1 - Basic Concepts in Viscous Flow

Microhydrodynamics The fluid dynamic equations Properties of Stokes flow Three Stokes-flow theorems References
Basic concepts in viscous flow
Élisabeth Guazzelli and Jeffrey F. Morris

with illustrations by Sylvie Pic
Adapted from Chapter 1 of A Physical Introduction to Suspension Dynamics

Cambridge Texts in Applied Mathematics
Élisabeth Guazzelli and Jeffrey F. Morris with illustrations by Sylvie Pic A Physical Introduction to Suspension Dynamics
1 The fluid dynamic equations

Navier-Stokes equations
Dimensionless numbers
Stokes equations
Buoyancy and drag
Boundary conditions
2 Properties of Stokes flow
Linearity
Reversibility
Instantaneity
3 Three Stokes-flow theorems
Minimum dissipation
Uniqueness
Reciprocity
4 References

Stokes equations
Buoyancy and drag
Boundary conditions
Linearity
Reversibility
Instantaneity
Minimum dissipation
Uniqueness
Reciprocity
4 References
Microhydrodynamics
Microhydrodynamics, a term coined by G. K. Batchelor in the

1970s, deals with processes occurring in fluid flow when the
characteristic length of the flow field is of the order of one micron
Many particles in a flow

Stokes equations
Buoyancy and drag
Boundary conditions
Linearity
Reversibility
Instantaneity
Minimum dissipation
Uniqueness
Reciprocity
4 References
Equations for an incompressible fluid
Continuity equation for an incompressible fluid
∇·u=0
Equation for conservation of momentum
∂u
ρ[ + (u · ∇)u] = f + ∇ · σa
∂t
= f − ∇p a + µ∇2 u
The superscript a indicates an absolute pressure and a corresponding absolute stress tensor. The term ‘absolute
stress’ is used to indicate the actual stress (with the absolute pressure being the true pressure) rather than a
modified stress to be defined in slide 12 in which the hydrostatic pressure is removed.
Newtonian fluid
Constitutive equation for a Newtonian fluid
σija = −p a δij + 2µeij
Symmetric stress tensor
σija = σjia
Symmetric rate-of-strain tensor

1 ∂ui ∂uj
eij = eji = +
2 ∂xj ∂xi
Incompressibility
∇·u=0
Momentum equation
∂u
ρ + ρ(u · ∇)u = f − ∇p a + µ∇2 u
∂t
Reynolds number
|ρ(u · ∇)u| UL
Re = =
|µ∇2 u| ν
For sedimenting (spherical) grain of

sand of size L ∼ 1µm settling in
water at velocity U ∼ 1µm/s,
Re ∼ 10−6
Stokes number
|ρ∂u/∂t| L2
St = =
|µ∇2 u| Tν
Sphere of radius a = 1µm

sedimenting in water at stationary
regime when time
T ≫ a2 /ν ∼ 10−6 s
Stokes equations
Stokes equations
Stokes equations: Re ≪ 1 and St ≪ 1
∇·u=0
∇ · σa = −∇p a + µ∇2 u = f
Homogeneous Stokes equations: f = ρ g ⇒ p = p a − ρ g · x
∇·u=0
∇ · σ = −∇p + µ∇2 u = 0
Stokes equations
Other expressions for Stokes equations
Stress tensor σ
σij = σji = −pδij + 2µeij
Rate-of-strain tensor e
1 ∂ui ∂uj
eij = eji = ( + )
2 ∂xj ∂xi
Stokes equations
∇ · u = 0 or eii = 0
∂σija
∇ · σa = f or = fi
∂xj
Buoyancy and drag
Buoyancy and drag
Z Z
Fdrag = (σa + ρg · xI) · n dS = σ · n dS = −4πa3 (ρp − ρ)g/3
Sp Sp
Boundary conditions
Boundary conditions
No-slip boundary condition on the

particles:
u(x) = Up + ω p × (x − xp )
at the surface of a particle with

center of mass at xp
+ Outer boundary condition on a containing vessel or at infinity

Stokes equations
Buoyancy and drag
Boundary conditions
Linearity
Reversibility
Instantaneity
Minimum dissipation
Uniqueness
Reciprocity
4 References
Linearity
Linearity
Linearity of the Stokes equations: no non-linear convective

acceleration term (u · ∇)u
Principle of superposition: by adding different solutions of the
Stokes equations one obtains also a solution of the Stokes
equations
Reversibility: the motion is reversible in the driving force
Linearity
Streamlines in a porous medium

A doubling of the driving pressure gradient yields a doubling of the flow rate but no
change to the streamlines
Linearity
Principle of superposition
Summation of translation and rotation
(fluid motions)
Reversibility
Description of G. I.Taylor film on reversibility
Reversibility
Reversibility argument for a sphere settling near a wall

A spherical particle falling adjacent to a wall falls at constant distance, as shown by the
reversibility principle depicted visually here
Reversibility
Reversibility argument for a sphere in a Poiseuille flow

