metals

Article
Experimental Investigation of Forming Forces in
Frictional Stir Incremental Forming of Aluminum
Alloy AA6061-T6
B.T.H.T. Baharudin 1,2, * ID
, Q.M. Azpen 1,3 , Shamsuddin Sulaima 1,2 and F. Mustapha 4
1 Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra
Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia; qasimmhalhal@gmail.com (Q.M.A.); shamsuddin@upm.edu.my (S.S.)
2 Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre, Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia
3 Middle Technical University-Institute of Technology, Baghdad 10001, Iraq
4 Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University Putra Malaysia,
Serdang 43400, Malaysia; faizalms@upm.edu.my
* Correspondence: hangtuah@upm.edu.my; Tel.: +60-17-553-6479

Received: 4 September 2017; Accepted: 17 October 2017; Published: 7 November 2017

Abstract: The incremental sheet forming (ISF) process is an emerging flexible sheet-forming process,
which is adequate for the manufacturing of unique or small-volume batches. Single-point incremental
forming (SPIF) is the original technology of incremental sheet-forming processes. In this article,
frictional stir-assisted SPIF was used to deform AA6061-T6 aluminum alloy. Experimental tests were
conducted to measure the forming forces during this process for the concerned lightweight material.
The influence of process parameters was investigated, which included tool rotation speed, feed rate,
step size and tool diameter on the produced forming forces. A Taguchi technique for the design
of experiment (DOE) and the varying wall angle conical frustum (VWACF) test was employed in
this study. The results show that the rotation spindle speed was the most dominant parameter that
affects the forming forces, followed by the step size, feed rate and tool diameter. In addition,
the interaction between the feed rate and step size has a notable impact on the values of the
forming forces.

Keywords: incremental sheet forming; frictional stir-assisted SPIF; AA6061-T6; forming forces

1. Introduction
Incremental sheet forming (ISF) is described as having an inherent flexibility, high formability,
low cost and low-forming forces compared to traditional sheet metal forming processes. Based on the
evident advantages of this process, ISF is a promising forming process, as it is highly impressive
from both the academic and industrial perspectives [1–3]. In the beginning of the last century,
high interest focused on improving and employing lightweight materials in various industrial
applications, such as aerospace, marine and automobile sectors [4,5]. The present applications of ISF
are in the aerospace [5], transportation [6] and medical [7] fields. One of the important applications
of the incremental forming is the incremental roller burnishing technique, which is used to finish the
coated surface of the forming tools [8] and sheets [9] with very smooth surfaces.
Increasing demands to utilize the lightweight materials in various applications has created a
critical challenge in this developed process, which is namely how to deal with low formability materials
at room temperature [4,5]. Consequently, heat-assisted ISF processes have been suggested to improve
the formability at warm or hot conditions. These methods include electric-assisted ISF, laser-assisted
ISF and frictional stir-assisted ISF [5,10–12].

Metals 2017, 7, 484; doi:10.3390/met7110484 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2017, 7, 484 2 of 15

In sheet metal forming processes, an adequate level of load is necessary to overcome

Metals 2017, 7, 484 2 of 15
the yield stress of the sheet metal material to produce the required permanent deformation.
Generally, the forming forces that accompany ISF are small compared to those required for traditional
forming forces that accompany ISF are small compared to those required for traditional forming
forming processes, such as deep drawing and stamping. Known as the single-point incremental
processes, such as deep drawing and stamping. Known as the single-point incremental forming
forming (SPIF), only the value of the load at the forming tool-sheet metal interface affects the degree of
(SPIF), only the value of the load at the forming tool-sheet metal interface affects the degree of the
the localized plastic deformation. Thus, an excessive applied load affects the workpiece at the local
localized plastic deformation. Thus, an excessive applied load affects the workpiece at the local
forming area, which lies under the forming tool [13,14]. Figure 1 explains the basic elements of SPIF.
forming area, which lies under the forming tool [13,14]. Figure 1 explains the basic elements of SPIF.
In this figure, a–c are the tool positions during the forming process while ti and tf are the initial and
In this figure, a–c are the tool positions during the forming process while ti and tf are the initial and
final thickness of the sheet (dimensions in mm) and (Φ) is the wall angle of the formed part which
final thickness of the sheet (dimensions in mm) and (Φ) is the wall angle of the formed part which
measured in degrees.
measured in degrees.

Figure 1. Single-point incremental point (modified from [6]).

Figure 1. Single-point incremental point (modified from [6]).

