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fm100 2 2
fm100 2 2
Headquarters
Department of the Army
THE
SOVIET
ARMY
SPECIALIZED WARFARE
AND REAR AREA SUPPORT
ENT A SE,
STATEM P UB L IC RELEA
R
ED FODISTRIBUTION
APPROV ED”
O N IS U NLIMITRESTRICTIONS: This publication contains technical or operational information that
UTI is for official Government use only. Distribution is limited to US Government agencies. Requests
DISTRIB EP 94 the US Government for release of this publication under the Freedom of Information
AD 13 Soutside
OC from
PER TR
Act or the Foreign Military Sales Program must be made to HQ TRADOC, Fort Monroe, VA 23651.
'FM 100-2-2
Headquarters
Field Manual Department of the Army
No. 100-2-2 Washington. DC, 16 July 1984
PREFACE
This field manual is pan of FM series 100-2,The Soviet Amy. The other volumes are
FM 100-2-1The Soviet Amy: Operations and Tactics, and FM100-2-3. The Soviet
Army: Troop, Organization and Equipment. These manuals cannot stand alone but
should be used interchangeably.
These field manuals serve as the definitive source of unclassifed information on
Sovietground forces and their interaction with other servicesin combined arms
warfare. These manuals represent the most current unclassified information and they
will be updated periodically. More information would become available in the event of
war or national emergency.
Users of this publication are encouraged to recommend changes and submit
comments for its improvement. Key comments to the specificpage and paragraph in
which the change is recommended. Provide a reason for each comment to insure
understanding and complete evaluation. Tosend suggestions or comments prepare DA
Form 2028 ( Recommended Changes to Publicationsaand Blank Forms) and forward it
to Deputy Commander USA CACDA, ATTN: ATZL-CATF, Fort Leavenworth, KS 66027.
-
The cover design is an adaptation of this patch which
is worn by Soviet motorized rifle troops. whose organiza
tion is representative of the Soviet combined arms theme.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE PAGE
1 INTRODUCTION 1-1 Communications 3-3
AIRBORNE OPERATIONS 1-1 Loading 3-3
AMPHIBIOUS OPERATIONS 1-1 Landing Zones 3-3
SPECIAL OPERATIONS 1-1 The Objective 3-4
INTRODUCTION
This field manual is pan of FM series 100-2. The amphibious assault operations like those conducted by
Soviet Army. It should be used with the other manuals the US in the Pacific and the Allies in North Africa and
in this series, FM 100-2-1, The Soviet Army: Operations Europe during World War II. In recent years, the Soviet
and Tactics, and FM 100-2-3. The Soviet Army Troops. naval infantry has been revitalized and reequipped. It
currently has three independent regiments and one
Organization and Equipment. .. understrength division and is supported by a growing
The term "specialized warfare," used in the title of fleet of amphibious ships and small aircraft carriers.
this F M , is intended to be an abbreviated, collective This elite force trains in joint exercises with airborne
description of combat actions which, in US termi- units, and it undoubtedly has an intervention or power
nology, may be described as "special operations" or projection mission.
"operations in special conditions." These are arbitrary The Soviets have a variety of special purpose units
categorizations used only to describe combatactions that are trained and equipped for unconventional
other than those general forms of Soviet ground forces warfare (UW) missions. Because of their politcal sen
operations and tactics discussed in FM 100-2-1. Use of sitivity, UW activities are managed at the highest level
the term "special" does not imply that the combat of government authority. They are directed by the
actions discussed in this FM represent abnormal forms Committee for State Security (KGB) and the General
of operations or tactics. They are all an integral part of Staff's Main Intelligence Directorate (GRU).
Soviet military doctrine. Special operations include
airborne, heliborne,and amphibious operations, and
unconventional warfare in the enemy rear.
SPECIAL OPERATIONS
Special operations certainly will be conducted in
AIRBORNE OPERATIONS wartime, and some of these will play important roles in
During World War 11, the Soviets gained some peacetime intervention and power projection beyond
experience with airborne operations in combat. Soviet borders.
Because they lacked the transport aircraft required for Operations in special conditions include river
large-scale operations. they employed the airborne crossings, mountain and desert warfare, and combat in
troops mainly as infantry.Since the war, the Soviets extreme cold, in cities, and at night.
have completely reequipped their large airborne force Soviet ground forces are well equipped and trained
and built a large fleet of transport aircraft to support it. for river crossings. The Soviets consider the capability
Airborne units played key roles in Soviet intervention to cross water barriers from the march on a broad
in Czechoslovakia ( 1968) and Afghanistan ( 1979). front with minimal delays an essential element in
The airborne force currently consists of seven maintaining a rapid rate of advance in an offensive.
divisions. River crossings are a consistent feature of Soviet field
Heliborne operations are relatively new to the exercises.
Soviets. They have built an impressive fleet of transport While no particular Soviet divisions are identified as
and gunship helicopters and have trained assault being tailored o r trained specifically for mountain or
troops. However, until the Afghanistan intervention, desert warfare,some divisions are suited for combat in
they lacked actual combat experience with this type of these environments as a result of their base locations.
operation. Motorized rifle orairborne troops oran air The Soviets undoubtedly are gaining more experience
assault brigade assigned to a front, could conduct in mountain warfare from their increased use of
heliborne opperations. military force in power projection, s u c has in
Afghanistan.
Soviet ground forces also are well prepared for
AMPHIBIOUS OPERATIONS combat in extreme cold. The majority of Soviet
Amphibious operations are primarily the respon- divisions are located in areas with harsh winters.
sibility of the Soviet naval infantry (marines), a small Based on their World War II experience and
but growing force. During World War II, the Soviet recognition of the urbanization of Europe. the Soviets
Army and Navy conducted many amphibious opera- realize that combatin cities would be common to most
tions, mainly on river and inland seaswithin the Soviet military operations. Their training reflects this
Union. They have never conducted massive realization.
One of the principles of Soviet operational art and Soviet "rear." Collectively, these elements provide
tactics is the prosecution of combat relentlessly, under what, in US terminology, is called combat service
all conditions o f visiblity. With this principle, the support.
Soviets strive to be capable of continuous combat, Soviet logistics have been inaccurately described as
during daylight, or at night. The Soviets conduct much a major weakness in Soviet millitary power. Soviet
of their training during hours of darkness. forces d o receive effective logistic support, but it is
The last part of this FM deals with the organization different in concept and organization from US Army
and functions of the elements which constitute the logistic support.
CHAPTER 2
AIRBORNE OPERATIONS
Since the 1960s, the Soviets have given increased Solutions resulted primarily from the Soviet decision
attention to the development of theirairborne capa t o deploy nonstrategic nuclear weapons. Nuclear
bilities. Extensive reequipment of the Soviet airborne strikes would permit large ground force formations to
forces has given them increased mobility and fire- move rapidly into the enemy's depth. Today, the
power. Ground assault tactics also have changed.Once Soviets' huge buildup of conventional weapons has
landed, airborne units can operate as motorized alsomadepossible a massive conventional air, missile,
rifle units. Soviet air transport capabilities have also and artillery strike to make linkup easier in a non
been greatly improved. nuclear war.
This modernization program is based on the Soviet The resolution of the linkup problem resulted in a
principles of mobility, surprise, and combat activeness. major program to reequip airborne units. The 120-mm
The Soviets view their airborne forces as a means to mortar, the 122-mm howitzer, modern antitank and air
carry the battle into the depths of the enemy's position. defense weapons, rocket launchers, and the airborne
They believe that airborne forces can and must be used amphibious infantry combat vehicle ( B M D ) were
widely on the modern battlefield. added to equipment inventories. The BMD is of par-
The Soviets have long recognized the value of an ticular importance.With its deployment in the 1970s,
airborne force. Soviet military planners, such as airborne units made significant gains in mobility and
General Tukhachevsky, foresaw the value of troops firepower. Today airborne units can conduct a broad
who could be deployed by air as early as the 1920s. On . range of combat missions to include many normally
August 2, 1930-the official "birthday"of the Soviet associated with motorized rifle or light armor units.
Airborne-the first airborne exercise involving 12 The present Soviet airborne force is formidable. It
men was conducted. Within 6 years, the Soviets were can be delivered to great distances. It is highly mobile,
fielding independent airborne brigades which and can assault a prepared position or a well-armed
included artillery, armor, antitank, reconnaissance, enemy force. It is also an excellent force to use for
and air transport submits. By the beginning of World power projection.
War II, the Soviets had 15 independent airborne
brigades.
The Soviets' u s e of their airborne troops during DOCTRINE
World War I I was severely restricted for lack of Soviet military doctrine calls for using airborne
aviation assets. Nevertheless, more than 50 Soviet forces in both conventional and nuclear environments
airborne operations were conducted during the war. Airborne units are an integral part of many operations
Most of these operations were small in scale. The large- at army and front levels. Aerial envelopment of the
scale operations that were conductcd were marked by enemy has become an important maneuver in modern
poor planning and execution. Questions of theory and offensive operations. The primary theater warfare role
execution concerned Soviet military planners for the of airborne units is to support the rapid advance of a
next 1O years. Attention was centered on the problem large combined arms force deep into the enemy's
of linkup between airborne units operating in rear operational or operational-strategic depth. Airborne
areas and advancing ground force units. units may be used in conjunction with an operational
In an effort to find solutions to the problems of maneuver group (OMG) during offensive operations
employment, they switched control of the airborne The OMG is a combined arms formation employed in
forces from one command organization to another and army-and front-level offensive operations to raid deep
increased the available firepower. In 1946, command into the enemy's rear area. The Soviets conducted their
of the air borne was switched from the Air Forces to the military exercise ZAPAD-81 to test "new concepts of
Ministry of Defense, in 1956 to t h e Soviet Ground military science and art." During t h e s e exercises,
Forces, and finally in 1946, back to t h e Ministry of airborne units were used extensively in support of an
Defense. The. principal weapons added to the airborne operational maneuver group.
inventory during the first 20 postwar years were the The Soviets also use airborneforces as a means of
ASU-57 self-propelled assault gun (1955 ) and the ASU projecting power. This was demonstrated by their
8 5 self-propelled assault gun (1960). invasions of Czechoslovakia in 1068 and Afghanistan in
However, it was not until the 1960s that Soviet 1979. In both instances, a major portion of the Soviet
military began to solve the problems of force linkup. invasion force consisted of airborne units. Airborne
troops are well suited for such. roles. They train for Strategic missions are conducted against deep
operations in a variety of geographical environments. targets by an airborne division or regiment. Forces
They are specially trained to establish, defend and from other arms and services will most likely be
expand an airhead. Their equipment is all air trans involved. Linkup with advancing ground forces may
portable. Airborne troops also have high politcal not be achieved for several days. Because of the scope
reliability. and depth of a strategic mission, substantial air combat
To allow flexibility in employment, during wartime and transport is required. Supplies may be air-dropped
Soviet airborne forces will be directly subordinate to or airlifted to troops on the ground.
the Supreme High Command, with operational control Objectives of strategic missions could be national
exercised by the Soviet General Staff. Some airborne capitals or other administrative-political centers,
units would be allocated to Soviet theaters of military industrial or economic centers, ports or maritime
operations (TVDs) for strategic operations. Also, units straits or air fields. Strategic missions also may be
would be allocated temporarily to Soviet fronts and undertaken to establish a new theater of operations
combined arms and tank armies for specific opera to neutralize one member of an enemy coalition.
tional depth missions. Other airborne units would be
retained under the control of the Soviet Supreme High
Command for contingencies. Operational
The present locations of fo u r Soviet airborne Operational missions are controlled by fronts and
divisions generally correspond to Soviet wartime armies. An airborne battalion, regiment, or division
European and Near Eastern TVDs. A fifth divsion is conducts these missions in conjunction with front or
stationed in the vicinity of Moscow and a sixth division army operations. Airborne units and aviation assets are
serves as a training division. Additionally, and airborne allocated to the front or army from the TVD or
division is operating in Afghanistan. Supreme High Command. Linkup with advancing
Soviet military planners consider airborne units to ground forces would be expected within several days
be an extremely valuable resource to be used or less. Operational mission objectives include:
judiciously. Use of airborne forces in an operation Enemy tactical nuclear weapons and delivery
depends upon whether that would enhance the likeli means
hood of surprise, deep penetration, and rapid exploita Headquarters or command posts.
tion. These criteria, together with the achievement of Logistic facilities.
at least temporary local air superiority and the availa Communications facilities.
bility of airborne and airlift assets, constitute the main Airfields.
elements in a Soviet planner's decision to conduct an Ports.
airborne operation. Bridges and other water or gap crossing sites
Mountain passes.
MISSIONS
Operational missions also may be undertaken to
block or to neutralize enemy reserves, or to block a
The Soviets categorize airborne missions based on withdrawing enemy.
the depth and importance of the objective and the size
of forces involved. There are four categories of Tactical
missions:
Tactical missions are controlled at division level. An
Strategic.
airdrop of airborne troops may be used in a tactical
Operational. mission, but a heliborne assault is preferred. A
Tactical.
heliborne force normally is comprised of troops from a
Special. motorized rifle battalion of the division. However,
airborne troops allocated from front or army may be
Strategic used on rare occasions. Either a reinforced company or
a battalion conducts tactical missions.
Strategic missions are established in wartime by the Tactical objectives are:
Soviet Supreme High Command an controlled by the
General Staff. The outcome of a strategic mission is Nuclear weapons and delivery means.
expected to have significant impact o n a war or Command posts.
campaign. The use of airborne forces in a power Logistic bases.
projection role is also a strategic mission. Communication sites.
2-2
Airfields. The Airborne Division. Each airborne division has
Key terrain such as high ground. bridges, g a p three BMD-equipped airborne regiments. Division-
crossings, road junctions, or passes. level support elements include an artillery regiment,
Tactical missions also may be undertaken to block an air defense battalion, an assault gun battalion, an
neutralize enemy reserves, to block a withdrawing engineer battalion, a signal battalion, a transportation
enemy, or to attack enemy forces from the rear or tank. and maintenance battalion, a parachute rigging and
resupply battalion, a medical battalion, a chemical
defense company, and a reconnaissance company.
Special
Special missions, or unconventional warfare (UW) The Airborne Regiment. Each airborne regiment
missions, are prohahly established by the Soviet consists of three BMD-equipped airborne battalions, a
Supreme High Command and controlled by front and mortar battery, an antiaircraft battery, and an antitank
army commanders. Company or smaller size units battery. Regimental support elements include an
conduct such missions. Special ( U W ) missions engineer company, a signal company, a transport and
include: maintenance company, a parachute rigging and
Reconnaissance. resupply company, a medical platoon, and a chemical
Neutralization of nuclear weapons and delivery defense platoon, and a supply and service platoon.
means.
Savotage. The Airborne Battalion. Each airborne battalion has
Deception.
three airborne companies. Equipping airborne
Creation of panic in enemy rear.
companies with BMDs has eliminated the need for a
Not all airhorne units are designated and trained to battalion-level antitank battery. Furthermore, the wide
carry out U W missions. Furthermore, not all U W distribution of man-portable, surface-to-air missiles
missions are carried out by airborne units. The KGB, has eliminated the need for a battalion air defense
the Main Intelligence Directorate (GRU) of the Soviet section. Thr airborne battalion is designed to provide
armed forces, the ground forces, and the naval forces command, control, and limited communication,
all have "special purpose" troops trained to carry out supply, and medical support.
UW missions. (UW is discussed in Chapter 5.)
The Airborne Company. The airborne company
consists of three platoons of BMDs. There are three
ORGANIZATION A N D EQUIPMENT BMDs in each platoon (one per squad). Besides the
The modernization program has transformed Soviet heavily-armed BMD, basic weapons of the airborne
airborne divisions into mechanized infantry forces company include modern assault rifles, light machine
capable of seizing defended objectives and of attacking guns, automatic grenade launchers, ATGMs, and
well-around enemy forces deep in the enemy rear. All numerous RPGs and shoulder-fired surface-to-air
combat equipment of an airborne division is air missiles. (For more information on organization and
droppable. T h e B M D is responsible for the greatest equipment. see FM 100-2-3.)
improvement in airborne combat capability, The BMD
is an air-droppable, amphibious assault vehicle with
armament similar to that of the HMY found in Air Delivery C a p a b i l i t i e s
motorized rifle units. However, some older The Soviet Air Forces Military Transport Aviation
equipment, such as the ASU-57 assault gun and SD-44 (VTA) provides airlift service for Soviet airborne units
antitank field gun. may still be found in some airhorne and air assault brigades. The VTA has a fleet of over 600
units. medium- and long-range cargo transport planes
assigned full-time use. This fleet includes about 370
AN- 12/CUBs (similar to the US C-130/Hercules),over
Airborne Units 170 IL-76/CANDIDs (similar to the US C-141/Star
The Soviets perceive enemy tanks and aircraft to be lifter), and over 50 AN-22/COCKs (similar to the USC
the two major threats t o airborne units after landing. 5A).
Accordingly, all airborne units contain numerous anti- The older, medium-range AN-12 is the main stay of
tank and air defense w e a p o n s . The exceptional the VTA. This four-engine turbo-prop aircraft can airlift
mobility and firepower of Soviet airborne units make 90 troops or can drop 60 paratroopers from two exits.
them a formidable threat to an enemy's rear. It can carry up to 20 metric tons of cargo, but some
large items such as engineer equipment will not fit in The personnel assigned to airborne units enhance
its cargo area. Each AN-12 can carry two BMDs. the quality of training in those units. Airborne
Transporting a BMD-equipped airborne regiment personnel are carefully selected. Most of them are two-
requires 90 to 115 AN-12s. The AN-12 can operate onon year conscripts who are put through a rigorous
unimproved runways. Its range with maximum screening process which emphasizes a high level of
payload is 1400 kilometers. physical conditioning, education and training, and
The AN-12 aircraft are being replaced by IL-76 long- political reliability.
range, four-engine jet transports. The IL-76 can carry Because parachute jumping is a major sport in the
120 paratroopers who can jump from four exits, one Soviet Union, many new conscripts are already
exit on each side and two exits in the rear. The IL-76, experienced parachutists at the time of induction. Pre-
with a cargo capacity of 40 metric tons, can carry all induction parachute training is available through
combat equipment normally assigned to airborne sports clubs and premilitary school programs
forces. Each IL-76 can carry three BMDs. Transporting conducted throughout the Soviet Union by the Volun-
a BMD equipped airborne regiment requires 50 to 65 tary Society for Cooperation with the Army, Aviation,
IL-76s. The IL-76 c a n operate from unimproved and Navy (DOSAAF). .Most inductees selected for
runways. Its range with maximum payload is 5300 service in the airborne forces are sent directly to the
kilometers. regular airborne divisions.
The AN-22 is a long-range, turbo-prop, heavy The majority of Soviet airborne officers are
transport aircraft used mainly for airlandings, as graduates of the Ryazan Higher Airborne Command
opposed to airdrops. The AN-22 can carry 175 troops School near Moscow. Junior officers are also provided
or 80 metric tons of cargo, to a range of 4200 by other higher command (four-year) schools, higher
kilometers. Each AN-22 can carry four BMDs. This technical (three-year) schools, and civilian univer-
aircraft is used mainly to transport large items such as sities with reserve officer commissioning programs.
self-propelled artillery, medium tanks, surface-to-air Commissioned graduates of the Ryazan Higher
missile (SAM) launchers, or engineer equipment. It is Airborne Command School usually spend their entire
well suited for strategic operations. service career in the airborne forces. Active duty
Most VTA aircraft are based in the western USSR. service begins in September or October following
Some AN- 12 units are based along the southern and far their summer graduation and commissioning.
eastern borders of the Soviet Union. The concentration Like warrant officers throughout the Soviet armed
of aircraft in the western USSR places the main VTA forces, warrant officers in the airborne forces are
assets near the airborne divisions they would support, selected and sent to warrant officer training schools
as well as positions the force opposite NATO. Never- after being trained and having served as noncom-
theless, the VTA is capable of quickly concentrating its missioned officers. Warrant officers serve as platoon
aircraft to support an operation anywhere along the leaders; company technicians, or company first
Soviet borders. sergeants.