A single neutrally-buoyant spherical particle in Poiseuille flow stays at a fixed distance
from the wall, as shown by the reversibility principle depicted visually here
Instantaneity
Instantaneity
No history dependence ∂u/∂t

The flow is determined by the configuration given by the boundary
conditions, coming both from the particle positions and outer
boundaries
Information from boundary motion communicated to infinity

instantly
Divergence of the homogeneous momentum equation
⇒ ∇2 p = 0.
Curl of the homogeneous momentum equation ⇒ ∇2 ω̃ = 0
with ω̃ = ∇ × u.
Pressure p and vorticity ω̃ are harmonic

Stokes equations
Buoyancy and drag
Boundary conditions
Linearity
Reversibility
Instantaneity
Minimum dissipation
Uniqueness
Reciprocity
4 References
Minimum dissipation
Kinetic energy balance
Kinetic energy:
Z
u2
K = ρ dV
V 2
where V is the fluid volume
Calculation for unsteady Stokes case:

∂u
ρ =f +∇·σ
∂t
Z Z Z
∂K ∂u ∂σij
= ρu · dV = fi ui dV + ui dV
∂t V ∂t V V ∂xj
Z I Z
∂ui
= fi ui dV + Ui σij njout dS − σij dV
V S V ∂xj
Minimum dissipation
Rate of energy dissipation
Rate of energy dissipation due to viscosity

∂ui
Z Z Z
Φ= σij dV = eij σij dV = 2µeij eij dV ≥ 0
V ∂xj V V
Steady Stokes flow (∂K /∂t = 0)

Z Z I
Du
ρu · dV = fi ui dV + Ui σij njout dS − Φ = 0
V Dt V S
Rate of energy dissipation = rate of working by external forces

Z I
Φ= f · u dV + U · (σ · nout )dS
V S
Minimum dissipation
Minimum dissipation theorem
Consider u and uS two velocity fields in the volume V such as

∇ · u = ∇ · uS = 0 in the volume V
u = uS = U on the surface S limiting V
uS satisfying the homogeneous Stokes equations (no external
force f)
The minimum dissipation theorem states that the Stokes flow
corresponds to the least dissipation
Z Z
S S
2µ eij eij dV ≤ 2µ eij eij dV
V V
Minimum dissipation
Proof of minimum dissipation theorem
Writing δu = u − uS and δeij = eij − eijS with boundary conditions δu = 0

Difference between the two integrals
Z Z
2µ (eij eij − eijS eijS )dV = 2µ δeij (eij + eijS )dV
V V
Z Z
= 2µ δeij δeij dV + 4µ δeij eijS dV
| V {z } | V {z }
≥0 =0
Second integral
Z Z
4µ δeij eijS dV = 2 δeij σijS dV using δekk = 0
V V
Minimum dissipation

Z Z
V V
Z Z
| V {z } | V {z }
≥0 =0
Second integral
Z Z
∂δui S
4µ δeij eijS dV = 2 σ dV using σijS = σjiS
V V ∂xj ij
Minimum dissipation

Z Z
V V
Z Z
| V {z } | V {z }
≥0 =0
Second integral
Z Z Z
∂σijS ∂δui σijS
4µ δeij eijS dV = −2 δui dV + 2 dV
V V ∂xj V ∂xj
Minimum dissipation

Z Z
V V
Z Z
| V {z } | V {z }
≥0 =0
Second integral
Z Z
∂σijS
4µ δeij eijS dV = 2 δui σijS njout dS using =0
V S ∂xj
Minimum dissipation

Z Z
V V
Z Z
| V {z } | V {z }
≥0 =0
Second integral
Z
4µ δeij eijS dV = 0 using boundary conditions δu = 0
V
Uniqueness
Uniqueness of the Stokes equation
(u(1) , p (1) ) and (u(2) , p (2) ) two solutions of the homogeneous

Stokes equation satisfying the same boundary conditions
u(1) = u(2) = U on the surface S limiting the volume V
(u(1) , p (1) ) Stokes flow (⇒ Φ(1) ≤ Φ(2) ) and (u(2) , p (2) )
Stokes flow (⇒ Φ(2) ≤ Φ(1) ) ⇒ Φ(1) = Φ(2)
(1) (2)
Φ(1) = Φ(2) ⇒ eij = eij
(1) (2)
eij = eij ⇒ u(1) − u(2) solid body motion
Boundary conditions u(1) − u(2) = 0 ⇒ u(1) = u(2)
Homogeneous Stokes equations ⇒ p (1) − p (2) = constant
Reciprocity
Reciprocal theorem
(u(1) , σ (1) ) and (u(2) , σ (2) ) Stokes flows driven respectively by

the external forces f (1) and f (2) and by the boundary
conditions u(1) = U(1) and u(2) = U(2) on the surface S
limiting the fluid volume V
The reciprocal theorem states that the rate of working by the
flow u(2) against the forces of flow u(1) (f (1) in the volume
and σ (1) · nout on the surface) is the same by interchanging
(1) and (2)
Z I Z I
(1) (2) (1) (2) (2) (1) (2) (1)
fj uj dV + σij Uj niout dS = fj uj dV + σij Uj niout dS
V S V S
Reciprocity
Example of flows for a general shape body

