σ xy
+ + bx =
0
∂x ∂y
∂σ yx ∂σ yy
+ + by =
0
∂x ∂y

• We can now re-write the equilibrium equation in matrix

form:
∂ ∂ 
 ∂x 0  σ xx 
∂y    bx  0 
∇σ +b =
T
  σ yy  +   =  ⇒ 0
 0 ∂ ∂  by  
0 S
 
 σ xy 
∂y ∂x   b 0
 
∇ T σ
S

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 Constitutive equations
• Constitutive equation is the relation between stress and
strain. Examples include elasticity, viscoelasticity, creep,
plasticity, viscoplasticity, etc.
• Here, we discuss linear isotropic elasticity.
• Recall that in 1D, a linear elastic material is governed by
the Hooke’s law σ= Eε, where E is Young’s modulus.
• In 2D, the linear relation between the stress and strain
matrices can be written as
σ = Dε
where D is a 3x3 matrix.

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 Constitutive equations
σ = Dε
• This is the generalized Hooke’s law. D is a symmetric,
positive-definite matrix.

• In 2D, the matrix D depends on whether one assumes a

plane stress or plane strain condition. These assumptions
determine how the model is simplified from a 3D physical
body to a 2D model.

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 Plane strain conditions
• A plane strain model assumes that the body is thick relative
to the xy -plane in which the model is constructed.

• Consequently, the strain normal to the plane, εz is zero and

the shear strains that involve angles normal to the plane,
γxz and , γyz are assumed to vanish.

• When a body is thick, significant stresses can develop on

the z -faces, in particular the normal stress σzz can be quite
large.

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 Plane stress
• A plane stress model assumes that the body is thin relative
to the dimensions in the xy -plane.

• In that case, we assume that no loads are applied on the z -

faces of the body and that the stress normal to the xy -
plane, σzz , vanishes.

• If a body is thin, since the stress σzz must vanish on the

outside surfaces, there is no mechanism for developing a
significant nonzero stress σzz within the body.

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 Constitutive equations
• Here we assume an isotropic material, i.e. a material whose
stress-strain law is independent of the coordinate system.
• For an isotropic material, D is the same regardless of the
coordinate system. Of course this is not the best
approximation for all problems!
  Young’s modulus E
1 v 0  and Poisson’s ratio ν
E  
Plane stress: D= v 1 0 are the only independent
1− v 
2

0 0 (1 − v)  material properties for
 2 a linear isotropic elastic
material
 
1 − v v 0 
E  v 1− v 
=
Plane strain: D 0
(1 + v)(1 − 2v)  
 0 0 (1 − 2v) 
 2

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 Constitutive equations
• For an isotropic elastic material we have only 2
independent material constants: E and ν (of course D can
be written using any two other elastic material constants
such as the shear modulus G=E/2(1+ν) and the bulk
modulus K=E/3(1 − ν).

• Note that for plane strain, as ν → 0.5 , D becomes `infinite’.

• A Poisson’s ratio of 0.5 corresponds to an incompressible

material.

• Modeling incompressible materials for plane strain (and 3D)

problems requires special attention in finite element
analysis (and special elements).

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 Strong form of an elasticity problem
 
∇σ +b = ∇σ x + bx =
T

• Equilibrium equation: 0 or equivalently: 0

S
 
∇σ y + by =
0

• Kinematics equation (strain-displacement relation):

ε = ∇u S

• Constitutive equation (stress-strain relation):

σ = Dε
• Boundary conditions: The portion of the boundary where the traction is
prescribed is denoted by Γt and the portion of the boundary where the
displacement is prescribed Γu .

 The traction boundary condition is written as = τ n t on Γt or equivalently:

 
σ x  n t x ,=
= σ y n t y on Γt
 
 The displacement boundary condition is written as = u u on Γu

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 Strong form
• Essential boundary condition: The displacement boundary
condition is the essential boundary condition satisfied by
the displacement field.
• Natural boundary condition: The traction boundary
condition is a natural boundary condition.
• The displacement and traction cannot both be prescribed
on the same part of the boundary, thus
Γu ∩ Γt =0.
• However, on any portion of the boundary, either the
displacement or the traction must be prescribed, so
Γu ∪ Γt = Γ

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 Strong form for isotropic linear elasticity

• Find the displacement field u on Ω such that:
   