The deforming forces in SPIF cannot be initially selected by the designers, which usually occurs
The deforming
in conventional forcesprocesses.
forming in SPIF cannot
Therebeare initially
severalselected
factors, bywhich
the designers,
largely help which usually occurs
determine these
in
forming loads, such as the application of the forming strategy, tool-sheet interaction andthese
conventional forming processes. There are several factors, which largely help determine the
forming loads, such as the application of the forming strategy, tool-sheet
kinematics of the process [15,16]. The perfect forecasting of forming forces is a crucial task in the interaction and the kinematics
of the process
process [15,16].forThe
optimization perfectparameters
selecting forecastingand of forming
the choice forces
of theis proper
a crucial task inequipment
forming the process to
optimization for selecting parameters and the choice of the proper forming
perform the experiments. Therefore, when forming forces exceed the allowable levels, they will affect equipment to perform the
experiments. Therefore,
the tooling stiffness, whenquality,
product formingjigforces exceed the
and fixtures allowable
as well as the levels,
machines they will affect the tooling
used.
stiffness, product quality, jig and fixtures as well as the machines used.
The forming forces in SPIF are characterized by highly intensive and localized deformation that
The
leads to high forming forces forces
frictional in SPIFatarethecharacterized
tool-sheet contact by highly intensive
interface. The and localized
prevailing deformation
force component thatis
leads to high frictional forces at the tool-sheet contact interface. The
the axial component in the direction of the forming tool [17,18]. Thus, estimation of the maximum prevailing force component is the
axial
forcescomponent
is an important in the direction
issue, notoffor thedesign
forming tool [17,18]. Thus,
requirements, but forestimation of the maximum
other significant reasons. forces
These
is an important issue, not for design requirements, but for other significant
reasons include preserving the tooling machine, guaranteeing the safe usage of hardware, ensuring reasons. These reasons
include
the quality preserving
of the the toolingparts
produced machine,
[13],guaranteeing
determiningthe thesafe usage
stress of hardware,
levels and therefore,ensuring the quality
plastic strains
of the produced parts [13], determining
controlling the structure of the component. the stress levels and therefore, plastic strains controlling the
structure of the component.
Many studies carried out aimed to explain the effect of different parameters on the process forces
Many These
[13,19–25]. studies carried
studies out aimed to
demonstrated explain
that the effect
SPIF forces haveof different parameters
proportional relationships onwiththe process
the tool
forces [13,19–25]. These studies demonstrated
size, step size, sheet thickness, and forming wall angle [26]. that SPIF forces have proportional relationships with
the tool size, step size, sheet thickness, and forming wall angle [26].
Moreover, adjusting the rotational speed [17,27–30] and applying lubricants [31,32] can
Moreover,
effectively reduce adjusting
these the rotational speed
concentrated forces.[17,27–30] and applying
A few studies lubricants the
have examined [31,32] canof
effect effectively
the tool
reduce
rotation speed on the forming forces in SPIF. Durante et al. [17], during their investigation speed
these concentrated forces. A few studies have examined the effect of the tool rotation of the
on the forming
formability forces in SPIF.
of AA7075-T0 Durante
with tool speeds et ranging
al. [17], from
during their
0–800 investigation
rpm, found that the of the formability
friction decreased of
AA7075-T0
and therefore, with thetool speedsforces
forming ranging from 0–800
decreased as therpm,
toolfound
speedthat the friction
increased. decreased
Bagudanch and
et al. therefore,
[24] studied
the
the effect of tool diameter, step size and tool rotational speed on the SPIF of AISI-304 stainlesseffect
forming forces decreased as the tool speed increased. Bagudanch et al. [24] studied the steel
of tool diameter,
material. step size andresults
Their experimental tool rotational
proved speedthat theon forming
the SPIF forces
of AISI-304 stainless steel
are proportional to material.
the tool
Their
diameter experimental
and step size, results
while proved
forcesthat the forming
decrease forces
with high are proportional
rotational speeds. Xutoetthe al. tool
[26] diameter
conductedand an
step
experimental study on AA5052-H32 aluminum alloy with 1.27 mm thickness to analyzeexperimental
size, while forces decrease with high rotational speeds. Xu et al. [26] conducted an the effect of
study on AA5052-H32
tool rotation in a rangealuminum
of 0–7000alloyrpm with 1.27 mm
on forming thickness
forces, to analyze
generated the effectand
temperature of tool rotation in
formability. It
awas
range of 0–7000 rpm on forming forces, generated temperature and formability.
demonstrated that in a range of 0–1000 rpm, the friction is the main factor. However, in a range It was demonstrated
of 2000–7000 rpm, the thermal and dynamic recrystallization effects were the dominant factors. It
proved that increasing the rotation speed helped in enhancing the formability, reducing the forming
forces and raising the temperature during the process. Moreover, a tool with a laser surface texture
(LST) was utilized during the forming process and this study proved that this designed tool played
Metals 2017, 7, 484 3 of 15

that in a range of 0–1000 rpm, the friction is the main factor. However, in a range of 2000–7000 rpm,
the thermal and dynamic recrystallization effects were the dominant factors. It proved that increasing
the rotation speed helped in enhancing the formability, reducing the forming forces and raising the
temperature during the process. Moreover, a tool with a laser surface texture (LST) was utilized during
the forming process and this study proved that this designed tool played a crucial role in the reduction
of friction due to micro channels and the generated hydrodynamic pressure by this texture.
Metals 2017, 7, 484 3 of 15
Duflou et al. [13] carried out an experimental investigation to determine the effect of some parameters,
such as tool size,role
a crucial wallinangle, step size
the reduction ofand sheet
friction duethickness, on SPIF forces.
to micro channels and theItgenerated
was found that increasing the
hydrodynamic
values ofpressure by this texture.
these parameters led to increasing forming forces. The effect of the same process parameters
Metals 2017, 7, 484 3 of 15
was studiedDuflou
by Bahloul et al. et
[13]
al.carried
[33] to out an experimental
evaluate their outcomesinvestigation
on twotoimportant
determineresponses:
the effect of some
sheet-thinning
parameters, such as tool size, wall angle, step size and sheet thickness, on SPIF forces. It was found
rates and maximum
a crucial role process
in the forces.
reductionBased on the
of friction dueobtained results, and
to micro channels the sheet thickness
the generated and the wall angle
hydrodynamic
that increasing the values of these parameters led to increasing forming forces. The effect of the same
pressure
have theprocess
most by this texture.
significant effect on the two afore-mentioned responses. In addition, a genetic algorithm
parameters
Duflou et al.was [13]studied
carried by
outBahloul et al. [33] investigation
an experimental to evaluate their outcomesthe
to determine oneffect
two important
of some
was applied to
responses: optimize these
sheet-thinning responses.
rates
parameters, such as tool size,and
wallmaximum
angle, stepprocess
size and forces.
sheet Based on the
thickness, on obtained results,
SPIF forces. It wasthe sheet
found
In thickness
thisthat
study,and among
the wall heat-assisted
angle have the incremental
most significant forming
effect on techniques,
the two frictional
afore-mentioned
increasing the values of these parameters led to increasing forming forces. The effect of the same stir-assisted
responses. SPIF
has been In applied
addition, a genetic
to deform
process parameters algorithm
AA6061-T6
was studiedwasbyapplied
aluminum
Bahloul toetoptimize
alloy,
al. [33] tothese
whichresponses.
evaluate has
their been
outcomesemployed in a wide range
on two important
of applicationsIn thisinstudy,
responses: amongindustrial
sheet-thinning
different heat-assisted incremental
rates and maximum
sectors. In forming
process forces.techniques,
addition Based
to theon the frictional stir-assisted
obtained results,
advantages SPIF
the sheet
of heat-assisted ISF,
has thickness
been applied and theto deform
wall angle AA6061-T6 aluminum
have the most alloy,effect
significant which
on has beenafore-mentioned
the two employed in a responses.
wide range
frictional stir-assisted SPIF displays superior benefits, as it does not require an external heating source
of applications
In addition, aingenetic
different industrial
algorithm sectors.toInoptimize
was applied addition to responses.
these the advantages of heat-assisted ISF,
and hasfrictional
a betterInstir-assisted
final surface
this study, SPIFfinish.
among heat-assisted
displays incremental
superior benefits, asforming
it doestechniques,
not requirefrictional stir-assisted
an external SPIF
heating source
and has
hasbeen applied
a better finaltosurface
deformfinish.
AA6061-T6 aluminum alloy, which has been employed in a wide range
2. Materials
of and Methods
applications in different industrial sectors. In addition to the advantages of heat-assisted ISF,
frictional and
2. Materials stir-assisted
Methods SPIF displays superior benefits, as it does not require an external heating source
2.1. Materialand
Characterization
has a better final surface finish.
2.1. Material Characterization
In this 2.
section, theand
Materials uniaxial
Methods tensile test was used to obtain the true stress-strain curve and subsequently,
In this section, the uniaxial tensile test was used to obtain the true stress-strain curve and
the mechanical properties of AA 6060-T6 with a nominal sheet thickness of 2 mm. The dimensions of
subsequently,
2.1. Materialthe mechanical properties of AA 6060-T6 with a nominal sheet thickness of 2 mm. The
Characterization
the specimen
dimensions
are obtained
of the
according to ASTM E8M standard. Figure 2 presents the sub-size tensile
specimen are obtained according to ASTM E8M standard. Figure 2 presents the
In this section, the uniaxial tensile test was used to obtain the true stress-strain curve and
test specimen.
sub-size tensile test specimen.
subsequently, the mechanical properties of AA 6060-T6 with a nominal sheet thickness of 2 mm. The
dimensions of the specimen are obtained according to ASTM E8M standard. Figure 2 presents the
sub-size tensile test specimen.