During times of military emergency, aircraft of Virtually all airborne noncommissioned officers
Soviet civil aviation, Aero flot can augment VTA capa began their service as two-year conscripts who demon-
bilities. The civil fleet is equipped with about 1,100 strated high motivation and political reliability. Many
medium- and long-range passenger transports, about are selected for noncommissioned officer training by
200 AN-12s and IL-76s, and several thousand short- the district military registration office at the time of
range transports and helicopters. Aero flot aircraft induction. They are then assigned directly to the
could be used extensively for the airlanding of troops airborne training division for at least 6 months of
once airheads are established. specialized training. Upon completion of this training,
they are awardrd an NCO rank and are assigned to one
of the regular airborne divisions.
TRAINING All enlisted conscripts in airborne units (like almost
Soviet airborne troops are among the best-trained all Soviets youths) have undergone at least 140 hours
soldiers in the Soviet armed forces. The training that of DOSAAF-sponsored premilitary training either
they receive is physically rigorous and mentally during their last 2 years of formal schooling, or at their
demanding. It is conducted under conditions jobs. Most have undergone DOSAAF premilitary
simulating actual combat, including extensive NBC parachute training, thus reducing the training that
training. Airborne training integrates special airborne conscripts need. Conscripts receive 4 weeks of basic
techniques with basic motorized rifle tactics. training after which they receive additional instruction
in the use of weapons and military equipment, para- Intelligence information for an airborne operation is
chuting techniques, equipment rigging for airdrops, obtained by aerial reconnaissance, clandestine agents,
equipment derigging after airdrops, aircraft loading sympathizers, maps, SIGINT, long-range patrols, or air-
techniques, and so on. dropped reconnaissance trams. Of major concern is
the enemy armor, artillery, and air threat. Reconnais
sance activities also may be performed outside the
CONDUCT O F A I R B O R N E O P E R A T I O N S projected objective area, as a deception measure.
A Soviet decision to use the airborne forces is made A typical drop zone (DZ) is 3 kilometers by 4
after careful consideration. Many valuable assets are kilometers. A regiment normally is allocated one or
used in an airborne operation. The Soviets will not two DZs. If two DZs are used, battalion integrity will be
place these assets in jeopardy unless they believe that maintained. A division uses four to six DZs. Alternate
the mission has a reasonable chance of success. If other zones are designated for emergency use. Follow-on
units are considered capable of fulfilling a given forces normally are dropped into the zones used by the
mission, they would beused instead of airhorne units. initial assault wave.
The success of an airhorne operation depends upon
air superiority, even if achieved only temporarily. Also
essential is a favorable combat force ratio in the Principles and Preparation
landing zones and objective area. The more powerful
the enemy force in the projected operations area, the I PRINCIPLES OF AIRBORNE OPERATIONS
less likely the Soviets will be to conduct an airborne
assault. Surprise is a principal advantage. Extensive
The Soviets intend to employ airborne forces in security measures are used in all phases of the
support of an army or front operation. The com operation to prevent early detection and to
mander whose operations are to be supported estab minimize enemy reaction time. Night airborne
lishes the airborne units' objectives and time of assaults are a primary means of achieving
deployment. Control is decentralized to insure that the surprise.
airborne objectives support the overall mission of the Landings are made in undefended areas or in
army or front commander. areas where enemy defenses have been effec-
Airborne assaults in support of army or front open- tively suppressed.
tions can be conducted at distances of up to 500 km There must be effective air cover for the en
from the FEBA. Many factors can affect the decision of route formation, and enemy ground air defense
how far behind enemy lines an airborne force can be weapons along the flight route m u s t be
inserted: the size of the force the potential for rein- suppressed.
forcement of the force, the anticipated enemy Airborne assaults are given fire support by air
resistance, the rate of advance of friendly forces strikes, missile strikes, and the artillery accom-
designated for linkup, etc. panying advancing ground forces a s it comes
The size of an airborne force used tosupport an within range.
armyo rf r o n topcration could he u p to a division in
strength. A reinforced regiment would be t h e most
common-sized force used to accomplish most PREPARATION FOR
operational missions.
.
A N AIRBORNE ASSAULT
Battalions normally depart assembly areas in pre and reserve security elements aswell as any air defense
battle formation. This consists of three companies crews situated around the airfield. The engineer
arrayed in a line, wedge, or echelon. Company attachment clears the airfield of enemy-emplaced
prebattle formation consists of three platoon columns mines. During the attack, the main force takes the
with 150 to 200 meters between columns. control tower and destroys the airfield security force.
Attack formation normally is assumed within 1000 In securing a mountain pass, the airborne unit
meters of the objective, but subunits try to get as close designates as its objective the key terrain surrounding
as possible before deploying. About 200 meters is the the pass. Soviet commanders tailor their force size and
minimum distance for deployment into attack composition to the size and availability of drop zones,
formation as well as to the difficulty of movement on
Platoons in a company attack formation deploy with mountains. If the DZs are not located near the
a 50-meter interval between squad BMDs, and a 50- to battalion or smaller-sized unit on each DZ in the
100-meter interval between platoons. The maximum mountains. They also expect more injuries due to the
attack frontage for an airborne company would be 500 ruggedness of the terrain. In some arras. BMDs will not
meters. be used in the airborne operation. Also, the Soviets do
Before receiving the signal to attack, BMD radios are not plan on using attached artillery in every mountain
in the "receive only" mode. Only the company com operation.
mander and platoon leader can transmit messages. Drop zones may be closer to the objective and
Once the attack begins, all radios can transmit and located on several sides of an objective to compensate
receive messages. for the decreased speed of movement in the
If the enemy is estimated to weak-especially in mountains. If the DZs are not located near t h e
antitank weapons-the airborneforce may attack in objective, the Soviets plan to move only on roads to
one echelon with personnel mounted in their BMDs. reach the objective area. Finally, the Soviets rely more
However, if the enmy is considered to be strong, the on radio communications in the mountains even
airborne force most likely would attack in two though radios are less reliable in such regions.
echelons with personnel dismounted. Dismounted
personnel advance between the BMDs and could
either precede or follow them. The BMDs fire from The Defense
short halts. Once a Soviet airborne regiment or battalion has
In a night attack, the company commander gives the seized an objective, its mission is to defend the
platoon leaders an azimuth upon which to advance to objective until the arrival of Soviet forces advancing
the objective. The azimuth will be set on the direc from t h efront line. In almost all cases, they use a 360
tional gyrocompass onboard the BMDs to guide each degree perimeter defense. Whether the defense is
platoon on its direction of attack. established in depth or with all units forward, depends
Seizure of a river crossing site typically takes place in upon theenemy threat and the terrain. If the com
the same manner. However, the commander adjusts mander puts maximum power forward, he maintains a
his plans to account for the peculiarities of the mission. small mobile reserve. For a regiment, this reserve
The reconnaissance patrol's mission is modified to would be no more than a company. A battalion defense
include finding suitable crossing sites so that units can would keep no more than a platoon-sized element in
be deployed to seize key terrain on both sides of the reserve.
river. Combat engineers also scout the river to deter Defensive positions are built on a series of subunit
mine its depth and width speed , of the current, river strong points. A company is assigned a strongpoint
bottom characteristics, existence of floating obstacles within a battalion defensive position. The company
and mines, riverbank composition and slope, and may establish a defense in depth or a defense with all
approaches o n the river's far bank. Subunits also are platoons forward. The company commander designs
designated t o prevent t h e enemy's destruction of the defensive position so that ground avenues of
bridges or ferries during the attack. approach are heavily defended by anittank weapons.
An airfield probably would be seized using two He places shoulder-fired airdefense weapons forward
directions of attack. During
. the attack, units remain of the perimeter. The air defense sections are located
mounted in BMDs as long as possible. In the attack on high ground so that an enemy air threat can b e
plan, commanders designate units to seize the control challenged before it reaches the company's position,
tower, POL storage areas, and any radio beacon towers. or in the case of helicopter gunships, while it is firing
In addition, designated units attack the enemy's main from a distance. The company commander places
obstacles and antitank weapons in intervals between During the defensive battle, enemy tanks are given
platoons as well as between his company and adjacent target priority. The Soviets engage armor at maximum
companies. ranges with all available antitank weapons. The Soviets
A company's defense is built around a series of seek to avoid having a BMD engage a tank one-on one.
platoon strongpoints. These strongpoints are approxi The individual Soviet soldier is trained to conduct
mately 400 meters across. BMDs are placed 200 "hand-to-hand combat" against tanks. Firing from
meters apart within each platoon position. For prone positions, soldiers use automatic weapons fire
protection, they a r e placed in hull defilade on the to destroy an enemy tank's observation devices. When
reverse side of hill slopes. Company commanders a tank comes within 8 to 10 meters, a soldier jumps up
designate b o t h primary and alternate platoon and throws a grenade at the tank. If the tank is
defensive positions. In turn, platoon commanders damaged, he shoots the crew as they exit the vehicle.
designate both primary and alternate positions for Ambush sites may be created on primary avenues of
their squads. approach approximately 5 kilometers from the main
The company commander prepares a company fire defensive perimeter. Platoon-sized ambushes may be
plan that insures the entire company defensive area is employed in a role similar to that of a covering force.
covered by interlocking fires. Intervals between the The location of an ambush is chosen to facilitate
company and flanking companies are also covered by attacking an enemy as it crosses a natural defile. The
fire. The plan includes primary and alternate azimuths enemy route into the ambush is mined so that lead and
of fire for the platoon's primary and alternate positions. rear elements of the enemy march formation are
In the fire plan, squads are numbered from 1 through 9 destroyed so as to block exits from the defile. Mine
so that the company commander can control his unit's explosions are the signal to open fire. Lead tanks are
defensive fires down to squad level. the primary targets in the ambush.
The company commander may specify on platoon The unit conducting an ambush avoids decisive
to provied air defense coverage for the company. If engagement with the enemy. Once the commander
platoon receives such a mission, it concentrates all of has made the decision to withdraw, the unit moves to
its weapons on an air threat when directed to do so by its previously prepared defensive position on t h e
the company commander. This platoon effort supple objective.
ments the air defense fires of the the SAM section.
Upon receiving the primary azimuths of fire from the
company commander, platoon commanders lay each Linkup
BMD using the onboard directional gyrocompass. The Airborne units either await a linkup with friendly
platoon commander indicates terrain features to be forces or fight their way back to friendly lines. To
used as the BMD's lateral limits. The BMDs are placed accomplish linkup, the airborne unit sends its recon
in hull defilade approximately 200 meters apart and 50 naissance element to meet advancing ground force
to 100 meters to the rear of squad personnel. Squad units. The reconnaissance e l e m e n t provides
members prepare prone firing positions to make them- information on the best approaches into the area, the
selves less vulnerable to enemy or friendly tire, T h e security situation on the objective, and the enemy
platoon commander locates RPG antitank grenade situation. Once linkup has been completed,
launchers between the BMDs. T h e RPG's are also operation control of the airborne unit returns to the
assigned sectors of fire. front or TVD.
CHAPTER 3
HELIBORNE OPERATIONS
Heliborne operations have been a part of Soviet objectives are mountain passes, beach exits, desert
military doctrine since the 1960s. The US airmobile oases, crossroads, or other features whose denial to the
experience in Vietnam increased Soviet interest in the enemy will make the overall maneuver plan easier.
combat uses of the helicopter. Heliborne operations in Heliborne units also can block enemy attempts to
Soviet ground force maneuvers increased during t h e break out of an encirclement or to reinforce a meeting
1970s. Such operationsn o w are standard in military engagement.
exercises. Since early 1980, Soviet forces in Heliborne units also can be inserted into the enemy
Afghanistan have b e e n conducting helihorne rear area for reconnaissance missions. Small reconnais-
operations in combat. sance units may be inserted with light armored
The Soviets appreciate the tactical advantage of vehicles. In the Soviet rear area, Heliborne units can
heliborne operations-rapid maneuver of combat perform rear area security missions. They can screen,
troops, unconstrained hy obstacles on the ground. delay, or defend against an enemy approach to a
When compared to parachute drops as a means of vulnerable flank.
inserting troops, heliborne operations require less Ambushes, raids, sabotage, and deception
training and can penetrate enemy air space at a low operations are examples of other missions suited to
level. On the other hand, availability and capabilities of heliborne operations. Heliborne units also can lay and
helicopters limit the size, scope, and frequency of clear mines in the enemy rear. In World War II during
heliborne operations. the forcing of the enemy Dnieper river defenses, Soviet
forces inserted company-sized units by parachute into
German division rear areas on the far side of the river.
DOCTRINE On the Dnieper, the enemy was hard-pressed from the
Theoretically, by day or night, Soviet heliborne units front and was unable to provide adequate rear area
are inserted in enemy territory, 50 kilometers or more security. The result was that enemy combat support
forward of the line of contact. However, Soviet descrip- activities were disrupted at small cost to the Soviets.
tions of practice operations imply that the assault force On other occasions, a disproportionately large enemy
is usually of battalion size or smaller, is assigned an force was diverted from the front to deal with a rear
objectivewithin range of Soviet divionsal artillery (i.e., area threat. In comparable situations today.
within about 15 kilometers of the line of contact), helicopters could be used to insert combat units into
operates in daylight, and links up with an advancing the enemy rear area rather than parachute drops. In
friendly force within hours. support of deception operations, heliborne units can
Battalions of motorized rifle regiments are trained be used to represent larger formations in feints,
for helihorne operations employing helicopters from demonstrations, and ruses.
army or front helicopter regiments.
ORGANIZATION
MISSIONS Motorized riflebattalions are tailored for heliborne
Typical missions for a heliborne operation are operations and probably would be selected from a
neutralization of enemy command, control, and division's second echelon or combined arms reserve.
communications facilities; seizure of critical terrain The tailoring eliminates assets not mission-essential.
such as an opposite shore of a river crossing site; The battalion antitank platoon may be augmented. A
pursuit of a with drawing enemy; attack enemy defense sapper company, an antiaircraft battery, and a battery
positions from the rear; neutralizaion or disruption of of towed artillery may be attached. Rear service
enemy combat support or combat service support personnel may be attached to the force to deal with
elements; or deception. T h e Soviets expect the supply of ammunition, medical supplies and treatment,
heliborne force to be threatened by superior enemy and any special problems for a given operation, such as
firepoower and mobility after landing in the enemy rear. supply of drinking water.
Therefore, the assault force generally requires external Some light armored or wheeled vehicles can b e
fire support and early linkup if it is to be recovered. included in the force for use as missile carriers and
A typical heliborne mission is the seizure of a bridge reconnaissance vehicles. An Mi-6/HOOK heavy
head in support of a river crossing. Other possible transport helicopter is required to lift most of these
vehicles.The
. number of Mj-6 sorties available will limit mission. The
. lift capability is degraded seriously as
the number of vehicles. With all augmentations and temperature or altitude increases.
deletions considered (particularly deletion of APCs Weapons, supplies, and key personnel are spread
and most other battalion vehicles), the battalion throughout the helicopter force so that the operation
heliborne force could contain over 500 troops. will not fail because of a few unlucky losses among the
Transport helicopters from either the assault helicopters.
helicopter regiment or the transport helicopter An assault unit once on the ground in the enemy rear
regiment can he used for heliborne operations. HIND area may be attacked from any direction by superior
attack helicopters are capable of carrying some troops enemy forces. It is likely to require more external fire
but are normally not used in that role. support than a motorized rifle unit of similar size in
standard configuration. The ground force is in a
tenuous situation concerning resupply. During heavy
TRAINING engagement at close quarters, the basic load of
Soviet motorized rifle troops require a minimum of ammunition can be exhausted very quickly.
one day's training in preparation for heliborne
operations. Individual companies require 2 to 4 hours
to practice loading and unloading procedures. Six or Command and Control
seven hours are required to rehearse the actions in the A division commander is the lowest ranking ground
departure area before embarkation and those actions force officer likely to order a heliborne operation.
required after landing. Training stresses antitank Front or army commanders may order a heliborne
tactics and other pertinent aspects of dismounted operation drawing on the assets of a motorized rifle or
combat as well as set routines for troops in and around airborne division. In any case, army and front will
aircraft. Mockup helicopter fuselages may be used and know of and approve the operation in advace.
certain individuals may receive additional specialized The commander of the heliborne force will be the
training in the tasks of loading and securing bulky commander of the battalion, company or other units
items in the helicopter. forming the basis for the assault force. The ground
A battalion or company heliborne assault is a force commander is responsible for preparation and
standard practice in field training exercises at division positioning the troops for loading. He shares with the
level and above. In 1978, Exercise BEREZINA included aviation commander the decision to proceed with the
a helihorne operation that employed a mix of Mi-8/HIP landing, based on their assessment of the situation at
and Mi-6/HOOK helicopters to land a motorized rifle the landing zone. After the landing is made, the ground
battalion in the enemy's rear. force commander is solely responsible for conducting
the operation.
While the ground force commander may be able to
CONDUCT OF OPERATIONS refine the scheme of maneuver, most of the decisions
required for the operation as a whole will have been
Planning Considerations made by higher authority. The operations plan is
Heliborne operations in the offense exploit fleeting followed as closely as possible.
opportunities. In the defense, they counter threats Most heliborne operations require at least a
which suddenly materialize. Heliborne planning has to squadron and possibly a regiment of transport
be rapid, thorough, and flexible. Planning begins with helicopters. These units belong to either the army or
the selection of the objective. The responsible com front. The aviation commander's responsibilities
mander designates the objectives, one or more include proper loading of troops and cargo in the pick
helicopter landing zones at o r near the objective, and a up zone and navigation and tactics in the air. The
departure area for the force. ground and air commander for the operation normally
During the operations helicopters should spend ride in the same helicopter, while their respective
only a minimum of time in any one place. They are par deputies ride in another helicpoter. Ground and air
ticularly vulnerable when stationary either o n t h e officers work out conflicts in the mission planning
ground o r hovering in the air. T he pickup and landing process by negotiation, with appeal to higher authority
of the assault force must be accomplished quickly, in case of disputes. Air liaison officers in ground units
without confusion. help the aviation commander to identify t h e best
The lift capability of each helicopter is a variable approach and departure routes, and coordinate the
depending on air density encountered during the helicopter activity with ground force air defenses.
Communications
The ground force radio net interlocks with t h e cargo is placed 10 to 15 meters from the expected
aviation net. An airborne command post may be used position of t h e helicopterreceiving door. Personnel to
to relay communications from the assault unit on the he loaded f o r min a single column at asimialr distance.
ground back to its parent unit. Minimal radio trans- The senior man present. normally a squad leader
missions are a standard Soviet procedure. Prearranged sergeant,identifies himself and the cargo to he loaded.
code words keep transmissions short and uninfor He provides a written manifest showing the helicopter
mative to the e n e m y Color coded signal flares and number and the cargo weight by item. Helicopters
smoke are used. designated for the most time-consuming loading
operations land first.