Translation without rotation (left) and rotation without translation (right)
Reciprocity
Proof of reciprocal theorem
Writing the left-hand side of equation with use of divergence theorem as

Z I Z (1) (2)
(1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) ∂(σij uj )
fj uj dV + σij Uj niout dS = (fj uj + )dV
V S V ∂xi
Z (1) (2)
(1) (2) ∂σij (2) (1) ∂uj
= (fj uj + u + σij )dV
V ∂xi j ∂xi
Z (2) (1)
(1) ∂uj ∂σij
= σij dV using + fj = 0
∂xi ∂xi
ZV
(1) (2) (1) (1)
= σij eij dV using σij = σji
V
Z
(1) (2) (1)
= 2µ eij eij dV using ekk = 0
V
which, being symmetric, is also equal to the right-hand side of equation
Reciprocity
Reciprocal theorem without external forces
Without external forces, the reciprocal theorem becomes

I I
(1) (2) out (2) (1)
σij Uj ni dS = σij Uj niout dS
S S

Stokes equations
Buoyancy and drag
Boundary conditions
Linearity
Reversibility
Instantaneity
Minimum dissipation
Uniqueness
Reciprocity
4 References
Movie References
Taylor, G. I.
Low Reynolds Number Flows
1966 National Committee for Fluid Mechanics Films
http://web.mit.edu/fluids/www/Shapiro/ncfmf.html
http://media.efluids.com/galleries/ncfmf?medium=305
Homsy, G. M., et al.
2000 Multimedia Fluid Mechanics - CD-ROM
2004 Multilingual Version
Cambridge University Press

1 - Basic Concepts in Viscous Flow

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Microhydrodynamics The fluid dynamic equations Properties of Stokes flow Three Stokes-flow theorems References

Basic concepts in viscous flow

Élisabeth Guazzelli and Jeffrey F. Morris

Adapted from Chapter 1 of A Physical Introduction to Suspension Dynamics

1 The fluid dynamic equations

1 The fluid dynamic equations

Microhydrodynamics, a term coined by G. K. Batchelor in the

Many particles in a flow

1 The fluid dynamic equations

Equations for an incompressible fluid

Continuity equation for an incompressible fluid

Equation for conservation of momentum

Constitutive equation for a Newtonian fluid

σija = −p a δij + 2µeij

Symmetric stress tensor

Symmetric rate-of-strain tensor

For sedimenting (spherical) grain of

Sphere of radius a = 1µm

Stokes equations: Re ≪ 1 and St ≪ 1

Homogeneous Stokes equations: f = ρ g ⇒ p = p a − ρ g · x

Other expressions for Stokes equations

Buoyancy and drag

Buoyancy and drag

No-slip boundary condition on the

at the surface of a particle with

+ Outer boundary condition on a containing vessel or at infinity

1 The fluid dynamic equations

Linearity of the Stokes equations: no non-linear convective

Streamlines in a porous medium

Description of G. I.Taylor film on reversibility

Reversibility argument for a sphere settling near a wall

Reversibility argument for a sphere in a Poiseuille flow

No history dependence ∂u/∂t

Information from boundary motion communicated to infinity

1 The fluid dynamic equations

Kinetic energy balance

Calculation for unsteady Stokes case:

Rate of energy dissipation

Rate of energy dissipation due to viscosity

Steady Stokes flow (∂K /∂t = 0)

Rate of energy dissipation = rate of working by external forces

Minimum dissipation theorem

Consider u and uS two velocity fields in the volume V such as

Proof of minimum dissipation theorem

Writing δu = u − uS and δeij = eij − eijS with boundary conditions δu = 0

Proof of minimum dissipation theorem

Writing δu = u − uS and δeij = eij − eijS with boundary conditions δu = 0

Proof of minimum dissipation theorem

Writing δu = u − uS and δeij = eij − eijS with boundary conditions δu = 0

Proof of minimum dissipation theorem

Writing δu = u − uS and δeij = eij − eijS with boundary conditions δu = 0

Proof of minimum dissipation theorem

Writing δu = u − uS and δeij = eij − eijS with boundary conditions δu = 0

Uniqueness of the Stokes equation

(u(1) , p (1) ) and (u(2) , p (2) ) two solutions of the homogeneous

(u(1) , σ (1) ) and (u(2) , σ (2) ) Stokes flows driven respectively by

Example of flows for a general shape body

Proof of reciprocal theorem

Writing the left-hand side of equation with use of divergence theorem as

which, being symmetric, is also equal to the right-hand side of equation

Reciprocal theorem without external forces

Without external forces, the reciprocal theorem becomes

1 The fluid dynamic equations

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