Figure 2. Tensile test specimen dimensions (in mm).

Figure 2. Tensile test specimen dimensions (in mm).
Figure 2. Tensile
Figure 3 shows the true stress-strain test of
curve specimen dimensions
the aluminum (in mm).
alloy AA6061-T6, while the chemical
Figure 3 showsis the
composition true
listed stress-strain
in Table 1 below. curve of the3,aluminum
From Figure alloytheAA6061-T6,
it is noted that material has while the chemical
an adequate
Figure 3 shows the true stress-strain curve of the aluminum alloy AA6061-T6, while the chemical
percentage
composition elongation, which is necessary in Figure
incremental sheet forming.
composition is listed in Table 1 below. From Figure 3, it is noted that the material has an adequateadequate
is listed in Table 1 below. From 3, it is noted that the material has an
percentage percentage
elongation, which which
elongation, is necessary in incremental
is necessary sheetforming.
in incremental sheet forming.
400
350400 AA 6061-T6
300350 AA 6061-T6
True stress, Mpa

250300
True stress, Mpa

200250
150200
100150
50100
50
0
00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 True
0.08 strain,
0.1 %0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
True strain, %
Figure 3. True stress-strain curve of AA6061-T6.
Figure 3. True stress-strain curve of AA6061-T6.
Figure 3. True stress-strain curve of AA6061-T6.
Metals 2017, 7, 484 4 of 15

Table 1. Chemical composition (wt %) of the material.

Metals 2017, 7,Material

484 Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ni Zn Ti Al 4 of 15

AA6061-T6 0.52
Table 1.0.19 0.27composition
Chemical 0.07 0.91(wt %)0.1 - 0.02
of the material. 0.01 Bal.
Metals 2017, 7, 484 4 of 15
Material Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ni Zn Ti Al
2.2. Experimental Setup
AA6061-T6 Table
0.521. Chemical
0.19 0.27composition
0.07 0.91(wt %)0.1
of the -material.
0.02 0.01 Bal.
The essential Material
task of theSiforming Fe jig Cu isMn to tightly
Mg Cr hold NitheZnsheet Ti metal
Al specimen for the
2.2. Experimental Setup
forming process. The AA6061-T6
forming0.52 0.19 in
jig used 0.27
this0.07
work0.91was0.1 made - from
0.02 mild
0.01 steel
Bal. and comprised of
a clamping The essential
plate, task of
backing the forming
plate, jig is to tightly
four columns and hold the sheet
a lower metal plate.
or base specimen for the
The forming
sheet metal with
2.2. Experimental
process. Setup jig used in this work was made from mild steel and comprised of a clamping
The forming
dimensions of 150 mm × 150 mm × 2 mm was placed between the two clamping and backing plates.
plate, backing plate, four columns and a lower or base plate. The sheet metal with dimensions of 150
The sizemm of The
the essential
backingtask of the
plate was forming
170 mmjig is×to 170
tightlymmhold× the
20 sheet
mm metal
with specimen
a centralfor
× 150 mm × 2 mm was placed between the two clamping and backing plates. The size of the
the forming
diameter of 70 mm
process. The forming jig used in this work was made from mild steel and comprised of a clamping
and rounded
backingby a fillet
plate was of
17060mmmm,× 170which
mm ×helped
20 mm with to allow the diameter
a central smooth of manufacturing
70 mm and rounded of the
byfinal
a part.
plate, backing plate, four columns and a lower or base plate. The sheet metal with dimensions of 150
Moreover,
filletthe
of lower
60 mm,plate
whichishelped
mounted well
to allow to
the the
smoothKistler-type
manufacturingdynamometer (9129AA,
of the final part.
mm × 150 mm × 2 mm was placed between the two clamping and backing plates. The size of the
Kistler
Moreover, the Group,
lowerSwitzerland),
Winterthur, plate is mounted well to theused
Kistler-type dynamometer (9129AA, Kistler
TheGroup, Winterthur, of the
backing plate was 170which
mm × 170 was mm × 20tomm measure the forming
with a central diameter forces.
of 70 mm complete
and roundeddesign
by a
Switzerland),
formingfillet
jig of
developed which was
in the used to
current measure
study the forming forces. The complete design of the forming jig
60 mm, which helped to allow the was
smooth attached to the dynamometer
manufacturing of the final part. and mounted
Moreover, the to the
developed in the current study was attached to the dynamometer and mounted to the CNC (OKUMA
lower plate
CNC (OKUMA is mountedmilling
MX-45VA) well to the Kistler-type
machine bed, dynamometer
as depicted in (9129AA,
FigureKistler
4. Group, Winterthur,
MX-45VA) milling machine bed, as depicted in Figure 4.
Switzerland), which was used to measure the forming forces. The complete design of the forming jig
developed in the current study was attached to the dynamometer and mounted to the CNC (OKUMA
MX-45VA) milling machine bed, as depicted in Figure 4.