If the cargo consists of equipment or supplies, the
Loading helicopter commander c h e c k s the manifest and
The departure area is located approximately 20 orders, "Begin loading." When he has inspected and
kilometers behind the line of contact to avoid enemy approved the positioning of the cargo inside the
artillery fire. The departure area is large enough to aircraft, he orders, "Begin lashing." Personnel to he
allow troop dispersal. It contains subareas for transported arc marched into the aircraft and are
helicopter pickup, disposition of troops, and units checked forproper seating by the senior ground force
preparing to embark. The departure area is located representative and the helicopter crew. While in the
where it can he masked from enemy observation by helicopter, the groundforces personnel follow the
protective features of the terrain, and hy camouflage instructions of t h e helicopter commander.
and dispersal. Units which cannot be completely
hidden from enemy reconnaissance should appear as
small reserveor second echelon units. Landing Zones
T h epickup zone is located as close as possibleto the The heliborne force lands on its objective if possible.
disposition area to minimize delay and confusion en If not on the objective, the landing zone should he as
route to the helicopters. A unit may move from its close and as advantageously placed as possible, hut
disposition area to a short-term waiting area closer to outside direct fire range of a defended objective.There
the pickup zone. The waiting area also is camouflaged will be at least one alternate landing zone and possibly
and allows for t r o o p dispersal. It can he used to multiple landing zones for subunits of the force.
distribute special equipment and to receive specialist The helihorne force commander is limited in his
personnel attached to the force for the operation. ability to reconnoiter landing zones and routes to the
The force is prepared to load beforethe helicopters objective. Usually he must depend on maps, aerial
arrive. While waiting for the helicopters, the com- reconnaissance, and human sources such as prisoners
mander briefs his subordinates and joins the political or line crossers.The terrain in questionis likely to be
deputy in exhorting the troops. The commander's final beyond reach of ground reconnaissance patrols. Too
briefing includes recognition signals to he used obvious an air reconnaissance jeopardizes the chance
between suhunits and the plan for linking up with of surprise. Minutes before the landing, an armed
friendly forces. Staff officers responsible for communi- helicopter or other aircraft performs a final reconnais
cations and other services brief the force chief of staff. sance of the landing site.
The chief of staff has prepared and coordinated a In selecting the landing zone, there are hazards to
detailed list, approved hy higher authority,of what will consider which may not be reflected on maps or aerial
he loaded into each helicopter. photography. The greatest danger is that the enemy,
The helicopter crew, having prepared the aircraft in either through advance knowledge of the mission or by
advance to receive its assigned load, supervises the chance, will he in position to defeat the operation and
loading process. For palletized cargo, the center of will exploit his advantage fully Another
. hazard may be
gravity is chalk-marked on the cabin floor. For bulky undetected changes in t h e NBC situation in the
items such as artillery pieces, unnecessary obstruc landing zone and the objective. Loosely packed snow,
tions are removed from the cabin of the helicopter. sand, or dust driven by rotor wash can obstruct pilot
The helicopter crew provides the winches, hooms, vision. Snow can hide hazards such as boulders and
ladders, ramps, chocks, lashing material, and any other crevassesin the landing tone. The firmness of the
items required for loading. ground, on which the force artillery deployment may
The ground forces provide the labor for loading depend, can change rapidly with precipitation or
cargo into the helicopters. Specialists of the rear temperature changes.In the tundra, thawing creates a
services attached for the mission may he used. The hog on top of the permafros where t rock-hard soil
existed a short time before. If a shortage of suitable the launchers and guidance vehicles from ambush
terrain f o r landing exists, troops can be unloaded by without attacking the enemy's garrison facility. T h e
using rope ladders, by rappelling. or by simply jumping scheme of maneuver will be approved. if not dictated,
from a hovering helicopter. by higherauthority Once
. the operation begins, the
While the operation as a whole may rely heavily on heliborne force commandermay refine the scheme of
air and artillery support, the assault force primarily maneuver if neccessary but makes as few changes as
suppresses the enemy forces in the landing area. possible. In exercises, the mission ends with the arrival
Helicopters at the landing zone cover the off-loading of a friendly ground force. Examples suggest that the
operation with antitank guided missiles, free flight survival of the assault force may not be required for
rockets (both antipersonnel and antiarmor), and successful accomplishment o for the mission.
machine gun and small arms fire. While each phase of the operation is built on the
Troops leave the helicopter o n order of the success of the previous phase., the most critical
helicopter crew commander. Procedures arc tightly moments occur in the movement from the landing
regimented to get the troops and cargo away from the zone to the objective. In many situations, everything is
aircraft and away from the landing zone without delay. staked on t h e success of the initial assaulton the objec
tive, made before the enemy reacts to the presence of
the heliborne force.
The O bjective After seizing its objective, the assault force estab
The objective normally is expressed in terms of lishes a perimeter defense to await linkup. .A motorized
terrain to be secured or an enemy unit to be neutra rifle battalion in heliborne assault operations cannot
lized. Ideally, it should b e relatively small and lightly be self-sustaining. The planned time to linkup normally
defended. and have easy access. For examply, an enemy is 2 to 3 hours.
tactical missile unit may be neutralized by destroying
CHAPTER 4
AMPHIBIOUS OPERATIONS
DOCTRINE
Soviet military strategy currently recognizes the inflicting loss or damage in enemy rear area facilities
importance and complexity of amphibious operations. located near a coast, and for diversionary operations.
During the 1950s, the Soviets denied the military value The naval infantry force employed normally would be a
of amphibious assaults because of the potential effect battalion, company, or platoon.
of nuclear weapons on an assault force. The Soviets re-
evaluated their position in the early 1960s and re-
activated the Soviet Naval Infantry in 1964, which now Soviet Naval Infantry
consists of approximately 12,000 men. It has the capa- The Soviet Naval Infantry can be expanded quickly in
bility to conduct tactical landings with highly mobile wartime by mobilizing trained reservists and reserve
forces, air cushion vehicles, and landing ships. equipment. The Naval Infantry is organized into units
which are subordinate operationally to fleet com-
manders. The organization of naval infantry units is
MISSIONS AND OPERATING FORCES similar to that of motorized rifleunits. There are cur-
rently three naval infantry regiments and one division.
Amphibious Landings
The Soviets categorize amphibious landings
depending on the scale of the landing. These Naval lnfantry
categories are strategic, operational, tactical, and
reconnaissance and sabotage landings. Secondary FLEET UNIT
missions, such as coastal defense, may also be assigned.
Northern 1 regiment
Strategic Landings. Strategic landings support
theater forces in opening up a new area of military Baltic 1 regiment
operations. This landing would call for the employ- Black Sea 1 regiment
ment of a multidivision force, with appropriate naval
and air suppon. The Soviets have never conducted a Pacific Ocean 1 division
strategic landing.
Operational Landings. Operational landings are Naval lnfantry Regiment . The naval infantry
made to assist ground or naval forces in a coastal region regiment consists of three naval infantry battalions, a
to surround and destroy enemy ground or naval units tank battalion, and several specialized support
in that area. The Soviets call this a "maritime front." companies. It has a strength of about 2,000 men. Its
Landings of this scale might entail the landing of a naval organization is similar to the motorized rifle regiment
infantry regiment as the first echelon. Other missions except that the tank battalion has a mix of medium
would include the seizure of major islands or a group tanks and F'T-76 amphibious light tanks. t h enaval
of islands, naval bases, and other important coastal infantry regiment does not have an organic artillery
objectives. This is believed to be the primary role of the battalion, but does have a multiple rocket launcher
Soviet Naval lnfantry today. battery. It also receives artillery support from the naval
gunfire ships of the amphibious task force.
Tactical Landings. Tactical landings are conducted
to strike at the rear area or flank of any enemy force Naval lnfantry Battalion. The basic unit of the
along a coastline, or for seizing islands, naval bases, naval infantry regiment is the naval infantry battalion.
coastal airfields, ports, and other objectives on an The battalion is made up of three naval infantry
enemy-held coastline. The naval infantry force companies, a mortar platoon, an antitank platoon, and
employed could be a battalion or larger, operating supporting supply and maintenance, medical, and
independently or with ground force units. communications units. In all, the battalion numbers
about 400 men. This unit, reinforced, constitutes the
Reconnaissance and Sabotage Landings. These basic amphibious attack force in the assault landing-
landings are conducted for reconnaissance, for the battalion assault force (BAF).
Soviet Naval Infantry Regiment
NAVAL
INFANTRY
REGIMENT
24 x AKM 60 x AKM
AIR CHEMICAL
I I
TRANSPORTATION SUPPLY MAINTENANCE MEDICAL
COMPANY COMPANY COMPANY COMPANY
39 57 27
4-2
Soviet Naval Infantry Battalion
HEADOUARTERS
3
SA-7/GRAIL
9 x AKM 3 x SPG 9
9 x RPG 7
1 9 x AKM
3 x SVN
9 x RPK
66 x AKM
BTR 6OPA/B Amphibious APC .................. 34 SPG-9 73-mm Recoilless Antitank Gun ............. 3
SA-7/GRAIL SAM Launcher .................... . 9 RPK 7.62-mm Light Machine Gun ................27
RPG-7 Antitank Grenade Launcher.. ..............27 AKM 7.62-mm Rifle ........................ ,282
NOTE: The AKM rifles and t h eRPK light machine gunshave n o wbeen replaced by the new AK-74and
RPK-74 5.45-mm weapons.
INFANTRY
Equipment Total
COMPANY
HEADQUARTERS PLATOON
AKM 7.62-mm Rifle ......................... .68
x BTR60PA/B 3 x BTR 6 0 P A / B
3 x SA-7/GRAIL
3 x RPG 7
MOTE: The AKM riflesand theRPK light machine guns haven o wbeen replaced
5 x AKM 1 x SVD
21 x AKM
Naval Infantry Company. The naval infantry Antitank Battery. The naval infantry regiment's six
company is made up of a small company headquarters BRDMs of its antitank battery are formidable antitank
and three naval infantry platoons. The company head weapon systems. These weapons augment the man-
quarters consists of the company commander, political pack antitank guided missiles (ATGMs) and SPG-9
officer, technical officer. first sergeant, mes recoilless guns employed at battalion level and
senger/clerk, medic, three SA-7 gunners, and the generally constitute the regimental antitank reserve.
driver and gunner of their BTR-60 armored personnel The ATGM/BRDMsnormally are employed to protect
carrier. Each platoon consists of three squads of ten the flanksof the landing force from counterattacking
men each. Each squad consists of the squad leader, a tanks and against enemyweapons emplacements.
machine gunner, an RPG gunner, an assistant RPG
gunner/rifleman, four riflemen, the APC machine Air Defense Battery. Besides the three SA-7s at
gunner, and the APC driver. company level, air defense is provided to regimental
units by the four ZSU-23-4 self-propelled antiaircraft
Tank Battalion. The naval infantry tank battalion has guns and four amphibious SA-9 surface-to-air missiles
a mix of PT-76 light amphibious tanks and medium (SAMs) of the air defense battery. Supporting naval
tanks. Each of the tank companies has three platoons of ships provide air defensethroughout all phases of the
four tanks each with the company commander's tank landing operation.
bringing the total to 13 tanks. While the medium tanks
are not amphibious, they can disembark in shallow Engineer Company. The engineer company
water as a follow-on landing force behind the PT-76 contains three combat engineer platoons. Normally, a
and BTR-60 first or second wave. In task organizing a combat engineer platoon is provided to support each
landing force, one platoon of tanks normally supports a battalion assault force. It clears obstacles and mine-
naval infantry company. fields along the approaches to the shore, on the
beaches, and on routes leading inland from the
Reconnaissance Company. The reconnaissance beaches.
company may be task organized toprovide a platoonof
at least one PT-76 and three BRDMs to the battalion Signal Company. The signal company of the naval
assault force for the amphibious landing. The Soviets infantry regiment consists of a headquarters and
consider this platoon to be one of their amphibious servicesection, a radio platoon, and a wire/telephone
assault advance teams. These teams also include platoon. The headquarters and service section
combat engineers and hydrographic personnel who provides courier service and limited signal and vehicle
report beach conditions. In certain instances, recon- maintenance support for the c o m p a n y The radio
naissance vehicles may swim to shore under their own platoon provides vehicles, radios, and operators for the
power. Conditions permitting, they may he landed by regimental commander and staff. The wire/telephone
air cushion vehicles. Some reconnaissance teams also platoon installs and operates switchboards for com-
may be airlanded by helicopter or dropped by para- mand posts and the message center, and lays wire
chute behind defended positions. The reconnaissance when directed.
platoon has two objectives:
To provide information to the main landing force Chemical Defense Company. The regimental
about enemy defensive positions and enemy reinforce- chemical defense company consists of a company
ments on the march toward the beach. headquarters, a decontamination platoon, and a
To screen forward and to the flank of the amphib- chemical and radiological reconnaissance platoon.
ious landing teams. The decontamination platoon is organized into three
squads with one ARS decontamination vehicle each.
Multiple Rocket Launcher Battery. With the The chemical and radiological reconnaissance platoon
exception of the three mortars organic to each naval consists of three squads with one BRDM rkh in each
infantry battalion, the regiment'ssix BM-21 multiple squad.
rocket launchers constitute the sole organic artillery The chemical defense company of the regiment
assets of the naval infantry regiment. BM-21s provide normally provides one reconnaissance squad to the
fire support for amphibious landings and also may be battalion assault force to determine and report levels
used by the naval infantry in a coastal defense role. and types of contamination in the landing area and to
Each launcher can deliver considerable firepowerwith mark cleared lanes for advance of the main force. If the
its forry 122-mmhigh-explosive rockets. regiment is not conducting similar landings elsewhere,
the remaining two reconnaissance squads also can be embarkation, sea passage, debaration, and shore
employed to check alternate advance routes. Decon combat operations. Missile and artillery units strike
tamination vehicles normally set up on the far side of beach defense forces and weapon systems.
the contaminated areas to spray the advancing naval
infantry vehicles on the march. One or more squads Soviet Ground Forces. T h e Soviets consider
can be employed, depending on regimental motorized rifle troops of the ground forces to b e
requirements. potential participants in amphibious operations.
Ground forces will probably conduct an amphibious
Rear Service Units. Rear service units (trans operation with naval infantry troops. T h e naval
portation, supply, maintenance, and medical) are small infantry's special skills are utilized to the maximum to
in keeping with the limited scope and duration of insure success of the assault landing.
mission assigned to naval infantry. Principal supply is Naval infantry landing teams probably lead the
from t h e ships offshore. Service units may provide assault. They have responsibility for breaching anti-
platoon-sizedunits to support battalion assault forces. landing obstacles in the water and on the shore, for
Casualties are evacuated in returning empty supply seizing a beach head, and for securing the approach of
trucks and other service vehicles. the main force to the landing are. The main body,
With the Soviet Navy playing the dominant role, consisting largely of motorized rifle troops, follows.
units of all branches of the armed forces may provide Naval infantry personnel may be attached to motorized
support for amphibious landings. The navy transports rifle subunits to assist in overcoming t h e special
the naval infantry to the enemy-heldshore; provides problems of an assaultlanding.
gunfire; sweeps offshore minefields; protects the
landing with missile ships, gunboats, and anti-
submarine warfare ships; and provides logistic CONDUCT OF THE
support.
.. AMPHIBIOUS ASSAULT
Naval aviation and the Soviet Air Force provide air The Soviets maintain that amphihious assaults can be
support on t h e beach. They also attack enemy ships conducted both day and night, in inclement weather,
hindering the advance of the amphihious assault force, and under radio silence until successful landing.
arid conduct aerial reconnaissance. Air defense units Airborne, heliborne, air, ground, and naval forces have
protect the amphibious force against air attack during practiced jointly in such landings.
FORCE
COMMANDER
LANDING LANDING
PARTY FORCE
TRANSPORTS SECURITY
SHIPS
1
4-5
Phases of the Assault
The five phases in a Soviet amphibious assault are: A battalionassault force (BAF) commander usually
Preparing of equipment and amphibious units. is assigned an immediate mission, a direction of attack,
Loading of personnel and equipment on ships and and the overall landing objective. Normally the
transports. immediate mission is to destroy personnel and
Moving by sea to the objective area and weapons in the enemy's first line of defense and to
debarkation capture shore terrain for the landing and deployment
Battle for the beachhead by the amphibious units. of follow-on ground forces. T h e depth of the BAF's
Landing of ground forces and withdrawal of the immediate mission depends upon the strength and
naval infantry. disposition of the enemy defenses.
The naval infantry is trained to commence opera- A company landing as part of a BAF is given an imme
tions either while at sea or from an alert status at their diate mission, normally to seize a strongpoint in the
land bases. When alerted, an amphibious assault force enemy's defenses and to protect the landing and
mans its equipment and moves out to its embarkation deployment of follow-on forces. The company also is
points for loading aboard landing ships. The landing given a direction for further advance. A platoon is
ships ideally arrive at the embarkation points shortly assigned an attack objective and a direction for further
before or at the same time as the arrival of the assault advance.
forces. This precludes congestion of the amphibious The battle for the beachhead begins with naval gun
force at the embarkation point awaiting transport. fire on coastal targets. Fires are concentrated on
The vehicles are loaded on in reverse order so that enemy artillery, obstacles, and troop concentrations.
the assault vehicles can disembark first at the target An airborne or heliborne assault inland to block
area. Vehicles are then tied down for the movement by enemy reserves heading to the beachhead may support
sea. After loading, the ships form a convoy under the the amphibious assault forces. Naval infantry units may
protection of combat ships and aircraft. conduct this type of airborne or heliborne operation.
The amphibious landing may take place in conjunc- While naval gunfire and air strikes suppress enemy
tion with a ground force battle underway near the sea- fire, minesweepers clear paths through offshore mine-
coast. In this case, the supported ground force usually fields for passage of the landing ships. Destroyers and
sends a reconnaissance party of up to a motorized rifle other antisubmarine warfare (ASW) ships protect the
company with engineers attached to reconnoiter the amphibious force from attacks by submarines and
landing area. The information from this reconnais other warships. When approach lanes are cleared, the
sance party is passed to the amphibious force and first wave of amphibious tanks disembarks and swims
supporting air forces. The enemy defenses them may toward the shore. The amphibious tanks commence
be fired upon by aircraft, naval g u nships, and ground firing with their main guns at targets of opportunity
force artillery. while in the surf.
BATTALION
ASSAULT
FORCE (BAF)
I
I I
BAF
HEADQUARTERS
NAVAL
INFANTRY
BATTALION
AMPHIBIOUS
L I G H TTANK
COMPANY
OTHER
REGIMENTAL
ELEMENTS'
I
any or all of fhs following elements:medium tank,reconnaissance, multiple rocket launcher,
defense, engineer. signal. chemical defense, transportation. supply, maintenance. medical
4-6
The following wave is made up of BTR-60s. Recent Amphibious Assault Landing
amphibious exercises in the Baltic have employed air
cushion vehicles to carry a portion of the assault forces
to the shore.
Troops do not dismount from their BTR-60s after
reaching the shore unless the beach is defended.
Normally, in the absence of defenses or in the face of
lightly defended positions, combat vehicles continue
forward to seize the objectives. They fire while on the
move, maintaining the momentum of the attack, and
pushing on to link u p with an airborne o r heliborne
force or ground force to secure the beachhead for the
follow-on forces.
In the face of determined resistance, t h e naval
infantry troops dismount to seize their objectives, to
secure the beachhead, and to provide cover for the
main force landing on the beachhead behind them.
The follow-on ground force units disembar, move
to shore, and continue the battle inland while the naval
infantry unit is withdrawn. Withdrawal of the naval
infantry terminates the amphibious assault phase of the
operations. ARMORED
PERSONNEL
CARRIER
Assault Formations a
AMPHIBIOUS
TANK
of the remaining naval infantry company or companies,
led by a platoon of amphibious tanks.
The entire naval infantry battalion could deploy in
column, line, wedge, or other variation in a single
wave. Ground force units such as a motorized rifle
battalion deploy as a second wave.
The diagram at the right shows the assault of a naval
infantry battalion deployed in line in a single wave.
Amphibious landing ships have launched the APCs and
amphibious tanks. T a n k tire is directed at antitank
weapons, artillery, troop strongpoints, bunkers and
troop concentrations. The Soviets train to fire their
weapons while afloat.
For a regimental operation, a naval infantry battalion
attacking in line formation could constitute the first
wave. The remaining battalions are held back for the
second and possibly third waves o r echelons.