∇σ x + bx =0, ∇σ y + by =0 on Ω
where σ= D∇ u S

with
 
σ x  n t x ,=
= σ y n t y on Γt
 
=u u on Γu

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 Weak form for isotropic linear elasticity
• We pre-multiply the equilibrium equations in x and y
directions and the two natural boundary conditions by the
corresponding weight functions and integrate over the
corresponding domains as follows:
   
∇σ x + bx = 0, ∇σ y + by = 0 on Ω ⇒
 
∫ ( ∇σ x + bx ) wx d Ω = 0 ∀wx ∈ U 0 ,
Ω
 
( )
∫ ∇σ y + by wy d Ω = 0 ∀wy ∈ U 0 .
Ω
  
σ= x  n t x , σ= y  n t y on Γt ⇒ ( )
∫ wx σ x n − t x d Γ = 0 ∀wx ∈ U 0 ,
Γ

t

( )
∫ wy σ y n − t y d Γ = 0 ∀wy ∈ U 0 .
Γ t

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 Weak form for isotropic linear elasticity
 
∫ ( ∇σ x + bx ) wx d Ω = 0 ∀wx ∈ U 0 ,
Ω
 
∫ ( ∇σ y + by ) wy d Ω = 0 ∀wy ∈ U 0 .
Ω
• Apply Green’s theorem (integration by parts) to the first term
in each of these equations and account for w=x w=
y 0 on Γu
   
∫ wx σ x nd Γ − ∫ ∇wx σ x d Ω + ∫ bx wx d Ω = 0 ∀wx ∈ U 0 ,
Γ Ω Ω
   
t

∫ wy σ y nd Γ − ∫ ∇wy σ y d Ω + ∫ by wy d Ω = 0 ∀wy ∈ U 0 .

Γ t
Ω Ω

• Adding the
 two
 equations
  gives:
   
∫ ( ∇wx σ x + ∇wy σ y = ) d Ω ∫ wtd Γ + ∫ wbd Ω ∀wx , wy ∈U 0
Ω Γ Ω
      
Note : σ x n =(σ xx i + σ xy j )( nx i + n y j ) =σ xx nx + σ xy n y =t x x − component of t n
t

      
σ y n =(σ yx i + σ yy j )( nx i + n y j ) =σ yx nx + σ yy n y =t y y − component of t n

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 Weak form for isotropic linear elasticity
       
∫ ( ∇wx σ x + ∇wy σ y =
) d Ω ∫ wtd Γ + ∫ wbd Ω ∀wx , wy ∈U 0
Ω Γ t
Ω

• The left hand side can be simplified by noticing that:

    ∂wx ∂wx ∂wy ∂wy
∇wx σ x + ∇w
= y σ y σ xx + σ xy + σ xy + = σ yy
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
T
 
  
 ∂ 0 
σ    ∂x   σ 
 ∂wx ∂wy ∂wx ∂wy  
xx
   wx    xx 
∂ 
(∇S w)
T
 ∂x + σ yy  =   0 w   σ yy  = σ
 ∂y ∂y ∂x    

∂y  y  
  
σ xy   ∂ ∂   σ
 xy 
  
∂
 
y ∂x  
  
 ∇ S 

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 Weak form for isotropic linear elasticity
       
∫ ( ∇wx σ x + ∇wy σ y =
) d Ω ∫ wtd Γ + ∫ wbd Ω ∀wx ∈U 0
Ω Γ t
Ω
   
(∇S w)
T
∇wx σ x + ∇wy σ y = σ

• The matrix form of the weak form becomes:

   
( )
T
∫ ∇ S w σ=
d Ω ∫ wtd Γ + ∫ wbd Ω ∀ wx , wy ∈ U 0
Ω Γ t
Ω

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 Weak form for isotropic linear elasticity
• Substituting the kinematic ε = ∇ u and constitutive σ = Dε,
S

relations, the resulting weak form in 2D can be summarized

as:

Find u ∈ U on Ω such that :

   
( )
T
∫ ∇ S w σ=
d Ω ∫ wtd Γ + ∫ wbd Ω ∀ wx , wy ∈ U 0
Ω Γ t
Ω

{ }
where : U = u : u ∈ H 1 , u =u on Γu and

U 0 ={w : w ∈ H 1 , w =0 on Γu }

Can you think a virtual work interpretation of the above equation?

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