Figure 4. The forming jig with dynamometer.

Figure 4. The forming jig with dynamometer.
The forming tools with two diameters, 10 mm and 15 mm, and with a total length of 110 mm,
Figure 4. The forming jig with dynamometer.
Thewere designed
forming withwith
tools a hemispherical end to 10
two diameters, usemmin the SPIF15experiments.
and These atools
mm, and with totalarelength
made from
of 110 mm,
high speed steel (HSS), before being hardened and tempered with 60 HRC. The tools tips were
The forming tools with two diameters, 10 mm and 15 mm, and with a total length
were designed with a hemispherical end to use in the SPIF experiments. These tools are made from high of 110 mm,
polished to reduce the friction action at the tool–sheet contact area, thereby increasing the tool life
were(HSS),
speed steel designed with abeing
before hemispherical
hardened endand
to use in the SPIF
tempered experiments.
with 60 These
HRC.the
The tools tips
tools are made from
and decreasing the surface roughness of the final parts. Figure 5 shows forming tools. were polished to
high speed steel (HSS), before being hardened and tempered with 60 HRC. The tools tips were
reduce the friction action at the tool–sheet contact area, thereby increasing the tool life and decreasing
polished to reduce the friction action at the tool–sheet contact area, thereby increasing the tool life
the surface roughnesstheofsurface
and decreasing the final parts. of
roughness Figure 5 shows
the final the forming
parts. Figure 5 shows tools.
the forming tools.

Figure 5. The hemispherical-end forming tools (all dimensions in mm).

Figure 5. The hemispherical-end forming tools (all dimensions in mm).

Figure 5. The hemispherical-end forming tools (all dimensions in mm).
Metals 2017, 7, 484 5 of 15

2.3. Experiments
Metals 2017, 7, 484 5 of 15

Studying the forming forces in SPIF is the crucial objective when preparing for this new
2.3. Experiments
technology as the obtained
Studying plastic
the forming deformation
forces in SPIF is theiscrucial
mainly related
objective to the
when magnitudes
preparing for this of newthese forces.
Moreover, selecting
technology theobtained
as the appropriate forming machine,
plastic deformation designing
is mainly related the forming
to the magnitudes tools,
of these determining
forces.
Moreover,
the excessive sheetselecting the appropriate
thinning, investigating forming themachine,
forming designing the forming
mechanisms andtools, determining the the failure
understanding
excessive sheet thinning, investigating the forming mechanisms and understanding the failure
conditions of the sheet metal are critical when determining the values and directions of these forces.
conditions of the sheet metal are critical when determining the values and directions of these forces.
Some methods were utilized
Some methods to measure
were utilized to measure thetheforming forces,such
forming forces, such as as
the the cantilever
cantilever sensorsensor
employed employed by
Jeswiet [16]; the dynamometer
by Jeswiet [16]; the dynamometerapplied by several
applied by several researchers,
researchers, suchsuchas as Duflou
Duflou et al. et al. [13,27,28,34–36];
[13,27,28,34–
36]; and the Wheatstone
and the Wheatstone bridge designed
bridge designed in a previous
in a previous study[37].
study [37].
Usually, the forming forces in SPIF can be represented with the three orthogonal Cartesian
Usually, the forming forces in SPIF can be represented with the three orthogonal Cartesian coordinates
coordinates system: x, y and z (Figure 6). Fx and Fy are the forming force components that act in the
system: x,workpiece
y and z (Figure is F
plane. Fz6). the forceFythat
x and areisthe forming
applied alongforce components
the forming that
tool axis andact in the workpiece
is normal to the plane.
Fz is the force that is
workpiece applied
plane, whilealong thevalue
Fx-p is the formingof Fz attool axispoint.
the peak and isFxynormal to theforce
is the resultant workpiece in the while Fx-p
that actsplane,
xy plane.
is the value of Fz Therefore,
at the peak the point.
Fxy and the
Fxyresultant force (FR) in
is the resultant SPIF that
force can be estimated
acts in thebyxythe two equations
plane. Therefore, the Fxy
below [29]:
and the resultant force (FR ) in SPIF can be estimated by the two equations below [29]:
Fxy = ටFx 2 + Fyq
2
(1)
Fxy = Fx 2 + Fy 2 (1)
q
FR = ටFx 2 + Fy 2 + F2z 2 (2)
FR = Fx + Fy 2 + Fz 2 (2)

ω Tool rotation

Tool moving

Figure 6. The
Figure forming
6. The forming forces
forces inin SPIF
SPIF (modified
(modified from [29]).
from [29]).