If offshore obstacles a r e present, the combat
engineers clear three to six lanes for the battalion. On
wide frontages with few or no obstacles, the battalion
may adopt a line formation. Narrow
. frontages may call A SOVIETNAVAL INFANTRY BATTALION, LINE FORMATION
for company-sized assaults either on line or in column IN A SINGLE-WAVE AMPHIBIOUS ASSAULT LANDING WITH
formation. SUPPORTING AMPHIBIOUS TANKS.
4-7
Weaknesses
Surprise. If the ships of the amphibious force are Rates of Advance. If the first waves are prevented
detected en route, the defenders have time to from moving inland from the beachhead, massing of
reinforce likely landing areas with troops, artillery, and troops, vehicles, and weapons can occur. The Soviets
air support. The amphibious force also may be attacked plan for rapid advance inland of the naval infantry to
by enemy naval forces. follow up with a large ground force with supporting
artillery and staying power. Upsetting the timetable by
Air Cover. If the amphibious landing force does not forcing the naval infantry units to stop or slow down
have tactical air superiority, the assault force would be would not only reduce the momentum of the attack
vulnerable to air strikes at sea and on the beaches. SA- but would subject troop concentrations to enemy fire.
7s, ZSU-23-4S, and SA-9s can be fired from the decks of
the landing ships and ashore. These weapons com- Marking of Lanes. The orderly procession of the
plement naval antiaircraft fire, but might not be suf- assault columns depends on cleared lanes bring
ficient to insure success of the assault. marked clearly with buoys or panels. If these were
destroyed or moved, the columns might deviate from
Weather. Fog, heavy rain, or other periods of the cleared lanes to the shore and could be destroyed
reduced visibility could cause disorientation of the by obstacles or mines.
assault force. Such disorientation could cause
elements of the units to be dispersed beyond the Communications. The Soviets rely heavily on pyro-
control of the unit commanders and even outside the technics, panels, and other forms of non-radio com-
objective area altogether. munications before the assault. Rapidly changing
tactical situations may make radio communications
Sea Conditions. Heavy surf could capsize vehicles essential. Enemy jamming or interfering with radio
and break up the assault formation. Troops inside the communications could seriously degrade the assault's
vehicles would not have stable platforms from which success.
to fire. Fire from amphibious tanks in the water would
be useless in any but the calmest conditions. Sea- Airborne Landings. The Soviets often conduct
sickness could become a problem and decrease the amphibious exercises in conjunction with airborne or
effectiveness of assault troops. hrliborne Landings. The airborne or helihorne forces
attempt to keep reinforcements from reaching the
Enemy Obstacles. A well-prepared system of amphibious landing area. If these troops land in the
obstacles and mines could slow or stop an assault wrong area or are otherwise prevented from landing
landing. Air cushion vehicles may skim successfully successfully, the naval infantry could face stiffened
over submerged obstacles, but passage o f amphihious resistance.
vehicles could be blocked.
Beach Conditions. Not all shorelines are suitable
Enemy Armor. Enemy tanks or guns could destroy for landing of amphibious vehicles or landing ships. If
the assault force. Amphibious vehicles are lightly Soviet beach reconnaissance teams are prevented from
armored and extremely vulnerable to most types of accurately ascertaining beach gradients, soil con-
enemy fire. ditions, and other landing site factors, the amphibious
assault could fail.
CHAPTER 5
UNCONVENTIONAL
WARFARE OPERATIONS
Soviet unconventional warfare (UW) consists of a (GRU) of the General Staff arethe most likely agencies
variety of military and paramilitary operations. UW to screen, recruit, select, and train UW personnel.
includes partisan warfare, subversion, and sabotage, These agencies also can be assumed to plan and
conducted during periods of peace and war. It also execute Soviet U W operations. UW activities are pro-
includes other operations of a coven or clandestine tected by stringent security measures.
nature. Soviet writings point out the effectiveness of UW
units and boast of their accomplishments in World
Past Examples of Unconventional Warfare
- War II:
Unity of command.
All varieties of Soviet and enemy weaponsand equip- Multiple destruction methods.
RIVER CROSSINGS
Soviet military theorists place great emphasis on Extensive tank snorkeling training is conducted.
high advance rates by armor-heavy columns in the Tank crews train for up to 2 months before their first
offense. The Soviets stress that this high advance rate underwater crossing. Tanks cross underwater in first
would be important in the European theater with its gear and follow a predetermined azimuth with the aid
"relatively small" operational depth. Such an offensive of the on-hoard gyrocompass. This direction can be
would be impossible without overcoming Europe's altered by instructions radioed to the tanks from the
many north-south water obstacles. A 1965 Soviet study unit commander. lf a tank stalls on the bottom, it must
revealed that in the European theater, forces would be flooded before crew members using their breathing
encounter water obstacles up to 100 meters wide apparatus can open the hatches and escape.
every 35 to 60 kilometers, between 100 and 300 A snorkeling tank cannot cross a water obstacle if
meters wide every 100 to 150 kilometers, and greater the entry slope exceeds 47 percent (25 degrees), if the
than 300 meters wide, every 250 to 300 kilometers. exit slope is greater than 27 percent ( I5 degrees), or if
In response to these challenges, Soviet planners have the current velocity is more than about 3 meters per
devoted tremendous resources to improving the river second. Snorkeling is not feasible during winter,
crossing capabilities of their combat equipment. They because drifting or unbroken ice could rip away the
have provided their ground forces with large stocks of snorkel. It is also impossible if the water is deeper than
specialized bridging and assault crossing equipment. 5.5 meters, if there are craters or large boulders on the
River crossing figures prominently in most Soviet river bottom, or if the bottom is too soft.
exercises. Unmanned tanks can be moved across a river by
means of a winch system. This system permits a tank
company of 10 tanks to be moved across a river up to
Keys to successful river crossings 200 meters wide in about 35 minutes (excluding
preparation). One pulley block and an anchoring unit
Reconnaissance. are transported to the far bank in a tracked amphibian,
Early planning and thorough organization. armored personnel carrier (APC), or power boat. It
Destruction of the enemy in the area of the must be installed 30 to 45 meters from the water's
water obstacles. edge if three tanks cross simultaneously or 10 to 15
Speed and surprise. meters for a single tank. After tanks are prepared for
Broad front crossings. underwater crossing, they are pulled across by two
Swift development of the attack on the far armored recovery vehicles whiletheir crews cross in
bank. APCs or tracked amphibians.
Continuation of the attack throughout the The soviets estimate that about 60 percent of all
crossing. obstacles they would encounter in Europe are less
Skillful and rapid engineer employment. than 20 meters wide. Accordingly, there are several
Air defense. models of both tank- and truck-launched gap bridges
for rapidly crossing ravines, partially blown bridges,
antitank ditches, road craters, and similar obstacles.
EQUIPMENT AND ORGANIZATION Gap bridging is used frequently in combination with
To insure a rapid advance, the Soviets have built river ponton bridges to provide shore-connecting spans or
crossing capabilities into numerous types of ground to extend the bridge to sufficient length.
force equipment. All Soviet armored personnel Each Soviet motorized rifle and tank regiment has
carriers, infantry and airborne fighting vehicles, and one tank-launched bridge (MTU) per tank battalion;
scout vehicles produced since the 1960s are amphib- i.e., one MTU per motorized rifle regiment and three
ious, as are some self-propelled (SP) artillery and per tank regiment. Mounted on a T - 54/55 tank chassis,
tactical surface-to-air missile (SAM) carriers. Soviet the MTU assault bridge is 12.3 meters long. The folded
medium tanks have been provided with snorkels for
- - ramp sections of -the
- new MTU-20 (which has become
crossing obstacles up to 5.5 meters in depth. As little as the Soviet standard) extend the bridges length 20
15 minutes are required to prepare some Soviet tanks meters. Both spans have a 50-ton carrying capacityand
for underwater fording, although up to a half hour is can be launched in 3 to 5 minutes without crew
required for older tanks. exposure.
Some Soviet regiments may have received a Czech- If the water obstacle is wider than the unit's organic
designed scissors bridge (MT-55) with an electro- bridging capability, or if the site is not secure enough
hydraulic control system that permits bridge emplace- to build a bridge, a PMP company also can form either
ment in 1.5 minutes. The MT-55 span is 17 meters long eight 40-ton rafts, five rafts of 60-ton capacity, four rafts
and can support loads up to 50 tons. The launcher has a of 80-ton capacity, three 1 10-ton rafts, or two 170-ton
gap-measuring device and infrared equipment for rafts. Configured as three 110-ton platforms, the PMP
bridge laying at night. company can accomplish the simultaneous lift of nine
Each motorized rifle and tank regiment also has a set medium tanks (three platoons). The PMP bridging
of four truck- launched scissors spans (TMM). The company has six BMK power boats to assist in bridge
TMM set, with its four 10.5-meter spans, can erect 42 emplacement or raft propulsion. Models ranging from
meters of class 60 (capable of supporting 60 tons) 75 to 180 horsepower are in use, most of which are
bridging in 20 to 40 mintues. transported on retractable wheeled struts. The newest
The engineer battalion organic to each Soviet tank model, BMK-T, is transported and launched from the
and motorized rikle division provides the division com- same truck that transports the PMP. All Soviet power
mander with flexible river-crossing support. Equip- boats are compartmented for bouyancy. Even if two of
ment organic to the battalion includes PMP ponton the BMK-T's four compartments areflooded, it will not
bridging (frequently used to make ferries), power sink.
boats, GSP self-propelled ferries, tracked amphibious A PMP bridge permits crossing by tanks at speeds up
transporters, tank- and truck-launched gap bridging, to 30 kilometers per hour. Speeds for wheeled vehicles
and limited stocks of fixed wooden bridges. are greater.The bridge can be built in water having a
'The assault crossing company of a Soviet division's current velocity up to 2 meters per second. By
engineer battalion has GSP tracked ferries and K-61 or attaching how and stem shields to PMP sections, the
P T Stracked amphibians. PKP amphibious trailers may crew can emplace the bridge in currentsof up to 2.5 or
be assigned to units equipped with PTS. Tracked 3 meters per second without loss of stability.
amphibians are used primarily to transport artillery, air Army and front have river crossing capabilities in
defense, or logistical elements across water barriers. their organic engineer regiments or brigade. Ponton
(The Soviet 122-mm SP howitzer is amphibious.) brigade regiments and assault crossing battalions also
The assault crossing company's GSP ferries are used provide river crossing support.
to transport armor across water obstacles that are Each Soviet combined arms or tank army has one
impossible to ford or snorkel. Missile units and other ponton brigade regiment, while two may be subor-
organizations with heavy equipment also rely on the dinate to a front Most
. PMP regiments are organized
GSP. into two battalions of three companies each and have a
The Soviet PMP ribbon bridge is revolutionary both total of 108 PMP pontons capable of bridging 681
in its simplicity and rapid emplacement time. Its meters. The regiment also has eight tracked
accordion-like pontons are launched when the trucks amphibians (K-61 or PTS) or GSP ferries.
on which they are transported are braked at the water's Assault crossing battalions that provide amphibious
edge. They are opened automatically by a torsion bar transport and ferry support to army or front elements
mechanism, rotated manually 90 degrees, and quickly can be allocated to divisions to speed up crossing
joined to form a continuous strip of floating roadway. operations. There is one battalion in each army, with
Soviet motorized rifle and tank divisions have a half set up to three in a front If equipped with the PTS and
of 16 PMP and two end (ramp) sections in their PKP trailer, the battalion's two tracked amphibious
engineer battalion. companies are able to transport two towed artillery
The engineer battalion's PMP ponton bridge battalions simultaneously. Each GSP ferry can
company can construct 119 meters of 60-ton bridging transport one Soviet medium tank.
at a speed of 7 meters per minute. PMP pontons also To provide the logistic support necessary for
may be split in half to form 281 meters of 3.27-meter- planned rapid offensives, the Soviets have expended
wide, class 20 bridging. Bank preparation is the critical considerable resources to field a variety of line of com-
factor for bridging operations. Erection times vary munications (LOC) hridging. LOC bridges are essen-
depending on enemy resistance, crew training, and tial for the orderly introduction of divisions and
conditions at each site. PMP pontons can be retrieved combat forces of successive echelons, as well as un-
in about twice the time required to emplace them. interrupted resupply of combat units. They are
Each ponton carrier has a jib, winch. and roller system emplaced by troops of the Military Transportation
to accomplish this. Service. In anticipation of wartime interdiction of
6-2
existing bridges, the Soviets and their allies have stock- gence to determine the following:
piled obsolescent bridging and prefabricated bridge River width, depth, and current.
sections near strategic crossings. Entry and exit gradients.
The NZhM-56, a combination railroad and vehicular Composition of river bottom.
floating bridge, has an estimated carrying capacity of Bank composition and height.
120 tons. Soviet engineers have designed three new Obstacles on banks.
types of sectional bridging: MARM, SARM. and BARM Approach and exit routes.
(Soviet acronyms for small, medium, and large high- Critical terrain features overlooking both banks.
way sectional bridge). The major disadvantage of sec Possible fording, ferrying, bridging,and snorkeling
tional bridging is its s low erection process. The sites.
average rate of construction is 20 meters per hour if Information on enemy defenses.
the bridge is built from a single bank or30 to 35 meters The number of reconnaissance patrols depends on
per hour if the engineers start from both banks. S e c the width of the river and the number of required
tional bridging frees tactical bridging for further use by crossing sites; patrols can vary from squad to platoon
combat forces. MARM is also used to create overpasses size. Reconnaissance patrols operate up to 50
over key road junctions, thus all wiating congestion. kilometers forward of a division's main body.
River barges are also used for LOC bridging. Large Engineer reconnaissance units are equipped with
numbers of 600-ton barges are available throughout tracked amphibians, scout cars, or APCs. They often
central Europe. They are placed end to end and con- mount a profilograph (a device used to determine
nected with special ramps to form a "ribbon" bridge. width and depth of rivers) or the newer echo depth
Seven such barges would span a 400-meter-wide river finder. Although such equipment significantly reduces
and would take about 24 hours to construct. (For exposure and reconnaissance time, it appears that
more information on engineer organization and equip- most Soviet engineers use less sophisticated gear-a
ment see FM 100-2-3.) variety of bottom probes, range finders, and hydro-
metric propellers or simply floats of some type and a
stopwatch for measuring velocity. A sapper platoon
TACTICAL RIVER CROSSINGS assigned a reconnaissance mission would also typically
There are two basic types of Soviet tactical river have six mine detectors, grapnels with cables.
crossings, the assault crossing from the march and the radiation detectors, and light diving equipment.
prepared river crossing. The Soviets prefer the Armored personnel carriers, preferably BMPs, make
crossing from the march, which is often the expected a rapid amphibious crossing to seize a bridgehead on
method. Normally, the Soviets only conduct the pre- the far shore. Their crossing normally is covered by
pared crossing out of necessity within direct enemy smoke and supported from the rear shore by all avail-
contact. able fires. Heliborne or, less probably, airborne forces,
may be used to seize and hold a bridgehead on the far
shore. Once the bridgehead is established, tanks cross
Assault Crossing from the March by ferry, by fording, or by snorkeling. Artillery and
An assault crossing from the march is conducted other combat support equipment crosses on tracked
with forces moving toward the river in dispersed, amphihians. Later, tactical bridging is emplaced for
normally march, formation, across a wide frontage, at follow-on forces.
top speed. Forward detachments or airborne or heli- The Soviets consider units engaged in a river
borne forces may seize Favorable crossing sites in crossing to be especially vulnerable to enemy aviation.
advance. All measures are taken to insure that crossing They emphasize the need for tactical air defense at
is conducted as swiftly as possible and that the offen- river crossing sites before a crossing is attempted. In
sive is continued on the opposite shore. some tactical situations they may choose to move part
A decision to conduct a crossing from the march is of their air defense assets across first to maximize the
made as early as possible to allow maximum time for range of these weapons in protecting subsequent units
appropriate organization of forces and crossing equip- making the crossing. Placement and movement
ment, and for reconnaissance of crossing sites. sequence of air defense assets will vary as the Soviet
The Sovietsprefer crossing si tes with gently sloping commander assesses each new tactical situation.
banks, fords, and a bend towards the attackers. Soviet Subunits acting as forward detachments advance as
commanders use maps, aerial photographs, engineer quickly as possible to the river, bypassing enemy forces
and combat patrols, radar, signal, and human intelli- whenever possible, to seize near-shore crossing sites
6-3
or to swim the river to seize a far-shore bridgehead. A A motorized rifle battalion acting as a forward
forward detachment differs from an advance guard, detachment usually is reinforced with a tank company,
which has the responsibility of clearing a route for an artillery battalion,ferry and tracked amphibians,and
advancement of its main force. Forward detachments air defense, antitank, and chemical defense subunits
attempt to slip through enemy lines to force and hold ranging from squad to company size. When acting as a
crossing sites. Advance guards follow and fight through forward detachment. a motorized rifle battalion would
any enemy encountered to make way for the main be 2 or 3 hours in front of the main body.
forces. Advance guards destroy enemy forces to insure
Based on reconnaissance, the Soviet commander unhindered advance by the main force. As they
organizes his unit to insure the most expedient approach the water barrier, advance guards exploit the
crossing and continuation of the offense. The Soviets success of forward detachments or air landed
stress that tactical air support is more critical during elements, forcing the obstacle from the march and
river crossing operations than during other types of developing the attack into the depth of enemy defenses
ground operations. whenpossible.
I UP TO 5 KM
T r a f f i cRegulators
Tracked AmphibianSite
6-5
river. Snorkels are installed about 1 to 2 kilometers first echelon. Once PMP bridging has been erected,
from the water barrier. second echelon motorized rifle or tank regiments
Some tanks provide fire support for the crossing,and normally can cross in less than an hour.
artillery is usedfor both direct and indirect fire. The far Depending on the tactical situation, a division
bankmust be secured before tank snorkeling starts. crosses a major waterbarrier withone, two, or three
Efficient traffic control is essential. If the traffic regiments in the first echelon in a zone 20 to 30
controller permits tank formations to mass, they kilometers wide. A division's combat elements can
become a lucrative target for enemy aviation and cross a 200-meter-aide river in approximately 5 or 6
artillery. Tanks cross underwater in column formation hours, using equipment organic to the division. If
at approximately 30 meter intervals. Theycross at low reconnaissance and site preparation time isincluded, a
speeds without shifting gears or halting. The tank must division's total crossing time may approximate 9 hours.
be halted to remove waterproofing beforethe turret A division might receive reinforcement from army or
can traverseand the main gun can fire. front engineer units.
Oncemotorized rifle and some tank elements have The Soviets believe river crossings can be managed
crossed, artillery and air defense elements are crossed successfully with equipment presently organic to their
on tracked amphibians. maneuver units. However, some Soviet theorists
A typical regimental crossing sector would be 10 express concern that present levels may prove inade-
kilometers wide, with two to three battalions crossing quate to conduct successive crossingsof two or more
in the first echelon. Regiments will be allocated major uater obstacles. One way to solve this problem
tracked amphibians,GSP ferries, and ponton bridging is to leapfrog divisions.Army-and front-levelengineer
from division, army, orfmnt organizations as mission units have augmentation potential sufficientto estab-
and resources dictate. Tracked amphibians carry lish a significantnumber of ponton bridges.
artillery, air defense, and support units, while GSP Combat bridging is further supplemented by LOC
ferries transport tanks. With engineer support, a sectional bridging. According to Soviet estimates, LOC
motorized rifleregiment can cross a river 200 meters bridging can be erected by road construction troops in
wide with a current of 2 meters per second in 2 or 3 as little as 8 hours after the initial assault crossing. It is
hours. A tank regiment normally doesnot cross in the left in place for subsequent u s bey f r o n t-levelunits.
PONTON VEHICLE
PARKING AREA
(WITHRESERVE PONTONS)
Engineer RegulatingPoint
Traffic Regulator
6-7
Prepared River Crossings
Apparently because they expect to cross most rivers are assembly areas and artillery positions. Such work is
from the march at lightly defended or unoccupied performed at night under the guise of improving the
sites, the Soviets devote considerably less attention to defense.
the enemy-opposed prepared crossing. Such a crossing Twice as many troops as had occupied defensive
requires detailed planning and preparation, c e n positions normally launched the initial assault in a pre
tralized control, and massive suppression of enemy pared river crossing. It generally takes place either at
fires. They conduct a prepared crossing from a position night or under a smoke screen. An artillery preparation
in contact. The prepared crossing is used as a last is fired against enemy strongpoints. Airborne or
resort, when an assault crossing from the march fails or heliborne forces may be used to block enemy
is not possible. reinforcements. Some artillery is employed in the
A prepared crossing requires intensive reconnais- direct fire role to neutralize enemy weapons
sance. By day, troops observe enemy defensive remaining in the enemy defensive sector.
positions and activity. Under cover of darkness The prepared crossing is conducted similarly to the
engineer and reconnaissance patrols measure the assault crossing. Numerous APC's swim across on a
river, inspect obstacles, and pinpoint crossing areas. broad frontage supported by all available direct and
During preparation, troops make maximum use of indirect fires. Tanks and other heavy weapons and
existing fortification as well as cover and concealment equipment follow. Bridging is emplaced only when
of personnel and equipment. They prepare roads and bridge sites are secure from enemy observation and
cross-country routes for movement to crossing sites, as direct fire.
CHAPTER 7
MOUNTAIN WARFARE
Mountain environments vary widely according to Special training emphasis includes overcoming
soil composition, surface configuration, altitude, obstacles, weapons firing in adverse weather, and the
latitude, and climatic pattern. The Soviets consider any use of natural cover.
relief feature rising 200 meters above the surrounding Drivers receive special instruction in ascending and
area to be amountain. As a result, combat in mountains descending steep slopes and fording mountain rivers.
is hampered by: Particular attention is paid to personnel being able to
The number and condition of roads. orient themselves.
The screening effect of mountains on electronic Special equipment necessary for mountain warfare
equipment. includes blocks, spades, and towing cables for tracked
Fluctuations in weather. vehicles and lighter indirect fire weapons, such as the
Increased wear and tear on equipment, increased 76-mm mountain gun and the 160-mm mortar, for
fuel consumption, and logistical requirements. division and regimental artillery.
Reduced rates of advance. Tanks are used in the mountains mainly as mobile
Slides and f l o o d s armored artillery. However, mountainous terrain
difficulty of bypassing NBC contaminated zones. restricts tank use to roads and ridges. Tanks are vul-
Limited maneuver space for troops and vehicles. nerable to mines and plunging fire in narrow defiles
Masking of artillery fires. and may be unable to elevate their main guns suf-
Requirement for special training and equipment. ficiently to engage targets above them. In narrow
defiles, a single knocked-out tank is likely to block the
entire defile.
OFFENSIVE ACTION Use of tanks in the mountains also poses special
The nature of the terrain governs offensive action in problems with regard to maintenance and logistics.
the mountains. The goals of offensive actions are to Tracks are thrown and clutches burn more readily, and
control passes, road junctions, built-up areas, and overheating may occur. Tanks operating in the
adjacent high ground. mountains need 30 to 50 percent more fuel and addi-
Soviet tactics in the mountains are planned to bypass tional coolant.
enemy defensive positions, attack the enemy from the Extensive reconnaissance is required at all times to
flanks and rear, and break up coordination between avoid enemy antitank ambushes. During mountain
defending units. warfare, tanks may double their march and prebattle
Specially tailored regimental and/or battalion formation intervals.
groups launch attacks on several axes (mainly in Tanks may precede infantry attacks but more often
valleys and along roads and bridges). Companies attack will support ground attacks by fire. Tanks may be
on one axis, battalions usually on one, and regiments attached to platoon level, one tank per motorized rifle
along two or three. Specially equipped helicopters are platoon.
employed to assist in communications. Extensive use is Mountain warfare requires additional radios as well
made of combat engineers,who may be attached down as numerous retransmissionsites. Troops may receive
to platoon level. special clothing and rations. NBC equipment is
No specific mountain divisions have been identitied increased, and each soldier receives a second decon-
in the Soviet Army for many years. A few divisions tamination kit.
located in or near mountainous areas do receive some Marksmanship and gunnery pose several problems
mountain warfare training, but the majority do not. in the mountains; for example, firing uphill, downhill,
Airborne forces are considered to be the best suited and on the slant. This is particularly important for tank
troops to fight in the mountains. Since the invasion of gunnery, since accuracy is so dependent on flat tra-
Afghanistan, Soviet military literature has devoted jectory firing.
increased attention to mountain warfare problems Motorized rifle battalions often attack inde-
and training for all combat arms. Recent open source pendently, in separate zones, because of the limited
articles state that some military districts have estab- number of routes in mountainous terrain. Battalion
lished mountain training centers to rotate combat commanders are assigned missions lasting longer than
battalions and regiments, as w e l l as combat support usual and receive attachments of artillery, mortars,
units, for field training in mountain warfare. tanks, engineers, and NBC subunits. The amount and
type of attachments vary depending on the motorized strongpoints cover avenues of approach and provide
rifle battalion's mission. all-round security. Particular attention is placed on
Motorized rifle companies may be employed to tank avenues of approach. With terrain permitting,
maintain contact with a prepared enemy defensive regiments and divisions maintain strong, tank-heavy
positions, to act as an enveloping force for a battalion counterattack forces as reserves. Battalions and
or regiment, or to conduct heliborne operations. The companies maintain small reserves.
maneuver of the motorized rifle company mentioned Natural obstacles in mountainous terrain generally
most often by the Soviets is a flank attack or envelop permit rapid organization of a defense with relatively
ment. Typical objectives include seizing critical small forces. Unit frontages probably would be wider
heights, crossings, road junctions, and passes in the than normal.
enemy rear and on his flanks. Motorized rifle Maximum use is made of the terrain, minefields, and
companies normally are reinforced with light artillery, obstacles. Gaps between strong points must be
mortars, and engineers. covered by organic and supporting fires, located in
Whenever possible, the motorized rifle company impassable terrain, and patrolled regularly
conducts a mounted attack and moves along roads. If
the initial assault is unsuccessful because of enemy fire
or the inability to attack mounted, troops dismount ARTILLERY
and attempt to outflank the enemy while tankssupport Fire support frequently is decentralized to support
by fire. maneuver forces on independent axes. Artillery is fired
Attack frontage and formations depend on the by batteries or e v e n platoons. Artillery and mortars
terrain. In a narrow valley or canyon, the company locate forward, with flatter trajectory weapons placed
usually attacks on a 100- to 300-meter frontage. On a on the flanks. This positioning supports extended and
mountain plateau or broad valley, the frontage may uneven frontages and covers gaps and dead space.
increase to 1,000 meters or more. Direct fire at maximum range is used as often as
possible.
Movement and deployment of fire support
Mountain Attack Considerations equipment in the mountains is restricted. Firing
positions normally are immediately adjacent to
available roads. Helicopters can emplace mortars and
Mountain attacks require more thorough light artillery. The 160-mm mortars often are
coordination. employed instead of the 122-mm howitzers because of
Evaluation and exploitation of the terrain is the mortar's higher angle of fire and greater mobility
more important. due to decreased weight. The 76-mm mountain gun
Artillery is more difficult to employ and has to M1966 is specially designed for rmountain operations.
react quickly to unseen targets. Vehicles or animals can tow this weapon, or it can be
Air or helicopter support is tasked to hit broken down into several loads for pack animals.
defenders on the far side terrain features.
Chemical agents could be used to flush out a
defender from strongholds such as caves, con-
fined areas, etc. Mountain Artillery Considerations
Desert terrain and its environment have the The difficulty of orientation and navigation in open
following characteristics: terrain with few landmarks, further complicated by
Primarily sandy or rocky desert soil. reduced visibility, requires marking routes with stable
A shortage or complete lack of water. signs that have good day and night visibility. Signs
Extremely sparse vegetation. indicate the route and also warn of dangerous areas.
A small population and poorly developed road Combat actions are characterized by:
nets. Wide frontages.
Less than 10 percent natural masking by relief, Wide gaps between units.
with up to 75 percent of a given area observable from Frequent independent operations by regiments or
heights. battalions.
Sudden and extreme fluctuations of temperature. Increased logistic requirements.
Absence of landmarks for orientation and land The need to control (in both offense and defense)
navigation. water sources, inhabited areas, developed roads,
Strong winds which blow sand and dust, resulting railways, and particularly junctions and airfields.
in decreased visibility, communications degradation;
and increased maintenance problems and require-
ments for engines, running gear, and all types of THE OFFENSE
weapons. The 1973 Arab-Israeli War impressed on the Soviets
Lack of developed roads normallyforces military the need for full combined arms cooperation in desert
movements onto open terrain. Trafficability depends warfare. They pay particular attention to suppression
primarily on the nature and condition of the ground of enemy antitank and air defense weapons.
and its use rate. While dry, loose, sandy soil can hinder Reconnaissance is conducted across a broad front,
cross- country movement, it can be adequate-to-good on many axes, and in depth. It must identlfy gaps in
when wet. Saline soil may be rock-hard when dry but enemy defenses, and the best directions of attack
very difficult to negotiate when wet. Soil trafficable for Maintaining orientation in the desert is a special
a few vehicles may not hold up for entire columns. problem. The basic method of off-road navigation is
Columns may have to disperse over a 200- to 300- movement on an assigned azimuth. This is supple-
meter width. Moving sands create the most unfavor- mented when possible by reference points, elevations,
able movement conditions, as traction (even on foot), and rare identifiable features such as wells, canals, and
is often almost impossible to obtain. Moving sands buildings.
affect trafficability, visibility, navigation, and par- Control measures for movement normally include
ticularly orientation. detailed designation of:
Other factors influencing movement rates are Routes and marking methods.
visibility, state of driver training, efficiency of route Available landmarks.
marking, and greater need for maintenance halts. The Formations to insure security for flanks and rear.
planning and preparation of movement and combat Added communications to support wide dispersal.
under desert conditions are particularly critical. Location of water, fuel, and supply points ,
Movement planning includes reconnaissance, obstacle Axes of attack and march routes.
identification, route marking, and grading of elevations Some Soviet vehicles are equipped with directional
and descents. gyroscope systems that permit holding the required
Desert Movement
tronic surveillance.
The Soviet Army is well prepared to operate under add to ovrr-the-snow capability. Tanks carry logs or
extremely cold conditions. Because of Soviet beams for use as traction aids. Wheeled vehicle tire
geography and climate, over 60 percent of Soviet pressure is reduced to aid mobility March columns
divisions are located in and train in areas subject to include tanks with dozer blades, snow-moving equip-
extreme cold at least part of the year. ment, and road graders.
The Soviets recognize the following effects of N o special organizations for winter or arctic warfare
extreme cold on military operations: are known to exist in the Soviet Army. However, for at
Tactics must be modified to accommodate restric- least part of the year, most Soviet divisions train in cold
tions on movement. or extremely cold conditions. Individual training
Human and mechanical effciency are reduced stresses ski-drawn movement behind tanks and APC's,
considerably. cold injury prevention, equipment care and cleaning
The importance of shelters is increased. (especially weapons), and camouflage. Skiing is par-
Construction of defenses is hindered by frozen ticularly stressed.
earth.
Swamps and rivers become passable.
Deep snow reduces the effectivenessof high- THE OFFENSE
explosive shells, mines, and nonpersisent gas while Attack frontages are probably larger in snow
increasing the thermal radiation effects of nuclear because of the difficulty in maneuvering. Reserves are
explosions. also probably larger than normal.
Vehicles are more difficult to operate and Troops may attack on skis or sleds towed behind
maintain. tanks. On reaching the assault line, troops release tow
Electromagnetic anomalies and storms disrupt cables or ropes and form an assault line, making a
communications. coordinated attack with the tanks. When tracked
Deep snow makes orientation difficult.
vehicles are used to tow infantry on skis, tanks can tow
The range of bullets and shells is reduced.
two squads and APCs can tow one. Soldiers are
Fluid medical supplies, such as plasma and
expected to be able to fire their weapons while being
morphine, will freeze if not well protected. towed.
Air support is restricted. In deep snow (defined as 1.5 to 2 times the ground
clearance of vehicles), troops may attack mounted on
tanks. Pursuit may be conductcd hy tank-home
PLANNING A N D PREPARATION infantry (if snow conditions or lack of roads preclude
Soviet preparations for operations in extreme cold use of APCs) or on skis.
include: In cold wrather, attack assembly areas are located
Special clothing and equipment, particularly heavy closerto the enemy than usual. This lessens approach
winter overcoats, hats, fur-lined mittens,and felt boots. distances and therefore minimizes fatigue a n dcold-
An enriched, high-calorie diet with hot food and injury exposure time. Second echelon and reserve
drink providedas often as possible. forces follow closer than normal to reduce com-
Warming tents and shelters provided whenever mitment time.
possible.
Specialoils and lubricants for vehicles and crew-
sewed and individual weapons. THE DEFENSE
In extremely cold weather, the Soviets use special The Soviets attempt to use adverse weather to their
fuel mixtures, oils, and lubricants. Vehicles also are advantage. They delay the attacking enemy and deny
fitted with special winterized couplings on fuel pumps, him shelter, thus prolonging hisexposure to the cold.
engine heating and cooling systems, and rxhaust Populated areas and forests provide shelter and
systems. Batteries also receive special attention. often are used as strongpoints. The strongest defensive
Heaters and warming covers aid in starting vehicles. positions are located along most likely avenues of
Wheeled vehicles carry chains and are positioned approach-roads and areas of light snow. Snow is used
behind tracked vehicles in march columns whenever to conceal strongpoints as much as possible. Parapets
possible. Sandbags, mats, cables, and pioneer tools also of packed snow are built around weapons and vehicles.
Snow may also be packed on upper portion of combat during firing). Mortar base plates may crack or even
vehicles to aid in concealment. break. Because deep snow greatly reduces the bursting
Defense positions not under enemy attack may be radius of projectiles, the number of rounds required
occupied by no m o r e than a third of the fighting for target coverage increases. At the same time, the rate
strength. T h e remaining troops occupy warming of fire decreases due to additional prcparation time of
shelters. This permits the majority of troops to be at ammunition and maintenance of the weapons. Range
peak efficiency in the event of an attack. estimation against a snowy background makes adjust-
ment of fire more diffiicult. Many problems associated
with fire support in extreme cold can be overcome or
LOGISTICS significantly reduced by the use of high technology
Limited mobility handicaps logistic effortsin very equipment. This includes land navigation systems,
cold weather. Soviet doctrine calls for moving stores ground surveillance radars and laser range finders. The
far forward in the offense and stockpiling in t h e Soviet Army most likely has or is developing this
defense. It stresses proper road maintenance for b o t h technology.
the offense and defense.
ENGINEER SUPPORT
F I R ESUPPORT Severe weather conditions complicate engineer
Artillery support in extreme cold is affected by dif- activities and require greater effort and more assets
ficulty of survey in deep snow and under conditions of than normal. Additional engineer tasks include:
poor visibility Movement and firing site preparation Preparing routes and assembly areas.
are also more difficult. Low temperatures increase the Preparing shelters, cover, and defensive positions.
brittleness of metal and make grease and lubricants Preparing artillery firing positions.
less viscous. These factors may cause damage to Clearing paths through obstacles.
moving pans (particularly the recoil mechanism
Snow under
THICKNESS OF
ICE REQUIRED FOR PASSAGE
.
Snow 50-75 Medium Tanks.. 7 0 centimeters
centimeters (short moves) 1 0
Snow over
7 5 centimeters Restricted to roads
or cleared routes
CHAPTER 10
COMBAT I N CITIES
DOCTRINE
Although their doctrine stresses speed and dynamic Soviet principles for offensive combat in cities at
maneuver, the Soviets fully realize that movement division level are:
through urban areas may result in greater ammunition Conduct initial attacks from the march, after
expenditures and casualties and slower rates of reconnaissance.
advance. The Soviets have long acknowledged that Launch attacks from positions in contact with the
combat in cities will be unavoidable at times. Given enemy if initial operations fail to make progress.
urbanization trends in Western Europe, combat in Decentralize command and control to the maxi-
cities could be more the rule than the exception in that mum possible extent.
area. Maintain continuous pressure on the enemy
Soviet ground forces consider combat in cities to through day and night combat.
consist of only those missions conducted in heavily Conceal movement through the use of smoke,
populated cities and towns. Combat in isolated villages darkness, or low visibility.
or groups of buildings along roads in agricultural or Integrate company-sized tank, motorized rifle, and
open areas are considered actions in or against strong- combat engineer assault groups with the direct sup.
points and are outside the scope of this chapter. port of antitank guns and the direct and indirect
The Soviets classify towns and cities according to support of artillery and mortars.
shape, population, and perimeter. The Soviets calcu- While combined arms assault groups provide the
late that in Europe there are one or two small cities for main effort during combat in cities, heliborne assaults
every 200 to 300 square kilometers of terrain. In a on key points may be used. Helicopters may lift
European conflict, there is potential for involvement in motorized rifle troops to key points in the battle area.
combat in cities on the average of every 40 to 60 During combat in cities, a Soviet division normally
kilometers. attacks in two echelons at each level of command with
The decision to attack a city or town may be politi- the following frontages:
cally, strategically or tactically motivated and normally Division 4 to 6 kilometers
is made at army level or above. Tactical reasons for Regiment 2 to 3 kilometers
attack may include: Battalion 400 to 600 meters
The city or town is key terrain. Company 200 to 300 meters
The area encompasses vital communications Main axes are along major roads to capture key areas,
crossings. to disrupt the defense, and to cross the area in the
It is necessary to protect an exposed flank. shortest possible time. Division and regimental axes
It serves as a diversionary operation. are major roads. A battalion might advance on two or
It would tie down enemy troops and reserves. three parallel streets, with one company axis per
The built-up area is unavoidable due to the extent street.
of urbanization. Combat on such restricted frontages and axes of
In the offense, the Soviets plan for their lead advance, results in the following significant control
echelons to cut off and to destroy enemy forces before problems:
they can occupy cities. If this is not possible, the Soviets Difficulty in coordinating attacks progressing at
plan to bypass pockets of resistance with leading different rates with fire support.
echelons and continue the advance. Bypassed enemy- Communications problems caused by a large
held areas are sealed off and may be neutralized by number of VHF radios operating in close proximity and
following echelons. being screened by building?.
LEGEND:
1. Forward detachment operating in advance to
airlanded forces.
SOVIET ANALYSIS
battalions conduct them. Division and regimental counterbattery tasks. Preparatory fires are shorter than
resources reinforce the battalions as required. Indi- normal, 5 to 20 minutes being the historical
vidual battalions may have a variety of missions, precedent.
depending on the situation. Reserves are created at The missions of engineer subunits accompanying
regimental rather than division level. assault groups are engineer reconnaissance, destruc-
Motorized rifle battalions may be employed in either tion of buildings, mine clearance, and clearing routes
the first or second echelons of an assault on a city or of rubble to allow movement of tanks, APCs, and
town. In either case, their organization, tasks, and artillery.
assault tactics are probably the same. Antiaircraft weapons, both handheld and crew-
In combat in cities, the Soviets call their assault served, are used to cover artillery firing positions and
battalions "assault detachments." They are organized commanders' observation posts against low-flying
into two echelons. Each company is formed into an aircraft and helicopters. When not engaged in this
"assault group." A typical combat organization for an primary role, they suppress enemy ground fire.
assault group is: Unlike combat in more open terrain, the Soviet
A motorized rifle company. doctrine stresses decentralized control in combat in
One or two tank platoons. cities. This puts a heavy burden on the battalion's com-
-
LEGEND:
I boundary
boundary
Mortar battery (120mm)
Truck-mounted bridge
M i n e d barracade
Portable obstacle
NIGHT COMBAT
In the Soviet view, night cannot be a reason for The lack of convection (vertical streams of air) also
decreasing activity. On the contrary, they use the dark affects night combat, since the persistence of gas, fog,
of night to achieve surprise, to increase the rate of or smoke is considerably increased in the absence of
advance, and to win time. The Soviets consider vertical air streams.
darkness to be more of an advantage and an oppor- Night combat also is affected by the physical and
tunity than a reason for interruption of combat. psychological conditions of the troops. Darkness
Combat at night is normally an extension of combat stimulates the imagination and a feeling of insecurity
actions begun during the day. The battle may be
carried on into the night to retain the initiative with a
high offensive tempo.