In this work, a force measuring system was used to measure the forming forces in three
In this work, aThis
directions. force measuring
system system
is consisted was9129AA
of a Kistler used to measure
type the forming
dynamometer, a 5070Aforces in three directions.
signal amplifier
(PRIAMUS
This system SYSTEM
is consisted of TECHNOLOGIES
a Kistler 9129AA AG,type
Schaffhausen, Switzerland),
dynamometer, a type
a 5070A 5697Aamplifier
signal DAQ data(PRIAMUS
SYSTEM card and Dyno Ware (Version 2.6.5.16, Kistler Group, Winterthur, Switzerland, 2010), which were
TECHNOLOGIES AG, Schaffhausen, Switzerland), a type 5697A DAQ data card and Dyno
used to record the force values.
Ware (VersionA 2.6.5.16, Kistler
varying wall angle Group, Winterthur,
conical frustum Switzerland,
test (VWACF) 2010),
was employed which the
to conduct were used to record the
experiments
force values.
due to its homogeneous geometry with a symmetrical section [38]. Figure 7 shows the designed
dimensions
A varying wallof angle
the required conical
conical frustum.
frustum test (VWACF) was employed to conduct the experiments
due to its homogeneous geometry with a symmetrical section [38]. Figure 7 shows the designed
dimensions of the required conical frustum.
Metals 2017, 7, 484 6 of 15

Figure 7.Figure 7. Geometric

Geometric illustration
illustration ofofthe
thetruncated
truncated cone profile
cone (dimension
profile in mm).in mm).
(dimension

In this study, the spiral tool path with a constant step size was chosen to create the tool trajectory
because it almost creates a pure stretch deformation and therefore, generates a uniform sheet
thickness [39]. In addition, it helps to eliminate the force peaks and simultaneously does not leave
stretch marks on the sheet surface. In contrast, these cons usually take place with the counter tool
path. The CAD/CAM software CATIA (V5.19, Dassault systems, 2010) was employed to model the
required profile and create the spiral tool path using NC (numerical control) codes, as shown in
Metals 2017, 7, 484 6 of 15

Figure 7. Geometric illustration of the truncated cone profile (dimension in mm).

In this study, the spiral tool path with a constant step size was chosen to create the tool trajectory
because it almost creates
In this study,athe
pure stretch
spiral deformation
tool path andstep
with a constant therefore,
size wasgenerates a uniform
chosen to create the toolsheet thickness [39].
trajectory
because it almost creates a pure stretch deformation and therefore, generates a
In addition, it helps to eliminate the force peaks and simultaneously does not leave stretch marks on uniform sheet
thickness [39]. In addition, it helps to eliminate the force peaks and simultaneously does not leave
the sheet surface. In contrast, these cons usually take place with the counter tool path. The CAD/CAM
stretch marks on the sheet surface. In contrast, these cons usually take place with the counter tool
software CATIA (V5.19,
path. The CAD/CAM Dassault systems,
software CATIA 2010)
(V5.19,was employed
Dassault systems,to model
2010) was the required
employed profile
to model the and create
the spiral required
tool path using
profile andNC (numerical
create the spiral control) codes,
tool path using NCas(numerical
shown incontrol)
Figurecodes,
8. The part model
as shown in of the
VWACF was Figure 8. The part
designed modelaofmaximum
to have the VWACFdiameter
was designed
of 70to mm,
have aa maximum
depth of diameter
42.102 mm of 70and
mm,the
a radius of
depth of 42.102 mm and the radius of varying slopes of the modeled part of 60 mm, as shown in
varying slopes of the modeled part of 60 mm, as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7.

Figure 8. Setting the tool trajectory parameters using CATIA software.

Figure 8. Setting the tool trajectory parameters using CATIA software.
During the process, the continuous movement of the tool generates a local heating process and
increases the rates of tool wear due to the friction at the tool-sheet contact zone. These two aspects
During theboth
affect process, the continuous
the geometric accuracy andmovement
surface finish,ofwhich
the tool generatesleads
simultaneously a local
to anheating
increase process
in and
increases the ratesforces.
forming of tool wear due
Different typestoofthe frictionhave
lubricants at the tool-sheet
been contact
used for SPIF zone.to These
methods twothese
minimize aspects affect
harmful effects.
both the geometric In theand
accuracy current study,finish,
surface the lubricant
whichSAE (BLAZE RACING
simultaneously SYNTHETIC
leads BLEND
to an increase in10W-
forming forces.
40) was applied to reduce the effects of the friction. The Taguchi method was used to design the
Different types of lubricants have been used for SPIF methods to minimize these harmful effects. In the
experiments with a minimum number to save costs and time consumption during the experiments
current study, the lubricant
[40,41]. The design ofSAE (BLAZE
experiment, RACING
which includesSYNTHETIC BLEND
selecting the main 10W-40)
process wasand
parameters applied
their to reduce
the effectslevels,
of thewasfriction. The Taguchi method was used to design the experiments
in accordance with previous literature. From this literature, it was found that these with a minimum
parameters and their levels depend highly on the material properties. Additionally,
number to save costs and time consumption during the experiments [40,41]. The design of experiment, the primary tests
were conducted to ensure the correct choosing of these parameters and their levels to get satisfactory
which includes selecting the main process parameters and their levels, was in accordance with previous
literature. From this literature, it was found that these parameters and their levels depend highly on
the material properties. Additionally, the primary tests were conducted to ensure the correct choosing
of these parameters and their levels to get satisfactory results. The main process parameters and their
selected levels are presented in Table 2, while Table 3 summarized the orthogonal array (L8).

Table 2. Process parameters and their levels.