The Soviets recognize that darkness favors the per- Night Factors
formance of marches and maneuvers; makes it easier to
concentrate men and materiel in a decisive direction; I
hampers enemy use of most weapons, airborne troops, DISTANCES AT WHICH LIGHT SOURCES
and aviation; and provides favorable conditions for CAN BE OBSERVED AT NIGHT WITH THE NAKED EYE
achieving surprise. By skillfully employing the advan- SOURCE DISTANCES
tages of night conditions, attacking units can fullfill Vehicle headlights 4-8 km
their mission with smaller losses in personnel and Muzzle flashes from single cannons 4-5 km
equipment. Muzzle flashes from small arms 1.5-2 km
Night also presents problems. It is more difficult to Bonfire 6-8 km
orient oneself at night and to maintain direction of Flashlight up to 1.5-2 krn
movement. Effectiveness of aimed fire is reduced, and Lighted match up to 1.5 km
reconnaissance and selection of targets become more Lighted cigarette .5-.8 km
difficult.The Soviets feel, however, that these negative
factors can be successfully overcome through frequent NOTE: For observation from the air, these distances are increased 2 t o 3
times.
and careful training.
Soviet doctrine states that the difficultyinherent in a
night attack aids the soldier in the defense and that the DISTANCES AT WHICH SOUNDS ARE AUDIBLE TO MAN
defender is more confident. However, they also recog- AT NIGHT IN OPEN AREAS
nizes that a well-organized surprise attack has a strong SOURCE DISTANCES
negative psychological effect on the defender. Cannon shot up to 15 km
Single shot from a rifle 2-3 km
Automatic weapons fire 3-4 km
CONDITIONS Tank movement
AFFECTING NIGHT COMBAT -on a dirt road up to 1.2 km
Darkness modifies the outline, shape, and coloring -on a highway 3 - 4 km
of local objects and distorts separation distances. Dark Motor vehicle movement
objects seem farther away than they really are, while -on a dirt road up to 500 m
lighter ones appear to be closer. According to the -on a highway up to 1 km
Soviets, on a clear night one can recognize land relief Movement of troops on foot
and coloration up to 400 meters with the naked eye. -on a dirt road up to 300 m
Under a high moon, one can spot a moving man at 240 -on a highway up to 600 m
meters, and using binoculars, at 700 meters. Small arms loading up to 500 m
Sound is another factor that changes at night and Metal on metal up to 300 m
leads to both physical and psychological distortion. At Conversation of a few men up to 300 m
night, sounds seem louder and carry farther. Direc- Steps of a single man up to 40 m
tions from which sounds originate cannot always be Axe blow, sound of a saw up to 500 m
determined. Weather conditions such as rain can affect Blows of shovels and pickaxes up to 1,000 m
both audibility and visibility and serve as a definite Screams up to 1,500 m
advantage for the attacker. Oars on water up to 2,000 m
that might eventually lead to panic. Nights normally are resistance or fortified areas or for repulsing
reserved for rest. Fatigue and sypmtoms of exhaustion counterattacks.
may affect those who have to stay awake. The basic principles in the employment of illumi
Darkness reduces the effectiveness of all types of nation devices are surprise and massing. Massing is
fires. Effective fires are almost impossible without achieved through a consecutive concentration of
night-vision equipment or illumination. Soviet artillery illumination equipment. The Soviets consider radius,
and aviation make wide use of illumination but still intensity, and duration important in determining
encounter difficulties in spotting rounds and in con- which particular device to use.
ducting artillery reconnaissance. Darkness severely Aerial flares producing one million candle power of
hampers visual identification and acquisition of enemy illumination burn 3 to 6 minutes and provide a circle of
aircraft by regimental air defense elements. Night illumination .5 to 4 kilometers in diameter, depending
conditions can increase the morale of tank troops by on their height above the ground. An artillery star shell
lessening the possibility of their tanks being destroyed illuminates the ground for 30 seconds over acircle 500
by antitank artillery. However, orientation, location, to 1,500 meters in diameter. Illuminating cartridges
maintaining direction of movement. and the general with a range of 200 to 250 meters burn for 7 seconds
difficulty of operating vehicles in darkness can com- and illuminate an area with a diameter of 200 to 240
plicate the employment of tanks. Coordination with meters.
other units is also difficult. On flat terrain or terrain sloping upwards toward the
First echelon engineer support is more important enemy, targets are illuminated from behind. Targets on
during combat at night. Soviet engineers are trained to terrain slanting downhill toward the attackers are
use illuminating signs and markers to designate direc- illuminated from the front. Illuminating devices are
tion of movement, destroyed arras, and passages employed so as not to reveal the location and dispo-
through obstacles. sition of friendly troops, to blind them, or to impair
Chemical weapons have a greater effect on man- their night vision.
power at night due to atmospheric conditions. Con- Illumination of the terrain usually is effected
sequently, Soviet commanders are urged to increase according to the senior commander's plan. He defines
chemical and radiation reconnaissance at night. illumination support missions, including the general
However, monitoring devices are difficult to read and order for terrain illumination, intensity and duration of
NBC reconnaissance is considerably complicated. the mission, disposition of the enemy's defense and key
Notifying the troops of contaminated arras' is more objectives, measures for disorienting and blinding the
difficult in darkness, and commanders are advised to enemy, and measures for countering the enemy's
appoint more observers than during the day to provide illumination and night vision devices. The commander
a timely warning of the contaminated area. Voice also decides how illumination will be used to control
signals are used to warn personnel.Signal flashes are and maintain coordination among his subunits. He
not used as a warning because they reveal friendly defines signals for target designation and specifies
locations. combat illumination equipment reserves and how they
will be used.
Illumination support also may be used in other ways
EQUIPMENT in the conduct of night combat. Searchlights can be
Illumination devices include illuminating used to blind the enemy, thus making it difficult for
cartridges, rockets, shells, aerial bombs, searchlights, him to deliver aimed fires. During the march, illumi-
mines, mortars, tracer shells, and flares. nation orients subunits advancing to deployment lines.
They are employed to: This prevents confusion in combat formations, and
Improve visibility of the ground and of enemy insures precise coordination. Luminous markers along
targets. the routes of advance facilitate the rapid advancement
Observe the battle area. of second echelon units and reserve forces. Such
Orient troops during the course of battle. markers are used to identify concentration areas.
Support the conduct of aimed fire. Luminous distance indicators also are attached to a
Blind the enemy and to combat his illumination vehicle's rear light. The driver can determine the
support equipment. distance to the vehicle in front of him based on t h e
Issue commands. number of red stripes he can see (e.g.,o ne continuous
Illumination may be periodic o r continuous. The red stripe is visible at 50 meters, two red rectangles
latter is reserved for a major attack against centers of can be seen at 30 meters). Knowing these distances,
11-2
t h e driver can adjust his spacing and speed tronic transmitters, and do not require space on the
accordingly. radio wave band. They are not susceptible to intercept,
Infrared night vision sighting devices include infra jamming, or other electronic measures.
red binoculars, drivers' indirect vision devices, and The GPK-48 and GPK-59 navigation systems are
searchlights installed on vehicles. Radar could be installed in some T-55 and T-62 tanks. The driver only
included in this grouping since it is used to conduct has to switch the instrument on, give it time to warm
reconnaissance and to adjust fire. Reportedly the up, and set his heading. The GPK-48 was designed to
Soviets also have passive infrared vision devices. give direction in snorkeling operations but has no
While these instruments permit better observation, built-in compensation to allow for the earth'srotation.
they do have range limitations. At longer ranges they The instrument is accurate only for periods of 15
are limited to defining the form, silhouette, and degree minutes without resetting. The more recently
of contrast of an obiect. Active infrared devices operate developed GPK-59 has a compensating mechanism
on the principle of "illuminating" the ground object by and can operate accurately for up to 9 0 minutes.
means of infrared rays and converting the reflection of A computer and display navigation system known as
targets into a visible image. The enemy can detect the "the coordinator" is installed i nsome command tanks.
emissions of active devices easily and for that reason The system consists of six components, three of which
they a r e used sparingly. Passive devices d o not emit require no access by the crew except for inspection.
rays and therefore cannot be detected. The infrared The system displays map coordinates in northings and
night observation system, NSP-2, and the infrared eastings rounded off to the nearest 10 meters. The
night-driving device, TVN-2, can be used either vehicle heading displayed is in Soviet mils on coarse
actively or passively. In complete darkness, it is and fine scales. Theinstrument is 90 percentaccurate.
possible with these devices to identify local features Once set, it can be used to navigate within a 100
and engineer construction, to maintain observation of kilometer grid square.
activities, to conduct aimed fire, and t o drive vehicles Another Soviet navigation system has a map plotter.
without headlights. However, night vision devices are This is not installed in tanks but may be used by some
not effective in heavy fog or during heavy rains. motorized rifle units.
Tanks also have infrared (IR)sighting equipment for There is also evidence of a new navigation system. It
the main armament and searchlights that can be appears to be an improved version of "the coordi-
equipped withan I R filter. Targets canbe identified up nator." The newer .system permits operation within a
to 800 meters. Nevertheless, active IR can betray the 100-kilometer grid square without resetting. The
exact position of the user iff the enemy is using IR instrument displays plus and minus coordinates on 1
sensors This hazard is readily appreciated by the kilometer and 200-meter scales from the present
Soviets in their night combat. Tank drivers use IR location. Bearing
. to the destination is shown on a
binoculars regularly in night training. Tank com- seperate dial.
manders use binocular-type passive IR sensors.
Sound-monitoring devices can provide observation
of the enemy when night vision devices are ineffective THE MARCH
or cannot be usedfor security reasons.The monitoring The night march is an essential element of night
devices can pick up noises made by the movement of combat. The Soviets learned the importance of night
personnel and vehicles and by the firing of various marches during World War II when many of their
types of weapons. Enemy activities can be determined important operations began with long night marches.
based on the sound detected. Heat detection devices Regardless of their difficulty, night marches are a
also are used in defining the direction to a target. In the necessity. Their preparation, organization, security,
future, the Soviets expect to be able to use heat and execution require a great deal of attention.The
detection instruments to determine not only the successful execution of a night march depends to a
location of arms and equipment but also the location of large degree on the general maintenance, organi-
personnel. zation, concealment, and rapid movement of all units.
There are three types of land navigation systems The commander must identify arras that will
used in the Soviet ground forces. All three systems present difficulties for concealment and provide
depend on a directional gyroscope, an instrument instructions for the use of night vision devices, illumi-
designed to accurately preserve an initial reference nation instruments, and communications. Extensive
bearing during movement. The three systems are self. use is made of light-signaling equipment (flashlights,
contained, d o not depend on emissions from elec- signal lights, etc.). By means of thesedevices, signals
may be transmitted indicating the start or finish of any without a break so that the enemy will not have time to
activity, changes in direction of movement, positions. bring up his reserve or to regroup. An artillery prepara
requests for fire support, and other tasks. tion usually precedes the night attack. However, to
Strict light and sound discipline is paramount and avhieve surprise, an attack may be launched without
must be maintained at all times, particularly w h e n preparatory fires, tanks, or the use of illumination.
passing through open areas. Active infrared night Night attacks are most often launched 2 or 3 hours
vision devices are used when approved by the march before dawn to permit daylight exploitation of success.
commander. The success of a night attack ultimately depends on
Communications between platoons and companies precise organization, concealment of preparations,
can be conducted by messengers or between surprise, control and coordination of combat and sup
battalions by messengers using motorcycles. Short porting units, fire support, and illuminating and night
radio transmissions can be employed for communi- vision devices.
cations between regiments. During the night march, 'The commander plans illumination of the objective,
security elements are located closer to the main body light signals for coordination, boundary lines for
than during the day. attacking units, the means of destroying enemy illumi
Reconnaissance is conducted before and during the nating devices, and the assignment of reference points.
night march. Reconnaissance elements do not range The battalion commander locates himself where he
out as far during the night as they do during the day. can observe both enemy and friendly forces. The com
Besides enemy information. Soviet reconnaissance mander of supporting artillery usually is located with
units collect information on the condition of the the battalion commander.
march route, existence of bypasses, favorable locations Another control measure is the assignment of
for water crossings, and obstacles. The number and azimuths to each unit. The Soviets depend on the use of
strength of reconnaissance units are increased at night azimuths and consider them a valuable supplement to
on both the flanks and the head of the column. reference points.
Chemical radiation reconnaissance patrols are Control is exercised further by designating guide
provided with infrared devices, illuminating markers, units. Each battalion designates a guide company; each
contaminated sector boundary markers, and signs to company, a guide platoon; and each platoon, a guide
define contaminated sectors. squad. Guide
. subunits are centrally located and
Concealment from enemy radar is aided by traveling provided with night vision devices and illumination
near population centers, near railroads, and on roads in means.
forests. In an attack from a position in direct contact with
Normally, long halts are not made at night because the enemy, subunit directions of attack and passages
the hours of darkness must be used to the maximum through mine fields or obstacles may be designated by
extent for movement. During short summer nights, one-way glowing markers emplaced in the ground.
troops are given only a 5- to 10-minute rest at each rest Markers for different subunits may have distinctive
stop. Rest stops are taken at sources of water or fuel. shapes or colors.
Rest stops must not be made near large population If the attack is made form the march, subunits may
centers, railroad stations, bridges, and other objects of be assigned an azimuth of attack. Locations for deploy
possible enemy interest. Rest stops are never taken in ment from march formation to prebattle formation and
open areas or near ravines or defiles. Strict blackout then to attack formation may be designated by ground
and noise discipline are maintained. The use of light markers, signal lights, or flares. The depths of subunit
and the buildingof fires are prohibited. objectives in a nightt attack would probably be reduced
Senior commanders organize traffic control service. from daytime depths
Subordinate commanders are informed as to how Complicated maneuvers are avoided because of dif
traffic control is organized, where traffic control posts line may be ordered to orient suhunits and to clarify
have been set up, and how bypasses and difficult the missions. The most common attack formation at
sectors of the route are marked. night is the line formation
Motorized rifle subunits usually attack dismounted
at night. They may conduct a mounted attack if the
THE OFFENSE terrain is very open, if enemy defenses have been
A night attack may be the continuation of daytime successfully neutralized by combat support means, and
combat, or it may be the start of a new attack. A con if illumination is abundant.
tinuation of a daytime attack must be carried through
Within t h e attack formation, distances between recognition signals. The commander plans the number
tanks, dismounted riflemen, and APCs is reduced. and location of illumination posts, the amount and t y p e
Riflemen probably attack on line with or immediately of illuminating equipment to allocate to units, the
behind the tanks. APCs probably follow at a distance of reserve to be retained for his own disposal, target
approximately 100 meters. indication procedures, and illumination readiness
If illumination is abundant, subunit attack frontages time. Incendiary shells may be employed to start fires
are probably the same as those for an attack in daylight. to blind or illuminate the enemy.
If little or no illumination is available or used, or if dif Planning for a counterattack begins with the
ficult terrain must be crossed, attack frontages prob preparation and organization of a night defense. The
ably arc reduced. As in a daylight attack, t h e Soviet night counterattack must be simple and carried out
commander tailors his forces and tactics t o the quickly. A determined surprise night counterattack,
situation. even by a small force, could have considerable impact
It is difficult to pinpoint t h e exact location of on the enemy's night attack because of its psycho-
artillery bursts and to conduct artillery reconnaissance logical impact.
during periods of artificial illumination and when night Artillery, mortars, and tanks are given preparatory
vision devices are used. Consequently, maneuver s u b fire missions against any enemy penetration and in
units are assigned more supporting direct fire weapons support of the counterattack. The unit commander
at night. Supporting weapons either move separately allocates tasks to the artillery and mortars to prepare
from t h e maneuver subunits, move several hundred concentrated fire in the area of probable enemy
meters to their rear. or move directly on line with penetration.
them. Some artillery may remain at the line of depar- A night counterattack usually is conducted in one
ture to support the attack when subunits moveout to echelon. With a single-echelon combat formation,
the attack. combined arms cooperation and control are c o n
Illumination assures effective artillery fire to siderablysimplified.
distances of not more than 3,000 meters. The closest
line ofillumination ( when illuminating shells are used
in windless weather) is fixed at no less than 500 THE DEFENSE
meters from the guns detailed to carry out direct fire. Night creates many difficulties for the attacking
The targets to b e destroyedby direct fire should be forces hut offers considerable advantage to the
located approximately in the center of the illuminated defender. Darkness reduces the effectiveness of an
zone. attacker's reconnaissance. observation, and aimed
lllumination by searchlight is periodic. Searchlights tires. Darknessalso providest h edefender with better
are turned on for 10 or 15 seconds and then switched concealment than the attacker. It is more difficult at
off for the same period of time. Illumination is night for t h e attacker to maneuver and control his
employed in a manner to hinder the enemy's activity forces. T h e defender, on the other hand, can move
but not disclose the objective of Soviet activity. forces under t h e cover of darkness from the FEHA or
Each artillery battalion designates one platoon for from areas threatenedb y t h eenemy beforethe attack
illumination missions. Illumination can be either begins, thus conserving his forces and causing the
periodic o r continuous. In the latter case, illuminating enemy to attack areas of little value.
rounds are fired every 20 to 30 seconds, 5 to 10 T h edifficulties in organizing a night defense require
seconds less than the full burningtime of one round. a comprehensivedefense operation order. The more
The most important tasks of reconnaissance important items of an order are:
elements in a night defense a r e timely detection of Possible enemy night activities.
enemy preparation for a night attack, location of Reference points.
enemy illumination equipment, and detection of Tasks for reconnaissance.
enemy engineers penetrating obstacles. Ambushes Raids.
may be set up, and friendly patrols may be sent out at Location of observation and listening posts.
night to reconnoiter gaps between strongpoints or on Security.
exposed flanks. Utilization of night vision devices.
One of the most important measures in night T h e fireplan.
defense is illumination support. This includes Anillumination plan.
illuminating the ground area, blinding t h e enemy, Signals for warning, control, and identification.
setting up marker lights, and determining mutual Camouflage.
In a night defense, the command observation post is and to develop initiative and resourcefulness. The
located near the FEBA so the commander can conduct problems are based as much as possible on actual
his own battle surveillance using night vision devices combat conditions. Psychological training is expected
and illumination equipment. Additional observation to develop confidence and a feeling of superiority.
posts can be established in the forward area if required. Some physical training is conducted at night.
It may be necessary to reinforce night defenses and Soldiers run through a conventional 200-meter
to increase the density of fire in front of the forward obstacle course at night, crossing obstacles such as
area as well as in sectors not occupied by friendly units. ditches, bomb craters, fences, palisades, walls,
Reserves o r second echelon forces may be moved up to trenches, pits, streams, and ravines under combat
the forward area for the night. conditions.