Parameter Description Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4

ω Spindle speed (rpm) 50 400 800 1200
f Feed rate (mm/min) 250 500 - -
z Step size (mm) 0.2 0.5 - -
D Tool tip diameter (mm) 10 15 - -
 Metals 2017, 7, 484 7 of 15

results. The main process parameters and their selected levels are presented in Table 2, while Table 3
summarized the orthogonal array (L8).
Table 2. Process parameters and their levels.
Metals 2017, 7, 484 7 of 15
Parameter Description Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4
ω Spindle speed (rpm) 50 400 800 1200
f
Table 3. Orthogonal array L8 (41 .250
Feed rate (mm/min) 23 ) of the experimental
500 - runs.
-
z Step size (mm) 0.2 0.5 - -
D Tool tip diameter (mm) 10 15 - -
Run ω (rpm) f (mm/min) z (mm) D (mm)
1 Table 3. Orthogonal
1 (50) array L81(4(250)
1. 23) of the experimental runs.
1 (0.2) 1 (10)
2 Run ω1(rpm) (50) f (mm/min) z (mm) D (mm) 2 (15)
2 (500) 2 (0.5)
3 2 (400) 1 (250) 1 (0.2) 2 (15)
1 1 (50) 1 (250) 1 (0.2) 1 (10)
4 2 (400) 2 (500) 2 (0.5) 1 (10)
2 1 (50) 2 (500) 2 (0.5) 2 (15)
5 3 (800) 1 (250) 2 (0.5) 1 (10)
3 2 (400) 1 (250) 1 (0.2) 2 (15)
6 3 (800) 2 (500) 1 (0.2) 2 (15)
4 2 (400) 2 (500) 2 (0.5) 1 (10)
7 4 (1200) 1 (250) 2 (0.5) 2 (15)
5 3 (800) 1 (250) 2 (0.5) 1 (10)
8 4 (1200) 2 (500) 1 (0.2) 1 (10)
6 3 (800) 2 (500) 1 (0.2) 2 (15)
7 4 (1200) 1 (250) 2 (0.5) 2 (15)
3. Results and Discussion 8 4 (1200) 2 (500) 1 (0.2) 1 (10)

A series of experiments
3. Results was conducted to evaluate the impact of rotation speed, feed rate, step
and Discussion
size and tool diameter
A series ofon the forming
experiments forces during
was conducted thethefrictional
to evaluate stir-assisted
impact of rotation SPIF.
speed, feed rate,The
step experiments
sizethe
stopped after andpart
tool diameter on the
fractured forming9).
(Figure forces during the frictional stir-assisted SPIF. The experiments
stopped after the part fractured (Figure 9).

(a) (b)

Metals 2017, 7, 484 (c) (d) 8 of 15

(e) (f)

(g) (h)
Figure 9. Fracturing of sample at the end of the eight experiments via the SPIF (single-point
Figure 9. Fracturing of sample
incremental forming): (a) run 1;at(b)the end
run 2; of3;the
(c) run eight
(d) run 4; (e) experiments
run 5; (f) run 6; (g)via the
run 7; andSPIF
(h) run(single-point
incremental8.forming): (a) run 1; (b) run 2; (c) run 3; (d) run 4; (e) run 5; (f) run 6; (g) run 7; and (h) run 8.
Figures 10–17 show the results of the forming forces in three directions (Fz, Fy and Fx) measured
by the dynamometer.

3.5 Fx
Fy
3.0 Fz

2.5

2.0
N

1.5
 (g) (h)
Figure 9. Fracturing of sample at the end of the eight experiments via the SPIF (single-point
incremental
Metals 2017, 7, 484 forming): (a) run 1; (b) run 2; (c) run 3; (d) run 4; (e) run 5; (f) run 6; (g) run 7; and (h) run 8 of 15
8.

Figures 10–17
Figures show
10–17 thethe
show results of of
results the forming
the formingforces
forcesininthree
threedirections (Fzz,, FFyy and F
directions(F Fxx)) measured
measured
by the dynamometer.
by the dynamometer.

3.5 Fx
Fy
3.0 Fz

2.5

2.0
Force, KN

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Tim e,s
Metals 2017, 7, 484 9 of 15
Figure 10. Forming forces in the three directions for the cone produced with run 1.
Metals 2017, 7,Figure
484 9 of 15
10. Forming forces in the three directions for the cone produced with run 1.

4 .0 Fx
4 .0 FFxy
3 .5 F yF z
3 .5 Fz
3 .0
3 .0
2 .5
2 .5
2 .0
2 .0
Force, KN
Force, KN

1 .5
1 .5
1 .01 .0
0 .50 .5
0 .00 .0
-0 .5
-0 .5
-1 .0
-1 .0
-1 .5
-1 .5
0 0 1 0100 0 220000 330000 400 550000 660000
TTim
imee,, ss

Figure
Figure 11.11.
TheThe formingforces
forming forcesininthe
thethree
threedirections
directions for
for the
the cone produced
produced with
withrun
run2,2,(F(Fz-pz-pmax.
max.= =
Figure 11. The forming forces in the three directions for the cone produced with run 2, (Fz-p max. =
3.8126
3.8126 kN).
kN).
3.8126 kN).

3.53.5 Fx
Fx
Fy
Fy
3.03.0 Fz
Fz
2.5
2.5
2.0
2.0
Force, KN

1.5
Force, KN

1.5
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.0
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
-1.0
-1.0
-1.5
-1.5 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Tim e, s
Tim e, s
Figure 12. Forming forces in the three directions for the cone produced with run 3.
Figure 12.
Figure 12. Forming
Forming forces
forces in
in the
the three
three directions
directionsfor
forthe
thecone
coneproduced
producedwith
withrun
run3.3.
3.5
Fx
3.5 Fy
3.0 Fx
Fz
3.02.5 Fy
Fz
2.52.0

2.01.5
, KN

1.51.0
N
 -1.0
-1.5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Tim e, s
Metals 2017, 7, 484 9 of 15
Figure 12. Forming forces in the three directions for the cone produced with run 3.

3.5
Fx
3.0 Fy
Fz
2.5

2.0

1.5
Force, KN

1.0

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0

100 200 300 400 500 600 700

T im e, s
Metals 2017,Figure
7, 484 13. 13.
Figure Forming forces
Forming forcesininthe
thethree
three directions forthe
directions for thecone
cone produced
produced with
with run run
4. 4. 10 of 15

3 .0 Fx
Fy
2 .5 Fz

2 .0

1 .5
KN
Force, KN

1 .0
Force,

0 .5

0 .0

-0 .5

-1 .0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
T im e , s

Figure 14.
Figure 14. Forming
Forming forces
forces in
in the
the three
three directions
directions for
for the
the cone
coneproduced
producedwith
withrun
run5.5.

2 .5 Fx
Fy
Fz
2 .0

1 .5
KN

1 .0
Force, KN
Force,

0 .5

0 .0

-0 .5

-1 .0

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

T im e , s

Figure 15.15.
Figure Forming
Formingforces
forcesininthe
thethree
three directions forthe
directions for thecone
coneproduced
produced with
with run
run 6,z-p
6, (F (Fz-p
z-p min. = 2.4513 kN).
min. = 2.4513 kN).

3 .0 Fx
Fy
2 .5 Fz

2 .0

1 .5
 -1 .0

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

T im e , s
Metals 2017, 7, 484 10 of 15
Figure 15. Forming forces in the three directions for the cone produced with run 6, (Fz-p min. = 2.4513 kN).

3 .0 Fx
Fy
2 .5 Fz

2 .0

Force, KN 1 .5

1 .0

0 .5

0 .0

-0 .5

-1 .0

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

T im e , s

Figure16.
Figure
Metals 2017, 7, 484
16. Forming
Forming forces
forces in
in the
the three
three directions
directions for
for the
the cone
cone produced
produced with
withrun
run7.
7. 11 of 15

2 .8
2 .6 Fx
2 .4 Fy
2 .2 Fz
2 .0
1 .8
1 .6
1 .4
1 .2
Force, KN

1 .0
0 .8
0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
0 .0
-0 .2
-0 .4
-0 .6
-0 .8
-1 .0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
T im e, s

Figure 17. Forming

Forming forces
forces in the three directions for the cone produced with run 8.

Table
Table 44shows
showsthethe forming
forming forces
forces in the
in the threethree directions
directions of x, yofand
x, zy at
and z at
peak peak
point point
and and the
the resultant
resultant forces
forces at this at this
point, point,
which which is calculated
is calculated accordingaccording to Equations
to Equations (1) and (2).(1) and (2).
Table 4. Forming forces in x, y, and z directions and the resultant forces at the peak point.
Table 4. Forming forces in x, y, and z directions and the resultant forces at the peak point.
Max. Forces (kN) Resultant Forces
Run Max. Forces
Run Fx Fy (kN) Fz-p Fxy Resultant
FR Forces
1Fx −0.60822 F 0.228577
y 3.29163
Fz-p 0.649748 3.355145
Fxy FR
2 0.997925 0.700989 3.81836 1.219524 4.00838
1 −0.60822
3
0.228577
0.240784 0.896912
3.29163
3.41125 0.92867
0.649748
3.5354
3.355145
2 0.997925 0.700989 3.81836 1.219524 4.00838
4 −0.67658 −0.31189 3.18024 0.745003 3.266337
3 0.240784 0.896912 3.41125 0.92867 3.5354
5 −0.19074 0.510559 2.91534 0.545023 2.965849
4 −0.67658 −0.31189 3.18024 0.745003 3.266337
6 0.823669 −0.08636 2.44781 0.828184 2.584118
5 −0.19074 0.510559 2.91534 0.545023 2.965849
7 0.665894 0.470276 3.04474 0.815214 3.151986
6 0.823669 −0.08636 2.44781 0.828184 2.584118
8 0.238037 0.513 2.60529 0.565536 2.665964
7 0.665894 0.470276 3.04474 0.815214 3.151986
8 0.238037 0.513 2.60529 0.565536 2.665964
From Table 4, it can be noted that the Fz-p has a greater magnitude than the Fx and Fy forces so it
can be considered as a more significant force because it has a direct effect on the magnitude of the
resultant forces at the peak point. To evaluate the impact of the various parameters on trends of these
forces, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was utilized to obtain the main effects of these parameters on
Fz-p (Figure 18). From this figure, it can be demonstrated that the rotation speed has the greater effect
on the produced Fz-p, followed by the step size, feed rate and tool diameter, which was shown as a
previous study [27]. The dotted line in this figure refers to the mean value of the Fz-p. Using a high
Metals 2017, 7, 484 11 of 15

From Table 4, it can be noted that the Fz-p has a greater magnitude than the Fx and Fy forces
so it can be considered as a more significant force because it has a direct effect on the magnitude of
the resultant forces at the peak point. To evaluate the impact of the various parameters on trends of
these forces, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was utilized to obtain the main effects of these parameters
on Fz-p (Figure 18). From this figure, it can be demonstrated that the rotation speed has the greater
effect on the produced Fz-p , followed by the step size, feed rate and tool diameter, which was shown
as a previous study [27]. The dotted line in this figure refers to the mean value of the Fz-p . Using a
high rotation speed leads to high friction at the tool-sheet zone and generates a highly localized heat,
which helps to reduce the forming forces [17,29]. Moreover, the increase in the values of the step size
and tool diameter causes an increase in the forming forces. To complete the part, the tool needs to
travel continuously inside the profile and this required more pushing of the material during forming.
The reaction of the material will be greater with high step size values, finally increasing the forces.
In addition, when using a large diameter, the contact area is greater than that of a small diameter,
so the forming forces increase as the tool diameter increases [27].
Metals 2017, 7, 484 12 of 15