Although the Soviets devote a great deal of time to
TRAINING night training, indications are that for the most part the
Since the Soviets consider night operations to be a training is stereotyped, unrealistic, and frequently
normal activity, their training patterns reflect this noncomhat-related. Soviet night training reflects the
attitude. The Soviets claim to devote about 50 percent fact that they plan to move a lot at night. Thus, night
of training time to night training. marches and related activities (reorganization, mainte-
The Soviets begin their training for night combat nance, and preparations for a daylight attack) compose
with the individual soldier and then progress to unit the bulk of Soviet night training.
training. The soldier learns to select and recognize Training for movement at night also indicates a
orientation points that may escape his attention during discrepancy between doctrine and practice. Despite a
the daytime. He is trained to recognize different variety of available night vision devices, vehicular head-
sounds and to estimate their range and direction. He lights and flashlights are used often to help maintain
also learns to use night vision devices and aritifical control and orientation.
illumination. He is taught night firing techniques. A great deal of night movement and training takes
Special training is set aside for night tank and truck place only after thorough reconnaissance, planning,
driving. and rehearsal are conducted during daylight hours.
The Soviet soldier is given a number of training Soviet night training is directed more at movemmt,
problems that he must solve in total darkness, without preparation for daylight attacks, construction of field
the aid of night vision o r illumination devices. This is fortifications, and resupply than at preparation for
done to prepare him psychologically for night combat large-scale night combat.
CHAPTER 12
REAR AREA
C O M M A N D A N D CONTROL
M O D Logistics Organizations
MINISTER OF DEFENSE
Deputy Minister
I
o f Armaments CHIEF OF REAR
(Deputy Minister of Defense)
I I
TECHNICAL DIRECTORATES
DIRECT SUBORDINATES TO BRANCHES A N D SPECIAL
Artillery Directorate
Main Trade Directorate Chief of Rocket and
Directorate
Directorate Chief of Engineer Troops
LEGEND:
Subordination
Coordination
13-3
Logistic Stockpiles
The logistic storage of war materials consists of four The fmnt is not a fixed organization but is tailored
major categories: state, strategic, mobilization, and to meet specificobjectives based on forces available,
mobile reserves. mission requirements, enemy forces, and the physical
geography of the area of operations. Tailoring affects
State Reserves. Foodstuffs, petroleum products, the number and type of subordinate combat elements
manufactured goods, and other strategic raw materials and the number and type of assigned logistic units. The
are stored in special government warehouses. These logistic operation of the front is extensive and
items can be issued only with the express permission complex, and it serves as the major connecting link
of the State. While these stocks are considered to be between the industrial base of the Soviet Union and
separate from the military items held in strategic forces engaged in combat.
reserve, military use of at least part of these items is Generally Located between 150 to 200 kilometers
anticipated. from the FEBA, thefrontrear area is servedby air, high.
way, rail, and pipeline from the USSR. Rail transport
Strategic Reserves. These reserves are stocks of bears the burden of movement requirements to the
supplies and equipment controlled by the MOD. These front. Despite improvements in motor transport, rail
stocksare similar to stocks in State reserves and are not transport is used to carry the majority of Soviet war
planned for early use in a conflict. materiel as far forward as possible.
The frontsupply complex has awide range of fixed
Mobilization Reserves. Thesematerialsareheldfor and mobile depots and other facilities such as major
issue to newly activated, large military units and for hospitals and capital maintenance facilities. At this
resupply to combat units in the early stages of a level, depots are administered by each service, special
conflict. One directorate in the MOD determines the troop directorates, and the various subordinate
level and configuration of these stocks. It also is elements under the chief of the rear. When the
responsible for their accountabilityand maintenance. distance between front and army rear areas is great, a
The military districts coordinate mobilization front logistic base may be formed and located in the
measures between military and civilian sectors. forward portion of the front area. This logistic base is
situated along a railroad line when possible and also is
Mobile Reserves. Ammunition, fuel, rations, and supported by highway, air, and pipeline.
equipment are located with deployed ground units The army is the highest-level peace time combined
and transported by the unit's organic transport. arms formation. It has a permanent staff plus assigned
Ground forces maintain these supplies for use in combat support and combat service support elements.
immediate conduct of ground operations. These With the exception of its reduced size, the army
supplies are distributed throughout the ground forces logistic base is similar to that of the front. Logistic
in both tactical and support elements. Quantities of elements are basically the same for both tank and com
these supplies are established by published norms. bined arms armies.
Theyare constantly checked and keptat proper levels. The army logistic base normally is located within
An emergencyreserve of suppliesis maintained within 100 kilometers of the forward edge of the battle area
these stocks. It can be used only on order of the unit (FEBA). Like the front, the armyrear area is served by
commander. rail, highway, air, and pipeline when possible. If
distances between the army and its subordinate
divisions' rear area become great, or the number of
OPERATIONAL LOGISTICS units to be supported changes, a forward army logistic
Within the Soviet logistic system, the bulk oflogistic base is established. Multiple transport modes service
units are concentrated at two levels,f r o n and
t army. this forward base as much as possible. From this base
This concentration supports the Soviet philosophy of forward, motor transport is used for the b u l of
streamlined, highly mobile combat elements at materiel movement.
division and below. The responsibility and the primary
means for logistic support are maintained at these
higher levels. Tactical units are free to engage the TACTICAL LOGISTICS
enemy in high-speed and highlymobile action. This At the tactical level, Soviet logistic support is fully
reduction of logistic personnel at the tactical level mobile. Streamlined logistic elements support the
explains how Soviet divisions can he smaller than US respective tactical units with ammunition, POL, and
divisions but have more firepower. rations to insure continuous combat operations.
Supply elements deliver materials to the rear of combat supply actions. There are no branch depot chiefs at this
elements deployed on the FEBA. Medical and mainte- level to assist him. Maintenance functions are the
nance elements deploy as far forward as possible to responsibility of the deputy commander for technical
accomplish rapid return of lightly wounded personnel matters. Located up to 20 kilometersfrom the FEBA,
and lightly damaged equipment to the combat units. these logistic elements directly supply subordinate
Personnel and equipment requiring additional atten- battalions, and also may supply line companies when
tion are evacuated from the battlefield. required.
Divisional combat service support elements are Battalion logistic support is self-contained.Supplies
completely mobile. The division mobile logistic base are maintained with the supply and maintenance
normally is located approximately 25 to 40 kilometers platoon and transported on battalion vehicles. Pre-
from the FEBAin the offense,and up to 50 kilometers scribed norms of supply are maintained for all classes
in the defense. Logistic elements are organized similar of materiel, with replenishment provided directly by
to logistic elements at army level. The logistic base is regiment or division logistic elements. The battalion
headed by a logistics officer, assisted by branch depot chief of staff is the organizer of rear servicefunctions.
chiefs, and subordinate to the deputy commander for The deputy commander for technical matters is in
the rear. Maintenance operations are the responsibility charge of maintenance support. The supply platoon
of the deputy commander for technical matters. Motor commander is responsible for receipt, storage, and
transport, medical, and field bakery facilities are delivery of supplies to companies. He also deploys and
organic to the division. Supplies are delivered to operates battalion ammunition, fuel, and rationpoints.
regiments and battalions. The battalion fel'dsher (a physician's assistant) is chief
At regimental level, supplies are loaded on vehicles of the battalion medical section. He is responsible for
to maintain equal mobility combat elements. The gathering and evacuating wounded personnel from the
regimental chief of rear servicesis responsible for all companies and the battlefield.
L o c a t i o n s o f Tactical Logistic E l e m e n t s
I
UNIT LOGISTIC ELEMENT DISTANCE FROM DISTANCE FROM
FEBA ( I N THE FEBA (IN THE
OFFENSE) DEFENSE)
COMPANY Ammunition Supply Point 100-150 M
Rations Supply Point UP TO 1 KM
Medical Point 100 M
BATTALION Ammunition Supply Point 4 KM 2-3 KM
Repair Point 5 KM 3-5 KM
Rations Supply Point 5 KM 3-5 KM
Medical Point 1.5-3KM 1.5-3 KM
REGIMENT Ammunition Supply Point 10-15 KM 10-20 KM
Repair Point UP TO 15 KM UP TO 20 KM
POL Supply Point 10-15 KM 10-20 KM
Rations Supply Point 10-15 KM 10-20 KM
Medical Point 5-7 KM 6-10 KM
Damaged Motor Vehicle 5-7 KM 6-10 KM
Collecting Point
DIVISION Supply Dump (Ammunition. 25-30 KM 35-50 KM
POL Rations)
Repair Point (Tanks, 20-40 KM 35-50 KM
Weapons)
Repair Point (Wheeled 10-14 KM UP TO 20 KM
Motor Vehicles)
Medical Point 10.14 KM UP TO 20 KM
I FRONT COMMANDER
DEPUTYCOMMANDER
I I
.
CHIEF OF STAFF
.
.......
CHEF DEPUTYCOMMANDER CHIEF CHIEF CHIEF
CHIEF OF THE R E A R
...
I
SIGNALEQUIPMENT
...
MAINTENANCEBASE HO
REPAIR BATTALION
SUPPORT COMPANY FORWARD REAR REPAIRBATTALION
PARTS/EQUIPD EPOT
ARTILLERY/ORDNANCE
MAINTENANCE BATTALION AMMUNITION DEPORTS
PARTS DEPOT BRIDGE ROAD
CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION TRAFFICCONTROL
• BATTALION BATTALION BRIGADE
• WHEELED/TRACTOR
SAM MOBILEMISSILE
DEPOT TECHNICALBASE
.......... ARMOREDVEHICLE
MISSILETRANSPORT
REPAIRDEPOT CLOTHINGEQUIPMENT
REPAIR COMPANY
MOTORTRANSPORT
DETACHMENT
MEDICAL
MEDICAL
MISSILEFUEL DETACHMENT MOTOR TRANSPORT FIELDBAKERIES
TRANSPORTBATTALION BATTALION
clinicalchannel
Motorized Rifle Battalion Rear Service Support Elements During the March
I
MEDICAL POINT SUPPLY PLATOON
REPAIR SHOP
LEGEND:
Motorized rifle banalion. reinforced with Fuel truck Field kitchen
tanks and artilleryin march column (vanpak 1701200)
Battalion ambulance with trailer Fuel truck with trailer Truck with water trailer
Battalion ammunition truck Truck with field kitchen trailer Repair workshop with trailer
MOTES:
1. When there i s no enemythreat. fuel trucks am oftenplaced at t h eheadof the rearserviceelements.
2. Distances betweenrearservicievehicles in the march arenormally the same as those separating other
vehicles.
.................................................................
DURING THE
ATTACK
IN THE DEFENSE
AND
LEGEND:
MRC Motorizedrifle company
4 Motorized rifle company reinforced
by tanksin the attack
Company
medical point
AT-5 25 ,270
BMP (Troop Carrier Version)
1X 73-mm Gun 40 ,325
1X 7.62-mm MG 2,000 ,060
BTR-60P
1X 14.5 MG 500 ,145
1X 7.62-mm MG 2,500 ,075
transportation assets to move ammunition between trailers (4,200 liters), 200-liter drums, and 20-liter
depots and user units. cans for supply. Motorized rifle and tank divisions
Planning is based on the unit of fire for each weapon. normally carry sufficient reserves to refuel their units
Soviet planners use the unit of fire to compute twice.
ammunition and transportation requirements. Computation of fuel requirements is based on
A Soviet unit's basic load is a multiple of the unit of "refills." A unit's refill is the total requirement for all
fire. It includes the amounts hauled in the unit trains vehicles in the unit. For tracked vehicles,one "refill" is
and stored in the depot at the next higher head- that amount carried aboard in integral fuel tanks. For
quarters. It varies with the unit's mission, degree of wheeled vehicles, one refill is equivalent to that
enemy resistance, etc. A multiple of the unit of fire is required for a 500-kilometer range.
assigned for weapons before each major operation or Tactical pipelines may deliver fuel as far forward as
phase. The multiple assigned changes with the situa- division rear area.. Pipeline brigades or battalions may
tion. Assignment is based on the mission, the enemy, be found at front and army levels.
and the availability of ammunition. A brigade can lay about 45 miles of 4-inch pipeline
The chief of rocket troops and artillery computes per day, while a special pipeline battalion can lay up to
the number of rounds by type of weapon needed to 19 miles per day A recently developed pipelaying
support the commander's operations. The chief of rear machine requires only two operators to lay and couple
services then calculates the weight to determine pipe. Tactical pipelines normally are connected to
transport requirements. portable fuel tanks. When the pipeline extends over
flat terrain, mobile pumping stations are located at
approximately 9 mile intervals. In rough or moun-
POL tainous terrain, the stations would be closer together.
Fuels and lubricants are second only to ammunition A refueling point in rear areas may contain several
to resupply Soviet forces. Rail, pipeline,and waterways rubberized-cloth fuel containers capable of refueling
move POL to front and army. At front, depots are numerous vehicles simultaneously. It may be estab-
maintained with a 12-day supply. At army level, POL lished along a specific route to refuel all passing
depots maintain a 2- to 3-day supply. Advance bases are vehicles.
established near division rear boundaries when the Army, division, or regimental fuel servicetrucks may
distance between army depots and first echelon deliver fuel to battalion refueling points or, possibly,
divisions exceeds 100 kilometers.Divisions carry a 3- directly to vehicles.
to 5-day stock of mobile fuel. Units on the move refuel their vehicles during rest
At front and army POL depots, fuel is stored in tanks. halts, probably from tanker trucks and trailers.
Oil and lubricants are stored in 150- to 500-liter Wheeled vehicles may refuel from cans carried on
dmms. Divisions use fuel tankers (5,000 liters), fuel board.
I N VEHICLES I N U N I T LOGISTICBASE
UNIT (METRIC TONS) OR TRAIN METRIC TONS
Combined Arms Army 5,000 17.500
Tank Army 4.000
11.000
Motorized Rifle Division 700
1,450
Motorized Rifle Regiment 90
160
Motorized Rifle Battalion 9 11
Tank Division 800
1,700
Tank Regiment 120 240
Tank Battalions 25 40
POL Refill
NOTE: A unit's refill is the total requirement forall vehiclesin the unit.
Rations
Rations are issued based on meals per man per day. have arrived at their unit assignment. Subsequent
The Directorate of Rations Supply of the Ministry of reissues occur at specifiedintervals. Personnel equip-
Defense develops norms for a day's supply of rations. ment is issued from the unit depot. The depot stamps
Norms are based primarily on expenditure of energy clothing articles with the month and year that the item
for caloric requirements of military personnel. The was issued for wear. Accountable items for group use
Council of Ministers approve these norms and the (tents, coveralls, sports equipment) are the personal
norms are announced by orders of the Minister of responsibility of the individual who signs the hand
Defense. Basic ration norms determine the amount of receipt.
food products that are issued to feed one man for a 2 4
hour period. Supplemental norms determine the
amount of products to be issued in excess of the basic Vehicles
ration norms based on conditions under which the Procurement and resupply ofvehicles and end items
men are serving or the nature of their service.Dry are the responsiblity of the variouschiefs of service
rations are issued on the basis of 1 kilogram per man arms or technical services. The Soviet system does not
per day while fresh rations are based on 2 kilograms have a resupply procedure for unit end items whilethe
per man per day. Divisions carry a 5-day food supply. If unit is engaged tactically. The unit in combat is
possible, at least one hot meal is served per day. replaced by another unit when attrition reaches a
The chief of the rear is responsible for all ration certain level.
support. He must provide a timely and uninterrupted Mobile contact teams fix repairable equipment and
supply of rations and technical equipment for the return it to action as soonas possible. Thisis the only
preparation of food and for baking bread under field way to replace equipment end items. Damaged equip-
conditions. ment is not repaired in the field if it requires more than
a few hours work. (See Maintenance and Recovery.)
A certain number of wheeled and tracked vehicles
Clothing are kept in storage in peacetime to preserve them. A
Enlisted personnel and officers receive military minimum number of vehicles are kept for normal
clothing at the time of induction. Supplementary training and administrative uses, generally from 15 to
clothing including field clothing is issued after they 35 percent of the vehicles authorized.
Repair pans and subassemblies are stocked at eliminates use of water for washing, laundry, and
maintenance units from f r o n tthrough battalion levels. bathing. The absolute minimum allowance of water is
Repair parts supply is accomplished by routine, 3 liters which is for drinking only and normally is not
medium, and capital maintenance units. Repair parts maintained for more than 3 days
that are stocked and used according to the following
system:
Routine repairs. These include replacement of Engineer, Signal,
tires, windshields,and common fuel and electric items Chemical, and Medical Items
such as fuel pumps and carburetors. These repairs Items peculiar to these services are procured
usually are done by units at regimental or division through separate channels under the supervision of
levels. the chiefs of the services from front to regimental
Medium repairs. These repairs involve replace- levels. Medical supplies are handled through inde-
ment or overhaul of engines or transmissions, usually pendent channels, as a separate function of the chief of
are accomplished by a division, army, or f r o n t . the rear.
Capital repairs.These repairsinvolve major over-
haul and reassembly of major subcomponents and
repair parts. Thisactivity takes place only at army and Supply Distribution System
above, including evacuation to the industrial base. The peacetime military district, or the wartime
Under this system, the users submit their requests to front, receives its supplies from the national storage
the next higher maintenance unit which supplies the depots or in some cases directly from the industrial
item from stocks on hand. Mobile reserve supplies are production line. Front delivers the items directly to
maintained on trucksfrom frontto regimental levels. army depots. In turn, army delivers equipment to sup-
They are replenished as soon as possible after being ported divisions, and the divisions deliver to the
expended. regiments. If necessary, intermediate echelons may be
bypassed to deliver items directly to the user.
Water Supply
Supply InstallationsSchematic
The water supply in the fieldisplanned by engineers I
in cooperation with the medical service.When time
permits, a water supply plan is drawn up to include a MINISTRY OF DEFENSE
survey, a water supply chart, and a work schedule. The
location of existing water resources in the expected
zone of operations is established for the survey. The FRONT REAR
water supply chartindicates which water wells to use, SUPPLY BASE
where to dig new wells, and how to deploy water FRONT FORWARD
supply stations. The work schedule designates water SUPPLY BASE(S)
points and the soldiersassigned to them. The schedule
also shows daily water requirements, transportation
requirementsfor hauling the water, andequipment for ARMY MOBILE
handling it.
Engineers organize water supply points in the rear of ADVANCE ARMY
fronts and armies. Water supply points for all lower
echelons are organized by organic engineer units or by
the soldiers themselves under the direction of the local PPLY BASE
commander. The daily requirements for areas where
water points are widely scattered are carefully NOTE: When deliverydistances
computed to determine the amount oftransportation become excessive, the base may
needed. be displaced forward. or Front
The normal rate of water consumption per man is Supply Bare Sections may be
about 10 liters per day. This includes water for established. When necessary.
mobile Army Advance Supply
drinking, food preparation, washing, laundry, and Bares will be established am-
bathing. Under restricted water conditions, the daily mediately behind division COMPANY
allowance is reduced to about 5 liters per day which sectors
Rail Transport
The fmnt and army logistic bases are large com- The Soviet Union has over 83,000 miles of railway
plexes providing combat service support needs. At track, of which over 20,000 miles are electric. This
division level, supply bases are as close to the ongoing system handles from 66 to 85 percent of the freight
battle as possible. Critical ammunition and POL are traffic and 50 percent of the passenger traffic in the
uploaded and sent forward as required. Soviet Union. Railroads are the principal means of
Supplies are moved in bulk mainly by rail and pipe- transporting military hardware from the USSR Rail
line but also by road from the strategic rear into the transport also may be used to carry fuel from rear areas
operational rear where dumps are established or to the fmnt.
replenished. Fuel is sent to the tactical rear by tanker Rail transport in peacetime falls under the super-
or pipeline, or is held in fuel dumps to replenish vision of the Ministry of Railways. This agency is a
second echelon forces before they are committed. uniformed servicewith ranks similar to the military. It
The conditions of the ongoing battle dictate the also operates all civilian railway serviceswithin the
location of dumps and stockpiles.Beinghighly mobile, USSR Military rail forces work with civilians in every-
divisions do not create stockpiles but maintain mobile day operations, but in wartime, the railway system
stocks as far forward as possible. reverts to military control.