Main Effects Plot for Fz-p

Metals 2017, 7, 484 Data Means 12 of 15
ω f z D
3.6

Main Effects Plot for Fz-p

Data Means
3.4
ω f z D
3.6

3.2
Mean

3.4

3.0

3.2
Mean

2.8

3.0

2.6
50 400 800 1200 250 500 0.2 0.5 10 15
2.8

2.6
Figure 18. The main effects plot for the Fz-p.
Figure
50 1200The
400 80018. 250main
500effects
0.2 plot0.5 10 Fz-p . 15
for the
The decrease in Fz-p is not always proportional to an increase in the rotation speed where after ω
= 800decrease
rpm, this inforce returned Figure 18. The main effects plot for the Fz-p.
The Fz-p is nottoalways
have an proportional
increasing trendtowith an an increasein
increase in the
therotation
rotationspeed.
speedThiswhere
is due to the interaction effects between the different studied parameters as they appear in Figures
after ω = 800Therpm, thisin
decrease force
Fz-p isreturned to have
not always an increasing
proportional trend in
to an increase with
the an increase
rotation in where
speed the rotation
after ω speed.
19–21. It can be noted from Figure 19 that the main interaction was between the feed rate and step
This is= 800
duerpm,
to the
this interaction
force returnedeffects
to havebetween
an increasing the trend
different studied
with an increaseparameters as speed.
in the rotation they appear
This in
size on the maximum value of the axial force, while Figure 20 shows this interaction in the surface
Figuresis due to
19–21. the interaction effects between the different studied parameters as they appear in Figures
plot. FigureIt21can be noted
shows that the from Figureaxial
minimum 19 that the force
forming mainFinteraction was between the feed rate
z-p happened at ω = 800 rpm, f = 500
19–21.
and step sizeIt on
canthe
be noted from Figure
maximum value 19
of that
the the main
axial interaction
force, while was between
Figure 20 the feed
shows this rate and step in the
interaction
mm/min, z = 0.2 mm and D = 15 mm (run 6).
size on the maximum value of the axial force, while Figure 20 shows this interaction in the surface
surface plot. Figure 21 shows that the minimum axial forming force Fz-p happened at ω = 800 rpm,
plot. Figure 21 shows that the minimum axial forming force Fz-p happened at ω = 800 rpm, f = 500
f = 500 mm/min, z = 0.2 mm and D = 15 mm (run Plot
Interaction 6).for Fz-p
mm/min, z = 0.2 mm and D = 15 mm (run 6). Data Means
250 500 0.2 0.5 10 15

ω
3.5 50

Interaction Plot for Fz-p 400

800
ω 3.0
Data Means 1200

2.5
250 500 0.2 0.5 10 15
f
3.5 250ω
3.5 50
500
400
f 3.0
ω 3.0 800
1200
2.5
2.5
z
3.5 0.2 f
3.5 250
0.5
500
z 3.0
f 3.0

2.5
2.5
z
3.5 0.2
0.5
D
z 3.0

2.5

Figure 19. The interactions plot for the

D Fz-p.

Figure 19. The interactions plot for the Fz-p.

Figure 19. The interactions plot for the Fz-p .
 3.5 0.2
0.5
z 3.0

2.5

Metals 2017, 7, 484 12 of 15

Figure 19. The interactions plot for the Fz-p.

Figure 20. Surface plot of the Fz-p against the feed rate and step size.
Metals 2017, 7, 484 Figure 20. Surface plot of the Fz-p against the feed rate and step size. 13 of 15
Metals 2017, 7, 484 13 of 15

Figure 21. Graphical

Figure 21. Graphical representation of the
representation of the interaction
interaction effects
effects on
on the
the axial
axial force.
force.
Figure 21. Graphical representation of the interaction effects on the axial force.
The normal distributions of the values of the Fz-p are explained in Figure 22. The values of this
normal distributions of the values of the Fz-p are explained in Figure 22. The values of this
forceThe
follow the normal distribution.
force follow the normal distribution.

Figure 22. Normal distribution of the Fz-p.

4. Conclusions Figure 22. Normal distribution of the Fz-p.

Figure 22. Normal distribution of the Fz-p .
In the current study, frictional stir-assisted SPIF was applied for deformation of the AA6061-T6
4. Conclusions
aluminum alloy. The aim was to investigate the impact of rotational tool speed, feed rate, step size
In the
and tool currenton
diameter study, frictional
the values stir-assisted
of the SPIF during
forming forces was applied for deformation
the forming of the
process. The AA6061-T6
results showed
aluminum alloy. The aim was
the following interesting points: to investigate the impact of rotational tool speed, feed rate, step size
and tool diameter on the values of the forming forces during the forming process. The results showed
(1) following
the Increasing the rotation
interesting speed has the main effect of reducing the forming forces.
points:
(2) In addition, the interaction between the different process parameters has a notable influence on
(1) Increasing theespecially
these forces, rotation speed has the main
the interaction effectthe
between of feed
reducing the forming
rate and step sizeforces.
as discussed above.
Metals 2017, 7, 484 13 of 15

4. Conclusions
In the current study, frictional stir-assisted SPIF was applied for deformation of the AA6061-T6
aluminum alloy. The aim was to investigate the impact of rotational tool speed, feed rate, step size and
tool diameter on the values of the forming forces during the forming process. The results showed the
following interesting points:

(1) Increasing the rotation speed has the main effect of reducing the forming forces.
(2) In addition, the interaction between the different process parameters has a notable influence on
these forces, especially the interaction between the feed rate and step size as discussed above.
(3) The other parameter had a smaller effect compared with the rotation speed. Thus, controlling the
tool rotation speed is an important issue in reducing the forming forces in SPIF.

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank Iraqi Government for the PhD scholarship and Research
Management Centre, Universiti Putra Malaysia with the research grant (GP-IPS/2016/9479500), which enable the
research to be carried out successfully.
Author Contributions: B.T.H.T Baharudin and Q. M. Azpen conceived and designed the experiments;
Q. M. Azpen performed the experiments; B.T.H.T. Baharudin and Shamsuddin Sulaima analyzed the data;
F. Mustapha acquired the data on the force sensors; Q. M. Azpen wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest with any other research work.

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