At division level, replenishment depots are set up at A Railroad Troops Directorate handles rail construc-
a convenient road junction, but supplies remain tion and maintenance of the MOD-controlled tracks. It
uploaded whenever possible. The replenishment operates trains carrying sensitive military cargosuch as
depot is under the command of a deputy commander missiles over the civilian rail system. Also, military
for resupply, who is subordinate to the division chief of railroad troops participate in construction projects in
the rear. Usually, divisional supply points are well the civilian sector.
dispersed. In time of war, the military rail transport staff of the
Air resupply may be considered on a small or front chief of the rear plans and directs rail shipments
moderate scale when other methods have failed or and movements. Front logistic bases probably would
when extreme speed is essential. High-value cargo, be located near large rail centers. The chief of rail
such as nuclear warheads or NBC protective clothing,
have high priority for air supply.
Rail System
TRANSPORTATION
Soviet Union has 83,000 miles of railway track
The various transportation services under MOD are
traffic management, railroad operations, railroad of which over 20,000 miles are electric.
maintenance and construction, highway construction Railroads are the principal means of trans-
and maintenance, highway regulation, and operation porting military hardware from the USSR.
of all transport modes including pipelines.
66-86% FREIGHT
TRAFFIC
Traffic Management
Traffic management for the MOD is the respon-
sibility of the Central Military Transportation Direc
torate(VOSO). The VOSO is subordinate at MOD level 60% PASSENGER
to the Chid of the Rear. They are responsible for
management of defense transportation requirements
using military and civilian resources. The VOSO has
1 TRAFFIC
Railwav s y s t e m
staffelements down to a r mlevel. y These elements handles from 66 to
advise chiefs of the rear serviceson transportation 85 percent of the
I
planning requirements. The VOSO elements collocate freight traffic and 50
with civil transport authorities at rail, water, and air p e r c e n t of t h e
facilities and assist them in developing transportation passenger traffic.
plans. The VOSO officers at various transport
terminals, stations, and installations are assigned as In time of war the military rail transport staff of
"military commandants." They exercise garrison com- the front chief of the rear plans and directs rail
manders' functions for the facility. shipments and movements.
transport at front level is responsible, through yard does not have to support itself. The frontor army has
and regulating elements, for dispatch of supplies from the support mission for the divisions.
rail stations to army logistic bases. Besides military transportation, the Soviets intend to
use motor transport vehicles from the civilian sector.
They also mobilize reserve transportation units called
Motor Transport autokolonnas. The autokolonnas are drawn from the
Extensive use of motor transport begins at fmnt civilian economy to make up for shortages in military
level. If rail transport facilities are available at front, units. The individuals in the autokolonnas are
they are used with motor transport used at army level. experienced drivers with their own trucks and tool
Motor transport units are organic to Soviet ground kits. They drive their own trucks in the armed forces
forces fromfmnt to battalion levels. The normal sizes and return to civilian life following demobilization.
of motor transport units are as follows: Second echelon unit logistic elements support first
F r o n tMotor
. transport brigade. echelon units. This practice increases the transport
Army.Motor transport regiment. capability for logistic support to the first echelon
Division. Motor transport battalion. regiments and divisions. Logistic bases can be located
Regiment. Motor transport company. deeper in the frontor armyrear areas. This placement
Battalion. Motor transport section with the supply reduces congestion in the main combat area, hut
platoon. requires long lines of communication that could be
Company. No specific motor transport section. likely targets for enemy air interdiction strikes.
The primary means of delivery below army level is by To, assist in control of their huge numbers of
truck. The priority given to the movement of ammuni- vehicles, the Soviets have special traffic control
tion is shown by the two ammunition transport elements. The personnel of these units are trained
companies in the motor transport battalion at division traffic regulators equipped with black uniforms, white
level. These companies have 60 URAL-375 trucks with belts, gauntlets, helmets, signal flags, and wands. They
each having a 4.5-ton carrying capacity and 60 cargo are positioned along march routes at critical points to
trailers with a similar carrying capacity. These trucks direct column movement. Because maps are sensitive,
have all-wheel drive ( 6 X 6), giving them an off-road restricted documents in the Soviet military, traffic
capability that is well suited for frontline ammunition regulators are critical to vehicular movements.
delivery. Demand for POL will not diminish in the future,and
The petroleum, oils, and lubricants (POL) transport Soviet development of tactical pipeline construction
company has the same basic truck as the ammunition units is designed to meet this need. Construction of
company. The POL version of the URAL-375has a pipelines as far forward as possible will allow the
5,550-liter tank with a 4,200-liter tank mounted on a Soviets to decrease their reliance on motor transport
trailer. The POL company has 80trucks and 80 trailers. of POL.
The other company in the battalion is the cargo
transport company. This company has about 60
medium and light cargo trucks. Its mission is to deliver Weaknesses
items of supply other than ammunition and bulk fuel. The Soviet transportation system is not without
A major strength of Soviet motor transport is the weaknesses. Due to differences in rail gauges between
great quantity and extensive use of trailers. Loaded the USSR and Eastern Europe, the Soviets have to trans-
trailers are pulled forward to fighting units and load at the border. They have organized the necessary
exchanged for empty trailers. The empty trailers are equipment and personnel to conduct transloading
returned to rear logistic bases for reloading. In this operations. However, it is still highly likely that during
manner, fighting units maintain maximum quantities peak traffficperiods delays will be experienced at these
of critical supplies such as ammunition and fuel. border locations.
At army level, the Soviets have one or more motor Trafficcongestion also would be intense in the rear
transport regiments, with perhaps 1,000 plus trucks since masses of wheeled vehicles move supplies to the
per regiment that can be used to support subordinate frontline units. Overtasking of vehicles is normal under
divisions. This massive amount of transport at army and certain conditions. During the offensive, vehicles
front levels upholds the Soviet concept of "delivery might be overloaded 75 percent for cross-country
forward."This concept allows the chief of the rear at movement and 100 percent on hard-surface roads.
these levels the flexibility to mass logistic support This overtaskingleads to rapid vehicle malfunction and
assets to the engaged divisions. As a result, the division breakdown.
13-14
Maintenance Facilities Organizational
Maintenance facilities in the fieldare provided for
Maintenance Capabilities
the following items of equipment: Company Level. Only driver and crew preventive
Tracked vehicles. maintenance and routine inspections are conducted at
Wheeled vehicles. company level.
Artillery and ordnance.
Engineer equipment. Battalion Level. The repair workshop contains a
Signal equipment. shop truck and four mechanics who make routine
Chemical equipment. repairs on tracked and wheeled vehicles. In combat,
Service for these items is provided by fixed and this repair workshop can be reinforced with a vehicle
mobile repair facilities that extend repair capabilities recovery section.
forward into t h e battle area.
Regimental Level. The maintenance company per-
forms routine and some medium repair functions.
Vehicle Repair Motorized rifle and tank regiments have both wheeled
The Soviets classify repairs as routine, medium, or and tracked vehicle workshops. Each of these elements
capital. may form repair and evacuation groups (REGs)to
provide support to subordinate battalions.
Routine Repairs. Replacement, adjustment, or
repair of individual components that can be made Division Level. The maintenance battalion is
within a short time. Major components are not dis- composed of a headquarters company; tracked vehicle
assembled. This category is performed at levels below maintenance company; wheeled vehicle maintenance
division. company; ordnance maintenance company; and
special task, recovery, and supply and serviceplatoons.
Medium Repairs. Major overhaul of at least two Within the companies, there are shop vans, supply
basic assemlies. This category of maintenance is trucks, tank retrievers, and tow trucks. Both routine
performed at regimental or division level. and medium repairs may be performed. In combat,
these companies establish damaged vehicle repair and
Capital Repairs. Major overhaul or complete dis collection points that are similar to regimental REGs.
assembly of a piece of equipment. This is the most
extensive category of maintenance and can be Army Level. Combined arms and tank armies have
performedat army and front levels. their maintenance capabilities augmented by front as
In wartime, the types of repair that are performed at required. Army units can providemobile detachments
each level depend on the tactical situation. Generally, for forward operations if necessary.
they are of a lesser degree than in peacetime.
Front Level. Front maintenance units are manned
and equipped for capital repairs. These units operate
Technical Services from fixed facilities or mobile detachments.
The Soviets also use periodic checks of equipment
known as technical services. Examples of a technical Maintenance Reponsibilities
servicefor a tank are: The chief of missile and artillery armament at
Routine inspection. Conducted before tank regiment and above is responsible for the maintenance
movement as a preoperational check and takes 40 of small arms, automatic weapons, mortars, artillery,
minutes. and missiles. Motorized rifle and tank regiments
Preventive maintenance service number 1. Con usually have two or three armorers to perform light
ducted after tank movement and at 100- to 150 repair on small arms and on some automatic weapons.
kilometerintervals during a long road march. This Armorers in artillery regiments can do routine mainte-
service takes between nine-to-twelve hours. nance on artillery pieces as well as on small arms.
Preventive maintenance service number 2. A six Artillery repair in tank regiments is done by the tank
to-seven-hour thorough inspection performed every workshop. At division level, routine-to-medium repairs
1000 kilometers. are made in the artillery maintenance company of the
Preventive maintenance service number 3. A nin maintenance and repair battalion. Artillery repairs at
to-twelve-hour comprehensive inspection of all regiment and division consist primarily of replacing
vehicle systems performed every 2,000 kilometers. parts from available stocks. At army level, there is a
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In the Soviet view, rear area protection and security Emergency use of weapons and equipment under-
comprise the comprehensive coordination of more going repair (crews generally remain with equipment
than just the rear of military forces in contact with the during repair).
enemy. The Soviets also believe that general war will Use of convalescent sickand wounded for defense
involve more than the armed forces fighting along during critical situations.
established front lines. A future large-scale war, At army and front level, electronic warfare and air
whether conventional or nuclear,will include wide- defense elements are located to provide thorough
spread espionage, sabotage, infiltration,airborne and coverage of the entire area of operations. Combat
amphibious operations, and massive destruction that support and combat servicesupport elements also
will occur throughout the nation. So total war will have rear area security responsibilities from the rear
involve the total population. area of units in contact to the rear boundary.
The Soviets have established an extensive and
encompassing program of organizations and pro-
cedures to conduct rear area security. Security and KGB TROOPS
protection of the rear area is critical. It includes Besides its major role in intelligence activities, the
vital installations, airfields, communications and Committee for State Security (KGB) is responsible for
transportation nets, critical industries, strategic border security and special communications. In the
weapons, and large troop formations. In the event event of an enemy invasion, the KGB border guard
of a large-scale general war, this program would detachments would fight delaying actions until
immediately go into operation insuring, among other relieved by ground forces units. Conversely, during a
things, the following: Soviet offensive, border guard missions would include
Rear area security and protection of combat, securing the operational armies' rear, conducting
combat support, and combat service support units and counterespionage, forestalling desertions, thwarting
areas of operation. deep enemy penetrations, and conducting mop-up
Security andprotection of lines of communication. operations in the rear area.
Security and protection of borders and coastlines.
Mobilization of reserves.
Civil defense. MVD TROOPS
Suppression of local insurgents. Interior troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs
Defense against airborne attack. ( M V D )are primarily responsible for maintaining
Defense against unconventional warfare domestic security. Missions in the civilian sector
(including saboteurs, partisans, and propaganda). include criminal investigation, motor vehicle inspec
Damage conrtol. tionand control, and issuance of visas. In wartime, they
also have the missions to suppress insurrection, to
conduct counterespionage, and to transport prisoners.
U N I TSECURITY KGB and MVD troops are organized, equipped, and
All units, from the smallest through front level, trained much the same as Soviet ground forces, but
are responsible for-the security of their own rear special attention is given to security functions. In
areas. In larger organizations (regiment and up), general, KGB and MVD troops are considered to be
elements of the second echelon have most of the extremely reliable and are very well trained.
responsibility for security. Organic personnel and
equipment carry out basic security and damage con-
trol in the rear area. Appropriate measures include MILITARY DISTRICTS
the following: The 16 Soviet military districts are administrative
Comprehensive security plans. commands which do not correspond to the political
Locating support units near combat troops for boundaries of the Soviet Union's 15 republics. In
added protection. wartime, the assets of many military districts probably
Temporary assignment of combat units to security would be organized into fronts, providing both the
missions (usually second echelon elements). command and control structure and units for combat
Employment of guards, sentries, and patrols. operations.
Military activity within a military district continues, Civilian civil defense formations insure a potentially
however, even when troop units are deployed else- valuable laborforce for the Soviets. They are also a
where. Military installations such as schools and source for intelligence gathering, particularly in areas
garrisons, and operations such as logistics and com threatened by airborne or seabome attack, guerrilla or
munications would continue to function, and in partisan activity, or large-scale invasion.
certain instances, even be augmented. Civil defense receives extensive propaganda treat-
Military district mobilization plans cover not only ment in the Soviet media.There is civil defense training
units, installations,and activities ofthedistrict, but also in schools, for housewives, and for retirees besides the
the call-up of reserves.Reserve call-up is selective to training given in factories and civil defense formations.
permit orderly activation and to insure an adequate However, Soviet civil defense programs have been
labor force for critical civilian occupations. Civil criticized for their lack of imagination, heavy ideolo-
defense activities also are conducted through the gical (rather than practical) emphasis, lack of realism,
military district command structure. poor quality instruction, inadequate planning, and
poor coordination. Many mass evacuation plans have
not been rehearsed for years, if at all. Nevertheless, the
CIVILDEFENSE Soviet civil defense program reaches virtually every
Overall civil defense of the Soviet Union is directed citizen in the nation with at least minimal instruction
by a Deputy Ministerof Defense. Civil defense troops, and indoctrination. Despite widespread cynicism and
numbering approximately 40,000,are a branch of the apathy, the program is large andgrowing It is probably
Soviet military under the command of the Chief ofCivil the most highly developed civil defense effort in the
Defense. They are subordinate to deputy commanders world.
for civil defense in the 16 military districts.
Most civil defense efforts involve organization and
training for survival,rescue, repair, and restoration. RESERVES
The intent is to involve the Soviet population. Civil Soviet conscripts have a reserve obligation until age
defense is one of several means of involvingthe popu- 50. The total Soviet potential reserve manpower pool
lation in disciplinedactivitvand of keepingthem aware is estimated to be twenty fivemillion men. About 6.8
of the ever-present "threat" posed by the enemies of o million of these men are young, recently-trained
the Soviet Union. veterans.
-
Perhaps 70 percent of workers engaged in vital
industry belong to civil defense organizations. Their
principal objectives are:
Soviet reservists are not organized in specific reserve
units. Instead, reservists called up for training report to
existing active units. In the event of a large-scale
To prevent panic. mobilization, reservists will be assigned where
To maintain law and order. required. Many would fill out low-strength divisions
To maintain agricultural and industrial and other units.
production. The Soviet reserve system provides a vast resource of
To insure organized decontamination. former servicemen. Younger and more recently
Civil defense activities involve over thirty million trained personnel probably would be mobilized for
people and are closely tied to the overall war and sur- combat service. Older reservistseasily could take over
vival effort. Organized and trained personnel, con- numerous garrison, guard, and rear area
trolled by the government, will be capable of at least responsibilities.
the following activities: Given such vast numbers of men with prior military
Fire fighting. service plus a citizenry which has received consider-
First aid. able exposure to civil defense indoctrination and
Camouflageof industrial targets. training, the Soviets can count on a population that is
Chemical defense and decontamination. potentially more aware and prepared, and that is used
Damage control. to discipline. (For more information on Soviet
Rescue. reserves, see FM 100-2-3).
Public order and safety.
Communication and warning.
Evacuation. INDUSTRIAL SURVIVAL
Reconnaissance. The Soviets expect to survive and to win any future
Radiological monitoring and decontamination. war.To do this, special attention has been devoted to
14-2
protecting the industrial and technological base. Pro- over 14 and the Soviets claim about eighty million
tective measures include dispersion of industrial members. DOSAAF stresseseach citizen's obligation to
facilities, physical hardening of factories, stockpiling defend the Soviet Union. Its basic propaganda themes
materials and parts, constructing shelters for workers, are patriotism and the external threat.
and creating evacuation plans. Dispersion reduces Major DOSAAF activities include sports, preinduc-
vulnerability but it also increases the transportation tion military training,and technical specialist training.
problem and the security burden. Many reservists join DOSAAF to take advantage of the
latter activity, as it is a good way to acquire or improve
technical skills. DOSAAF activities are coordinated
DOSAAF with the Komsomol(Young Communist League) and
The Voluntary Society of Assistance to the Army, with civil defense organizations.
Aviation, and the Navy (DOSAAF) is yet another Soviet In practice, the DOSAAF program sometimes fails to
organization thatcould play a role in rear areasecurity achieve its goals. It has a Large, cumbersome bureau-
and protection. DOSAAF isaparamilitaryorganization. cracy. DOSAAF has been critizedin the Soviet press for
Its primary goals are producing a military-conscious inefficiency, inadequate coordination, and poor
society, preparing the civilian population for military quality instruction. The premilitarytraining program
emergencies, and preparing preinduction-age youth sometimes is criticized forits lack of quality.(For more
for military service. Membership is open to anyone information on DOSAAF, see PM 100-2-3.)
GLOSSARY
KELT, AS-5
SPANDREL, AT-5
GAMMON, SA-5
KERRY, AS-7
SPIGOT. AT-4
GANEF, SA-4
KINGFISH. AS-6
SPIRAL; AT-6
GASKIN,S A - 9
KIPPER, AS-2
SWATTER, AT-2
GECKO, SA-8
KITCHEN. AS-4
GOA. SA-3
GRAIL, SA-7
GUIDELINE, SA-2
Aircraft Helicopters
BACKFIRE, Tu-26
HALO A, MI-26
BADGER, Tu-1 6
HARE, M l - 1
Surface-To-Surface
BEAR, Tu-95
HARKE, MI-10, M1-10K
Missiles
BLACKJACK, Tu-?
HIND, MI-24
SCALEBOARD, SS-12
BLINDER, Tu-22
HIP, MI-8
SCUD A, SS-lb
BREWER, Yak-28
HOMER, MI-12
SCUD B, S S - 1 c
CAMBER, 11-86
HOOK, MI-6
CANDID, 11-76
HOPLITE, MI-2
CLINE, An-32
HOUND, MI-4
COALER, An-72
COCK, An-22
COOT, 11-18
Radars
CUB, An-1 2
BIG FRED, MT-SON
CURL, An-26
END TRAY. RMS-1
FARMER, MiG-19
FIRECAN, SON-9. SON-9A
FENCER, Su-24
FLAP WHEEL
FIREBARB, Yak-2BP
FLAT FACE, P-15
F I S H E D , MiG-21
GUN DISH
FITTERA, Su-7B
LONG TROUGH
FITTER C, S u -17
PORK TROUGH
FLANKER. Su-27
PORK TROUGH 2, SNAR-6
FLOGGER B, MiG-23
SMALL FRED, BMP-SON
FLOGGER D . MiG-27
SMALL YAWN
FOXBAT,MiG-25
FOXHOUND, MiG-31
FRESCO. MiG-17
FULCRUM, MiG-29
FM 100-2-2
16 JULY 1984
Official:
ROBERT M .JOYCE
MajorGeneral. United States Army
DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, ARNG, and USAR: To be distributed i n accordance with DA Form12-1 1B.Require-
ments for Handbook on Agressor Military Forces (Qty rqr block no. 287); Agressor Order of Battle
Book (Qtyrqr block no. 288) and Operations of Army Forces in the Field (Qty rqr block no. 405).
Additional copies maybe requisitioned from the US Army AdjutantGeneral PublicationsCenter,
2 8 0 0Eastern Boulevard, Baltimore,MD 21 220.